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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Social Direction of Evolution, by 
+William E. Kellicott
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Social Direction of Evolution
+       An Outline of the Science of Eugenics
+
+Author: William E. Kellicott
+
+Release Date: March 20, 2010 [EBook #31705]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOCIAL DIRECTION OF EVOLUTION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
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+
+
+
+               THE SOCIAL DIRECTION OF HUMAN EVOLUTION
+
+
+
+
+               THE SOCIAL DIRECTION OF HUMAN EVOLUTION
+
+                AN OUTLINE OF THE SCIENCE OF EUGENICS
+
+
+                                  BY
+
+                         WILLIAM E. KELLICOTT
+                PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY, GOUCHER COLLEGE
+
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+
+                         NEW YORK AND LONDON
+                       D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
+                                 1919
+
+
+                         COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY
+                       D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
+
+
+               Printed in the United States of America
+
+
+
+
+                               PREFACE
+
+
+This small volume is based upon three lectures on Eugenics delivered
+at Oberlin College in April, 1910. In preparing them for publication
+many extensions and a few additions have been made in order to present
+the subject more adequately and to include some very recent results of
+eugenic investigation.
+
+Few subjects have come into deserved prominence more rapidly than has
+Eugenics. Biologists, social workers, thoughtful students and
+observers of human life everywhere, have felt the growing necessity
+for some kind of action leading to what are now recognized as eugenic
+ends. Hitherto the lack of guiding principles has left us in the dark
+as to where to take hold and what methods to pursue. To-day, however,
+progress in the human phases of biological science clearly gives us
+clews regarding modes of attack upon many of the fundamental problems
+of human life and social improvement and progress, and suggests
+concrete methods of work.
+
+The present essay does not represent an original contribution to the
+subject of Eugenics. It is not a complete statement of the facts and
+foundations of Eugenics in any particular. It is rather an attempt to
+state briefly and suggestively, in simple, matter-of-fact terms the
+present status of this science. While Eugenics is a social topic in
+practice, in its fundamentals, in its theory, it is biological. It is
+therefore necessary that the subject be approached primarily from the
+biological point of view and with some familiarity with biological
+methods and results. The control of human evolution--physical, mental,
+moral--is a serious subject of supremest importance and gravest
+consequents. It must be considered without excitement--thoughtfully,
+not emotionally.
+
+It is hardly necessary to add that no one can speak of the subject of
+Eugenics without feeling the immensity of his debt to Sir Francis
+Galton and to Professor Karl Pearson. From the writings of these
+pioneers I have drawn heavily in this essay. The recent summary of the
+Whethams, and Davenport's valuable essay on Eugenics have also served
+as the sources of quotation.
+
+                                                            W. E. K.
+  Baltimore, Md., November, 1910.
+
+
+
+
+                               CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                 PAGE
+    I.--THE SOURCES AND AIMS OF THE SCIENCE OF EUGENICS            3
+   II.--THE BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EUGENICS                    49
+  III.--HUMAN HEREDITY AND THE EUGENIC PROGRAM                   133
+
+
+
+
+                        LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  FIG.                                                          PAGE
+   1.--Increase of population in the United States and the
+        principal countries of Europe from 1800 to 1900           26
+   2.--Relative and absolute numbers of prisoners in the
+        United States from 1850 to 1904                           30
+   3.--Recorded measurements of the stature of 1052 mothers       57
+   4.--Model to illustrate the law of probability or "chance"     59
+   5.--Plinth to illustrate the difference between variability
+        (fluctuation) and variation (mutation)                    64
+   6.--Curves illustrating the relation between the pure
+        line and the species or other large group                 67
+   7.--Diagram showing the course of color heredity in
+        the Andalusian fowl                                       83
+   8.--Diagram showing the course of color heredity in
+        the guinea-pig                                            85
+   9.--Diagram illustrating the relation of the germ cells
+        in a simple case of Mendelian heredity                    92
+  10.--Diagram illustrating the phenomenon of regression         107
+  11.--Diagrams showing the relation between order of
+        birth and incidence of pathological defect               125
+  12.--Coefficients of heredity of physical and psychical
+        characters in school children                            144
+  13.--Family history showing brachydactylism. Farabee's data    151
+  14.--Family history showing polydactylism                      155
+  15.--Mother and daughters showing "split hand" _Facing_        156
+  16.--Two family histories showing "split foot" _Facing_        158
+  17.--Family history showing congenital cataract                159
+  18.--Family history showing a form of night blindness          161
+  19.--Family history showing a form of night blindness          163
+  20.--Family history showing Huntington's chorea                165
+  21.--Family history showing deaf-mutism                        167
+  22.--Family history showing feeble-mindedness                  169
+  23.--Family history showing angio-neurotic oedema              170
+  24.--Family history showing tuberculosis                       171
+  25.--Family history showing infertility                        175
+  26.--Family history showing ability                            177
+  27.--Family history showing ability                            179
+  28.--History of three markedly able families                   183
+  29.--History of _Die Familie Zero_                             185
+
+
+
+
+                                  I
+
+           THE SOURCES AND AIMS OF THE SCIENCE OF EUGENICS
+
+
+
+
+                                  I
+
+           THE SOURCES AND AIMS OF THE SCIENCE OF EUGENICS
+
+    "Bravas to all impulses sending sane children to the next age!"
+
+
+Eugenics has been defined as "the science of being well born." In the
+words of Sir Francis Galton, who may fairly be claimed as the founder
+of this newest of sciences, "Eugenics is the study of the agencies
+under social control, that may improve or impair the racial qualities
+of future generations, either physically or mentally."
+
+The idea of definitely undertaking to improve the innate
+characteristics of the human race has been expressed repeatedly
+through centuries--fancifully, seriously, hopefully, and now
+scientifically. Since the times of Theognis and of Plato the student
+of animate Nature has been aware of the possibility of the degradation
+or of the elevation of the human race-characters. The conditions under
+which life exists gradually change: the customs and ideals of
+societies change rapidly. Times inevitably come when, if we are to
+maintain or to advance our racial position, we find it necessary to
+change in an adaptive way our attitude toward these changing social
+relations and conditions of life. If we neglect to do this we go down
+in the racial struggle, as history so clearly and so repeatedly warns
+us.
+
+In the opinion of many biologists and sociologists such a time has
+now arrived. The suspension of many forms of natural selection in
+human society, the currency of the "rabbit theory" of racial
+prosperity--based upon the idea of mere numerical increase of the
+population, the complacent disregard of the increase of the pauper,
+insane, and criminal elements of our population, the dearth of
+individuals of high ability--even of competent workmen, all are
+resulting in evil and will result disastrously unless deliberately
+controlled. It is hoped that this control, though at first conscious,
+"artificial," may later become fixed as an element of social custom
+and conscience and thus operate automatically and the more
+effectively. The result will be not only the restoration of our race
+to its original vigor, mental and physical, but further the carrying
+on of the race to a surpassing vigor and supremacy.
+
+The aim of Eugenics is the production of a more healthy, more
+vigorous, more able humanity. Again in the words of Galton "The aim of
+Eugenics is to represent each class ... by its best specimens; that
+done to leave them to work out their common civilization in their own
+way.... To bring as many influences as can be reasonably employed to
+cause the useful classes in the community to contribute more than
+their present proportion to the next generation"; and further, we
+might add, to cause the useless, vicious classes to contribute to the
+next generation less than their present proportion.
+
+With this definition of Eugenics and preliminary statement of its aims
+before us we may proceed to a somewhat fuller statement of the facts
+within this field. First let us consider the relation of the science
+of Eugenics to its parent sciences, biology and sociology, then after
+mentioning some of the steps in the development of the present
+eugenic movement, we may describe some of the conditions which give us
+human beings pause and lead us to appreciate the necessity for a
+reconsideration of much that enters into our present social
+organization and conduct.
+
+Shortly before the publication of "The Origin of Species," Darwin was
+asked by Alfred Russell Wallace whether he proposed to include any
+reference to the evolution of man. Darwin's reply was: "You ask
+whether I shall discuss man. I think I shall avoid the whole subject,
+as so surrounded with prejudices; though I fully admit that it is the
+highest and most interesting problem for the naturalist." This
+prejudice which Darwin knew would preclude a just consideration of the
+subject of man's origin and evolution, grew out of the former and long
+current conception of the position occupied by man in the whole scheme
+of Nature--of "Man's Place in Nature."
+
+This conception, happily obsolete now among thinkers, though
+occasionally seen lurking in out of the way corners shaded from the
+light of modern philosophy and science, placed Man and the rest of
+the universe in separate categories. Man was one, all the rest
+another. It was for Man's benefit or pleasure that the rains
+descended, that the corn grew and ripened, that the sun shone, the
+birds sang, the landscape was spread before the view. For Man's
+warning or punishment the lightning struck, comets appeared, disease
+ravaged, insects tormented and destroyed. It was certainly very
+natural that Man should regard himself as a thing apart, particularly
+since he was able to control and to regulate Nature, and to take
+tribute from her so extensively. But the scientist regarded man
+differently; from him the world learned to recognize man as an
+integral factor in Nature--as one with Nature, possessing the same
+structures, performing the same activities, as other animals; subject
+to much the same control and with much the same purposes in life and
+in Nature as other living things. There is to-day no necessity to
+enlarge upon this view. As Ray Lankester puts it: "Man is held to be a
+part of Nature; a being, resulting from and driven by the one great
+nexus of mechanism which we call Nature."
+
+But the echoes of the older naïve view of Man and his Nature sounded
+long after the rational scientific conception had become dominant. It
+is not so very long ago that psychology was little more than human
+psychology; nor has sociology long since gone outside the purely human
+for explanations of the facts of human society. Nowadays, however,
+psychology has a firm comparative basis and sociology finds much that
+is illuminating and helpful in the purely biological aspects of the
+human animal. Very naturally, then, we have had social science
+studying man as Man, with a capital M: biological science studying man
+as a natural animal.
+
+But now that modern trend of scientific synthesis which has brought
+forth a Physical-Chemistry and a Chemical-Physiology and a
+Bio-Chemistry, is combining the purely social and the purely
+biological studies of man into a new Bio-Sociology. And as one phase
+of this new partnership we have the subject of Eugenics--the science
+of racial integrity and progress, built upon the overlapping fields of
+Biology and Sociology.
+
+We can trace the idea, perhaps better the hope, of Eugenics from the
+modern times of ancient Greece. Plato laid stress upon the idea of the
+"purification of the State." In his Republic he pointed out that the
+quality of the herd or flock could be maintained only by breeding from
+the best, consciously selected for that purpose by the shepherd, and
+by the destruction of the weaklings; and that when one was concerned
+with the quality of his hunting dogs or horses or pet birds, he was
+careful to utilize this knowledge. He drew attention to the necessity
+in the State for a functionary corresponding to the shepherd to weed
+out the undesirables and to prevent them from multiplying their kind.
+Plato stated clearly the essential idea of the inheritance of
+individual qualities and the danger to the State of a large and
+increasing body of degenerates and defectives. He called upon the
+legislators to purify the State. But the legislators paid no heed. The
+able-bodied and able-minded continued to be sacrificed to the God of
+War; the degenerates and defectives--not fit to fight--were the ones
+left at home to become parents of the next generation. And to-day
+Greece remains an awful warning.
+
+We cannot describe or even enumerate the wrecks of the many plans for
+race improvement that are strewn from Plato to our day. Sporadic,
+emotional, visionary, often it must be confessed suggested by
+possibilities of material gain to the "leader"--they have all passed.
+They failed because they were unscientific; because there was
+available no solid foundation of determined fact upon which to build.
+One need suggest only the Oneida Community, as it was originally
+planned, or the Parisian society of _L'Elite_--in both of which the
+selection of mates was to be carefully controlled--or some of the
+fantasies of Bernard Shaw, to indicate the character of these
+failures. Only recently have we become able to suggest the possibility
+of race improvement by scientific methods, and only very recently has
+the possibility appeared in the light of a necessity, the alternative
+being the universal reward of the unsuccessful.
+
+The present eugenic movement may be said to date from 1865 when
+Francis Galton showed that mental qualities are inherited just as are
+physical qualities, and pointed out that this opened the way to an
+improvement of the race in all respects. The data in support of this
+pregnant conclusion were included in Galton's work on "Hereditary
+Genius" published in 1869, when he again emphasized definitely the
+possibility and desirability of improving the natural qualities of the
+human race. His suggestions fell upon the stony ground of ignorance
+even of the most elementary facts of heredity. The subject was raised
+again in his "Inquiries into the Human Faculty" in 1883, and the word
+"Eugenics" was then coined. The ground was still non-receptive.
+
+Then followed a period of rapid increase in our knowledge of heredity
+in animals and plants and in 1901 Galton returned again to the
+subject, this time in a more direct and elaborate way, and his Huxley
+Lecture of that year before the Anthropological Institute was upon
+"The Possible Improvement of the Human Breed under the Existing
+Conditions of Law and Sentiment." This time he received a real
+hearing, partly on account of recent disclosures regarding the state
+of human society and its trends in Great Britain, chiefly because
+there was at last a real scientific basis for such a proposal. In this
+lecture, after declaring that the possibility of human race culture is
+no longer to be considered an academical or impractical problem,
+Galton proceeded to show that we have a sufficient biological
+knowledge of man to furnish a working basis. We know of man's
+variability and heredity--that some men are worth more than others in
+the community, and that individual traits are also family possessions.
+This he followed up with definite suggestions as to possible means of
+the "augmentation of favored stock."
+
+The then recently organized Sociological Society of London took up the
+subject enthusiastically, and in 1904 and 1905 Galton was invited to
+deliver addresses before the Society upon this topic. In his first
+address he spoke upon "Eugenics: its Definition, Scope, and Aims."
+This proved to be a statement of the elementary principles of the
+subject--a sort of eugenic creed. Here Galton struck fire. The reading
+of his paper was followed by very extended discussion and criticism,
+and he received some enthusiastic support. A few of these enthusiastic
+supporters brought forth, on the spur of the moment, wonderful,
+visionary schemes for eugenic progress; much of the adverse criticism
+went wide of the mark; and, on the whole, Galton must have felt that
+at least he had demonstrated fully one need for which he had spoken,
+that of developing a race of able thinkers. Galton's second address
+before the same society the year following was partly directed at some
+of this hasty criticism and partly devoted to the setting forth of the
+possibly ultimate place of the ideals of race improvement in the
+conscience of the community, and to showing how the whole subject is
+fraught with "the greatest spiritual dignity and the utmost social
+importance."
+
+The subject was now fairly launched. Magazine articles appeared on
+"The New National Patriotism," "Breeding Better Men," _et cetera_.
+Meanwhile the bio-sociologist settled down to work. And during the
+five years that have since passed an immense amount of knowledge has
+been gained, and a large number of excellent workers recruited.
+Interest in the subject is now general, and its importance recognized
+as vital. Karl Pearson, known as a good fighter, is Galton's "beak and
+claws," performing for him much the same kind of service that Huxley
+performed for Darwin nearly fifty years ago. Galton himself has
+established a Eugenics Laboratory under the direction of Professor
+Pearson in the Biometric Laboratory of the University of London and
+has endowed a Research Fellowship and Research Scholarships. This
+laboratory is publishing a series of Memoirs and a series of Lectures
+upon eugenic topics. The University of London is publishing, with the
+assistance of the Drapers' Company, a series of "Studies in National
+Deterioration." A periodical, _The Eugenics Review_, is established
+and appearing regularly. A Eugenics Education Society has been founded
+to popularize and disseminate the technical information contained in
+the memoirs and special papers. England remains the seat of greatest
+activity and interest, but much is being done now in this country. In
+America the subject is largely under the auspices of the American
+Breeders Association, which has organized an extremely efficient
+Committee on Eugenics with which a large number of biological and
+medical workers are coöperating. This committee has coöperated in the
+establishment of a Eugenics Record Office, at Cold Spring Harbor,
+under the direction of H. H. Laughlin. Relevant facts are beginning to
+pour in from many directions; eugenic ideals are being given practical
+expression, and the science is rapidly gaining headway.
+
+It may be asked: "Well, what is it all about; are we as a nation not
+doing well--well enough?" Is it not true, as some have suggested, that
+this eugenic movement is but one more expression of England's
+temporary national hysteria transferred to this country? In answer to
+such queries let us state some of the conditions which have suggested
+to so many sober thinkers and observers that the time is arriving, has
+in fact arrived, when we must begin to think of the future of our
+communities and nations and of our race, rather than contentedly to
+read of and meditate upon the great achievements of our past, or to
+parade with self-satisfied air through our glass houses of Anglo-Saxon
+supremacy. Even were we unthreatened, were we amply holding our own,
+the mere fact of the possibility of a natural increase of human
+capacity would make it a practical subject of the utmost importance.
+We may be sure that somewhere a nation will avail itself of such a
+possibility as the increase of inherent native talent, physical,
+mental, moral, and will tend to become a strong and dominant people.
+Why should not _we_ be that people?
+
+It seems that the facts that lead us to think of the future in this
+matter are of two quite distinct classes. First, we have a great mass
+of data relative to the composition of our societies and to the
+changing character of our population, social data of deep significance
+when broadly viewed and thoughtfully considered. Second, there are
+certain biological considerations, which all apart from existing
+social conditions should warn us to be on the lookout. First let us
+review briefly some of the latter, some of those biological
+considerations which lead us to regard thoughtfully the problem of
+the future evolution of man and his societies.
+
+As with other species of animals, each of us comes into the world
+equipped with a physical constitution and a few simple fundamental
+instincts. But unlike all other animals, the possession of these alone
+does not enable us to take and maintain our positions in the community
+life. Man's life to-day is subject to a great social heritage which,
+unlike his natural heritage, can be realized only as a result of his
+own activity and acquisition. Civilized man is the result of Nature
+plus Nurture. Civilization has been defined as "the sum of human
+contrivances which enable human beings to advance independently of
+heredity." The knowledge of fact, historic and scientific, of
+literature, of art, of custom, and manner, and all that goes to make
+up the culture and education which are the distinctive traits of our
+human lives--all this is no possession of ours when we make our first
+bow to society. Nor do these things become ours through a simple
+process of growth and development while we remain the passive
+subjects. All of these things represent the active individual
+acquirement of the racial accumulation of tradition and learning--what
+the biologist would call the results of modification. Our troubles
+begin when we realize that in the acquisition of this load each
+generation does not begin where the preceding left off, not at
+all--but we begin where our parents did. The first thing we do toward
+advancing our places in the world is to absorb what we can of the same
+kind of thing our forbears absorbed, learn over again their lessons,
+repeat their experiences; and then we proceed straightway to increase
+the difficulties for the next generation by writing more books,
+discovering more facts, making a little more history, and so it goes:
+the load of tradition increases with every successive generation, and
+so it has gone since the beginning of man's civilization. It is
+declared that the modern schoolboy knows more than did Aristotle. We
+cannot resist the inquiry, Has the modern schoolboy better native
+ability than had Aristotle? Here is the whole point of this matter;
+are we any better endowed mentally now that the amount to be mentally
+absorbed and accomplished is so many times greater? Has our capacity
+for mental accumulation kept pace with the amount to be accumulated,
+and with the necessity for such accumulation as a fitting for human
+life of the civilized variety?
+
+Madison Bentley has recently put it nicely in this way. Does talent
+grow with knowledge? "May we not suppose that the men and women of
+some distant glacial age, who dwelt upon the ice, wore the skin of the
+seal, and ate raw fish, had as much brain and as generous a measure of
+talent as have their remote descendants who wear sealskins, and eat
+ices and caviar?" He continues that we have little or nothing to show
+that the hereditary or innate growth of the mind has kept pace with
+the growing social heritage; that as regards mental endowment we begin
+where our distant ancestors began. The chief difference between us and
+them is that we proceed at once to burden ourselves with information
+and obligation which for them did not exist. To compass our languages,
+sciences, histories, arts, the complicated social, political, moral
+régime, we are supplied with virtually the same minds that primitive
+man used for his primitive needs. Is it any wonder, he asks, that
+"education" is the central problem for our or any other advanced
+civilization?
+
+The biologist asks whether it is not high time to look beyond this
+artificial bolster of education, to the possibility of actual
+improvement of the innate mental abilities of man. The student of
+heredity and evolution looking at this problem has two contributions
+to make. First, if the mental capabilities of the present race are too
+limited, increase them; if our minds are too weak to carry the burdens
+which now must be carried, do not give up the task--strengthen the
+racial mind. Second, if we should seem to be in danger of developing a
+stock which is well fitted and able to carry the load of mental
+acquirement and to push on intellectually, but which is at the same
+time physically deficient, weak, or sterile, or susceptible to
+disease, do not let the intellectual capabilities diminish, but build
+up the physical constitution to a higher supporting level. These are
+not idle suggestions nor whimsical schemes. The biologist makes them
+knowing that these things are possible; not only possible, they must
+be accomplished. We are foolishly building our civilization in the
+form of an inverted pyramid of individually acquired characteristics.
+This structure can be made stable only by supplying a broader basis of
+innate ability which can safely carry the load. This is the first
+biological warning to sociology.
+
+The second warning we may put in the form in which Ray Lankester in
+his "Kingdom of Man" has recently presented it so strikingly and which
+we may abstract freely and with some interpolation. "In Nature's
+struggle for existence, death ... is the fate of the vanquished, while
+the only reward to the victors ... is the permission to reproduce
+their kind--to carry on by heredity to another generation, the
+specific qualities by which they triumphed." The _origin_ of man,
+partly, at any rate, by such a process of natural selection, is one
+chapter in his history. Another begins with the development of his
+mental qualities, which are of such unprecedented power in Nature.
+These qualities so dominate all else in his "living" activities that
+they largely cut him off from the general operations of natural
+selection. Perhaps the only direction in which natural selection is
+the chiefly operative factor in human evolution to-day is in the
+development of immunity from infectious disease. Just as man is a new
+departure in the unfolding scheme of the world, so his presence and
+characteristics lead to new methods of evolution, of survival, and the
+like. Knowledge, reason, self-consciousness, will, are new processes
+in Nature, and it is these which have largely determined the direction
+of man's history. Nature's discipline of death is more or less
+successfully resisted by the will of man. Man is Nature's Rebel.
+"Where Nature says 'Die'! Man says 'I will live.'" By his wits and his
+will man has overcome many of Nature's bounds and difficulties without
+changing, as other organisms would, his innate characteristics. Not
+only this but man has obtained control of his surroundings and at
+every step of his development he has receded farther from the rule of
+Nature. Now "he has advanced so far and become so unfitted to the
+earlier rule, that to suppose that Man can 'return to Nature' is as
+unreasonable as to suppose that an adult animal can return to its
+mother's womb."
+
+But at present man puts into operation no real substitute for natural
+selection. "The standard raised by the rebel man is not that of
+fitness to the conditions proffered by extra-human Nature, but is one
+of ideal comfort, prosperity, and conscious joy of life--imposed by
+the will of man and involving a control, and in important respects a
+subversion, of what were Nature's methods of dealing with life before
+she had produced her insurgent son." Progress in the control of Nature
+has been going on with enormous rapidity during the last two centuries
+particularly--the "nature searchers" have placed almost limitless
+power in the hands of men. And yet the builders of society and
+governments and nations have failed to profit by this increase in
+natural knowledge. In our social and national organization we remain
+fixed in the old paths of ignorance. Lankester says: "I speak for
+those who would urge the conscious and deliberate assumption of his
+kingdom by Man--not as a matter of markets and of increased
+opportunity for the cosmopolitan dealers in finance--but as an
+absolute duty, the fulfillment of Man's destiny." The purpose of his
+essay is "to point out that civilized man has proceeded so far in his
+interference with extra-human Nature, has produced for himself and for
+the living organisms associated with him such a special state of
+things, by his rebellion against natural selection and his defiance of
+pre-human dispositions, that he must either go on and acquire firmer
+control of the conditions, or perish miserably by the vengeance
+certain to fall on the half-hearted meddler in great affairs." Man is
+a fighting rebel who at every forward step lays himself open to the
+liabilities of greater penalties should his attack prove unsuccessful.
+Moreover, while emancipating himself from the destructive and
+progressive methods of Nature, man has accumulated a new series of
+dangers and difficulties with which he must incessantly contend and
+which he must finally control. Man has taken a tremendous
+step--created desperate conditions by the exercise of his
+will--further control is essential in order that he should escape from
+final misery and destruction.
+
+Nor is this idle, academic invective. The biologist knows that this is
+true. It is not idle, for man has the means at his command--it is
+merely a question of their employment. This, then, is the second
+biological warning to sociology and to statecraft.
+
+Now we may return to consider briefly the nature of those social data
+which we suggested force us to think seriously of the problem of man's
+future.
+
+As a primary datum we may note the increasing population of the
+countries of Europe and North America (Fig. 1). The countries whose
+population is increasing most rapidly are the United States, Russia,
+and the German Empire. We know that one important factor of the
+increase in this country is that of immigration, but this is not
+sufficient to account for the total. There is continued multiplication
+of the native population, and of the immigrant after he is here. We
+wish only to point out in connection with this diagram the steady
+trend of the population upward, and the fact that obviously somewhere
+there must be a limit. This cannot go on without end.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 1.--INCREASE OF POPULATION IN THE
+    UNITED STATES AND THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF EUROPE
+    FROM 1800 TO 1900 (From "Statistical Atlas," Twelfth
+    Census of the United States.)]
+
+An extremely pertinent fact here has been disclosed by Pearson and is
+based upon very extensive observations among several different classes
+and nations. It is this--that one fourth of the married population of
+the present generation produce one half of the next generation. The
+death rate and the ratio of unmarried to married being what they are,
+this relation may be stated in this way--twelve per cent of all the
+individuals born in the last generation produced one half of the
+present generation. "This is not only a general law, but it is
+practically true for each class in the community." This conclusion is
+based upon data from the English, Danish, and Welsh peoples of
+professional, domestic, commercial, industrial, and pastoral classes,
+and the per cent of married persons found to be producing one half of
+each generation varies from twenty-three to twenty-seven with an
+average of twenty-five per cent. We must ask at once--what is the
+source of this fourth which is contributing double its quota to the
+next generation? Is this twenty-five per cent drawn proportionately
+from all classes of society or are some groups contributing
+relatively more than others? Is there any relation between this
+superfertility and the possession of desirable or undesirable
+characteristics? We may answer at once--there is a distinct and
+positive relation between civic undesirability and high fertility. We
+shall return to this subject at the close of the next chapter; only
+the bare fact is to be mentioned at this time.
+
+It is a matter of common notice and remark that to-day, in England at
+any rate, there is a dearth of youthful ability. It exists in
+commerce, science, literature, politics, the bar, the church. We
+cannot dismiss as merely fashionable the statements that the able
+classes are not replacing themselves, that men of ability are less
+able than formerly. Whether or not this is also the condition in
+America to-day, we know that it soon will be the condition unless
+steps are taken to bring about a positive relation between civic
+desirability and ability and the numerical production of offspring.
+
+Let us turn to data of a somewhat different kind. The United States
+Census Reports for the decades from 1850 to 1900 (1904) include data
+relative to the number of prisoners in this country. The returns for
+1904 omitted certain classes previously enumerated so that for
+comparative purposes the figures given have to be corrected. On the
+corrected basis these reports show that the total number of prisoners
+in the United States increased from 6,737 in 1850 to about 100,000 in
+1904, while the total population increased during the same time only
+from twenty-three to eighty millions (Fig. 2). The ratio of prisoners
+to the total population is of course the significant relation here,
+and this increased from 29 per 100,000 in 1850 to 125 per 100,000 in
+1904. Not all of this increase can be attributed to more rigid
+enforcement of the law or raised standards of morality; there is some
+reason for thinking that whatever change there has been in these
+respects has tended to have the opposite effect. We should note, in
+considering such data as these, that the penologist generally assumes
+that of the total number of offenders, actually only about ten per
+cent are in prison at any one time.
+
+During the last century, in France, many parts of Germany, and in
+Spain the increase in criminality was terrifying. In the United
+States the number of murders and homicides per million of the entire
+population has nearly trebled in the last fifteen years (Fig. 2). The
+average for the five years from 1885 to 1889 inclusive was 38.5 per
+million, and for the five years from 1902 to 1906 it became 110 per
+million.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Relative and absolute numbers of
+           prisoners in the United States from 1850 to 1904.
+
+    - - - - Number of prisoners per 100,000 of total population.
+
+    ------- Total number of prisoners (figures to the right are
+            to be read as thousands here).
+
+    -.-.-.- Number of murders and homicides per million of the
+            total population.]
+
+England's "defective" classes during the 22 years between 1874 and
+1896 increased from 5.4 to 11.6 per thousand of the total; that is,
+more than doubled in that brief period. Rentoul has collected careful
+information regarding the number of insane or mentally defective and
+degenerate in Great Britain. In England the number of "officially
+certified" insane, which is far less than the actual number, increased
+from one to every 319 of the total population, to one to 285, in the
+nine years preceding 1905. In Ireland comparison of the years 1851 and
+1896--a period of 45 years intervening--shows an increase in the
+corresponding ratio from 1:657 to 1:178. The census of 1901 showed in
+Great Britain 484,507 mental defectives of all kinds; this is one to
+85 of the total population, and probably if the whole truth were known
+the ratio would approximate 1:50, according to Rentoul's calculation.
+The ratio of known insane just doubled in the decade preceding 1901.
+The Scottish Commission reports an increase in insane of 190 per cent
+since 1858, the total population increasing meanwhile by only 52 per
+cent.
+
+The worst side of these British statistics follows. In 1901, of the
+60,000 and more, idiots, imbeciles, and feeble-minded, nearly
+19,000--roughly one third--were married and free to multiply;
+and as for that matter a great many of those unmarried are known
+to have been prolific. In 1901, of the 117,000 lunatics, nearly
+47,000--considerably more than one third--were married. 65,700 idiots
+and lunatics legally multiplying their kind and worse! Rentoul rightly
+says: "The hand that wrecks the cradle wrecks the nation."
+
+In the United States the census of 1880 reported 40,942 insane in
+hospitals, and 51,017 not in hospitals--a total of 91,959 known
+insane. In 1903 the number in hospitals had increased to 150,151. The
+number not in hospitals was not given and cannot be determined
+accurately, but it is conservatively estimated as certainly not less
+than 30,000, and probably it is far greater than this. In many states
+it is known that about one fourth of the insane are not in hospitals.
+But taking the total of 180,000 as a conservative figure, the ratio of
+known insane in the total population was 225 per 100,000 in 1903 as
+compared with 183 per 100,000 in 1880.
+
+The methods of the collection of such data vary in different countries
+so that the results are not comparable. In a single country there is
+less, though still some, lack of uniformity, so that the exact rate of
+increase in the ratio of the insane is still somewhat doubtful.
+Moreover, it is doubtless true that some of this apparent increase
+results from improved methods in the collection of data, and from more
+complete registration of these defectives. But suppose we disregard
+entirely the idea of an increase in the ratio of these defectives, the
+bare fact of the existence of nearly 200,000 insane in this country is
+sufficiently alarming; and it is disgraceful to any nation, because it
+is unnecessary. The Superintendent of the Ohio Institution for the
+Feeble Minded wrote in 1902: "Unless preventive measures against the
+progressive increase of the defective classes are adopted, such a
+calamity as the gradual eclipse, slow decay and final disintegration
+of our present form of society and government is not only possible,
+but probable."
+
+The latest census reports for the United States give data relative to
+the dependents and defectives in institutions. The numbers not in
+institutions can only be guessed at. But from the available sources we
+can gain an approximate conception of the numbers in our country
+to-day as follows:--insane and feeble minded, at least 200,000; blind,
+100,000; deaf, and deaf and dumb, 100,000; paupers in institutions,
+80,000, two thirds of whom have children, and are also physically or
+mentally deficient, and to say that one half of the whole number of
+paupers are in institutions is to give a ridiculously low estimate;
+prisoners, 100,000, and several hundred thousand more that should be
+prisoners; juvenile delinquents, 23,000 in institutions; the number
+cared for by hospitals, dispensaries, "homes" of various kinds, in the
+year 1904 was in excess of 2,000,000. From these figures we get a
+rough total of nearly 3,000,000. Must we define a civilized and
+enlightened nation as one in which only one person in every thirty can
+be classed as defective or dependent?
+
+It is needless to continue descriptions of this kind. The foregoing
+are representative data; they are published by the volume. It is
+always the same story--rapid increase of the unfit, defective, insane,
+criminal; slow increase, even decrease of the fit, normal, or gifted
+stocks. It is with such conditions in mind that Whetham writes:
+"Although this suppression of the best blood of the country is a new
+disease in modern Europe, it is an old story in the history of nations
+and has been the prelude to the ruin of states and the decline and
+fall of empires."
+
+The ultimate aim of Sociology is doubtless the working out of the laws
+according to which stable communities are formed and maintained, and
+in which each component individual may enjoy and contribute the
+maximum of pleasure and profit. So the primary purpose of Statecraft
+is to produce a nation which shall be stable and enduring. This is all
+familiar ground. The objects of the nation's immediate activities and
+concern, protection from enemy, development of commerce and
+manufacture, agriculture, and education, all these are for the real
+purpose of establishing and promoting national integrity. No nation
+exists long without ideals and traditions, without teachers, artists,
+poets, and yet the primary condition of the existence of all these is
+a great body of citizens characterized by physical and mental
+soundness--vigor and sanity. In searching for guiding principles in
+their great endeavors the sociologist and statesman have sought aid
+from many sources. But, as Pearson points out, Philosophy has thus far
+given no law by the aid of which we can understand how a nation
+becomes physically and mentally vigorous. Anthropology has done little
+to show wherein exists human fitness as a social organism. Political
+Economists object that they are not listened to with respectful
+consideration in legislative chambers. History is the favorite hunting
+ground of the statesman searching for guidance; but unfortunately
+history teaches chiefly by example and analogy, rarely by true
+explanation. And just as some gifted persons are able to give an apt
+Biblical quotation touching any occurrence whatever, so, many
+statesmen can cite some historical analogue which they offer as
+evidence for their views, whatever they are. These men are sincere, in
+their ignorance of the nature of scientific proof. Finally, although
+the Statesman still holds rather aloof, the Sociologist comes now to
+the Biologist, inquiring whether by any chance he may be in possession
+of data or guiding principles which may be somehow of service in the
+building of stable societies. The Biologist does not send him away
+without contribution. The Sociologist makes known his needs, the
+Biologist displays his possessions, and it is at once evident to both
+that they have much in common, and that each is able to supply the
+other with some needed wares. Each may learn from the other; and best
+of all, the Biologist seems to have information which can be of the
+greatest service in their common work of building sound societies.
+
+And the biologist is grateful to the sociologist for reminding him
+that he, too, has sacred duties in this direction. He is too often
+forgetful that the real aim of his own, as of any science, is to be
+useful in real human life. It is pleasing to the biologist to feel
+that he is at last in possession of facts of value to the student of
+human society, for to him his debt is great. From the sociologist he
+has drawn the inspirations which have led to some of his greatest
+discoveries. It was Malthus who suggested to Darwin the great
+principle of the struggle for existence among men which Darwin so
+successfully applied to other organisms, and used so profitably in
+building up his great theory of natural selection. It was from the
+sociologist that the biologist derived his idea of the physiological
+division of labor which has proved so fruitful a conception; and from
+the same source he has drawn many of his conceptions of organic
+individuality.
+
+We might suggest here some of the topics upon which biology has
+information of value in this bio-social field; many of these we shall
+discuss later on from our present and special point of view. First of
+all come the facts regarding the variability and variation of human
+beings, not alone in physical characteristics, but in respect to
+psychic traits as well. Here as in all organisms we must distinguish
+between true variations and bodily modifications; that is, we must be
+careful to make, as far as possible, the biological distinction
+between innate and acquired traits, particularly in considering
+mental characteristics. Next must come consideration of the facts of
+heredity. This is undoubtedly the field of greatest importance to the
+Eugenist; facts of no other kind are of equal significance in
+determining the course of eugenic practice. We now have a fairly
+extensive working basis here from which to discuss heredity in man.
+The various phases of human selection should be noticed, in particular
+that known as selective fertility or differential fertility in
+different social groups or classes. Another evolutionary factor of
+importance here is that of "isolation" in the many and varied forms
+which it assumes in human society, especially those which result from
+assortative and preferential mating, and from the operation of social
+convention, restrictions in marriage, and the like.
+
+Before discussing any of these subjects let us offer here just a word
+of caution to the enthusiast. The results gained in one field of
+science cannot be transferred _in toto_ to another field and there be
+found to fit. Biology has learned much from Physics and Chemistry, but
+the biological applications of the laws of these sciences must be
+carried out with the greatest care. Such transference has often been
+premature and attended by results retardative to progress in the field
+of Biology. Any formula borrowed from one science and applied in
+another must be rigorously tested under the new conditions. The
+indiscriminating application of biological laws in the field of
+sociology may result in confusion and retardation in the progress of
+both sciences, or at any rate in their practical applications. As
+Thomson points out in writing on this topic, human society is not only
+a complex of individual activities of a strictly biological character,
+but also and further it involves an integration and regulation of
+those activities which are not yet, at least, susceptible of concrete
+biological analysis. Thomson says: "The biological ideal of a
+healthful, self-sustaining, evolving human breed is as fundamental as
+the social ideal of a harmoniously integrated society is supreme." The
+great danger here lies in forgetting the fundamental and general
+character of the biological principles. The ideals of biology and
+sociology need not coincide, often they do not, but they must not
+conflict. In practice Eugenics must be largely a social matter; but in
+its theory, its fundamentals, it must be largely biological.
+
+The coming together of biology and sociology, and their common search
+for guiding principles in their common endeavor is likely to have
+results of several kinds. It is likely to bring out more clearly than
+has yet been done the distinction, in human life and society, between
+that which is fundamentally biological or animal, and that which is
+distinctly social. Such information will prove of especial value later
+when the time comes for the suggestion and carrying out of a definite
+eugenic program, when the time comes for the real eugenic organization
+of society. And further the close _rapprochement_ of the two subjects
+will doubtless result in mutual aid and suggestion in the development
+of each subject in its own stricter field, outside the limits of their
+common meeting ground.
+
+Before bringing this introductory chapter to a conclusion we should
+suggest one further caution which must be borne in mind. There may at
+times seem to be suggestions of antagonism between the biological and
+the social conceptions of what is eugenic and what is not. Much of
+this apparent discord will disappear if we recognize that after all
+the overlapping areas of the two subjects which have fused into the
+subject of Eugenics are relatively small portions of either whole
+subject. Sociology has for one of its aims, perhaps its chief aim, the
+improvement of the present condition of society. The sociologist is
+interested in the improvement of social conditions to-day and
+to-morrow. He wants to improve housing conditions, food and milk
+supplies, to reduce the curses of alcoholism, poverty, and crime, to
+take the children out of the factory and their mothers out of the
+sweatshop and put them into schools or under humane conditions of
+labor. And so on through a long list. The biologist or Eugenist is of
+course heartily with the sociologist in these endeavors, but as a
+human being, not as a biologist or Eugenist. For the Eugenist is, as
+such, by deliberate assumption and definition, directly interested in
+only such conditions as affect the innate characteristics of the
+race, conditions which may not have direct reference to the present
+generation at all, but to the next and to future generations. As a
+Eugenist he is not concerned with factory legislation, alcoholism, or
+play grounds, unless it can be shown that there is a relation between
+these things and the innate mental and physical properties of the
+race. If there is such a relation, of improvement or impairment, these
+are eugenic topics; if there is no such relation they are purely
+social topics, and the Eugenist does not deal with them, not because
+they are not worth dealing with, but because they are then by
+definition outside his field. In the end the Eugenist hopes, with the
+Sociologist, to accomplish these social betterments, but he believes
+that these will come as by-products in the process of innate racial
+improvement--improvement in the inherent, physical, mental, and moral
+qualities of the human kind, and that accomplished in this way the
+results will be more stable and permanent than any accomplished by
+attacking the problems as such and separately, largely leaving out of
+account the real and fundamental cause--bad human protoplasm.
+
+Eugenics is not offered as a universal cure for social ills: no single
+cure exists. But the Eugenist believes that no other single factor in
+determining social conditions and practices approaches in importance
+that of racial structural integrity and sanity. The Eugenist would
+oppose only those social activities, if such there be, that conflict
+with his ideal of genuine, progressive, human evolution. The main
+question which the Eugenist would raise here is largely that of the
+economy of effort--whether it were not better by concentrating upon a
+few activities, known to give permanent results, once for all to end
+an intolerable social condition, rather than to attempt the Sisyphean
+task.
+
+In conclusion let us quote a few sentences from Francis Galton.
+"Charity refers to the individual; Statesmanship to the nation;
+Eugenics cares for both.... I take Eugenics very seriously, feeling
+that its principles ought to become one of the dominant motives in a
+civilized nation, much as if they were one of its religious tenets....
+Man is gifted with pity and other kindly feelings; he has also the
+power of preventing many kinds of suffering. I conceive it to fall
+well within his province to replace Natural Selection by other
+processes that are more merciful and not less effective. This is
+precisely the aim of Eugenics. Its first object is to check the birth
+rate of the Unfit instead of allowing them to come into being, though
+doomed in large numbers to perish prematurely. The second object is
+the improvement of the race by furthering the productivity of the Fit,
+by early marriages and the healthful rearing of their children.
+Natural Selection rests upon excessive production and wholesale
+destruction; Eugenics on bringing no more individuals into the world
+than can be properly cared for, and those only of the best stock."
+
+
+
+
+                                  II
+
+                THE BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EUGENICS
+
+
+
+
+                                  II
+
+                THE BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EUGENICS
+
+    "The gist of histories and statistics as far back as the
+    records reach, is in you this hour,..."
+
+
+We must now proceed to consider briefly and with only the necessary
+detail the modes of application of certain biological principles and
+data in this special field of Eugenics. First of all a clear
+understanding of the basic ideas of variability and heredity must be
+had as a primary condition of an appreciation of their significance
+for the subject before us.
+
+Like any other organism a human being is a bundle of characteristics,
+physical and psychical. Each person has a definite stature and span,
+possesses fingers and toes, a head, eyes, ears, hair of a certain
+color, and so on through a long list of physical traits. Physiological
+characteristics has he also, such as muscular strength, resistance to
+fatigue or to disease of many kinds, digestive and assimilative
+powers, a rate of heart beat, a blood pressure, an habitual gait,
+posture, a characteristic way of clasping the hands or of twirling
+the thumbs--and so almost _ad infinitum_. He also possesses
+certain physiological traits more closely related with the action
+of the central nervous system--keenness of vision, or hearing,
+or smell, memory, vivacity, cheerfulness, self-assertiveness,
+self-consciousness, reasoning power, determination, and the like.
+
+There is a period during the existence of each human being when he
+does not seem to possess these traits or anything resembling them. For
+at the beginning of his existence as a new and separate creature,
+every individual, among the groups of higher organisms, has the form
+of a single organic cell--the germ. This germ may be, as it is in man,
+of microscopic dimensions, and it always shows a comparatively slight
+degree of differentiation of structure. Moreover, the parts and organs
+of the germ bear no actual or visible resemblance at all to the organs
+and parts of the organism into which the germ rapidly develops. In
+other words, in the germ of an organism we have a structure, partly
+material, partly dynamic, the components of which in some way
+represent the adult characteristics without resembling them. During
+the period of the development of the individual, that is to say,
+during its "ontogeny," these characteristics of the germ become
+expressed in their final or adult form.
+
+For our purpose it is not necessary to inquire precisely how it is
+that the structure of the germ can thus represent or determine the
+structures growing out of it. It must suffice to see that somehow the
+characteristics of the germ lead to the formation or development of
+other characters, and these in turn to still others until at last a
+period of comparative changelessness is reached, when we say that
+development is completed. It is important to recognize, however, that
+this development is fundamentally a process of reaction, the reaction
+between the germ and its surrounding conditions. The characteristics
+of the adult organism are _determined_ primarily by the structure of
+the germ; they _appear_ gradually and successively, as the growing
+organism reacts to its environing conditions.
+
+An adult organism is continually doing certain things--performing
+certain movements, producing certain secretions, undergoing a great
+variety of physical and chemical changes. Just what the organism does
+at any given moment is in reality determined by two groups of factors:
+first, it depends, obviously, upon the structure of the organism
+acting, upon the organs it has to act with, and upon the precise
+condition of these organs and of the whole individual; and second, it
+depends upon the nature of those conditions outside of and affecting
+the organism which lead it to act at all. Either group of factors
+taken alone will not lead to any activity; activity of an organism
+must be a reaction between organismal structure and environing
+conditions--an irritable substance and stimuli to activity. And the
+character or quality of an act is affected by circumstances within
+either set of factors.
+
+In much the same way the germ acts, and its action is similarly a
+reaction between the structure of the germ and its environing
+conditions. The germ reacts by producing certain parts,
+differentiating certain structures, in short, by developing. The
+normal activities or reactions of the adult organism we call in
+general its "behavior." The normal activities or reactions of the germ
+and embryo we call "development"; the normal behavior of the germ is
+development. And in the latter, as well as in the former, changes in
+either set of factors lead to changes in the nature of the result of
+their interaction, i. e., to changes in the characteristics actually
+appearing as the result of development.
+
+In their fully developed state some of the traits or characteristics
+of organisms are single, simple, fundamental characters, not
+analyzable into more elementary factors. Such are the number of
+fingers, or of joints in the fingers, absence of pigments of several
+kinds from the eyes or hair, presence of cataract, _et cetera_. These
+so-called "unit characters" are roughly analogous to the chemical
+elements which may, as units, be combined and recombined in diverse
+ways, but which always maintain their integrity as elements although
+different combinations produce wholes that are unlike. Each unit
+character in the adult is the result of a series of reactions between
+the environing conditions of development and a germinal structural
+unit, as yet hypothetical and provisionally called the "determiner,"
+which in some way not yet understood represents this adult trait.
+
+On the other hand, there are many of these things which we call
+characteristics which seem to be composite, capable of being analyzed
+or factored into a group of simpler components or unit characters.
+Such apparently are stature, span, resistance to fatigue, and probably
+most psychic traits. Each of these complexes results apparently from a
+series of reactions between the conditions of development and a group
+of hypothetical germinal determiners that tend to be associated within
+the germ.
+
+The presence or absence of a determiner in a germ is thus the primary
+cause of the corresponding presence or absence of a certain
+characteristic in the adult organism.
+
+But whatever the essential nature of the characteristic in this
+respect, whether simple or complex, we know further that every
+organismal characteristic is subject to variation. In any group of
+human individuals, for example, we can find persons of different
+stature, different weight, with fingers of different length and form,
+with heads of different size and shape, hair and eyes of different
+shades, different blood pressures, pulse rates, digestive
+possibilities, different degrees of determination, cheerfulness,
+alertness, and so forth. This fact of variation is not limited to the
+comparison of the individuals of a given group or generation among
+themselves, but successive generations considered as the units of
+comparison show the same sort of thing. And further successive broods
+from the same parents exhibit this same phenomenon of variation when
+compared with one another. Variation is a universal fact--not only
+among organic things but in the inorganic world as well. The variation
+which any company of persons shows in stature is paralleled by the
+variation in the diameter of the grains in a handful of sand, or of
+the drops in a rainstorm.
+
+When we examine the phenomena of variation carefully we find that
+they are of two quite distinct categories. The first kind of
+variation, that which we most frequently think of as "variation,"
+should properly be termed _variability_. Differences of this type are
+small _fluctuations_ in any and every character, centering about an
+average or mean, which is itself fairly definite and fixed--less
+subject to variation in different groups or through successive
+generations. For example, if we measure by inches the stature of a
+thousand or more persons chosen at random we find that they may vary
+from fifty-four to seventy-six inches; the most frequent heights might
+be about sixty-nine and sixty-four inches among the men and women
+respectively. The results of such a measurement may be expressed
+graphically as in Figure 3, which is an expression of the measurement
+of 1,052 mothers. The measurement of almost any characteristic in a
+large group of any organisms usually gives a result of the kind
+figured. The most significant fact here is that this normal
+variability exhibited by the traits of living organisms follows
+closely the laws of chance or probability. That is to say, the number
+of individuals occurring in any class which has a certain deviation
+above or below the average, is directly related to, or dependent upon
+(in mathematical terms, "is a function of"), the extent of the
+deviation of the value of that class from the average of the whole
+group. The significance of this is that the precise fluctuation which
+we find in any individual is the result of the operation of a large
+number of causes or factors, each contributing slightly and variably
+to the total result.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Recorded measurements of the stature
+    of 1,052 mothers. The height of each rectangle is
+    proportional to the number of individuals of each given
+    height. The curve connecting the tops of the rectangles is
+    the normal frequency curve. The most frequent height is
+    between 62 and 63 inches. Average height--62.5 inches.
+    Standard deviation, 2.39 inches. Coefficient of variability,
+    3.8 (2.39 = 3.8+ % of 62.5 inches). (From Pearson.)]
+
+Many of the most important facts about variability can be illustrated
+by a simple model such as that suggested by Galton. This is a
+modification of the familiar bagatelle board, covered with glass and
+arranged as shown in Fig. 4. A funnel-shaped container at the top of
+the board is filled with peas or similar objects (Fig. 4, _A_). Below
+this is a regular series of obstacles symmetrically arranged, and
+below these, at the bottom of the board, is a row of vertical
+compartments also arranged symmetrically with reference to the chief
+axis of the whole system. If we allow the peas to escape from the
+bottom of the container and to fall among the obstacles into the
+compartments below we find that their distribution there follows
+certain laws capable of precise mathematical description, so that it
+might be predicted with fair accuracy (Fig. 4, _B_). The middle
+compartment will receive the most; the compartments next the middle
+somewhat fewer; those farther from the middle still fewer; and the end
+compartments fewest. If we connect the top of each column of peas by a
+curved line we get just such a curve as that given by the stature
+measurements above (Fig. 3), i. e., the normal frequency curve. A
+curve of the same essential character would result from plotting the
+dimensions of a thousand cobblestones, the deviations from the
+bull's-eye in a target-shooting contest, or by plotting the
+variability of any organismal character--whether it be the stature or
+strength of men, the spread of sparrows' wings, the number of rays on
+scallop shells, or of ray-flowers of daisies.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Model to illustrate the law of
+    probability or "chance." Description in the text. _A_, Peas
+    held in container at top of board. _B_, Peas after having
+    fallen through the obstructions into the vertical
+    compartments below. The curve connecting the tops of the
+    columns of peas is the normal probability curve.]
+
+With this model we may illustrate many other essential facts about
+variability which must be borne in mind when approaching the problems
+of Eugenics. Before we allow the peas to fall we know quite definitely
+what the general distribution of them all will be, but we do not know
+at all the future position of any single pea. Of this we can speak
+only in terms of probability; the chances are very high that it will
+fall in one of the three middle compartments, very low that it will be
+in one of the extreme compartments. But the chances are equal,
+whatever they are, that it will fall above or below the average or
+middle position. We see then that in any group there are many more
+individuals near the average, i. e., mediocre, than there are in the
+classes removed from the average and the farther the remove of a class
+from the average the smaller the number of individuals in that class.
+Yet all the individuals belong to the same whole group. This leads to
+the very important fact that _an individual may belong to a group
+without representing it fairly_. The average individuals are the most
+representative. But in order to get a correct idea of the whole group
+we must know, first, to what _extent_ deviations occur in each
+direction, above and below the group average, and, second, the average
+_amount_ by which each individual of the group deviates from this
+group average. That is, we must know the amount of variability as well
+as the extent of the greatest divergence from the average. The best
+measure of the amount of variability exhibited by any group of objects
+or organisms is not the simple average or mean of all the individual
+deviations from the average of the group; it is the square root of the
+mean squared deviations from the group average. This is called the
+_index_ of variability or "standard deviation." In order to make
+possible the comparison of the variabilities of characteristics
+measured in unlike units, such as weight and stature, this index must
+be converted into an equivalent abstract quantity. This is done by
+reducing the index of variability to per cents of the group average,
+giving what is called the _coefficient_ of variability. Thus, for
+example, in stature the index of variability (standard deviation) of
+certain classes of men is approximately 2.7 inches; that is, in a
+large group of men the amount of individual variation from the average
+height of 69 inches amounts to 2.7 inches. This gives an abstract
+_coefficient_ of about 4.0 per cent, for 2.7 equals 3.9 per cent of
+69. Similarly the index of variability of the weight of a group of
+university students has been found to be about 16.5 pounds; the
+average weight is about 153 pounds, and the coefficient of
+variability is therefore about 10.8 per cent (16.5 equals 10.78 per
+cent of 153). Although pounds and inches may not be compared, these
+two abstract coefficients may be, and we may say that men are more
+than twice as variable in weight as in stature.
+
+Turning now to variation of the second type we find what are
+ordinarily called _mutations_, or differences quite properly termed
+_variations_, in a strict sense, as distinguished from the preceding
+fluctuations or variability phenomena. Mutations or variations are
+abrupt changes of the average or type condition to a new condition or
+value which then becomes a new center of fluctuating variability. The
+difference between variability and variation may be illustrated
+through an analogy suggested by Galton (Fig. 5). A polygonal plinth,
+or better a polyhedron, resting upon one face is easily tipped
+slightly back and forth, but after slight disturbance it always
+returns to its first position of stable equilibrium. Each face of the
+plinth or polyhedron represents an organismal characteristic; these
+slight backward and forward movements represent fluctuations, always
+centering about the average condition. An unusually hard push sends
+the plinth over upon another face in which it has a new position of
+stability; this represents true variation or mutation. In this new
+position it is again stable, may again be rocked back and forth
+showing fluctuations about its new average position.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Plinth to illustrate the difference
+    between variability (fluctuation) and variation (mutation).]
+
+The essential difference between true variation and fluctuation or
+variability of an extreme nature, is with reference to the inheritance
+of such divergence. In the second generation the offspring of extreme
+variates or fluctuations have not the same average as their own
+parents but an average much nearer that of the whole group to which
+their parents belonged; the average stature of the children of
+unusually short or tall parents is respectively greater or less than
+that of their own parents--that is, is nearer the average of the whole
+group of parents, provided the shortness or tallness of the parents is
+a fluctuation. When the shortness or tallness is a true variation or
+mutational character, offspring have approximately the same average
+stature as their immediate parents, although the children of course
+show fluctuation in height so that some are slightly above and others
+slightly below the parental height.
+
+Mutations may occur through the addition or the subtraction of single
+characters of the simple or unit type. Such are the variations from
+brown or blue eyes to albino, five fingers to six, and the like. These
+are the familiar "sports" of the horticulturalist and breeder. They
+are of the greatest value in evolution, for it seems quite likely that
+it is only through the permanent racial fixation of these mutations
+that permanent changes in the characters of a breed may be effected,
+i. e., evolution occurs primarily through mutation.
+
+In connection with the general subject of variation we should mention
+briefly certain aspects of the recent work of Johannsen and Jennings,
+showing that many organic specific groups or "species," whose
+characters, when measured accurately give what is called a normal
+variability curve similar to that of stature illustrated in Fig. 3,
+are not really homogeneous groups of fluctuating individuals as the
+curves would indicate superficially, but that each gross group or
+species is actually composed of a blend of a number of smaller groups,
+each with its own average and fluctuating variability. It is only when
+these are taken all together as a lump that they fuse into a single
+and apparently simple curve.
+
+For example, the curve shown in Fig. 6, A, which is approximately that
+of a normal distribution, in some cases might be shown by
+experimentation to consist in reality of several truly distinct
+elements, say three for purposes of illustration, as shown in Fig. 6,
+B. Each of these sub-groups has its own average and its own amount
+and extent of variability (fluctuation) and it is only by adding them
+together that we get the larger group. Each of these elementary groups
+is called a "pure line," which is defined as a group of organisms, all
+of which are the progeny of a single individual. The characteristics
+of each pure line remain stable through successive generations, each
+about its own average; and it is chiefly this fact that enables us to
+identify the different lines. Transition from the condition of one
+pure line to another occurs only as a mutation. At present the theory
+of the pure line is strictly applicable only to organisms reproducing
+asexually or to self-fertilizing forms where the group observed is
+actually composed of the progeny of a single organism. It is hardly
+possible to say as yet whether or not this extremely important theory
+is essentially applicable to the human species or any species where
+two organisms are involved in the establishment of a race or line, but
+there are some indications of a circumstantial nature that it is thus
+applicable in its essentials and so modified as to include this fact
+of biparental inheritance.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Curves illustrating the relation
+    between the pure line and the species or other large group.
+    _A_, a "species" curve composed of three pure lines. _B_,
+    the separate elements of the larger curve each with its own
+    average and variability.]
+
+With this bare skeleton of the subject of variation before us let us
+see how facts of this kind may have any significance for the subject
+of Eugenics, any bearing upon the possibility of racial improvement.
+When any of the varying human traits, and they all vary, is measured
+carefully and the results tabulated we find that they give us a curve
+approximating the normal frequency curve, such as we have described
+above and illustrated in Fig. 3. The coefficients of variability of a
+great many human traits are known and a few representative
+coefficients are given in Table I. This type of variability is given
+then, by measurements of physical characteristics of all kinds, and,
+what is of greater importance, physiological traits, including mental
+and moral characteristics, so far as they can be measured by present
+methods, vary in just the same way. Annual individual earnings give us
+a curve closely similar to that of a normal frequency curve with an
+approximate minimum limiting value. Even the tabulation of citizens
+according to their social standing or "civic worth" gives the same
+sort of thing. This has been brought out nicely in Galton's discussion
+of Booth's classification of the population of London.
+
+                            TABLE I
+
+     _Coefficients of Variability of Certain Human Traits_
+
+        Adult Stature                       3.6 to  4.0
+        Length at Birth                     5.8 to  6.5
+        Length of Limb Bones                4.5 to  5.5
+        Cephalic Index                      3.7 to  4.8
+        Skull Capacity                      7.0 to  8.0
+        Weight (University Students)       10.0 to 11.0
+        Weight at Birth                    14.2 to 15.7
+        Weight of Brain                     7.0 to 10.6
+        Weight of Heart                    17.4 to 20.7
+        Weight of Liver                    14.3 to 22.2
+        Weight of Kidney                   16.8 to 22.5
+        Lung Capacity                      16.6 to 20.4
+        Squeeze of Hand                    13.4 to 21.4
+        Strength of Pull                   15.0 to 22.6
+        Swiftness of Blow                  17.1 to 19.4
+        Dermal Sensitivity                 35.7 to 45.7
+        Keenness of Eyesight               28.7 to 34.7
+
+It is not so easy to answer the question whether mutations or true
+variations are occurring frequently in the human species. Usually it
+is impossible to distinguish between an extreme fluctuation and a true
+variation without experimental test and the observation of the
+behavior of the varying trait through several generations. In most
+instances this has been impossible with human beings. From collateral
+evidence it seems quite probable that man is mutating with
+considerable frequency, especially with respect to psychic traits.
+
+The evolution of the race could be directed more easily and permanent
+results attained more rapidly through taking advantage of valuable
+mutations than in any other way. A race truly desiring to progress
+would foster carefully anything resembling mutation in a favorable
+direction. As a matter of fact, however, our social custom leads us to
+look with disfavor upon most youthful traits that seem unusual or out
+of the ordinary. It would be difficult to devise a system of
+"education" which could more effectively repress than does our own the
+development of unusual mental traits. In this connection "abnormal" or
+"eccentric" may often mean a mutation in a profitable direction, a
+getting away from the average of mediocrity in the direction of
+improvement.
+
+It is clear that we have the raw materials for race improvement. There
+are some individuals with more and some with less than the average in
+any respect--physical, mental, moral. The average of a whole social
+group can be shifted by subtraction at one end or addition at the
+other, or more easily and more effectively by both together. In order
+to raise the general average of the value of any of these traits it
+is not necessary to strive to exceed the known maximum value in any
+respect. The study of the "pure line," as mentioned above, shows that
+this may for a long time remain impossible, or at any rate difficult,
+pending the appearance of a mutation in a favorable direction. We can,
+however, raise the general average of physical strength or of mental
+or moral ability by increasing the relative number of individuals in
+the upper groups or by diminishing the number in the lower groups,
+most easily of course and most effectively by doing both of these
+things. By increasing the numbers composing the lines which form the
+upper elements of a social group we not only add immensely to the
+total value of the group but we do actually change somewhat the
+general average. On the other hand numerical increase in the lines in
+the lower part of the group will actually lower the average of the
+whole, though it does not actually affect the number of individuals in
+the more able and valuable classes.
+
+Another consideration is of great importance here. The average is
+affected only slightly by the change of individuals from class to
+class near the average. But the shifting of even one or two per cent
+of the individuals into or out of extreme positions has a very marked
+effect upon the character of the total group and upon the average. In
+the life of the State the character of the general average of the
+citizens is of the greatest importance, and comparatively small
+deviations in the average of civic worth may mean much as regards the
+history of a democracy. Of course the average individuals in a social
+group may not be those of greatest influence; even when taken all
+together they may not determine the trend of the life of the society;
+but that does not alter the essential fact that the condition of the
+average of the population is of very great moment to a democratic
+state.
+
+Many of our social endeavors to-day serve in effect to raise
+individuals from one of the lower groups up to or toward the average.
+Millions of dollars and an incalculable amount of time and energy are
+spent annually in striving to accomplish this kind of result. How
+immeasurably greater would be the benefit to society if the same
+amount of energy and money were spent in moving individuals from the
+middle classes on up toward the higher. In the development of our
+societies we need to use every possible means to carry individuals
+from positions near the average to positions above the average, and
+the farther this remove is above the average both in its starting
+point and its stopping point, the better for the social group.
+Elevation from mediocrity to superiority has far greater effect upon
+the social constitution than has elevation from inferiority to
+mediocrity.
+
+As the Whethams have written recently: "Of late years, the duty of the
+State to support the falling and fallen has been so much emphasized
+that its still more important duty to the able and competent has been
+obscured. Yet it is they who are the real national asset of worth, and
+it is essential to secure that their action should not be hampered,
+and their value sterilized, by the jealousy and obstruction of the
+social failures, and of others whom pity for the failures has blinded.
+Mankind has been shrewdly divided into those who do things and those
+who must get out of the way while things are being done, and if the
+latter class do not recognize their true function in life, they
+themselves will suffer the most. The incompetent have to be supported
+partially or wholly by the competent, and, even for their own good,
+it would be worth while for the incompetent to encourage the freedom
+of action and the preponderant reproduction of the abler and more
+successful stocks. It is only where such stocks abound that the nation
+is able to support and carry along the heavy load of incompetence kept
+alive by modern civilization."
+
+In discussing the general subject of variation and variability in
+this connection, we must take always into account the biological
+distinction between variation and functional modification, between
+innate and acquired traits. Only the former are of real and primary
+value in evolution. The distinction is familiar and we cannot dwell
+upon it here; but it is of particular importance in dealing with
+social improvement and we shall return to it in the next chapter.
+Many "social variations" are in reality not variations at all, but
+modifications; although these may be of the greatest value to the
+individual modified, they are artificial things without permanent
+value to the race. So many of the distinguishing personal traits are
+the results of nurture rather than of nature. They represent the
+result of the incidence of special factors in the environment. It is
+extremely difficult and at times impossible to distinguish between
+variations and modifications in adult characters, but in general the
+distinction is usually clear upon careful analysis.
+
+The changing of the innate characters of the human race is a slow
+process, depending chiefly upon the advantage taken of the appearance
+of real mutational variations. On the other hand, it is comparatively
+easy to improve the condition of the individual by improving his
+environing conditions--cleaning him, educating him, leading him to
+higher ideals in his physical and mental and moral life. But as this
+is easy, so it is impermanent. All this is modificational and has no
+influence upon the stock. This is not opposed by the Eugenist; it
+simply is no part of his province, for its effect is not racial. By
+releasing a deforming pressure it may permit the individual to come
+back to his real structurally determined condition, but the
+structural condition itself is not thus affected. It is temporary and
+must be done over with each generation, or on account of the
+unfortunate habit of "backsliding," even at intervals shorter than
+that of a generation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Let us now turn to another phase of our subject and consider the
+biological methods of the description and measurement of heredity, as
+a preliminary to our next chapter in which we shall discuss the
+bearings of the facts of human heredity upon the possibility of the
+formation of a permanently improved human breed.
+
+The fact of heredity is one of the most familiar and patent things
+about organisms. "Do men gather grapes of thorns or figs of thistles?"
+For we may define heredity as the fact of general resemblance between
+parent and offspring. This simple definition is disappointing to many
+persons. "Heredity" is so often supposed popularly to refer only to
+some occasional, striking, and unusual similarity within a family
+respecting certain traits or peculiarities. Very often the idea of
+heredity seems shrouded in mystery: it is some uncanny relation which
+explains peculiarities and helps the novelist out of difficulties, but
+is itself inexplicable. In truth, however, the fact that a boy, like
+his father, has a head and a heart and hands and feet, physical traits
+characteristic of the human species, that he begins to walk and talk
+and shave at about the same age as his father did--all this is the
+fact of heredity. The fact that guinea pigs produce guinea pigs and
+not rabbits is the fact of heredity. Often it is true that this
+resemblance is strikingly particular. All know of family traits; we
+may have our father's eyes or nose, our mother's hair or disposition,
+a grandfather's determination or a grandmother's patience. But these
+particular individual resemblances are no more and no less
+illustrations of heredity than the fact that on the whole children are
+more like their parents than like other human beings.
+
+The subject of heredity is of supreme importance in the practice of
+Eugenics. The facts of no other department of biological inquiry are
+of equal value, and at the same time there is probably no biological
+subject regarding which there is so much misunderstanding. Of the
+many phases of this extremely fascinating subject there are chiefly
+two with which we are particularly concerned as Eugenists. These are
+the questions: first, how completely are all the distinguishing traits
+of either or both parents represented in the offspring; and, second,
+how completely is each trait inherited that is inherited at all? In
+other words, what we are chiefly interested to know, as bearing upon
+the subject in hand, is whether all or only some of the
+characteristics of our parents are heritable, and whether the
+offspring show each inherited trait with the same intensity shown in
+the parent, or more, or less.
+
+One of the leading British students of heredity has said that no one
+should undertake the study of this subject unless he can instantly
+detect and explain the fallacy involved in the familiar conundrum,
+"Why do white sheep eat more than black ones?" It is perhaps the
+elasticity of our language that makes possible the mental confusion
+involved in this question, but yet it is certainly true that we do
+tend to confuse individual and statistical statements. We must
+remember, in connection with this subject particularly, that an
+individual may belong to a group without representing it, and that
+within a group there are many more individuals with average than with
+exceptional characteristics. The mediocre is common, the extremes are
+rare. And yet an unusual individual may really be an outlying member
+of a normal group.
+
+In describing the facts of hereditary resemblance between successive
+generations two formulas are available. One deals ostensibly with the
+individual--the Mendelian formula: the other deals with the group--the
+statistical formula. It seems entirely probable that these are not
+formulas for describing two essentially different processes or forms
+of heredity, but that in reality these are two ways of describing the
+same facts seen from two different points of view. The Mendelian
+formula regards each individual separately and describes its heredity
+thus. The statistical formula regards the whole group as the unit and
+considers the individual not as such, but as one of the crowd,
+concerning which statements can be made only in terms of averages and
+probabilities; black sheep and white. Of these two formulas the
+Mendelian is obviously of much the greater importance on account of
+its more exact, more particular character; its greater definiteness
+gives it a value in the treatment of eugenic problems that statistical
+statements must inherently lack. While much has been written of late
+regarding the Mendelian formula of heredity, we shall find it
+profitable to repeat here its general outlines and to recall a few of
+the essential features of this important law that we shall make much
+use of later.
+
+Let us have a concrete illustration. One of the simplest cases is that
+of the heredity of color in the Andalusian fowl which has been so
+clearly described by Bateson. There are two established color
+varieties of this fowl, one with a great deal of black and one that is
+white with some black markings or "splashes"; for convenience we may
+refer to these as the black and white varieties respectively. Each of
+these breeds true by itself. Black mated with black produce none but
+black offspring, white mated with white produce none but white
+offspring. Crossing black and white, however, results in the
+production of fowls with a sort of grayish color, called "blue" by the
+fancier, though in reality it is a fine mixture of black and white. At
+first sight we seem to have a gray hybrid race through the mixture of
+the black and the white races. Not so: for if we continue to breed
+successive generations from these blue hybrid fowls we get three
+differently colored forms. Some will be blue like the parents, some
+black like one grandparent, some white like the other grandparent. Not
+only this but we get certain definite proportions among these three
+classes of descendants. Of the total number of the immediate offspring
+of the hybrid blues, approximately one half will be blue like the
+parents, approximately one fourth black, and one fourth white like
+each of the grandparents. Now comes the most important fact of all.
+These blacks, bred together produce only blacks, the whites similarly
+produce only whites; the blues, on the other hand, when bred together
+produce progeny sorting into the same original classes and in the same
+proportions as were produced by the blues of the original hybrid
+generation. Their blacks and whites each breed true, their blues
+repeat the history of the preceding blues. No race of the hybrid
+character can be established: blues always produce blacks and whites,
+as well as blues. A summary of this history in graphic and
+diagrammatic form is given in Fig. 7.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Diagram showing the course of color
+    heredity in the Andalusian fowl, in which one color does not
+    completely dominate another. _P_, parental generation. The
+    offspring of this cross constitute _F1_, the first filial
+    or hybrid generation. _F2_, the second filial generation.
+    Bottom row, third filial generation.]
+
+This law of heredity was first discovered about forty-five years ago
+by Gregor Mendel, working with peas in the garden of the Augustinian
+monastery in Brünn, Austria. His work curiously failed to arouse the
+interest of contemporary scientists and his results were soon
+completely lost sight of. The independent rediscovery of Mendel's
+formulas of heredity, about ten years ago, was probably the most
+important event in the history of biology and evolution since the
+publication of "The Origin of Species."
+
+In most cases of Mendelian heredity the progeny are less easily
+classified than in the case above, because the hybrid individuals
+resemble one or the other of the parents, quite or very closely. For
+instance the crossing of the black and white varieties of guinea pigs
+gives hybrids that are all black like one parent. That is, when the
+black and white characters are brought together these do not appear to
+blend into a gray or "blue," as in the case of the Andalusian fowl,
+but one character alone appears; the black seems to cover up or wipe
+out the white. This illustrates the frequent phenomenon of
+_dominance_; one of the two contrasting characters, in this case the
+black color is said to dominate over the other and the two traits are
+described as _dominant_ and _recessive_ respectively. Fig. 8 gives a
+graphic representation of the history of such a cross. When the black
+looking hybrids are crossed together the progeny fall into but two
+groups, one resembling each of the grandparental forms. Three fourths
+of the progeny now resemble superficially the hybrid form and at the
+same time one of the grandparents--the dominating black form, while
+the remaining fourth resembles the other white grandparent. However,
+we know that the black three fourths do not in reality constitute a
+homogeneous class but that this includes two distinct groups; one
+group of one fourth of the whole number of progeny (i. e., one third
+of all the blacks) are truly black like their black grandparents and
+in successive generations will, if bred together, produce none but
+blacks of the same character, i. e., pure blacks: the remaining two
+fourths of the whole number of progeny (two thirds of all the blacks)
+in this generation are actually hybrids and in the next generation, if
+bred together, will give the same proportions of the two colors as
+were found in the whole of the present generation, i. e., three
+fourths black, one fourth white. Of these the whites always produce
+whites, the blacks always produce blacks and whites in the approximate
+proportions of 3:1; a certain proportion of these--one third (one
+fourth of the whole generation) always remain blacks, the other two
+thirds (one half of the whole generation) again produce blacks and
+whites. In such cases as this where the phenomenon of dominance
+appears, and this is the usual course of events, it is impossible to
+say which individuals _are_ the hybrids. Only after their progeny are
+studied can we say which _were_ the hybrids.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Diagram showing the course of color
+    heredity in the guinea pig, in which one color (black)
+    completely dominates another (white). Reference letters as
+    in Fig. 7.]
+
+In the crossing of the black and white Andalusian fowls described
+above the phenomenon of dominance does not appear; when the two color
+characters are brought into a single individual neither appears alone,
+neither overcomes nor is overcome by the other. In the crossing of the
+black and white guinea pigs dominance is complete; when the two color
+characters are brought into a single individual only one color
+appears, the second becomes recessive, that is, it remains present as
+we know from the later history of such hybrids, but it is not visibly
+indicated. Besides the Andalusian fowls there are known several other
+instances of the absence of dominance and there are many cases where
+dominance is incomplete, i. e., where one character merely tends to
+dominate the other. And in a few instances dominance is irregular,
+i. e., sometimes one character dominates, at other times or under
+other circumstances it does not, as with certain forms of the comb or
+the feathering of the legs in the common fowl, or with the presence of
+an extra toe in the domestic cat, the rabbit, and guinea pig. And
+even in those cases where dominance is said to be complete the trained
+eye of the breeder can frequently distinguish between the hybrid and
+the pure bred dominant individuals. The phenomenon of dominance,
+therefore, is not an essential of the Mendelian theory although it is
+a frequent, we may say usual, relation.
+
+It does not come within our province to attempt an explanation of this
+formula of heredity by describing some of the more fundamental
+conditions upon which it depends. In fact, no complete explanation is
+yet possible, although several explanatory hypotheses have been
+suggested. We may outline briefly that which seems the most
+satisfactory in that it serves to account for most of the facts in
+Mendelian heredity in a comparatively simple manner. The germ of an
+organism, we have seen, somehow contains dispositions of materials
+which primarily determine the characteristics of the organism
+developed from that germ. To these dispositions or configurations the
+term of "determiners" has been applied. In a pure variety like the
+black Andalusians, all the germ cells of each fowl are alike in
+having this determiner for black color. When two such fowls are mated
+together their descendants will result from the fusion of two germ
+cells, _each_ containing the determiner for black color; that is, the
+germ of the new individual comes to have a double determiner, one from
+each parent, for this trait. In the white variety all the germ cells
+are alike in _lacking_ this determiner; blackness is entirely absent
+and all their descendants are formed from germ cells entirely without
+black determiners. When the single germ cell of a black fowl with its
+single black determiner is fertilized by a germ cell from a white fowl
+without any determiner for black the resulting hybrid has a color
+produced by only a single determiner, that from the black parent, and
+in this case the blackness is not as fully expressed because produced
+by only this single determiner and the fowl appears gray or "blue";
+that is, the black produced by a single determiner is in this case not
+as black as that produced by the double determiner. Now of course this
+hybrid fowl forms germ cells containing determiners for color, but
+these cells, instead of being all alike and with semi-black
+determiners corresponding with the semi-black characteristics of the
+individual, are of two different kinds--some are like those of each of
+the grandparents which fused to give origin to the parent forms, and
+these are formed in approximately equal numbers--one half with the
+black determiner, one half without it. When two such fowls are bred
+together the chances are equal for certain combinations of germ cells;
+the chances are equal that the "black" or "white" germ cell of the one
+individual shall meet and conjugate with the "black" or "white" germ
+cell of the other individual. The result may be expressed
+algebraically as follows, using the letters _B_ and _W_ to indicate
+respectively germ cells with and without the black color determiner.
+
+  Germ cells of first parent                      _B_ + _W_
+  Germ cells of second parent                     _B_ + _W_
+                                                -------------
+                                                _BB_ + _BW_
+                                                       _BW_ + _WW_
+                                                  -----------------
+  Combinations in the germ of the offspring  _1BB_ + _2BW_ + _1WW_
+
+That is, one fourth are pure black (_BB_), one fourth pure white
+(_WW_), and the remaining half are hybrids, black and white (_BW_).
+The pure blacks again form germ cells, all possessing the determiner
+for blackness; the pure whites form germ cells all lacking the
+determiner for blackness; the hybrid blues produce again equal numbers
+of germ cells possessing and lacking the determiner for blackness. The
+relation of the germ cells and the organisms forming them and
+developing from them is shown in the diagram in Fig. 9.
+
+In the more common cases where the phenomenon of dominance appears, as
+in the guinea pig, this is explained by saying that here a single
+determiner for blackness is somehow sufficient to produce the color.
+In such cases the black color observed may result either from a single
+(_BW_) or from a double (_BB_) black determiner in the germ which
+forms the organism. Only when the black determiner is entirely absent
+(_WW_) does the white color appear in the developed organism and the
+individual is then said to exhibit the recessive characteristic.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Diagram illustrating the relation of
+    the germ cells in a simple case of Mendelian heredity, such
+    as that of color as shown in Figs. 7 and 8. The spaces
+    between the large circles represent the bodies of the
+    individuals while the small circles within each represent the
+    germ cells formed by those individuals. _P_, parental
+    generation; each individual forms a single kind of germ
+    cells. _G. F1_, germs of the first filial or hybrid
+    generation, each composed of two different kinds of germ
+    cells, one from each parent. _F1_, individuals of the first
+    filial or hybrid generation, developed from _G. F1_. Each
+    member of this generation forms two kinds of germ cells in
+    approximately equal numbers. _G. C. F1_, germ cells of _F1_,
+    showing possible combinations resulting from the mating of
+    two members of _F1_. Each of these combinations occurs with
+    equal probability. _G. F2_, germs of second filial generation
+    resulting from the above random combinations. _F2_,
+    individuals of second filial generation. Each now forms germ
+    cells like those which constituted its own germ.]
+
+Another possible type of mating is that between a member of a pure
+race, either dominant or recessive, and a hybrid individual. This form
+of mating is very common in some of the pedigrees that we shall
+examine later. The results of such a mating, first between a hybrid
+and a recessive individual can be most easily described by considering
+a cross between black and white forms and expressing the result
+algebraically.
+
+  Germ cells of first parent (white or recessive)  _W_ + _W_
+  Germ cells of second parent (hybrid)             _B_ + _W_
+                                                 -------------
+                                                  _BW_ + _BW_
+                                                         _WW_ + _WW_
+                                                 ---------------------
+                                                     _2BW_ + _2WW_
+
+That is, returning to the example of the Andalusian fowls, the progeny
+will be one half hybrid blues and one half whites--no black at all.
+If the cross had been between black hybrid guinea pigs and white
+recessive specimens the result would have been half hybrid blacks and
+half pure whites.
+
+Or supposing the mating to have occurred between the pure dominant
+(black) and the hybrid the result would have been, in the fowls half
+pure black and half hybrid blue; in the guinea pig all the progeny
+would have been black, half pure blacks and half hybrid blacks.
+
+  Germ cells of first parent (black or dominant)   _B_ + _B_
+  Germ cells of second parent (hybrid)             _B_ + _W_
+                                                 -------------
+                                                  _BB_ + _BB_
+                                                         _BW_ + _BW_
+                                                ----------------------
+                                                     _2BB_ + _2BW_
+
+In the case of the guinea pigs, although the progeny all look alike
+(black) their history would show that they were fundamentally unlike,
+for if crossed with white again the result would be the production of
+all black looking guinea pigs from the cross with the _BB_ forms, and
+half black and half white from the _BW_ cross.
+
+On account of the fact of variation every individual is in a certain
+sense a hybrid. One's two parents have the species characters in
+common but there are certain distinctive traits that hybridize and
+follow Mendel's law of heredity. By no means is it to be understood
+that all individual distinctive traits follow this rule in heredity.
+Many individual characteristics are what we have learned to call
+fluctuations--small deviations above or below an average condition of
+a group. Such differences play no part in Mendelian heredity. Other
+characteristics may be bodily modifications resulting from the direct
+reaction between the body tissues and the environing conditions; such
+traits would not be represented in the organization of the germ cells
+and consequently would not be inherited at all. At present it seems
+that the only characteristics that "Mendelize" are those known as
+"unit characters." Such characters seem to have their origin in real
+variations or mutations and though each may show fluctuations, these
+fluctuations in themselves are not hereditary.
+
+This conception of the unit character is an extremely important
+element in the whole Mendelian theory and it has extended beyond the
+field of heredity and led to a radical change in our notions of what
+an organism really is. It is, of course, true in a sense that an
+organism is a unit, an organism is one thing; but at the same time it
+is true that an organism is fundamentally a collection of units, of
+structural and functional characteristics which are really separable
+things. A few of these units were mentioned in the first pages of this
+chapter and others are mentioned on a later page. They serve as the
+building blocks of organisms: individuals of the same species may be
+made up of similar combinations or of different combinations. One unit
+or a group of units may be taken out and replaced by others.
+
+From the standpoint of heredity, and particularly from our eugenic
+point of view, the most important results of the unit composition of
+the organism lie in the fact that these units remain units throughout
+successive generations and throughout successive and varying
+combinations, whatever their associations may be from generation to
+generation. It is a fact of the greatest eugenic significance that a
+pure bred individual may be produced by a hybrid mated either with a
+pure bred or with another hybrid; and that the pure bred resulting
+will be just as pure bred as any. "Pure bred" now means pure bred with
+respect to certain traits only. An individual may be pure bred in
+certain of its characteristics, hybrid in others. Practically there is
+no such thing as an individual which is either pure bred or hybrid in
+_all_ its traits. One of the chief contributions, then, of Mendelism
+to the subjects of Heredity and Eugenics is this--that a pure bred may
+be derived from a hybrid in one generation: the pure bred produced by
+a long series of hybrid individuals is just as pure as the pure bred
+which has never had a hybrid in its ancestry. Another important
+consequent is, that among the offspring of the same parents some
+individuals may be pure bred and others hybrid. Community of parentage
+does not necessarily denote community of characteristics among the
+offspring. Yet by knowing the ancestry for one or two generations we
+can know the qualities of the individual. Guesswork is eliminated and
+the importance of the qualities of the individual is enormously
+emphasized. It is necessary only to suggest the social and eugenic
+significance of such facts relating to characteristics that are of
+social or racial importance.
+
+We shall have occasion in the next chapter to enumerate some of the
+human unit characters whose heredity has been traced and which have
+been found to Mendelize, but we may mention here a few Mendelizing
+units in other organisms in order to give some idea of the kind of
+character which behaves as a unit and of the range of the forms which
+have been found to show Mendelian phenomena in their heredity. Among
+the higher animals one might mention the absence of horns in cattle
+and sheep; the "waltzing" habit of mice and the pacing gait of the
+horse; length of hair and smoothness of coat in the rabbit and guinea
+pig; presence of an extra toe in the cat, guinea pig, rabbit, fowl;
+length of tail in the cat; and in the common fowl such characters as
+the shape and size of the comb, presence of a crest or a "muff," a
+high nostril, rumplessness, feathering of the legs, "frizzling" of the
+feathers, certain characters of the voice, and a tendency to brood.
+Among plants may be mentioned such characters as dwarfness in garden
+peas, sweet peas, and some kinds of beans; smoothness or prickliness
+of stem in the jimson weed and crowfoot; leaf characters in a great
+variety of plants; in the cotton plant a half dozen characters have
+been found to Mendelize; seed characters such as form and amount of
+starch, sugar, or gluten; flat or hooded standard in the sweet pea;
+annual or biennial habit in the henbane; susceptibility to a rust
+disease in wheat. We should not fail to mention that scores of color
+characters are known to Mendelize, such as hair or coat color and eye
+color in animals and the colors of flowers, stems, seeds, seed-coats,
+etc., in plants. The list of Mendelizing traits in different organisms
+now extends into the hundreds and is increasing almost weekly.
+
+Before leaving the subject of Mendelism we should say that the
+phenomena, as described above in the Andalusian fowl and guinea pig,
+are among the simplest known. And while such simple formulas serve to
+describe the phenomena of heredity in a large number of instances, yet
+in a great many other cases the descriptive formulas are more
+complicated. We cannot in this place describe any of these
+complications. For a full discussion of these and of the whole subject
+of Mendelism the interested reader is referred to Professor Bateson's
+work on "Mendel's Principles of Heredity" (1909). It must suffice to
+say here that in color heredity, for example, such ratios as 9:3:4 or
+12:3:1 in the second filial generation instead of the more frequent
+1:2:1 or 3:1 are explainable upon essentially the same relations as
+these simpler and more typical ratios. And further, many less usual
+Mendelian phenomena, which we cannot undertake to describe here,
+are associated with what the specialist technically terms "sex
+limitation," "gametic coupling," and the like.
+
+It is often said that the Mendelian formula has a very limited
+applicability to human heredity. This is probably true if we consider
+carefully the grammatical tense in which this statement is made. And
+yet it is almost certainly true that heredity in man is to be
+described by this law. This apparent paradox is easily explained. The
+only characters whose history in heredity follows this formula are the
+unit characters. A complex trait is not heritable, as a whole, but its
+components behave in heredity as the separate units. It is perfectly
+well known that we are deeply ignorant regarding this phase of human
+structure. Our ignorance here is not the necessary kind, however, it
+is merely due to the newness of the subject--we have not had time to
+find out. How can we say that a complex trait is or is not inherited
+according to some form of Mendel's law when we do not know the nature
+of the units of which it is composed? We can make no statements about
+the Mendelian inheritance of such a trait until it is factored into
+its units. A considerable number of human characteristics are really
+known to be heritable according to this formula, enough so that
+several general rules of human heredity have been formulated. But it
+is also quite within the range of possibility that some traits really
+do not follow this law, although it cannot yet be said definitely
+that this is or is not the case. On the whole, then, we cannot, for
+the next few years, expect too much from the application of Mendel's
+laws to human heredity, however much this is to be regretted.
+
+Shall we then decline to say anything about the heredity of the great
+bulk of human characteristics? By no means: we have seen that in our
+bagatelle board we talk very definitely about the distribution of all
+the peas, though only about the probable history of one pea. Mendel's
+law deals with individual inheritance. When we cannot apply this
+formula we have left still the possibility of talking about human
+heredity in the group as a whole. That is to say, we have left the
+opportunity of describing heredity by the statistical methods, with
+the crowd, not the individual, as the unit. Since we are forced into
+extensive use of this formula by our present and temporary ignorance
+of the applicability of Mendel's rule we must get a clear notion of
+how the statistical method is applied in this matter.
+
+The method is the same as that employed by the statistician in
+measuring the relatedness of any two series of varying phenomena. If
+two quantities or characteristics are so related that fluctuations in
+the one are accompanied in a regular manner by fluctuations in the
+other, the two quantities or characters are said to be correlated. For
+instance, the temperature and the rate of growth of sprouting beans
+are related in such a way that increase in the former is accompanied
+in a regular way by increase in the latter; or the width and height of
+the head, or the total stature and the length of the femur similarly
+vary regularly together so that they are said to be correlated to a
+certain extent which can be measured. This correlation may result from
+the fact that one condition is a cause, either direct or indirect, of
+the other; or there may be no such causal relation between the two
+phenomena, both resulting more or less independently from a common
+antecedent condition or cause.
+
+This phenomenon of correlation is not limited among organisms to the
+comparison of two or more different characters in a single series of
+individuals; it is applicable also to the comparison of two series of
+individuals with respect to the same characteristic. Thus we may
+compare the stature of a series of fathers with the same measurement
+in their sons. It is this form of correlation with which we are
+particularly to deal here. While it is not necessary to understand
+just how this subject is dealt with by the statistician we should know
+one or two of the elementary principles involved, in order to
+appreciate the statistical form of many statements about heredity.
+
+The stature of men may be said to vary usually between limits of 62
+and 76 inches, the average height being about 69 inches. In the
+complete absence of heredity in stature we should find that fathers of
+any given height, say 62 or 63 or 76 inches would have sons of no
+particular height but of all heights with an average of 69 inches, the
+same as in the whole group. Or if stature were completely heritable
+from one generation to the next the _total generations being the units
+compared_, then 62 or 63 or 76 inch fathers would have respectively
+sons all 62, 63, and 76 inches tall. When we examine the actual
+details of the resemblance we find, as a matter of fact, that neither
+of these possibilities is actually realized. What we do find is that
+fathers below or above the average height have sons whose average
+height is also below or above the general average but not so far below
+or above the general average as were the fathers. If we measured a
+large number of pairs of fathers and sons with respect to stature we
+should find each generation with a variability such as that
+illustrated in Fig. 3 of the stature of mothers, the limits here,
+however, being about 62 and 76 inches. But if we measured all the sons
+of 62-inch fathers they would be found to vary say from 62 to only 69
+inches, averaging about 66 inches. Similarly 63-inch fathers would
+have sons from 62 to 70 inches tall, averaging about 66.5 inches, or
+76-inch fathers might have sons from 69 to 76 inches in height,
+averaging about 72 inches, and so on for fathers of all heights. In
+general, then, we may say that fathers with a characteristic of a
+certain plus or minus deviation from the average of the whole group
+have sons who on the whole deviate in the same direction but less
+widely than the fathers, although the fact of variability comes in so
+that some few of the sons deviate as widely as, or even more widely
+than, the fathers, others deviate less widely than the fathers from
+the average of the whole group. This is the general and very important
+statistical fact of _regression_.
+
+The phenomenon of regression may be made somewhat clearer by the aid
+of a simple diagram--Fig. 10. Here are plotted first the heights, by
+inches, of a group of fathers, giving the series of dots joined by the
+diagonal _AB_. Next are plotted the average heights of the sons of
+each class of fathers: 62-inch fathers give 66-inch sons, 63-inch
+fathers 66.5-inch sons, 64-inch fathers 67-inch sons, and so for all
+the classes of fathers. These dots are then joined by the line _EF_.
+This is the _regression line_. Had it been the case that there was no
+regression in stature the different classes of fathers would have had
+sons averaging just the same as themselves and the line representing
+the heights of the sons would have coincided with the line _AB_. Or if
+regression had been complete the fathers of any class would have had
+sons averaging about 69 inches--just the same as the average of the
+whole group--and the line representing their heights would have had
+the position of _CD_ in the diagram. As a matter of fact, however,
+neither of these possibilities is actually realized and the regression
+line _EF_ is approximated in an actual series of data. A similar
+relation has been found for many characters other than stature.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Diagram illustrating the phenomenon
+    of regression. Explanation in text.]
+
+The fact of regression is of considerable importance for the theory of
+evolution as well as for the subject of Eugenics when describing the
+phenomena of heredity in this statistical manner in whole groups
+without paying attention to particular individuals. Regression is
+found in all characteristics observed in this way, psychic as well as
+purely physical. "The father [i. e., fathers] with a great excess of
+the character contributes [contribute] sons with an excess, but a less
+excess of it; the father [fathers] with a great defect of the
+character contributes [contribute] sons with a defect, but less defect
+of it."
+
+Now, whatever the actual extent of this regression is in a group we
+need to know how uniformly it occurs for all the classes of different
+deviations from the general average, that is, we need to know whether
+the extreme groups regress to the same relative extent as do those
+nearer the general average; and, further, we need to know how nearly
+the sons of fathers of any certain height are grouped about their own
+average. In other words, we should know, first, whether the regression
+of the sons of 62 and 76 or 67 and 71 inch fathers is proportionately
+the same in each case, and, second, to what extent the sons of 62-inch
+fathers vary, whether they vary as do the fathers of 62-inch sons, and
+so for each group. This kind of information we get by calculating what
+is called the _coefficient of heredity_. The calculation of this
+coefficient is a complicated process which it is unnecessary to
+describe here. It must suffice to say that a numerical coefficient can
+readily be determined, which will express the average closeness and
+regularity of the relationship between all the plus and minus
+deviations from the group average in fathers and the corresponding
+plus and minus deviations from the group average of their sons with
+respect to a given characteristic. This coefficient of heredity may
+vary between 0.0 and 1.0. When it is 0.0 there is, on the whole, no
+regularity in the relationship, i. e., no heredity; when it is 1.0
+there is, on the whole, complete regularity, i. e., heredity is
+complete. Neither of these values is ever actually found in
+determining coefficients of heredity in the parental relation; these
+are usually between 0.3 and 0.5. It should be emphasized again that
+this comparison is between whole groups and not between individuals,
+and that it fails to allow for the distinction between fluctuations
+and true variations. And, further, it should be noted that the
+information derived from such a coefficient is defective in that it
+takes into account only the relationship between the son and one
+parent; the maternal relation is just as important but this has to be
+determined separately. There is no satisfactory method of determining
+the relation between children and both parents at the same time.
+
+The coefficient of heredity is, therefore, an abstract numerical value
+which gives us a fairly precise estimate as to the probable closeness
+of the relation between deviations from the group average of any
+character in two groups of relatives. The coefficient of _correlation_
+is, in general, a measure of the relation between two different
+characteristics or conditions in a single group of individuals. The
+method of its determination and its limiting values are the same as
+for the coefficient of heredity.
+
+By experience the coefficients of heredity and correlation in general
+are found to have the following significance:
+
+  0.00-      no relation.
+  0.00-0.10--no significant relation.
+  0.10-0.25--low; relation slight though appreciable.
+  0.25-0.50--moderate; relation considerable.
+  0.50-0.75--high; relation marked.
+  0.75-0.90--very high; relation very marked.
+  0.90-1.00--nearly complete.
+       1.00--complete relation.
+
+One further point remains to be considered, which applies not so much
+to coefficients of heredity as to coefficients of correlation in
+general, i. e., to the relatedness of two different characters or
+series of events in a single group of cases or individuals. This is
+that coefficients of correlation may be either positive or negative.
+That is, the real limits of the value of the coefficient are plus one
+and minus one. The example given above of stature of fathers and sons
+gives a positive coefficient. Whenever the deviation from the average
+of one group is accompanied in the second group by a deviation in the
+same direction, the coefficient is positive. A negative correlation
+means that deviation from the average in a given direction in the
+first group is accompanied in the second group by a deviation in the
+opposite direction. If we imagine that as one measurement increased
+above its average a second related measurement decreased below its
+average the correlation in such a case would be negative. For
+instance, if we measured the relation between the number of berry
+pickers employed and the quantity of berries remaining unpicked, in a
+number of different fields we would get a negative correlation
+coefficient. Some organisms are formed in such a way that increase in
+one dimension, such as length, is associated with decrease in another,
+such as breadth; measurement of the relatedness of these dimensions
+would give a coefficient of correlation that might be very high,
+indicating a considerable relation in the deviations, but it would be
+negative. In an instance of negative correlation the relation is that
+of "the more the fewer." As we shall see presently, a negative
+correlation may be just as important and significant as a positive
+correlation.
+
+The application of the principles of heredity to our subject of
+Eugenics is of such great importance that it is reserved for separate
+consideration in the next chapter. We may, therefore, devote the
+remainder of this chapter to the consideration of data of another
+kind, which are commonly treated by this same method of determining
+correlation coefficients between two sets of varying phenomena in
+order to determine whether there is any actual relation between them
+or not. This will serve to illustrate the use of this method.
+
+We shall turn then to the subject of differential or selective
+fertility in human beings and consider its relation to Eugenics. As a
+starting point we may take the self-evident statement that a group of
+organisms will tend to maintain constant characteristics through
+successive generations only when all parts of the group are equally
+fertile. If exceptional fertility is associated with the presence or
+absence of any characteristic the number of individuals with or
+without that trait will either increase or diminish in successive
+generations, and the character of the distribution of the group as a
+whole will gradually become altered, the average moving in the
+direction of the more fertile group. Or if infertility is so
+associated, then the average of the whole group moves away from that
+condition. Eugenically, then, we should ask whether in human society
+there is at present any such association of superfertility or
+infertility with desirable or undesirable traits. It is obviously the
+aim of Eugenics to bring about an association of a high degree of
+fertility with desirable traits and a low degree of fertility with
+undesirable characteristics.
+
+First, let us look at certain data gathered relative to the size of
+the family in both normal and pathological stocks (Table II). In order
+that a stock or family should just maintain its numbers undiminished
+through successive generations and under average conditions, at least
+four children should be born to each marriage that has any children at
+all.
+
+                               TABLE II
+
+     _Fertility in Pathological and Normal Stocks._ (From Pearson)
+
+                                       NATURE OF MARRIAGE.    NO. IN
+                           AUTHORITY. (Reproductive period.)  FAMILY.
+
+  Deaf-mutes, England      Schuster      Probably complete      6.2
+  Deaf-mutes, America      Schuster      Probably complete      6.1
+  Tuberculous stock        Pearson       Probably complete      5.7
+  Albinotic stock          Pearson       Probably complete      5.9
+  Insane stock             Heron         Probably complete      6.0
+  Edinburgh degenerates    Eugenics Lab  Incomplete             6.1
+  London mentally
+    defective              Eugenics Lab  Incomplete             7.0
+  Manchester mentally
+    defective              Eugenics Lab  Incomplete             6.3
+  Criminals                Goring        Completed              6.6
+  English middle class     Pearson       15 years at least,
+                                           begun before 35      6.4
+  Family records--normals  Pearson       Completed              5.3
+  English intellectual
+    class                  Pearson       Completed              4.7
+  Working class N.S.W.     Powys         Completed              5.3
+  Danish professional
+    class                  Westergaard   15 years at least      5.2
+  Danish working class     Westergaard   25 years at least      5.3
+  Edinburgh normal
+    artisan                Eugenics Lab  Incomplete             5.9
+  London normal artisan    Eugenics Lab  Incomplete             5.1
+  American graduates       Harvard       Completed              2.0
+  English intellectuals    Webb          Said to be complete    1.5
+
+    All childless marriages are excluded except in the last two
+    cases. Inclusion of such marriages usually reduces the
+    average by 0.5 to 1.0 child.
+
+The table given shows clearly what stocks are maintaining, what
+increasing, and what diminishing their numbers.
+
+This subject has been investigated recently in a rather extensive way
+by David Heron, for the London population. Heron concentrated his
+attention upon the relation of fertility in man to social status. He
+used as indices to social status such marks as the relative number of
+professional men in a community, or the relative number of servants
+employed, or of lowest type of male laborers, or of pawnbrokers; also
+the amount of child employment pauperism, overcrowding in the home,
+tuberculosis, and pauper lunacy. Twenty-seven metropolitan boroughs of
+London were canvassed on these bases, which are certainly significant,
+though not infallible, indices to the character of a community. His
+results are shown in the briefest possible form in Table III.
+
+                              TABLE III
+
+  _Correlation of the Birth Rate with Social and Physical Characters
+                 of London Population._ (From Heron.)
+
+                                                 CORRELATION
+                                                 COEFFICIENT.
+  With number of males engaged in professions           -.78
+  With female domestics per 100 females                 -.80
+  With female domestics per 100 families                -.76
+  With general laborers per 1,000 males                 +.52
+  With pawnbrokers and general dealers per 1,000 males  +.62
+  With children employed, ages 10 to 14                 +.66
+  With persons living more than two in a room           +.70
+  With infants under one year dying per 1,000 births    +.50
+  With deaths from pulmonary tuberculosis per 100,000
+    inhabitants                                         +.59
+  With total number of paupers per 1,000 inhabitants    +.20
+  With number of lunatic paupers per 1,000 inhabitants  +.34
+
+This table gives the results of the calculation of coefficients of
+correlation between the birth rates and the conditions enumerated. We
+may just recall that this coefficient is a measure of the regularity
+with which the changes in two varying conditions or phenomena are
+associated: and further that a coefficient of 1.0 indicates perfectly
+regular association, 0.75 a very high degree of regularity. The first
+line of the table then, for example, means that when these
+twenty-seven districts were sorted out, first, with reference to the
+number of professional men dwelling in them, and then with reference
+to their respective birth rates, there was found a very high degree of
+regularity (coefficient of correlation = -.78) in the association of
+these two conditions--birth rate and number of professional men. Here
+is a very close relation, _but_, the sign of the coefficient is
+_negative_. The significance of this negative sign is that among the
+communities studied those where the number of professional men is the
+larger show always, at the same time, the lower birth rates. Coming to
+the second line of the table, it seems fair to assume that the number
+of servants employed in a district in proportion to the total number
+of residents or families there, gives a fairly though not wholly
+satisfactory indication of the social character of the community.
+Measurement of the actual relation between the proportional number of
+servants employed in a community and the birth rate in that community,
+gave practically the same result as in the case of the number of
+professional men. The more servants employed in a district the lower
+its birth rate. Two methods of measuring this relation gave
+essentially the same result; comparison of the birth rate with the
+ratio of domestics, first to the number of families, second to the
+number of females, gave -.76 and -.80 respectively--very high
+coefficients and both negative.
+
+But the sign changes and becomes positive when we come to other
+comparisons. When we count the relative number of pawnbrokers and
+general dealers, of "general laborers" (that is, men without a trade
+and without regularity of occupation and employment), of employed
+children between the ages of ten and fourteen, of persons living more
+than two in a room, when we consider the infant death rate, the death
+rate from pulmonary tuberculosis, and the relative number of
+paupers,--then we find the signs of the coefficients are all positive,
+and on the average the coefficients are more than 0.50--a moderate to
+high degree of regularity of the relation. The districts characterized
+by the larger numbers of such individuals or by higher death rates of
+these kinds, are at the same time the districts where the birth rates
+are the higher.
+
+In a word, then, Heron found that the greater the number of
+professional men, or of servants employed in a community, the lower
+the birth rate--a very high degree of negative correlation. On the
+other hand, the more pawnbrokers, child laborers, pauper lunatics,
+the more overcrowding and tuberculosis, the higher the birth rate--a
+high degree of positive correlation. Little doubt here as to which
+elements of the city are making the greater contributions to the next
+generation. There may be some doubt, however, so let us consider two
+possible qualifications of these results. First, is not the death rate
+also higher among these least desirable classes? Yes, it is. Is it not
+enough higher to compensate for the difference in the birth rates, so
+that after all the least desirable classes are not more than replacing
+themselves? No, it is not. After calculating the effect of the
+differential death rate among these different social groups it still
+remains true that the _net_ fertility of the undesirables is greater
+than the _net_ fertility of the desirables: the worst classes are in
+reality more than replacing themselves numerically in such
+communities; the most valuable classes are not even replacing
+themselves. Second, is not this the same condition that has always
+existed in these districts? Why any cause for supposing that this is
+going to bring new results to this society? Has not such a condition
+always been present and always been compensated for somehow?
+Fortunately, Heron is able to compare with these data of 1901 similar
+data for 1851, and is able to show that every one of these relations
+has changed in sign since that date--in fifty years. The significance
+of this change in sign is probably clear. It means here that in London
+sixty years ago there was a high degree of regularity in the relation
+such that the more professional men and well-to-do families the
+community contained, the higher the birth rate; that ten years ago
+this had all become changed so that the more of these desirable
+families found in a district the lower is the birth rate. It means
+that sixty years ago the relation was such that the more undesirables
+numbered in a district, the lower its birth rate; ten years ago the
+more undesirables, the higher the birth rate, and the coefficients of
+1901 are unusually high, indicating great closeness and regularity in
+this relation. Heron is further able to show that as regards number of
+servants employed, professional men, general laborers, and
+pawnbrokers in a district, the intensity of the relationship has
+_doubled_, besides changing in sign, in the period observed. It is not
+necessary to review the history of this change nor to discuss the
+causes involved, but it is necessary to take into account for the
+immediate future the fact of the change.
+
+Sidney Webb has recently published an account of the birth-rate
+investigations undertaken by the Fabian Society with a view to
+determine the causes leading to the rapidly falling birth rate in
+England. During the decade previous to 1901 the number of children in
+London actually diminished by about 5,000, while the total population
+increased by about 300,000. As far as they bear upon this phase of the
+subject his results fully confirm these we have been considering. The
+falling off is chiefly in the upper and middle classes, in the classes
+of thrift and independence, and it has occurred chiefly during the
+last fifty years. Webb cannot find that this is due to any physical
+deterioration in these classes; it is due to a conscious and
+deliberate limitation of the size of the family for what are thought
+prudential and economic reasons.
+
+An actual reduction in the number of children may not be an unmixed
+evil. A falling birth rate may be a good sign. This is partly a
+question for the political economist. "Suicide" may be a socially
+fortunate end for some strains. But when, in either a rising or a
+falling birth rate, we find a differential or selective relation, then
+the subject is eugenic. If the higher birth rate is among the socially
+valuable elements of each different class the Eugenist can only
+approve; to bring about such a relation is one of his aims. What we
+really find, however, is the undesirable elements increasing with the
+greatest rapidity, the better elements not even holding their own.
+
+One further aspect of the result of the smaller family remains to be
+considered. Are the various members of a single family approximately
+similar in their characteristics or are the earlier born more or less
+likely to be particularly gifted or particularly liable to disease or
+abnormal condition? Or is there no rule at all in this matter? There
+is much evidence that the incidence of pathological defect falls
+heaviest upon the earlier members of a family. Consider, for example,
+the presence of tuberculosis. We should ask, in families of two or
+more, are the tubercular members, if any, as likely to be the second
+born or third or tenth as to be the first born? The data are tabulated
+in Fig. 11, _A_. The distribution of family sizes being what it is in
+the number of families investigated and tabulated, we should expect
+that there would be about 65 tubercular first born, 60 tubercular
+second born, and so forth, on the basis of its average frequency in
+the whole community, provided the chances are equal that any member of
+the family should be affected with tuberculosis. What we actually
+find, however, is that 112 first born are affected, about 80 second
+born, and after that no relation between order of birth and
+susceptibility to tuberculosis. That is, susceptibility to
+tuberculosis is double the normal among first born children. The same
+thing is true for gross mental defect. Fig. 11, _B_, shows that the
+ratio of observed to expected insane first born children is about 4 to
+3. Such a relation has long been known to criminologists and
+frequently commented upon. Fig. 11, _C_, gives a definite expression
+to the facts here. Whereas, in the number of families observed about
+56 criminal first born were to be expected, the number actually found
+is about 120; for the second born the corresponding numbers are about
+54 and 78, and after that no marked relation is found between order of
+birth and criminality. For albinism (Fig. 11, _D_) the expected and
+observed numbers among first born are about 185 and 265, second born
+165 and 190, and thereafter no definite relation. It remains to be
+seen whether a similar relation holds for the unusually able and
+valuable members of a family; something has been said on both sides
+here, but there are available at present no data sufficiently exact to
+be worthy of consideration.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Diagrams showing the relation
+    between order of birth and incidence of pathological defect.
+    (From Pearson).]
+
+We have here a result that has very important bearings upon the value
+to the race of the large family and of the danger of the small family.
+The small family of one, two, or three children contributes on the
+average much more than its share of pathological and defective
+persons. No matter just now what the causes are, they seem to be more
+or less beyond remedy. The result for the future, however, must be
+reckoned with. This relation has important bearings upon the custom of
+primogeniture as well as upon the eugenic values of the large family.
+
+In conclusion let us give a few sentences only slightly modified from
+Pearson's "Grammar of Science." The subject of differential fertility
+is not only vitally important for the theory of evolution, but it is
+crucial for the stability of civilized societies. If the type of
+maximum fertility is not identical with the type fittest to survive in
+a given environment, then only intensive selection can keep the
+community stable. If natural selection be suspended there results a
+progressive change; the most fertile, whoever they are, tend to
+multiply at an increasing rate. In our modern societies natural
+selection has been to some extent suspended; what test have we then of
+the identity of the most fertile and the most fit? It wants but very
+few generations to carry the type from the fit to the unfit. The
+aristocracy of the intellectual and artizan classes are not equally
+fertile with the mediocre and least valuable portions of those
+classes and of society as a whole. Hence if the professional and
+intellectual classes are to be maintained in due proportions they must
+be recruited from below. This is much more serious than would appear
+at first sight. The upper middle class is the backbone of a nation,
+supplying its thinkers, leaders, and organizers. This class is not a
+mushroom growth, but the result of a long process of selecting the
+abler and fitter members of society. The middle classes produce
+relatively to the working classes a vastly greater proportion of
+ability; _it is not want of education, it is the want of stock which
+is at the basis of this difference_. A healthy society would have its
+maximum of fertility in this class and recruit the artizan class from
+the middle class rather than _vice versa_. But what do we actually
+find? A growing decrease in the birth rate of the middle and upper
+classes; a strong movement for restraint of fertility, and limitation
+of the family, touching only the intellectual classes and the
+aristocracy of the hand workers! Restraint and limitation may be most
+social and at the same time most eugenic if they begin in the first
+place to check the fertility of the unfit; but if they start at the
+wrong end of society they are worse than useless, they are nationally
+disastrous in their effects. The dearth of ability at a time of crisis
+is the worst ill that can happen to a people. Sitting quietly at home,
+a nation may degenerate and collapse, simply because it has given full
+play to selective reproduction and not bred from its best. From the
+standpoint of the patriot, no less than from that of the evolutionist
+and Eugenist, differential fertility is momentous; we must
+unreservedly condemn all movements for restraint of fertility which do
+not discriminate between the fertility of the physically and mentally
+fit and that of the unfit. Our social instincts have reduced to a
+minimum the natural elimination of the socially dangerous elements;
+they must now lead us consciously to provide against the worst effects
+of differential fertility--a survival of the most fertile, when the
+most fertile are not the socially fittest.
+
+The subject before us illustrates the direct bearing of science upon
+moral conduct and upon statecraft. The scientific study of man is not
+merely a passive intellectual viewing of nature. It teaches us the art
+of living, of building up stable and dominant nations, and it is of no
+greater importance for the scientist in his laboratory, than for the
+statesman in council and the philanthropist in society.
+
+
+
+
+                                 III
+
+                HUMAN HEREDITY AND THE EUGENIC PROGRAM
+
+
+
+
+                                 III
+
+                HUMAN HEREDITY AND THE EUGENIC PROGRAM
+
+  "A breed whose proof is in time and deeds;
+  What we are, we are--nativity is answer enough to objections."
+
+
+A few years ago official recognition was taken of the disturbing fact
+that the annual wheat yield of Great Britain was grossly deficient in
+both quantity and quality. In 1900 The National Association of British
+and Irish Millers, with almost unprecedented sagacity, raised a fund
+to provide for a series of experiments under the direction of a
+competent biologist, in order to discover if possible some means of
+restoring the former yield and quality of the native wheats. The story
+of the result reads like a romance. The experimenter--Prof. R. H.
+Biffen--collected many different varieties of wheat, native and
+foreign, each of which had some desirable qualities, and studied their
+mode of inheritance. Now, after only a few years of experimentation a
+wheat has been produced and is being grown upon a large scale in
+which have been united this desirable character of one variety, that
+character of another. From each variety has been taken some valuable
+trait, and these have all been combined into one variety possessing
+the characteristics of a short full head, beardlessness, high gluten
+content, immunity to the devastating rust, a strong supporting straw,
+and a high yield per acre. A wheat made to order and fulfilling the
+"details and specifications" of the growers.
+
+Manitoba and British Columbia opened up whole new lands of the finest
+wheat-growing capacity, but the season there is too short for the
+ripening of what were the finest varieties. This new specification was
+promptly met and the early ripening quality of some inferior variety
+was transferred to the varieties showing other highly desirable
+qualities, and these countries are now producing enormous quantities
+of the finest wheat in the world.
+
+All of this has been made possible by the discovery, mentioned in the
+preceding chapter, that many characteristics of organisms are units
+and behave as such in heredity; they can be added to races or
+subtracted from them almost at will. Pure varieties breeding true can
+be established permanently by taking into account the Mendelian laws
+of heredity. Similar results have been accomplished in many other
+plants and in many animals. A cotton has been produced which combines
+early growth, by which it escapes the ravages of the boll weevil, with
+the long fiber of the finest Sea Island varieties. Corn of almost any
+desired percentage of sugar or starch, within limits, can be produced
+to order in a few seasons. The hornless character of certain varieties
+of cattle can be transferred to any chosen breed. Sheep have been
+produced combining the excellent mutton qualities of one breed with
+the hornlessness of another, and with the fine wool qualities of still
+a third. And so on from canary birds to draft horses. New races can be
+built up to meet almost any demand, with almost any desired
+combination of known characters, and these races remain stable.
+Possibilities in this direction seem to be limited only by our present
+and rapidly lessening ignorance of the facts of Mendelian heredity in
+organisms--facts to be had for the looking.
+
+What is man that we should not be mindful of him? Why should we
+utilize all this new knowledge, all these immense possibilities of
+control and of creation, only for our pigs and cabbages? In this era
+of conservation should not our profoundest concern be the conservation
+of human protoplasm? "The State has no material resources at all
+comparable with its citizens, and no hope of perpetuity except in the
+intelligence and integrity of its people." As Saleeby puts it: "There
+is no wealth but life; and if the inherent quality of life fails,
+neither battle-ships, nor libraries, nor symphonies, nor Free Trade,
+nor Tariff Reform, nor anything else will save a nation."
+
+In this work of the creation and establishment of new and valuable
+varieties, two essential biological facts are made use of. The raw
+materials are furnished by variation--by the fact that there are
+individual and racial differences. The means of accomplishing results
+are furnished by heredity--the fact that offspring resemble the
+parents, not only in generalities, but even in particulars, and
+according to certain definite formulas.
+
+And, further, in the formation and establishment of a new race of
+plant or animal a conscious and ideal process is involved. The will of
+some organism guides the process, carefully doing away with hit and
+miss methods, and proceeding as directly as may be possible to an end
+_desired_. The facts of variation and heredity are sufficiently
+demonstrated for all organisms other than man; are they true of man
+also? Have we available the possibilities for the improvement of the
+human breed? If not, Eugenics is merely an interesting speculation. We
+have mentioned already the facts of variation in man; we undoubtedly
+do have the raw materials. What about heredity, and what about the
+directive agency? Let us look now at some of the facts of human
+heredity and consider some of the possibilities in the way of
+directive agencies. Is it going to be possible to breed a stable human
+race permanently with or without definite characteristics which now
+appear only in certain groups, or sporadically as variations?
+
+At the outset we should say that the knowledge of human heredity is as
+yet largely of the statistical sort. We know how a great many
+characters are inherited, on the average. The subject of Mendelian
+heredity is so new that there has been hardly time to investigate more
+than a few human characteristics from this point of view. Certain
+conditions add to the difficulties here. First, many, probably most,
+of the more important human traits are complexes, not units, and it is
+a long and difficult process to analyze them into their units, with
+which alone Mendelism deals. Second, in human society we cannot carry
+on definite experiments under controlled conditions, directed toward
+the solution of some concrete problem in heredity. It is true that
+Nature herself is making such experiments constantly, but at random,
+and rarely under ideal conditions of what the experimenter calls
+control or check. We have first to seek and find them out, and when
+they are found we often discover that there are lacking many of the
+facts essential to a complete or satisfactory analysis of the facts
+displayed. The comparatively small size of the human family sometimes
+makes it difficult to get data sufficiently extensive to be really
+significant. And the long period that elapses between successive human
+generations adds to the difficulty of getting precise information, for
+in dealing with the heredity of some traits comparisons must be made
+with individuals of the same ages, and the period of observation of a
+single observer seldom exceeds the duration of a single generation.
+Yet in spite of all these difficulties we have a fairly broad and
+exact knowledge of human heredity in respect to some characteristics.
+
+Human heredity involves both physical and psychical characters--both
+the body and the mind are concerned. Among other animals little if
+anything is known regarding psychic inheritance, but the physical
+traits of men are inherited in just the same ways and to the same
+degrees as in animals. This degree or intensity of inheritance may be
+expressed in coefficients of heredity between the groups of relatives
+being compared. To mention a few examples of coefficients for physical
+traits we have the following:
+
+  CHARACTER OBSERVED         PARENTAL               FRATERNAL
+                            COEFFICIENT            COEFFICIENT
+  Stature                  .49-.51 }               .51-.55 }
+  Span                     .45     }               .55     }
+  Fore Arm                 .42     }  .47          .49     }  .53
+  Eye Color                .55     }               .52     }
+  Hair Color                                       .57     - Average
+  Hair Curliness                                   .52
+  Head Measurements-three                          .55     -    "
+  Cephalic Index (Ratio between breadth and
+    length of cranium)                             .49
+
+We might give many others, but it is unnecessary. Notice that these
+parental and fraternal coefficients group about an average value of
+about .50 or slightly less. Similar coefficients have been worked out
+for other degrees of relationship; thus grandparental coefficients are
+about .25.
+
+Stated briefly, in less exact terms, these coefficients mean that,
+with respect to such traits as deviate from the group average, the
+resemblance of brothers and sisters to each other or of children to
+their parents is, on the whole, approximately mid-way between being
+complete in its deviation from the average and in not deviating at all
+from the average in the direction of the fraternal or parental
+characteristic. Grandchildren tend to deviate from the group average
+only about one fourth as far as their grandparents. It should be
+remembered that these are statistical and not individual statements,
+and that as many "exceptions" will be found in the direction of
+greater resemblance as in that of lesser resemblance.
+
+One of the present objects of the student of heredity, perhaps his
+chief object, is to be able to state the facts of human heredity in
+Mendelian terms, reducing many of the complex human traits to their
+simpler elements. Some of the chief objections to the use of the
+statistical formula of heredity are that apparently it is applicable
+only to the fluctuating variabilities of organisms; that it rarely
+takes into account the presence of (and therefore the heredity of)
+true variations or mutations--and we have seen that it is just these
+characters that are of the greatest value in evolution; and that
+heredity is after all fundamentally an individual relation which loses
+much of its definiteness and significance when we merge the individual
+in with a crowd. To some these seem fatal objections to any use of the
+statistical formula and it is certainly true that they greatly limit
+its value. But for the present at least the statistical statement of
+certain facts of heredity is still useful in this bio-social field. We
+may therefore use the statistical formulas of heredity as a kind of
+temporary expedient, enabling us to make statements regarding
+inheritance of certain characters in the group or class, pending the
+time when we shall be able to give the facts a more precise and more
+"final" expression in Mendelian formulas. Many human traits are indeed
+already known to Mendelize. Most of these are, however, "abnormal"
+traits or pathological conditions; we are still in the dark regarding
+the actually Mendelian or non-Mendelian inheritance of most of man's
+normal characteristics. We might enumerate the following Mendelizing
+human characters--eye color, color blindness, hair color and
+curliness, albinism (absence of pigment), brachydactylism (two joints
+instead of three in fingers and toes), syndactylism (union of certain
+fingers and toes), polydactylism (one or more additional fingers or
+toes in each hand or foot), keratosis (unusually thick and horny
+skin), hæmophilia (lack of clotting property in the blood),
+nightblindness (ability to see only in strong light--a retinal defect
+usually), certain forms of deaf mutism and cataract, imbecility,
+Huntington's chorea (a form of dementia).
+
+In observing Mendelian heredity we should bear in mind that a given
+character may be due either to the presence or to the absence of a
+"determiner" in the germ. Long hair such as is characteristic of many
+"Angora" varieties of the guinea pig and cat, for example, is believed
+to be due to the absence of a determiner which stops its growth. Blue
+eyes are due to the absence of a brown pigment determiner, _et
+cetera_. The presence or absence in the offspring of such characters
+as we know do Mendelize can be predicted when we know the parental
+history for two generations.
+
+Turning now to the inheritance of mental traits and including, of
+course, moral traits here as well, we find that we are almost entirely
+limited to the statistical statement of results. Pearson found upon
+examining data from a large number of school children, brothers and
+sisters, that the coefficients of heredity between them were the same
+as for their physical traits. His results are summarized in Figure 12.
+The physical traits measured were, in the order plotted in the
+figure--health, eye color, hair color, hair curliness, cephalic index
+(ratio between breadth and length of cranium), head length, head
+breadth, head height. These gave an average of .54 in brothers, .53 in
+sisters, and .51 in brothers and sisters. The psychical traits in
+order were--vivacity, assertiveness, introspection, popularity,
+conscientiousness, temper, ability, handwriting. The corresponding
+averages were .52, .51, .52.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Coefficients of heredity of physical
+    and psychical characters in school children. Characters
+    enumerated in text. (From Pearson.)]
+
+Galton's pioneer works on "Hereditary Genius," "English Men of
+Science," and "Natural Inheritance" showed with great clearness the
+fact of mental and moral heredity. Wood's recent extensive study of
+"Mental and Moral Heredity in Royalty" shows the same thing, although
+not all the results of these investigations are given in mathematical
+form. Little can be said regarding Mendelian heredity of mental traits
+because the psychologist has not yet told us how to analyze even the
+common and simpler psychic characters into their fundamental units;
+since we do not know what the mental hereditary units are, obviously
+we cannot work with them. Much of our knowledge in this field does not
+permit of very accurate summary, though pointing indisputably to the
+fact of mental inheritance in spite of the very great influences of
+training and education, environment and tradition, in moulding the
+mental and moral characteristics--influences with much greater effect
+here than in connection with physical characters.
+
+Galton studied the parentage of 207 Fellows of the Royal Society, a
+Fellowship which is a real mark of distinction. He assumed that one
+per cent of the individuals represented by the class from which his
+observations were drawn, that is the higher intellectual classes,
+might be expected to be "noteworthy": among the general population the
+average is really about one in 4,000 or one fortieth of one per cent.
+On the one per cent basis Galton found that Fellows of the Royal
+Society had noteworthy fathers with 24 times the frequency to be
+expected in the absence of heredity; noteworthy brothers with 31 times
+the expected frequency; noteworthy grandfathers 12 times; and so on
+through various grades of relationship.
+
+Schuster examined the class lists of Oxford covering a period of 92
+years and found that first honor men had 36 per cent first or second
+honor fathers; second honor men had 32 per cent first or second honor
+fathers; ordinary degree men 14 per cent first or second honor
+fathers. These percentages are far in excess of that to be
+expected--perhaps 0.5 per cent--on the assumption that ability is not
+inherited. Schuster also determined the coefficients of heredity
+between fathers and sons as regards intellectual ability, the evidence
+being class marks in Oxford and Harrow; these he found to be about .3
+for the parental relation and .4 for the fraternal. The intensity of
+heredity in many forms of insanity has been determined and this runs
+up much higher--.57 parental and .50 fraternal.
+
+It is clear I take it, that the fact of human heredity does not
+concern only physical traits but extends to psychical traits as well,
+and with about the same intensity. This fact has been found true also
+for still less analyzable characters such as length of life, fertility
+or infertility and the like, and again about the same intensity of
+resemblance is found.
+
+Human heredity is a fact then just as human variability is a fact. We
+have truly the raw materials and the means for racial improvement. The
+ability to direct the evolution of the human race makes this our
+supremest duty.
+
+The facts of human heredity can more easily be brought home to us by
+the examination of some actual pedigrees and family histories. We may
+look at a few representative cases which will serve to bring out some
+additional aspects of the significance to society of the demonstrated
+fact of heredity. In the examination of single family histories we
+should remember that a single pedigree may not accurately illustrate a
+general law of heredity--again, an individual case may belong to a
+group of cases without representing them fairly. Even in observing
+illustrations of Mendel's laws allowance has to be made for the
+variability due to "chance" meetings of germ cells. It is only when
+large numbers of individuals are observed that the typical Mendelian
+fractions and ratios can be strictly observed. It must be borne in
+mind then that the histories given below illustrate the nature of the
+facts of heredity rather than the laws of heredity. Some special
+cautions in the interpretation of certain pedigrees will be suggested
+in particular cases. Many of the figures are taken from the extremely
+valuable "Treasury of Human Inheritance," now being published by the
+Eugenics Laboratory of the University of London. In these figures and
+some others a uniform series of symbols is used. Successive horizontal
+lines designated by Roman numerals indicate generations; within a
+single generation the individuals are numbered consecutively simply
+for purposes of reference. The meaning of the more common symbols is
+as shown in Table IV. We may first consider a few pedigrees showing
+the heredity of physical abnormalities or defects.
+
+                              TABLE IV.
+
+  _Symbols used in Pedigrees. As adopted by the Galton Eugenics
+                             Laboratory._
+
+  [Symbol] Male and female respectively, not possessing the trait
+           under consideration.
+  [Symbol] Male and female possessing the trait under consideration.
+  [Symbol] Unknown sex--normal or affected.
+  [Symbol] Trait incompletely developed.
+  [Symbol] Neither presence nor absence of trait can be affirmed.
+  [Symbol] With a deformity or disease of special character which
+           may possibly be associated with that under consideration.
+  [Symbol] Twins.
+  [Symbol] Indicates number of children.
+  [Symbol] Marriage.
+  [Symbol] Number of children unknown.
+  [Symbol] Number and character of children unknown.
+  _S. P._  _Sine prole._ (No offspring.)
+
+Fig. 13 illustrates a family history where brachydactylism (an
+abnormality of the digits commonly called shortfingeredness, due to
+the lack of one joint in each digit) is present and frequently
+associated with dwarfism. We may describe this case rather fully
+because it illustrates nicely the heredity of a trait according to the
+Mendelian formula. The parentage of the affected female (II, 1) who
+started this line is uncertain. The marriage was with a normal male
+whose parentage is unknown but evidently normal. This pair produced 11
+children, the character of 8 of whom is known; 4 were affected, 4
+unaffected, a Mendelian ratio resulting from the mating of a normal
+with a hybrid individual, the observed character dominating (i. e.,
+the abnormality appearing in the hybrid individuals). According to
+Mendelian laws, the normal offspring of affected hybrids when mated
+with normals should produce all normal offspring; this result is shown
+clearly through generations IV-VI, where no affected individuals are
+produced by two normal parents, although one or two of the
+grandparents were affected. Marriage of a normal person with one
+affected parent is fit because this individual is wholly without
+germinal determiners for this character. Marriage between a normal and
+an affected person is unfit (or it would be if the observed character
+were a serious defect) because approximately one half their offspring
+will be affected like the one parent. Thus in IV, 7-21, we see 12
+children from one such marriage, 7 of whom are affected, 5 unaffected.
+All of the 11 children of the 5 unaffected are normal, while of the 16
+children of the affected persons, all of whom that married at all
+married normal individuals, 9 were affected, 7 unaffected. Similar
+relations are found in generation VI, where the 9 affected persons in
+V married normals, producing 33 children, 15 of whom were affected, 18
+unaffected. Taking all the offspring of marriages between unaffected
+and affected (hybrid) persons through the four generations III-VI, we
+find 35 affected and 33 unaffected, with the condition of 3 unknown.
+There is no instance in this pedigree of the marriage of two affected
+persons, but such a marriage would be highly unfit (again in the case
+of a serious defect) because we know that all their offspring would be
+affected. Mating of two unaffected persons, even though each had one
+affected parent, would be fit because the offspring would all be
+unaffected, barring the possibility of a new variation or mutation to
+this character, which would be extremely unlikely. Such a pedigree as
+this illustrates very well how a knowledge of Mendelian heredity may
+be of the greatest value practically, in determining the fitness or
+unfitness of marriages in families where an abnormality or defect is
+known to occur. The course of the inheritance here illustrates the
+simplest form of Mendelism. We have already indicated that there are
+many other forms which we have not described and which we cannot
+undertake to describe here on account of their complexity; in such
+cases, however, it is still possible to predict with fair accuracy
+the characters of the offspring of parents whose history is known for
+one or two generations.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Family history showing
+    brachydactylism. Farabee's data. (From "Treasury of Human
+    Inheritance.")]
+
+The defect we have just been considering is dominant. Many defects are
+recessive, i. e., transmitted though not exhibited by a hybrid
+individual. Viewed from the standpoint of the character of the
+offspring, mating with such a person would be unfit only when both
+persons were similarly recessives. Such a chance similarity would be
+likely only in cases of blood relationship. Here lies the scientific
+basis for many of the legal restrictions against cousin marriage or
+the marriage of closer relatives, for here, although both persons may
+appear normal, the chances for latent ills appearing in the progeny in
+a pure and permanently fixed condition are greatly increased. Of
+course the same relation holds for characteristics which are not
+defects but really valuable traits. Marriage of cousins possessing
+valuable characters, whether apparent or not, might be allowed or
+encouraged as a means of rendering permanent a rare and valuable
+family trait which might otherwise be much less likely to become an
+established characteristic. Some discrimination should be exercised
+in the control, legal or otherwise, of such marriages.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Family history showing
+    polydactylism. (From "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")]
+
+Fig. 14 gives a brief pedigree of a family in which polydactylism
+occurs. This is a condition in which one or more additional or
+supernumerary fingers or toes are present in the extremities. The
+Mendelian character of the heredity of this defect is less clear than
+in the preceding, yet there are many indications that this is really
+an illustration of a complex Mendelian formula. Probably if the
+parentage of the individuals marrying into this family were known we
+should be able to give a complete formula. At any rate the pedigree
+illustrates the unfit character of the matings with affected persons,
+for in no instance has such a marriage resulted in the production of
+fewer than one half affected offspring.
+
+Fig. 15 illustrates a form of what is known as "split hand" or
+"lobster claw," where certain digits may be absent in the hands and
+feet. In this case all the digits are absent except the fifth. This is
+frequently associated with syndactylism or the fusion of the remaining
+digits into one or two groups. When present this usually affects all
+four extremities. Two pedigrees of this defect are illustrated in Fig.
+16. Here again we have a defect whose inheritance follows quite
+closely the Mendelian formula, although the character of the matings
+is not fully known; it is unnecessary to describe the details--the
+histories speak for themselves.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Mother and two daughters showing
+    "split hand." (From Pearson.)]
+
+Fig. 17 illustrates a pedigree of congenital cataract. This history is
+less satisfactory because the matings are given in only three
+instances. It is known from other data that this defect follows simple
+Mendelian laws. Normal individuals produce only normals, while
+affected persons produce one half or all affected offspring according
+to the character of the mating.
+
+Fig. 18 illustrates the heredity of another defect of the eye called
+night blindness. This is a retinal defect, the affected being able to
+see only in strong illumination. The particular form of the disease in
+this family resulted in total blindness later in life. Little is known
+definitely concerning the character of the matings; no mating is known
+to have been with an affected person and some are known to have been
+with unaffected. Of the 42 descendants of the first affected person
+only 6 are known to have been unaffected. Can there be any doubt
+regarding the unfitness of these matings? In generation III a single
+mating led to a family of 10 children _all_ affected by this serious
+defect, rendering them dependents.
+
+One of the most complete pedigrees of a defect on record is given in
+condensed form in Fig. 19. This summarizes the extraordinarily
+complete data of Nettleship covering nine, and in one branch ten,
+consecutive generations. The defect is another form of night blindness
+as it existed in a French family. The inheritance is obviously
+Mendelian: no affected persons are produced by unaffected parents,
+although their own brothers or sisters or one parent may have been
+affected. The pedigree gives the history of 2,040 persons, all
+descended from one affected individual. Of these 135 were known to
+have been affected, and all were children of affected parentage. Of
+the total number of progeny of affected persons mated with normals,
+130 were reported as affected and 242 as unaffected.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Two family histories showing split
+    foot. (From "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")]
+
+We may consider next the hereditary history of some forms of nervous
+defect, the exact nature of the causes of which can be less definitely
+stated than in all of the preceding instances of defect. Fig. 20 gives
+a brief history of the heredity of Huntington's chorea--a form of
+insanity which here resulted in the death of all but one of the
+affected persons in the first four generations; the fifth generation
+is the present and is incomplete. Although the matings were with
+normals in every case, yet in four of the eight marriages all of the
+offspring were affected. From one affected male 23 affected persons
+descended in four generations and their multiplication is still going
+on. There can be no doubt as to the unfitness of marriage into such a
+family.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Family history showing a form of
+    night blindness. Character of matings incompletely known.
+    (Data from Bordley.)]
+
+A very complete family history showing deaf-mutism is given in Fig.
+21. It cannot be said that in every case here the defect is innate,
+i. e., hereditary, and it is not known that the cause of the defect
+was the same in every family concerned, for deaf-mutism may result
+from several different causes. In most cases in this history, however,
+the defect behaves like a Mendelian dominant. In certain other cases
+it is clearly known to follow the Mendelian formula. Such pedigrees
+as this show how dangerous it is to marry into a family in which this
+defect exists.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Family history showing a form of
+    night blindness. (Condensed form of Nettleship's data.)]
+
+Goddard has recently published several family histories showing
+feeble-mindedness. One of the most significant of these--significant
+both socially and eugenically--is summarized here in Fig. 22. Of this
+Goddard writes: "Here we have a feeble-minded woman [IV, 3] who has
+had three husbands (including one 'who was not her husband'), and the
+result has been nothing but feeble-minded children. The story may be
+told as follows:
+
+"This woman was a handsome girl, apparently having inherited some
+refinement from her mother, although her father was a feeble-minded,
+alcoholic brute. Somewhere about the age of seventeen or eighteen she
+went out to do housework in a family in one of the towns of this State
+[New Jersey]. She soon became the mother of an illegitimate child. It
+was born in an almshouse to which she fled after she had been
+discharged from the home where she had been at work. After this,
+charitably disposed people tried to do what they could for her, giving
+her a home for herself and her child in return for the work which she
+could do. However, she soon appeared in the same condition. An effort
+was then made to discover the father of this second child, and when he
+was found to be a drunken, feeble-minded epileptic living in the
+neighborhood, in order to save the legitimacy of the child, her
+friends [_sic_] saw to it that a marriage ceremony took place. Later
+another feeble-minded child was born to them. Then the whole family
+secured a home with an unmarried farmer in the neighborhood. They
+lived there together until another child was forthcoming which the
+husband refused to own. When, finally, the farmer acknowledged this
+child to be his, the same good friends [_sic_] interfered, went into
+the courts and procured a divorce from the husband, and had the woman
+married to the father of the expected fourth child. This proved to be
+feeble-minded, and they have had four other feeble-minded children,
+making eight in all, born of this woman. There have also been one
+child stillborn and one miscarriage.
+
+"As will be seen from the chart, this woman had four feeble-minded
+brothers and sisters [IV, 6, 10, 15, 16]. These are all married and
+have children. The older of the two sisters had a child by her own
+father, when she was thirteen years old. The child died at about six
+years of age. This woman has since married. The two brothers have each
+at least one child of whose mental condition nothing is known. The
+other sister married a feeble-minded man and had three children. Two
+of these are feeble-minded and the other died in infancy. There were
+six other brothers and sisters that died in infancy."
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Family history showing Huntington's
+    chorea. Last generation incomplete. (Data from Hamilton.)]
+
+The paternal ancestry of this unfortunate woman is hardly less
+interesting, as may be seen from the diagram. All told, this family
+history, as far as it is known, includes 59 persons; the mental
+character of 12 of these is unknown; 10 died in infancy or before
+their characteristics were known; of the remaining 37, 30 were
+feeble-minded.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Family history showing deaf-mutism.
+    (From "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")]
+
+Turning now to defects of other kinds, an interesting history is
+illustrated in Fig. 23. Here a single individual fatally affected with
+angio-neurotic oedema gave rise, in four completed generations, to
+113 persons, 43 of whom were affected. In 11 this disease was the
+direct cause of death. The Mendelian character of the heredity here
+can be neither asserted nor denied. In generations II-V matings
+between normal and affected gave 42 affected and 35 unaffected
+offspring.
+
+Fig. 24 gives a brief family history showing pulmonary tuberculosis.
+In the history given susceptibility to this disease behaves as a
+Mendelian dominant. We cannot as yet say whether this is or is not a
+general rule. In describing the heredity of diseases primarily due to
+infection, one or two important cautions must be observed. Of course
+the source of the infection cannot be "hereditary," and apparently it
+is only in comparatively few instances that infection occurs during
+fetal life. To some infections certain persons are susceptible, others
+are not; some when susceptible are capable of developing immunity,
+others are not. When an infection is of such character and prevalence
+that practically all persons in approximately similar environments of
+a given character are infected, susceptibility or the power of
+developing immunity will determine whether or not an individual will
+exhibit the disease caused by the infective agent. Practically all
+persons living in the denser communities are infected with
+tuberculosis; those who are susceptible and incapable of developing
+immunity succumb, the insusceptible and those developing immunity do
+not. These conditions are heritable; but in speaking of the heredity
+of such a disease as tuberculosis it should be clear that the heredity
+concerned is really that of susceptibility and the power of developing
+immunity. Yet the person who is really susceptible can, by taking
+sufficient precaution, escape serious infection, and thus the result
+for that person would be the same as if he were insusceptible, but his
+offspring would have to take similar precautions if they were to
+escape the disease.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 22. Family history showing
+    feeble-mindedness. Data from Goddard. _A_, alcoholic; _d.i._,
+    died in infancy; _E_, epileptic; _ill._, illegitimate; _in._,
+    incest; *, same individual as _III_, 6; _n.m._, not married;
+    _S_, sexual pervert; _T_, tuberculous.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Family history showing
+    angio-neurotic oedema. (From "Treasury of Human
+    Inheritance.")]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Family history showing tuberculosis.
+    (Data from Klebs, after Whetham in "Treasury of Human
+    Inheritance.")]
+
+We cannot speak of heredity in connection with diseases to which all
+are susceptible and incapable of developing immunity. The presence or
+absence of such a disease is determined solely by the presence or
+absence of infection. Many physical and mental defects result from
+infection as the primary cause. If the infection is one to which all
+exposed are susceptible and incapable of developing immunity we cannot
+speak of the defect as in any way hereditary; if the infection is one
+to which some are susceptible, others not, to which some can develop
+immunity, others cannot, then we may speak of the defect as
+hereditary. Thus certain forms of blindness or insanity are due
+primarily to gonorrheal or syphilitic infection, insusceptibility to
+which is rare or unknown. Such defects cannot be considered as
+affording evidence of heredity though they reappear in successive
+generations.
+
+In general the subject of the heredity of immunity and susceptibility
+forms one of the most important eugenic aspects of this whole subject.
+In a few cases it is known that immunity or insusceptibility to
+specific forms of infection is a unit character which follows
+Mendelian laws in heredity. It can be added to races or subtracted
+from them and pure bred immune races built up. So far this has not
+been demonstrated for man. There is some circumstantial evidence that
+immunity to specific forms of infection has been a great, although
+hitherto neglected, factor in man's evolution, and even in the history
+of his civilization and conquest. It is at once obvious that here is a
+great field for the common labor of the students of heredity and of
+medicine and of Eugenics.
+
+Fig. 25 illustrates a family history of infertility. This is
+apparently hereditary, but before that could be asserted definitely to
+be so here or in any similar case, we should know that the infertility
+were not the result of an infection to which immunity is rare or
+unknown. That infertility is really hereditary in this instance is
+indicated, first, by the fact that the person marked A later, by a
+second marriage into fertile stock, had a large family, and second, by
+the fact that the individual B and his child by marriage into fertile
+stocks produced in the last generation again a large family and so
+saved this whole family from extinction.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Family history showing infertility.
+    (From Whetham.)]
+
+Before leaving the subject of the heredity of the kinds of traits we
+have been using as illustrations, we should add just a word. It is
+often objected that one cannot properly speak of the heredity of such
+general things as "insanity" or "deaf-mutism" or "blindness" or "heart
+disease," because each of these includes a great variety of specific
+forms of these disorders which cannot strictly, medically, be
+compared. But the student of heredity replies that when he speaks of
+the heredity of insanity or heart disease, that is often just what
+he means. He means that often no particular form of these defects is
+necessarily strictly heritable as such, but that in a family there may
+be a general instability of nervous system or circulatory system,
+which may take any one of several possible specific forms, the form
+actually appearing depending upon particular conditions which are
+frequently environmental and beyond determination. In some cases
+specific forms of disorder are actually heritable as such.
+
+Such an inclusive thing as "ability" may depend upon many different
+specific conditions. Yet there are families in which persons of
+exceptional ability are unusually frequent. The fact that persons of
+ability are more frequent in certain families than in the general
+population of the same social class and with about the same
+opportunity for the demonstration of inherent ability, gives evidence
+of its heredity, although we may not be able to summarize the facts
+under any particular law but must adhere to their statistical
+expression.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Family history showing ability.
+    (From Whetham.)]
+
+Figs. 26 and 27 illustrate two such pedigrees of ability. In each of
+these histories there is also a line of "unsoundness" the descent of
+which it is interesting to trace. It is instructive to compare here
+the progeny of matings of different kinds. In generation IV of Fig.
+26, the 9th and 10th persons are brother and sister. The sister was of
+considerable ability and married into a family of ability, producing 8
+offspring, 5 of whom were able. The brother was a "normal" person and
+married a similar individual, producing 10 "normal" children. It would
+be interesting to know the details regarding these two large families
+of cousins. Another interesting comparison is found in this pedigree.
+The four able brothers in generation III, coming from a stock of
+demonstrated ability, married women of undemonstrated ability and all
+told had 13 children (IV) of whom only 3 showed ability and all of
+these were in a single family. In this family of the fourth brother
+two of the able members married into able families, and among their 11
+children (second and fifth families in generation V) 8 showed ability;
+the third able member of this family, however, married as her uncles
+had, a person not known as able, and none of their 6 children showed
+unusual ability (sixth family in generation V). Fig. 27 affords other
+illustrations of this same kind. Thus in generation III the 5th and
+7th persons are able cousins of able parentage. The former married a
+normal and 1 of their 5 children showed ability; the latter married a
+person of ability and 5 of their 8 children showed ability. In both
+pedigrees the "careers" of those in the last generation are partly
+incomplete.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Family history showing ability.
+    Paternal ancestry of family shown in Fig. 26. (From
+    Whetham.)]
+
+In discussing pedigrees of ability it should be borne in mind that the
+larger proportion of able males as compared with females is hardly
+significant for the study of heredity; it may merely reflect the
+unfortunate fact that women have not had the same opportunity to
+demonstrate inherent ability as have men; or it may evidence the still
+more unfortunate fact that the distinguished achievements of able
+women have not been socially recognized as such and recorded as they
+have been for the other sex.
+
+Fig. 28 gives an interesting, though abbreviated, pedigree of three
+very able and well-known families. In this history only persons whose
+ability is in science are marked as able. Charles Darwin is the third
+individual in the third generation. His cousin, Francis Galton, the
+founder of Eugenics, is the next to the last person in the same
+generation.
+
+Many similar cases of the unusual frequency of individuals of musical
+or religious ability in certain families have been published by Galton
+and are well known. "As long as ability marries ability, a large
+proportion of able offspring is a certainty, and ability is a more
+valuable heirloom in a family than mere material wealth, which,
+moreover, will follow ability sooner or later."
+
+We might contrast with such families as have been recorded in the
+three preceding figures some well-known families at the other pole of
+society. As an interesting example we have the family described by
+Poellmann. This was established by two daughters of a woman drunkard
+who in five or six generations produced all told 834 descendants. The
+histories of 709 of these are known. Of the 709, 107 were of
+illegitimate birth; 64 were inmates of almshouses; 162 were
+professional beggars; 164 were prostitutes and 17 procurers; 76 had
+served sentences in prison aggregating 116 years; 7 were condemned for
+murder. This family is still a fertile one and the cost to the State,
+i. e., the taxpayers, already a million and a quarter dollars, is
+still increasing.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 28.--History (condensed and incomplete)
+    of three markedly able families. (From Whetham.)]
+
+One of the best known families of this type is the so-called "Jukes"
+family of New York State so carefully investigated by Dugdale. This
+family is traced from the five daughters of a lazy and irresponsible
+fisherman born in 1720. In five generations this family numbered about
+1,200 persons, including nearly 200 who married into it. The histories
+of 540 of these are well known and about 500 more are partly known.
+This family history was easier to follow than are some others because
+there was very little marriage with the foreign-born--"a distinctively
+American family." Of these 1,200 idle, ignorant, lewd, vicious,
+pauper, diseased, imbecile, insane, and criminal specimens of
+humanity, about 300 died in infancy. Of the remaining 900, 310 were
+professional paupers in almshouses a total of 2,300 years (at whose
+expense?); 440 were physically wrecked by their own diseased
+wickedness; more than half of the women were prostitutes; 130 were
+convicted criminals; 60 were habitual thieves; 7 were murderers. Not
+one had even a common school education. Only 20 learned a trade, and
+10 of these learned it in State prison! They have cost the State over
+a million and a quarter dollars, and the cost is still going on. Who
+pays this bill? What right had an intelligent and humane society to
+allow these poor unfortunates to be born into the kind of lives they
+had to lead, not by choice but by the disadvantage of birth? Darwin
+wrote long ago "... except in the case of man himself, hardly anyone
+is so ignorant as to allow his worst animals to breed."
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 29.--History of _Die Familie Zero_.
+    (Condensed from Jörger's data, partly after Davenport.)]
+
+Probably the most complete family history of this kind ever worked out
+is that of the "Familie Zero"--a Swiss family whose pedigree has been
+recently unraveled in a splendid manner by Jörger. In the seventeenth
+century this family divided into three lines; two of these have ever
+since remained valued and highly respected families, while the third
+has descended to the depths. This third line was established by a
+man who was himself the result of two generations of intermarriage,
+the second tainted with insanity. He was of roving disposition, and in
+the Valla Fontana found an Italian vagrant wife of vicious character.
+Their son inherited fully his parental traits and himself married a
+member of a German vagabond family--Marcus, known to this day as a
+vagabond family. This marriage sealed the fate of their hundreds of
+descendants. This pair had seven children, all characterized by
+vagabondage, thievery, drunkenness, mental and physical defect, and
+immorality. Their history for the three succeeding generations is
+incompletely summarized in Fig. 29. In 1905, 190 members of this
+family were known to be living, and probably many living are unknown
+on account of illegitimate birth.
+
+In 1861 a sympathetic and charitable priest attempted to save from
+their obvious fate many of these "Zero" children and others who
+resided in and near his village, by placing them in industrious and
+respectable families to be reared under more favorable auspices. The
+attempt failed utterly, for every one of the "Zero" children either
+ran away or was enticed away by his relatives.
+
+The blame for such an atrocity as this family or the Jukes does not
+rest with these persons themselves; it must be placed squarely upon
+the shoulders and consciences of the intelligent members of society
+who have permitted these predetermined degenerates to be brought into
+the world, and who are to-day taking no broadly sympathetic view of
+their treatment by exercising preventive measures. _Laissez faire?_
+
+At the risk of easing the conscience, let us finally return to the
+other side of society and look at a summarized statement of the
+Edwards Family given by Boies and drawn from Winship's account of the
+descendants of Jonathan Edwards. "1,394 of his descendants were
+identified in 1900, of whom 295 were college graduates; 13 presidents
+of our greatest colleges; 65 professors in colleges, besides many
+principals of other important educational institutions; 60 physicians,
+many of whom were eminent; 100 and more clergymen, missionaries, or
+theological professors; 75 were officers in the army and navy; 60
+prominent authors and writers, by whom 135 books of merit were
+written and published and 18 important periodicals edited; 33 American
+States and several foreign countries, and 92 American cities and many
+foreign cities, have profited by the beneficent influence of their
+eminent activity; 100 and more were lawyers, of whom one was our most
+eminent professor of law; 30 were judges; 80 held public office, of
+whom one was Vice President of the United States; 3 were United States
+Senators; several were governors, members of Congress, framers of
+State constitutions, mayors of cities, and ministers to foreign
+courts; one was president of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company; 15
+railroads, many banks, insurance companies, and large industrial
+enterprises have been indebted to their management. Almost if not
+every department of social progress and of the public weal has felt
+the impulse of this healthy and long-lived family. It is not known
+that any one of them was ever convicted of crime."
+
+The serious consideration of bodies of facts like those contained in
+some of these pedigrees leads every thoughtful and sympathetic, every
+humanely minded, human being to ask--What _can_ we _do_ about it? The
+display of such conditions stimulates us to measures of relief. It is
+greatly to be regretted that the honest desire to do good often leads
+to the performance of ill-considered or unconsidered acts which may
+result in positive injury to the constitution of society, or at any
+rate at best merely in the amelioration of the immediate situation
+without reference to ultimate profit or penalty, or to the necessity
+for interminable amelioration. Such relief leaves out of account the
+fact that modifications are not heritable--not permanent, practically
+without effect in the long run. "Good intentions" have a certain
+well-known value as paving material, but not as building material.
+
+The science of Eugenics includes not only the study of the data in
+this field, but further the formulation of definite courses of
+procedure; but it insists that these be based upon scientific
+principles and not upon emotional states. Philanthropic relief has
+become a serious business--is becoming a science. Eugenics is a
+science and it aims to put the human race upon such a level that the
+need for philanthropic relief will be less and continually less. We
+shall then be able to devote more of the resources of our time and
+money and energy to the production of permanent results. The Eugenist
+pleads in this work for more sympathetic consideration of the problems
+of relief--for a sympathy which is wider, which transcends the
+individual person and reaches the social group, even the nation or
+race. For just as a society is something more than the sum of its
+individual parts when taken separately, so the consideration of all
+the component individuals of a society taken separately and by
+themselves, results in something less than social consideration. Again
+"Charity refers to the individual; Statesmanship to the nation;
+Eugenics cares for both."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+What, then, does the Eugenist propose to do? What is the eugenic
+program? Eugenics is not an academic matter--not an armchair science.
+It is intensely practical--so very practical, indeed, that the
+Eugenist hesitates to make many suggestions of a definite nature
+looking directly and immediately toward specific action. Something
+must precede action. The Eugenist has been ridiculed as one
+responsible for the absurd schemes proposed in his name, perhaps
+seriously, by the unscientific but well-intentioned sympathizer. Many
+persons have been led to object to what they believed to be a eugenic
+program which is not a eugenic program at all. Thus the willingness of
+some to offer adverse criticism of the subject and its aims has grown
+largely out of a common misconception of the matter and has led Galton
+to say, "As in most other cases of novel views, the wrongheadedness of
+objectors to Eugenics has been curious." As a scientist the Eugenist
+realizes clearly and fully that his new science is in a very early
+stage of its development. It is just entering upon what are the first
+stages in the history of any science, namely, the periods of the
+formulation of elementary ideas and the collection of facts. There are
+certain groups of facts, however, of glaring significance and
+undoubted meaning, and upon these as a basis the Eugenist already has
+a few, a very few, concrete suggestions for eugenic practice. In
+conclusion, then, we may outline tentatively and briefly a
+conservative eugenic program somewhat as follows:
+
+First of all there must be an extensive collection of exact data--of
+the facts regarding all the varied aspects of racial history and
+evolution. These facts must be collected with great care and under the
+strictest scientific conditions. In this matter particularly must we
+"desert verbal discussion for statistical facts." Figures can't lie,
+but liars can figure. What we need first of all is the accumulation of
+masses of cold, hard facts, uncolored by any point of view, untinged
+by any propaganda: facts regarding the net fertility of all classes;
+facts regarding the racial effects of all sorts of environmental and
+occupational conditions; facts regarding variability and variation in
+the race; facts regarding human heredity of normal and pathological
+conditions, of physical and psychical traits. We have merely scratched
+the surface of the great masses of such data to be had for the
+looking. As Davenport has recently put it in his valuable essay on
+"Eugenics"--
+
+"While the acquisition of new data is desirable, much can be done by
+studying the extant records of institutions. The amount of such data
+is enormous. They lie hidden in records of our numerous charity
+organizations, our 42 institutions for the feeble-minded, our 115
+schools and homes for the deaf and blind, our 350 hospitals for the
+insane, our 1,200 refuge homes, our 1,300 prisons, our 1,500 hospitals
+and our 2,500 almshouses. Our great insurance companies and our
+college gymnasiums have tens of thousands of records of the characters
+of human blood lines. These records should be studied, their
+hereditary data sifted out and ... placed in their proper relations"
+that we may learn of "the great strains of human protoplasm that are
+coursing through the country." Thus shall we learn "not only the
+method of heredity of human characteristics but we shall identify
+those lines which supply our families of great men: ... We shall also
+learn whence come our 300,000 insane and feeble-minded, our 160,000
+blind or deaf, the 2,000,000 that are annually cared for by our
+hospitals and Homes, our 80,000 prisoners and the thousands of
+criminals that are not in prison, and our 100,000 paupers in
+almshouses and out.
+
+"This three or four per cent of our population is a fearful drag on
+our civilization. Shall we as an intelligent people, proud of our
+control of nature in other respects, do nothing but vote more taxes or
+be satisfied with the great gifts and bequests that philanthropists
+have made for the support of the delinquent, defective, and dependent
+classes? Shall we not rather take the steps that scientific study
+dictates as necessary to dry up the springs that feed the torrent of
+defective and degenerate protoplasm?
+
+"Greater tasks than those contemplated in the broadest scheme of the
+Eugenics committee have been carried out in this country. If only one
+half of one per cent of the 30 million dollars annually spent on
+hospitals, 20 millions on insane asylums, 20 millions for almshouses,
+13 millions on prisons, and 5 millions on the feeble-minded, deaf and
+blind were spent on the study of the bad germ plasm that makes
+necessary the annual expenditure of nearly 100 millions in the care of
+its produce we might hope to learn just how it is being reproduced and
+the best way to diminish its further spread. A _new_ plague that
+rendered four per cent of our population, chiefly at the most
+productive age, not only incompetent, but a burden costing 100
+million dollars yearly to support, would instantly attract universal
+attention, and millions would be forthcoming for its study as they
+have been for the study of cancer. But we have become so used to
+crime, disease and degeneracy that we take them as necessary evils.
+That they were, in the world's ignorance, is granted. That they must
+remain so, is denied."
+
+Of course one should not jump from this to the conclusion that the
+fact of heredity is responsible for all of this defect. Disease is so
+often the result of infections to which none is immune, and defect is
+frequently the result of such disease. Warbasse has recently stated
+that "At least one fourth of our public institutions for caring for
+defectives is made necessary by venereal disease." Doubtless an
+appreciable share of this fourth is the result of hereditary
+tendencies, the expression of which gives the opportunity for such
+infection. Here as elsewhere no single factor accounts for all of the
+facts, although when, as the result of the increase of knowledge, we
+shall become able to make more definite statements, we no doubt shall
+find that heredity is the most important single factor in the
+disgraceful prevalence of crime, disease, and defect in our
+communities: indeed this is practically demonstrated to-day. These are
+questions of the most fundamental importance in our national
+life-history: our only "hope of perpetuity" lies in the right solution
+of such problems. And the crying need is for facts, always more facts.
+
+The Galton Laboratory for Eugenics is already doing much in this
+direction and is publishing in the "Treasury of Human Inheritance"
+scores of human pedigrees. An agency is already in operation in this
+country. The American Breeders Association has appointed a Committee
+and Sub-Committees under highly competent leaders for the collection
+of exact data of human heredity upon a large scale. There is
+opportunity for everyone to help in this work in connection with the
+Eugenics Record Office already referred to.
+
+The second great element in the eugenic program is Research. It is not
+enough to collect the known facts; new facts must be forthcoming. We
+cannot, perhaps, undertake definite experiments upon human evolution,
+but we can and must take advantage of the wealth of experiment which
+Nature is carrying out around us and before our eyes could we but
+learn to read her results. We need to know more about the process of
+differential fertility, of human variability, of the effects of
+Nurture as well as of the conditions of Nature.
+
+We do know pretty well the effects, upon the individual, of training,
+education, good and ill housing conditions and conditions of labor, of
+disease, alcoholism, underfeeding. We need now to know, not to guess
+at, the effects of these things upon the race, upon human stock. A
+mere beginning has been made here in the way of a scientific treatment
+of this question, although many persons have their minds already made
+up, firmly and fully, as to the "effects of the environment." But all
+that we have guessed here may be wrong.
+
+The discussion of this subject is filled with pitfalls. The common
+form of the query as to which is of the greater importance, "heredity
+or environment," in determining individual characteristics betrays a
+completely erroneous view of what heredity is, and of the organism's
+relation to its environment. The living organism reacts to its
+environment at every stage of its existence, whether as an egg, an
+embryo, or an adult. In this reaction both factors are essential, the
+environment as essential as the organism. The result of this continued
+reaction is the development on the part of the organism of certain
+physiological processes and structural conditions or characteristics.
+The nature of these resulting states, depending upon the two
+factors--organism and environment--can be changed by altering either
+factor. In general, organisms develop under pretty much the same
+conditions as their parents and general ancestry did, and their
+germinal substances are directly continuous, and therefore very
+similar. Consequently, primary organic structure and environing
+conditions of development being alike through successive generations,
+the results of their interaction are alike. This alikeness is
+heredity--the fact of similarity between parent and offspring. The
+usually indefinite question as to the effect of the environment
+ordinarily has a real meaning however, and this is, or should be,
+whether the alteration of particular elements of the environment, the
+presence of special, unusual factors which cannot be said to be
+"normally" present--whether these produce any effect upon the organism
+which is truly heritable.
+
+This is in reality the old question of the "inheritance of acquired
+characteristics," or, in a word, of modifications--a question which
+has been debated heatedly and at length. And as in many similar
+instances the number of essays and the length and heat of the debate
+have been inversely as the number and clearness of the pertinent
+facts. The large majority of biologists have long felt that the great
+bulk of the evidence was on one side, namely, that acquired traits
+were not heritable. At the same time they have recognized the
+difficulty of explaining certain apparently demonstrated contradictory
+facts. Some recent experimental work has largely cleared away the
+theoretical difficulties in this field, and the present status of the
+old and really fundamental question may be stated as follows: External
+conditions--climate, temperature, moisture, nutritional conditions,
+results of unusual activity, and the like--incidences of the
+environment, undoubtedly produce effects upon the structure and
+behavior of the organism, but these effects must be clearly grouped
+into two distinct classes.
+
+In the first place the effect of "external" conditions may be to bring
+about a reaction between the _bodily_ parts affected and the
+environing conditions. Here the body alone is modified and not the
+germinal substance for the next generation within this body. Such
+responses to environing conditions do not affect nor involve the
+structure of the germ, and are therefore unrepresented in that series
+of reactions that result in the production of an individual of the
+next generation. In this class are found most of the instances of
+"functional modification" or acquired characteristics. In this
+category belong most of the stock illustrations--from the blacksmith's
+arm and the pianist's fingers, to the giraffe's neck and the fox's
+cunning. Here also belong the results of training and education; we
+can train and educate brain cells but not germ cells.
+
+It is characteristic of most of these bodily reactions to external
+conditions that they are adaptive; that is, when a body reacts to
+such a condition it does so by undergoing a change which makes the
+organism better fitted to the new condition--better able to exist. The
+increased keenness of vision, the strengthened muscle, the thickened
+fur--all such changes meet new or unusual demands in such a way that
+the organism has better chances of survival than it would have had
+unmodified.
+
+But in the second place there are certain environmental circumstances
+which do affect the structure of the germinal substance within the
+body of an organism. An unusually high temperature acting at a certain
+period in the life-history may bring about a change in the color of
+insects which is heritable--i. e., racial; but such a change results
+from the action of temperature upon the germ directly and not alone
+upon the body, which then itself affects the germ. It is essential to
+recognize that in all such cases it is not the structural change in
+the body that affects the germ, but it is the external condition
+itself that affects the germ directly. This is not the half of a hair;
+it is an extremely important and significant difference. The effects
+of this kind of action are not visible until the generation following
+that acted upon. They become expressed in the bodies of the organisms
+developed from the affected germs.
+
+It is characteristic of such changes as these that they may not,
+usually do not, have an adaptive relation to the condition bringing
+about the change. There is no correspondence between the bodily and
+the germinal modifications resulting from the action of the same
+condition. Furthermore, there seems to be no adaptive relation between
+the general character of the germinal disturbance and the
+environmental disturbance. Rarely some of the organismal characters
+resulting from such germinal modification may be in the direction of
+greater adaptedness; usually they are neutral or in the direction of
+utter unfitness.
+
+But such effects are heritable, whatever their nature with respect to
+adaptedness, and it becomes therefore very important to find out what
+are the conditions that may thus disturb the normal structure of the
+germ. Little more than a beginning has been made here and practically
+nothing can be said definitely with reference to the human organism
+in this respect. Enough is known, however, to make it clear that it is
+only rarely indeed that external conditions can thus affect the
+germinal structure. In most cases the effects of the incidence of
+environment are purely bodily. A most fruitful field for eugenic
+investigation is open here.
+
+One of the first problems to be attacked from this point of view is
+that of the racial (i. e., heritable) effects of such poisons as
+alcohol. It is frequently said, for instance, that some of the effects
+of alcoholism are the weakened, epileptic, or feeble-minded conditions
+of the offspring, who are also particularly liable to disease and
+infection. It can hardly be said that this is as yet thoroughly
+demonstrated. On account of the importance of this question we might
+call specific attention to some recent investigations of the problem
+of the racial influence of alcohol. The effects of alcohol upon the
+individual are fairly well known, although still a matter for debate
+in some quarters. But this is not as important eugenically as the
+possible effect upon the offspring of the use and abuse of alcohol by
+the parents. An investigation has been carried on recently through
+the Galton Laboratory for National Eugenics directed toward
+ascertaining the precise relation between alcoholism in parents and
+the height, weight, general health, and intelligence of their
+children. It was found to be perfectly true that alcoholism and
+tuberculosis show a high degree of association; but considering the
+nondrinking members of the same community just the same high frequency
+of tuberculosis was found. And the presence of alcoholism among
+parents was found to be practically without effect upon the height and
+weight of their offspring. "These results are certainly startling and
+rather upset one's preconceived ideas, but it is perhaps a consolation
+that to the obvious and visible miseries of the children arising from
+drink, lowered intelligence and physique are not added."
+
+The difficulties surrounding investigation and the interpretation of
+the results of investigation in this particular field are evidenced by
+the fact that these results have been adversely criticised, on the one
+hand, because "alcoholism" was taken to mean the continued moderate
+use of alcohol, and on the other because "alcoholism" was taken to
+mean only the occasional excessive abuse of alcohol. Much of the
+confusion surrounding the discussion of the racial effects of alcohol
+grows out of the underlying confusion of statistical and individual
+statements. It may be left open, then, whether this result from the
+Galton Laboratory is clearly demonstrated and whether the basis of
+investigation was sufficiently broad to make the facts of general
+applicability.
+
+The frequent association between alcoholism and certain forms of
+insanity is sometimes taken as evidence of a racial effect. Here again
+we find the question really left open when we appeal to facts taken in
+large numbers. In a few cases it seems to have been demonstrated that
+saturation of the bodily tissues with alcohol affects directly the
+structure of the germ cells formed at that time, and that this effect
+is seen in physical and mental disturbances of the offspring derived
+from such germ cells, and thus becomes hereditary or racial. But these
+results, like those mentioned above, need confirmation. The impairment
+of the child _in utero_ through maternal overindulgence in alcohol
+would not necessarily denote any corresponding germinal (i. e.,
+racial) effect.
+
+It is often the case that alcoholic excess, like other forms of
+excess, may be an indication of a lack of complete mental balance or
+sanity, sure to have become expressed in some form. The lack of
+balance in the offspring of such persons is a simple case of heredity
+and not the result of the parental use of alcohol. The alcoholism of
+the parent was a result, an indication, and not a cause. There may be
+instances of the direct action of external conditions upon the germ,
+and in a very true sense the body is a part of the external
+environment of the germ, but to say that such an action has been
+demonstrated for alcohol is premature. It should be easily possible to
+get real evidence upon this and similar questions. But at present it
+is safest to leave the whole question of the racial effects of alcohol
+entirely open pending more and better evidence.
+
+To summarize, then, we may say that the evidence for an inherited
+effect of the misuse of alcohol is not as clear as one might wish; it
+may be true. There is the greatest need for the careful scientific
+investigation of this and allied problems. Much of the evidence here
+is not of the kind that can be used to prove things--it consists
+largely of the demonstration of the fact of association rather than of
+causation. In order to show that a changed environment has produced a
+change in the innate characters of the organisms affected it must be
+demonstrated that the organismal change continues to be inherited
+after the environment has again become what it was originally, and as
+yet this has not been done. Indeed when tested in this way it is found
+that a permanently heritable alteration can thus be produced only
+rarely and by environmental changes of the most profound character.
+
+Research in another direction is greatly needed. We should examine and
+reëxamine current as well as proposed social practices and reforms
+from the racial point of view. We should know before going much
+farther whether the extensive social improvements that are annually
+effected are to any considerable degree racially permanent. We should
+investigate not only the racial effects of the unfavorable social
+conditions themselves, but also the racial effects of the measures
+directed toward the relief of such conditions. It is conceivable that
+measures of relief may be practically without permanent effect or even
+racially detrimental. It would seem that the social worker and
+philanthropist should welcome any biologically fundamental truths
+touching these questions, and yet it is curiously true that there are
+some such persons who seem to prefer not to know the whole truth here,
+perhaps because they fear it may disclose the unwelcome fact that much
+of their effort has resulted in amelioration rather than in
+correction. It should be remembered that simple relief is well worth
+while, even though often without resulting racial benefit. When it is
+not actually detrimental racially, relief is an economic, social, and
+moral duty. The Eugenist, by disclosing the fact that racial effects
+can actually be accomplished, enlarges rather than diminishes the
+opportunities for relief and his knowledge should be welcomed and use
+made of it.
+
+Heretofore the social point of view has been practically the only
+point of view in much of this work, and the result is that usually
+following when action is based upon half-truth. David Starr Jordan
+says: "Charity creates the misery she tries to relieve; she never
+relieves half the misery she creates," and he goes on to say that
+_unwise_ charity is responsible for half the pauperism of the world;
+that it is the duty of charity to remove the _causes_ of weakness and
+suffering and equally to see that weakness and suffering are not
+needlessly perpetuated. In this connection the following quotation
+from Elderton is apt: "... the influence of the parental environmental
+factor on the welfare of children is ... at present and has been in
+the past the chief direction of legislative and philanthropic attack
+on social evils. Degeneracy of every form has been attributed to
+poverty, bad housing, unhealthy trades, drinking, industrial
+occupation of women, and other direct or indirect environmental
+influences on offspring. If we could by education, by legislation, or
+by social effort change the environmental conditions, would the race
+at once rise to a markedly higher standard of physique and mentality?
+Much, if not the whole battle for social reform, has been based on the
+assumption that this question was obviously to be answered in the
+affirmative. No direct investigation has really ever been made of the
+intensity of the influence of environment on man. To modify the
+obviously repellent was the immediate instinct of the more gently
+nurtured and controlling social class. Was this direction of social
+reform really capable of effecting any substantial change? Nay, by
+lessening the selective death rate, may it not have contributed to
+emphasizing the very evils it was intended to lessen? These are the
+problems which occur to the eugenist and call for investigation and,
+if possible, settlement.... It is conceivable that the relation
+between children's physique, for example, and parental occupation is
+an indirect result of the inheritance of physique and a correlation
+between parents' physique and their occupation. In other words, what
+we are attributing to environment may be a secondary influence of
+heredity itself. A weakling may have no option but to follow an
+unhealthy trade, a man is a tailor or shoemaker, because he has not
+the physique for smith or navvy. His offspring may be physically
+inferior because he is a weakling and not because he follows an
+unhealthy trade. Clearly, to solve our problem, we must know if there
+be any correlation between the same character in the parent as we are
+observing in the child and the environment we are correlating with the
+child's character. Unfortunately data enabling us to determine the
+relationship of any mental or physical character of the parent with
+the environment which is supposed to influence the child is rarely
+forthcoming."
+
+Just to suggest one further train of thought, we might point out that
+several movements apparently of high social value have been attended
+by a curious and largely unforeseen back action. Thus the enforcement
+of certain forms of Employer's Liability laws has led to
+discrimination against married persons by large employers of labor and
+a premium thus put upon nonmarriage. The result of Child Labor
+legislation has been in some cases an enormous rise in the death rate
+of young children among the classes concerned, indicating that the
+children receive less care, now that they have ceased to be a
+prospective family asset and have become chiefly a burden for many
+years. In other cases the result has been so serious a limitation in
+the birth rate that communities are dying out and factories are
+closing for want of sufficient help. Such problems are not only social
+but economic and eugenic, and they cannot be seen squarely from any
+single point of view. It is doubtless shocking to the cultured mind
+that the chief reason for bringing children into the world should be
+their economic value as contributors to the family income. But in
+reality does this point of view differ fundamentally from that very
+commonly taken of the value of a large family except in the nature of
+the standard by which their value is measured? May there not be a
+difference of opinion as to whether children are better or worse off
+when brought up with some degree of care to be employed under humane
+conditions of labor, than when left uncared for to die in large
+proportions of disease and neglect?
+
+Finally, studies in heredity, whether on man or on other animals or on
+plants, are sure to be of value here because we know that the
+fundamental processes of heredity are the same in all organisms. Above
+all, the Eugenist needs to know more of Mendelian heredity in man.
+The facts of heredity stated in the statistical form of averages and
+coefficients do not affect the man in the street materially--he rather
+enjoys taking chances. An extensive eugenic practice can be
+established only when we can say definitely what the individual or
+family inheritance will be in a given instance--not what it will be
+with such and such a degree of probability, although that probability
+be high. We may not be such a long way off from this ideal, which is
+an essential for the inauguration of eugenic practice upon a large
+scale. For the Eugenist this is the richest field for investigation
+and one which is certain to yield large results.
+
+The Eugenist's demand for more facts will doubtless become an
+important factor in the progress of biological science. The practical
+application of the knowledge of heredity in the production of
+domesticated or cultivated varieties of animals and plants is becoming
+annually more extensive; and with the recognition of the possibility
+of the application of this knowledge to the control of the evolution
+of man himself, will come a rapid increase in biological knowledge
+and in the earnestness of the student of heredity. And at the same
+time another result may be that the science of biology shall come to
+be appraised publicly more nearly at its real value. The biological
+worker knows that his science comes into contact with human life at
+every point, that a knowledge of the fundamental principles of the
+science of life cannot fail to enrich, enlighten, and ennoble the life
+of every human being. But the community does not yet realize this, to
+its own great loss. Is it not possible that the Eugenist, finding his
+fundamentals in biology, by emphasizing the facts of the possibility
+and the necessity of controlling human evolution, may be able to bring
+to society a vital sense of the importance of this science with a
+directness and a vividness which the bacteriologist and hygienist have
+not been able thus far to realize? Is it even too much to hope that
+the idea that the "humanities" include only the study of man's
+comparatively recent past, may now more rapidly give place to a
+broader conception which shall include not only the whole of man's
+past, but the study of his future as well? Could any ideal be more
+vitally, more profoundly human or more worthy of study and devotion,
+than this of the production of a race of men, clean and sound in mind
+and body? Be that as it may, the development of this bio-social field
+can scarcely fail to stimulate strongly the treatment of all social
+problems with a strictly scientific method. Nothing less than exact
+methods, and results exactly stated, will satisfy the genuine and
+really valuable social student of the near future. As one recent
+writer has feelingly put it: "We have had essays enough."
+
+Eugenic practice for the immediate future is the third part of our
+program. Must we wait until more data are collected, more facts
+uncovered, before we undertake any definite proposals for eugenic
+procedure? Although this is the most difficult aspect of the subject,
+largely through lack of a sufficiently broad fact-basis, yet we are
+certainly in possession of enough information to make plain a few
+necessary steps. Most of the concrete proposals directed toward the
+reduction of the undesirables and the increase of the desirables have
+been visionary, impractical, or too limited in their view-point.
+Above all, they have been open to the objection that they have gone
+too far in the direction of that zone which separates the two classes.
+It should be said again that most of these proposals have been those
+of the amateur enthusiast, not of the seriously scientific Eugenist;
+they have grown out of that common habit of "getting far from the
+facts and philosophizing about them."
+
+As Pearson points out, we must start from three fundamental biological
+ideas. First, "That the relative weight of nature and nurture must not
+_a priori_ be assumed but must be scientifically measured; and thus
+far our experience is that nature dominates nurture, and that
+inheritance is more vital than environment." Second, "That there
+exists no demonstrable inheritance of acquired characters. Environment
+modifies the bodily characters of the existing generation, but does
+not [often] modify the germ plasms from which the next generation
+springs. At most, environment can provide a selection of which germ
+plasms among the many provided shall be potential and which shall
+remain latent." Third, "That all human qualities are inherited in a
+marked and probably equal degree." "If these ideas represent the
+substantial truth, you will see how the whole function of the eugenist
+is theoretically simplified. He cannot hope by nurture and by
+education to create new germinal types. He can only hope by selective
+environment to obtain the types most conducive to racial welfare and
+to national progress. If we see this point clearly and grasp it to the
+full, what a flood of light it sheds on half the schemes for the
+amelioration of the people.... The widely prevalent notion that
+bettered environment and improved education mean a _progressive_
+evolution of humanity is found to be without any satisfactory
+scientific basis. Improved conditions of life mean better health for
+the existing population; greater educational facilities mean greater
+capacity for finding and using existing ability; they do not connote
+that the next generation will be either physically or mentally better
+than its parents. Selection of parentage is the sole effective process
+known to science by which a race can continuously progress. The rise
+and fall of nations are in truth summed up in the maintenance or
+cessation of that process of selection. Where the battle is to the
+capable and thrifty, where the dull and idle have no chance to
+propagate their kind, there the nation will progress, even if the land
+be sterile, the environment unfriendly and educational facilities
+small."
+
+As a concrete example of a most commendable eugenic practice we should
+mention the sterilization of certain classes of criminal and insane as
+it is now practiced in the States of Indiana and Connecticut. For the
+last four years (since March, 1907) the laws of Indiana have permitted
+the performance of the operation of vasectomy upon "confirmed
+criminals, idiots, rapists, and imbeciles" after rigid scrutiny of all
+the mental and physical conditions of the individual case and upon the
+concurrent judgment of three competent and impartial persons. The
+title and significant parts of the text of this law are as follows:
+
+    _An Act_, entitled, An Act to prevent procreation of
+    confirmed criminals, idiots, imbeciles, and
+    rapists--providing that superintendents, or boards of
+    managers, of institutions where such persons are confined
+    shall have the authority, and are empowered to appoint a
+    committee of experts, consisting of two physicians, to
+    examine into the mental condition of such inmates.
+
+    _Whereas_, Heredity plays a most important part in the
+    transmission of crime, idiocy, and imbecility;
+
+    _Therefore_, Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the
+    State of Indiana, That on and after the passage of this act
+    it shall be compulsory for each and every institution in the
+    State, entrusted with the care of confirmed criminals,
+    idiots, rapists, and imbeciles, to appoint upon its staff, in
+    addition to the regular institutional physician, two (2)
+    skilled surgeons of recognized ability, whose duty it shall
+    be, in conjunction with the chief physician of the
+    institution, to examine the mental and physical condition of
+    such inmates as are recommended by the institutional
+    physician and board of managers. If, in the judgment of this
+    committee of experts and the board of managers, procreation
+    is inadvisable, and there is no probability of improvement of
+    the mental and physical condition of the inmate, it shall be
+    lawful for the surgeons to perform such operation for the
+    prevention of procreation as shall be decided safest and most
+    effective. But this operation shall not be performed except
+    in cases that have been pronounced unimprovable: Provided,
+    That in no case shall the consultation fee be more than three
+    (3) dollars to each expert, to be paid out of the funds
+    appropriated for the maintenance of such institution.
+
+This operation of vasectomy, sometimes known as "Rentoul's operation,"
+consists, in the male, in the removal of a small portion of each sperm
+duct; the individual is thus rendered sterile in a completely
+effective and permanent way. At the same time there are none of the
+harmful effects, either physical or mental, such as usually follow the
+better known forms of sterilization which are in reality
+asexualization rather than sterilization. Vasectomy is a simple
+"office" operation occupying only a few minutes and requiring at the
+most the application of only a local anæsthetic, such as cocaine; and
+there are no disturbing nor even inconvenient after effects. In the
+female the corresponding operation of oöphorotomy consists in removing
+a small portion of each Fallopian tube. In Indiana nearly a thousand
+persons have already been successfully treated, many upon their own
+request--a circumstance entirely unforeseen. Similar laws have been
+passed in Oregon and Connecticut, and are being carefully considered
+in several other States.
+
+In order that the exact nature of such proposals may be better known
+generally we may give here also the text of the Connecticut law which
+is somewhat more inclusive and more flexible than that of Indiana. The
+Connecticut Statute, enacted in August, 1909, is as follows:
+
+    _An Act_, concerning operations for the Prevention of
+    Procreation.--Be it enacted by the Senate and House of
+    Representatives in General Assembly convened:
+
+    _Section 1._ The directors of the State prison and the
+    superintendents of State hospitals for the insane at
+    Middletown and Norwich are hereby authorized and directed to
+    appoint for each of said institutions, respectively, two
+    skilled surgeons, who, in conjunction with the physician or
+    surgeon in charge at each of said institutions, shall examine
+    such persons as are reported to them by the warden,
+    superintendent, or the physician or surgeon in charge, to be
+    persons by whom procreation would be inadvisable.
+
+    Such board shall examine the physical and mental condition of
+    such persons, and their record and family history so far as
+    the same can be ascertained, and if in the judgment of the
+    majority of said board, procreation by any such person would
+    produce children with an inherited tendency to crime,
+    insanity, feeble-mindedness, idiocy, or imbecility, and there
+    is no probability that the condition of any such person so
+    examined will improve to such an extent as to render
+    procreation by such person advisable, or, if the physical and
+    mental condition of any such person will be substantially
+    improved thereby, then the said board shall appoint one of
+    its members to perform the operation of vasectomy or
+    oöphorectomy, as the case may be, upon such person. Such
+    operation shall be performed in a safe and humane manner, and
+    the board making such examination, and the surgeon performing
+    such operation, shall receive from the State such
+    compensation, for services rendered, as the warden of the
+    State prison or the superintendent of either of such
+    hospitals shall deem reasonable.
+
+    _Section 2._ Except as authorized by this Act, every person
+    who shall perform, encourage, assist in, or otherwise promote
+    the performance of either of the operations described in
+    Section 1 of this Act, for the purpose of destroying the
+    power to procreate the human species; or any person who shall
+    knowingly permit either of such operations to be performed
+    upon such person--unless the same be a medical
+    necessity--shall be fined not more than one thousand dollars,
+    or imprisoned in the State prison not more than five years,
+    or both.
+
+These States are to be commended in the highest possible terms for
+their enlightened action in this direction. Who can say how many
+families of Jukes and Zeros have already been inhibited by this simple
+and humane means? "Could such a law be enforced in the whole United
+States, less than four generations would eliminate nine tenths of the
+crime, insanity and sickness of the present generation in our land.
+Asylums, prisons and hospitals would decrease, and the problems of the
+unemployed, the indigent old, and the hopelessly degenerate would
+cease to trouble civilization."
+
+And yet probably for years to come those mental states and conditions
+of servitude graciously termed "conservatism" will continue to insure
+an undiminished horde of these unfortunates. The situation here is
+interestingly analogous to that in connection with certain of the
+infectious diseases. Concerning the eradication of typhoid fever, to
+mention a single concrete example, competent authorities declare that
+we now possess all of the information necessary to make typhoid fever
+as obsolete in civilized communities as is cholera or smallpox. "The
+average third-year medical student knows enough about typhoid fever to
+be able to stamp it out if he were endowed with absolute power."
+"Typhoid fever has passed beyond the catalogue of diseases; it is a
+crime." Our knowledge of the causes of many of the conditions leading
+to gross physical and mental defect and criminality has progressed
+already to such a point that we could if we would eradicate them in
+large proportion from our civilization. The great horde of defectives,
+once in the world, have the right to live and to enjoy as best they
+may whatever freedom is compatible with the lives and freedom of the
+other members of society. They have not the right to produce and
+reproduce more of their kind for a too generous and too blindly
+"charitable" society to contend against. The greater crime consists
+in allowing the hereditary criminal to be born.
+
+A well-known British alienist, Tredgold, after pointing out that the
+duty of medical science is to fight and relieve disease in every shape
+and form, adds: "That if social science does not keep pace with
+medical science in this matter the end will be national disaster. In
+other words, I would lay it down as a general principle that as soon
+as a nation reaches that stage of civilization in which medical
+knowledge and humanitarian sentiment operate to prolong the existence
+of the unfit, then it becomes imperative upon that nation to devise
+such social laws as will insure that these unfit do not propagate
+their kind.
+
+"For, mark you, it is not as if these degenerates mated solely amongst
+themselves. Were that so, it is possible that, even in spite of the
+physician, the accumulated morbidity would become so powerful as to
+work out its own salvation by bringing about the sterility and
+extinction of its victims. The danger lies in the fact that these
+degenerates mate with the _healthy_ members of the community and
+thereby constantly drag fresh blood into the vortex of disease and
+lower the general vigour of the nation."
+
+Such a practice as vasectomy then represents nicely the eugenic aim of
+allowing the individual, who is himself never to be blamed for his
+hereditary constitution, the greatest possible personal freedom and
+liberty, of allowing full play of sympathy for the individual, and at
+the same time of exercising the greatest sympathy to society in
+prohibiting the hereditary criminal from procreating a long line of
+descendants endowed as badly as he himself was through no fault of his
+own, but through the gross neglect of society.
+
+Another quotation from Pearson: "To-day we feed our criminals up, and
+we feed up our insane, we let both out of the prison or asylum
+'reformed' or 'cured,' as the case may be, only after a few months to
+return to State supervision, leaving behind them the germs of a new
+generation of deteriorants. The average number of crimes due to the
+convicts in his Majesty's prisons to-day is ten apiece. We cannot
+reform the criminal, nor cure the insane from the standpoint of
+heredity; the taint varies not with their mental or moral conduct.
+These are the products of the somatic cells; the disease lies deeper
+in their germinal constitution. Education for the criminal, fresh air
+for the tuberculous, rest and food for the neurotic--these are
+excellent, they may bring control, sound lungs, and sanity to the
+individual; but they will not save the offspring from the need of like
+treatment, nor from the danger of collapse when the time of strain
+comes. They cannot make a nation sound in mind and body, they merely
+screen degeneracy behind a throng of arrested degenerates. Our highly
+developed human sympathy will no longer allow us to watch the State
+purify itself by the aid of crude natural selection. We see pain and
+suffering only to relieve it, without inquiry as to the moral
+character of the sufferer or as to his national or racial value. And
+this is right--no man is responsible for his own being; and nature and
+nurture, over which he had no control, have made him the being he is,
+good or evil. But here science steps in, crying: Let the reprieve be
+accepted, but next remind the social conscience of its duty to the
+race ... let there be no heritage if you would build up and preserve a
+virile and efficient people. Here, I hold, we reach the kernel of the
+truth which the science of eugenics has at present revealed."
+
+It is also a part of eugenic practice to oppose vigorously and
+unmistakably any social practice leading to the reduction in the
+reproductivity of the desirable and valuable elements of society.
+There is to be included here for censure a long list of customs and
+practices, from the enforced celibacy of the Church to the horror of
+horrors--warfare. A moment's reflection will suggest many
+reprehensible practices of this kind more or less current in certain
+classes or communities. The requirement of nonmarriage on the part of
+women teachers--persons of tested and demonstrated ability, is a very
+general practice of decidedly noneugenic character. In Great Britain
+more than 75,000 nurses, all of whom must have passed physical
+examination, are cut off from reproduction by the same requirement of
+nonmarriage. Many less striking but all too common practices have the
+final effect of forbidding marriage to the healthy, physically or
+mentally capable, helpful, classes. "Help wanted. Must be
+unencumbered."
+
+More vigorously and more unmistakably does the Eugenist discourage
+anything that leads to matings of the unfit and, above all, to their
+reproduction. Many countries, from Servia to the Argentine Republic,
+have statutes forbidding the marriage of the insane, idiots, deaf and
+dumb, certain classes of criminals, and persons afflicted with certain
+contagious diseases. It is to be hoped that these laws are enforced
+with greater effectiveness than that with which our own less stringent
+laws of similar character are administered. After all, it is the
+reproduction of these persons that should be limited, and among many
+of these classes the fact of nonmarriage would provide not the
+slightest barrier to reproduction.
+
+It is unfortunately true, but true none the less, that there are
+current forms of so-called philanthropy which, by relieving defective
+parents of the care of their defective offspring, thus encourage them
+in the production of more defective offspring; and so the flames are
+fed. Relief is the smallest part of the problem. Any condition which
+leads to the multiplication of the innately defective and dependent
+classes must be sternly opposed. No matter how benign the guise of any
+form of relief or charity, if it encourages or permits even indirectly
+the free reproduction of these classes, it must be resolutely opposed
+and soon abandoned. "It is not enough to preach with horror and
+indignation against normal parents who restrict their families. Equal
+reprobation should be the lot of those who, with inherited insanity,
+feeble-mindedness, or disease, bring children into the world to
+perpetuate their infirmities. It should not be overlooked that the
+realization of the power of limiting the birth rate, while it has
+produced untold harm, when applied blindly and in accordance with
+individual caprice, may become an instrument for good if it extends to
+the worst stocks, while the better stocks once more undertake their
+natural duties."
+
+Practical Eugenics need not be limited to its philanthropic and
+legislative aspects. There are other social mechanisms which could be
+used to encourage the multiplication of the fitter, abler families.
+In Munich, under the enlightened leadership of Dr. Alfred Ploetz, a
+society for the study and promotion of social and racial hygiene
+(Internationale Gesellschaft für Rassen-Hygiene) has made a most
+excellent and significant beginning. This society is doing much not
+only to collect data and investigate scientifically problems within
+its field, but also to spread widely the facts of racial integrity.
+Its members agree, among other things, to undergo thorough medical
+examination prior to marriage as to their fitness for that state and
+agree to abstain from marriage, or at least from parenthood, if found
+to be unfit.
+
+Much can be done by suggestion and suasion regarding the choice of
+mates and the rearing of large families. When one touches upon this
+subject he is pretty likely to be met with the objection that the
+selection of mates is so largely an impulsive, emotional affair that
+it is quite beyond control. "Marriages," they say, "are made in
+heaven." But when we consider the number that can scarcely be said to
+be completed there the statement seems open to some question. As a
+matter of fact, it is perfectly clear, as Galton, Ellis, and others
+have shown, that all peoples, from the Kaffir and the Dyak to the
+Hindu and the modern European or American, are surrounded with
+restrictions in marriage often of the greatest stringency. And yet,
+since these are matters of established social custom, even of
+religious observance, we submit almost without knowing it.
+
+That results can be really accomplished in this direction and by this
+method is clearly shown by the history of the Jewish people, and by
+the Roman Catholics, among whom there are distinctly fewer divorces
+and childless marriages than among Protestants. In many countries and
+communities the organized Church still exercises an immense influence
+over the whole subject of marriage: the Church could easily become a
+powerful factor in eugenic practice. Such a control can and should be
+given eugenic direction by the establishment of a more discriminative
+attitude, looking toward a reduction in the reproductivity of the
+dependent or defective as well as to the increased reproductivity of
+the valuable and able. In all of the discussion of "race suicide" and
+the value to the State of the large family, how seldom do we hear any
+mention of quality! To plan the organization and conduct of a State
+without regulating and controlling the quality of its membership is
+like adopting plans and elevations for a costly building without
+making any specifications as to materials.
+
+In concrete eugenic practice it seems probable that most can be
+accomplished for the present by striving to limit the multiplication
+of the undesirable, dependent, or dangerous elements of the social
+group. There can be less uncertainty here. The social organization has
+already marked certain kinds of individuals as unfit and unworthy,
+whose liberty must be limited in many directions for the social
+welfare. This aspect of the matter can be put upon a dollars and cents
+basis very clearly, and this is apparently the only relation that
+affects a good many people. Why should the able and worthy and thrifty
+members of society be compelled to pay, as they are in this country
+alone, $100,000,000 annually, not to mention the vast sums voluntarily
+contributed toward "charitable" purposes, for the support of the
+criminal and pauper and defective classes who themselves contribute
+nothing of value and whose very existence is evidence of criminal
+disregard of the right of every individual to be well born, into a
+healthy and sane life? The only answer, if it be an answer,
+is--because the competent are willing to foot the bill. Millions for
+tribute but not one cent for defense. And yet a penny's worth of
+defense outweighs a million's worth of cure.
+
+In the practice of Eugenics the greatest caution must be exercised.
+All eugenic practice must be tested by the most careful and
+scrutinizing scientific methods. Mendelian heredity gives a different
+answer from Job's to his own query: "Who can bring a clean thing out
+of an unclean?" It also makes clear how it may often happen that it
+needs but three generations to go from Fifth Avenue to the Bowery, and
+back again. Many so-called criminals may be anachronisms, some only
+modificationally bad. But there are many cases, many practices,
+regarding which there can be no doubt: the Eugenist says, treat these,
+and let the doubtful cases alone until as a result of the increase of
+knowledge there is no doubt. And while it is easy to say that we
+_believe_ the criminal or the insane are the products of a wrong
+environment, it is also easy to say that we believe they are not. What
+the Eugenist demands is _knowledge_, then belief, and action based
+thereon.
+
+Finally, the eugenic program calls for the spread of the facts, far
+and wide, through all classes of society. Bring forcibly before the
+people the facts of human heredity. Teach them to understand the force
+of the eugenic ideal of good breeding. "The prevalent opinion that
+almost anybody is good enough to marry is chiefly due to the fact that
+in this case, cause and effect, marriage and the feebleness of
+offspring, are so distant from each other that the near-sighted eye
+does not distinctly perceive the connection between them." By
+education we must produce first of all a thoughtfulness in the
+community regarding the racial responsibilities of marriage and
+reproduction. Human beings are frequently rational creatures; placing
+before them clear and truthful ideas regarding fit and unfit matings
+cannot fail of an ultimate effect. "The virtue of repetition, the
+summation of suggestion, which sells pills and pickles, which makes
+Free Trade or Tariff Reform a national issue, this force operating as
+a slight but persistent influence when linked to eugenic proposals
+will in a few years' time make these proposals a living force to the
+common man." By talking and teaching, in season and out, the community
+will be compelled to think on these things; they will be forced into
+the public conscience and the pressure of public opinion will rise for
+the eugenic and against the noneugenic ideals of mating and the
+rearing of families. And the rest will come in due season and more
+effective and permanent results will follow than are likely to come
+from any amount of premature legislation. As Galton writes: "The
+enlightenment of the individual is a necessary preamble to practical
+Eugenics, but social opinion by praise or blame constantly influences
+individual conduct." "Public opinion is commonly far in advance of
+private morality, because society as a whole keenly appreciates acts
+that tend to its advantage, and condemns those that do not. It
+applauds acts of heroism that perhaps not one of the applauders would
+be disposed to emulate." "The first and main point is to secure the
+general intellectual acceptance of Eugenics as a hopeful and most
+important study. Then let its principles work into the heart of the
+nation, who will gradually give practical effect to them in ways that
+we may not wholly foresee."
+
+In this educational part of the eugenic program, and particularly in
+the encouragement of research directed toward the solution of eugenic
+problems and the establishment of eugenic practices, there lies one of
+the greatest opportunities ever opened to the philanthropist. The
+genuine philanthropist is he who would at this moment make possible
+the rapid solution of many of the still baffling problems of human
+heredity and who would help to spread and teach the gospel of true
+racial integrity. But while it has been easy to interest
+philanthropists in the relief of social disorders, few can be
+interested in the causes at work which make the necessity for relief
+seem so imperative.
+
+The patient unraveler of the Jukes family history has said, "I am
+informed that $28,000 was raised in two days to purchase a rare
+collection of antique jewelry and bronze recently discovered in
+classic ground forty feet below the _débris_. I do not hear of
+as many pence being offered to fathom the _débris_ of our
+civilization--however rich the yield!" Possibly one reason for this
+neglect or omission has heretofore been the lack of evidence that real
+results could be accomplished in this field. Now that it is so obvious
+that we have a real foundation of fact from which to work we may
+expect soon some degree of recognition of the supreme importance of
+the need for investigation in subjects allied to Eugenics, and of
+devotion to eugenic aims.
+
+"Whether or no the importance of the issues at stake comes to be
+recognized fully by the nation at large, individuals and families have
+it in their power to act on the knowledge they have acquired.... When
+once more the importance of good birth comes to be recognized in a new
+sense, ... it will be understood to be more important to marry into a
+family with a good hereditary record of physical, mental, and moral
+qualities than it ever has been considered to be allied to one with
+sixteen quarterings." "Families in which good and noble qualities of
+mind and body have become hereditary form a natural aristocracy, and,
+if such families take pride in recording their pedigrees, marry among
+themselves, and establish a predominant fertility, they can assure
+success and position to the majority of their descendants in any
+political future. They can become the guardians and trustees of a
+sound inborn heritage, which, incorruptible and undefiled, they can
+preserve in purity and vigour throughout whatever period of ignorance
+and decay may be in store for the nation at large. Neglect to hand on
+undimmed the priceless germinal qualities which such families possess,
+can be regarded only as the betrayal of a sacred trust....
+
+"We look, then, for a day in the near future, when, in some circles at
+any rate, a comparison of scientific pedigrees will replace, or at all
+events precede, the discussion of settlements in the preliminaries to
+a marriage; when birth and good-breeding (in its wide sense),
+character and ability will be the qualities most prized in the choice
+of mates; when a bad ancestral strain likely to reappear in
+succeeding generations will suppress an incipient passion as
+effectually as it is now cured by a deficiency of education or a
+superfluity of accent." (Whetham.)
+
+As matters are at present it is all too often the case that marriage
+is _followed_ by the disclosure or discovery of a family history of
+sterility, or criminality, or insanity. In a truly enlightened society
+the failure to make known such conditions in the antecedents to a
+marriage will be regarded as evidence of the greatest moral obliquity,
+if not of criminal misdemeanor.
+
+The wise and honored founder of Eugenics looks forward to the
+inclusion of eugenic ideals as a factor in religion. "Eugenics,"
+Galton writes, "strengthens the sense of social duty in so many
+important particulars that the conclusions derived from its study
+ought to find a welcome home in every tolerant religion." "Eugenic
+belief extends the function of philanthropy to future generations; it
+renders its action more pervading than hitherto, by dealing with
+families and societies in their entirety; and it enforces the
+importance of the marriage covenant, by directing serious attention to
+the probable quality of the future offspring. It strongly forbids all
+forms of sentimental charity that are harmful to the race, while it
+eagerly seeks opportunity for acts of personal kindness as some
+equivalent to the loss of what it forbids. It brings the tie of
+kinship into prominence, and strongly encourages love and interest in
+family and race. In brief, eugenics is a virile creed, full of
+hopefulness, and appealing to many of the noblest feelings of our
+nature."
+
+And Whetham adds: "Hitherto the development of our race has been
+unconscious, and we have been allowed no responsibility for its right
+course. Now, in the fulness of time ... we are treated as children no
+more, and the conscious fashioning of the human race is given into our
+hands. Let us put away childish things, stand up with open eyes, and
+face our responsibilities."
+
+
+
+
+                                INDEX
+
+
+
+
+                                INDEX
+
+
+  Ability, heredity of, 146, 147.
+    heredity and pedigrees of, 176-181.
+
+  Acquired characteristics, relation of, to heredity, 199-207.
+
+  Adaptedness, 200-202.
+
+  Albinism, and order of birth, 125, 126.
+    heredity of, 142.
+
+  Alcoholism, heritable effects of, 203-207.
+
+  American Breeders' Association, 15, 196.
+
+  Andalusian fowl, heredity of color in, 81-83.
+
+  Angio-neurotic oedema, pedigree of, 168, 170.
+
+  Aristotle, 18.
+
+
+  Bagatelle board, to illustrate variability, 58-60.
+
+  Bateson, William, 81, 100.
+
+  Bentley, Madison, quoted, 19.
+
+  Biffen, R. H., 133.
+
+  Biology, and Sociology, 8, 35-45.
+    eugenic applications of, 38-40, 49 _et seq._
+
+  Biometric Laboratory, 14.
+
+  Bio-Sociology, 8.
+
+  Birth rate, and social status, 116-123.
+    decreasing, in England, 122.
+
+  Boies, abstract of Winship's data of Edwards family, 187, 188.
+
+  Booth, classification of London population, 70.
+
+  Brachydactylism, heredity of, 142.
+    pedigree of, 150-153.
+
+
+  Cataract, heredity of, 143.
+    pedigree of, 157, 159.
+
+  Cephalic index, heredity of, 140, 144.
+
+  Chance, law of, 56-58.
+
+  Child labor laws, effect of, 211, 212.
+
+  Chorea, Huntington's, heredity of, 143.
+    pedigree of, 160, 165.
+
+  Church, influence and opportunities of, 231.
+
+  Civic worth, variability of, 70.
+
+  Coefficient of correlation, 110, 111.
+
+  Coefficient of correlation
+    between birth rate and  social status, 117.
+    positive and negative, 111-113.
+    significance of, 111.
+
+  Coefficient of heredity, 109.
+    human, 140.
+
+  Coefficient of variability, 62, 63.
+    human, 69.
+
+  Color blindness, heredity of, 142.
+
+  Connecticut, vasectomy statute of, 220-222.
+
+  Conservation of human protoplasm, 136.
+
+  Correlation, 103, 104.
+    coefficient of, 110, 111.
+    social status and birth rate, 116-123.
+
+  Cousin marriage, regulation of, 154, 155.
+
+  Criminality, and order of birth, 125, 126.
+    increase in, 29.
+
+
+  Darwin, pedigree of, 181, 183.
+    quoted, 6, 184.
+
+  Data, need for and collection of, 192.
+
+  Davenport, quoted, 192-195.
+
+  Deaf, United States census of, 34.
+
+  Deaf and dumb, United States census of, 34.
+
+  Deaf-mutism, heredity of, 143.
+
+  Deaf-mutism, pedigree of, 160, 167.
+
+  Defect, and order of birth, 123-126.
+
+  Defectives, number of, in Great Britain, 31.
+    United States census of, 34.
+
+  Dependents, United States census of, 34.
+
+  Determiners, absence of, 143.
+    in germ, 54.
+    in Mendelian heredity, 88-95.
+
+  Development of the individual, 51.
+    as a form of reaction, 52, 53.
+
+  _Die Familie Zero_, 184-187.
+
+  Differential fertility, 113-121.
+
+  Dominance, in Mendelian heredity, 84.
+    irregular and incomplete, 87.
+
+  Dominant characteristics, 85.
+
+  Drapers' Company, 14.
+
+  Dugdale, account of "Jukes" family, 182-184.
+    quoted, 236, 237.
+
+
+  Education, 20, 71.
+    heritable effects of, 200.
+
+  Edwards, Jonathan, descendants of, 187, 188.
+
+  Elderton, quoted, 209-211.
+
+  Employer's liability laws, effects of, 211.
+
+  England, falling birth rate in, 122.
+    number of defectives in, 31, 32.
+
+  Environment, effects of, 197-207.
+
+  Eugenics, aims of, 5, 42-45, 114, 123.
+    as a factor in religion, 239, 240.
+    definition of, 3.
+    encouragement of ideals of, 234-240.
+    history of, 10-13.
+    objections to, 191.
+    practice of, 215-234.
+    program of, 189-240.
+
+  Eugenics Committee of American Breeders' Association, 15, 196.
+
+  Eugenics Education Society, 14.
+
+  Eugenics Laboratory, 14.
+
+  Eugenics Record Office, 15.
+
+  _Eugenics Review_, 14.
+
+  External conditions, effects of, 199-203.
+
+  Eye color, heredity of, 140, 142, 143.
+
+
+  Fabian Society, 122.
+
+  _Familie Zero_, 184-187.
+
+  Family histories. _See_ Pedigrees.
+
+  Feeble-minded, in Great Britain, 32.
+    in United States, 34.
+
+  Feeble-mindedness, pedigree of, 162-169.
+
+  Fellows of the Royal Society, mental heredity in, 145, 146.
+
+  Fertility, and social status, 116-123.
+    differential (selective), 113, 121.
+    in normal and pathological stocks, 115.
+    of various classes, 120, 121.
+
+  Fluctuation, 56.
+
+  Forearm, heredity in length of, 140.
+
+  Fowl, color heredity in Andalusian, 81-83.
+
+  Functional modification, non-inheritance of, 199-207.
+
+
+  Galton, Sir Francis, illustrations of variability, 58, 63.
+    in history of Eugenics, 9-13.
+    on mental heredity, 144-146.
+    pedigree of, 181-183.
+    quoted, 5, 44, 45, 236, 239, 240.
+
+  Gametic coupling, 100.
+
+  Germ, relation of, to adult structure, 50.
+
+  Germ cells, relation of, to Mendel's law, 88-94.
+
+  Goddard, account of feeble-minded family, 162-169.
+
+  Great Britain, number of defectives, etc., 31, 32.
+
+  Greece, 9, 10.
+
+  Guinea-pig, heredity of color in, 84-87.
+
+
+  Hæmophilia, heredity of, 143.
+
+  Hair color and curliness, heredity of, 140, 142.
+
+  Harrow, mental heredity in students of, 147.
+
+  Head measurements, heredity of, 140.
+
+  Heredity, coefficient of, 109, 140.
+    definition of, 77.
+    human, 137-188.
+    Mendelian formula of, 80-102.
+      in human traits, 142.
+    need for studies in, 212, 213.
+    of acquired characters (modifications), 199-207.
+    psychic characters, 143-147.
+    relation of, to Eugenics, 78, 79.
+    statistical formula of, 80, 102-113.
+
+  Heron, David,
+    birth rate, and net fertility of social classes, 116, 119-121.
+
+  Homicides, number of, in United States, 30.
+
+  Huntington's chorea, heredity of, 143.
+    pedigree of, 160, 165.
+
+
+  Idiots, statistics of, 32.
+
+  Imbeciles, statistics of, 32.
+
+  Imbecility, heredity of, 143.
+
+  Immunity, relation of, to heredity of disease, 168-173.
+
+  Index of variability, 62.
+
+  Indiana, vasectomy statute of, 218, 219.
+
+  Infection, heredity of, diseases and defects due to, 168-173.
+
+  Infertility, pedigree of, 174, 175.
+
+  Inheritance. _See_ Heredity.
+
+  Insane, statistics of, 31-34.
+
+  Insanity, and order of birth, 124-126.
+    associated with alcoholism, 205, 206.
+
+  _Internationale Gesellschaft für Rassen-Hygiene_, 230.
+
+
+  Jennings, 66.
+
+  Johannsen, 66.
+
+  Jordan, David Starr, quoted, 209.
+
+  Jörger, _Die Familie Zero_, 184-187.
+
+  "Jukes" family, 182-184.
+
+
+  Keratosis, heredity of, 142.
+
+
+  Lankester, Sir E. Ray, "Kingdom of Man," 21-24.
+    quoted, 7.
+
+  _L'Elite_, 10.
+
+  Lobster claw, heredity of, 155.
+    pedigree of, 155, 157.
+
+  London, number of children in, 122.
+    university of, 14.
+
+
+  Man's place in Nature, 6, 7.
+
+  Marriage, antecedents to, 238, 239.
+    restrictions in, 228-232.
+
+  Mediocrity, 61.
+
+  Mendel, Gregor, 83, 84.
+
+  Mendelian formula of heredity, 80-102.
+
+  Mendelism and eugenic practice, 97, 233.
+
+  Mendel's law, and unit characters, 95-99.
+    characteristics inherited according to, 98, 99.
+      human, 142, 143.
+    complications of, 100.
+    present limitations of, 100-102.
+
+  Mental ability, pedigrees of, 176-181.
+
+  Mental defect, heredity of, 147, 160, 165, 162-169.
+
+  Mental traits, heredity of, 143-147.
+
+  Models, illustrating variability and variation, 59, 63-64.
+
+  Murders, number of, 30.
+
+  Mutation, 63-66.
+
+
+  National Association of British and Irish Millers, 133.
+
+  Natural selection, 21-23, 45.
+
+  Nettleship, pedigree of night blindness, 158-163.
+
+  Night blindness, heredity of, 143.
+    pedigrees of, 157, 158, 161, 163.
+
+  Normal frequency curve, 56-60.
+
+  Nurture, 17, 76.
+
+
+  Oedema, pedigree of angio-neurotic, 168-170.
+
+  Ohio Institution for the Feeble-Minded, superintendent quoted, 33.
+
+  Oneida community, 10.
+
+  Ontogeny, 51.
+
+  Oöphorectomy (oöphorotomy), 218-222.
+
+  Order of birth and pathological defect, 123-126.
+
+  Oxford, mental heredity in graduates of, 146, 147.
+
+
+  Paupers, United States census of, 34.
+
+  Pearson, Karl, 14, 27, 36.
+    heredity in school children, 143, 144.
+    quoted, 127-130, 216-218, 225-227.
+
+  Pedigrees of ability, 176-181.
+
+  Pedigrees of angio-neurotic oedema, 168, 170.
+    of brachydactylism, 150-153.
+    of cataract, 157, 159.
+    of deaf-mutism, 160, 167.
+    of feeble-mindedness, 162-169.
+    of Huntington's chorea, 160, 165.
+    of infertility, 174, 175.
+    of lobster claw or split hand, 155-157.
+    of night blindness, 157-163.
+    of polydactylism, 155, 156.
+    of tuberculosis, 168-171.
+
+  Plato, 3, 9.
+
+  Ploetz, Dr. Alfred, 230.
+
+  Poellman, family described by, 181.
+
+  Polydactylism, heredity of, 142.
+    pedigree of, 155, 156.
+
+  Population, of Europe and North America, 25, 26.
+
+  Practice of Eugenics, 192-240.
+
+  Prisoners, number of, in United States, 29, 30.
+
+  Probability, law of, 56-59.
+
+  Pure bred, 97.
+
+  Pure line, 67, 72.
+
+
+  Recessive characteristics, 85.
+
+  Regression, 105-108.
+
+  Regression line, 106, 107.
+
+  Rentoul, statistics of defectives, 31.
+
+  Rentoul's operation, 218-222.
+
+  Research, in the eugenic program, and need for, 196-215.
+
+  Restrictions in marriage, 154, 155, 230, 231.
+
+  Royal Society, mental heredity in Fellows of, 145, 146.
+
+
+  School children, heredity in, 143, 144.
+
+  Schuster, on mental heredity, 146, 147.
+
+  Scottish Commission, statistics of insane, 31.
+
+  Selective fertility, 113-122.
+
+  Sex limited heredity, 100.
+
+  Size of family, 114, 115.
+    and relative proportion of defectives, 126.
+
+  Social practices, investigation of, 207-212.
+    opposed to Eugenics, 227, 228.
+
+  Social status, and birth rate, 116-123.
+
+  Social variation, 75.
+
+  Society for social and racial hygiene (Munich), 230.
+
+  Sociological Society, 12.
+
+  Sociology, aims of, 35, 42.
+    and Biology, 8, 35-45.
+
+  Span, heredity of, 140.
+
+  Species, relation of, to pure line, 66.
+
+  Split hand. _See_ Lobster claw.
+
+  Sports, 65.
+
+  Standard deviation, 62.
+
+  Statistical formula of heredity, 80, 81, 102-113.
+
+  Stature, heredity of, 140.
+    of mothers, 56, 57.
+
+  Sterilization, eugenic value of, 222-225.
+    statutes permitting, 218-223.
+
+  "Studies in National Deterioration," 14.
+
+  Symbols used in pedigrees, 149.
+
+  Syndactylism, heredity of, 142.
+
+
+  Theognis, 3.
+
+  Thomson, 40.
+
+  "Treasury of Human Inheritance," 196.
+    symbols used by, 148-150.
+
+  Tredgold, quoted, 224, 225.
+
+  Tuberculosis, and order of birth, 124, 125.
+    associated with alcoholism, 204.
+    pedigree of pulmonary, 168, 171.
+
+  Typhoid fever, eradication of, 223.
+
+
+  Unit characters, 53.
+    list of, 98, 99.
+
+  Unit characters, relation of, to Mendel's law, 95-99.
+
+  United States Census Reports, statistics of defectives, etc., 28-34.
+
+  University of London, 14.
+
+
+  Variability, 56-63.
+    measure (coefficient) of, 61-63.
+    of human traits, 69, 70.
+
+  Variation, 55-70.
+    and modification, 75.
+    application of, in Eugenics, 70-77.
+    distinguished from variability, 63, 64.
+
+  Vasectomy, 218-225.
+    Connecticut statute permitting, 220-222.
+    Indiana statute permitting, 218, 219.
+
+
+  Wallace, Alfred Russell, 6.
+
+  Warbasse, quoted, 195.
+
+  Webb, Sidney, 122.
+
+  Wheat, new varieties of, 133, 134.
+
+  Whetham, quoted, 35, 74, 75, 229, 237-239, 240.
+
+  Winship, data regarding Edwards family, 187, 188.
+
+  Woods, heredity in royalty, 145.
+
+
+  _Zero, Die Familie_, 184-187.
+
+
+
+
+                         TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+
+1. Passages in italics are surrounded by _underscores_.
+
+2. Illustration captions are indicated by =caption=.
+
+3. Images and tables have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to
+the closest paragraph break.
+
+4. Figure 17 is missing from the scanned pages even though there is no
+break in the continuity of page numbers.
+
+5. The word oedema uses an oe ligature in the original.
+
+6. The following misprints have been corrected:
+      "stattistical" corrected to "statistical" (page 81)
+      Removed stray bracket in "second parent)" (page 93)
+      Added period at end of abbreviation "N.S.W" (page 115)
+      "conditons" corrected to "conditions" (page 245)
+
+7. Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies
+in spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been
+retained.
+
+
+
+
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Social Direction of Evolution, by 
+William E. Kellicott
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
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+
+
+Title: The Social Direction of Evolution
+       An Outline of the Science of Eugenics
+
+Author: William E. Kellicott
+
+Release Date: March 20, 2010 [EBook #31705]
+
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+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOCIAL DIRECTION OF EVOLUTION ***
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+
+
+<h2>THE SOCIAL DIRECTION<br />
+OF HUMAN EVOLUTION</h2>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h1>THE SOCIAL DIRECTION<br />
+OF HUMAN EVOLUTION</h1>
+
+<h3><small>AN OUTLINE OF THE SCIENCE OF</small><br />
+EUGENICS</h3>
+
+<h4><small>BY</small><br />
+WILLIAM E. KELLICOTT</h4>
+<h6>PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY, GOUCHER COLLEGE</h6>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 15%;">
+<img src="images/pubicon.png" width="100%" alt="Publisher Icon" title="Publisher Icon" />
+</div>
+
+<h4>NEW YORK AND LONDON<br />
+D. APPLETON AND COMPANY<br />
+1919</h4>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h5><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1911, by</span><br />
+D. APPLETON AND COMPANY<br /><br />
+Printed in the United States of America</h5>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+
+<p>This small volume is based upon three lectures
+on Eugenics delivered at Oberlin College
+in April, 1910. In preparing them for publication
+many extensions and a few additions
+have been made in order to present the subject
+more adequately and to include some very recent
+results of eugenic investigation.</p>
+
+<p>Few subjects have come into deserved prominence
+more rapidly than has Eugenics. Biologists,
+social workers, thoughtful students and
+observers of human life everywhere, have felt
+the growing necessity for some kind of action
+leading to what are now recognized as eugenic
+ends. Hitherto the lack of guiding principles
+has left us in the dark as to where to take hold
+and what methods to pursue. To-day, however,
+progress in the human phases of biological
+science clearly gives us clews regarding modes
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span>
+of attack upon many of the fundamental problems
+of human life and social improvement and
+progress, and suggests concrete methods of
+work.</p>
+
+<p>The present essay does not represent an
+original contribution to the subject of Eugenics.
+It is not a complete statement of the facts and
+foundations of Eugenics in any particular. It
+is rather an attempt to state briefly and suggestively,
+in simple, matter-of-fact terms the
+present status of this science. While Eugenics
+is a social topic in practice, in its fundamentals,
+in its theory, it is biological. It is therefore
+necessary that the subject be approached primarily
+from the biological point of view and
+with some familiarity with biological methods
+and results. The control of human evolution&mdash;physical,
+mental, moral&mdash;is a serious subject of
+supremest importance and gravest consequents.
+It must be considered without excitement&mdash;thoughtfully,
+not emotionally.</p>
+
+<p>It is hardly necessary to add that no one can
+speak of the subject of Eugenics without feeling
+the immensity of his debt to Sir Francis
+Galton and to Professor Karl Pearson. From
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span>
+the writings of these pioneers I have drawn
+heavily in this essay. The recent summary of
+the Whethams, and Davenport's valuable essay
+on Eugenics have also served as the sources of
+quotation.</p>
+
+<p style='text-align:right;'>W. E. K.</p>
+
+<p><span style='margin-left:2em;'><small>Baltimore, Md., November, 1910.</small></span></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents">
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td>&nbsp;</td>
+  <td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#I">I</a>.&mdash;</td>
+  <td><span class="smcap">The Sources and Aims of the Science Of Eugenics</span></td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#II">II</a>.&mdash;</td>
+  <td><span class="smcap">The Biological Foundations of Eugenics</span></td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#III">III</a>.&mdash;</td>
+  <td><span class="smcap">Human Heredity and the Eugenic Program</span></td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span></p>
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p>
+<h2>LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="List of Illustrations">
+<tr>
+  <td><small>FIG.</small></td>
+  <td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp; 1.&mdash;Increase of population in the United States and the principal countries of Europe from 1800 to 1900</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp; 2.&mdash;Relative and absolute numbers of prisoners in the United States from 1850 to 1904</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp; 3.&mdash;Recorded measurements of the stature of 1052 mothers</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp; 4.&mdash;Model to illustrate the law of probability or "chance"</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp; 5.&mdash;Plinth to illustrate the difference between variability (fluctuation) and variation (mutation)</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp; 6.&mdash;Curves illustrating the relation between the pure line and the species or other large group</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp; 7.&mdash;Diagram showing the course of color heredity in the Andalusian fowl</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_83">83</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp; 8.&mdash;Diagram showing the course of color heredity in the guinea-pig</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>&nbsp; 9.&mdash;Diagram illustrating the relation of the germ cells in a simple case of Mendelian heredity</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>10.&mdash;Diagram illustrating the phenomenon of regression</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>11.&mdash;Diagrams showing the relation between order of birth and incidence of pathological defect</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_125">125</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>12.&mdash;Coefficients of heredity of physical and psychical characters in school children</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>13.&mdash;Family history showing brachydactylism. Farabee's data</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>14.&mdash;Family history showing polydactylism</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_155">155</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>15.&mdash;Mother and daughters showing "split hand" <i>Facing</i></td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_156">156</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>16.&mdash;Two family histories showing "split foot" <i>Facing</i></td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_158">158</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>17.&mdash;Family history showing congenital cataract</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>18.&mdash;Family history showing a form of night blindness</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>19.&mdash;Family history showing a form of night blindness</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>20.&mdash;Family history showing Huntington's chorea</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_165">165</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>21.&mdash;Family history showing deaf-mutism</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>22.&mdash;Family history showing feeble-mindedness</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_169">169</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>23.&mdash;Family history showing angio-neurotic &#339;dema</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>24.&mdash;Family history showing tuberculosis</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>25.&mdash;Family history showing infertility</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>26.&mdash;Family history showing ability</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>27.&mdash;Family history showing ability</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>28.&mdash;History of three markedly able families</td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_183">183</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td>29.&mdash;History of <i>Die Familie Zero</i></td>
+  <td align="right"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>I<br /><br />
+THE SOURCES AND AIMS OF THE<br />
+SCIENCE OF EUGENICS</h2>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+<h2>I</h2>
+
+<h3>THE SOURCES AND AIMS OF THE SCIENCE OF EUGENICS</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+"Bravas to all impulses sending sane children to the next age!"<br />
+</p></div>
+
+
+<p>Eugenics has been defined as "the science of being well born." In the
+words of Sir Francis Galton, who may fairly be claimed as the founder
+of this newest of sciences, "Eugenics is the study of the agencies
+under social control, that may improve or impair the racial qualities
+of future generations, either physically or mentally."</p>
+
+
+<p>The idea of definitely undertaking to improve the innate
+characteristics of the human race has been expressed repeatedly
+through centuries&mdash;fancifully, seriously, hopefully, and now
+scientifically. Since the times of Theognis and of Plato the
+student of animate Nature has been aware of the possibility
+of the degradation or of the elevation of the human
+race-characters. The conditions under which life exists
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+gradually change: the customs and ideals of
+societies change rapidly. Times inevitably
+come when, if we are to maintain or to advance
+our racial position, we find it necessary to
+change in an adaptive way our attitude toward
+these changing social relations and conditions
+of life. If we neglect to do this we go down in
+the racial struggle, as history so clearly and so
+repeatedly warns us.</p>
+
+<p>In the opinion of many biologists and sociologists
+such a time has now arrived. The suspension
+of many forms of natural selection in
+human society, the currency of the "rabbit
+theory" of racial prosperity&mdash;based upon the
+idea of mere numerical increase of the population,
+the complacent disregard of the increase
+of the pauper, insane, and criminal elements of
+our population, the dearth of individuals of
+high ability&mdash;even of competent workmen, all
+are resulting in evil and will result disastrously
+unless deliberately controlled. It is hoped
+that this control, though at first conscious,
+"artificial," may later become fixed as an element
+of social custom and conscience and thus operate
+automatically and the more effectively. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+result will be not only the restoration of our
+race to its original vigor, mental and physical,
+but further the carrying on of the race to a surpassing
+vigor and supremacy.</p>
+
+<p>The aim of Eugenics is the production of a
+more healthy, more vigorous, more able humanity.
+Again in the words of Galton "The aim
+of Eugenics is to represent each class ... by
+its best specimens; that done to leave them to
+work out their common civilization in their own
+way.... To bring as many influences as can
+be reasonably employed to cause the useful
+classes in the community to contribute more
+than their present proportion to the next generation";
+and further, we might add, to cause
+the useless, vicious classes to contribute to the
+next generation less than their present proportion.</p>
+
+<p>With this definition of Eugenics and preliminary
+statement of its aims before us we may
+proceed to a somewhat fuller statement of the
+facts within this field. First let us consider the
+relation of the science of Eugenics to its parent
+sciences, biology and sociology, then after mentioning
+some of the steps in the development of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+the present eugenic movement, we may describe
+some of the conditions which give us human
+beings pause and lead us to appreciate the
+necessity for a reconsideration of much that enters
+into our present social organization and
+conduct.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly before the publication of "The
+Origin of Species," Darwin was asked by Alfred
+Russell Wallace whether he proposed to
+include any reference to the evolution of man.
+Darwin's reply was: "You ask whether I shall
+discuss man. I think I shall avoid the whole
+subject, as so surrounded with prejudices;
+though I fully admit that it is the highest and
+most interesting problem for the naturalist."
+This prejudice which Darwin knew would preclude
+a just consideration of the subject of
+man's origin and evolution, grew out of the
+former and long current conception of the position
+occupied by man in the whole scheme of
+Nature&mdash;of "Man's Place in Nature."</p>
+
+<p>This conception, happily obsolete now among
+thinkers, though occasionally seen lurking in
+out of the way corners shaded from the light
+of modern philosophy and science, placed Man
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>
+and the rest of the universe in separate categories.
+Man was one, all the rest another. It
+was for Man's benefit or pleasure that the rains
+descended, that the corn grew and ripened, that
+the sun shone, the birds sang, the landscape
+was spread before the view. For Man's warning
+or punishment the lightning struck, comets
+appeared, disease ravaged, insects tormented
+and destroyed. It was certainly very natural
+that Man should regard himself as a thing
+apart, particularly since he was able to control
+and to regulate Nature, and to take tribute
+from her so extensively. But the scientist regarded
+man differently; from him the world
+learned to recognize man as an integral factor
+in Nature&mdash;as one with Nature, possessing the
+same structures, performing the same activities,
+as other animals; subject to much the same
+control and with much the same purposes
+in life and in Nature as other living things. There
+is to-day no necessity to enlarge upon this view.
+As Ray Lankester puts it: "Man is held to be
+a part of Nature; a being, resulting from and
+driven by the one great nexus of mechanism
+which we call Nature."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
+But the echoes of the older na&iuml;ve view of Man
+and his Nature sounded long after the rational
+scientific conception had become dominant. It
+is not so very long ago that psychology was little
+more than human psychology; nor has sociology
+long since gone outside the purely human
+for explanations of the facts of human
+society. Nowadays, however, psychology has
+a firm comparative basis and sociology finds
+much that is illuminating and helpful in the
+purely biological aspects of the human animal.
+Very naturally, then, we have had social science
+studying man as Man, with a capital M:
+biological science studying man as a natural
+animal.</p>
+
+<p>But now that modern trend of scientific synthesis
+which has brought forth a Physical-Chemistry
+and a Chemical-Physiology and a
+Bio-Chemistry, is combining the purely social
+and the purely biological studies of man into
+a new Bio-Sociology. And as one phase of this
+new partnership we have the subject of Eugenics&mdash;the
+science of racial integrity and progress,
+built upon the overlapping fields of Biology
+and Sociology.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+We can trace the idea, perhaps better the
+hope, of Eugenics from the modern times of
+ancient Greece. Plato laid stress upon the idea
+of the "purification of the State." In his Republic
+he pointed out that the quality of the
+herd or flock could be maintained only by breeding
+from the best, consciously selected for that
+purpose by the shepherd, and by the destruction
+of the weaklings; and that when one was
+concerned with the quality of his hunting dogs
+or horses or pet birds, he was careful to utilize
+this knowledge. He drew attention to the necessity
+in the State for a functionary corresponding
+to the shepherd to weed out the undesirables
+and to prevent them from multiplying
+their kind. Plato stated clearly the essential
+idea of the inheritance of individual qualities
+and the danger to the State of a large and increasing
+body of degenerates and defectives.
+He called upon the legislators to purify the
+State. But the legislators paid no heed. The
+able-bodied and able-minded continued to be
+sacrificed to the God of War; the degenerates
+and defectives&mdash;not fit to fight&mdash;were the ones
+left at home to become parents of the next generation.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+And to-day Greece remains an awful
+warning.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot describe or even enumerate the
+wrecks of the many plans for race improvement
+that are strewn from Plato to our day.
+Sporadic, emotional, visionary, often it must
+be confessed suggested by possibilities of material
+gain to the "leader"&mdash;they have all passed.
+They failed because they were unscientific; because
+there was available no solid foundation
+of determined fact upon which to build. One
+need suggest only the Oneida Community, as
+it was originally planned, or the Parisian society
+of <i>L'Elite</i>&mdash;in both of which the selection
+of mates was to be carefully controlled&mdash;or
+some of the fantasies of Bernard Shaw, to indicate
+the character of these failures.  Only
+recently have we become able to suggest the
+possibility of race improvement by scientific
+methods, and only very recently has the possibility
+appeared in the light of a necessity, the
+alternative being the universal reward of the
+unsuccessful.</p>
+
+<p>The present eugenic movement may be said
+to date from 1865 when Francis Galton showed
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>
+that mental qualities are inherited just as are
+physical qualities, and pointed out that this
+opened the way to an improvement of the race
+in all respects. The data in support of this
+pregnant conclusion were included in Galton's
+work on "Hereditary Genius" published in
+1869, when he again emphasized definitely the
+possibility and desirability of improving the
+natural qualities of the human race. His suggestions
+fell upon the stony ground of ignorance
+even of the most elementary facts of
+heredity. The subject was raised again in his
+"Inquiries into the Human Faculty" in 1883,
+and the word "Eugenics" was then coined.
+The ground was still non-receptive.</p>
+
+<p>Then followed a period of rapid increase in
+our knowledge of heredity in animals and
+plants and in 1901 Galton returned again to
+the subject, this time in a more direct and elaborate
+way, and his Huxley Lecture of that year
+before the Anthropological Institute was upon
+"The Possible Improvement of the Human
+Breed under the Existing Conditions of Law
+and Sentiment." This time he received a real
+hearing, partly on account of recent disclosures
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+regarding the state of human society and its
+trends in Great Britain, chiefly because there
+was at last a real scientific basis for such a proposal.
+In this lecture, after declaring that the
+possibility of human race culture is no longer
+to be considered an academical or impractical
+problem, Galton proceeded to show that we
+have a sufficient biological knowledge of man to
+furnish a working basis. We know of man's
+variability and heredity&mdash;that some men are
+worth more than others in the community, and
+that individual traits are also family possessions.
+This he followed up with definite suggestions
+as to possible means of the "augmentation
+of favored stock."</p>
+
+<p>The then recently organized Sociological Society
+of London took up the subject enthusiastically,
+and in 1904 and 1905 Galton was invited
+to deliver addresses before the Society
+upon this topic. In his first address he spoke
+upon "Eugenics: its Definition, Scope, and
+Aims." This proved to be a statement of the
+elementary principles of the subject&mdash;a sort of
+eugenic creed. Here Galton struck fire. The
+reading of his paper was followed by very extended
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>
+discussion and criticism, and he received
+some enthusiastic support. A few of these enthusiastic
+supporters brought forth, on the spur
+of the moment, wonderful, visionary schemes
+for eugenic progress; much of the adverse criticism
+went wide of the mark; and, on the whole,
+Galton must have felt that at least he had demonstrated
+fully one need for which he had
+spoken, that of developing a race of able thinkers.
+Galton's second address before the same
+society the year following was partly directed
+at some of this hasty criticism and partly devoted
+to the setting forth of the possibly ultimate
+place of the ideals of race improvement
+in the conscience of the community, and to
+showing how the whole subject is fraught with
+"the greatest spiritual dignity and the utmost
+social importance."</p>
+
+<p>The subject was now fairly launched. Magazine
+articles appeared on "The New National
+Patriotism," "Breeding Better Men," <i>et cetera</i>.
+Meanwhile the bio-sociologist settled down to
+work. And during the five years that have
+since passed an immense amount of knowledge
+has been gained, and a large number of excellent
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>
+workers recruited. Interest in the subject
+is now general, and its importance recognized
+as vital. Karl Pearson, known as a good
+fighter, is Galton's "beak and claws," performing
+for him much the same kind of service that
+Huxley performed for Darwin nearly fifty
+years ago. Galton himself has established a
+Eugenics Laboratory under the direction of
+Professor Pearson in the Biometric Laboratory
+of the University of London and has
+endowed a Research Fellowship and Research
+Scholarships. This laboratory is publishing
+a series of Memoirs and a series of Lectures
+upon eugenic topics. The University
+of London is publishing, with the assistance
+of the Drapers' Company, a series of "Studies
+in National Deterioration." A periodical,
+<i>The Eugenics Review</i>, is established
+and appearing regularly. A Eugenics Education
+Society has been founded to popularize
+and disseminate the technical information contained
+in the memoirs and special papers.
+England remains the seat of greatest activity
+and interest, but much is being done now in
+this country. In America the subject is largely
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>
+under the auspices of the American Breeders
+Association, which has organized an extremely
+efficient Committee on Eugenics with which a
+large number of biological and medical workers
+are co&ouml;perating. This committee has co&ouml;perated
+in the establishment of a Eugenics Record
+Office, at Cold Spring Harbor, under the direction
+of H. H. Laughlin. Relevant facts are
+beginning to pour in from many directions;
+eugenic ideals are being given practical expression,
+and the science is rapidly gaining
+headway.</p>
+
+<p>It may be asked: "Well, what is it all about;
+are we as a nation not doing well&mdash;well
+enough?" Is it not true, as some have suggested,
+that this eugenic movement is but one
+more expression of England's temporary national
+hysteria transferred to this country? In
+answer to such queries let us state some of the
+conditions which have suggested to so many
+sober thinkers and observers that the time is
+arriving, has in fact arrived, when we must
+begin to think of the future of our communities
+and nations and of our race, rather than
+contentedly to read of and meditate upon the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>
+great achievements of our past, or to parade
+with self-satisfied air through our glass houses
+of Anglo-Saxon supremacy. Even were we
+unthreatened, were we amply holding our own,
+the mere fact of the possibility of a natural increase
+of human capacity would make it a practical
+subject of the utmost importance. We
+may be sure that somewhere a nation will avail
+itself of such a possibility as the increase of
+inherent native talent, physical, mental, moral,
+and will tend to become a strong and dominant
+people. Why should not <i>we</i> be that
+people?</p>
+
+<p>It seems that the facts that lead us to think
+of the future in this matter are of two quite distinct
+classes. First, we have a great mass of
+data relative to the composition of our societies
+and to the changing character of our population,
+social data of deep significance when
+broadly viewed and thoughtfully considered.
+Second, there are certain biological considerations,
+which all apart from existing social conditions
+should warn us to be on the lookout.
+First let us review briefly some of the latter,
+some of those biological considerations which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+lead us to regard thoughtfully the problem
+of the future evolution of man and his societies.</p>
+
+<p>As with other species of animals, each of us
+comes into the world equipped with a physical
+constitution and a few simple fundamental instincts.
+But unlike all other animals, the possession
+of these alone does not enable us to take
+and maintain our positions in the community
+life. Man's life to-day is subject to a great
+social heritage which, unlike his natural heritage,
+can be realized only as a result of his own
+activity and acquisition. Civilized man is the
+result of Nature plus Nurture. Civilization
+has been defined as "the sum of human contrivances
+which enable human beings to advance
+independently of heredity." The knowledge of
+fact, historic and scientific, of literature, of art,
+of custom, and manner, and all that goes to
+make up the culture and education which are
+the distinctive traits of our human lives&mdash;all
+this is no possession of ours when we make our
+first bow to society. Nor do these things become
+ours through a simple process of growth
+and development while we remain the passive
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span>
+subjects. All of these things represent
+the active individual acquirement of the racial
+accumulation of tradition and learning&mdash;what
+the biologist would call the results
+of modification. Our troubles begin when
+we realize that in the acquisition of this load
+each generation does not begin where the
+preceding left off, not at all&mdash;but we begin
+where our parents did. The first thing we do
+toward advancing our places in the world is
+to absorb what we can of the same kind of thing
+our forbears absorbed, learn over again their
+lessons, repeat their experiences; and then we
+proceed straightway to increase the difficulties
+for the next generation by writing more books,
+discovering more facts, making a little more
+history, and so it goes: the load of tradition
+increases with every successive generation, and
+so it has gone since the beginning of man's civilization.
+It is declared that the modern
+schoolboy knows more than did Aristotle. We
+cannot resist the inquiry, Has the modern
+schoolboy better native ability than had Aristotle?
+Here is the whole point of this matter;
+are we any better endowed mentally now that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>
+the amount to be mentally absorbed and accomplished
+is so many times greater? Has our
+capacity for mental accumulation kept pace
+with the amount to be accumulated, and with
+the necessity for such accumulation as a fitting
+for human life of the civilized variety?</p>
+
+<p>Madison Bentley has recently put it nicely in
+this way. Does talent grow with knowledge?
+"May we not suppose that the men and women
+of some distant glacial age, who dwelt upon the
+ice, wore the skin of the seal, and ate raw fish,
+had as much brain and as generous a measure
+of talent as have their remote descendants who
+wear sealskins, and eat ices and caviar?" He
+continues that we have little or nothing to show
+that the hereditary or innate growth of the
+mind has kept pace with the growing social
+heritage; that as regards mental endowment we
+begin where our distant ancestors began. The
+chief difference between us and them is that we
+proceed at once to burden ourselves with information
+and obligation which for them did
+not exist. To compass our languages, sciences,
+histories, arts, the complicated social, political,
+moral r&eacute;gime, we are supplied with virtually
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>
+the same minds that primitive man used for his
+primitive needs. Is it any wonder, he asks,
+that "education" is the central problem for
+our or any other advanced civilization?</p>
+
+<p>The biologist asks whether it is not high time
+to look beyond this artificial bolster of education,
+to the possibility of actual improvement
+of the innate mental abilities of man. The student
+of heredity and evolution looking at this
+problem has two contributions to make. First,
+if the mental capabilities of the present race are
+too limited, increase them; if our minds are
+too weak to carry the burdens which now must
+be carried, do not give up the task&mdash;strengthen
+the racial mind. Second, if we should seem to
+be in danger of developing a stock which is well
+fitted and able to carry the load of mental acquirement
+and to push on intellectually, but
+which is at the same time physically deficient,
+weak, or sterile, or susceptible to disease, do
+not let the intellectual capabilities diminish, but
+build up the physical constitution to a higher
+supporting level. These are not idle suggestions
+nor whimsical schemes. The biologist
+makes them knowing that these things are possible;
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>
+not only possible, they must be accomplished.
+We are foolishly building our civilization
+in the form of an inverted pyramid of
+individually acquired characteristics. This
+structure can be made stable only by supplying
+a broader basis of innate ability which can
+safely carry the load. This is the first biological
+warning to sociology.</p>
+
+<p>The second warning we may put in the form
+in which Ray Lankester in his "Kingdom of
+Man" has recently presented it so strikingly
+and which we may abstract freely and with
+some interpolation. "In Nature's struggle for
+existence, death ... is the fate of the vanquished,
+while the only reward to the victors
+... is the permission to reproduce their kind&mdash;to
+carry on by heredity to another generation,
+the specific qualities by which they triumphed."
+The <i>origin</i> of man, partly, at any
+rate, by such a process of natural selection, is
+one chapter in his history. Another begins
+with the development of his mental qualities,
+which are of such unprecedented power in Nature.
+These qualities so dominate all else in his
+"living" activities that they largely cut him
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>
+off from the general operations of natural selection.
+Perhaps the only direction in which
+natural selection is the chiefly operative factor
+in human evolution to-day is in the development
+of immunity from infectious disease. Just
+as man is a new departure in the unfolding
+scheme of the world, so his presence and characteristics
+lead to new methods of evolution, of
+survival, and the like. Knowledge, reason, self-consciousness,
+will, are new processes in Nature,
+and it is these which have largely determined
+the direction of man's history. Nature's
+discipline of death is more or less successfully
+resisted by the will of man. Man is Nature's
+Rebel. "Where Nature says 'Die'! Man says
+'I will live.'" By his wits and his will man has
+overcome many of Nature's bounds and difficulties
+without changing, as other organisms
+would, his innate characteristics. Not only this
+but man has obtained control of his surroundings
+and at every step of his development he
+has receded farther from the rule of Nature.
+Now "he has advanced so far and become so
+unfitted to the earlier rule, that to suppose that
+Man can 'return to Nature' is as unreasonable
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+as to suppose that an adult animal can return
+to its mother's womb."</p>
+
+<p>But at present man puts into operation no
+real substitute for natural selection. "The
+standard raised by the rebel man is not that of
+fitness to the conditions proffered by extra-human
+Nature, but is one of ideal comfort, prosperity,
+and conscious joy of life&mdash;imposed by
+the will of man and involving a control, and in
+important respects a subversion, of what were
+Nature's methods of dealing with life before
+she had produced her insurgent son." Progress
+in the control of Nature has been going on
+with enormous rapidity during the last two centuries
+particularly&mdash;the "nature searchers"
+have placed almost limitless power in the hands
+of men. And yet the builders of society and
+governments and nations have failed to profit
+by this increase in natural knowledge. In our
+social and national organization we remain
+fixed in the old paths of ignorance. Lankester
+says: "I speak for those who would urge the
+conscious and deliberate assumption of his
+kingdom by Man&mdash;not as a matter of markets
+and of increased opportunity for the cosmopolitan
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+dealers in finance&mdash;but as an absolute duty,
+the fulfillment of Man's destiny." The purpose
+of his essay is "to point out that civilized man
+has proceeded so far in his interference with
+extra-human Nature, has produced for himself
+and for the living organisms associated with
+him such a special state of things, by his rebellion
+against natural selection and his defiance
+of pre-human dispositions, that he must either
+go on and acquire firmer control of the conditions,
+or perish miserably by the vengeance certain
+to fall on the half-hearted meddler in great
+affairs." Man is a fighting rebel who at every
+forward step lays himself open to the liabilities
+of greater penalties should his attack
+prove unsuccessful. Moreover, while emancipating
+himself from the destructive and progressive
+methods of Nature, man has accumulated
+a new series of dangers and difficulties
+with which he must incessantly contend and
+which he must finally control. Man has taken
+a tremendous step&mdash;created desperate conditions
+by the exercise of his will&mdash;further control
+is essential in order that he should escape
+from final misery and destruction.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>
+Nor is this idle, academic invective. The biologist
+knows that this is true. It is not idle, for man
+has the means at his command&mdash;it is
+merely a question of their employment. This,
+then, is the second biological warning to sociology
+and to statecraft.</p>
+
+<p>Now we may return to consider briefly the
+nature of those social data which we suggested
+force us to think seriously of the problem of man's
+future.</p>
+
+<p>As a primary datum we may note the increasing
+population of the countries of Europe
+and North America (Fig. 1). The countries
+whose population is increasing most rapidly
+are the United States, Russia, and the German
+Empire. We know that one important factor
+of the increase in this country is that of immigration,
+but this is not sufficient to account for
+the total. There is continued multiplication
+of the native population, and of the immigrant
+after he is here. We wish only to point out in
+connection with this diagram the steady trend
+of the population upward, and the fact that obviously
+somewhere there must be a limit. This
+cannot go on without end.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;">
+<img src="images/fig1.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 1." title="Fig. 1." />
+<span class="caption">(From "Statistical Atlas," Twelfth Census of the United States.)<br />
+<span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> INCREASE OF POPULATION IN THE UNITED STATES AND
+THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF EUROPE FROM 1600 TO 1900</span></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>
+An extremely pertinent fact here has been
+disclosed by Pearson and is based upon very
+extensive observations among several different
+classes and nations. It is this&mdash;that one fourth
+of the married population of the present generation
+produce one half of the next generation.
+The death rate and the ratio of unmarried to
+married being what they are, this relation may
+be stated in this way&mdash;twelve per cent of all
+the individuals born in the last generation produced
+one half of the present generation.
+"This is not only a general law, but it is practically
+true for each class in the community."
+This conclusion is based upon data from the
+English, Danish, and Welsh peoples of professional,
+domestic, commercial, industrial, and
+pastoral classes, and the per cent of married
+persons found to be producing one half of each
+generation varies from twenty-three to twenty-seven
+with an average of twenty-five per cent.
+We must ask at once&mdash;what is the source of this
+fourth which is contributing double its quota
+to the next generation? Is this twenty-five
+per cent drawn proportionately from all classes
+of society or are some groups contributing relatively
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>
+more than others? Is there any relation
+between this superfertility and the possession
+of desirable or undesirable characteristics?
+We may answer at once&mdash;there is a distinct and
+positive relation between civic undesirability
+and high fertility. We shall return to this
+subject at the close of the next chapter; only
+the bare fact is to be mentioned at this time.</p>
+
+<p>It is a matter of common notice and remark
+that to-day, in England at any rate, there is a
+dearth of youthful ability. It exists in commerce,
+science, literature, politics, the bar, the
+church. We cannot dismiss as merely fashionable
+the statements that the able classes are not
+replacing themselves, that men of ability are
+less able than formerly. Whether or not this
+is also the condition in America to-day, we
+know that it soon will be the condition unless
+steps are taken to bring about a positive relation
+between civic desirability and ability and
+the numerical production of offspring.</p>
+
+<p>Let us turn to data of a somewhat different
+kind. The United States Census Reports for
+the decades from 1850 to 1900 (1904) include
+data relative to the number of prisoners in this
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>
+country. The returns for 1904 omitted certain
+classes previously enumerated so that for comparative
+purposes the figures given have to be
+corrected. On the corrected basis these reports
+show that the total number of prisoners in the
+United States increased from 6,737 in 1850 to
+about 100,000 in 1904, while the total population
+increased during the same time only from
+twenty-three to eighty millions (Fig. 2). The
+ratio of prisoners to the total population is
+of course the significant relation here, and
+this increased from 29 per 100,000 in 1850 to
+125 per 100,000 in 1904. Not all of this increase
+can be attributed to more rigid enforcement of
+the law or raised standards of morality; there
+is some reason for thinking that whatever
+change there has been in these respects has
+tended to have the opposite effect. We should
+note, in considering such data as these, that the
+penologist generally assumes that of the total
+number of offenders, actually only about ten
+per cent are in prison at any one time.</p>
+
+<p>During the last century, in France, many
+parts of Germany, and in Spain the increase in
+criminality was terrifying. In the United States
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>
+the number of murders and homicides per million
+of the entire population has nearly trebled
+in the last fifteen years (Fig. 2). The average
+for the five years from 1885 to 1889 inclusive
+was 38.5 per million, and for the five years
+from 1902 to 1906 it became 110 per million.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;">
+<img src="images/fig2.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 2." title="Fig. 2." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Relative and absolute numbers of prisoners in the
+United States from 1850 to 1904.</span></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>
+England's "defective" classes during the 22
+years between 1874 and 1896 increased from
+5.4 to 11.6 per thousand of the total; that is,
+more than doubled in that brief period. Rentoul
+has collected careful information regarding
+the number of insane or mentally defective
+and degenerate in Great Britain. In England
+the number of "officially certified" insane,
+which is far less than the actual number, increased
+from one to every 319 of the total
+population, to one to 285, in the nine years preceding
+1905. In Ireland comparison of the
+years 1851 and 1896&mdash;a period of 45 years intervening&mdash;shows
+an increase in the corresponding
+ratio from 1:657 to 1:178. The census
+of 1901 showed in Great Britain 484,507 mental
+defectives of all kinds; this is one to 85 of the
+total population, and probably if the whole
+truth were known the ratio would approximate
+1:50, according to Rentoul's calculation. The
+ratio of known insane just doubled in the decade
+preceding 1901. The Scottish Commission
+reports an increase in insane of 190 per cent
+since 1858, the total population increasing
+meanwhile by only 52 per cent.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>
+The worst side of these British statistics follows.
+In 1901, of the 60,000 and more, idiots,
+imbeciles, and feeble-minded, nearly 19,000&mdash;roughly
+one third&mdash;were married and free to
+multiply; and as for that matter a great many
+of those unmarried are known to have been
+prolific. In 1901, of the 117,000 lunatics, nearly
+47,000&mdash;considerably more than one third&mdash;were
+married. 65,700 idiots and lunatics legally
+multiplying their kind and worse! Rentoul
+rightly says: "The hand that wrecks the cradle
+wrecks the nation."</p>
+
+<p>In the United States the census of 1880 reported
+40,942 insane in hospitals, and 51,017
+not in hospitals&mdash;a total of 91,959 known insane.
+In 1903 the number in hospitals had increased
+to 150,151. The number not in hospitals was
+not given and cannot be determined accurately,
+but it is conservatively estimated as certainly
+not less than 30,000, and probably it is far
+greater than this. In many states it is known
+that about one fourth of the insane are not in
+hospitals. But taking the total of 180,000 as a
+conservative figure, the ratio of known insane
+in the total population was 225 per 100,000
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>
+in 1903 as compared with 183 per 100,000 in
+1880.</p>
+
+<p>The methods of the collection of such data
+vary in different countries so that the results
+are not comparable. In a single country there
+is less, though still some, lack of uniformity, so
+that the exact rate of increase in the ratio of
+the insane is still somewhat doubtful. Moreover,
+it is doubtless true that some of this apparent
+increase results from improved methods
+in the collection of data, and from more complete
+registration of these defectives. But suppose
+we disregard entirely the idea of an increase
+in the ratio of these defectives, the bare
+fact of the existence of nearly 200,000 insane
+in this country is sufficiently alarming; and it
+is disgraceful to any nation, because it is unnecessary.
+The Superintendent of the Ohio Institution
+for the Feeble Minded wrote in 1902:
+"Unless preventive measures against the progressive
+increase of the defective classes are
+adopted, such a calamity as the gradual eclipse,
+slow decay and final disintegration of our present
+form of society and government is not only
+possible, but probable."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>
+The latest census reports for the United
+States give data relative to the dependents and
+defectives in institutions. The numbers not
+in institutions can only be guessed at. But
+from the available sources we can gain an approximate
+conception of the numbers in our
+country to-day as follows:&mdash;insane and feeble
+minded, at least 200,000; blind, 100,000; deaf,
+and deaf and dumb, 100,000; paupers in institutions,
+80,000, two thirds of whom have
+children, and are also physically or mentally
+deficient, and to say that one half of the whole
+number of paupers are in institutions is to give
+a ridiculously low estimate; prisoners, 100,000,
+and several hundred thousand more that should
+be prisoners; juvenile delinquents, 23,000 in institutions;
+the number cared for by hospitals,
+dispensaries, "homes" of various kinds, in the
+year 1904 was in excess of 2,000,000. From
+these figures we get a rough total of nearly
+3,000,000. Must we define a civilized and enlightened
+nation as one in which only one person
+in every thirty can be classed as defective
+or dependent?</p>
+
+<p>It is needless to continue descriptions of this
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>
+kind. The foregoing are representative data;
+they are published by the volume. It is always
+the same story&mdash;rapid increase of the unfit, defective,
+insane, criminal; slow increase, even
+decrease of the fit, normal, or gifted stocks. It
+is with such conditions in mind that Whetham
+writes: "Although this suppression of the best
+blood of the country is a new disease in modern
+Europe, it is an old story in the history of nations
+and has been the prelude to the ruin of
+states and the decline and fall of empires."</p>
+
+<p>The ultimate aim of Sociology is doubtless
+the working out of the laws according to which
+stable communities are formed and maintained,
+and in which each component individual may
+enjoy and contribute the maximum of pleasure
+and profit. So the primary purpose of Statecraft
+is to produce a nation which shall be stable
+and enduring. This is all familiar ground.
+The objects of the nation's immediate activities
+and concern, protection from enemy, development
+of commerce and manufacture, agriculture,
+and education, all these are for the real
+purpose of establishing and promoting national
+integrity. No nation exists long without ideals
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>
+and traditions, without teachers, artists, poets,
+and yet the primary condition of the existence of
+all these is a great body of citizens characterized
+by physical and mental soundness&mdash;vigor
+and sanity. In searching for guiding principles
+in their great endeavors the sociologist
+and statesman have sought aid from many
+sources. But, as Pearson points out, Philosophy
+has thus far given no law by the aid of
+which we can understand how a nation becomes
+physically and mentally vigorous. Anthropology
+has done little to show wherein exists human
+fitness as a social organism. Political
+Economists object that they are not listened to
+with respectful consideration in legislative
+chambers. History is the favorite hunting
+ground of the statesman searching for guidance;
+but unfortunately history teaches chiefly
+by example and analogy, rarely by true explanation.
+And just as some gifted persons are able
+to give an apt Biblical quotation touching any
+occurrence whatever, so, many statesmen can
+cite some historical analogue which they offer
+as evidence for their views, whatever they are.
+These men are sincere, in their ignorance of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>
+nature of scientific proof. Finally, although
+the Statesman still holds rather aloof, the Sociologist
+comes now to the Biologist, inquiring
+whether by any chance he may be in possession
+of data or guiding principles which may be
+somehow of service in the building of stable
+societies. The Biologist does not send him
+away without contribution. The Sociologist
+makes known his needs, the Biologist displays
+his possessions, and it is at once evident to both
+that they have much in common, and that each
+is able to supply the other with some needed
+wares. Each may learn from the other; and
+best of all, the Biologist seems to have information
+which can be of the greatest service in their
+common work of building sound societies.</p>
+
+<p>And the biologist is grateful to the sociologist
+for reminding him that he, too, has sacred
+duties in this direction. He is too often forgetful
+that the real aim of his own, as of any science,
+is to be useful in real human life. It is
+pleasing to the biologist to feel that he is at last
+in possession of facts of value to the student
+of human society, for to him his debt is great.
+From the sociologist he has drawn the inspirations
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>
+which have led to some of his greatest discoveries.
+It was Malthus who suggested to
+Darwin the great principle of the struggle for
+existence among men which Darwin so successfully
+applied to other organisms, and used so
+profitably in building up his great theory of
+natural selection. It was from the sociologist
+that the biologist derived his idea of the physiological
+division of labor which has proved
+so fruitful a conception; and from the same
+source he has drawn many of his conceptions
+of organic individuality.</p>
+
+<p>We might suggest here some of the topics
+upon which biology has information of value
+in this bio-social field; many of these we shall
+discuss later on from our present and special
+point of view. First of all come the facts regarding
+the variability and variation of human
+beings, not alone in physical characteristics, but
+in respect to psychic traits as well. Here as in
+all organisms we must distinguish between true
+variations and bodily modifications; that is, we
+must be careful to make, as far as possible, the
+biological distinction between innate and acquired
+traits, particularly in considering mental
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>
+characteristics. Next must come consideration
+of the facts of heredity. This is undoubtedly
+the field of greatest importance to the
+Eugenist; facts of no other kind are of equal
+significance in determining the course of eugenic
+practice. We now have a fairly extensive
+working basis here from which to discuss heredity
+in man. The various phases of human selection
+should be noticed, in particular that
+known as selective fertility or differential fertility
+in different social groups or classes. Another
+evolutionary factor of importance here
+is that of "isolation" in the many and varied
+forms which it assumes in human society, especially
+those which result from assortative and
+preferential mating, and from the operation
+of social convention, restrictions in marriage,
+and the like.</p>
+
+<p>Before discussing any of these subjects let us
+offer here just a word of caution to the enthusiast.
+The results gained in one field of science
+cannot be transferred <i>in toto</i> to another field
+and there be found to fit. Biology has learned
+much from Physics and Chemistry, but the biological
+applications of the laws of these sciences
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>
+must be carried out with the greatest
+care. Such transference has often been premature
+and attended by results retardative to
+progress in the field of Biology. Any formula
+borrowed from one science and applied in another
+must be rigorously tested under the new
+conditions. The indiscriminating application
+of biological laws in the field of sociology may
+result in confusion and retardation in the progress
+of both sciences, or at any rate in their
+practical applications. As Thomson points out
+in writing on this topic, human society is not
+only a complex of individual activities of a
+strictly biological character, but also and further
+it involves an integration and regulation
+of those activities which are not yet, at least,
+susceptible of concrete biological analysis.
+Thomson says: "The biological ideal of a
+healthful, self-sustaining, evolving human
+breed is as fundamental as the social ideal of a
+harmoniously integrated society is supreme."
+The great danger here lies in forgetting the
+fundamental and general character of the biological
+principles. The ideals of biology and
+sociology need not coincide, often they do not,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>
+but they must not conflict. In practice Eugenics
+must be largely a social matter; but in its
+theory, its fundamentals, it must be largely biological.</p>
+
+<p>The coming together of biology and sociology,
+and their common search for guiding principles
+in their common endeavor is likely to
+have results of several kinds. It is likely to
+bring out more clearly than has yet been done
+the distinction, in human life and society, between
+that which is fundamentally biological
+or animal, and that which is distinctly social.
+Such information will prove of especial value
+later when the time comes for the suggestion
+and carrying out of a definite eugenic program,
+when the time comes for the real eugenic organization
+of society. And further the close
+<i>rapprochement</i> of the two subjects will doubtless
+result in mutual aid and suggestion in the
+development of each subject in its own stricter
+field, outside the limits of their common meeting
+ground.</p>
+
+<p>Before bringing this introductory chapter
+to a conclusion we should suggest one further
+caution which must be borne in mind. There
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+may at times seem to be suggestions of antagonism
+between the biological and the social conceptions
+of what is eugenic and what is not.
+Much of this apparent discord will disappear
+if we recognize that after all the overlapping
+areas of the two subjects which have fused into
+the subject of Eugenics are relatively small
+portions of either whole subject. Sociology has
+for one of its aims, perhaps its chief aim, the
+improvement of the present condition of society.
+The sociologist is interested in the
+improvement of social conditions to-day and
+to-morrow. He wants to improve housing conditions,
+food and milk supplies, to reduce the
+curses of alcoholism, poverty, and crime, to
+take the children out of the factory and their
+mothers out of the sweatshop and put them
+into schools or under humane conditions of
+labor. And so on through a long list. The biologist
+or Eugenist is of course heartily with the
+sociologist in these endeavors, but as a human
+being, not as a biologist or Eugenist. For the
+Eugenist is, as such, by deliberate assumption
+and definition, directly interested in only such
+conditions as affect the innate characteristics
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>
+of the race, conditions which may not have direct
+reference to the present generation at all,
+but to the next and to future generations. As
+a Eugenist he is not concerned with factory
+legislation, alcoholism, or play grounds, unless
+it can be shown that there is a relation between
+these things and the innate mental and physical
+properties of the race. If there is such a
+relation, of improvement or impairment, these
+are eugenic topics; if there is no such relation
+they are purely social topics, and the Eugenist
+does not deal with them, not because they are
+not worth dealing with, but because they are
+then by definition outside his field. In the end
+the Eugenist hopes, with the Sociologist, to accomplish
+these social betterments, but he believes
+that these will come as by-products in the
+process of innate racial improvement&mdash;improvement
+in the inherent, physical, mental, and moral
+qualities of the human kind, and that accomplished
+in this way the results will be more
+stable and permanent than any accomplished by
+attacking the problems as such and separately,
+largely leaving out of account the real and
+fundamental cause&mdash;bad human protoplasm.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>
+Eugenics is not offered as a universal cure
+for social ills: no single cure exists. But
+the Eugenist believes that no other single factor
+in determining social conditions and practices
+approaches in importance that of racial
+structural integrity and sanity. The Eugenist
+would oppose only those social activities, if
+such there be, that conflict with his ideal of
+genuine, progressive, human evolution. The
+main question which the Eugenist would raise
+here is largely that of the economy of effort&mdash;whether
+it were not better by concentrating
+upon a few activities, known to give permanent
+results, once for all to end an intolerable social
+condition, rather than to attempt the Sisyphean
+task.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion let us quote a few sentences
+from Francis Galton. "Charity refers to the
+individual; Statesmanship to the nation; Eugenics
+cares for both.... I take Eugenics
+very seriously, feeling that its principles ought
+to become one of the dominant motives in a civilized
+nation, much as if they were one of its
+religious tenets.... Man is gifted with pity
+and other kindly feelings; he has also the power
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>
+of preventing many kinds of suffering. I conceive
+it to fall well within his province to replace
+Natural Selection by other processes that
+are more merciful and not less effective. This
+is precisely the aim of Eugenics. Its first
+object is to check the birth rate of the Unfit instead
+of allowing them to come into being,
+though doomed in large numbers to perish prematurely.
+The second object is the improvement
+of the race by furthering the productivity
+of the Fit, by early marriages and the healthful
+rearing of their children. Natural Selection
+rests upon excessive production and wholesale
+destruction; Eugenics on bringing no more individuals
+into the world than can be properly
+cared for, and those only of the best stock."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>II<br /><br />
+
+THE BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF<br />
+EUGENICS</h2>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span></p>
+<h2>II</h2>
+
+<h3>THE BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EUGENICS</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The gist of histories and statistics as far back as the records
+reach, is in you this hour,..."</p></div>
+
+
+<p>We must now proceed to consider
+briefly and with only the necessary
+detail the modes of application of
+certain biological principles and data in this
+special field of Eugenics. First of all a clear
+understanding of the basic ideas of variability
+and heredity must be had as a primary condition
+of an appreciation of their significance
+for the subject before us.</p>
+
+<p>Like any other organism a human being is
+a bundle of characteristics, physical and psychical.
+Each person has a definite stature and
+span, possesses fingers and toes, a head, eyes,
+ears, hair of a certain color, and so on through
+a long list of physical traits. Physiological
+characteristics has he also, such as muscular
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>
+strength, resistance to fatigue or to disease of
+many kinds, digestive and assimilative powers,
+a rate of heart beat, a blood pressure, an habitual
+gait, posture, a characteristic way of
+clasping the hands or of twirling the thumbs&mdash;and
+so almost <i>ad infinitum</i>. He also possesses
+certain physiological traits more closely related
+with the action of the central nervous
+system&mdash;keenness of vision, or hearing, or
+smell, memory, vivacity, cheerfulness, self-assertiveness,
+self-consciousness, reasoning power,
+determination, and the like.</p>
+
+<p>There is a period during the existence of each
+human being when he does not seem to possess
+these traits or anything resembling them. For
+at the beginning of his existence as a new and
+separate creature, every individual, among the
+groups of higher organisms, has the form of a
+single organic cell&mdash;the germ. This germ may
+be, as it is in man, of microscopic dimensions,
+and it always shows a comparatively slight degree
+of differentiation of structure. Moreover,
+the parts and organs of the germ bear no actual
+or visible resemblance at all to the organs
+and parts of the organism into which the germ
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>
+rapidly develops. In other words, in the germ
+of an organism we have a structure, partly material,
+partly dynamic, the components of which
+in some way represent the adult characteristics
+without resembling them. During the period
+of the development of the individual, that is to
+say, during its "ontogeny," these characteristics
+of the germ become expressed in their final
+or adult form.</p>
+
+<p>For our purpose it is not necessary to inquire
+precisely how it is that the structure of the
+germ can thus represent or determine the structures
+growing out of it. It must suffice to see
+that somehow the characteristics of the germ
+lead to the formation or development of other
+characters, and these in turn to still others until
+at last a period of comparative changelessness
+is reached, when we say that development is
+completed. It is important to recognize, however,
+that this development is fundamentally
+a process of reaction, the reaction between
+the germ and its surrounding conditions. The
+characteristics of the adult organism are <i>determined</i>
+primarily by the structure of the
+germ; they <i>appear</i> gradually and successively,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>
+as the growing organism reacts to its environing
+conditions.</p>
+
+<p>An adult organism is continually doing certain
+things&mdash;performing certain movements,
+producing certain secretions, undergoing a
+great variety of physical and chemical changes.
+Just what the organism does at any given moment
+is in reality determined by two groups of
+factors: first, it depends, obviously, upon the
+structure of the organism acting, upon the organs
+it has to act with, and upon the precise
+condition of these organs and of the whole
+individual; and second, it depends upon the
+nature of those conditions outside of and affecting
+the organism which lead it to act at all.
+Either group of factors taken alone will not
+lead to any activity; activity of an organism
+must be a reaction between organismal structure
+and environing conditions&mdash;an irritable
+substance and stimuli to activity. And the
+character or quality of an act is affected by
+circumstances within either set of factors.</p>
+
+<p>In much the same way the germ acts, and
+its action is similarly a reaction between the
+structure of the germ and its environing conditions.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>
+The germ reacts by producing certain
+parts, differentiating certain structures, in
+short, by developing. The normal activities or
+reactions of the adult organism we call in general
+its "behavior." The normal activities or
+reactions of the germ and embryo we call "development";
+the normal behavior of the germ
+is development. And in the latter, as well as
+in the former, changes in either set of factors
+lead to changes in the nature of the result of
+their interaction, i. e., to changes in the characteristics
+actually appearing as the result of development.</p>
+
+<p>In their fully developed state some of the
+traits or characteristics of organisms are single,
+simple, fundamental characters, not analyzable
+into more elementary factors. Such
+are the number of fingers, or of joints in the
+fingers, absence of pigments of several kinds
+from the eyes or hair, presence of cataract, <i>et
+cetera</i>. These so-called "unit characters" are
+roughly analogous to the chemical elements
+which may, as units, be combined and recombined
+in diverse ways, but which always maintain
+their integrity as elements although different
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>
+combinations produce wholes that are
+unlike. Each unit character in the adult is the
+result of a series of reactions between the environing
+conditions of development and a
+germinal structural unit, as yet hypothetical
+and provisionally called the "determiner,"
+which in some way not yet understood represents
+this adult trait.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, there are many of these
+things which we call characteristics which seem
+to be composite, capable of being analyzed or
+factored into a group of simpler components
+or unit characters. Such apparently are stature,
+span, resistance to fatigue, and probably
+most psychic traits. Each of these complexes
+results apparently from a series of reactions
+between the conditions of development and a
+group of hypothetical germinal determiners
+that tend to be associated within the germ.</p>
+
+<p>The presence or absence of a determiner in
+a germ is thus the primary cause of the corresponding
+presence or absence of a certain
+characteristic in the adult organism.</p>
+
+<p>But whatever the essential nature of the
+characteristic in this respect, whether simple
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>
+or complex, we know further that every organismal
+characteristic is subject to variation. In
+any group of human individuals, for example,
+we can find persons of different stature, different
+weight, with fingers of different length
+and form, with heads of different size and
+shape, hair and eyes of different shades, different
+blood pressures, pulse rates, digestive
+possibilities, different degrees of determination,
+cheerfulness, alertness, and so forth. This
+fact of variation is not limited to the comparison
+of the individuals of a given group or
+generation among themselves, but successive
+generations considered as the units of comparison
+show the same sort of thing. And
+further successive broods from the same parents
+exhibit this same phenomenon of variation
+when compared with one another. Variation
+is a universal fact&mdash;not only among organic
+things but in the inorganic world as well. The
+variation which any company of persons shows
+in stature is paralleled by the variation in the
+diameter of the grains in a handful of sand,
+or of the drops in a rainstorm.</p>
+
+<p>When we examine the phenomena of variation
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>
+carefully we find that they are of two quite
+distinct categories. The first kind of variation,
+that which we most frequently think of as
+"variation," should properly be termed <i>variability</i>.
+Differences of this type are small
+<i>fluctuations</i> in any and every character, centering
+about an average or mean, which is itself
+fairly definite and fixed&mdash;less subject to variation
+in different groups or through successive
+generations. For example, if we measure by
+inches the stature of a thousand or more persons
+chosen at random we find that they may
+vary from fifty-four to seventy-six inches; the
+most frequent heights might be about sixty-nine
+and sixty-four inches among the men and
+women respectively. The results of such a
+measurement may be expressed graphically as
+in Figure 3, which is an expression of the measurement
+of 1,052 mothers. The measurement
+of almost any characteristic in a large group
+of any organisms usually gives a result of the
+kind figured. The most significant fact here is
+that this normal variability exhibited by the
+traits of living organisms follows closely the
+laws of chance or probability. That is to say,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>
+the number of individuals occurring in any
+class which has a certain deviation above or
+below the average, is directly related to, or
+dependent upon (in mathematical terms, "is a
+function of"), the extent of the deviation of
+the value of that class from the average of the
+whole group. The significance of this is that
+the precise fluctuation which we find in any
+individual is the result of the operation of a
+large number of causes or factors, each contributing
+slightly and variably to the total
+result.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;">
+<img src="images/fig3.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 3." title="Fig. 3." />
+<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Recorded measurements of the stature of 1,052
+mothers. The height of each rectangle is proportional to the number of
+individuals of each given height. The curve connecting the tops of the
+rectangles is the normal frequency curve. The most frequent height is
+between 62 and 63 inches. Average height&mdash;62.5 inches. Standard
+deviation, 2.39 inches. Coefficient of variability, 3.8 (2.39=3.8+ %
+of 62.5 inches). (From Pearson.)</span></p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>
+Many of the most important facts about
+variability can be illustrated by a simple model
+such as that suggested by Galton. This is a
+modification of the familiar bagatelle board,
+covered with glass and arranged as shown in
+Fig. 4. A funnel-shaped container at the top
+of the board is filled with peas or similar objects
+(Fig. 4, <i>A</i>). Below this is a regular
+series of obstacles symmetrically arranged, and
+below these, at the bottom of the board, is a
+row of vertical compartments also arranged
+symmetrically with reference to the chief axis
+of the whole system. If we allow the peas
+to escape from the bottom of the container
+and to fall among the obstacles into the compartments
+below we find that their distribution
+there follows certain laws capable of precise
+mathematical description, so that it might be
+predicted with fair accuracy (Fig. 4, <i>B</i>). The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>
+middle compartment will receive the most;
+the compartments next the middle somewhat
+fewer; those farther from the middle still
+fewer; and the end compartments fewest. If
+we connect the top of each column of peas by
+a curved line we get just such a curve as
+that given by the stature measurements above
+(Fig. 3), i. e., the normal frequency curve. A
+curve of the same essential character would result
+from plotting the dimensions of a thousand
+cobblestones, the deviations from the bull's-eye
+in a target-shooting contest, or by plotting
+the variability of any organismal character&mdash;whether
+it be the stature or strength of men,
+the spread of sparrows' wings, the number of
+rays on scallop shells, or of ray-flowers of
+daisies.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;">
+<img src="images/fig4.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 4." title="Fig. 4." />
+<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Model to illustrate the law of probability or "chance." Description in the text.
+<i>A</i>, Peas held in container at top of board. <i>B</i>, Peas after having fallen through the obstructions
+into the vertical compartments below. The curve connecting the tops of the columns of
+peas is the normal probability curve.</span></p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>
+With this model we may illustrate many
+other essential facts about variability which
+must be borne in mind when approaching the
+problems of Eugenics. Before we allow the
+peas to fall we know quite definitely what the
+general distribution of them all will be, but we
+do not know at all the future position of any
+single pea. Of this we can speak only in terms
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>
+of probability; the chances are very high that
+it will fall in one of the three middle compartments,
+very low that it will be in one of the extreme
+compartments. But the chances are
+equal, whatever they are, that it will fall above
+or below the average or middle position. We
+see then that in any group there are many more
+individuals near the average, i. e., mediocre,
+than there are in the classes removed from the
+average and the farther the remove of a class
+from the average the smaller the number of
+individuals in that class. Yet all the individuals
+belong to the same whole group. This
+leads to the very important fact that <i>an individual
+may belong to a group without representing
+it fairly</i>. The average individuals are
+the most representative. But in order to get a
+correct idea of the whole group we must know,
+first, to what <i>extent</i> deviations occur in each
+direction, above and below the group average,
+and, second, the average <i>amount</i> by which each
+individual of the group deviates from this
+group average. That is, we must know the
+amount of variability as well as the extent of
+the greatest divergence from the average. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+best measure of the amount of variability exhibited
+by any group of objects or organisms
+is not the simple average or mean of all the
+individual deviations from the average of the
+group; it is the square root of the mean squared
+deviations from the group average. This is
+called the <i>index</i> of variability or "standard
+deviation." In order to make possible the comparison
+of the variabilities of characteristics
+measured in unlike units, such as weight and
+stature, this index must be converted into an
+equivalent abstract quantity. This is done by
+reducing the index of variability to per cents
+of the group average, giving what is called the
+<i>coefficient</i> of variability. Thus, for example,
+in stature the index of variability (standard
+deviation) of certain classes of men is approximately
+2.7 inches; that is, in a large group of
+men the amount of individual variation from
+the average height of 69 inches amounts to 2.7
+inches. This gives an abstract <i>coefficient</i> of
+about 4.0 per cent, for 2.7 equals 3.9 per cent
+of 69. Similarly the index of variability of the
+weight of a group of university students has
+been found to be about 16.5 pounds; the average
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>
+weight is about 153 pounds, and the coefficient
+of variability is therefore about 10.8
+per cent (16.5 equals 10.78 per cent of 153).
+Although pounds and inches may not be compared,
+these two abstract coefficients may be,
+and we may say that men are more than twice
+as variable in weight as in stature.</p>
+
+<p>Turning now to variation of the second type
+we find what are ordinarily called <i>mutations</i>,
+or differences quite properly termed <i>variations</i>,
+in a strict sense, as distinguished from
+the preceding fluctuations or variability phenomena.
+Mutations or variations are abrupt
+changes of the average or type condition to a
+new condition or value which then becomes a
+new center of fluctuating variability. The difference
+between variability and variation may
+be illustrated through an analogy suggested by
+Galton (Fig. 5). A polygonal plinth, or better
+a polyhedron, resting upon one face is easily
+tipped slightly back and forth, but after slight
+disturbance it always returns to its first position
+of stable equilibrium. Each face of the
+plinth or polyhedron represents an organismal
+characteristic; these slight backward and forward
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>
+movements represent fluctuations, always
+centering about the average condition. An unusually
+hard push sends the plinth over upon
+another face in which it has a new position of
+stability; this represents true variation or
+mutation. In this new position it is again
+stable, may again be rocked back and forth
+showing fluctuations about its new average
+position.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;">
+<img src="images/fig5.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 5." title="Fig. 5." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Plinth to illustrate the difference between variability
+(fluctuation) and variation (mutation).</span></div>
+
+<p>The essential difference between true variation
+and fluctuation or variability of an extreme
+nature, is with reference to the inheritance of
+such divergence. In the second generation the
+offspring of extreme variates or fluctuations
+have not the same average as their own parents
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>
+but an average much nearer that of the
+whole group to which their parents belonged;
+the average stature of the children of unusually
+short or tall parents is respectively greater
+or less than that of their own parents&mdash;that is,
+is nearer the average of the whole group of
+parents, provided the shortness or tallness of
+the parents is a fluctuation. When the shortness
+or tallness is a true variation or mutational
+character, offspring have approximately
+the same average stature as their immediate
+parents, although the children of course show
+fluctuation in height so that some are slightly
+above and others slightly below the parental
+height.</p>
+
+<p>Mutations may occur through the addition or
+the subtraction of single characters of the simple
+or unit type. Such are the variations from
+brown or blue eyes to albino, five fingers to six,
+and the like. These are the familiar "sports"
+of the horticulturalist and breeder. They are
+of the greatest value in evolution, for it seems
+quite likely that it is only through the permanent
+racial fixation of these mutations that
+permanent changes in the characters of a breed
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>
+may be effected, i. e., evolution occurs primarily
+through mutation.</p>
+
+<p>In connection with the general subject of
+variation we should mention briefly certain
+aspects of the recent work of Johannsen and
+Jennings, showing that many organic specific
+groups or "species," whose characters, when
+measured accurately give what is called a normal
+variability curve similar to that of stature
+illustrated in Fig. 3, are not really homogeneous
+groups of fluctuating individuals as the
+curves would indicate superficially, but that
+each gross group or species is actually composed
+of a blend of a number of smaller groups,
+each with its own average and fluctuating variability.
+It is only when these are taken all
+together as a lump that they fuse into a single
+and apparently simple curve.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;">
+<img src="images/fig6.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 6." title="Fig. 6." />
+<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Curves illustrating the relation between the pure
+line and the species or other large group. <i>A</i>, a "species" curve
+composed of three pure lines. <i>B</i>, the separate elements of the larger
+curve each with its own average and variability.</span></p></div>
+
+<p>For example, the curve shown in Fig. 6, A,
+which is approximately that of a normal distribution,
+in some cases might be shown by
+experimentation to consist in reality of several
+truly distinct elements, say three for purposes
+of illustration, as shown in Fig. 6, B. Each of
+these sub-groups has its own average and its
+own amount and extent of variability (fluctuation)
+and it is only by adding them together
+that we get the larger group. Each of these
+elementary groups is called a "pure line,"
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>
+which is defined as a group of organisms, all
+of which are the progeny of a single individual.
+The characteristics of each pure line remain
+stable through successive generations, each
+about its own average; and it is chiefly this
+fact that enables us to identify the different
+lines. Transition from the condition of one
+pure line to another occurs only as a mutation.
+At present the theory of the pure line is strictly
+applicable only to organisms reproducing asexually
+or to self-fertilizing forms where the
+group observed is actually composed of the
+progeny of a single organism. It is hardly
+possible to say as yet whether or not this extremely
+important theory is essentially applicable
+to the human species or any species where
+two organisms are involved in the establishment
+of a race or line, but there are some indications
+of a circumstantial nature that it is
+thus applicable in its essentials and so modified
+as to include this fact of biparental inheritance.</p>
+
+<p>With this bare skeleton of the subject of variation
+before us let us see how facts of this kind
+may have any significance for the subject of
+Eugenics, any bearing upon the possibility of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>
+racial improvement. When any of the varying
+human traits, and they all vary, is measured
+carefully and the results tabulated we find that
+they give us a curve approximating the normal
+frequency curve, such as we have described
+above and illustrated in Fig. 3. The coefficients
+of variability of a great many human traits are
+known and a few representative coefficients
+are given in Table I. This type of variability
+is given then, by measurements of physical
+characteristics of all kinds, and, what is of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>
+greater importance, physiological traits, including
+mental and moral characteristics, so far
+as they can be measured by present methods,
+vary in just the same way. Annual individual
+earnings give us a curve closely similar to that
+of a normal frequency curve with an approximate
+minimum limiting value. Even the tabulation
+of citizens according to their social
+standing or "civic worth" gives the same sort
+of thing. This has been brought out nicely in
+Galton's discussion of Booth's classification of
+the population of London.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Table I">
+<caption><span class="smcap">Table I</span><br />
+<i>Coefficients of Variability of Certain Human Traits</i></caption>
+<tr><td>Adult Stature</td><td align="right">3.6 to &nbsp; 4.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Length at Birth</td><td align="right">5.8 to &nbsp; 6.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Length of Limb Bones</td><td align="right">4.5 to &nbsp; 5.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cephalic Index</td><td align="right">3.7 to &nbsp; 4.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Skull Capacity</td><td align="right">7.0 to &nbsp; 8.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight (University Students)</td><td align="right">10.0 to 11.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight at Birth</td><td align="right">14.2 to 15.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of Brain</td><td align="right">7.0 to 10.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of Heart</td><td align="right">17.4 to 20.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of Liver</td><td align="right">14.3 to 22.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Weight of Kidney</td><td align="right">16.8 to 22.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Lung Capacity</td><td align="right">16.6 to 20.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Squeeze of Hand</td><td align="right">13.4 to 21.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Strength of Pull</td><td align="right">15.0 to 22.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Swiftness of Blow</td><td align="right">17.1 to 19.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Dermal Sensitivity</td><td align="right">35.7 to 45.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Keenness of Eyesight</td><td align="right">28.7 to 34.7</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It is not so easy to answer the question whether
+mutations or true variations are occurring
+frequently in the human species. Usually it is
+impossible to distinguish between an extreme
+fluctuation and a true variation without experimental
+test and the observation of the behavior
+of the varying trait through several generations.
+In most instances this has been impossible
+with human beings. From collateral evidence
+it seems quite probable that man is
+mutating with considerable frequency, especially
+with respect to psychic traits.</p>
+
+<p>The evolution of the race could be directed
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>
+more easily and permanent results attained
+more rapidly through taking advantage of valuable
+mutations than in any other way. A race
+truly desiring to progress would foster carefully
+anything resembling mutation in a favorable
+direction. As a matter of fact, however,
+our social custom leads us to look with disfavor
+upon most youthful traits that seem unusual
+or out of the ordinary. It would be difficult
+to devise a system of "education" which
+could more effectively repress than does our
+own the development of unusual mental traits.
+In this connection "abnormal" or "eccentric"
+may often mean a mutation in a profitable
+direction, a getting away from the average of
+mediocrity in the direction of improvement.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear that we have the raw materials
+for race improvement. There are some individuals
+with more and some with less than
+the average in any respect&mdash;physical, mental,
+moral. The average of a whole social group
+can be shifted by subtraction at one end or
+addition at the other, or more easily and more
+effectively by both together. In order to raise
+the general average of the value of any of these
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+traits it is not necessary to strive to exceed the
+known maximum value in any respect. The
+study of the "pure line," as mentioned above,
+shows that this may for a long time remain impossible,
+or at any rate difficult, pending the
+appearance of a mutation in a favorable direction.
+We can, however, raise the general average
+of physical strength or of mental or moral
+ability by increasing the relative number of
+individuals in the upper groups or by diminishing
+the number in the lower groups, most easily
+of course and most effectively by doing both
+of these things. By increasing the numbers
+composing the lines which form the upper elements
+of a social group we not only add immensely
+to the total value of the group but we
+do actually change somewhat the general average.
+On the other hand numerical increase in the lines in
+the lower part of the group will
+actually lower the average of the whole, though
+it does not actually affect the number of individuals
+in the more able and valuable classes.</p>
+
+<p>Another consideration is of great importance
+here. The average is affected only slightly by
+the change of individuals from class to class
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>
+near the average. But the shifting of even one
+or two per cent of the individuals into or out
+of extreme positions has a very marked effect
+upon the character of the total group and upon
+the average. In the life of the State the character
+of the general average of the citizens is
+of the greatest importance, and comparatively
+small deviations in the average of civic worth
+may mean much as regards the history of a
+democracy. Of course the average individuals
+in a social group may not be those of greatest
+influence; even when taken all together they
+may not determine the trend of the life of the
+society; but that does not alter the essential
+fact that the condition of the average of the
+population is of very great moment to a democratic
+state.</p>
+
+<p>Many of our social endeavors to-day serve in
+effect to raise individuals from one of the lower
+groups up to or toward the average. Millions
+of dollars and an incalculable amount of time
+and energy are spent annually in striving to
+accomplish this kind of result. How immeasurably
+greater would be the benefit to society
+if the same amount of energy and money were
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>
+spent in moving individuals from the middle
+classes on up toward the higher. In the development
+of our societies we need to use every possible
+means to carry individuals from positions
+near the average to positions above the
+average, and the farther this remove is above
+the average both in its starting point and its
+stopping point, the better for the social group.
+Elevation from mediocrity to superiority has
+far greater effect upon the social constitution
+than has elevation from inferiority to mediocrity.</p>
+
+<p>As the Whethams have written recently: "Of
+late years, the duty of the State to support the
+falling and fallen has been so much emphasized
+that its still more important duty to the able
+and competent has been obscured. Yet it is
+they who are the real national asset of worth,
+and it is essential to secure that their action
+should not be hampered, and their value sterilized,
+by the jealousy and obstruction of the
+social failures, and of others whom pity for
+the failures has blinded. Mankind has been
+shrewdly divided into those who do things
+and those who must get out of the way while things
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>
+are being done, and if the latter class do not
+recognize their true function in life, they themselves
+will suffer the most. The incompetent
+have to be supported partially or wholly by the
+competent, and, even for their own good, it
+would be worth while for the incompetent to
+encourage the freedom of action and the preponderant
+reproduction of the abler and more
+successful stocks. It is only where such stocks
+abound that the nation is able to support and
+carry along the heavy load of incompetence
+kept alive by modern civilization."</p>
+
+<p>In discussing the general subject of variation
+and variability in this connection, we must take
+always into account the biological distinction
+between variation and functional modification,
+between innate and acquired traits. Only the
+former are of real and primary value in evolution.
+The distinction is familiar and we cannot
+dwell upon it here; but it is of particular importance
+in dealing with social improvement
+and we shall return to it in the next chapter.
+Many "social variations" are in reality not
+variations at all, but modifications; although
+these may be of the greatest value to the in
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>dividual
+modified, they are artificial things
+without permanent value to the race. So many
+of the distinguishing personal traits are the
+results of nurture rather than of nature. They
+represent the result of the incidence of special
+factors in the environment. It is extremely
+difficult and at times impossible to distinguish
+between variations and modifications in adult
+characters, but in general the distinction is
+usually clear upon careful analysis.</p>
+
+<p>The changing of the innate characters of the
+human race is a slow process, depending chiefly
+upon the advantage taken of the appearance
+of real mutational variations. On the other
+hand, it is comparatively easy to improve the
+condition of the individual by improving his
+environing conditions&mdash;cleaning him, educating
+him, leading him to higher ideals in his physical
+and mental and moral life. But as this is
+easy, so it is impermanent. All this is modificational
+and has no influence upon the stock.
+This is not opposed by the Eugenist; it simply
+is no part of his province, for its effect is not
+racial. By releasing a deforming pressure it
+may permit the individual to come back to his
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+real structurally determined condition, but the
+structural condition itself is not thus affected.
+It is temporary and must be done over with
+each generation, or on account of the unfortunate
+habit of "backsliding," even at intervals
+shorter than that of a generation.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>Let us now turn to another phase of our subject
+and consider the biological methods of the
+description and measurement of heredity, as a
+preliminary to our next chapter in which we
+shall discuss the bearings of the facts of human
+heredity upon the possibility of the formation
+of a permanently improved human breed.</p>
+
+<p>The fact of heredity is one of the most familiar
+and patent things about organisms.
+"Do men gather grapes of thorns or figs of
+thistles?" For we may define heredity as the
+fact of general resemblance between parent and
+offspring. This simple definition is disappointing
+to many persons. "Heredity" is so often
+supposed popularly to refer only to some occasional,
+striking, and unusual similarity within
+a family respecting certain traits or peculiarities.
+Very often the idea of heredity seems
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>
+shrouded in mystery: it is some uncanny relation
+which explains peculiarities and helps the
+novelist out of difficulties, but is itself inexplicable.
+In truth, however, the fact that a boy,
+like his father, has a head and a heart and
+hands and feet, physical traits characteristic of
+the human species, that he begins to walk and
+talk and shave at about the same age as his
+father did&mdash;all this is the fact of heredity. The
+fact that guinea pigs produce guinea pigs and
+not rabbits is the fact of heredity. Often it is
+true that this resemblance is strikingly particular.
+All know of family traits; we may have
+our father's eyes or nose, our mother's hair or
+disposition, a grandfather's determination or
+a grandmother's patience. But these particular
+individual resemblances are no more and
+no less illustrations of heredity than the fact
+that on the whole children are more like their
+parents than like other human beings.</p>
+
+<p>The subject of heredity is of supreme importance
+in the practice of Eugenics. The facts of
+no other department of biological inquiry are
+of equal value, and at the same time there is
+probably no biological subject regarding which
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>
+there is so much misunderstanding. Of the
+many phases of this extremely fascinating subject
+there are chiefly two with which we are
+particularly concerned as Eugenists. These
+are the questions: first, how completely are all
+the distinguishing traits of either or both parents
+represented in the offspring; and, second,
+how completely is each trait inherited that is
+inherited at all? In other words, what we are
+chiefly interested to know, as bearing upon the
+subject in hand, is whether all or only some of
+the characteristics of our parents are heritable,
+and whether the offspring show each inherited
+trait with the same intensity shown in the parent,
+or more, or less.</p>
+
+<p>One of the leading British students of heredity
+has said that no one should undertake
+the study of this subject unless he can instantly
+detect and explain the fallacy involved in the
+familiar conundrum, "Why do white sheep eat
+more than black ones?" It is perhaps the elasticity
+of our language that makes possible the
+mental confusion involved in this question, but
+yet it is certainly true that we do tend to confuse
+individual and statistical statements. We
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+must remember, in connection with this subject
+particularly, that an individual may belong to
+a group without representing it, and that within
+a group there are many more individuals
+with average than with exceptional characteristics.
+The mediocre is common, the extremes
+are rare. And yet an unusual individual may
+really be an outlying member of a normal
+group.</p>
+
+<p>In describing the facts of hereditary resemblance
+between successive generations two
+formulas are available. One deals ostensibly
+with the individual&mdash;the Mendelian formula:
+the other deals with the group&mdash;the statistical
+formula. It seems entirely probable that these
+are not formulas for describing two essentially
+different processes or forms of heredity, but
+that in reality these are two ways of describing
+the same facts seen from two different points
+of view. The Mendelian formula regards each
+individual separately and describes its heredity
+thus. The statistical formula regards the whole
+group as the unit and considers the individual
+not as such, but as one of the crowd, concerning
+which statements can be made only in terms
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>
+of averages and probabilities; black sheep and
+white. Of these two formulas the Mendelian is
+obviously of much the greater importance on
+account of its more exact, more particular character;
+its greater definiteness gives it a value
+in the treatment of eugenic problems that statistical
+statements must inherently lack. While
+much has been written of late regarding the
+Mendelian formula of heredity, we shall find it
+profitable to repeat here its general outlines
+and to recall a few of the essential features of
+this important law that we shall make much use
+of later.</p>
+
+<p>Let us have a concrete illustration. One of
+the simplest cases is that of the heredity of
+color in the Andalusian fowl which has been so
+clearly described by Bateson. There are two
+established color varieties of this fowl, one with
+a great deal of black and one that is white with
+some black markings or "splashes"; for convenience
+we may refer to these as the black and
+white varieties respectively. Each of these
+breeds true by itself. Black mated with black
+produce none but black offspring, white mated
+with white produce none but white offspring.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>
+Crossing black and white, however, results in
+the production of fowls with a sort of grayish
+color, called "blue" by the fancier, though in
+reality it is a fine mixture of black and white.
+At first sight we seem to have a gray hybrid
+race through the mixture of the black and the
+white races. Not so: for if we continue to breed
+successive generations from these blue hybrid
+fowls we get three differently colored forms.
+Some will be blue like the parents, some black
+like one grandparent, some white like the other
+grandparent. Not only this but we get certain
+definite proportions among these three classes
+of descendants. Of the total number of the immediate
+offspring of the hybrid blues, approximately
+one half will be blue like the parents,
+approximately one fourth black, and one fourth
+white like each of the grandparents. Now
+comes the most important fact of all. These
+blacks, bred together produce only blacks, the
+whites similarly produce only whites; the blues,
+on the other hand, when bred together produce
+progeny sorting into the same original classes
+and in the same proportions as were produced
+by the blues of the original hybrid generation.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>
+Their blacks and whites each breed true, their
+blues repeat the history of the preceding blues.
+No race of the hybrid character can be established:
+blues always produce blacks and whites,
+as well as blues. A summary of this history
+in graphic and diagrammatic form is given in
+Fig. 7.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;">
+<img src="images/fig7.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 7." title="Fig. 7." />
+<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 7.&mdash;Diagram showing the course of color heredity in
+the Andalusian fowl, in which one color does not completely
+dominate another. <i>P</i>, parental generation. The
+offspring of this cross constitute <i>F<sub>1</sub></i>, the first filial
+or hybrid generation. <i>F<sub>2</sub></i>, the second filial generation.
+Bottom row, third filial generation.</span></p></div>
+
+<p>This law of heredity was first discovered
+about forty-five years ago by Gregor Mendel,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>
+working with peas in the garden of the Augustinian
+monastery in Br&uuml;nn, Austria. His work
+curiously failed to arouse the interest of contemporary
+scientists and his results were soon
+completely lost sight of. The independent rediscovery
+of Mendel's formulas of heredity,
+about ten years ago, was probably the most
+important event in the history of biology and
+evolution since the publication of "The Origin
+of Species."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;">
+<img src="images/fig8.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 8." title="Fig. 8." />
+<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Diagram showing the course of color heredity in the
+guinea pig, in which one color (black) completely dominates
+another (white). Reference letters as in Fig. 7.</span></p></div>
+
+<p>In most cases of Mendelian heredity the progeny
+are less easily classified than in the case
+above, because the hybrid individuals resemble
+one or the other of the parents, quite or very
+closely. For instance the crossing of the black
+and white varieties of guinea pigs gives hybrids
+that are all black like one parent. That is, when
+the black and white characters are brought together
+these do not appear to blend into a
+gray or "blue," as in the case of the Andalusian
+fowl, but one character alone appears; the
+black seems to cover up or wipe out the white.
+This illustrates the frequent phenomenon of
+<i>dominance</i>; one of the two contrasting characters,
+in this case the black color is said to dominate
+over the other and the two traits are described
+as <i>dominant</i> and <i>recessive</i> respectively.
+Fig. 8 gives a graphic representation of the
+history of such a cross. When the black looking
+hybrids are crossed together the progeny
+fall into but two groups, one resembling each
+of the grandparental forms. Three fourths of
+the progeny now resemble superficially the
+hybrid form and at the same time one of
+the grandparents&mdash;the dominating black form,
+while the remaining fourth resembles the other
+white grandparent. However, we know that
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>
+the black three fourths do not in reality constitute
+a homogeneous class but that this includes
+two distinct groups; one group of one
+fourth of the whole number of progeny (i. e.,
+one third of all the blacks) are truly black like
+their black grandparents and in successive generations
+will, if bred together, produce none but
+blacks of the same character, i. e., pure blacks:
+the remaining two fourths of the whole number
+of progeny (two thirds of all the blacks) in this
+generation are actually hybrids and in the next
+generation, if bred together, will give the same
+proportions of the two colors as were found in
+the whole of the present generation, i. e., three
+fourths black, one fourth white. Of these the
+whites always produce whites, the blacks always
+produce blacks and whites in the approximate
+proportions of 3:1; a certain proportion
+of these&mdash;one third (one fourth of the whole generation)
+always remain blacks, the other two
+thirds (one half of the whole generation) again
+produce blacks and whites. In such cases as
+this where the phenomenon of dominance appears,
+and this is the usual course of events, it
+is impossible to say which individuals <i>are</i> the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>
+hybrids. Only after their progeny are studied
+can we say which <i>were</i> the hybrids.</p>
+
+<p>In the crossing of the black and white Andalusian
+fowls described above the phenomenon
+of dominance does not appear; when the two
+color characters are brought into a single individual
+neither appears alone, neither overcomes
+nor is overcome by the other. In the
+crossing of the black and white guinea pigs
+dominance is complete; when the two color
+characters are brought into a single individual
+only one color appears, the second becomes recessive,
+that is, it remains present as we know
+from the later history of such hybrids, but it
+is not visibly indicated. Besides the Andalusian
+fowls there are known several other instances
+of the absence of dominance and there
+are many cases where dominance is incomplete,
+i. e., where one character merely tends to dominate
+the other. And in a few instances dominance
+is irregular, i. e., sometimes one character
+dominates, at other times or under other
+circumstances it does not, as with certain forms
+of the comb or the feathering of the legs in the
+common fowl, or with the presence of an extra
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>
+toe in the domestic cat, the rabbit, and guinea
+pig. And even in those cases where dominance
+is said to be complete the trained eye of the
+breeder can frequently distinguish between the
+hybrid and the pure bred dominant individuals.
+The phenomenon of dominance, therefore, is not
+an essential of the Mendelian theory although
+it is a frequent, we may say usual, relation.</p>
+
+<p>It does not come within our province to attempt
+an explanation of this formula of heredity
+by describing some of the more fundamental
+conditions upon which it depends. In
+fact, no complete explanation is yet possible,
+although several explanatory hypotheses have
+been suggested. We may outline briefly that
+which seems the most satisfactory in that it
+serves to account for most of the facts in Mendelian
+heredity in a comparatively simple manner.
+The germ of an organism, we have seen,
+somehow contains dispositions of materials
+which primarily determine the characteristics
+of the organism developed from that germ. To
+these dispositions or configurations the term of
+"determiners" has been applied. In a pure
+variety like the black Andalusians, all the germ
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>
+cells of each fowl are alike in having this determiner
+for black color. When two such fowls
+are mated together their descendants will result
+from the fusion of two germ cells, <i>each</i> containing
+the determiner for black color; that is,
+the germ of the new individual comes to have
+a double determiner, one from each parent, for
+this trait. In the white variety all the germ
+cells are alike in <i>lacking</i> this determiner; blackness
+is entirely absent and all their descendants
+are formed from germ cells entirely without
+black determiners. When the single germ cell
+of a black fowl with its single black determiner
+is fertilized by a germ cell from a white fowl
+without any determiner for black the resulting
+hybrid has a color produced by only a single
+determiner, that from the black parent, and in
+this case the blackness is not as fully expressed
+because produced by only this single determiner
+and the fowl appears gray or "blue";
+that is, the black produced by a single determiner
+is in this case not as black as that produced
+by the double determiner. Now of
+course this hybrid fowl forms germ cells containing
+determiners for color, but these cells,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>
+instead of being all alike and with semi-black
+determiners corresponding with the semi-black
+characteristics of the individual, are of two
+different kinds&mdash;some are like those of each of
+the grandparents which fused to give origin to
+the parent forms, and these are formed in approximately
+equal numbers&mdash;one half with the
+black determiner, one half without it. When
+two such fowls are bred together the chances
+are equal for certain combinations of germ
+cells; the chances are equal that the "black"
+or "white" germ cell of the one individual
+shall meet and conjugate with the "black" or
+"white" germ cell of the other individual. The
+result may be expressed algebraically as follows,
+using the letters <i>B</i> and <i>W</i> to indicate respectively
+germ cells with and without the black
+color determiner.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Germ Combos">
+<tr><td>Germ cells of first parent</td><td align="right"><i>B</i>&nbsp;</td><td>+</td><td><i>W</i>&nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Germ cells of second parent</td><td align="right"><i>B</i>&nbsp;</td><td>+</td><td><i>W</i>&nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="3">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td align="right"><i>BB</i>&nbsp;</td><td>+</td><td><i>BW</i></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td><i>BW</i></td><td>+</td><td><i>WW</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="5">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Combinations in the germ of the offspring</td><td align="right">1<i>BB</i>&nbsp;</td><td>+</td><td>2<i>BW</i></td><td>+</td><td>1<i>WW</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>
+That is, one fourth are pure black (<i>BB</i>), one
+fourth pure white (<i>WW</i>), and the remaining
+half are hybrids, black and white (<i>BW</i>). The
+pure blacks again form germ cells, all possessing
+the determiner for blackness; the pure
+whites form germ cells all lacking the determiner
+for blackness; the hybrid blues produce
+again equal numbers of germ cells possessing
+and lacking the determiner for blackness. The
+relation of the germ cells and the organisms
+forming them and developing from them is
+shown in the diagram in Fig. 9.</p>
+
+<p>In the more common cases where the phenomenon
+of dominance appears, as in the guinea
+pig, this is explained by saying that here a single
+determiner for blackness is somehow sufficient
+to produce the color. In such cases the
+black color observed may result either from a
+single (<i>BW</i>) or from a double (<i>BB</i>) black determiner
+in the germ which forms the organism.
+Only when the black determiner is entirely
+absent (<i>WW</i>) does the white color appear in
+the developed organism and the individual is
+then said to exhibit the recessive characteristic.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;">
+<img src="images/fig9.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 9." title="Fig. 9." />
+<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Diagram
+illustrating the relation of the germ cells in a simple case of
+Mendelian heredity, such as that of color as shown in Figs. 7 and 8.
+The spaces between the large circles represent the bodies of the
+individuals while the small circles within each represent the germ
+cells formed by those individuals. <i>P</i>, parental generation; each
+individual forms a single kind of germ cells. <i>G</i>. <i>F<sub>1</sub></i>, germs of the
+first filial or hybrid generation, each composed of two different
+kinds of germ cells, one from each parent. <i>F<sub>1</sub></i>, individuals of the
+first filial or hybrid generation, developed from <i>G</i>. <i>F<sub>1</sub></i>. Each member
+of this generation forms two kinds of germ cells in approximately
+equal numbers. <i>G. C. F<sub>1</sub></i>, germ cells of <i>F<sub>1</sub></i>, showing possible
+combinations resulting from the mating of two members of <i>F<sub>1</sub></i>. Each of
+these combinations occurs with equal probability. <i>G. F<sub>2</sub></i>, germs of
+second filial generation resulting from the above random combinations.
+<i>F<sub>2</sub></i>, individuals of second filial generation. Each now forms germ
+cells like those which constituted its own germ.</span></p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>
+Another possible type of mating is that between
+a member of a pure race, either dominant
+or recessive, and a hybrid individual. This
+form of mating is very common in some of the
+pedigrees that we shall examine later. The results
+of such a mating, first between a hybrid
+and a recessive individual can be most easily
+described by considering a cross between black
+and white forms and expressing the result
+algebraically.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="White Germ Combos">
+<tr><td>Germ cells of first parent (white or recessive)</td><td align="center"><i>W</i>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">+</td><td align="center"><i>W</i>&nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Germ cells of second parent (hybrid)</td><td align="center"><i>B</i>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">+</td><td align="center"><i>W</i>&nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="3">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td align="center"><i>BW</i>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">+</td><td><i>BW</i></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td><i>WW</i></td><td align="center">+</td><td><i>WW</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="5">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td align="center">2<i>BW</i>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">+</td><td align="center">2<i>WW</i></td><td></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>That is, returning to the example of the Andalusian
+fowls, the progeny will be one half hybrid
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>
+blues and one half whites&mdash;no black at all.
+If the cross had been between black hybrid
+guinea pigs and white recessive specimens the
+result would have been half hybrid blacks and
+half pure whites.</p>
+
+<p>Or supposing the mating to have occurred
+between the pure dominant (black) and the
+hybrid the result would have been, in the fowls
+half pure black and half hybrid blue; in the
+guinea pig all the progeny would have been
+black, half pure blacks and half hybrid blacks.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="70%" summary="Black Germ Combos">
+<tr><td>Germ cells of first parent (black or dominant)</td><td align="center"><i>B</i>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">+</td><td align="center"><i>B</i>&nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Germ cells of second parent (hybrid)</td><td align="center"><i>B</i>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">+</td><td align="center"><i>W</i>&nbsp;</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="3">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td align="center"><i>BB</i>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">+</td><td><i>BB</i></td><td></td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td></td><td><i>BW</i></td><td align="center">+</td><td><i>BW</i>&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td colspan="5">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td></td><td align="center">2<i>BB</i>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">+</td><td align="center">2<i>BW</i></td><td></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In the case of the guinea pigs, although the
+progeny all look alike (black) their history
+would show that they were fundamentally unlike,
+for if crossed with white again the result
+would be the production of all black looking
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>
+guinea pigs from the cross with the <i>BB</i> forms,
+and half black and half white from the <i>BW</i>
+cross.</p>
+
+<p>On account of the fact of variation every individual
+is in a certain sense a hybrid. One's
+two parents have the species characters in common
+but there are certain distinctive traits that
+hybridize and follow Mendel's law of heredity.
+By no means is it to be understood that all
+individual distinctive traits follow this rule in
+heredity. Many individual characteristics are
+what we have learned to call fluctuations&mdash;small
+deviations above or below an average condition
+of a group. Such differences play no part in
+Mendelian heredity. Other characteristics may
+be bodily modifications resulting from the direct
+reaction between the body tissues and the
+environing conditions; such traits would not
+be represented in the organization of the germ
+cells and consequently would not be inherited
+at all. At present it seems that the only characteristics
+that "Mendelize" are those known as
+"unit characters." Such characters seem to
+have their origin in real variations or mutations
+and though each may show fluctuations,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>
+these fluctuations in themselves are not hereditary.</p>
+
+<p>This conception of the unit character is an
+extremely important element in the whole Mendelian
+theory and it has extended beyond the
+field of heredity and led to a radical change in
+our notions of what an organism really is. It
+is, of course, true in a sense that an organism
+is a unit, an organism is one thing; but at the
+same time it is true that an organism is fundamentally
+a collection of units, of structural and
+functional characteristics which are really separable
+things. A few of these units were mentioned
+in the first pages of this chapter and
+others are mentioned on a later page. They
+serve as the building blocks of organisms: individuals
+of the same species may be made up
+of similar combinations or of different combinations.
+One unit or a group of units may be
+taken out and replaced by others.</p>
+
+<p>From the standpoint of heredity, and particularly
+from our eugenic point of view, the
+most important results of the unit composition
+of the organism lie in the fact that these units
+remain units throughout successive generations
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>
+and throughout successive and varying combinations,
+whatever their associations may be
+from generation to generation. It is a fact of
+the greatest eugenic significance that a pure
+bred individual may be produced by a hybrid
+mated either with a pure bred or with another
+hybrid; and that the pure bred resulting will
+be just as pure bred as any. "Pure bred" now
+means pure bred with respect to certain traits
+only. An individual may be pure bred in certain
+of its characteristics, hybrid in others.
+Practically there is no such thing as an individual
+which is either pure bred or hybrid in <i>all</i>
+its traits. One of the chief contributions, then,
+of Mendelism to the subjects of Heredity and
+Eugenics is this&mdash;that a pure bred may be derived
+from a hybrid in one generation: the pure
+bred produced by a long series of hybrid individuals
+is just as pure as the pure bred which
+has never had a hybrid in its ancestry. Another
+important consequent is, that among the
+offspring of the same parents some individuals
+may be pure bred and others hybrid. Community
+of parentage does not necessarily denote
+community of characteristics among the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+offspring. Yet by knowing the ancestry for
+one or two generations we can know the qualities
+of the individual. Guesswork is eliminated
+and the importance of the qualities of the individual
+is enormously emphasized. It is necessary
+only to suggest the social and eugenic
+significance of such facts relating to characteristics
+that are of social or racial importance.</p>
+
+<p>We shall have occasion in the next chapter
+to enumerate some of the human unit characters
+whose heredity has been traced and which
+have been found to Mendelize, but we may mention
+here a few Mendelizing units in other organisms
+in order to give some idea of the kind
+of character which behaves as a unit and of the
+range of the forms which have been found to
+show Mendelian phenomena in their heredity.
+Among the higher animals one might mention
+the absence of horns in cattle and sheep; the
+"waltzing" habit of mice and the pacing gait
+of the horse; length of hair and smoothness of
+coat in the rabbit and guinea pig; presence of
+an extra toe in the cat, guinea pig, rabbit, fowl;
+length of tail in the cat; and in the common fowl
+such characters as the shape and size of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>
+comb, presence of a crest or a "muff," a high
+nostril, rumplessness, feathering of the legs,
+"frizzling" of the feathers, certain characters
+of the voice, and a tendency to brood. Among
+plants may be mentioned such characters as
+dwarfness in garden peas, sweet peas, and some
+kinds of beans; smoothness or prickliness of
+stem in the jimson weed and crowfoot; leaf
+characters in a great variety of plants; in the
+cotton plant a half dozen characters have been
+found to Mendelize; seed characters such as
+form and amount of starch, sugar, or gluten;
+flat or hooded standard in the sweet pea; annual
+or biennial habit in the henbane; susceptibility
+to a rust disease in wheat. We should not
+fail to mention that scores of color characters
+are known to Mendelize, such as hair or coat
+color and eye color in animals and the colors
+of flowers, stems, seeds, seed-coats, etc., in
+plants. The list of Mendelizing traits in different
+organisms now extends into the hundreds
+and is increasing almost weekly.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving the subject of Mendelism we
+should say that the phenomena, as described
+above in the Andalusian fowl and guinea pig,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>
+are among the simplest known. And while
+such simple formulas serve to describe the phenomena
+of heredity in a large number of instances,
+yet in a great many other cases the
+descriptive formulas are more complicated.
+We cannot in this place describe any of these
+complications. For a full discussion of these
+and of the whole subject of Mendelism the interested
+reader is referred to Professor Bateson's
+work on "Mendel's Principles of Heredity"
+(1909). It must suffice to say here that
+in color heredity, for example, such ratios as
+9:3:4 or 12:3:1 in the second filial generation
+instead of the more frequent 1:2:1 or 3:1 are
+explainable upon essentially the same relations
+as these simpler and more typical ratios. And
+further, many less usual Mendelian phenomena,
+which we cannot undertake to describe here, are
+associated with what the specialist technically
+terms "sex limitation," "gametic coupling,"
+and the like.</p>
+
+<p>It is often said that the Mendelian formula
+has a very limited applicability to human heredity.
+This is probably true if we consider
+carefully the grammatical tense in which this
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>
+statement is made. And yet it is almost certainly
+true that heredity in man is to be described
+by this law. This apparent paradox is
+easily explained. The only characters whose
+history in heredity follows this formula are the
+unit characters. A complex trait is not heritable,
+as a whole, but its components behave in
+heredity as the separate units. It is perfectly
+well known that we are deeply ignorant regarding
+this phase of human structure. Our ignorance
+here is not the necessary kind, however, it
+is merely due to the newness of the subject&mdash;we
+have not had time to find out. How can we
+say that a complex trait is or is not inherited
+according to some form of Mendel's law when
+we do not know the nature of the units of which
+it is composed? We can make no statements
+about the Mendelian inheritance of such a trait
+until it is factored into its units. A considerable
+number of human characteristics are
+really known to be heritable according to this
+formula, enough so that several general rules
+of human heredity have been formulated. But
+it is also quite within the range of possibility
+that some traits really do not follow this law,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>
+although it cannot yet be said definitely that
+this is or is not the case. On the whole, then,
+we cannot, for the next few years, expect too
+much from the application of Mendel's laws to
+human heredity, however much this is to be
+regretted.</p>
+
+<p>Shall we then decline to say anything about
+the heredity of the great bulk of human characteristics?
+By no means: we have seen that
+in our bagatelle board we talk very definitely
+about the distribution of all the peas, though
+only about the probable history of one pea.
+Mendel's law deals with individual inheritance.
+When we cannot apply this formula we have
+left still the possibility of talking about human
+heredity in the group as a whole. That is to
+say, we have left the opportunity of describing
+heredity by the statistical methods, with the
+crowd, not the individual, as the unit. Since
+we are forced into extensive use of this formula
+by our present and temporary ignorance of the
+applicability of Mendel's rule we must get a
+clear notion of how the statistical method is
+applied in this matter.</p>
+
+<p>The method is the same as that employed by
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>
+the statistician in measuring the relatedness of
+any two series of varying phenomena. If two
+quantities or characteristics are so related that
+fluctuations in the one are accompanied in a
+regular manner by fluctuations in the other, the
+two quantities or characters are said to be correlated.
+For instance, the temperature and the
+rate of growth of sprouting beans are related
+in such a way that increase in the former is accompanied
+in a regular way by increase in the
+latter; or the width and height of the head, or
+the total stature and the length of the femur
+similarly vary regularly together so that they
+are said to be correlated to a certain extent
+which can be measured. This correlation may
+result from the fact that one condition is a
+cause, either direct or indirect, of the other; or
+there may be no such causal relation between
+the two phenomena, both resulting more or less
+independently from a common antecedent condition
+or cause.</p>
+
+<p>This phenomenon of correlation is not limited
+among organisms to the comparison of two
+or more different characters in a single series
+of individuals; it is applicable also to the comparison
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>
+of two series of individuals with respect
+to the same characteristic. Thus we may
+compare the stature of a series of fathers with
+the same measurement in their sons. It is this
+form of correlation with which we are particularly
+to deal here. While it is not necessary to
+understand just how this subject is dealt with
+by the statistician we should know one or two
+of the elementary principles involved, in order
+to appreciate the statistical form of many
+statements about heredity.</p>
+
+<p>The stature of men may be said to vary
+usually between limits of 62 and 76 inches,
+the average height being about 69 inches. In
+the complete absence of heredity in stature we
+should find that fathers of any given height,
+say 62 or 63 or 76 inches would have sons of
+no particular height but of all heights with an
+average of 69 inches, the same as in the whole
+group. Or if stature were completely heritable
+from one generation to the next the <i>total generations
+being the units compared</i>, then 62 or
+63 or 76 inch fathers would have respectively
+sons all 62, 63, and 76 inches tall. When we
+examine the actual details of the resemblance
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>
+we find, as a matter of fact, that neither of
+these possibilities is actually realized. What
+we do find is that fathers below or above the
+average height have sons whose average height
+is also below or above the general average but
+not so far below or above the general average
+as were the fathers. If we measured a large
+number of pairs of fathers and sons with respect
+to stature we should find each generation
+with a variability such as that illustrated in
+Fig. 3 of the stature of mothers, the limits here,
+however, being about 62 and 76 inches. But if
+we measured all the sons of 62-inch fathers
+they would be found to vary say from 62 to
+only 69 inches, averaging about 66 inches.
+Similarly 63-inch fathers would have sons from
+62 to 70 inches tall, averaging about 66.5 inches,
+or 76-inch fathers might have sons from 69 to
+76 inches in height, averaging about 72 inches,
+and so on for fathers of all heights. In general,
+then, we may say that fathers with a
+characteristic of a certain plus or minus deviation
+from the average of the whole group
+have sons who on the whole deviate in the same
+direction but less widely than the fathers, although
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>
+the fact of variability comes in so that
+some few of the sons deviate as widely as, or
+even more widely than, the fathers, others deviate
+less widely than the fathers from the
+average of the whole group. This is the general
+and very important statistical fact of
+<i>regression</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The phenomenon of regression may be made
+somewhat clearer by the aid of a simple diagram&mdash;Fig.
+10. Here are plotted first the
+heights, by inches, of a group of fathers, giving
+the series of dots joined by the diagonal <i>AB</i>.
+Next are plotted the average heights of the
+sons of each class of fathers: 62-inch fathers
+give 66-inch sons, 63-inch fathers 66.5-inch sons,
+64-inch fathers 67-inch sons, and so for all the
+classes of fathers. These dots are then joined
+by the line <i>EF</i>. This is the <i>regression line</i>.
+Had it been the case that there was no regression
+in stature the different classes of fathers
+would have had sons averaging just the same
+as themselves and the line representing the
+heights of the sons would have coincided with
+the line <i>AB</i>. Or if regression had been complete
+the fathers of any class would have had
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>
+sons averaging about 69 inches&mdash;just the same
+as the average of the whole group&mdash;and the line
+representing their heights would have had the
+position of <i>CD</i> in the diagram. As a matter of
+fact, however, neither of these possibilities is
+actually realized and the regression line <i>EF</i> is
+approximated in an actual series of data. A
+similar relation has been found for many characters
+other than stature.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;">
+<img src="images/fig10.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 10." title="Fig. 10." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span>&mdash;Diagram illustrating the phenomenon of regression.<br />
+Explanation in text.</span></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>
+The fact of regression is of considerable importance
+for the theory of evolution as well as
+for the subject of Eugenics when describing
+the phenomena of heredity in this statistical
+manner in whole groups without paying attention
+to particular individuals. Regression is
+found in all characteristics observed in this
+way, psychic as well as purely physical. "The
+father [i. e., fathers] with a great excess of the<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">character contributes [contribute] sons with</span><br />
+an excess, but a less excess of it; the father
+[fathers] with a great defect of the character
+contributes [contribute] sons with a defect, but
+less defect of it."</p>
+
+<p>Now, whatever the actual extent of this regression
+is in a group we need to know how
+uniformly it occurs for all the classes of different<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 0.5em;">deviations from the general average,</span><br />
+that is, we need to know whether the extreme
+groups regress to the same relative extent as
+do those nearer the general average; and, further,
+we need to know how nearly the sons of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>
+fathers of any certain height are grouped about
+their own average. In other words, we should
+know, first, whether the regression of the sons
+of 62 and 76 or 67 and 71 inch fathers is proportionately
+the same in each case, and, second,
+to what extent the sons of 62-inch fathers
+vary, whether they vary as do the fathers of
+62-inch sons, and so for each group. This kind
+of information we get by calculating what is
+called the <i>coefficient of heredity</i>. The calculation
+of this coefficient is a complicated process
+which it is unnecessary to describe here. It
+must suffice to say that a numerical coefficient
+can readily be determined, which will express
+the average closeness and regularity of the relationship
+between all the plus and minus deviations
+from the group average in fathers and
+the corresponding plus and minus deviations
+from the group average of their sons with respect
+to a given characteristic. This coefficient
+of heredity may vary between 0.0 and 1.0.
+When it is 0.0 there is, on the whole, no regularity
+in the relationship, i. e., no heredity;
+when it is 1.0 there is, on the whole, complete
+regularity, i. e., heredity is complete. Neither
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>
+of these values is ever actually found in determining
+coefficients of heredity in the parental
+relation; these are usually between 0.3 and 0.5.
+It should be emphasized again that this comparison
+is between whole groups and not between
+individuals, and that it fails to allow for
+the distinction between fluctuations and true
+variations. And, further, it should be noted
+that the information derived from such a coefficient
+is defective in that it takes into account
+only the relationship between the son and one
+parent; the maternal relation is just as important
+but this has to be determined separately.
+There is no satisfactory method of determining
+the relation between children and both parents
+at the same time.</p>
+
+<p>The coefficient of heredity is, therefore, an
+abstract numerical value which gives us a
+fairly precise estimate as to the probable closeness
+of the relation between deviations from
+the group average of any character in two
+groups of relatives. The coefficient of <i>correlation</i>
+is, in general, a measure of the relation
+between two different characteristics or conditions
+in a single group of individuals. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>
+method of its determination and its limiting
+values are the same as for the coefficient of
+heredity.</p>
+
+<p>By experience the coefficients of heredity and
+correlation in general are found to have the following
+significance:</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Correlation Table">
+<tr><td align="left">0.00-</td><td>no relation.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">0.00-0.10&mdash;</td><td>no significant relation.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">0.10-0.25&mdash;</td><td>low; relation slight though appreciable.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">0.25-0.50&mdash;</td><td>moderate; relation considerable.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">0.50-0.75&mdash;</td><td>high; relation marked.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">0.75-0.90&mdash;</td><td>very high; relation very marked.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">0.90-1.00&mdash;</td><td>nearly complete.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1.00&mdash;</td><td>complete relation.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>One further point remains to be considered,
+which applies not so much to coefficients of
+heredity as to coefficients of correlation in general,
+i. e., to the relatedness of two different
+characters or series of events in a single group
+of cases or individuals. This is that coefficients
+of correlation may be either positive or negative.
+That is, the real limits of the value of
+the coefficient are plus one and minus one. The
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>
+example given above of stature of fathers and
+sons gives a positive coefficient. Whenever the
+deviation from the average of one group is accompanied
+in the second group by a deviation
+in the same direction, the coefficient is positive.
+A negative correlation means that deviation
+from the average in a given direction in the
+first group is accompanied in the second group
+by a deviation in the opposite direction. If we
+imagine that as one measurement increased
+above its average a second related measurement
+decreased below its average the correlation
+in such a case would be negative. For instance,
+if we measured the relation between the
+number of berry pickers employed and the
+quantity of berries remaining unpicked, in a
+number of different fields we would get a negative
+correlation coefficient. Some organisms
+are formed in such a way that increase in one
+dimension, such as length, is associated with
+decrease in another, such as breadth; measurement
+of the relatedness of these dimensions
+would give a coefficient of correlation that
+might be very high, indicating a considerable
+relation in the deviations, but it would be negative.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>
+In an instance of negative correlation
+the relation is that of "the more the fewer."
+As we shall see presently, a negative correlation
+may be just as important and significant
+as a positive correlation.</p>
+
+<p>The application of the principles of heredity
+to our subject of Eugenics is of such great
+importance that it is reserved for separate
+consideration in the next chapter. We may,
+therefore, devote the remainder of this chapter
+to the consideration of data of another
+kind, which are commonly treated by this same
+method of determining correlation coefficients
+between two sets of varying phenomena in
+order to determine whether there is any actual
+relation between them or not. This will serve
+to illustrate the use of this method.</p>
+
+<p>We shall turn then to the subject of differential
+or selective fertility in human beings and
+consider its relation to Eugenics. As a starting
+point we may take the self-evident statement
+that a group of organisms will tend to
+maintain constant characteristics through successive
+generations only when all parts of the
+group are equally fertile. If exceptional fertility
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span>
+is associated with the presence or absence
+of any characteristic the number of individuals
+with or without that trait will either increase or
+diminish in successive generations, and the
+character of the distribution of the group as a
+whole will gradually become altered, the average
+moving in the direction of the more fertile
+group. Or if infertility is so associated, then
+the average of the whole group moves away
+from that condition. Eugenically, then, we
+should ask whether in human society there is at
+present any such association of superfertility or
+infertility with desirable or undesirable traits.
+It is obviously the aim of Eugenics to bring
+about an association of a high degree of fertility
+with desirable traits and a low degree of
+fertility with undesirable characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>First, let us look at certain data gathered
+relative to the size of the family in both normal
+and pathological stocks (Table II). In
+order that a stock or family should just maintain
+its numbers undiminished through successive
+generations and under average conditions,
+at least four children should be born to
+each marriage that has any children at all.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>
+The table given shows clearly what stocks are
+maintaining, what increasing, and what diminishing
+their numbers.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary="Table II">
+<caption><span class="smcap">Table II</span><br />
+<i>Fertility in Pathological and Normal Stocks.</i> (From Pearson)</caption>
+<tr><th></th><th><span class="smcap">Authority.</span></th><th><span class="smcap">Nature of Marriage.</span><br />(Reproductive period.)</th><th><span class="smcap">No. in<br />Family.</span></th></tr>
+<tr><td>Deaf-mutes, England</td><td>Schuster</td><td>Probably complete</td><td align="center">6.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Deaf-mutes, America</td><td>Schuster</td><td>Probably complete</td><td align="center">6.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Tuberculous stock</td><td>Pearson</td><td>Probably complete</td><td align="center">5.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Albinotic stock</td><td>Pearson</td><td>Probably complete</td><td align="center">5.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Insane stock</td><td>Heron</td><td>Probably complete</td><td align="center">6.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Edinburgh degenerates</td><td>Eugenics Lab</td><td>Incomplete</td><td align="center">6.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>London mentally defective</td><td>Eugenics Lab</td><td>Incomplete</td><td align="center">7.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Manchester mentally defective</td><td>Eugenics Lab</td><td>Incomplete</td><td align="center">6.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Criminals</td><td>Goring</td><td>Completed</td><td align="center">6.6</td></tr>
+<tr><td>English middle class</td><td>Pearson</td><td>15 years at least, begun before 35</td><td align="center">6.4</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Family records&mdash;normals</td><td>Pearson</td><td>Completed</td><td align="center">5.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td>English intellectual class</td><td>Pearson</td><td>Completed</td><td align="center">4.7</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Working class N. S. W.</td><td>Powys</td><td>Completed</td><td align="center">5.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Danish professional class</td><td>Westergaard</td><td>15 years at least</td><td align="center">5.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Danish working class</td><td>Westergaard</td><td>25 years at least</td><td align="center">5.3</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Edinburgh normal artisan</td><td>Eugenics Lab</td><td>Incomplete</td><td align="center">5.9</td></tr>
+<tr><td>London normal artisan</td><td>Eugenics Lab</td><td>Incomplete</td><td align="center">5.1</td></tr>
+<tr><td>American graduates</td><td>Harvard</td><td>Completed</td><td align="center">2.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td>English intellectuals</td><td>Webb</td><td>Said to be complete</td><td align="center">1.5</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>All childless marriages are excluded except in the last two cases.
+Inclusion of such marriages usually reduces the average by 0.5 to 1.0
+child.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>
+This subject has been investigated recently
+in a rather extensive way by David Heron, for
+the London population. Heron concentrated
+his attention upon the relation of fertility in
+man to social status. He used as indices to
+social status such marks as the relative number
+of professional men in a community, or the
+relative number of servants employed, or of
+lowest type of male laborers, or of pawn-brokers;
+also the amount of child employment
+pauperism, overcrowding in the home,
+tuberculosis, and pauper lunacy. Twenty-seven
+metropolitan boroughs of London were
+canvassed on these bases, which are certainly
+significant, though not infallible, indices to
+the character of a community. His results
+are shown in the briefest possible form in
+Table III.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="80%" summary="Table III">
+<caption><span class="smcap">Table III</span><br />
+<i>Correlation of the Birth Rate with Social and Physical Characters of London Population.</i> (From Heron.)</caption>
+<tr><th></th><th><span class="smcap">Correlation<br />Coefficient.</span></th></tr>
+<tr><td>With number of males engaged in professions           </td><td align="right">-.78</td></tr>
+<tr><td>With female domestics per 100 females                 </td><td align="right">-.80</td></tr>
+<tr><td>With female domestics per 100 families                </td><td align="right">-.76</td></tr>
+<tr><td>With general laborers per 1,000 males                 </td><td align="right">+.52</td></tr>
+<tr><td>With pawnbrokers and general dealers per 1,000 males  </td><td align="right">+.62</td></tr>
+<tr><td>With children employed, ages 10 to 14                 </td><td align="right">+.66</td></tr>
+<tr><td>With persons living more than two in a room           </td><td align="right">+.70</td></tr>
+<tr><td>With infants under one year dying per 1,000 births    </td><td align="right">+.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td>With deaths from pulmonary tuberculosis per 100,000 inhabitants  </td><td align="right">+.59</td></tr>
+<tr><td>With total number of paupers per 1,000 inhabitants    </td><td align="right">+.20</td></tr>
+<tr><td>With number of lunatic paupers per 1,000 inhabitants  </td><td align="right">+.34</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>This table gives the results of the calculation
+of coefficients of correlation between the birth
+rates and the conditions enumerated. We may
+just recall that this coefficient is a measure of
+the regularity with which the changes in two
+varying conditions or phenomena are associated:
+and further that a coefficient of 1.0 indicates
+perfectly regular association, 0.75 a very
+high degree of regularity. The first line of the
+table then, for example, means that when these
+twenty-seven districts were sorted out, first,
+with reference to the number of professional
+men dwelling in them, and then with reference
+to their respective birth rates, there was found
+a very high degree of regularity (coefficient of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>
+correlation=-.78) in the association of these
+two conditions&mdash;birth rate and number of professional
+men. Here is a very close relation,
+<i>but</i>, the sign of the coefficient is <i>negative</i>. The
+significance of this negative sign is that among
+the communities studied those where the number
+of professional men is the larger show
+always, at the same time, the lower birth rates.
+Coming to the second line of the table, it seems
+fair to assume that the number of servants employed
+in a district in proportion to the total
+number of residents or families there, gives a
+fairly though not wholly satisfactory indication
+of the social character of the community.
+Measurement of the actual relation between the
+proportional number of servants employed in
+a community and the birth rate in that community,
+gave practically the same result as in
+the case of the number of professional men.
+The more servants employed in a district the
+lower its birth rate. Two methods of measuring
+this relation gave essentially the same result;
+comparison of the birth rate with the ratio
+of domestics, first to the number of families,
+second to the number of females, gave -.76 and -.80
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>
+respectively&mdash;very high coefficients and
+both negative.</p>
+
+<p>But the sign changes and becomes positive
+when we come to other comparisons. When we
+count the relative number of pawnbrokers and
+general dealers, of "general laborers" (that is,
+men without a trade and without regularity of
+occupation and employment), of employed children
+between the ages of ten and fourteen, of
+persons living more than two in a room, when
+we consider the infant death rate, the death
+rate from pulmonary tuberculosis, and the relative
+number of paupers,&mdash;then we find the signs
+of the coefficients are all positive, and on the
+average the coefficients are more than 0.50&mdash;a
+moderate to high degree of regularity of the
+relation. The districts characterized by the
+larger numbers of such individuals or by higher
+death rates of these kinds, are at the same time
+the districts where the birth rates are the
+higher.</p>
+
+<p>In a word, then, Heron found that the greater
+the number of professional men, or of servants
+employed in a community, the lower the birth
+rate&mdash;a very high degree of negative correlation.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+On the other hand, the more pawn-brokers,
+child laborers, pauper lunatics, the
+more overcrowding and tuberculosis, the higher
+the birth rate&mdash;a high degree of positive correlation.
+Little doubt here as to which elements
+of the city are making the greater contributions
+to the next generation. There may
+be some doubt, however, so let us consider two
+possible qualifications of these results. First,
+is not the death rate also higher among these
+least desirable classes? Yes, it is. Is it not
+enough higher to compensate for the difference
+in the birth rates, so that after all the least
+desirable classes are not more than replacing
+themselves? No, it is not. After calculating
+the effect of the differential death rate among
+these different social groups it still remains
+true that the <i>net</i> fertility of the undesirables
+is greater than the <i>net</i> fertility of the desirables:
+the worst classes are in reality more
+than replacing themselves numerically in such
+communities; the most valuable classes are not
+even replacing themselves. Second, is not this
+the same condition that has always existed in
+these districts? Why any cause for supposing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>
+that this is going to bring new results to this
+society? Has not such a condition always been
+present and always been compensated for somehow?
+Fortunately, Heron is able to compare
+with these data of 1901 similar data for 1851,
+and is able to show that every one of these relations
+has changed in sign since that date&mdash;in
+fifty years. The significance of this change in
+sign is probably clear. It means here that in
+London sixty years ago there was a high degree
+of regularity in the relation such that the
+more professional men and well-to-do families
+the community contained, the higher the birth
+rate; that ten years ago this had all become
+changed so that the more of these desirable
+families found in a district the lower is the
+birth rate. It means that sixty years ago the
+relation was such that the more undesirables
+numbered in a district, the lower its birth rate;
+ten years ago the more undesirables, the higher
+the birth rate, and the coefficients of 1901 are
+unusually high, indicating great closeness and
+regularity in this relation. Heron is further
+able to show that as regards number of servants
+employed, professional men, general laborers,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>
+and pawnbrokers in a district, the
+intensity of the relationship has <i>doubled</i>,
+besides changing in sign, in the period observed.
+It is not necessary to review the history
+of this change nor to discuss the causes
+involved, but it is necessary to take into account
+for the immediate future the fact of the
+change.</p>
+
+<p>Sidney Webb has recently published an account
+of the birth-rate investigations undertaken
+by the Fabian Society with a view to determine
+the causes leading to the rapidly falling
+birth rate in England. During the decade
+previous to 1901 the number of children in London
+actually diminished by about 5,000, while
+the total population increased by about 300,000.
+As far as they bear upon this phase of the subject
+his results fully confirm these we have
+been considering. The falling off is chiefly in
+the upper and middle classes, in the classes of
+thrift and independence, and it has occurred
+chiefly during the last fifty years. Webb cannot
+find that this is due to any physical deterioration
+in these classes; it is due to a conscious
+and deliberate limitation of the size of the family
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+for what are thought prudential and economic
+reasons.</p>
+
+<p>An actual reduction in the number of children
+may not be an unmixed evil. A falling
+birth rate may be a good sign. This is partly
+a question for the political economist. "Suicide"
+may be a socially fortunate end for some
+strains. But when, in either a rising or a falling
+birth rate, we find a differential or selective
+relation, then the subject is eugenic. If the
+higher birth rate is among the socially valuable
+elements of each different class the Eugenist
+can only approve; to bring about such a relation
+is one of his aims. What we really find,
+however, is the undesirable elements increasing
+with the greatest rapidity, the better elements
+not even holding their own.</p>
+
+<p>One further aspect of the result of the
+smaller family remains to be considered. Are
+the various members of a single family approximately
+similar in their characteristics or
+are the earlier born more or less likely to be
+particularly gifted or particularly liable to disease
+or abnormal condition? Or is there no
+rule at all in this matter? There is much evidence
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>
+that the incidence of pathological defect
+falls heaviest upon the earlier members of a
+family. Consider, for example, the presence
+of tuberculosis. We should ask, in families
+of two or more, are the tubercular members,
+if any, as likely to be the second born or third
+or tenth as to be the first born? The data
+are tabulated in Fig. 11, <i>A</i>. The distribution
+of family sizes being what it is in the number
+of families investigated and tabulated,
+we should expect that there would be about 65
+tubercular first born, 60 tubercular second born,
+and so forth, on the basis of its average frequency
+in the whole community, provided the
+chances are equal that any member of the family
+should be affected with tuberculosis. What
+we actually find, however, is that 112 first born
+are affected, about 80 second born, and after
+that no relation between order of birth and susceptibility
+to tuberculosis. That is, susceptibility
+to tuberculosis is double the normal
+among first born children. The same thing is
+true for gross mental defect. Fig. 11, <i>B</i>, shows
+that the ratio of observed to expected insane
+first born children is about 4 to 3. Such a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>
+relation has long been known to criminologists
+and frequently commented upon. Fig. 11, <i>C</i>,
+gives a definite expression to the facts here.
+Whereas, in the number of families observed
+about 56 criminal first born were to be expected,
+the number actually found is about 120; for
+the second born the corresponding numbers are
+about 54 and 78, and after that no marked relation
+is found between order of birth and criminality.
+For albinism (Fig. 11, <i>D</i>) the expected
+and observed numbers among first born are
+about 185 and 265, second born 165 and 190,
+and thereafter no definite relation. It remains
+to be seen whether a similar relation holds for
+the unusually able and valuable members of a
+family; something has been said on both sides
+here, but there are available at present no data
+sufficiently exact to be worthy of consideration.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;">
+<img src="images/fig11.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 11." title="Fig. 11." />
+<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span>&mdash;Diagrams showing the relation between order of birth
+and incidence of pathological defect. (From Pearson).</span></p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>
+We have here a result that has very important
+bearings upon the value to the race of the
+large family and of the danger of the small
+family. The small family of one, two, or three
+children contributes on the average much more
+than its share of pathological and defective persons.
+No matter just now what the causes are,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>
+they seem to be more or less beyond remedy.
+The result for the future, however, must be
+reckoned with. This relation has important
+bearings upon the custom of primogeniture as
+well as upon the eugenic values of the large
+family.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion let us give a few sentences only
+slightly modified from Pearson's "Grammar of
+Science." The subject of differential fertility
+is not only vitally important for the theory of
+evolution, but it is crucial for the stability of
+civilized societies. If the type of maximum fertility
+is not identical with the type fittest to survive
+in a given environment, then only intensive
+selection can keep the community stable.
+If natural selection be suspended there results
+a progressive change; the most fertile, whoever
+they are, tend to multiply at an increasing rate.
+In our modern societies natural selection has
+been to some extent suspended; what test have
+we then of the identity of the most fertile and
+the most fit? It wants but very few generations
+to carry the type from the fit to the unfit. The
+aristocracy of the intellectual and artizan
+classes are not equally fertile with the mediocre
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>
+and least valuable portions of those
+classes and of society as a whole. Hence if the
+professional and intellectual classes are to be
+maintained in due proportions they must be
+recruited from below. This is much more serious
+than would appear at first sight. The upper
+middle class is the backbone of a nation,
+supplying its thinkers, leaders, and organizers.
+This class is not a mushroom growth, but the
+result of a long process of selecting the abler
+and fitter members of society. The middle
+classes produce relatively to the working
+classes a vastly greater proportion of ability;
+<i>it is not want of education, it is the want of
+stock which is at the basis of this difference</i>.
+A healthy society would have its maximum of
+fertility in this class and recruit the artizan
+class from the middle class rather than <i>vice
+versa</i>. But what do we actually find? A growing
+decrease in the birth rate of the middle and
+upper classes; a strong movement for restraint
+of fertility, and limitation of the family, touching
+only the intellectual classes and the aristocracy
+of the hand workers! Restraint and
+limitation may be most social and at the same
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>
+time most eugenic if they begin in the first
+place to check the fertility of the unfit; but if
+they start at the wrong end of society they are
+worse than useless, they are nationally disastrous
+in their effects. The dearth of ability
+at a time of crisis is the worst ill that can happen
+to a people. Sitting quietly at home, a
+nation may degenerate and collapse, simply
+because it has given full play to selective reproduction
+and not bred from its best. From the
+standpoint of the patriot, no less than from
+that of the evolutionist and Eugenist, differential
+fertility is momentous; we must unreservedly
+condemn all movements for restraint
+of fertility which do not discriminate between
+the fertility of the physically and mentally fit
+and that of the unfit. Our social instincts have
+reduced to a minimum the natural elimination
+of the socially dangerous elements; they must
+now lead us consciously to provide against the
+worst effects of differential fertility&mdash;a survival
+of the most fertile, when the most fertile
+are not the socially fittest.</p>
+
+<p>The subject before us illustrates the direct
+bearing of science upon moral conduct and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>
+upon statecraft. The scientific study of man is
+not merely a passive intellectual viewing of
+nature. It teaches us the art of living, of building
+up stable and dominant nations, and it is
+of no greater importance for the scientist in his
+laboratory, than for the statesman in council
+and the philanthropist in society.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>III<br /><br />
+HUMAN HEREDITY AND THE EUGENIC<br />
+PROGRAM</h2>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
+<h2>III</h2>
+
+<h3>HUMAN HEREDITY AND THE EUGENIC PROGRAM</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>
+"A breed whose proof is in time and deeds;<br />
+What we are, we are&mdash;nativity is answer enough to objections."<br />
+</p></div>
+
+
+<p>A few years ago official recognition was
+taken of the disturbing fact that the
+annual wheat yield of Great Britain
+was grossly deficient in both quantity and
+quality. In 1900 The National Association of
+British and Irish Millers, with almost unprecedented
+sagacity, raised a fund to provide for a
+series of experiments under the direction of a
+competent biologist, in order to discover if possible
+some means of restoring the former yield
+and quality of the native wheats. The story of
+the result reads like a romance. The experimenter&mdash;Prof.
+R. H. Biffen&mdash;collected many
+different varieties of wheat, native and foreign,
+each of which had some desirable qualities, and
+studied their mode of inheritance. Now, after
+only a few years of experimentation a wheat
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>
+has been produced and is being grown upon a
+large scale in which have been united this desirable
+character of one variety, that character of
+another. From each variety has been taken
+some valuable trait, and these have all been
+combined into one variety possessing the characteristics
+of a short full head, beardlessness,
+high gluten content, immunity to the devastating
+rust, a strong supporting straw, and a high
+yield per acre. A wheat made to order and fulfilling
+the "details and specifications" of the
+growers.</p>
+
+<p>Manitoba and British Columbia opened up
+whole new lands of the finest wheat-growing
+capacity, but the season there is too short for
+the ripening of what were the finest varieties.
+This new specification was promptly met and
+the early ripening quality of some inferior
+variety was transferred to the varieties showing
+other highly desirable qualities, and these
+countries are now producing enormous quantities
+of the finest wheat in the world.</p>
+
+<p>All of this has been made possible by the discovery,
+mentioned in the preceding chapter,
+that many characteristics of organisms are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+units and behave as such in heredity; they can
+be added to races or subtracted from them
+almost at will. Pure varieties breeding true
+can be established permanently by taking into
+account the Mendelian laws of heredity. Similar
+results have been accomplished in many
+other plants and in many animals. A cotton
+has been produced which combines early
+growth, by which it escapes the ravages of the
+boll weevil, with the long fiber of the finest Sea
+Island varieties. Corn of almost any desired
+percentage of sugar or starch, within limits,
+can be produced to order in a few seasons. The
+hornless character of certain varieties of cattle
+can be transferred to any chosen breed. Sheep
+have been produced combining the excellent
+mutton qualities of one breed with the hornlessness
+of another, and with the fine wool
+qualities of still a third. And so on from canary
+birds to draft horses. New races can be
+built up to meet almost any demand, with
+almost any desired combination of known characters,
+and these races remain stable. Possibilities
+in this direction seem to be limited only
+by our present and rapidly lessening ignorance
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>
+of the facts of Mendelian heredity in organisms&mdash;facts
+to be had for the looking.</p>
+
+<p>What is man that we should not be mindful
+of him? Why should we utilize all this new
+knowledge, all these immense possibilities of
+control and of creation, only for our pigs and
+cabbages? In this era of conservation should
+not our profoundest concern be the conservation
+of human protoplasm? "The State has
+no material resources at all comparable with
+its citizens, and no hope of perpetuity except
+in the intelligence and integrity of its people."
+As Saleeby puts it: "There is no wealth but
+life; and if the inherent quality of life fails,
+neither battle-ships, nor libraries, nor symphonies,
+nor Free Trade, nor Tariff Reform, nor
+anything else will save a nation."</p>
+
+<p>In this work of the creation and establishment
+of new and valuable varieties, two essential
+biological facts are made use of. The raw
+materials are furnished by variation&mdash;by the
+fact that there are individual and racial differences.
+The means of accomplishing results are
+furnished by heredity&mdash;the fact that offspring
+resemble the parents, not only in generalities,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+but even in particulars, and according to certain
+definite formulas.</p>
+
+<p>And, further, in the formation and establishment
+of a new race of plant or animal a conscious
+and ideal process is involved. The will
+of some organism guides the process, carefully
+doing away with hit and miss methods, and
+proceeding as directly as may be possible to
+an end <i>desired</i>. The facts of variation and
+heredity are sufficiently demonstrated for all
+organisms other than man; are they true of
+man also? Have we available the possibilities
+for the improvement of the human breed? If
+not, Eugenics is merely an interesting speculation.
+We have mentioned already the facts
+of variation in man; we undoubtedly do have
+the raw materials. What about heredity, and
+what about the directive agency? Let us look
+now at some of the facts of human heredity
+and consider some of the possibilities in the
+way of directive agencies. Is it going to be
+possible to breed a stable human race permanently
+with or without definite characteristics
+which now appear only in certain groups, or
+sporadically as variations?</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>
+At the outset we should say that the knowledge
+of human heredity is as yet largely of the
+statistical sort. We know how a great many
+characters are inherited, on the average. The
+subject of Mendelian heredity is so new that
+there has been hardly time to investigate more
+than a few human characteristics from this
+point of view. Certain conditions add to the
+difficulties here. First, many, probably most,
+of the more important human traits are complexes,
+not units, and it is a long and difficult
+process to analyze them into their units, with
+which alone Mendelism deals. Second, in human
+society we cannot carry on definite experiments
+under controlled conditions, directed
+toward the solution of some concrete problem
+in heredity. It is true that Nature herself is
+making such experiments constantly, but at
+random, and rarely under ideal conditions of
+what the experimenter calls control or check.
+We have first to seek and find them out, and
+when they are found we often discover that
+there are lacking many of the facts essential
+to a complete or satisfactory analysis of the
+facts displayed. The comparatively small size
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>
+of the human family sometimes makes it difficult
+to get data sufficiently extensive to be
+really significant. And the long period that
+elapses between successive human generations
+adds to the difficulty of getting precise information,
+for in dealing with the heredity of some
+traits comparisons must be made with individuals
+of the same ages, and the period of
+observation of a single observer seldom exceeds
+the duration of a single generation. Yet
+in spite of all these difficulties we have a fairly
+broad and exact knowledge of human heredity
+in respect to some characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>Human heredity involves both physical and
+psychical characters&mdash;both the body and the
+mind are concerned. Among other animals
+little if anything is known regarding psychic
+inheritance, but the physical traits of men are
+inherited in just the same ways and to the same
+degrees as in animals. This degree or intensity
+of inheritance may be expressed in coefficients
+of heredity between the groups of relatives
+being compared. To mention a few
+examples of coefficients for physical traits we
+have the following:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" width="90%" summary="Character Table">
+<tr><th>CHARACTER OBSERVED</th><th colspan="2">PARENTAL<br />COEFFICIENT</th><th colspan="2">FRATERNAL<br />COEFFICIENT</th></tr>
+<tr><td>Stature</td><td align="right">.49-.51 }</td><td></td><td align="right">.51-.55 }</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Span</td><td align="right">.45 }</td><td></td><td align="right">.55 }</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Fore Arm</td><td align="right">.42 }</td><td>.47</td><td align="right">.49 }</td><td>.53</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Eye Color</td><td align="right">.55 }</td><td></td><td align="right">.52 }</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hair Color</td><td></td><td></td><td align="right">.57</td><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &mdash;Average</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hair Curliness</td><td></td><td></td><td align="right">.52</td><td></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Head Measurements-three</td><td></td><td></td><td align="right">.55</td><td>&nbsp; &nbsp; &mdash; &nbsp; &nbsp; "</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Cephalic Index (Ratio between breadth<br />and length of cranium)</td><td></td><td></td><td align="right">.49</td><td></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>We might give many others, but it is unnecessary.
+Notice that these parental and fraternal
+coefficients group about an average value of
+about .50 or slightly less. Similar coefficients
+have been worked out for other degrees of relationship;
+thus grandparental coefficients are
+about .25.</p>
+
+<p>Stated briefly, in less exact terms, these coefficients
+mean that, with respect to such traits
+as deviate from the group average, the resemblance
+of brothers and sisters to each other or
+of children to their parents is, on the whole,
+approximately mid-way between being complete
+in its deviation from the average and in
+not deviating at all from the average in the
+direction of the fraternal or parental characteristic.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>
+Grandchildren tend to deviate from
+the group average only about one fourth as far
+as their grandparents. It should be remembered
+that these are statistical and not individual
+statements, and that as many "exceptions"
+will be found in the direction of greater resemblance
+as in that of lesser resemblance.</p>
+
+<p>One of the present objects of the student of
+heredity, perhaps his chief object, is to be able
+to state the facts of human heredity in Mendelian
+terms, reducing many of the complex human
+traits to their simpler elements. Some of
+the chief objections to the use of the statistical
+formula of heredity are that apparently it is
+applicable only to the fluctuating variabilities
+of organisms; that it rarely takes into account
+the presence of (and therefore the heredity of)
+true variations or mutations&mdash;and we have
+seen that it is just these characters that are of
+the greatest value in evolution; and that heredity
+is after all fundamentally an individual relation
+which loses much of its definiteness and
+significance when we merge the individual in
+with a crowd. To some these seem fatal objections
+to any use of the statistical formula and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>
+it is certainly true that they greatly limit its
+value. But for the present at least the statistical
+statement of certain facts of heredity is still
+useful in this bio-social field. We may therefore
+use the statistical formulas of heredity as
+a kind of temporary expedient, enabling us to
+make statements regarding inheritance of certain
+characters in the group or class, pending
+the time when we shall be able to give the facts
+a more precise and more "final" expression in
+Mendelian formulas. Many human traits are
+indeed already known to Mendelize. Most of
+these are, however, "abnormal" traits or
+pathological conditions; we are still in the dark
+regarding the actually Mendelian or non-Mendelian
+inheritance of most of man's normal
+characteristics. We might enumerate the following
+Mendelizing human characters&mdash;eye
+color, color blindness, hair color and curliness,
+albinism (absence of pigment), brachydactylism
+(two joints instead of three in fingers and
+toes), syndactylism (union of certain fingers
+and toes), polydactylism (one or more additional
+fingers or toes in each hand or foot),
+keratosis (unusually thick and horny skin),
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>
+h&aelig;mophilia (lack of clotting property in the
+blood), nightblindness (ability to see only in
+strong light&mdash;a retinal defect usually), certain
+forms of deaf mutism and cataract, imbecility,
+Huntington's chorea (a form of dementia).</p>
+
+<p>In observing Mendelian heredity we should
+bear in mind that a given character may be due
+either to the presence or to the absence of a
+"determiner" in the germ. Long hair such
+as is characteristic of many "Angora" varieties
+of the guinea pig and cat, for example, is
+believed to be due to the absence of a determiner
+which stops its growth. Blue eyes are
+due to the absence of a brown pigment determiner,
+<i>et cetera</i>. The presence or absence in
+the offspring of such characters as we know
+do Mendelize can be predicted when we know
+the parental history for two generations.</p>
+
+<p>Turning now to the inheritance of mental
+traits and including, of course, moral traits
+here as well, we find that we are almost entirely
+limited to the statistical statement of results.
+Pearson found upon examining data from a
+large number of school children, brothers and
+sisters, that the coefficients of heredity between
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>
+them were the same as for their physical traits.
+His results are summarized in Figure 12. The
+physical traits measured were, in the order
+plotted in the figure&mdash;health, eye color, hair
+color, hair curliness, cephalic index (ratio between
+breadth and length of cranium), head
+length, head breadth, head height. These gave
+an average of .54 in brothers, .53 in sisters, and
+.51 in brothers and sisters. The psychical
+traits in order were&mdash;vivacity, assertiveness,
+introspection, popularity, conscientiousness,
+temper, ability, handwriting. The corresponding
+averages were .52, .51, .52.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;">
+<img src="images/fig12.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 12." title="Fig. 12." />
+<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span>&mdash;Coefficients of heredity of physical and psychical characters
+in school children. Characters enumerated in text. (From Pearson.)</span></p></div>
+
+<p>Galton's pioneer works on "Hereditary Genius,"
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>
+"English Men of Science," and "Natural
+Inheritance" showed with great clearness the
+fact of mental and moral heredity. Wood's
+recent extensive study of "Mental and Moral
+Heredity in Royalty" shows the same thing,
+although not all the results of these investigations
+are given in mathematical form. Little
+can be said regarding Mendelian heredity of
+mental traits because the psychologist has not
+yet told us how to analyze even the common
+and simpler psychic characters into their fundamental
+units; since we do not know what
+the mental hereditary units are, obviously we
+cannot work with them. Much of our knowledge
+in this field does not permit of very accurate
+summary, though pointing indisputably
+to the fact of mental inheritance in spite of
+the very great influences of training and education,
+environment and tradition, in moulding
+the mental and moral characteristics&mdash;influences
+with much greater effect here than in
+connection with physical characters.</p>
+
+<p>Galton studied the parentage of 207 Fellows
+of the Royal Society, a Fellowship which is a
+real mark of distinction. He assumed that one
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>
+per cent of the individuals represented by the
+class from which his observations were drawn,
+that is the higher intellectual classes, might be
+expected to be "noteworthy": among the general
+population the average is really about one
+in 4,000 or one fortieth of one per cent. On
+the one per cent basis Galton found that Fellows
+of the Royal Society had noteworthy
+fathers with 24 times the frequency to be expected
+in the absence of heredity; noteworthy
+brothers with 31 times the expected frequency;
+noteworthy grandfathers 12 times; and so on
+through various grades of relationship.</p>
+
+<p>Schuster examined the class lists of Oxford
+covering a period of 92 years and found that
+first honor men had 36 per cent first or second
+honor fathers; second honor men had 32 per
+cent first or second honor fathers; ordinary degree
+men 14 per cent first or second honor
+fathers. These percentages are far in excess
+of that to be expected&mdash;perhaps 0.5 per cent&mdash;on
+the assumption that ability is not inherited.
+Schuster also determined the coefficients of
+heredity between fathers and sons as regards
+intellectual ability, the evidence being class
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>
+marks in Oxford and Harrow; these he found
+to be about .3 for the parental relation and .4
+for the fraternal. The intensity of heredity
+in many forms of insanity has been determined
+and this runs up much higher&mdash;.57 parental
+and .50 fraternal.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear I take it, that the fact of human
+heredity does not concern only physical traits
+but extends to psychical traits as well, and with
+about the same intensity. This fact has been
+found true also for still less analyzable characters
+such as length of life, fertility or infertility
+and the like, and again about the same intensity
+of resemblance is found.</p>
+
+<p>Human heredity is a fact then just as human
+variability is a fact. We have truly the raw
+materials and the means for racial improvement.
+The ability to direct the evolution of
+the human race makes this our supremest duty.</p>
+
+<p>The facts of human heredity can more easily
+be brought home to us by the examination of
+some actual pedigrees and family histories.
+We may look at a few representative cases
+which will serve to bring out some additional
+aspects of the significance to society of the demonstrated
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>
+fact of heredity. In the examination
+of single family histories we should remember
+that a single pedigree may not accurately illustrate
+a general law of heredity&mdash;again, an
+individual case may belong to a group of cases
+without representing them fairly. Even in observing
+illustrations of Mendel's laws allowance
+has to be made for the variability due
+to "chance" meetings of germ cells. It
+is only when large numbers of individuals
+are observed that the typical Mendelian
+fractions and ratios can be strictly observed.
+It must be borne in mind then that the
+histories given below illustrate the nature of
+the facts of heredity rather than the laws of
+heredity. Some special cautions in the interpretation
+of certain pedigrees will be suggested
+in particular cases. Many of the figures are
+taken from the extremely valuable "Treasury
+of Human Inheritance," now being published by
+the Eugenics Laboratory of the University of
+London. In these figures and some others a
+uniform series of symbols is used. Successive
+horizontal lines designated by Roman numerals
+indicate generations; within a single generation
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>
+the individuals are numbered consecutively
+simply for purposes of reference. The meaning
+of the more common symbols is as shown in
+Table IV. We may first consider a few pedigrees
+showing the heredity of physical abnormalities
+or defects.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;">
+<span class="caption">HUMAN HEREDITY<br /><br />
+Table IV.</span>
+<img src="images/tableiv.png" width="100%" alt="Table IV" title="Table IV" />
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 90%;">
+<img src="images/fig13.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 13." title="Fig. 13." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span>&mdash;Family history showing brachydactylism.
+Farabee's data. (From "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")</span></div>
+
+<p>Fig. 13 illustrates a family history where
+brachydactylism (an abnormality of the digits
+commonly called shortfingeredness, due to the
+lack of one joint in each digit) is present and
+frequently associated with dwarfism. We may
+describe this case rather fully because it illustrates
+nicely the heredity of a trait according
+to the Mendelian formula. The parentage
+of the affected female (II, 1) who started this
+line is uncertain. The marriage was with a
+normal male whose parentage is unknown but
+evidently normal. This pair produced 11 children,
+the character of 8 of whom is known; 4
+were affected, 4 unaffected, a Mendelian ratio
+resulting from the mating of a normal with a
+hybrid individual, the observed character dominating
+(i. e., the abnormality appearing in the
+hybrid individuals). According to Mendelian
+laws, the normal offspring of affected hybrids
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>
+when mated with normals should produce all
+normal offspring; this result is shown clearly
+through generations IV-VI, where no affected
+individuals are produced by two normal parents,
+although one or two of the grandparents were
+affected. Marriage of a normal person with
+one affected parent is fit because this individual
+is wholly without germinal determiners for this
+character. Marriage between a normal and an
+affected person is unfit (or it would be if the
+observed character were a serious defect) because
+approximately one half their offspring
+will be affected like the one parent. Thus in
+IV, 7-21, we see 12 children from one such
+marriage, 7 of whom are affected, 5 unaffected.
+All of the 11 children of the 5 unaffected are
+normal, while of the 16 children of the affected
+persons, all of whom that married at all married
+normal individuals, 9 were affected, 7 unaffected.
+Similar relations are found in generation
+VI, where the 9 affected persons in V
+married normals, producing 33 children, 15 of
+whom were affected, 18 unaffected. Taking
+all the offspring of marriages between unaffected
+and affected (hybrid) persons through
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span>
+the four generations III-VI, we find 35 affected
+and 33 unaffected, with the condition of
+3 unknown. There is no instance in this pedigree
+of the marriage of two affected persons,
+but such a marriage would be highly unfit
+(again in the case of a serious defect) because
+we know that all their offspring would be affected.
+Mating of two unaffected persons,
+even though each had one affected parent,
+would be fit because the offspring would all be
+unaffected, barring the possibility of a new variation
+or mutation to this character, which
+would be extremely unlikely. Such a pedigree
+as this illustrates very well how a knowledge of
+Mendelian heredity may be of the greatest
+value practically, in determining the fitness or
+unfitness of marriages in families where an abnormality
+or defect is known to occur. The
+course of the inheritance here illustrates the
+simplest form of Mendelism. We have already
+indicated that there are many other forms
+which we have not described and which we cannot
+undertake to describe here on account of
+their complexity; in such cases, however, it is
+still possible to predict with fair accuracy the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span>
+characters of the offspring of parents whose
+history is known for one or two generations.</p>
+
+<p>The defect we have just been considering is
+dominant. Many defects are recessive, i. e.,
+transmitted though not exhibited by a hybrid
+individual. Viewed from the standpoint of the
+character of the offspring, mating with such a
+person would be unfit only when both persons
+were similarly recessives. Such a chance similarity
+would be likely only in cases of blood
+relationship. Here lies the scientific basis for
+many of the legal restrictions against cousin
+marriage or the marriage of closer relatives,
+for here, although both persons may appear
+normal, the chances for latent ills appearing in
+the progeny in a pure and permanently fixed
+condition are greatly increased. Of course the
+same relation holds for characteristics which
+are not defects but really valuable traits. Marriage
+of cousins possessing valuable characters,
+whether apparent or not, might be allowed or
+encouraged as a means of rendering permanent
+a rare and valuable family trait which
+might otherwise be much less likely to become
+an established characteristic. Some discrimination
+should be exercised in the control, legal
+or otherwise, of such marriages.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;">
+<img src="images/fig14.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 14." title="Fig. 14." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span>&mdash;Family history showing polydactylism.
+(From "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")</span></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
+Fig. 14 gives a brief pedigree of a family
+in which polydactylism occurs. This is a condition
+in which one or more additional or supernumerary
+fingers or toes are present in the
+extremities. The Mendelian character of the
+heredity of this defect is less clear than in the
+preceding, yet there are many indications that
+this is really an illustration of a complex Mendelian
+formula. Probably if the parentage of the
+individuals marrying into this family were
+known we should be able to give a complete
+formula. At any rate the pedigree illustrates
+the unfit character of the matings with affected
+persons, for in no instance has such a marriage
+resulted in the production of fewer than one
+half affected offspring.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 15 illustrates a form of what is known
+as "split hand" or "lobster claw," where certain
+digits may be absent in the hands and feet.
+In this case all the digits are absent except the
+fifth. This is frequently associated with syndactylism
+or the fusion of the remaining digits
+into one or two groups. When present this
+usually affects all four extremities. Two pedigrees
+of this defect are illustrated in Fig.
+16. Here again we have a defect whose inheritance
+follows quite closely the Mendelian formula,
+although the character of the matings is
+not fully known; it is unnecessary to describe
+the details&mdash;the histories speak for themselves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 80%;">
+<img src="images/fig15.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 15." title="Fig. 15." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span>&mdash;Mother and two daughters showing "split hand."
+(From Pearson.)</span></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span>
+Fig. 17 illustrates a pedigree of congenital
+cataract. This history is less satisfactory because
+the matings are given in only three instances.
+It is known from other data that this
+defect follows simple Mendelian laws. Normal
+individuals produce only normals, while
+affected persons produce one half or all affected
+offspring according to the character of
+the mating.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 18 illustrates the heredity of another defect
+of the eye called night blindness. This is
+a retinal defect, the affected being able to see
+only in strong illumination. The particular
+form of the disease in this family resulted in
+total blindness later in life. Little is known
+definitely concerning the character of the matings;
+no mating is known to have been with an
+affected person and some are known to have
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>
+been with unaffected. Of the 42 descendants of
+the first affected person only 6 are known to
+have been unaffected. Can there be any doubt
+regarding the unfitness of these matings? In
+generation III a single mating led to a family
+of 10 children <i>all</i> affected by this serious defect,
+rendering them dependents.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most complete pedigrees of a defect
+on record is given in condensed form in
+Fig. 19. This summarizes the extraordinarily
+complete data of Nettleship covering nine, and
+in one branch ten, consecutive generations.
+The defect is another form of night blindness
+as it existed in a French family. The inheritance
+is obviously Mendelian: no affected persons
+are produced by unaffected parents, although
+their own brothers or sisters or one
+parent may have been affected. The pedigree
+gives the history of 2,040 persons, all descended
+from one affected individual. Of these 135
+were known to have been affected, and all were
+children of affected parentage. Of the total
+number of progeny of affected persons mated
+with normals, 130 were reported as affected
+and 242 as unaffected.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;">
+<img src="images/fig16.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 16." title="Fig. 16." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Two family histories showing split foot.
+(From "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")</span></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span>
+We may consider next the hereditary history
+of some forms of nervous defect, the exact
+nature of the causes of which can be less
+definitely stated than in all of the preceding
+instances of defect. Fig. 20 gives a brief
+history of the heredity of Huntington's chorea&mdash;a
+form of insanity which here resulted in
+the death of all but one of the affected persons
+in the first four generations; the fifth
+generation is the present and is incomplete.
+Although the matings were with normals in
+every case, yet in four of the eight marriages
+all of the offspring were affected. From one
+affected male 23 affected persons descended
+in four generations and their multiplication
+is still going on. There can be no doubt
+as to the unfitness of marriage into such a
+family.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;">
+<img src="images/fig18.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 18." title="Fig. 18." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;Family history showing a form of night blindness.
+Character of matings incompletely known. (Data from Bordley.)</span></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span>
+A very complete family history showing deaf-mutism
+is given in Fig. 21. It cannot be said
+that in every case here the defect is innate,
+i. e., hereditary, and it is not known that the
+cause of the defect was the same in every family
+concerned, for deaf-mutism may result from
+several different causes. In most cases in this
+history, however, the defect behaves like a
+Mendelian dominant. In certain other cases
+it is clearly known to follow the Mendelian formula.
+Such pedigrees as this show how dangerous
+it is to marry into a family in which this
+defect exists.</p>
+
+<p>Goddard has recently published several family
+histories showing feeble-mindedness. One
+of the most significant of these&mdash;significant
+both socially and eugenically&mdash;is summarized
+here in Fig. 22. Of this Goddard writes:
+"Here we have a feeble-minded woman [IV, 3]
+who has had three husbands (including one
+'who was not her husband'), and the result
+has been nothing but feeble-minded children.
+The story may be told as follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;">
+<img src="images/fig19.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 19." title="Fig. 19." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Family history showing a form of night blindness.
+(Condensed form of Nettleship's data.)</span></div>
+
+<p>"This woman was a handsome girl, apparently
+having inherited some refinement from her
+mother, although her father was a feeble-minded,
+alcoholic brute. Somewhere about the
+age of seventeen or eighteen she went out to do
+housework in a family in one of the towns of
+this State [New Jersey]. She soon became the
+mother of an illegitimate child. It was born
+in an almshouse to which she fled after she had
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>
+been discharged from the home where she had
+been at work. After this, charitably disposed
+people tried to do what they could for her, giving
+her a home for herself and her child in
+return for the work which she could do. However,
+she soon appeared in the same condition.
+An effort was then made to discover the father
+of this second child, and when he was found to
+be a drunken, feeble-minded epileptic living in
+the neighborhood, in order to save the legitimacy
+of the child, her friends [<i>sic</i>] saw to it
+that a marriage ceremony took place. Later
+another feeble-minded child was born to them.
+Then the whole family secured a home with an
+unmarried farmer in the neighborhood. They
+lived there together until another child was
+forthcoming which the husband refused to own.
+When, finally, the farmer acknowledged this
+child to be his, the same good friends [<i>sic</i>] interfered,
+went into the courts and procured a
+divorce from the husband, and had the woman
+married to the father of the expected fourth
+child. This proved to be feeble-minded, and
+they have had four other feeble-minded children,
+making eight in all, born of this woman.
+There have also been one child stillborn and
+one miscarriage.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;">
+<img src="images/fig20.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 20." title="Fig. 20." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;Family history showing Huntington's chorea.
+Last generation incomplete. (Data from Hamilton.)</span></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span>
+"As will be seen from the chart, this woman
+had four feeble-minded brothers and sisters
+[IV, 6, 10, 15, 16]. These are all married and
+have children. The older of the two sisters
+had a child by her own father, when she was
+thirteen years old. The child died at about
+six years of age. This woman has since married.
+The two brothers have each at least one
+child of whose mental condition nothing is
+known. The other sister married a feeble-minded
+man and had three children. Two of
+these are feeble-minded and the other died in
+infancy. There were six other brothers and
+sisters that died in infancy."</p>
+
+<p>The paternal ancestry of this unfortunate
+woman is hardly less interesting, as may be
+seen from the diagram. All told, this family
+history, as far as it is known, includes 59 persons;
+the mental character of 12 of these is unknown;
+10 died in infancy or before their characteristics
+were known; of the remaining 37, 30 were feeble-minded.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;">
+<img src="images/fig21.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 21." title="Fig. 21." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;Family history showing deaf-mutism.
+(From "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")</span></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span>
+Turning now to defects of other kinds, an
+interesting history is illustrated in Fig. 23. Here
+a single individual fatally affected with angio-neurotic
+&#339;dema gave rise, in four completed
+generations, to 113 persons, 43 of whom were
+affected. In 11 this disease was the direct
+cause of death. The Mendelian character of
+the heredity here can be neither asserted nor
+denied. In generations II-V matings between
+normal and affected gave 42 affected and 35
+unaffected offspring.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;">
+<img src="images/fig22.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 22." title="Fig. 22." />
+<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span> Family history showing feeble-mindedness. Data from Goddard. <i>A</i>, alcoholic; <i>d.i.</i>, died in infancy; <i>E</i>,
+epileptic; <i>ill.</i>, illegitimate; <i>in.</i>, incest; *, same individual as <i>III</i>, 6; <i>n.m.</i>, not married; <i>S</i>, sexual pervert; <i>T</i>, tuberculous.</span></p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;">
+<img src="images/fig23.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 23." title="Fig. 23." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span>&mdash;Family history showing angio-neurotic &#339;dema.
+(From "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")</span></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 70%;">
+<img src="images/fig24.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 24." title="Fig. 24." />
+<p><span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span>&mdash;Family history showing tuberculosis.
+(Data from Klebs, after Whetham in "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")</span></p></div>
+
+<p>Fig. 24 gives a brief family history showing
+pulmonary tuberculosis. In the history given
+susceptibility to this disease behaves as a Mendelian
+dominant. We cannot as yet say
+whether this is or is not a general rule. In
+describing the heredity of diseases primarily
+due to infection, one or two important cautions
+must be observed. Of course the source of the
+infection cannot be "hereditary," and apparently
+it is only in comparatively few instances
+that infection occurs during fetal life. To
+some infections certain persons are susceptible,
+others are not; some when susceptible are capable
+of developing immunity, others are not.
+When an infection is of such character and
+prevalence that practically all persons in approximately
+similar environments of a given
+character are infected, susceptibility or the
+power of developing immunity will determine
+whether or not an individual will exhibit the
+disease caused by the infective agent. Practically
+all persons living in the denser communities
+are infected with tuberculosis; those who
+are susceptible and incapable of developing immunity
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span>
+succumb, the insusceptible and those
+developing immunity do not. These conditions
+are heritable; but in speaking of the heredity of
+such a disease as tuberculosis it should be clear
+that the heredity concerned is really that of susceptibility
+and the power of developing immunity.
+Yet the person who is really susceptible
+can, by taking sufficient precaution, escape serious
+infection, and thus the result for that person
+would be the same as if he were insusceptible,
+but his offspring would have to take
+similar precautions if they were to escape the
+disease.</p>
+
+
+<p>We cannot speak of heredity in connection
+with diseases to which all are susceptible and
+incapable of developing immunity. The presence
+or absence of such a disease is determined
+solely by the presence or absence of infection.
+Many physical and mental defects result from
+infection as the primary cause. If the infection
+is one to which all exposed are susceptible
+and incapable of developing immunity we cannot
+speak of the defect as in any way hereditary;
+if the infection is one to which some are
+susceptible, others not, to which some can develop
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>
+immunity, others cannot, then we may
+speak of the defect as hereditary. Thus certain
+forms of blindness or insanity are due primarily
+to gonorrheal or syphilitic infection, insusceptibility
+to which is rare or unknown.
+Such defects cannot be considered as affording
+evidence of heredity though they reappear in
+successive generations.</p>
+
+<p>In general the subject of the heredity of immunity
+and susceptibility forms one of the most
+important eugenic aspects of this whole subject.
+In a few cases it is known that immunity or insusceptibility
+to specific forms of infection is a
+unit character which follows Mendelian laws in
+heredity. It can be added to races or subtracted
+from them and pure bred immune races
+built up. So far this has not been demonstrated
+for man. There is some circumstantial
+evidence that immunity to specific forms of infection
+has been a great, although hitherto neglected,
+factor in man's evolution, and even in
+the history of his civilization and conquest. It
+is at once obvious that here is a great field for
+the common labor of the students of heredity
+and of medicine and of Eugenics.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span>
+Fig. 25 illustrates a family history of infertility.
+This is apparently hereditary, but before
+that could be asserted definitely to be so
+here or in any similar case, we should know
+that the infertility were not the result of an
+infection to which immunity is rare or unknown.
+That infertility is really hereditary in this instance
+is indicated, first, by the fact that the person
+marked A later, by a second marriage into
+fertile stock, had a large family, and second, by
+the fact that the individual B and his child by
+marriage into fertile stocks produced in the last
+generation again a large family and so saved
+this whole family from extinction.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;">
+<img src="images/fig25.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 25." title="Fig. 25." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span>&mdash;Family history showing infertility.
+(From Whetham.)</span></div>
+
+<p>Before leaving the subject of the heredity of
+the kinds of traits we have been using as illustrations,
+we should add just a word. It is
+often objected that one cannot properly speak
+of the heredity of such general things as "insanity"
+or "deaf-mutism" or "blindness" or
+"heart disease," because each of these includes
+a great variety of specific forms of these disorders
+which cannot strictly, medically, be compared.
+But the student of heredity replies
+that when he speaks of the heredity of insanity
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span>
+or heart disease, that is often just what he
+means. He means that often no particular
+form of these defects is necessarily strictly
+heritable as such, but that in a family there
+may be a general instability of nervous system
+or circulatory system, which may take any one
+of several possible specific forms, the form actually
+appearing depending upon particular
+conditions which are frequently environmental
+and beyond determination. In some cases specific
+forms of disorder are actually heritable as
+such.</p>
+
+<p>Such an inclusive thing as "ability" may depend
+upon many different specific conditions.
+Yet there are families in which persons of exceptional
+ability are unusually frequent. The
+fact that persons of ability are more frequent
+in certain families than in the general population
+of the same social class and with about the
+same opportunity for the demonstration of inherent
+ability, gives evidence of its heredity,
+although we may not be able to summarize the
+facts under any particular law but must adhere
+to their statistical expression.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;">
+<img src="images/fig26.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 26." title="Fig. 26." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span>&mdash;Family history showing ability.
+(From Whetham.)</span></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span>
+Figs. 26 and 27 illustrate two such pedigrees
+of ability. In each of these histories there is
+also a line of "unsoundness" the descent of
+which it is interesting to trace. It is instructive
+to compare here the progeny of matings
+of different kinds. In generation IV of
+Fig. 26, the 9th and 10th persons are brother
+and sister. The sister was of considerable ability
+and married into a family of ability, producing
+8 offspring, 5 of whom were able. The
+brother was a "normal" person and married
+a similar individual, producing 10 "normal"
+children. It would be interesting to know the
+details regarding these two large families of
+cousins. Another interesting comparison is
+found in this pedigree. The four able brothers
+in generation III, coming from a stock of demonstrated
+ability, married women of undemonstrated
+ability and all told had 13 children (IV)
+of whom only 3 showed ability and all of these
+were in a single family. In this family of the
+fourth brother two of the able members married
+into able families, and among their 11 children
+(second and fifth families in generation
+V) 8 showed ability; the third able member of
+this family, however, married as her uncles
+had, a person not known as able, and none of
+their 6 children showed unusual ability (sixth
+family in generation V). Fig. 27 affords other
+illustrations of this same kind. Thus in generation
+III the 5th and 7th persons are able
+cousins of able parentage. The former married
+a normal and 1 of their 5 children showed
+ability; the latter married a person of ability
+and 5 of their 8 children showed ability. In
+both pedigrees the "careers" of those in the
+last generation are partly incomplete.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;">
+<img src="images/fig27.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 27." title="Fig. 27." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span>&mdash;Family history showing ability.
+Paternal ancestry of family shown in Fig. 26. (From Whetham.)</span></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span>
+In discussing pedigrees of ability it should
+be borne in mind that the larger proportion of
+able males as compared with females is hardly
+significant for the study of heredity; it may
+merely reflect the unfortunate fact that women
+have not had the same opportunity to demonstrate
+inherent ability as have men; or it may
+evidence the still more unfortunate fact that
+the distinguished achievements of able women
+have not been socially recognized as such and
+recorded as they have been for the other sex.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 28 gives an interesting, though abbreviated,
+pedigree of three very able and well-known
+families. In this history only persons whose
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span>
+ability is in science are marked as able.
+Charles Darwin is the third individual in the
+third generation. His cousin, Francis Galton,
+the founder of Eugenics, is the next to the last
+person in the same generation.</p>
+
+<p>Many similar cases of the unusual frequency
+of individuals of musical or religious ability in
+certain families have been published by Galton
+and are well known. "As long as ability marries
+ability, a large proportion of able offspring
+is a certainty, and ability is a more valuable
+heirloom in a family than mere material wealth,
+which, moreover, will follow ability sooner or
+later."</p>
+
+<p>We might contrast with such families as have
+been recorded in the three preceding figures
+some well-known families at the other pole of
+society. As an interesting example we have the
+family described by Poellmann. This was established
+by two daughters of a woman drunkard
+who in five or six generations produced all
+told 834 descendants. The histories of 709 of
+these are known. Of the 709, 107 were of illegitimate
+birth; 64 were inmates of almshouses;
+162 were professional beggars; 164 were prostitutes
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span>
+and 17 procurers; 76 had served sentences
+in prison aggregating 116 years; 7 were
+condemned for murder. This family is still a
+fertile one and the cost to the State, i. e., the
+taxpayers, already a million and a quarter dollars,
+is still increasing.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;">
+<img src="images/fig28.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 28." title="Fig. 28." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span>&mdash;History (condensed and incomplete)
+of three markedly able families. (From Whetham.)</span></div>
+
+<p>One of the best known families of this type is
+the so-called "Jukes" family of New York
+State so carefully investigated by Dugdale.
+This family is traced from the five daughters of
+a lazy and irresponsible fisherman born in 1720.
+In five generations this family numbered about
+1,200 persons, including nearly 200 who married
+into it. The histories of 540 of these are well
+known and about 500 more are partly known.
+This family history was easier to follow than
+are some others because there was very little
+marriage with the foreign-born&mdash;"a distinctively
+American family." Of these 1,200 idle,
+ignorant, lewd, vicious, pauper, diseased, imbecile,
+insane, and criminal specimens of humanity,
+about 300 died in infancy. Of the remaining
+900, 310 were professional paupers in
+almshouses a total of 2,300 years (at whose expense?);
+440 were physically wrecked by their
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span>
+own diseased wickedness; more than half of the
+women were prostitutes; 130 were convicted
+criminals; 60 were habitual thieves; 7 were murderers.
+Not one had even a common school education.
+Only 20 learned a trade, and 10 of these
+learned it in State prison! They have cost the
+State over a million and a quarter dollars, and
+the cost is still going on. Who pays this
+bill? What right had an intelligent and humane
+society to allow these poor unfortunates
+to be born into the kind of lives they had to
+lead, not by choice but by the disadvantage of
+birth? Darwin wrote long ago "... except
+in the case of man himself, hardly anyone
+is so ignorant as to allow his worst animals
+to breed."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100%;">
+<img src="images/fig29.png" width="100%" alt="Fig. 29." title="Fig. 29." />
+<span class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span>&mdash;History of <i>Die Familie Zero</i>.
+(Condensed from J&ouml;rger's data, partly after Davenport.)</span></div>
+
+<p>Probably the most complete family history of
+this kind ever worked out is that of the "Familie
+Zero"&mdash;a Swiss family whose pedigree has
+been recently unraveled in a splendid manner
+by J&ouml;rger. In the seventeenth century this family
+divided into three lines; two of these have
+ever since remained valued and highly respected
+families, while the third has descended to the
+depths. This third line was established by a
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span>
+man who was himself the result of two generations
+of intermarriage, the second tainted with
+insanity. He was of roving disposition, and in
+the Valla Fontana found an Italian vagrant wife
+of vicious character. Their son inherited fully
+his parental traits and himself married a member
+of a German vagabond family&mdash;Marcus,
+known to this day as a vagabond family. This
+marriage sealed the fate of their hundreds of
+descendants. This pair had seven children, all
+characterized by vagabondage, thievery, drunkenness,
+mental and physical defect, and immorality.
+Their history for the three succeeding
+generations is incompletely summarized in
+Fig. 29. In 1905, 190 members of this family
+were known to be living, and probably many
+living are unknown on account of illegitimate
+birth.</p>
+
+<p>In 1861 a sympathetic and charitable priest
+attempted to save from their obvious fate many
+of these "Zero" children and others who resided
+in and near his village, by placing them
+in industrious and respectable families to be
+reared under more favorable auspices. The
+attempt failed utterly, for every one of the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span>
+"Zero" children either ran away or was enticed
+away by his relatives.</p>
+
+<p>The blame for such an atrocity as this family
+or the Jukes does not rest with these persons
+themselves; it must be placed squarely
+upon the shoulders and consciences of the intelligent
+members of society who have permitted
+these predetermined degenerates to be brought
+into the world, and who are to-day taking no
+broadly sympathetic view of their treatment by
+exercising preventive measures. <i>Laissez faire?</i></p>
+
+<p>At the risk of easing the conscience, let us
+finally return to the other side of society and
+look at a summarized statement of the Edwards
+Family given by Boies and drawn from Winship's
+account of the descendants of Jonathan
+Edwards. "1,394 of his descendants were identified
+in 1900, of whom 295 were college graduates;
+13 presidents of our greatest colleges; 65
+professors in colleges, besides many principals
+of other important educational institutions; 60
+physicians, many of whom were eminent; 100
+and more clergymen, missionaries, or theological
+professors; 75 were officers in the army and
+navy; 60 prominent authors and writers, by
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
+whom 135 books of merit were written and published
+and 18 important periodicals edited; 33
+American States and several foreign countries,
+and 92 American cities and many foreign cities,
+have profited by the beneficent influence of
+their eminent activity; 100 and more were lawyers,
+of whom one was our most eminent professor
+of law; 30 were judges; 80 held public
+office, of whom one was Vice President of the
+United States; 3 were United States Senators;
+several were governors, members of Congress,
+framers of State constitutions, mayors of cities,
+and ministers to foreign courts; one was president
+of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company;
+15 railroads, many banks, insurance companies,
+and large industrial enterprises have been indebted
+to their management. Almost if not
+every department of social progress and of the
+public weal has felt the impulse of this healthy
+and long-lived family. It is not known that any
+one of them was ever convicted of crime."</p>
+
+<p>The serious consideration of bodies of facts
+like those contained in some of these pedigrees
+leads every thoughtful and sympathetic, every
+humanely minded, human being to ask&mdash;What
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>
+<i>can</i> we <i>do</i> about it? The display of such conditions
+stimulates us to measures of relief. It is
+greatly to be regretted that the honest desire to
+do good often leads to the performance of ill-considered
+or unconsidered acts which may
+result in positive injury to the constitution of
+society, or at any rate at best merely in the amelioration
+of the immediate situation without reference
+to ultimate profit or penalty, or to the
+necessity for interminable amelioration. Such
+relief leaves out of account the fact that modifications
+are not heritable&mdash;not permanent, practically
+without effect in the long run. "Good
+intentions" have a certain well-known value as
+paving material, but not as building material.</p>
+
+<p>The science of Eugenics includes not only the
+study of the data in this field, but further the
+formulation of definite courses of procedure;
+but it insists that these be based upon scientific
+principles and not upon emotional states. Philanthropic
+relief has become a serious business&mdash;is
+becoming a science. Eugenics is a science
+and it aims to put the human race upon such a
+level that the need for philanthropic relief will
+be less and continually less. We shall then be
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span>
+able to devote more of the resources of our time
+and money and energy to the production of permanent
+results. The Eugenist pleads in this
+work for more sympathetic consideration of the
+problems of relief&mdash;for a sympathy which is
+wider, which transcends the individual person
+and reaches the social group, even the nation
+or race. For just as a society is something
+more than the sum of its individual parts when
+taken separately, so the consideration of all the
+component individuals of a society taken separately
+and by themselves, results in something
+less than social consideration. Again "Charity
+refers to the individual; Statesmanship to the
+nation; Eugenics cares for both."</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>What, then, does the Eugenist propose to do?
+What is the eugenic program? Eugenics is
+not an academic matter&mdash;not an armchair science.
+It is intensely practical&mdash;so very practical,
+indeed, that the Eugenist hesitates to
+make many suggestions of a definite nature looking
+directly and immediately toward specific action.
+Something must precede action. The
+Eugenist has been ridiculed as one responsible
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>
+for the absurd schemes proposed in his name,
+perhaps seriously, by the unscientific but well-intentioned
+sympathizer. Many persons have
+been led to object to what they believed to be a
+eugenic program which is not a eugenic program
+at all. Thus the willingness of some to
+offer adverse criticism of the subject and its
+aims has grown largely out of a common misconception
+of the matter and has led Galton to
+say, "As in most other cases of novel views, the
+wrongheadedness of objectors to Eugenics has
+been curious." As a scientist the Eugenist
+realizes clearly and fully that his new science
+is in a very early stage of its development. It
+is just entering upon what are the first stages
+in the history of any science, namely, the periods
+of the formulation of elementary ideas and
+the collection of facts. There are certain groups
+of facts, however, of glaring significance and
+undoubted meaning, and upon these as a basis
+the Eugenist already has a few, a very few, concrete
+suggestions for eugenic practice. In conclusion,
+then, we may outline tentatively and
+briefly a conservative eugenic program somewhat
+as follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span>
+First of all there must be an extensive collection
+of exact data&mdash;of the facts regarding all
+the varied aspects of racial history and evolution.
+These facts must be collected with great
+care and under the strictest scientific conditions.
+In this matter particularly must we "desert
+verbal discussion for statistical facts."
+Figures can't lie, but liars can figure. What
+we need first of all is the accumulation of masses
+of cold, hard facts, uncolored by any point of
+view, untinged by any propaganda: facts regarding
+the net fertility of all classes; facts
+regarding the racial effects of all sorts of environmental
+and occupational conditions; facts
+regarding variability and variation in the race;
+facts regarding human heredity of normal and
+pathological conditions, of physical and psychical
+traits. We have merely scratched the surface
+of the great masses of such data to be had
+for the looking. As Davenport has recently put
+it in his valuable essay on "Eugenics"&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>"While the acquisition of new data is desirable,
+much can be done by studying the extant
+records of institutions. The amount of such
+data is enormous. They lie hidden in records of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span>
+our numerous charity organizations, our 42 institutions
+for the feeble-minded, our 115 schools
+and homes for the deaf and blind, our 350 hospitals
+for the insane, our 1,200 refuge homes, our
+1,300 prisons, our 1,500 hospitals and our 2,500
+almshouses. Our great insurance companies
+and our college gymnasiums have tens of thousands
+of records of the characters of human
+blood lines. These records should be studied,
+their hereditary data sifted out and ... placed
+in their proper relations" that we may learn of
+"the great strains of human protoplasm that
+are coursing through the country." Thus shall
+we learn "not only the method of heredity of
+human characteristics but we shall identify
+those lines which supply our families of great
+men: ... We shall also learn whence come our
+300,000 insane and feeble-minded, our 160,000
+blind or deaf, the 2,000,000 that are annually
+cared for by our hospitals and Homes, our
+80,000 prisoners and the thousands of criminals
+that are not in prison, and our 100,000 paupers
+in almshouses and out.</p>
+
+<p>"This three or four per cent of our population
+is a fearful drag on our civilization. Shall
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>
+we as an intelligent people, proud of our control
+of nature in other respects, do nothing but vote
+more taxes or be satisfied with the great gifts
+and bequests that philanthropists have made
+for the support of the delinquent, defective, and
+dependent classes? Shall we not rather take
+the steps that scientific study dictates as necessary
+to dry up the springs that feed the torrent
+of defective and degenerate protoplasm?</p>
+
+<p>"Greater tasks than those contemplated in
+the broadest scheme of the Eugenics committee
+have been carried out in this country. If only
+one half of one per cent of the 30 million dollars
+annually spent on hospitals, 20 millions on
+insane asylums, 20 millions for almshouses, 13
+millions on prisons, and 5 millions on the feeble-minded,
+deaf and blind were spent on the study
+of the bad germ plasm that makes necessary
+the annual expenditure of nearly 100 millions
+in the care of its produce we might hope to
+learn just how it is being reproduced and the
+best way to diminish its further spread. A <i>new</i>
+plague that rendered four per cent of our population,
+chiefly at the most productive age, not
+only incompetent, but a burden costing 100 million
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>
+dollars yearly to support, would instantly
+attract universal attention, and millions would
+be forthcoming for its study as they have been
+for the study of cancer. But we have become
+so used to crime, disease and degeneracy that
+we take them as necessary evils. That they
+were, in the world's ignorance, is granted.
+That they must remain so, is denied."</p>
+
+<p>Of course one should not jump from this to
+the conclusion that the fact of heredity is responsible
+for all of this defect. Disease is so
+often the result of infections to which none is
+immune, and defect is frequently the result of
+such disease. Warbasse has recently stated
+that "At least one fourth of our public institutions
+for caring for defectives is made necessary
+by venereal disease." Doubtless an appreciable
+share of this fourth is the result of hereditary
+tendencies, the expression of which gives the
+opportunity for such infection. Here as elsewhere
+no single factor accounts for all of the
+facts, although when, as the result of the increase
+of knowledge, we shall become able to
+make more definite statements, we no doubt shall
+find that heredity is the most important single
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span>
+factor in the disgraceful prevalence of crime,
+disease, and defect in our communities: indeed
+this is practically demonstrated to-day. These
+are questions of the most fundamental importance
+in our national life-history: our only
+"hope of perpetuity" lies in the right solution
+of such problems. And the crying need is for
+facts, always more facts.</p>
+
+<p>The Galton Laboratory for Eugenics is already
+doing much in this direction and is publishing
+in the "Treasury of Human Inheritance"
+scores of human pedigrees. An agency
+is already in operation in this country. The
+American Breeders Association has appointed
+a Committee and Sub-Committees under highly
+competent leaders for the collection of exact
+data of human heredity upon a large scale.
+There is opportunity for everyone to help in
+this work in connection with the Eugenics Record
+Office already referred to.</p>
+
+<p>The second great element in the eugenic
+program is Research. It is not enough to collect
+the known facts; new facts must be forthcoming.
+We cannot, perhaps, undertake definite
+experiments upon human evolution, but we
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span>
+can and must take advantage of the wealth of
+experiment which Nature is carrying out
+around us and before our eyes could we but
+learn to read her results. We need to know
+more about the process of differential fertility,
+of human variability, of the effects of Nurture
+as well as of the conditions of Nature.</p>
+
+<p>We do know pretty well the effects, upon the
+individual, of training, education, good and ill
+housing conditions and conditions of labor, of
+disease, alcoholism, underfeeding. We need
+now to know, not to guess at, the effects of these
+things upon the race, upon human stock. A
+mere beginning has been made here in the way
+of a scientific treatment of this question, although
+many persons have their minds already
+made up, firmly and fully, as to the "effects of
+the environment." But all that we have guessed
+here may be wrong.</p>
+
+<p>The discussion of this subject is filled with
+pitfalls. The common form of the query as to
+which is of the greater importance, "heredity
+or environment," in determining individual
+characteristics betrays a completely erroneous
+view of what heredity is, and of the organism's
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span>
+relation to its environment. The living organism
+reacts to its environment at every stage of
+its existence, whether as an egg, an embryo, or
+an adult. In this reaction both factors are essential,
+the environment as essential as the organism.
+The result of this continued reaction
+is the development on the part of the organism
+of certain physiological processes and structural
+conditions or characteristics. The nature
+of these resulting states, depending upon the
+two factors&mdash;organism and environment&mdash;can be
+changed by altering either factor. In general,
+organisms develop under pretty much the same
+conditions as their parents and general ancestry
+did, and their germinal substances are directly
+continuous, and therefore very similar. Consequently,
+primary organic structure and environing
+conditions of development being alike
+through successive generations, the results of
+their interaction are alike. This alikeness is
+heredity&mdash;the fact of similarity between parent
+and offspring. The usually indefinite question
+as to the effect of the environment ordinarily
+has a real meaning however, and this is, or
+should be, whether the alteration of particular
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>
+elements of the environment, the presence of
+special, unusual factors which cannot be said to
+be "normally" present&mdash;whether these produce
+any effect upon the organism which is truly
+heritable.</p>
+
+<p>This is in reality the old question of the "inheritance
+of acquired characteristics," or, in a
+word, of modifications&mdash;a question which has
+been debated heatedly and at length. And as
+in many similar instances the number of essays
+and the length and heat of the debate have been
+inversely as the number and clearness of the
+pertinent facts. The large majority of biologists
+have long felt that the great bulk of the
+evidence was on one side, namely, that acquired
+traits were not heritable. At the same time they
+have recognized the difficulty of explaining certain
+apparently demonstrated contradictory
+facts. Some recent experimental work has
+largely cleared away the theoretical difficulties
+in this field, and the present status of the old and
+really fundamental question may be stated as
+follows: External conditions&mdash;climate, temperature,
+moisture, nutritional conditions, results
+of unusual activity, and the like&mdash;incidences of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span>
+the environment, undoubtedly produce effects
+upon the structure and behavior of the organism,
+but these effects must be clearly grouped
+into two distinct classes.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place the effect of "external" conditions
+may be to bring about a reaction between
+the <i>bodily</i> parts affected and the environing
+conditions. Here the body alone is modified
+and not the germinal substance for the next
+generation within this body. Such responses to
+environing conditions do not affect nor involve
+the structure of the germ, and are therefore unrepresented
+in that series of reactions that result
+in the production of an individual of the
+next generation. In this class are found most
+of the instances of "functional modification"
+or acquired characteristics. In this category
+belong most of the stock illustrations&mdash;from
+the blacksmith's arm and the pianist's fingers,
+to the giraffe's neck and the fox's cunning.
+Here also belong the results of training and
+education; we can train and educate brain cells
+but not germ cells.</p>
+
+<p>It is characteristic of most of these bodily
+reactions to external conditions that they are
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>
+adaptive; that is, when a body reacts to such
+a condition it does so by undergoing a change
+which makes the organism better fitted to the
+new condition&mdash;better able to exist. The increased
+keenness of vision, the strengthened
+muscle, the thickened fur&mdash;all such changes
+meet new or unusual demands in such a way
+that the organism has better chances of survival
+than it would have had unmodified.</p>
+
+<p>But in the second place there are certain environmental
+circumstances which do affect the
+structure of the germinal substance within the
+body of an organism. An unusually high temperature
+acting at a certain period in the life-history
+may bring about a change in the color
+of insects which is heritable&mdash;i. e., racial; but
+such a change results from the action of temperature
+upon the germ directly and not alone
+upon the body, which then itself affects the
+germ. It is essential to recognize that in all
+such cases it is not the structural change in the
+body that affects the germ, but it is the external
+condition itself that affects the germ directly.
+This is not the half of a hair; it is an extremely
+important and significant difference.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span>
+The effects of this kind of action are not visible
+until the generation following that acted upon.
+They become expressed in the bodies of the organisms
+developed from the affected germs.</p>
+
+<p>It is characteristic of such changes as these
+that they may not, usually do not, have an adaptive
+relation to the condition bringing about the
+change. There is no correspondence between
+the bodily and the germinal modifications resulting
+from the action of the same condition.
+Furthermore, there seems to be no adaptive
+relation between the general character of the
+germinal disturbance and the environmental
+disturbance. Rarely some of the organismal
+characters resulting from such germinal modification
+may be in the direction of greater
+adaptedness; usually they are neutral or in the
+direction of utter unfitness.</p>
+
+<p>But such effects are heritable, whatever their
+nature with respect to adaptedness, and it becomes
+therefore very important to find out what
+are the conditions that may thus disturb the normal
+structure of the germ. Little more than a
+beginning has been made here and practically
+nothing can be said definitely with reference to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span>
+the human organism in this respect. Enough
+is known, however, to make it clear that it is
+only rarely indeed that external conditions can
+thus affect the germinal structure. In most
+cases the effects of the incidence of environment
+are purely bodily. A most fruitful field for
+eugenic investigation is open here.</p>
+
+<p>One of the first problems to be attacked from
+this point of view is that of the racial (i. e., heritable)
+effects of such poisons as alcohol. It is
+frequently said, for instance, that some of the
+effects of alcoholism are the weakened, epileptic,
+or feeble-minded conditions of the offspring,
+who are also particularly liable to disease and
+infection. It can hardly be said that this is as
+yet thoroughly demonstrated. On account of
+the importance of this question we might call
+specific attention to some recent investigations
+of the problem of the racial influence of alcohol.
+The effects of alcohol upon the individual are
+fairly well known, although still a matter for
+debate in some quarters. But this is not as important
+eugenically as the possible effect upon
+the offspring of the use and abuse of alcohol by
+the parents. An investigation has been carried
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span>
+on recently through the Galton Laboratory for
+National Eugenics directed toward ascertaining
+the precise relation between alcoholism in parents
+and the height, weight, general health, and
+intelligence of their children. It was found to
+be perfectly true that alcoholism and tuberculosis
+show a high degree of association; but considering
+the nondrinking members of the same
+community just the same high frequency of tuberculosis
+was found. And the presence of alcoholism
+among parents was found to be practically
+without effect upon the height and weight
+of their offspring. "These results are certainly
+startling and rather upset one's preconceived
+ideas, but it is perhaps a consolation that to the
+obvious and visible miseries of the children
+arising from drink, lowered intelligence and
+physique are not added."</p>
+
+<p>The difficulties surrounding investigation and
+the interpretation of the results of investigation
+in this particular field are evidenced by the fact
+that these results have been adversely criticised,
+on the one hand, because "alcoholism"
+was taken to mean the continued moderate use
+of alcohol, and on the other because "alcoholism"
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span>
+was taken to mean only the occasional excessive
+abuse of alcohol. Much of the confusion
+surrounding the discussion of the racial effects
+of alcohol grows out of the underlying confusion
+of statistical and individual statements. It may
+be left open, then, whether this result from the
+Galton Laboratory is clearly demonstrated and
+whether the basis of investigation was sufficiently
+broad to make the facts of general applicability.</p>
+
+<p>The frequent association between alcoholism
+and certain forms of insanity is sometimes
+taken as evidence of a racial effect. Here again
+we find the question really left open when we
+appeal to facts taken in large numbers. In a
+few cases it seems to have been demonstrated
+that saturation of the bodily tissues with alcohol
+affects directly the structure of the germ cells
+formed at that time, and that this effect is seen
+in physical and mental disturbances of the offspring
+derived from such germ cells, and thus
+becomes hereditary or racial. But these results,
+like those mentioned above, need confirmation.
+The impairment of the child <i>in utero</i>
+through maternal overindulgence in alcohol
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>
+would not necessarily denote any corresponding
+germinal (i. e., racial) effect.</p>
+
+<p>It is often the case that alcoholic excess, like
+other forms of excess, may be an indication of
+a lack of complete mental balance or sanity, sure
+to have become expressed in some form. The
+lack of balance in the offspring of such persons
+is a simple case of heredity and not the result
+of the parental use of alcohol. The alcoholism
+of the parent was a result, an indication, and
+not a cause. There may be instances of the
+direct action of external conditions upon the
+germ, and in a very true sense the body is a
+part of the external environment of the germ,
+but to say that such an action has been demonstrated
+for alcohol is premature. It should be
+easily possible to get real evidence upon this
+and similar questions. But at present it is
+safest to leave the whole question of the racial
+effects of alcohol entirely open pending more
+and better evidence.</p>
+
+<p>To summarize, then, we may say that the evidence
+for an inherited effect of the misuse of
+alcohol is not as clear as one might wish; it
+may be true. There is the greatest need for
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span>
+the careful scientific investigation of this and
+allied problems. Much of the evidence here is
+not of the kind that can be used to prove things&mdash;it
+consists largely of the demonstration of the
+fact of association rather than of causation. In
+order to show that a changed environment has
+produced a change in the innate characters of
+the organisms affected it must be demonstrated
+that the organismal change continues to be inherited
+after the environment has again become
+what it was originally, and as yet this has not
+been done. Indeed when tested in this way it is
+found that a permanently heritable alteration
+can thus be produced only rarely and by environmental
+changes of the most profound character.</p>
+
+<p>Research in another direction is greatly
+needed. We should examine and re&euml;xamine current
+as well as proposed social practices and
+reforms from the racial point of view. We
+should know before going much farther whether
+the extensive social improvements that are annually
+effected are to any considerable degree
+racially permanent. We should investigate not
+only the racial effects of the unfavorable social
+conditions themselves, but also the racial effects
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span>
+of the measures directed toward the relief of
+such conditions. It is conceivable that measures
+of relief may be practically without permanent
+effect or even racially detrimental. It
+would seem that the social worker and philanthropist
+should welcome any biologically fundamental
+truths touching these questions, and
+yet it is curiously true that there are some such
+persons who seem to prefer not to know the
+whole truth here, perhaps because they fear it
+may disclose the unwelcome fact that much of
+their effort has resulted in amelioration rather
+than in correction. It should be remembered
+that simple relief is well worth while, even
+though often without resulting racial benefit.
+When it is not actually detrimental racially, relief
+is an economic, social, and moral duty. The
+Eugenist, by disclosing the fact that racial
+effects can actually be accomplished, enlarges
+rather than diminishes the opportunities for relief
+and his knowledge should be welcomed and
+use made of it.</p>
+
+<p>Heretofore the social point of view has been
+practically the only point of view in much of
+this work, and the result is that usually following
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>
+when action is based upon half-truth. David
+Starr Jordan says: "Charity creates the misery
+she tries to relieve; she never relieves half
+the misery she creates," and he goes on to say
+that <i>unwise</i> charity is responsible for half the
+pauperism of the world; that it is the duty of
+charity to remove the <i>causes</i> of weakness and
+suffering and equally to see that weakness and
+suffering are not needlessly perpetuated. In
+this connection the following quotation from
+Elderton is apt: "... the influence of the parental
+environmental factor on the welfare of
+children is ... at present and has been in the
+past the chief direction of legislative and philanthropic
+attack on social evils. Degeneracy of
+every form has been attributed to poverty, bad
+housing, unhealthy trades, drinking, industrial
+occupation of women, and other direct or indirect
+environmental influences on offspring. If
+we could by education, by legislation, or by social
+effort change the environmental conditions,
+would the race at once rise to a markedly higher
+standard of physique and mentality? Much, if
+not the whole battle for social reform, has been
+based on the assumption that this question was
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span>
+obviously to be answered in the affirmative. No
+direct investigation has really ever been made
+of the intensity of the influence of environment
+on man. To modify the obviously repellent was
+the immediate instinct of the more gently nurtured
+and controlling social class. Was this direction
+of social reform really capable of effecting
+any substantial change? Nay, by lessening
+the selective death rate, may it not have contributed
+to emphasizing the very evils it was intended
+to lessen? These are the problems which
+occur to the eugenist and call for investigation
+and, if possible, settlement.... It is conceivable
+that the relation between children's physique,
+for example, and parental occupation is an indirect
+result of the inheritance of physique and a
+correlation between parents' physique and their
+occupation. In other words, what we are attributing
+to environment may be a secondary influence
+of heredity itself. A weakling may have no
+option but to follow an unhealthy trade, a man
+is a tailor or shoemaker, because he has not the
+physique for smith or navvy. His offspring
+may be physically inferior because he is a weakling
+and not because he follows an unhealthy
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span>
+trade. Clearly, to solve our problem, we must
+know if there be any correlation between the
+same character in the parent as we are observing
+in the child and the environment we are
+correlating with the child's character. Unfortunately
+data enabling us to determine the relationship
+of any mental or physical character of
+the parent with the environment which is supposed
+to influence the child is rarely forthcoming."</p>
+
+<p>Just to suggest one further train of thought,
+we might point out that several movements apparently
+of high social value have been attended
+by a curious and largely unforeseen back action.
+Thus the enforcement of certain forms
+of Employer's Liability laws has led to discrimination
+against married persons by large
+employers of labor and a premium thus put upon
+nonmarriage. The result of Child Labor legislation
+has been in some cases an enormous
+rise in the death rate of young children among
+the classes concerned, indicating that the children
+receive less care, now that they have ceased
+to be a prospective family asset and have become
+chiefly a burden for many years. In other
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span>
+cases the result has been so serious a limitation
+in the birth rate that communities are dying
+out and factories are closing for want of sufficient
+help. Such problems are not only social
+but economic and eugenic, and they cannot be
+seen squarely from any single point of view. It
+is doubtless shocking to the cultured mind that
+the chief reason for bringing children into the
+world should be their economic value as contributors
+to the family income. But in reality does
+this point of view differ fundamentally from
+that very commonly taken of the value of a large
+family except in the nature of the standard by
+which their value is measured? May there not
+be a difference of opinion as to whether children
+are better or worse off when brought up with
+some degree of care to be employed under humane
+conditions of labor, than when left uncared
+for to die in large proportions of disease
+and neglect?</p>
+
+<p>Finally, studies in heredity, whether on man
+or on other animals or on plants, are sure to be
+of value here because we know that the fundamental
+processes of heredity are the same in all
+organisms. Above all, the Eugenist needs to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>
+know more of Mendelian heredity in man. The
+facts of heredity stated in the statistical form
+of averages and coefficients do not affect the man
+in the street materially&mdash;he rather enjoys taking
+chances. An extensive eugenic practice can
+be established only when we can say definitely
+what the individual or family inheritance will
+be in a given instance&mdash;not what it will be with
+such and such a degree of probability, although
+that probability be high. We may not be such a
+long way off from this ideal, which is an essential
+for the inauguration of eugenic practice
+upon a large scale. For the Eugenist this is the
+richest field for investigation and one which is
+certain to yield large results.</p>
+
+<p>The Eugenist's demand for more facts will
+doubtless become an important factor in the
+progress of biological science. The practical
+application of the knowledge of heredity in
+the production of domesticated or cultivated varieties
+of animals and plants is becoming annually
+more extensive; and with the recognition of
+the possibility of the application of this knowledge
+to the control of the evolution of man himself,
+will come a rapid increase in biological
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span>
+knowledge and in the earnestness of the student
+of heredity. And at the same time another result
+may be that the science of biology shall
+come to be appraised publicly more nearly at its
+real value. The biological worker knows that
+his science comes into contact with human life
+at every point, that a knowledge of the fundamental
+principles of the science of life cannot
+fail to enrich, enlighten, and ennoble the life of
+every human being. But the community does
+not yet realize this, to its own great loss. Is it
+not possible that the Eugenist, finding his fundamentals
+in biology, by emphasizing the facts
+of the possibility and the necessity of controlling
+human evolution, may be able to bring to
+society a vital sense of the importance of this
+science with a directness and a vividness which
+the bacteriologist and hygienist have not been
+able thus far to realize? Is it even too much to
+hope that the idea that the "humanities" include
+only the study of man's comparatively recent
+past, may now more rapidly give place to
+a broader conception which shall include not
+only the whole of man's past, but the study of
+his future as well? Could any ideal be more
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span>
+vitally, more profoundly human or more worthy
+of study and devotion, than this of the production
+of a race of men, clean and sound in mind
+and body? Be that as it may, the development
+of this bio-social field can scarcely fail to stimulate
+strongly the treatment of all social problems
+with a strictly scientific method. Nothing
+less than exact methods, and results exactly
+stated, will satisfy the genuine and really valuable
+social student of the near future. As one
+recent writer has feelingly put it: "We have
+had essays enough."</p>
+
+<p>Eugenic practice for the immediate future is
+the third part of our program. Must we wait
+until more data are collected, more facts uncovered,
+before we undertake any definite proposals
+for eugenic procedure? Although this is the
+most difficult aspect of the subject, largely
+through lack of a sufficiently broad fact-basis,
+yet we are certainly in possession of enough information
+to make plain a few necessary steps.
+Most of the concrete proposals directed toward
+the reduction of the undesirables and the increase
+of the desirables have been visionary,
+impractical, or too limited in their view-point.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span>
+Above all, they have been open to the objection
+that they have gone too far in the direction of
+that zone which separates the two classes. It
+should be said again that most of these proposals
+have been those of the amateur enthusiast,
+not of the seriously scientific Eugenist; they
+have grown out of that common habit of "getting
+far from the facts and philosophizing about
+them."</p>
+
+<p>As Pearson points out, we must start from
+three fundamental biological ideas. First,
+"That the relative weight of nature and nurture
+must not <i>a priori</i> be assumed but must be scientifically
+measured; and thus far our experience
+is that nature dominates nurture, and that inheritance
+is more vital than environment." Second,
+"That there exists no demonstrable inheritance
+of acquired characters. Environment
+modifies the bodily characters of the existing
+generation, but does not [often] modify the
+germ plasms from which the next generation
+springs. At most, environment can provide a
+selection of which germ plasms among the many
+provided shall be potential and which shall remain
+latent." Third, "That all human qualities
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span>
+are inherited in a marked and probably
+equal degree." "If these ideas represent the
+substantial truth, you will see how the whole
+function of the eugenist is theoretically simplified.
+He cannot hope by nurture and by education
+to create new germinal types. He can only
+hope by selective environment to obtain the
+types most conducive to racial welfare and to
+national progress. If we see this point clearly
+and grasp it to the full, what a flood of light it
+sheds on half the schemes for the amelioration
+of the people.... The widely prevalent notion
+that bettered environment and improved education
+mean a <i>progressive</i> evolution of humanity
+is found to be without any satisfactory scientific
+basis. Improved conditions of life mean better
+health for the existing population; greater educational
+facilities mean greater capacity for
+finding and using existing ability; they do not
+connote that the next generation will be either
+physically or mentally better than its parents.
+Selection of parentage is the sole effective process
+known to science by which a race can continuously
+progress. The rise and fall of nations
+are in truth summed up in the maintenance or
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[Pg 218]</a></span>
+cessation of that process of selection. Where
+the battle is to the capable and thrifty, where
+the dull and idle have no chance to propagate
+their kind, there the nation will progress, even
+if the land be sterile, the environment unfriendly
+and educational facilities small."</p>
+
+<p>As a concrete example of a most commendable
+eugenic practice we should mention the
+sterilization of certain classes of criminal and
+insane as it is now practiced in the States of
+Indiana and Connecticut. For the last four
+years (since March, 1907) the laws of Indiana
+have permitted the performance of the operation
+of vasectomy upon "confirmed criminals,
+idiots, rapists, and imbeciles" after rigid scrutiny
+of all the mental and physical conditions of
+the individual case and upon the concurrent
+judgment of three competent and impartial persons.
+The title and significant parts of the text
+of this law are as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>An Act</i>, entitled, An Act to prevent procreation of confirmed
+criminals, idiots, imbeciles, and rapists&mdash;providing
+that superintendents, or boards of managers, of institutions
+where such persons are confined shall have the authority,
+and are empowered to appoint a committee of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span>
+experts, consisting of two physicians, to examine into the
+mental condition of such inmates.</p>
+
+<p><i>Whereas</i>, Heredity plays a most important part in the
+transmission of crime, idiocy, and imbecility;</p>
+
+<p><i>Therefore</i>, Be it enacted by the General Assembly of
+the State of Indiana, That on and after the passage of
+this act it shall be compulsory for each and every institution
+in the State, entrusted with the care of confirmed
+criminals, idiots, rapists, and imbeciles, to appoint upon
+its staff, in addition to the regular institutional physician,
+two (2) skilled surgeons of recognized ability, whose
+duty it shall be, in conjunction with the chief physician
+of the institution, to examine the mental and physical
+condition of such inmates as are recommended by the institutional
+physician and board of managers. If, in the
+judgment of this committee of experts and the board of
+managers, procreation is inadvisable, and there is no probability
+of improvement of the mental and physical condition
+of the inmate, it shall be lawful for the surgeons
+to perform such operation for the prevention of procreation
+as shall be decided safest and most effective. But
+this operation shall not be performed except in cases that
+have been pronounced unimprovable: Provided, That in
+no case shall the consultation fee be more than three (3)
+dollars to each expert, to be paid out of the funds appropriated
+for the maintenance of such institution.</p></div>
+
+<p>This operation of vasectomy, sometimes
+known as "Rentoul's operation," consists, in the
+male, in the removal of a small portion of each
+sperm duct; the individual is thus rendered
+sterile in a completely effective and permanent
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>
+way. At the same time there are none of the
+harmful effects, either physical or mental, such
+as usually follow the better known forms of
+sterilization which are in reality asexualization
+rather than sterilization. Vasectomy is a simple
+"office" operation occupying only a few
+minutes and requiring at the most the application
+of only a local an&aelig;sthetic, such as cocaine;
+and there are no disturbing nor even inconvenient
+after effects. In the female the corresponding
+operation of o&ouml;phorotomy consists in
+removing a small portion of each Fallopian
+tube. In Indiana nearly a thousand persons
+have already been successfully treated, many
+upon their own request&mdash;a circumstance entirely
+unforeseen. Similar laws have been
+passed in Oregon and Connecticut, and are
+being carefully considered in several other
+States.</p>
+
+<p>In order that the exact nature of such proposals
+may be better known generally we may
+give here also the text of the Connecticut law
+which is somewhat more inclusive and more flexible
+than that of Indiana. The Connecticut
+Statute, enacted in August, 1909, is as follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>An Act</i>, concerning operations for the Prevention of
+Procreation.&mdash;Be it enacted by the Senate and House of
+Representatives in General Assembly convened:</p>
+
+<p><i>Section 1.</i> The directors of the State prison and the
+superintendents of State hospitals for the insane at Middletown
+and Norwich are hereby authorized and directed
+to appoint for each of said institutions, respectively, two
+skilled surgeons, who, in conjunction with the physician
+or surgeon in charge at each of said institutions, shall
+examine such persons as are reported to them by the
+warden, superintendent, or the physician or surgeon in
+charge, to be persons by whom procreation would be inadvisable.</p>
+
+<p>Such board shall examine the physical and mental condition
+of such persons, and their record and family history
+so far as the same can be ascertained, and if in the
+judgment of the majority of said board, procreation by
+any such person would produce children with an inherited
+tendency to crime, insanity, feeble-mindedness, idiocy, or
+imbecility, and there is no probability that the condition
+of any such person so examined will improve to such an
+extent as to render procreation by such person advisable,
+or, if the physical and mental condition of any such person
+will be substantially improved thereby, then the said
+board shall appoint one of its members to perform the
+operation of vasectomy or o&ouml;phorectomy, as the case may
+be, upon such person. Such operation shall be performed
+in a safe and humane manner, and the board making such
+examination, and the surgeon performing such operation,
+shall receive from the State such compensation, for services
+rendered, as the warden of the State prison or the
+superintendent of either of such hospitals shall deem
+reasonable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Section 2.</i> Except as authorized by this Act, every person
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span>
+who shall perform, encourage, assist in, or otherwise
+promote the performance of either of the operations described
+in Section 1 of this Act, for the purpose of
+destroying the power to procreate the human species; or
+any person who shall knowingly permit either of such
+operations to be performed upon such person&mdash;unless the
+same be a medical necessity&mdash;shall be fined not more than
+one thousand dollars, or imprisoned in the State prison
+not more than five years, or both.</p></div>
+
+<p>These States are to be commended in the highest
+possible terms for their enlightened action in
+this direction. Who can say how many families
+of Jukes and Zeros have already been inhibited
+by this simple and humane means? "Could
+such a law be enforced in the whole United
+States, less than four generations would eliminate
+nine tenths of the crime, insanity and sickness
+of the present generation in our land.
+Asylums, prisons and hospitals would decrease,
+and the problems of the unemployed, the indigent
+old, and the hopelessly degenerate would
+cease to trouble civilization."</p>
+
+<p>And yet probably for years to come those
+mental states and conditions of servitude graciously
+termed "conservatism" will continue to
+insure an undiminished horde of these unfortunates.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span>
+The situation here is interestingly analogous
+to that in connection with certain of the
+infectious diseases. Concerning the eradication
+of typhoid fever, to mention a single concrete
+example, competent authorities declare
+that we now possess all of the information
+necessary to make typhoid fever as obsolete in
+civilized communities as is cholera or smallpox.
+"The average third-year medical student knows
+enough about typhoid fever to be able to stamp
+it out if he were endowed with absolute power."
+"Typhoid fever has passed beyond the catalogue
+of diseases; it is a crime." Our knowledge
+of the causes of many of the conditions
+leading to gross physical and mental defect and
+criminality has progressed already to such a
+point that we could if we would eradicate them
+in large proportion from our civilization. The
+great horde of defectives, once in the world,
+have the right to live and to enjoy as best they
+may whatever freedom is compatible with the
+lives and freedom of the other members of society.
+They have not the right to produce and
+reproduce more of their kind for a too generous
+and too blindly "charitable" society to contend
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span>
+against. The greater crime consists in allowing
+the hereditary criminal to be born.</p>
+
+<p>A well-known British alienist, Tredgold,
+after pointing out that the duty of medical science
+is to fight and relieve disease in every shape
+and form, adds: "That if social science does
+not keep pace with medical science in this matter
+the end will be national disaster. In other
+words, I would lay it down as a general principle
+that as soon as a nation reaches that stage
+of civilization in which medical knowledge and
+humanitarian sentiment operate to prolong the
+existence of the unfit, then it becomes imperative
+upon that nation to devise such social laws
+as will insure that these unfit do not propagate
+their kind.</p>
+
+<p>"For, mark you, it is not as if these degenerates
+mated solely amongst themselves. Were
+that so, it is possible that, even in spite of the
+physician, the accumulated morbidity would become
+so powerful as to work out its own salvation
+by bringing about the sterility and extinction
+of its victims. The danger lies in the fact
+that these degenerates mate with the <i>healthy</i>
+members of the community and thereby constantly
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span>
+drag fresh blood into the vortex of disease
+and lower the general vigour of the nation."</p>
+
+<p>Such a practice as vasectomy then represents
+nicely the eugenic aim of allowing the individual,
+who is himself never to be blamed for his
+hereditary constitution, the greatest possible
+personal freedom and liberty, of allowing full
+play of sympathy for the individual, and at the
+same time of exercising the greatest sympathy
+to society in prohibiting the hereditary criminal
+from procreating a long line of descendants endowed
+as badly as he himself was through no
+fault of his own, but through the gross neglect
+of society.</p>
+
+<p>Another quotation from Pearson: "To-day
+we feed our criminals up, and we feed up our
+insane, we let both out of the prison or asylum
+'reformed' or 'cured,' as the case may be, only
+after a few months to return to State supervision,
+leaving behind them the germs of a new
+generation of deteriorants. The average number
+of crimes due to the convicts in his Majesty's
+prisons to-day is ten apiece. We cannot
+reform the criminal, nor cure the insane from
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span>
+the standpoint of heredity; the taint varies not
+with their mental or moral conduct. These are
+the products of the somatic cells; the disease
+lies deeper in their germinal constitution. Education
+for the criminal, fresh air for the tuberculous,
+rest and food for the neurotic&mdash;these
+are excellent, they may bring control, sound
+lungs, and sanity to the individual; but they
+will not save the offspring from the need of like
+treatment, nor from the danger of collapse when
+the time of strain comes. They cannot make
+a nation sound in mind and body, they merely
+screen degeneracy behind a throng of arrested
+degenerates. Our highly developed human
+sympathy will no longer allow us to watch the
+State purify itself by the aid of crude natural
+selection. We see pain and suffering only to relieve
+it, without inquiry as to the moral character
+of the sufferer or as to his national or racial
+value. And this is right&mdash;no man is responsible
+for his own being; and nature and nurture,
+over which he had no control, have made him
+the being he is, good or evil. But here science
+steps in, crying: Let the reprieve be accepted,
+but next remind the social conscience of its duty
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span>
+to the race ... let there be no heritage if you
+would build up and preserve a virile and efficient
+people. Here, I hold, we reach the kernel
+of the truth which the science of eugenics has
+at present revealed."</p>
+
+<p>It is also a part of eugenic practice to oppose
+vigorously and unmistakably any social practice
+leading to the reduction in the reproductivity
+of the desirable and valuable elements of
+society. There is to be included here for censure
+a long list of customs and practices, from
+the enforced celibacy of the Church to the horror
+of horrors&mdash;warfare. A moment's reflection
+will suggest many reprehensible practices
+of this kind more or less current in certain
+classes or communities. The requirement of
+nonmarriage on the part of women teachers&mdash;persons
+of tested and demonstrated ability, is a
+very general practice of decidedly noneugenic
+character. In Great Britain more than 75,000
+nurses, all of whom must have passed physical
+examination, are cut off from reproduction by
+the same requirement of nonmarriage. Many
+less striking but all too common practices have
+the final effect of forbidding marriage to the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span>
+healthy, physically or mentally capable, helpful,
+classes. "Help wanted. Must be unencumbered."</p>
+
+<p>More vigorously and more unmistakably does
+the Eugenist discourage anything that leads to
+matings of the unfit and, above all, to their reproduction.
+Many countries, from Servia to
+the Argentine Republic, have statutes forbidding
+the marriage of the insane, idiots, deaf and
+dumb, certain classes of criminals, and persons
+afflicted with certain contagious diseases. It is
+to be hoped that these laws are enforced with
+greater effectiveness than that with which our
+own less stringent laws of similar character
+are administered. After all, it is the reproduction
+of these persons that should be limited, and
+among many of these classes the fact of nonmarriage
+would provide not the slightest barrier
+to reproduction.</p>
+
+<p>It is unfortunately true, but true none the
+less, that there are current forms of so-called
+philanthropy which, by relieving defective parents
+of the care of their defective offspring,
+thus encourage them in the production of more
+defective offspring; and so the flames are fed.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span>
+Relief is the smallest part of the problem. Any
+condition which leads to the multiplication of
+the innately defective and dependent classes
+must be sternly opposed. No matter how benign
+the guise of any form of relief or charity, if it
+encourages or permits even indirectly the free
+reproduction of these classes, it must be resolutely
+opposed and soon abandoned. "It is not
+enough to preach with horror and indignation
+against normal parents who restrict their families.
+Equal reprobation should be the lot of
+those who, with inherited insanity, feeble-mindedness,
+or disease, bring children into the world
+to perpetuate their infirmities. It should not be
+overlooked that the realization of the power of
+limiting the birth rate, while it has produced
+untold harm, when applied blindly and in accordance
+with individual caprice, may become
+an instrument for good if it extends to the worst
+stocks, while the better stocks once more undertake
+their natural duties."</p>
+
+<p>Practical Eugenics need not be limited to its
+philanthropic and legislative aspects. There
+are other social mechanisms which could be used
+to encourage the multiplication of the fitter,
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span>
+abler families. In Munich, under the enlightened
+leadership of Dr. Alfred Ploetz, a society
+for the study and promotion of social and racial
+hygiene (Internationale Gesellschaft f&uuml;r Rassen-Hygiene)
+has made a most excellent and significant
+beginning. This society is doing much
+not only to collect data and investigate scientifically
+problems within its field, but also to
+spread widely the facts of racial integrity. Its
+members agree, among other things, to undergo
+thorough medical examination prior to marriage
+as to their fitness for that state and agree
+to abstain from marriage, or at least from parenthood,
+if found to be unfit.</p>
+
+<p>Much can be done by suggestion and suasion
+regarding the choice of mates and the rearing
+of large families. When one touches upon this
+subject he is pretty likely to be met with the
+objection that the selection of mates is so largely
+an impulsive, emotional affair that it is quite
+beyond control. "Marriages," they say, "are
+made in heaven." But when we consider the
+number that can scarcely be said to be completed
+there the statement seems open to some
+question. As a matter of fact, it is perfectly
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span>
+clear, as Galton, Ellis, and others have shown,
+that all peoples, from the Kaffir and the Dyak to
+the Hindu and the modern European or American,
+are surrounded with restrictions in marriage
+often of the greatest stringency. And yet,
+since these are matters of established social custom,
+even of religious observance, we submit
+almost without knowing it.</p>
+
+<p>That results can be really accomplished in
+this direction and by this method is clearly
+shown by the history of the Jewish people, and
+by the Roman Catholics, among whom there are
+distinctly fewer divorces and childless marriages
+than among Protestants. In many countries
+and communities the organized Church
+still exercises an immense influence over the
+whole subject of marriage: the Church could
+easily become a powerful factor in eugenic practice.
+Such a control can and should be given
+eugenic direction by the establishment of a more
+discriminative attitude, looking toward a reduction
+in the reproductivity of the dependent or
+defective as well as to the increased reproductivity
+of the valuable and able. In all of the
+discussion of "race suicide" and the value to
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>
+the State of the large family, how seldom do we
+hear any mention of quality! To plan the organization
+and conduct of a State without regulating
+and controlling the quality of its membership
+is like adopting plans and elevations for a
+costly building without making any specifications
+as to materials.</p>
+
+<p>In concrete eugenic practice it seems probable
+that most can be accomplished for the present
+by striving to limit the multiplication of the
+undesirable, dependent, or dangerous elements
+of the social group. There can be less uncertainty
+here. The social organization has already
+marked certain kinds of individuals as
+unfit and unworthy, whose liberty must be limited
+in many directions for the social welfare.
+This aspect of the matter can be put upon a
+dollars and cents basis very clearly, and this is
+apparently the only relation that affects a good
+many people. Why should the able and worthy
+and thrifty members of society be compelled to
+pay, as they are in this country alone, $100,000,000
+annually, not to mention the vast sums voluntarily
+contributed toward "charitable" purposes,
+for the support of the criminal and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span>
+pauper and defective classes who themselves
+contribute nothing of value and whose very existence
+is evidence of criminal disregard of the
+right of every individual to be well born, into a
+healthy and sane life? The only answer, if it
+be an answer, is&mdash;because the competent are
+willing to foot the bill. Millions for tribute but
+not one cent for defense. And yet a penny's
+worth of defense outweighs a million's worth of
+cure.</p>
+
+<p>In the practice of Eugenics the greatest caution
+must be exercised. All eugenic practice
+must be tested by the most careful and scrutinizing
+scientific methods. Mendelian heredity
+gives a different answer from Job's to his own
+query: "Who can bring a clean thing out of an
+unclean?" It also makes clear how it may often
+happen that it needs but three generations to go
+from Fifth Avenue to the Bowery, and back
+again. Many so-called criminals may be anachronisms,
+some only modificationally bad.
+But there are many cases, many practices, regarding
+which there can be no doubt: the Eugenist
+says, treat these, and let the doubtful
+cases alone until as a result of the increase of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span>
+knowledge there is no doubt. And while it is
+easy to say that we <i>believe</i> the criminal or the
+insane are the products of a wrong environment,
+it is also easy to say that we believe they
+are not. What the Eugenist demands is <i>knowledge</i>,
+then belief, and action based thereon.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, the eugenic program calls for the
+spread of the facts, far and wide, through all
+classes of society. Bring forcibly before the
+people the facts of human heredity. Teach
+them to understand the force of the eugenic
+ideal of good breeding. "The prevalent opinion
+that almost anybody is good enough to
+marry is chiefly due to the fact that in this case,
+cause and effect, marriage and the feebleness of
+offspring, are so distant from each other that
+the near-sighted eye does not distinctly perceive
+the connection between them." By education
+we must produce first of all a thoughtfulness
+in the community regarding the racial responsibilities
+of marriage and reproduction. Human
+beings are frequently rational creatures; placing
+before them clear and truthful ideas regarding
+fit and unfit matings cannot fail of an ultimate
+effect. "The virtue of repetition, the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span>
+summation of suggestion, which sells pills and
+pickles, which makes Free Trade or Tariff Reform
+a national issue, this force operating as a
+slight but persistent influence when linked to
+eugenic proposals will in a few years' time make
+these proposals a living force to the common
+man." By talking and teaching, in season and
+out, the community will be compelled to think
+on these things; they will be forced into the
+public conscience and the pressure of public
+opinion will rise for the eugenic and against
+the noneugenic ideals of mating and the rearing
+of families. And the rest will come in due season
+and more effective and permanent results
+will follow than are likely to come from any
+amount of premature legislation. As Galton
+writes: "The enlightenment of the individual
+is a necessary preamble to practical Eugenics,
+but social opinion by praise or blame constantly
+influences individual conduct." "Public
+opinion is commonly far in advance of private
+morality, because society as a whole keenly appreciates
+acts that tend to its advantage, and
+condemns those that do not. It applauds acts
+of heroism that perhaps not one of the applaud
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span>ers
+would be disposed to emulate." "The first
+and main point is to secure the general intellectual
+acceptance of Eugenics as a hopeful and
+most important study. Then let its principles
+work into the heart of the nation, who will gradually
+give practical effect to them in ways that
+we may not wholly foresee."</p>
+
+<p>In this educational part of the eugenic program,
+and particularly in the encouragement
+of research directed toward the solution
+of eugenic problems and the establishment of
+eugenic practices, there lies one of the greatest
+opportunities ever opened to the philanthropist.
+The genuine philanthropist is he who
+would at this moment make possible the rapid
+solution of many of the still baffling problems
+of human heredity and who would help to
+spread and teach the gospel of true racial integrity.
+But while it has been easy to interest
+philanthropists in the relief of social disorders,
+few can be interested in the causes at work
+which make the necessity for relief seem so imperative.</p>
+
+<p>The patient unraveler of the Jukes family
+history has said, "I am informed that $28,000
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span>
+was raised in two days to purchase a rare collection
+of antique jewelry and bronze recently
+discovered in classic ground forty feet below
+the <i>d&eacute;bris</i>. I do not hear of as many pence being
+offered to fathom the <i>d&eacute;bris</i> of our civilization&mdash;however
+rich the yield!" Possibly one
+reason for this neglect or omission has heretofore
+been the lack of evidence that real results
+could be accomplished in this field. Now that
+it is so obvious that we have a real foundation
+of fact from which to work we may expect soon
+some degree of recognition of the supreme importance
+of the need for investigation in subjects
+allied to Eugenics, and of devotion to eugenic
+aims.</p>
+
+<p>"Whether or no the importance of the issues
+at stake comes to be recognized fully by the nation
+at large, individuals and families have it in
+their power to act on the knowledge they have
+acquired.... When once more the importance
+of good birth comes to be recognized in a new
+sense, ... it will be understood to be more important
+to marry into a family with a good
+hereditary record of physical, mental, and moral
+qualities than it ever has been considered to be
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span>
+allied to one with sixteen quarterings." "Families
+in which good and noble qualities of mind
+and body have become hereditary form a natural
+aristocracy, and, if such families take pride
+in recording their pedigrees, marry among
+themselves, and establish a predominant fertility,
+they can assure success and position to
+the majority of their descendants in any political
+future. They can become the guardians
+and trustees of a sound inborn heritage, which,
+incorruptible and undefiled, they can preserve
+in purity and vigour throughout whatever period
+of ignorance and decay may be in store for
+the nation at large. Neglect to hand on undimmed
+the priceless germinal qualities which
+such families possess, can be regarded only as
+the betrayal of a sacred trust....</p>
+
+<p>"We look, then, for a day in the near future,
+when, in some circles at any rate, a comparison
+of scientific pedigrees will replace, or at all
+events precede, the discussion of settlements in
+the preliminaries to a marriage; when birth and
+good-breeding (in its wide sense), character
+and ability will be the qualities most prized in
+the choice of mates; when a bad ancestral strain
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span>
+likely to reappear in succeeding generations
+will suppress an incipient passion as effectually
+as it is now cured by a deficiency of education
+or a superfluity of accent." (Whetham.)</p>
+
+<p>As matters are at present it is all too often
+the case that marriage is <i>followed</i> by the disclosure
+or discovery of a family history of sterility,
+or criminality, or insanity. In a truly enlightened
+society the failure to make known
+such conditions in the antecedents to a marriage
+will be regarded as evidence of the greatest
+moral obliquity, if not of criminal misdemeanor.</p>
+
+<p>The wise and honored founder of Eugenics
+looks forward to the inclusion of eugenic ideals
+as a factor in religion. "Eugenics," Galton
+writes, "strengthens the sense of social duty
+in so many important particulars that the conclusions
+derived from its study ought to find a
+welcome home in every tolerant religion."
+"Eugenic belief extends the function of philanthropy
+to future generations; it renders its action
+more pervading than hitherto, by dealing
+with families and societies in their entirety;
+and it enforces the importance of the marriage
+covenant, by directing serious attention to the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>
+probable quality of the future offspring. It
+strongly forbids all forms of sentimental charity
+that are harmful to the race, while it eagerly
+seeks opportunity for acts of personal kindness
+as some equivalent to the loss of what it forbids.
+It brings the tie of kinship into prominence,
+and strongly encourages love and interest
+in family and race. In brief, eugenics is a
+virile creed, full of hopefulness, and appealing
+to many of the noblest feelings of our nature."</p>
+
+<p>And Whetham adds: "Hitherto the development
+of our race has been unconscious, and we
+have been allowed no responsibility for its right
+course. Now, in the fulness of time ... we
+are treated as children no more, and the conscious
+fashioning of the human race is given
+into our hands. Let us put away childish
+things, stand up with open eyes, and face our responsibilities."</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<p>
+Ability, heredity of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heredity and pedigrees of, <a href="#Page_176">176-181</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Acquired characteristics, relation of, to heredity, <a href="#Page_199">199-207</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Adaptedness, <a href="#Page_200">200-202</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Albinism, and order of birth, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heredity of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Alcoholism, heritable effects of, <a href="#Page_203">203-207</a>.<br />
+<br />
+American Breeders' Association, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Andalusian fowl, heredity of color in, <a href="#Page_81">81-83</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Angio-neurotic &#339;dema, pedigree of, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Aristotle, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Bagatelle board, to illustrate variability, <a href="#Page_58">58-60</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bateson, William, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bentley, Madison, quoted, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Biffen, R. H., <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Biology, and Sociology, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35-45</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">eugenic applications of, <a href="#Page_38">38-40</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a> <i>et seq.</i></span><br />
+<br />
+Biometric Laboratory, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Bio-Sociology, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Birth rate, and social status, <a href="#Page_116">116-123</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">decreasing, in England, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Boies, abstract of Winship's data of Edwards family, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Booth, classification of London population, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Brachydactylism, heredity of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigree of, <a href="#Page_150">150-153</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Cataract, heredity of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigree of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Cephalic index, heredity of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Chance, law of, <a href="#Page_56">56-58</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Child labor laws, effect of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Chorea, Huntington's, heredity of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigree of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Church, influence and opportunities of, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Civic worth, variability of, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Coefficient of correlation, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span><br />
+Coefficient of correlation between birth rate and  social status, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">positive and negative, <a href="#Page_111">111-113</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">significance of, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Coefficient of heredity, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">human, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Coefficient of variability, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">human, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Color blindness, heredity of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Connecticut, vasectomy statute of, <a href="#Page_220">220-222</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Conservation of human protoplasm, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Correlation, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">coefficient of, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social status and birth rate, <a href="#Page_116">116-123</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Cousin marriage, regulation of, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Criminality, and order of birth, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">increase in, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Darwin, pedigree of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Data, need for and collection of, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Davenport, quoted, <a href="#Page_192">192-195</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Deaf, United States census of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Deaf and dumb, United States census of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Deaf-mutism, heredity of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Deaf-mutism, pedigree of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Defect, and order of birth, <a href="#Page_123">123-126</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Defectives, number of, in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">United States census of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Dependents, United States census of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Determiners, absence of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in germ, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Mendelian heredity, <a href="#Page_88">88-95</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Development of the individual, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as a form of reaction, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Die Familie Zero</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184-187</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Differential fertility, <a href="#Page_113">113-121</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dominance, in Mendelian heredity, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">irregular and incomplete, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Dominant characteristics, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Drapers' Company, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Dugdale, account of "Jukes" family, <a href="#Page_182">182-184</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Education, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heritable effects of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Edwards, Jonathan, descendants of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Elderton, quoted, <a href="#Page_209">209-211</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Employer's liability laws, effects of, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span><br />
+England, falling birth rate in, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of defectives in, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Environment, effects of, <a href="#Page_197">197-207</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Eugenics, aims of, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42-45</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">as a factor in religion, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">encouragement of ideals of, <a href="#Page_234">234-240</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">history of, <a href="#Page_10">10-13</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">objections to, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">practice of, <a href="#Page_215">215-234</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">program of, <a href="#Page_189">189-240</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Eugenics Committee of American Breeders' Association, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Eugenics Education Society, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Eugenics Laboratory, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Eugenics Record Office, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Eugenics Review</i>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br />
+<br />
+External conditions, effects of, <a href="#Page_199">199-203</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Eye color, heredity of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Fabian Society, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<i>Familie Zero</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184-187</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Family histories. <i>See</i> <a href="#Pedigrees">Pedigrees</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Feeble-minded, in Great Britain, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in United States, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Feeble-mindedness, pedigree of, <a href="#Page_162">162-169</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fellows of the Royal Society, mental heredity in, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fertility, and social status, <a href="#Page_116">116-123</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">differential (selective), <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in normal and pathological stocks, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of various classes, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Fluctuation, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Forearm, heredity in length of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Fowl, color heredity in Andalusian, <a href="#Page_81">81-83</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Functional modification, non-inheritance of, <a href="#Page_199">199-207</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Galton, Sir Francis, illustrations of variability, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in history of Eugenics, <a href="#Page_9">9-13</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on mental heredity, <a href="#Page_144">144-146</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigree of, <a href="#Page_181">181-183</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Gametic coupling, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Germ, relation of, to adult structure, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Germ cells, relation of, to Mendel's law, <a href="#Page_88">88-94</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Goddard, account of feeble-minded family, <a href="#Page_162">162-169</a>.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span><br />
+Great Britain, number of defectives, etc., <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Greece, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Guinea-pig, heredity of color in, <a href="#Page_84">84-87</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+H&aelig;mophilia, heredity of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Hair color and curliness, heredity of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Harrow, mental heredity in students of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Head measurements, heredity of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Heredity" id="Heredity">Heredity</a>, coefficient of, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">definition of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">human, <a href="#Page_137">137-188</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Mendelian formula of, <a href="#Page_80">80-102</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">in human traits, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">need for studies in, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of acquired characters (modifications), <a href="#Page_199">199-207</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">psychic characters, <a href="#Page_143">143-147</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relation of, to Eugenics, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">statistical formula of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102-113</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Heron, David, birth rate, and net fertility of social classes, <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119-121</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Homicides, number of, in United States, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Huntington's chorea, heredity of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigree of, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Idiots, statistics of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Imbeciles, statistics of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Imbecility, heredity of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Immunity, relation of, to heredity of disease, <a href="#Page_168">168-173</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Index of variability, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Indiana, vasectomy statute of, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Infection, heredity of, diseases and defects due to, <a href="#Page_168">168-173</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Infertility, pedigree of, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Inheritance. <i>See</i> <a href="#Heredity">Heredity</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Insane, statistics of, <a href="#Page_31">31-34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Insanity, and order of birth, <a href="#Page_124">124-126</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">associated with alcoholism, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Internationale Gesellschaft f&uuml;r Rassen-Hygiene</i>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Jennings, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Johannsen, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Jordan, David Starr, quoted, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>.<br />
+<br />
+J&ouml;rger, <i>Die Familie Zero</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184-187</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Jukes" family, <a href="#Page_182">182-184</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Keratosis, heredity of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Lankester, Sir E. Ray, "Kingdom of Man," <a href="#Page_21">21-24</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</span><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span><br />
+<i>L'Elite</i>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<a name="Lobster" id="Lobster">Lobster claw</a>, heredity of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigree of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+London, number of children in, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">university of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Man's place in Nature, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Marriage, antecedents to, <a href="#Page_238">238</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">restrictions in, <a href="#Page_228">228-232</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Mediocrity, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mendel, Gregor, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mendelian formula of heredity, <a href="#Page_80">80-102</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mendelism and eugenic practice, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_233">233</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mendel's law, and unit characters, <a href="#Page_95">95-99</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristics inherited according to, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 2em;">human, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">complications of, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">present limitations of, <a href="#Page_100">100-102</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Mental ability, pedigrees of, <a href="#Page_176">176-181</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mental defect, heredity of, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, <a href="#Page_162">162-169</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mental traits, heredity of, <a href="#Page_143">143-147</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Models, illustrating variability and variation, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63-64</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Murders, number of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Mutation, <a href="#Page_63">63-66</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+National Association of British and Irish Millers, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Natural selection, <a href="#Page_21">21-23</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Nettleship, pedigree of night blindness, <a href="#Page_158">158-163</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Night blindness, heredity of, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigrees of, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Normal frequency curve, <a href="#Page_56">56-60</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Nurture, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+&#338;dema, pedigree of angio-neurotic, <a href="#Page_168">168-170</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ohio Institution for the Feeble-Minded, superintendent quoted, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Oneida community, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ontogeny, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>.<br />
+<br />
+O&ouml;phorectomy (o&ouml;phorotomy), <a href="#Page_218">218-222</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Order of birth and pathological defect, <a href="#Page_123">123-126</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Oxford, mental heredity in graduates of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Paupers, United States census of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pearson, Karl, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">heredity in school children, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, <a href="#Page_127">127-130</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216-218</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225-227</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<a name="Pedigrees" id="Pedigrees"></a>Pedigrees of ability, <a href="#Page_176">176-181</a>.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span><br />
+Pedigrees of angio-neurotic &#339;dema, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of brachydactylism, <a href="#Page_150">150-153</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of cataract, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of deaf-mutism, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of feeble-mindedness, <a href="#Page_162">162-169</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of Huntington's chorea, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of infertility, <a href="#Page_174">174</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of lobster claw or split hand, <a href="#Page_155">155-157</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of night blindness, <a href="#Page_157">157-163</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of polydactylism, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of tuberculosis, <a href="#Page_168">168-171</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Plato, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Ploetz, Dr. Alfred, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Poellman, family described by, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Polydactylism, heredity of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigree of, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Population, of Europe and North America, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Practice of Eugenics, <a href="#Page_192">192-240</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Prisoners, number of, in United States, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Probability, law of, <a href="#Page_56">56-59</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pure bred, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Pure line, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Recessive characteristics, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Regression, <a href="#Page_105">105-108</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Regression line, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rentoul, statistics of defectives, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Rentoul's operation, <a href="#Page_218">218-222</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Research, in the eugenic program, and need for, <a href="#Page_196">196-215</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Restrictions in marriage, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Royal Society, mental heredity in Fellows of, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+School children, heredity in, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Schuster, on mental heredity, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Scottish Commission, statistics of insane, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Selective fertility, <a href="#Page_113">113-122</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sex limited heredity, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Size of family, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and relative proportion of defectives, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Social practices, investigation of, <a href="#Page_207">207-212</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">opposed to Eugenics, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Social status, and birth rate, <a href="#Page_116">116-123</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Social variation, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Society for social and racial hygiene (Munich), <a href="#Page_230">230</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sociological Society, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sociology, aims of, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and Biology, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35-45</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Span, heredity of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span><br />
+Species, relation of, to pure line, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Split hand. <i>See</i> <a href="#Lobster">Lobster claw</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Sports, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Standard deviation, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Statistical formula of heredity, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102-113</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Stature, heredity of, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of mothers, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Sterilization, eugenic value of, <a href="#Page_222">222-225</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">statutes permitting, <a href="#Page_218">218-223</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+"Studies in National Deterioration," <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Symbols used in pedigrees, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Syndactylism, heredity of, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Theognis, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Thomson, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>.<br />
+<br />
+"Treasury of Human Inheritance," <a href="#Page_196">196</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">symbols used by, <a href="#Page_148">148-150</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Tredgold, quoted, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Tuberculosis, and order of birth, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">associated with alcoholism, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pedigree of pulmonary, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Typhoid fever, eradication of, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Unit characters, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">list of, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Unit characters, relation of, to Mendel's law, <a href="#Page_95">95-99</a>.<br />
+<br />
+United States Census Reports, statistics of defectives, etc., <a href="#Page_28">28-34</a>.<br />
+<br />
+University of London, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Variability, <a href="#Page_56">56-63</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">measure (coefficient) of, <a href="#Page_61">61-63</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of human traits, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Variation, <a href="#Page_55">55-70</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and modification, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">application of, in Eugenics, <a href="#Page_70">70-77</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">distinguished from variability, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+Vasectomy, <a href="#Page_218">218-225</a>.<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Connecticut statute permitting, <a href="#Page_220">220-222</a>.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Indiana statute permitting, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Wallace, Alfred Russell, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Warbasse, quoted, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Webb, Sidney, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Wheat, new varieties of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Whetham, quoted, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a>, <a href="#Page_237">237-239</a>, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Winship, data regarding Edwards family, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>.<br />
+<br />
+Woods, heredity in royalty, <a href="#Page_145">145</a>.<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<i>Zero, Die Familie</i>, <a href="#Page_184">184-187</a>.<br />
+</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+
+<h4>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES</h4>
+<p>1. Images and tables have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to
+the closest paragraph break.</p>
+
+<p>2. Figure 17 is missing from the scanned pages even though there is no
+break in the continuity of page numbers.</p>
+
+<p>3. The following misprints have been corrected:<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp;    "stattistical" corrected to "statistical" (page 81)<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp;    Removed stray bracket in "second parent)" (page 93)<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp;    Added period at end of abbreviation "N.S.W" (page 115)<br />
+&nbsp; &nbsp;    "conditons" corrected to "conditions" (page 245)</p>
+
+<p>4. Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies
+in spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been
+retained.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Social Direction of Evolution, by 
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Social Direction of Evolution, by
+William E. Kellicott
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Social Direction of Evolution
+       An Outline of the Science of Eugenics
+
+Author: William E. Kellicott
+
+Release Date: March 20, 2010 [EBook #31705]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE SOCIAL DIRECTION OF EVOLUTION ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Bryan Ness and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
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+
+
+               THE SOCIAL DIRECTION OF HUMAN EVOLUTION
+
+
+
+
+               THE SOCIAL DIRECTION OF HUMAN EVOLUTION
+
+                AN OUTLINE OF THE SCIENCE OF EUGENICS
+
+
+                                  BY
+
+                         WILLIAM E. KELLICOTT
+                PROFESSOR OF BIOLOGY, GOUCHER COLLEGE
+
+
+                            [Illustration]
+
+
+                         NEW YORK AND LONDON
+                       D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
+                                 1919
+
+
+                         COPYRIGHT, 1911, BY
+                       D. APPLETON AND COMPANY
+
+
+               Printed in the United States of America
+
+
+
+
+                               PREFACE
+
+
+This small volume is based upon three lectures on Eugenics delivered
+at Oberlin College in April, 1910. In preparing them for publication
+many extensions and a few additions have been made in order to present
+the subject more adequately and to include some very recent results of
+eugenic investigation.
+
+Few subjects have come into deserved prominence more rapidly than has
+Eugenics. Biologists, social workers, thoughtful students and
+observers of human life everywhere, have felt the growing necessity
+for some kind of action leading to what are now recognized as eugenic
+ends. Hitherto the lack of guiding principles has left us in the dark
+as to where to take hold and what methods to pursue. To-day, however,
+progress in the human phases of biological science clearly gives us
+clews regarding modes of attack upon many of the fundamental problems
+of human life and social improvement and progress, and suggests
+concrete methods of work.
+
+The present essay does not represent an original contribution to the
+subject of Eugenics. It is not a complete statement of the facts and
+foundations of Eugenics in any particular. It is rather an attempt to
+state briefly and suggestively, in simple, matter-of-fact terms the
+present status of this science. While Eugenics is a social topic in
+practice, in its fundamentals, in its theory, it is biological. It is
+therefore necessary that the subject be approached primarily from the
+biological point of view and with some familiarity with biological
+methods and results. The control of human evolution--physical, mental,
+moral--is a serious subject of supremest importance and gravest
+consequents. It must be considered without excitement--thoughtfully,
+not emotionally.
+
+It is hardly necessary to add that no one can speak of the subject of
+Eugenics without feeling the immensity of his debt to Sir Francis
+Galton and to Professor Karl Pearson. From the writings of these
+pioneers I have drawn heavily in this essay. The recent summary of the
+Whethams, and Davenport's valuable essay on Eugenics have also served
+as the sources of quotation.
+
+                                                            W. E. K.
+  Baltimore, Md., November, 1910.
+
+
+
+
+                               CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                 PAGE
+    I.--THE SOURCES AND AIMS OF THE SCIENCE OF EUGENICS            3
+   II.--THE BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EUGENICS                    49
+  III.--HUMAN HEREDITY AND THE EUGENIC PROGRAM                   133
+
+
+
+
+                        LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+  FIG.                                                          PAGE
+   1.--Increase of population in the United States and the
+        principal countries of Europe from 1800 to 1900           26
+   2.--Relative and absolute numbers of prisoners in the
+        United States from 1850 to 1904                           30
+   3.--Recorded measurements of the stature of 1052 mothers       57
+   4.--Model to illustrate the law of probability or "chance"     59
+   5.--Plinth to illustrate the difference between variability
+        (fluctuation) and variation (mutation)                    64
+   6.--Curves illustrating the relation between the pure
+        line and the species or other large group                 67
+   7.--Diagram showing the course of color heredity in
+        the Andalusian fowl                                       83
+   8.--Diagram showing the course of color heredity in
+        the guinea-pig                                            85
+   9.--Diagram illustrating the relation of the germ cells
+        in a simple case of Mendelian heredity                    92
+  10.--Diagram illustrating the phenomenon of regression         107
+  11.--Diagrams showing the relation between order of
+        birth and incidence of pathological defect               125
+  12.--Coefficients of heredity of physical and psychical
+        characters in school children                            144
+  13.--Family history showing brachydactylism. Farabee's data    151
+  14.--Family history showing polydactylism                      155
+  15.--Mother and daughters showing "split hand" _Facing_        156
+  16.--Two family histories showing "split foot" _Facing_        158
+  17.--Family history showing congenital cataract                159
+  18.--Family history showing a form of night blindness          161
+  19.--Family history showing a form of night blindness          163
+  20.--Family history showing Huntington's chorea                165
+  21.--Family history showing deaf-mutism                        167
+  22.--Family history showing feeble-mindedness                  169
+  23.--Family history showing angio-neurotic oedema              170
+  24.--Family history showing tuberculosis                       171
+  25.--Family history showing infertility                        175
+  26.--Family history showing ability                            177
+  27.--Family history showing ability                            179
+  28.--History of three markedly able families                   183
+  29.--History of _Die Familie Zero_                             185
+
+
+
+
+                                  I
+
+           THE SOURCES AND AIMS OF THE SCIENCE OF EUGENICS
+
+
+
+
+                                  I
+
+           THE SOURCES AND AIMS OF THE SCIENCE OF EUGENICS
+
+    "Bravas to all impulses sending sane children to the next age!"
+
+
+Eugenics has been defined as "the science of being well born." In the
+words of Sir Francis Galton, who may fairly be claimed as the founder
+of this newest of sciences, "Eugenics is the study of the agencies
+under social control, that may improve or impair the racial qualities
+of future generations, either physically or mentally."
+
+The idea of definitely undertaking to improve the innate
+characteristics of the human race has been expressed repeatedly
+through centuries--fancifully, seriously, hopefully, and now
+scientifically. Since the times of Theognis and of Plato the student
+of animate Nature has been aware of the possibility of the degradation
+or of the elevation of the human race-characters. The conditions under
+which life exists gradually change: the customs and ideals of
+societies change rapidly. Times inevitably come when, if we are to
+maintain or to advance our racial position, we find it necessary to
+change in an adaptive way our attitude toward these changing social
+relations and conditions of life. If we neglect to do this we go down
+in the racial struggle, as history so clearly and so repeatedly warns
+us.
+
+In the opinion of many biologists and sociologists such a time has
+now arrived. The suspension of many forms of natural selection in
+human society, the currency of the "rabbit theory" of racial
+prosperity--based upon the idea of mere numerical increase of the
+population, the complacent disregard of the increase of the pauper,
+insane, and criminal elements of our population, the dearth of
+individuals of high ability--even of competent workmen, all are
+resulting in evil and will result disastrously unless deliberately
+controlled. It is hoped that this control, though at first conscious,
+"artificial," may later become fixed as an element of social custom
+and conscience and thus operate automatically and the more
+effectively. The result will be not only the restoration of our race
+to its original vigor, mental and physical, but further the carrying
+on of the race to a surpassing vigor and supremacy.
+
+The aim of Eugenics is the production of a more healthy, more
+vigorous, more able humanity. Again in the words of Galton "The aim of
+Eugenics is to represent each class ... by its best specimens; that
+done to leave them to work out their common civilization in their own
+way.... To bring as many influences as can be reasonably employed to
+cause the useful classes in the community to contribute more than
+their present proportion to the next generation"; and further, we
+might add, to cause the useless, vicious classes to contribute to the
+next generation less than their present proportion.
+
+With this definition of Eugenics and preliminary statement of its aims
+before us we may proceed to a somewhat fuller statement of the facts
+within this field. First let us consider the relation of the science
+of Eugenics to its parent sciences, biology and sociology, then after
+mentioning some of the steps in the development of the present
+eugenic movement, we may describe some of the conditions which give us
+human beings pause and lead us to appreciate the necessity for a
+reconsideration of much that enters into our present social
+organization and conduct.
+
+Shortly before the publication of "The Origin of Species," Darwin was
+asked by Alfred Russell Wallace whether he proposed to include any
+reference to the evolution of man. Darwin's reply was: "You ask
+whether I shall discuss man. I think I shall avoid the whole subject,
+as so surrounded with prejudices; though I fully admit that it is the
+highest and most interesting problem for the naturalist." This
+prejudice which Darwin knew would preclude a just consideration of the
+subject of man's origin and evolution, grew out of the former and long
+current conception of the position occupied by man in the whole scheme
+of Nature--of "Man's Place in Nature."
+
+This conception, happily obsolete now among thinkers, though
+occasionally seen lurking in out of the way corners shaded from the
+light of modern philosophy and science, placed Man and the rest of
+the universe in separate categories. Man was one, all the rest
+another. It was for Man's benefit or pleasure that the rains
+descended, that the corn grew and ripened, that the sun shone, the
+birds sang, the landscape was spread before the view. For Man's
+warning or punishment the lightning struck, comets appeared, disease
+ravaged, insects tormented and destroyed. It was certainly very
+natural that Man should regard himself as a thing apart, particularly
+since he was able to control and to regulate Nature, and to take
+tribute from her so extensively. But the scientist regarded man
+differently; from him the world learned to recognize man as an
+integral factor in Nature--as one with Nature, possessing the same
+structures, performing the same activities, as other animals; subject
+to much the same control and with much the same purposes in life and
+in Nature as other living things. There is to-day no necessity to
+enlarge upon this view. As Ray Lankester puts it: "Man is held to be a
+part of Nature; a being, resulting from and driven by the one great
+nexus of mechanism which we call Nature."
+
+But the echoes of the older naive view of Man and his Nature sounded
+long after the rational scientific conception had become dominant. It
+is not so very long ago that psychology was little more than human
+psychology; nor has sociology long since gone outside the purely human
+for explanations of the facts of human society. Nowadays, however,
+psychology has a firm comparative basis and sociology finds much that
+is illuminating and helpful in the purely biological aspects of the
+human animal. Very naturally, then, we have had social science
+studying man as Man, with a capital M: biological science studying man
+as a natural animal.
+
+But now that modern trend of scientific synthesis which has brought
+forth a Physical-Chemistry and a Chemical-Physiology and a
+Bio-Chemistry, is combining the purely social and the purely
+biological studies of man into a new Bio-Sociology. And as one phase
+of this new partnership we have the subject of Eugenics--the science
+of racial integrity and progress, built upon the overlapping fields of
+Biology and Sociology.
+
+We can trace the idea, perhaps better the hope, of Eugenics from the
+modern times of ancient Greece. Plato laid stress upon the idea of the
+"purification of the State." In his Republic he pointed out that the
+quality of the herd or flock could be maintained only by breeding from
+the best, consciously selected for that purpose by the shepherd, and
+by the destruction of the weaklings; and that when one was concerned
+with the quality of his hunting dogs or horses or pet birds, he was
+careful to utilize this knowledge. He drew attention to the necessity
+in the State for a functionary corresponding to the shepherd to weed
+out the undesirables and to prevent them from multiplying their kind.
+Plato stated clearly the essential idea of the inheritance of
+individual qualities and the danger to the State of a large and
+increasing body of degenerates and defectives. He called upon the
+legislators to purify the State. But the legislators paid no heed. The
+able-bodied and able-minded continued to be sacrificed to the God of
+War; the degenerates and defectives--not fit to fight--were the ones
+left at home to become parents of the next generation. And to-day
+Greece remains an awful warning.
+
+We cannot describe or even enumerate the wrecks of the many plans for
+race improvement that are strewn from Plato to our day. Sporadic,
+emotional, visionary, often it must be confessed suggested by
+possibilities of material gain to the "leader"--they have all passed.
+They failed because they were unscientific; because there was
+available no solid foundation of determined fact upon which to build.
+One need suggest only the Oneida Community, as it was originally
+planned, or the Parisian society of _L'Elite_--in both of which the
+selection of mates was to be carefully controlled--or some of the
+fantasies of Bernard Shaw, to indicate the character of these
+failures. Only recently have we become able to suggest the possibility
+of race improvement by scientific methods, and only very recently has
+the possibility appeared in the light of a necessity, the alternative
+being the universal reward of the unsuccessful.
+
+The present eugenic movement may be said to date from 1865 when
+Francis Galton showed that mental qualities are inherited just as are
+physical qualities, and pointed out that this opened the way to an
+improvement of the race in all respects. The data in support of this
+pregnant conclusion were included in Galton's work on "Hereditary
+Genius" published in 1869, when he again emphasized definitely the
+possibility and desirability of improving the natural qualities of the
+human race. His suggestions fell upon the stony ground of ignorance
+even of the most elementary facts of heredity. The subject was raised
+again in his "Inquiries into the Human Faculty" in 1883, and the word
+"Eugenics" was then coined. The ground was still non-receptive.
+
+Then followed a period of rapid increase in our knowledge of heredity
+in animals and plants and in 1901 Galton returned again to the
+subject, this time in a more direct and elaborate way, and his Huxley
+Lecture of that year before the Anthropological Institute was upon
+"The Possible Improvement of the Human Breed under the Existing
+Conditions of Law and Sentiment." This time he received a real
+hearing, partly on account of recent disclosures regarding the state
+of human society and its trends in Great Britain, chiefly because
+there was at last a real scientific basis for such a proposal. In this
+lecture, after declaring that the possibility of human race culture is
+no longer to be considered an academical or impractical problem,
+Galton proceeded to show that we have a sufficient biological
+knowledge of man to furnish a working basis. We know of man's
+variability and heredity--that some men are worth more than others in
+the community, and that individual traits are also family possessions.
+This he followed up with definite suggestions as to possible means of
+the "augmentation of favored stock."
+
+The then recently organized Sociological Society of London took up the
+subject enthusiastically, and in 1904 and 1905 Galton was invited to
+deliver addresses before the Society upon this topic. In his first
+address he spoke upon "Eugenics: its Definition, Scope, and Aims."
+This proved to be a statement of the elementary principles of the
+subject--a sort of eugenic creed. Here Galton struck fire. The reading
+of his paper was followed by very extended discussion and criticism,
+and he received some enthusiastic support. A few of these enthusiastic
+supporters brought forth, on the spur of the moment, wonderful,
+visionary schemes for eugenic progress; much of the adverse criticism
+went wide of the mark; and, on the whole, Galton must have felt that
+at least he had demonstrated fully one need for which he had spoken,
+that of developing a race of able thinkers. Galton's second address
+before the same society the year following was partly directed at some
+of this hasty criticism and partly devoted to the setting forth of the
+possibly ultimate place of the ideals of race improvement in the
+conscience of the community, and to showing how the whole subject is
+fraught with "the greatest spiritual dignity and the utmost social
+importance."
+
+The subject was now fairly launched. Magazine articles appeared on
+"The New National Patriotism," "Breeding Better Men," _et cetera_.
+Meanwhile the bio-sociologist settled down to work. And during the
+five years that have since passed an immense amount of knowledge has
+been gained, and a large number of excellent workers recruited.
+Interest in the subject is now general, and its importance recognized
+as vital. Karl Pearson, known as a good fighter, is Galton's "beak and
+claws," performing for him much the same kind of service that Huxley
+performed for Darwin nearly fifty years ago. Galton himself has
+established a Eugenics Laboratory under the direction of Professor
+Pearson in the Biometric Laboratory of the University of London and
+has endowed a Research Fellowship and Research Scholarships. This
+laboratory is publishing a series of Memoirs and a series of Lectures
+upon eugenic topics. The University of London is publishing, with the
+assistance of the Drapers' Company, a series of "Studies in National
+Deterioration." A periodical, _The Eugenics Review_, is established
+and appearing regularly. A Eugenics Education Society has been founded
+to popularize and disseminate the technical information contained in
+the memoirs and special papers. England remains the seat of greatest
+activity and interest, but much is being done now in this country. In
+America the subject is largely under the auspices of the American
+Breeders Association, which has organized an extremely efficient
+Committee on Eugenics with which a large number of biological and
+medical workers are cooeperating. This committee has cooeperated in the
+establishment of a Eugenics Record Office, at Cold Spring Harbor,
+under the direction of H. H. Laughlin. Relevant facts are beginning to
+pour in from many directions; eugenic ideals are being given practical
+expression, and the science is rapidly gaining headway.
+
+It may be asked: "Well, what is it all about; are we as a nation not
+doing well--well enough?" Is it not true, as some have suggested, that
+this eugenic movement is but one more expression of England's
+temporary national hysteria transferred to this country? In answer to
+such queries let us state some of the conditions which have suggested
+to so many sober thinkers and observers that the time is arriving, has
+in fact arrived, when we must begin to think of the future of our
+communities and nations and of our race, rather than contentedly to
+read of and meditate upon the great achievements of our past, or to
+parade with self-satisfied air through our glass houses of Anglo-Saxon
+supremacy. Even were we unthreatened, were we amply holding our own,
+the mere fact of the possibility of a natural increase of human
+capacity would make it a practical subject of the utmost importance.
+We may be sure that somewhere a nation will avail itself of such a
+possibility as the increase of inherent native talent, physical,
+mental, moral, and will tend to become a strong and dominant people.
+Why should not _we_ be that people?
+
+It seems that the facts that lead us to think of the future in this
+matter are of two quite distinct classes. First, we have a great mass
+of data relative to the composition of our societies and to the
+changing character of our population, social data of deep significance
+when broadly viewed and thoughtfully considered. Second, there are
+certain biological considerations, which all apart from existing
+social conditions should warn us to be on the lookout. First let us
+review briefly some of the latter, some of those biological
+considerations which lead us to regard thoughtfully the problem of
+the future evolution of man and his societies.
+
+As with other species of animals, each of us comes into the world
+equipped with a physical constitution and a few simple fundamental
+instincts. But unlike all other animals, the possession of these alone
+does not enable us to take and maintain our positions in the community
+life. Man's life to-day is subject to a great social heritage which,
+unlike his natural heritage, can be realized only as a result of his
+own activity and acquisition. Civilized man is the result of Nature
+plus Nurture. Civilization has been defined as "the sum of human
+contrivances which enable human beings to advance independently of
+heredity." The knowledge of fact, historic and scientific, of
+literature, of art, of custom, and manner, and all that goes to make
+up the culture and education which are the distinctive traits of our
+human lives--all this is no possession of ours when we make our first
+bow to society. Nor do these things become ours through a simple
+process of growth and development while we remain the passive
+subjects. All of these things represent the active individual
+acquirement of the racial accumulation of tradition and learning--what
+the biologist would call the results of modification. Our troubles
+begin when we realize that in the acquisition of this load each
+generation does not begin where the preceding left off, not at
+all--but we begin where our parents did. The first thing we do toward
+advancing our places in the world is to absorb what we can of the same
+kind of thing our forbears absorbed, learn over again their lessons,
+repeat their experiences; and then we proceed straightway to increase
+the difficulties for the next generation by writing more books,
+discovering more facts, making a little more history, and so it goes:
+the load of tradition increases with every successive generation, and
+so it has gone since the beginning of man's civilization. It is
+declared that the modern schoolboy knows more than did Aristotle. We
+cannot resist the inquiry, Has the modern schoolboy better native
+ability than had Aristotle? Here is the whole point of this matter;
+are we any better endowed mentally now that the amount to be mentally
+absorbed and accomplished is so many times greater? Has our capacity
+for mental accumulation kept pace with the amount to be accumulated,
+and with the necessity for such accumulation as a fitting for human
+life of the civilized variety?
+
+Madison Bentley has recently put it nicely in this way. Does talent
+grow with knowledge? "May we not suppose that the men and women of
+some distant glacial age, who dwelt upon the ice, wore the skin of the
+seal, and ate raw fish, had as much brain and as generous a measure of
+talent as have their remote descendants who wear sealskins, and eat
+ices and caviar?" He continues that we have little or nothing to show
+that the hereditary or innate growth of the mind has kept pace with
+the growing social heritage; that as regards mental endowment we begin
+where our distant ancestors began. The chief difference between us and
+them is that we proceed at once to burden ourselves with information
+and obligation which for them did not exist. To compass our languages,
+sciences, histories, arts, the complicated social, political, moral
+regime, we are supplied with virtually the same minds that primitive
+man used for his primitive needs. Is it any wonder, he asks, that
+"education" is the central problem for our or any other advanced
+civilization?
+
+The biologist asks whether it is not high time to look beyond this
+artificial bolster of education, to the possibility of actual
+improvement of the innate mental abilities of man. The student of
+heredity and evolution looking at this problem has two contributions
+to make. First, if the mental capabilities of the present race are too
+limited, increase them; if our minds are too weak to carry the burdens
+which now must be carried, do not give up the task--strengthen the
+racial mind. Second, if we should seem to be in danger of developing a
+stock which is well fitted and able to carry the load of mental
+acquirement and to push on intellectually, but which is at the same
+time physically deficient, weak, or sterile, or susceptible to
+disease, do not let the intellectual capabilities diminish, but build
+up the physical constitution to a higher supporting level. These are
+not idle suggestions nor whimsical schemes. The biologist makes them
+knowing that these things are possible; not only possible, they must
+be accomplished. We are foolishly building our civilization in the
+form of an inverted pyramid of individually acquired characteristics.
+This structure can be made stable only by supplying a broader basis of
+innate ability which can safely carry the load. This is the first
+biological warning to sociology.
+
+The second warning we may put in the form in which Ray Lankester in
+his "Kingdom of Man" has recently presented it so strikingly and which
+we may abstract freely and with some interpolation. "In Nature's
+struggle for existence, death ... is the fate of the vanquished, while
+the only reward to the victors ... is the permission to reproduce
+their kind--to carry on by heredity to another generation, the
+specific qualities by which they triumphed." The _origin_ of man,
+partly, at any rate, by such a process of natural selection, is one
+chapter in his history. Another begins with the development of his
+mental qualities, which are of such unprecedented power in Nature.
+These qualities so dominate all else in his "living" activities that
+they largely cut him off from the general operations of natural
+selection. Perhaps the only direction in which natural selection is
+the chiefly operative factor in human evolution to-day is in the
+development of immunity from infectious disease. Just as man is a new
+departure in the unfolding scheme of the world, so his presence and
+characteristics lead to new methods of evolution, of survival, and the
+like. Knowledge, reason, self-consciousness, will, are new processes
+in Nature, and it is these which have largely determined the direction
+of man's history. Nature's discipline of death is more or less
+successfully resisted by the will of man. Man is Nature's Rebel.
+"Where Nature says 'Die'! Man says 'I will live.'" By his wits and his
+will man has overcome many of Nature's bounds and difficulties without
+changing, as other organisms would, his innate characteristics. Not
+only this but man has obtained control of his surroundings and at
+every step of his development he has receded farther from the rule of
+Nature. Now "he has advanced so far and become so unfitted to the
+earlier rule, that to suppose that Man can 'return to Nature' is as
+unreasonable as to suppose that an adult animal can return to its
+mother's womb."
+
+But at present man puts into operation no real substitute for natural
+selection. "The standard raised by the rebel man is not that of
+fitness to the conditions proffered by extra-human Nature, but is one
+of ideal comfort, prosperity, and conscious joy of life--imposed by
+the will of man and involving a control, and in important respects a
+subversion, of what were Nature's methods of dealing with life before
+she had produced her insurgent son." Progress in the control of Nature
+has been going on with enormous rapidity during the last two centuries
+particularly--the "nature searchers" have placed almost limitless
+power in the hands of men. And yet the builders of society and
+governments and nations have failed to profit by this increase in
+natural knowledge. In our social and national organization we remain
+fixed in the old paths of ignorance. Lankester says: "I speak for
+those who would urge the conscious and deliberate assumption of his
+kingdom by Man--not as a matter of markets and of increased
+opportunity for the cosmopolitan dealers in finance--but as an
+absolute duty, the fulfillment of Man's destiny." The purpose of his
+essay is "to point out that civilized man has proceeded so far in his
+interference with extra-human Nature, has produced for himself and for
+the living organisms associated with him such a special state of
+things, by his rebellion against natural selection and his defiance of
+pre-human dispositions, that he must either go on and acquire firmer
+control of the conditions, or perish miserably by the vengeance
+certain to fall on the half-hearted meddler in great affairs." Man is
+a fighting rebel who at every forward step lays himself open to the
+liabilities of greater penalties should his attack prove unsuccessful.
+Moreover, while emancipating himself from the destructive and
+progressive methods of Nature, man has accumulated a new series of
+dangers and difficulties with which he must incessantly contend and
+which he must finally control. Man has taken a tremendous
+step--created desperate conditions by the exercise of his
+will--further control is essential in order that he should escape from
+final misery and destruction.
+
+Nor is this idle, academic invective. The biologist knows that this is
+true. It is not idle, for man has the means at his command--it is
+merely a question of their employment. This, then, is the second
+biological warning to sociology and to statecraft.
+
+Now we may return to consider briefly the nature of those social data
+which we suggested force us to think seriously of the problem of man's
+future.
+
+As a primary datum we may note the increasing population of the
+countries of Europe and North America (Fig. 1). The countries whose
+population is increasing most rapidly are the United States, Russia,
+and the German Empire. We know that one important factor of the
+increase in this country is that of immigration, but this is not
+sufficient to account for the total. There is continued multiplication
+of the native population, and of the immigrant after he is here. We
+wish only to point out in connection with this diagram the steady
+trend of the population upward, and the fact that obviously somewhere
+there must be a limit. This cannot go on without end.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 1.--INCREASE OF POPULATION IN THE
+    UNITED STATES AND THE PRINCIPAL COUNTRIES OF EUROPE
+    FROM 1800 TO 1900 (From "Statistical Atlas," Twelfth
+    Census of the United States.)]
+
+An extremely pertinent fact here has been disclosed by Pearson and is
+based upon very extensive observations among several different classes
+and nations. It is this--that one fourth of the married population of
+the present generation produce one half of the next generation. The
+death rate and the ratio of unmarried to married being what they are,
+this relation may be stated in this way--twelve per cent of all the
+individuals born in the last generation produced one half of the
+present generation. "This is not only a general law, but it is
+practically true for each class in the community." This conclusion is
+based upon data from the English, Danish, and Welsh peoples of
+professional, domestic, commercial, industrial, and pastoral classes,
+and the per cent of married persons found to be producing one half of
+each generation varies from twenty-three to twenty-seven with an
+average of twenty-five per cent. We must ask at once--what is the
+source of this fourth which is contributing double its quota to the
+next generation? Is this twenty-five per cent drawn proportionately
+from all classes of society or are some groups contributing
+relatively more than others? Is there any relation between this
+superfertility and the possession of desirable or undesirable
+characteristics? We may answer at once--there is a distinct and
+positive relation between civic undesirability and high fertility. We
+shall return to this subject at the close of the next chapter; only
+the bare fact is to be mentioned at this time.
+
+It is a matter of common notice and remark that to-day, in England at
+any rate, there is a dearth of youthful ability. It exists in
+commerce, science, literature, politics, the bar, the church. We
+cannot dismiss as merely fashionable the statements that the able
+classes are not replacing themselves, that men of ability are less
+able than formerly. Whether or not this is also the condition in
+America to-day, we know that it soon will be the condition unless
+steps are taken to bring about a positive relation between civic
+desirability and ability and the numerical production of offspring.
+
+Let us turn to data of a somewhat different kind. The United States
+Census Reports for the decades from 1850 to 1900 (1904) include data
+relative to the number of prisoners in this country. The returns for
+1904 omitted certain classes previously enumerated so that for
+comparative purposes the figures given have to be corrected. On the
+corrected basis these reports show that the total number of prisoners
+in the United States increased from 6,737 in 1850 to about 100,000 in
+1904, while the total population increased during the same time only
+from twenty-three to eighty millions (Fig. 2). The ratio of prisoners
+to the total population is of course the significant relation here,
+and this increased from 29 per 100,000 in 1850 to 125 per 100,000 in
+1904. Not all of this increase can be attributed to more rigid
+enforcement of the law or raised standards of morality; there is some
+reason for thinking that whatever change there has been in these
+respects has tended to have the opposite effect. We should note, in
+considering such data as these, that the penologist generally assumes
+that of the total number of offenders, actually only about ten per
+cent are in prison at any one time.
+
+During the last century, in France, many parts of Germany, and in
+Spain the increase in criminality was terrifying. In the United
+States the number of murders and homicides per million of the entire
+population has nearly trebled in the last fifteen years (Fig. 2). The
+average for the five years from 1885 to 1889 inclusive was 38.5 per
+million, and for the five years from 1902 to 1906 it became 110 per
+million.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Relative and absolute numbers of
+           prisoners in the United States from 1850 to 1904.
+
+    - - - - Number of prisoners per 100,000 of total population.
+
+    ------- Total number of prisoners (figures to the right are
+            to be read as thousands here).
+
+    -.-.-.- Number of murders and homicides per million of the
+            total population.]
+
+England's "defective" classes during the 22 years between 1874 and
+1896 increased from 5.4 to 11.6 per thousand of the total; that is,
+more than doubled in that brief period. Rentoul has collected careful
+information regarding the number of insane or mentally defective and
+degenerate in Great Britain. In England the number of "officially
+certified" insane, which is far less than the actual number, increased
+from one to every 319 of the total population, to one to 285, in the
+nine years preceding 1905. In Ireland comparison of the years 1851 and
+1896--a period of 45 years intervening--shows an increase in the
+corresponding ratio from 1:657 to 1:178. The census of 1901 showed in
+Great Britain 484,507 mental defectives of all kinds; this is one to
+85 of the total population, and probably if the whole truth were known
+the ratio would approximate 1:50, according to Rentoul's calculation.
+The ratio of known insane just doubled in the decade preceding 1901.
+The Scottish Commission reports an increase in insane of 190 per cent
+since 1858, the total population increasing meanwhile by only 52 per
+cent.
+
+The worst side of these British statistics follows. In 1901, of the
+60,000 and more, idiots, imbeciles, and feeble-minded, nearly
+19,000--roughly one third--were married and free to multiply;
+and as for that matter a great many of those unmarried are known
+to have been prolific. In 1901, of the 117,000 lunatics, nearly
+47,000--considerably more than one third--were married. 65,700 idiots
+and lunatics legally multiplying their kind and worse! Rentoul rightly
+says: "The hand that wrecks the cradle wrecks the nation."
+
+In the United States the census of 1880 reported 40,942 insane in
+hospitals, and 51,017 not in hospitals--a total of 91,959 known
+insane. In 1903 the number in hospitals had increased to 150,151. The
+number not in hospitals was not given and cannot be determined
+accurately, but it is conservatively estimated as certainly not less
+than 30,000, and probably it is far greater than this. In many states
+it is known that about one fourth of the insane are not in hospitals.
+But taking the total of 180,000 as a conservative figure, the ratio of
+known insane in the total population was 225 per 100,000 in 1903 as
+compared with 183 per 100,000 in 1880.
+
+The methods of the collection of such data vary in different countries
+so that the results are not comparable. In a single country there is
+less, though still some, lack of uniformity, so that the exact rate of
+increase in the ratio of the insane is still somewhat doubtful.
+Moreover, it is doubtless true that some of this apparent increase
+results from improved methods in the collection of data, and from more
+complete registration of these defectives. But suppose we disregard
+entirely the idea of an increase in the ratio of these defectives, the
+bare fact of the existence of nearly 200,000 insane in this country is
+sufficiently alarming; and it is disgraceful to any nation, because it
+is unnecessary. The Superintendent of the Ohio Institution for the
+Feeble Minded wrote in 1902: "Unless preventive measures against the
+progressive increase of the defective classes are adopted, such a
+calamity as the gradual eclipse, slow decay and final disintegration
+of our present form of society and government is not only possible,
+but probable."
+
+The latest census reports for the United States give data relative to
+the dependents and defectives in institutions. The numbers not in
+institutions can only be guessed at. But from the available sources we
+can gain an approximate conception of the numbers in our country
+to-day as follows:--insane and feeble minded, at least 200,000; blind,
+100,000; deaf, and deaf and dumb, 100,000; paupers in institutions,
+80,000, two thirds of whom have children, and are also physically or
+mentally deficient, and to say that one half of the whole number of
+paupers are in institutions is to give a ridiculously low estimate;
+prisoners, 100,000, and several hundred thousand more that should be
+prisoners; juvenile delinquents, 23,000 in institutions; the number
+cared for by hospitals, dispensaries, "homes" of various kinds, in the
+year 1904 was in excess of 2,000,000. From these figures we get a
+rough total of nearly 3,000,000. Must we define a civilized and
+enlightened nation as one in which only one person in every thirty can
+be classed as defective or dependent?
+
+It is needless to continue descriptions of this kind. The foregoing
+are representative data; they are published by the volume. It is
+always the same story--rapid increase of the unfit, defective, insane,
+criminal; slow increase, even decrease of the fit, normal, or gifted
+stocks. It is with such conditions in mind that Whetham writes:
+"Although this suppression of the best blood of the country is a new
+disease in modern Europe, it is an old story in the history of nations
+and has been the prelude to the ruin of states and the decline and
+fall of empires."
+
+The ultimate aim of Sociology is doubtless the working out of the laws
+according to which stable communities are formed and maintained, and
+in which each component individual may enjoy and contribute the
+maximum of pleasure and profit. So the primary purpose of Statecraft
+is to produce a nation which shall be stable and enduring. This is all
+familiar ground. The objects of the nation's immediate activities and
+concern, protection from enemy, development of commerce and
+manufacture, agriculture, and education, all these are for the real
+purpose of establishing and promoting national integrity. No nation
+exists long without ideals and traditions, without teachers, artists,
+poets, and yet the primary condition of the existence of all these is
+a great body of citizens characterized by physical and mental
+soundness--vigor and sanity. In searching for guiding principles in
+their great endeavors the sociologist and statesman have sought aid
+from many sources. But, as Pearson points out, Philosophy has thus far
+given no law by the aid of which we can understand how a nation
+becomes physically and mentally vigorous. Anthropology has done little
+to show wherein exists human fitness as a social organism. Political
+Economists object that they are not listened to with respectful
+consideration in legislative chambers. History is the favorite hunting
+ground of the statesman searching for guidance; but unfortunately
+history teaches chiefly by example and analogy, rarely by true
+explanation. And just as some gifted persons are able to give an apt
+Biblical quotation touching any occurrence whatever, so, many
+statesmen can cite some historical analogue which they offer as
+evidence for their views, whatever they are. These men are sincere, in
+their ignorance of the nature of scientific proof. Finally, although
+the Statesman still holds rather aloof, the Sociologist comes now to
+the Biologist, inquiring whether by any chance he may be in possession
+of data or guiding principles which may be somehow of service in the
+building of stable societies. The Biologist does not send him away
+without contribution. The Sociologist makes known his needs, the
+Biologist displays his possessions, and it is at once evident to both
+that they have much in common, and that each is able to supply the
+other with some needed wares. Each may learn from the other; and best
+of all, the Biologist seems to have information which can be of the
+greatest service in their common work of building sound societies.
+
+And the biologist is grateful to the sociologist for reminding him
+that he, too, has sacred duties in this direction. He is too often
+forgetful that the real aim of his own, as of any science, is to be
+useful in real human life. It is pleasing to the biologist to feel
+that he is at last in possession of facts of value to the student of
+human society, for to him his debt is great. From the sociologist he
+has drawn the inspirations which have led to some of his greatest
+discoveries. It was Malthus who suggested to Darwin the great
+principle of the struggle for existence among men which Darwin so
+successfully applied to other organisms, and used so profitably in
+building up his great theory of natural selection. It was from the
+sociologist that the biologist derived his idea of the physiological
+division of labor which has proved so fruitful a conception; and from
+the same source he has drawn many of his conceptions of organic
+individuality.
+
+We might suggest here some of the topics upon which biology has
+information of value in this bio-social field; many of these we shall
+discuss later on from our present and special point of view. First of
+all come the facts regarding the variability and variation of human
+beings, not alone in physical characteristics, but in respect to
+psychic traits as well. Here as in all organisms we must distinguish
+between true variations and bodily modifications; that is, we must be
+careful to make, as far as possible, the biological distinction
+between innate and acquired traits, particularly in considering
+mental characteristics. Next must come consideration of the facts of
+heredity. This is undoubtedly the field of greatest importance to the
+Eugenist; facts of no other kind are of equal significance in
+determining the course of eugenic practice. We now have a fairly
+extensive working basis here from which to discuss heredity in man.
+The various phases of human selection should be noticed, in particular
+that known as selective fertility or differential fertility in
+different social groups or classes. Another evolutionary factor of
+importance here is that of "isolation" in the many and varied forms
+which it assumes in human society, especially those which result from
+assortative and preferential mating, and from the operation of social
+convention, restrictions in marriage, and the like.
+
+Before discussing any of these subjects let us offer here just a word
+of caution to the enthusiast. The results gained in one field of
+science cannot be transferred _in toto_ to another field and there be
+found to fit. Biology has learned much from Physics and Chemistry, but
+the biological applications of the laws of these sciences must be
+carried out with the greatest care. Such transference has often been
+premature and attended by results retardative to progress in the field
+of Biology. Any formula borrowed from one science and applied in
+another must be rigorously tested under the new conditions. The
+indiscriminating application of biological laws in the field of
+sociology may result in confusion and retardation in the progress of
+both sciences, or at any rate in their practical applications. As
+Thomson points out in writing on this topic, human society is not only
+a complex of individual activities of a strictly biological character,
+but also and further it involves an integration and regulation of
+those activities which are not yet, at least, susceptible of concrete
+biological analysis. Thomson says: "The biological ideal of a
+healthful, self-sustaining, evolving human breed is as fundamental as
+the social ideal of a harmoniously integrated society is supreme." The
+great danger here lies in forgetting the fundamental and general
+character of the biological principles. The ideals of biology and
+sociology need not coincide, often they do not, but they must not
+conflict. In practice Eugenics must be largely a social matter; but in
+its theory, its fundamentals, it must be largely biological.
+
+The coming together of biology and sociology, and their common search
+for guiding principles in their common endeavor is likely to have
+results of several kinds. It is likely to bring out more clearly than
+has yet been done the distinction, in human life and society, between
+that which is fundamentally biological or animal, and that which is
+distinctly social. Such information will prove of especial value later
+when the time comes for the suggestion and carrying out of a definite
+eugenic program, when the time comes for the real eugenic organization
+of society. And further the close _rapprochement_ of the two subjects
+will doubtless result in mutual aid and suggestion in the development
+of each subject in its own stricter field, outside the limits of their
+common meeting ground.
+
+Before bringing this introductory chapter to a conclusion we should
+suggest one further caution which must be borne in mind. There may at
+times seem to be suggestions of antagonism between the biological and
+the social conceptions of what is eugenic and what is not. Much of
+this apparent discord will disappear if we recognize that after all
+the overlapping areas of the two subjects which have fused into the
+subject of Eugenics are relatively small portions of either whole
+subject. Sociology has for one of its aims, perhaps its chief aim, the
+improvement of the present condition of society. The sociologist is
+interested in the improvement of social conditions to-day and
+to-morrow. He wants to improve housing conditions, food and milk
+supplies, to reduce the curses of alcoholism, poverty, and crime, to
+take the children out of the factory and their mothers out of the
+sweatshop and put them into schools or under humane conditions of
+labor. And so on through a long list. The biologist or Eugenist is of
+course heartily with the sociologist in these endeavors, but as a
+human being, not as a biologist or Eugenist. For the Eugenist is, as
+such, by deliberate assumption and definition, directly interested in
+only such conditions as affect the innate characteristics of the
+race, conditions which may not have direct reference to the present
+generation at all, but to the next and to future generations. As a
+Eugenist he is not concerned with factory legislation, alcoholism, or
+play grounds, unless it can be shown that there is a relation between
+these things and the innate mental and physical properties of the
+race. If there is such a relation, of improvement or impairment, these
+are eugenic topics; if there is no such relation they are purely
+social topics, and the Eugenist does not deal with them, not because
+they are not worth dealing with, but because they are then by
+definition outside his field. In the end the Eugenist hopes, with the
+Sociologist, to accomplish these social betterments, but he believes
+that these will come as by-products in the process of innate racial
+improvement--improvement in the inherent, physical, mental, and moral
+qualities of the human kind, and that accomplished in this way the
+results will be more stable and permanent than any accomplished by
+attacking the problems as such and separately, largely leaving out of
+account the real and fundamental cause--bad human protoplasm.
+
+Eugenics is not offered as a universal cure for social ills: no single
+cure exists. But the Eugenist believes that no other single factor in
+determining social conditions and practices approaches in importance
+that of racial structural integrity and sanity. The Eugenist would
+oppose only those social activities, if such there be, that conflict
+with his ideal of genuine, progressive, human evolution. The main
+question which the Eugenist would raise here is largely that of the
+economy of effort--whether it were not better by concentrating upon a
+few activities, known to give permanent results, once for all to end
+an intolerable social condition, rather than to attempt the Sisyphean
+task.
+
+In conclusion let us quote a few sentences from Francis Galton.
+"Charity refers to the individual; Statesmanship to the nation;
+Eugenics cares for both.... I take Eugenics very seriously, feeling
+that its principles ought to become one of the dominant motives in a
+civilized nation, much as if they were one of its religious tenets....
+Man is gifted with pity and other kindly feelings; he has also the
+power of preventing many kinds of suffering. I conceive it to fall
+well within his province to replace Natural Selection by other
+processes that are more merciful and not less effective. This is
+precisely the aim of Eugenics. Its first object is to check the birth
+rate of the Unfit instead of allowing them to come into being, though
+doomed in large numbers to perish prematurely. The second object is
+the improvement of the race by furthering the productivity of the Fit,
+by early marriages and the healthful rearing of their children.
+Natural Selection rests upon excessive production and wholesale
+destruction; Eugenics on bringing no more individuals into the world
+than can be properly cared for, and those only of the best stock."
+
+
+
+
+                                  II
+
+                THE BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EUGENICS
+
+
+
+
+                                  II
+
+                THE BIOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EUGENICS
+
+    "The gist of histories and statistics as far back as the
+    records reach, is in you this hour,..."
+
+
+We must now proceed to consider briefly and with only the necessary
+detail the modes of application of certain biological principles and
+data in this special field of Eugenics. First of all a clear
+understanding of the basic ideas of variability and heredity must be
+had as a primary condition of an appreciation of their significance
+for the subject before us.
+
+Like any other organism a human being is a bundle of characteristics,
+physical and psychical. Each person has a definite stature and span,
+possesses fingers and toes, a head, eyes, ears, hair of a certain
+color, and so on through a long list of physical traits. Physiological
+characteristics has he also, such as muscular strength, resistance to
+fatigue or to disease of many kinds, digestive and assimilative
+powers, a rate of heart beat, a blood pressure, an habitual gait,
+posture, a characteristic way of clasping the hands or of twirling
+the thumbs--and so almost _ad infinitum_. He also possesses
+certain physiological traits more closely related with the action
+of the central nervous system--keenness of vision, or hearing,
+or smell, memory, vivacity, cheerfulness, self-assertiveness,
+self-consciousness, reasoning power, determination, and the like.
+
+There is a period during the existence of each human being when he
+does not seem to possess these traits or anything resembling them. For
+at the beginning of his existence as a new and separate creature,
+every individual, among the groups of higher organisms, has the form
+of a single organic cell--the germ. This germ may be, as it is in man,
+of microscopic dimensions, and it always shows a comparatively slight
+degree of differentiation of structure. Moreover, the parts and organs
+of the germ bear no actual or visible resemblance at all to the organs
+and parts of the organism into which the germ rapidly develops. In
+other words, in the germ of an organism we have a structure, partly
+material, partly dynamic, the components of which in some way
+represent the adult characteristics without resembling them. During
+the period of the development of the individual, that is to say,
+during its "ontogeny," these characteristics of the germ become
+expressed in their final or adult form.
+
+For our purpose it is not necessary to inquire precisely how it is
+that the structure of the germ can thus represent or determine the
+structures growing out of it. It must suffice to see that somehow the
+characteristics of the germ lead to the formation or development of
+other characters, and these in turn to still others until at last a
+period of comparative changelessness is reached, when we say that
+development is completed. It is important to recognize, however, that
+this development is fundamentally a process of reaction, the reaction
+between the germ and its surrounding conditions. The characteristics
+of the adult organism are _determined_ primarily by the structure of
+the germ; they _appear_ gradually and successively, as the growing
+organism reacts to its environing conditions.
+
+An adult organism is continually doing certain things--performing
+certain movements, producing certain secretions, undergoing a great
+variety of physical and chemical changes. Just what the organism does
+at any given moment is in reality determined by two groups of factors:
+first, it depends, obviously, upon the structure of the organism
+acting, upon the organs it has to act with, and upon the precise
+condition of these organs and of the whole individual; and second, it
+depends upon the nature of those conditions outside of and affecting
+the organism which lead it to act at all. Either group of factors
+taken alone will not lead to any activity; activity of an organism
+must be a reaction between organismal structure and environing
+conditions--an irritable substance and stimuli to activity. And the
+character or quality of an act is affected by circumstances within
+either set of factors.
+
+In much the same way the germ acts, and its action is similarly a
+reaction between the structure of the germ and its environing
+conditions. The germ reacts by producing certain parts,
+differentiating certain structures, in short, by developing. The
+normal activities or reactions of the adult organism we call in
+general its "behavior." The normal activities or reactions of the germ
+and embryo we call "development"; the normal behavior of the germ is
+development. And in the latter, as well as in the former, changes in
+either set of factors lead to changes in the nature of the result of
+their interaction, i. e., to changes in the characteristics actually
+appearing as the result of development.
+
+In their fully developed state some of the traits or characteristics
+of organisms are single, simple, fundamental characters, not
+analyzable into more elementary factors. Such are the number of
+fingers, or of joints in the fingers, absence of pigments of several
+kinds from the eyes or hair, presence of cataract, _et cetera_. These
+so-called "unit characters" are roughly analogous to the chemical
+elements which may, as units, be combined and recombined in diverse
+ways, but which always maintain their integrity as elements although
+different combinations produce wholes that are unlike. Each unit
+character in the adult is the result of a series of reactions between
+the environing conditions of development and a germinal structural
+unit, as yet hypothetical and provisionally called the "determiner,"
+which in some way not yet understood represents this adult trait.
+
+On the other hand, there are many of these things which we call
+characteristics which seem to be composite, capable of being analyzed
+or factored into a group of simpler components or unit characters.
+Such apparently are stature, span, resistance to fatigue, and probably
+most psychic traits. Each of these complexes results apparently from a
+series of reactions between the conditions of development and a group
+of hypothetical germinal determiners that tend to be associated within
+the germ.
+
+The presence or absence of a determiner in a germ is thus the primary
+cause of the corresponding presence or absence of a certain
+characteristic in the adult organism.
+
+But whatever the essential nature of the characteristic in this
+respect, whether simple or complex, we know further that every
+organismal characteristic is subject to variation. In any group of
+human individuals, for example, we can find persons of different
+stature, different weight, with fingers of different length and form,
+with heads of different size and shape, hair and eyes of different
+shades, different blood pressures, pulse rates, digestive
+possibilities, different degrees of determination, cheerfulness,
+alertness, and so forth. This fact of variation is not limited to the
+comparison of the individuals of a given group or generation among
+themselves, but successive generations considered as the units of
+comparison show the same sort of thing. And further successive broods
+from the same parents exhibit this same phenomenon of variation when
+compared with one another. Variation is a universal fact--not only
+among organic things but in the inorganic world as well. The variation
+which any company of persons shows in stature is paralleled by the
+variation in the diameter of the grains in a handful of sand, or of
+the drops in a rainstorm.
+
+When we examine the phenomena of variation carefully we find that
+they are of two quite distinct categories. The first kind of
+variation, that which we most frequently think of as "variation,"
+should properly be termed _variability_. Differences of this type are
+small _fluctuations_ in any and every character, centering about an
+average or mean, which is itself fairly definite and fixed--less
+subject to variation in different groups or through successive
+generations. For example, if we measure by inches the stature of a
+thousand or more persons chosen at random we find that they may vary
+from fifty-four to seventy-six inches; the most frequent heights might
+be about sixty-nine and sixty-four inches among the men and women
+respectively. The results of such a measurement may be expressed
+graphically as in Figure 3, which is an expression of the measurement
+of 1,052 mothers. The measurement of almost any characteristic in a
+large group of any organisms usually gives a result of the kind
+figured. The most significant fact here is that this normal
+variability exhibited by the traits of living organisms follows
+closely the laws of chance or probability. That is to say, the number
+of individuals occurring in any class which has a certain deviation
+above or below the average, is directly related to, or dependent upon
+(in mathematical terms, "is a function of"), the extent of the
+deviation of the value of that class from the average of the whole
+group. The significance of this is that the precise fluctuation which
+we find in any individual is the result of the operation of a large
+number of causes or factors, each contributing slightly and variably
+to the total result.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Recorded measurements of the stature
+    of 1,052 mothers. The height of each rectangle is
+    proportional to the number of individuals of each given
+    height. The curve connecting the tops of the rectangles is
+    the normal frequency curve. The most frequent height is
+    between 62 and 63 inches. Average height--62.5 inches.
+    Standard deviation, 2.39 inches. Coefficient of variability,
+    3.8 (2.39 = 3.8+ % of 62.5 inches). (From Pearson.)]
+
+Many of the most important facts about variability can be illustrated
+by a simple model such as that suggested by Galton. This is a
+modification of the familiar bagatelle board, covered with glass and
+arranged as shown in Fig. 4. A funnel-shaped container at the top of
+the board is filled with peas or similar objects (Fig. 4, _A_). Below
+this is a regular series of obstacles symmetrically arranged, and
+below these, at the bottom of the board, is a row of vertical
+compartments also arranged symmetrically with reference to the chief
+axis of the whole system. If we allow the peas to escape from the
+bottom of the container and to fall among the obstacles into the
+compartments below we find that their distribution there follows
+certain laws capable of precise mathematical description, so that it
+might be predicted with fair accuracy (Fig. 4, _B_). The middle
+compartment will receive the most; the compartments next the middle
+somewhat fewer; those farther from the middle still fewer; and the end
+compartments fewest. If we connect the top of each column of peas by a
+curved line we get just such a curve as that given by the stature
+measurements above (Fig. 3), i. e., the normal frequency curve. A
+curve of the same essential character would result from plotting the
+dimensions of a thousand cobblestones, the deviations from the
+bull's-eye in a target-shooting contest, or by plotting the
+variability of any organismal character--whether it be the stature or
+strength of men, the spread of sparrows' wings, the number of rays on
+scallop shells, or of ray-flowers of daisies.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Model to illustrate the law of
+    probability or "chance." Description in the text. _A_, Peas
+    held in container at top of board. _B_, Peas after having
+    fallen through the obstructions into the vertical
+    compartments below. The curve connecting the tops of the
+    columns of peas is the normal probability curve.]
+
+With this model we may illustrate many other essential facts about
+variability which must be borne in mind when approaching the problems
+of Eugenics. Before we allow the peas to fall we know quite definitely
+what the general distribution of them all will be, but we do not know
+at all the future position of any single pea. Of this we can speak
+only in terms of probability; the chances are very high that it will
+fall in one of the three middle compartments, very low that it will be
+in one of the extreme compartments. But the chances are equal,
+whatever they are, that it will fall above or below the average or
+middle position. We see then that in any group there are many more
+individuals near the average, i. e., mediocre, than there are in the
+classes removed from the average and the farther the remove of a class
+from the average the smaller the number of individuals in that class.
+Yet all the individuals belong to the same whole group. This leads to
+the very important fact that _an individual may belong to a group
+without representing it fairly_. The average individuals are the most
+representative. But in order to get a correct idea of the whole group
+we must know, first, to what _extent_ deviations occur in each
+direction, above and below the group average, and, second, the average
+_amount_ by which each individual of the group deviates from this
+group average. That is, we must know the amount of variability as well
+as the extent of the greatest divergence from the average. The best
+measure of the amount of variability exhibited by any group of objects
+or organisms is not the simple average or mean of all the individual
+deviations from the average of the group; it is the square root of the
+mean squared deviations from the group average. This is called the
+_index_ of variability or "standard deviation." In order to make
+possible the comparison of the variabilities of characteristics
+measured in unlike units, such as weight and stature, this index must
+be converted into an equivalent abstract quantity. This is done by
+reducing the index of variability to per cents of the group average,
+giving what is called the _coefficient_ of variability. Thus, for
+example, in stature the index of variability (standard deviation) of
+certain classes of men is approximately 2.7 inches; that is, in a
+large group of men the amount of individual variation from the average
+height of 69 inches amounts to 2.7 inches. This gives an abstract
+_coefficient_ of about 4.0 per cent, for 2.7 equals 3.9 per cent of
+69. Similarly the index of variability of the weight of a group of
+university students has been found to be about 16.5 pounds; the
+average weight is about 153 pounds, and the coefficient of
+variability is therefore about 10.8 per cent (16.5 equals 10.78 per
+cent of 153). Although pounds and inches may not be compared, these
+two abstract coefficients may be, and we may say that men are more
+than twice as variable in weight as in stature.
+
+Turning now to variation of the second type we find what are
+ordinarily called _mutations_, or differences quite properly termed
+_variations_, in a strict sense, as distinguished from the preceding
+fluctuations or variability phenomena. Mutations or variations are
+abrupt changes of the average or type condition to a new condition or
+value which then becomes a new center of fluctuating variability. The
+difference between variability and variation may be illustrated
+through an analogy suggested by Galton (Fig. 5). A polygonal plinth,
+or better a polyhedron, resting upon one face is easily tipped
+slightly back and forth, but after slight disturbance it always
+returns to its first position of stable equilibrium. Each face of the
+plinth or polyhedron represents an organismal characteristic; these
+slight backward and forward movements represent fluctuations, always
+centering about the average condition. An unusually hard push sends
+the plinth over upon another face in which it has a new position of
+stability; this represents true variation or mutation. In this new
+position it is again stable, may again be rocked back and forth
+showing fluctuations about its new average position.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Plinth to illustrate the difference
+    between variability (fluctuation) and variation (mutation).]
+
+The essential difference between true variation and fluctuation or
+variability of an extreme nature, is with reference to the inheritance
+of such divergence. In the second generation the offspring of extreme
+variates or fluctuations have not the same average as their own
+parents but an average much nearer that of the whole group to which
+their parents belonged; the average stature of the children of
+unusually short or tall parents is respectively greater or less than
+that of their own parents--that is, is nearer the average of the whole
+group of parents, provided the shortness or tallness of the parents is
+a fluctuation. When the shortness or tallness is a true variation or
+mutational character, offspring have approximately the same average
+stature as their immediate parents, although the children of course
+show fluctuation in height so that some are slightly above and others
+slightly below the parental height.
+
+Mutations may occur through the addition or the subtraction of single
+characters of the simple or unit type. Such are the variations from
+brown or blue eyes to albino, five fingers to six, and the like. These
+are the familiar "sports" of the horticulturalist and breeder. They
+are of the greatest value in evolution, for it seems quite likely that
+it is only through the permanent racial fixation of these mutations
+that permanent changes in the characters of a breed may be effected,
+i. e., evolution occurs primarily through mutation.
+
+In connection with the general subject of variation we should mention
+briefly certain aspects of the recent work of Johannsen and Jennings,
+showing that many organic specific groups or "species," whose
+characters, when measured accurately give what is called a normal
+variability curve similar to that of stature illustrated in Fig. 3,
+are not really homogeneous groups of fluctuating individuals as the
+curves would indicate superficially, but that each gross group or
+species is actually composed of a blend of a number of smaller groups,
+each with its own average and fluctuating variability. It is only when
+these are taken all together as a lump that they fuse into a single
+and apparently simple curve.
+
+For example, the curve shown in Fig. 6, A, which is approximately that
+of a normal distribution, in some cases might be shown by
+experimentation to consist in reality of several truly distinct
+elements, say three for purposes of illustration, as shown in Fig. 6,
+B. Each of these sub-groups has its own average and its own amount
+and extent of variability (fluctuation) and it is only by adding them
+together that we get the larger group. Each of these elementary groups
+is called a "pure line," which is defined as a group of organisms, all
+of which are the progeny of a single individual. The characteristics
+of each pure line remain stable through successive generations, each
+about its own average; and it is chiefly this fact that enables us to
+identify the different lines. Transition from the condition of one
+pure line to another occurs only as a mutation. At present the theory
+of the pure line is strictly applicable only to organisms reproducing
+asexually or to self-fertilizing forms where the group observed is
+actually composed of the progeny of a single organism. It is hardly
+possible to say as yet whether or not this extremely important theory
+is essentially applicable to the human species or any species where
+two organisms are involved in the establishment of a race or line, but
+there are some indications of a circumstantial nature that it is thus
+applicable in its essentials and so modified as to include this fact
+of biparental inheritance.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Curves illustrating the relation
+    between the pure line and the species or other large group.
+    _A_, a "species" curve composed of three pure lines. _B_,
+    the separate elements of the larger curve each with its own
+    average and variability.]
+
+With this bare skeleton of the subject of variation before us let us
+see how facts of this kind may have any significance for the subject
+of Eugenics, any bearing upon the possibility of racial improvement.
+When any of the varying human traits, and they all vary, is measured
+carefully and the results tabulated we find that they give us a curve
+approximating the normal frequency curve, such as we have described
+above and illustrated in Fig. 3. The coefficients of variability of a
+great many human traits are known and a few representative
+coefficients are given in Table I. This type of variability is given
+then, by measurements of physical characteristics of all kinds, and,
+what is of greater importance, physiological traits, including mental
+and moral characteristics, so far as they can be measured by present
+methods, vary in just the same way. Annual individual earnings give us
+a curve closely similar to that of a normal frequency curve with an
+approximate minimum limiting value. Even the tabulation of citizens
+according to their social standing or "civic worth" gives the same
+sort of thing. This has been brought out nicely in Galton's discussion
+of Booth's classification of the population of London.
+
+                            TABLE I
+
+     _Coefficients of Variability of Certain Human Traits_
+
+        Adult Stature                       3.6 to  4.0
+        Length at Birth                     5.8 to  6.5
+        Length of Limb Bones                4.5 to  5.5
+        Cephalic Index                      3.7 to  4.8
+        Skull Capacity                      7.0 to  8.0
+        Weight (University Students)       10.0 to 11.0
+        Weight at Birth                    14.2 to 15.7
+        Weight of Brain                     7.0 to 10.6
+        Weight of Heart                    17.4 to 20.7
+        Weight of Liver                    14.3 to 22.2
+        Weight of Kidney                   16.8 to 22.5
+        Lung Capacity                      16.6 to 20.4
+        Squeeze of Hand                    13.4 to 21.4
+        Strength of Pull                   15.0 to 22.6
+        Swiftness of Blow                  17.1 to 19.4
+        Dermal Sensitivity                 35.7 to 45.7
+        Keenness of Eyesight               28.7 to 34.7
+
+It is not so easy to answer the question whether mutations or true
+variations are occurring frequently in the human species. Usually it
+is impossible to distinguish between an extreme fluctuation and a true
+variation without experimental test and the observation of the
+behavior of the varying trait through several generations. In most
+instances this has been impossible with human beings. From collateral
+evidence it seems quite probable that man is mutating with
+considerable frequency, especially with respect to psychic traits.
+
+The evolution of the race could be directed more easily and permanent
+results attained more rapidly through taking advantage of valuable
+mutations than in any other way. A race truly desiring to progress
+would foster carefully anything resembling mutation in a favorable
+direction. As a matter of fact, however, our social custom leads us to
+look with disfavor upon most youthful traits that seem unusual or out
+of the ordinary. It would be difficult to devise a system of
+"education" which could more effectively repress than does our own the
+development of unusual mental traits. In this connection "abnormal" or
+"eccentric" may often mean a mutation in a profitable direction, a
+getting away from the average of mediocrity in the direction of
+improvement.
+
+It is clear that we have the raw materials for race improvement. There
+are some individuals with more and some with less than the average in
+any respect--physical, mental, moral. The average of a whole social
+group can be shifted by subtraction at one end or addition at the
+other, or more easily and more effectively by both together. In order
+to raise the general average of the value of any of these traits it
+is not necessary to strive to exceed the known maximum value in any
+respect. The study of the "pure line," as mentioned above, shows that
+this may for a long time remain impossible, or at any rate difficult,
+pending the appearance of a mutation in a favorable direction. We can,
+however, raise the general average of physical strength or of mental
+or moral ability by increasing the relative number of individuals in
+the upper groups or by diminishing the number in the lower groups,
+most easily of course and most effectively by doing both of these
+things. By increasing the numbers composing the lines which form the
+upper elements of a social group we not only add immensely to the
+total value of the group but we do actually change somewhat the
+general average. On the other hand numerical increase in the lines in
+the lower part of the group will actually lower the average of the
+whole, though it does not actually affect the number of individuals in
+the more able and valuable classes.
+
+Another consideration is of great importance here. The average is
+affected only slightly by the change of individuals from class to
+class near the average. But the shifting of even one or two per cent
+of the individuals into or out of extreme positions has a very marked
+effect upon the character of the total group and upon the average. In
+the life of the State the character of the general average of the
+citizens is of the greatest importance, and comparatively small
+deviations in the average of civic worth may mean much as regards the
+history of a democracy. Of course the average individuals in a social
+group may not be those of greatest influence; even when taken all
+together they may not determine the trend of the life of the society;
+but that does not alter the essential fact that the condition of the
+average of the population is of very great moment to a democratic
+state.
+
+Many of our social endeavors to-day serve in effect to raise
+individuals from one of the lower groups up to or toward the average.
+Millions of dollars and an incalculable amount of time and energy are
+spent annually in striving to accomplish this kind of result. How
+immeasurably greater would be the benefit to society if the same
+amount of energy and money were spent in moving individuals from the
+middle classes on up toward the higher. In the development of our
+societies we need to use every possible means to carry individuals
+from positions near the average to positions above the average, and
+the farther this remove is above the average both in its starting
+point and its stopping point, the better for the social group.
+Elevation from mediocrity to superiority has far greater effect upon
+the social constitution than has elevation from inferiority to
+mediocrity.
+
+As the Whethams have written recently: "Of late years, the duty of the
+State to support the falling and fallen has been so much emphasized
+that its still more important duty to the able and competent has been
+obscured. Yet it is they who are the real national asset of worth, and
+it is essential to secure that their action should not be hampered,
+and their value sterilized, by the jealousy and obstruction of the
+social failures, and of others whom pity for the failures has blinded.
+Mankind has been shrewdly divided into those who do things and those
+who must get out of the way while things are being done, and if the
+latter class do not recognize their true function in life, they
+themselves will suffer the most. The incompetent have to be supported
+partially or wholly by the competent, and, even for their own good,
+it would be worth while for the incompetent to encourage the freedom
+of action and the preponderant reproduction of the abler and more
+successful stocks. It is only where such stocks abound that the nation
+is able to support and carry along the heavy load of incompetence kept
+alive by modern civilization."
+
+In discussing the general subject of variation and variability in
+this connection, we must take always into account the biological
+distinction between variation and functional modification, between
+innate and acquired traits. Only the former are of real and primary
+value in evolution. The distinction is familiar and we cannot dwell
+upon it here; but it is of particular importance in dealing with
+social improvement and we shall return to it in the next chapter.
+Many "social variations" are in reality not variations at all, but
+modifications; although these may be of the greatest value to the
+individual modified, they are artificial things without permanent
+value to the race. So many of the distinguishing personal traits are
+the results of nurture rather than of nature. They represent the
+result of the incidence of special factors in the environment. It is
+extremely difficult and at times impossible to distinguish between
+variations and modifications in adult characters, but in general the
+distinction is usually clear upon careful analysis.
+
+The changing of the innate characters of the human race is a slow
+process, depending chiefly upon the advantage taken of the appearance
+of real mutational variations. On the other hand, it is comparatively
+easy to improve the condition of the individual by improving his
+environing conditions--cleaning him, educating him, leading him to
+higher ideals in his physical and mental and moral life. But as this
+is easy, so it is impermanent. All this is modificational and has no
+influence upon the stock. This is not opposed by the Eugenist; it
+simply is no part of his province, for its effect is not racial. By
+releasing a deforming pressure it may permit the individual to come
+back to his real structurally determined condition, but the
+structural condition itself is not thus affected. It is temporary and
+must be done over with each generation, or on account of the
+unfortunate habit of "backsliding," even at intervals shorter than
+that of a generation.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Let us now turn to another phase of our subject and consider the
+biological methods of the description and measurement of heredity, as
+a preliminary to our next chapter in which we shall discuss the
+bearings of the facts of human heredity upon the possibility of the
+formation of a permanently improved human breed.
+
+The fact of heredity is one of the most familiar and patent things
+about organisms. "Do men gather grapes of thorns or figs of thistles?"
+For we may define heredity as the fact of general resemblance between
+parent and offspring. This simple definition is disappointing to many
+persons. "Heredity" is so often supposed popularly to refer only to
+some occasional, striking, and unusual similarity within a family
+respecting certain traits or peculiarities. Very often the idea of
+heredity seems shrouded in mystery: it is some uncanny relation which
+explains peculiarities and helps the novelist out of difficulties, but
+is itself inexplicable. In truth, however, the fact that a boy, like
+his father, has a head and a heart and hands and feet, physical traits
+characteristic of the human species, that he begins to walk and talk
+and shave at about the same age as his father did--all this is the
+fact of heredity. The fact that guinea pigs produce guinea pigs and
+not rabbits is the fact of heredity. Often it is true that this
+resemblance is strikingly particular. All know of family traits; we
+may have our father's eyes or nose, our mother's hair or disposition,
+a grandfather's determination or a grandmother's patience. But these
+particular individual resemblances are no more and no less
+illustrations of heredity than the fact that on the whole children are
+more like their parents than like other human beings.
+
+The subject of heredity is of supreme importance in the practice of
+Eugenics. The facts of no other department of biological inquiry are
+of equal value, and at the same time there is probably no biological
+subject regarding which there is so much misunderstanding. Of the
+many phases of this extremely fascinating subject there are chiefly
+two with which we are particularly concerned as Eugenists. These are
+the questions: first, how completely are all the distinguishing traits
+of either or both parents represented in the offspring; and, second,
+how completely is each trait inherited that is inherited at all? In
+other words, what we are chiefly interested to know, as bearing upon
+the subject in hand, is whether all or only some of the
+characteristics of our parents are heritable, and whether the
+offspring show each inherited trait with the same intensity shown in
+the parent, or more, or less.
+
+One of the leading British students of heredity has said that no one
+should undertake the study of this subject unless he can instantly
+detect and explain the fallacy involved in the familiar conundrum,
+"Why do white sheep eat more than black ones?" It is perhaps the
+elasticity of our language that makes possible the mental confusion
+involved in this question, but yet it is certainly true that we do
+tend to confuse individual and statistical statements. We must
+remember, in connection with this subject particularly, that an
+individual may belong to a group without representing it, and that
+within a group there are many more individuals with average than with
+exceptional characteristics. The mediocre is common, the extremes are
+rare. And yet an unusual individual may really be an outlying member
+of a normal group.
+
+In describing the facts of hereditary resemblance between successive
+generations two formulas are available. One deals ostensibly with the
+individual--the Mendelian formula: the other deals with the group--the
+statistical formula. It seems entirely probable that these are not
+formulas for describing two essentially different processes or forms
+of heredity, but that in reality these are two ways of describing the
+same facts seen from two different points of view. The Mendelian
+formula regards each individual separately and describes its heredity
+thus. The statistical formula regards the whole group as the unit and
+considers the individual not as such, but as one of the crowd,
+concerning which statements can be made only in terms of averages and
+probabilities; black sheep and white. Of these two formulas the
+Mendelian is obviously of much the greater importance on account of
+its more exact, more particular character; its greater definiteness
+gives it a value in the treatment of eugenic problems that statistical
+statements must inherently lack. While much has been written of late
+regarding the Mendelian formula of heredity, we shall find it
+profitable to repeat here its general outlines and to recall a few of
+the essential features of this important law that we shall make much
+use of later.
+
+Let us have a concrete illustration. One of the simplest cases is that
+of the heredity of color in the Andalusian fowl which has been so
+clearly described by Bateson. There are two established color
+varieties of this fowl, one with a great deal of black and one that is
+white with some black markings or "splashes"; for convenience we may
+refer to these as the black and white varieties respectively. Each of
+these breeds true by itself. Black mated with black produce none but
+black offspring, white mated with white produce none but white
+offspring. Crossing black and white, however, results in the
+production of fowls with a sort of grayish color, called "blue" by the
+fancier, though in reality it is a fine mixture of black and white. At
+first sight we seem to have a gray hybrid race through the mixture of
+the black and the white races. Not so: for if we continue to breed
+successive generations from these blue hybrid fowls we get three
+differently colored forms. Some will be blue like the parents, some
+black like one grandparent, some white like the other grandparent. Not
+only this but we get certain definite proportions among these three
+classes of descendants. Of the total number of the immediate offspring
+of the hybrid blues, approximately one half will be blue like the
+parents, approximately one fourth black, and one fourth white like
+each of the grandparents. Now comes the most important fact of all.
+These blacks, bred together produce only blacks, the whites similarly
+produce only whites; the blues, on the other hand, when bred together
+produce progeny sorting into the same original classes and in the same
+proportions as were produced by the blues of the original hybrid
+generation. Their blacks and whites each breed true, their blues
+repeat the history of the preceding blues. No race of the hybrid
+character can be established: blues always produce blacks and whites,
+as well as blues. A summary of this history in graphic and
+diagrammatic form is given in Fig. 7.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Diagram showing the course of color
+    heredity in the Andalusian fowl, in which one color does not
+    completely dominate another. _P_, parental generation. The
+    offspring of this cross constitute _F1_, the first filial
+    or hybrid generation. _F2_, the second filial generation.
+    Bottom row, third filial generation.]
+
+This law of heredity was first discovered about forty-five years ago
+by Gregor Mendel, working with peas in the garden of the Augustinian
+monastery in Bruenn, Austria. His work curiously failed to arouse the
+interest of contemporary scientists and his results were soon
+completely lost sight of. The independent rediscovery of Mendel's
+formulas of heredity, about ten years ago, was probably the most
+important event in the history of biology and evolution since the
+publication of "The Origin of Species."
+
+In most cases of Mendelian heredity the progeny are less easily
+classified than in the case above, because the hybrid individuals
+resemble one or the other of the parents, quite or very closely. For
+instance the crossing of the black and white varieties of guinea pigs
+gives hybrids that are all black like one parent. That is, when the
+black and white characters are brought together these do not appear to
+blend into a gray or "blue," as in the case of the Andalusian fowl,
+but one character alone appears; the black seems to cover up or wipe
+out the white. This illustrates the frequent phenomenon of
+_dominance_; one of the two contrasting characters, in this case the
+black color is said to dominate over the other and the two traits are
+described as _dominant_ and _recessive_ respectively. Fig. 8 gives a
+graphic representation of the history of such a cross. When the black
+looking hybrids are crossed together the progeny fall into but two
+groups, one resembling each of the grandparental forms. Three fourths
+of the progeny now resemble superficially the hybrid form and at the
+same time one of the grandparents--the dominating black form, while
+the remaining fourth resembles the other white grandparent. However,
+we know that the black three fourths do not in reality constitute a
+homogeneous class but that this includes two distinct groups; one
+group of one fourth of the whole number of progeny (i. e., one third
+of all the blacks) are truly black like their black grandparents and
+in successive generations will, if bred together, produce none but
+blacks of the same character, i. e., pure blacks: the remaining two
+fourths of the whole number of progeny (two thirds of all the blacks)
+in this generation are actually hybrids and in the next generation, if
+bred together, will give the same proportions of the two colors as
+were found in the whole of the present generation, i. e., three
+fourths black, one fourth white. Of these the whites always produce
+whites, the blacks always produce blacks and whites in the approximate
+proportions of 3:1; a certain proportion of these--one third (one
+fourth of the whole generation) always remain blacks, the other two
+thirds (one half of the whole generation) again produce blacks and
+whites. In such cases as this where the phenomenon of dominance
+appears, and this is the usual course of events, it is impossible to
+say which individuals _are_ the hybrids. Only after their progeny are
+studied can we say which _were_ the hybrids.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Diagram showing the course of color
+    heredity in the guinea pig, in which one color (black)
+    completely dominates another (white). Reference letters as
+    in Fig. 7.]
+
+In the crossing of the black and white Andalusian fowls described
+above the phenomenon of dominance does not appear; when the two color
+characters are brought into a single individual neither appears alone,
+neither overcomes nor is overcome by the other. In the crossing of the
+black and white guinea pigs dominance is complete; when the two color
+characters are brought into a single individual only one color
+appears, the second becomes recessive, that is, it remains present as
+we know from the later history of such hybrids, but it is not visibly
+indicated. Besides the Andalusian fowls there are known several other
+instances of the absence of dominance and there are many cases where
+dominance is incomplete, i. e., where one character merely tends to
+dominate the other. And in a few instances dominance is irregular,
+i. e., sometimes one character dominates, at other times or under
+other circumstances it does not, as with certain forms of the comb or
+the feathering of the legs in the common fowl, or with the presence of
+an extra toe in the domestic cat, the rabbit, and guinea pig. And
+even in those cases where dominance is said to be complete the trained
+eye of the breeder can frequently distinguish between the hybrid and
+the pure bred dominant individuals. The phenomenon of dominance,
+therefore, is not an essential of the Mendelian theory although it is
+a frequent, we may say usual, relation.
+
+It does not come within our province to attempt an explanation of this
+formula of heredity by describing some of the more fundamental
+conditions upon which it depends. In fact, no complete explanation is
+yet possible, although several explanatory hypotheses have been
+suggested. We may outline briefly that which seems the most
+satisfactory in that it serves to account for most of the facts in
+Mendelian heredity in a comparatively simple manner. The germ of an
+organism, we have seen, somehow contains dispositions of materials
+which primarily determine the characteristics of the organism
+developed from that germ. To these dispositions or configurations the
+term of "determiners" has been applied. In a pure variety like the
+black Andalusians, all the germ cells of each fowl are alike in
+having this determiner for black color. When two such fowls are mated
+together their descendants will result from the fusion of two germ
+cells, _each_ containing the determiner for black color; that is, the
+germ of the new individual comes to have a double determiner, one from
+each parent, for this trait. In the white variety all the germ cells
+are alike in _lacking_ this determiner; blackness is entirely absent
+and all their descendants are formed from germ cells entirely without
+black determiners. When the single germ cell of a black fowl with its
+single black determiner is fertilized by a germ cell from a white fowl
+without any determiner for black the resulting hybrid has a color
+produced by only a single determiner, that from the black parent, and
+in this case the blackness is not as fully expressed because produced
+by only this single determiner and the fowl appears gray or "blue";
+that is, the black produced by a single determiner is in this case not
+as black as that produced by the double determiner. Now of course this
+hybrid fowl forms germ cells containing determiners for color, but
+these cells, instead of being all alike and with semi-black
+determiners corresponding with the semi-black characteristics of the
+individual, are of two different kinds--some are like those of each of
+the grandparents which fused to give origin to the parent forms, and
+these are formed in approximately equal numbers--one half with the
+black determiner, one half without it. When two such fowls are bred
+together the chances are equal for certain combinations of germ cells;
+the chances are equal that the "black" or "white" germ cell of the one
+individual shall meet and conjugate with the "black" or "white" germ
+cell of the other individual. The result may be expressed
+algebraically as follows, using the letters _B_ and _W_ to indicate
+respectively germ cells with and without the black color determiner.
+
+  Germ cells of first parent                      _B_ + _W_
+  Germ cells of second parent                     _B_ + _W_
+                                                -------------
+                                                _BB_ + _BW_
+                                                       _BW_ + _WW_
+                                                  -----------------
+  Combinations in the germ of the offspring  _1BB_ + _2BW_ + _1WW_
+
+That is, one fourth are pure black (_BB_), one fourth pure white
+(_WW_), and the remaining half are hybrids, black and white (_BW_).
+The pure blacks again form germ cells, all possessing the determiner
+for blackness; the pure whites form germ cells all lacking the
+determiner for blackness; the hybrid blues produce again equal numbers
+of germ cells possessing and lacking the determiner for blackness. The
+relation of the germ cells and the organisms forming them and
+developing from them is shown in the diagram in Fig. 9.
+
+In the more common cases where the phenomenon of dominance appears, as
+in the guinea pig, this is explained by saying that here a single
+determiner for blackness is somehow sufficient to produce the color.
+In such cases the black color observed may result either from a single
+(_BW_) or from a double (_BB_) black determiner in the germ which
+forms the organism. Only when the black determiner is entirely absent
+(_WW_) does the white color appear in the developed organism and the
+individual is then said to exhibit the recessive characteristic.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Diagram illustrating the relation of
+    the germ cells in a simple case of Mendelian heredity, such
+    as that of color as shown in Figs. 7 and 8. The spaces
+    between the large circles represent the bodies of the
+    individuals while the small circles within each represent the
+    germ cells formed by those individuals. _P_, parental
+    generation; each individual forms a single kind of germ
+    cells. _G. F1_, germs of the first filial or hybrid
+    generation, each composed of two different kinds of germ
+    cells, one from each parent. _F1_, individuals of the first
+    filial or hybrid generation, developed from _G. F1_. Each
+    member of this generation forms two kinds of germ cells in
+    approximately equal numbers. _G. C. F1_, germ cells of _F1_,
+    showing possible combinations resulting from the mating of
+    two members of _F1_. Each of these combinations occurs with
+    equal probability. _G. F2_, germs of second filial generation
+    resulting from the above random combinations. _F2_,
+    individuals of second filial generation. Each now forms germ
+    cells like those which constituted its own germ.]
+
+Another possible type of mating is that between a member of a pure
+race, either dominant or recessive, and a hybrid individual. This form
+of mating is very common in some of the pedigrees that we shall
+examine later. The results of such a mating, first between a hybrid
+and a recessive individual can be most easily described by considering
+a cross between black and white forms and expressing the result
+algebraically.
+
+  Germ cells of first parent (white or recessive)  _W_ + _W_
+  Germ cells of second parent (hybrid)             _B_ + _W_
+                                                 -------------
+                                                  _BW_ + _BW_
+                                                         _WW_ + _WW_
+                                                 ---------------------
+                                                     _2BW_ + _2WW_
+
+That is, returning to the example of the Andalusian fowls, the progeny
+will be one half hybrid blues and one half whites--no black at all.
+If the cross had been between black hybrid guinea pigs and white
+recessive specimens the result would have been half hybrid blacks and
+half pure whites.
+
+Or supposing the mating to have occurred between the pure dominant
+(black) and the hybrid the result would have been, in the fowls half
+pure black and half hybrid blue; in the guinea pig all the progeny
+would have been black, half pure blacks and half hybrid blacks.
+
+  Germ cells of first parent (black or dominant)   _B_ + _B_
+  Germ cells of second parent (hybrid)             _B_ + _W_
+                                                 -------------
+                                                  _BB_ + _BB_
+                                                         _BW_ + _BW_
+                                                ----------------------
+                                                     _2BB_ + _2BW_
+
+In the case of the guinea pigs, although the progeny all look alike
+(black) their history would show that they were fundamentally unlike,
+for if crossed with white again the result would be the production of
+all black looking guinea pigs from the cross with the _BB_ forms, and
+half black and half white from the _BW_ cross.
+
+On account of the fact of variation every individual is in a certain
+sense a hybrid. One's two parents have the species characters in
+common but there are certain distinctive traits that hybridize and
+follow Mendel's law of heredity. By no means is it to be understood
+that all individual distinctive traits follow this rule in heredity.
+Many individual characteristics are what we have learned to call
+fluctuations--small deviations above or below an average condition of
+a group. Such differences play no part in Mendelian heredity. Other
+characteristics may be bodily modifications resulting from the direct
+reaction between the body tissues and the environing conditions; such
+traits would not be represented in the organization of the germ cells
+and consequently would not be inherited at all. At present it seems
+that the only characteristics that "Mendelize" are those known as
+"unit characters." Such characters seem to have their origin in real
+variations or mutations and though each may show fluctuations, these
+fluctuations in themselves are not hereditary.
+
+This conception of the unit character is an extremely important
+element in the whole Mendelian theory and it has extended beyond the
+field of heredity and led to a radical change in our notions of what
+an organism really is. It is, of course, true in a sense that an
+organism is a unit, an organism is one thing; but at the same time it
+is true that an organism is fundamentally a collection of units, of
+structural and functional characteristics which are really separable
+things. A few of these units were mentioned in the first pages of this
+chapter and others are mentioned on a later page. They serve as the
+building blocks of organisms: individuals of the same species may be
+made up of similar combinations or of different combinations. One unit
+or a group of units may be taken out and replaced by others.
+
+From the standpoint of heredity, and particularly from our eugenic
+point of view, the most important results of the unit composition of
+the organism lie in the fact that these units remain units throughout
+successive generations and throughout successive and varying
+combinations, whatever their associations may be from generation to
+generation. It is a fact of the greatest eugenic significance that a
+pure bred individual may be produced by a hybrid mated either with a
+pure bred or with another hybrid; and that the pure bred resulting
+will be just as pure bred as any. "Pure bred" now means pure bred with
+respect to certain traits only. An individual may be pure bred in
+certain of its characteristics, hybrid in others. Practically there is
+no such thing as an individual which is either pure bred or hybrid in
+_all_ its traits. One of the chief contributions, then, of Mendelism
+to the subjects of Heredity and Eugenics is this--that a pure bred may
+be derived from a hybrid in one generation: the pure bred produced by
+a long series of hybrid individuals is just as pure as the pure bred
+which has never had a hybrid in its ancestry. Another important
+consequent is, that among the offspring of the same parents some
+individuals may be pure bred and others hybrid. Community of parentage
+does not necessarily denote community of characteristics among the
+offspring. Yet by knowing the ancestry for one or two generations we
+can know the qualities of the individual. Guesswork is eliminated and
+the importance of the qualities of the individual is enormously
+emphasized. It is necessary only to suggest the social and eugenic
+significance of such facts relating to characteristics that are of
+social or racial importance.
+
+We shall have occasion in the next chapter to enumerate some of the
+human unit characters whose heredity has been traced and which have
+been found to Mendelize, but we may mention here a few Mendelizing
+units in other organisms in order to give some idea of the kind of
+character which behaves as a unit and of the range of the forms which
+have been found to show Mendelian phenomena in their heredity. Among
+the higher animals one might mention the absence of horns in cattle
+and sheep; the "waltzing" habit of mice and the pacing gait of the
+horse; length of hair and smoothness of coat in the rabbit and guinea
+pig; presence of an extra toe in the cat, guinea pig, rabbit, fowl;
+length of tail in the cat; and in the common fowl such characters as
+the shape and size of the comb, presence of a crest or a "muff," a
+high nostril, rumplessness, feathering of the legs, "frizzling" of the
+feathers, certain characters of the voice, and a tendency to brood.
+Among plants may be mentioned such characters as dwarfness in garden
+peas, sweet peas, and some kinds of beans; smoothness or prickliness
+of stem in the jimson weed and crowfoot; leaf characters in a great
+variety of plants; in the cotton plant a half dozen characters have
+been found to Mendelize; seed characters such as form and amount of
+starch, sugar, or gluten; flat or hooded standard in the sweet pea;
+annual or biennial habit in the henbane; susceptibility to a rust
+disease in wheat. We should not fail to mention that scores of color
+characters are known to Mendelize, such as hair or coat color and eye
+color in animals and the colors of flowers, stems, seeds, seed-coats,
+etc., in plants. The list of Mendelizing traits in different organisms
+now extends into the hundreds and is increasing almost weekly.
+
+Before leaving the subject of Mendelism we should say that the
+phenomena, as described above in the Andalusian fowl and guinea pig,
+are among the simplest known. And while such simple formulas serve to
+describe the phenomena of heredity in a large number of instances, yet
+in a great many other cases the descriptive formulas are more
+complicated. We cannot in this place describe any of these
+complications. For a full discussion of these and of the whole subject
+of Mendelism the interested reader is referred to Professor Bateson's
+work on "Mendel's Principles of Heredity" (1909). It must suffice to
+say here that in color heredity, for example, such ratios as 9:3:4 or
+12:3:1 in the second filial generation instead of the more frequent
+1:2:1 or 3:1 are explainable upon essentially the same relations as
+these simpler and more typical ratios. And further, many less usual
+Mendelian phenomena, which we cannot undertake to describe here,
+are associated with what the specialist technically terms "sex
+limitation," "gametic coupling," and the like.
+
+It is often said that the Mendelian formula has a very limited
+applicability to human heredity. This is probably true if we consider
+carefully the grammatical tense in which this statement is made. And
+yet it is almost certainly true that heredity in man is to be
+described by this law. This apparent paradox is easily explained. The
+only characters whose history in heredity follows this formula are the
+unit characters. A complex trait is not heritable, as a whole, but its
+components behave in heredity as the separate units. It is perfectly
+well known that we are deeply ignorant regarding this phase of human
+structure. Our ignorance here is not the necessary kind, however, it
+is merely due to the newness of the subject--we have not had time to
+find out. How can we say that a complex trait is or is not inherited
+according to some form of Mendel's law when we do not know the nature
+of the units of which it is composed? We can make no statements about
+the Mendelian inheritance of such a trait until it is factored into
+its units. A considerable number of human characteristics are really
+known to be heritable according to this formula, enough so that
+several general rules of human heredity have been formulated. But it
+is also quite within the range of possibility that some traits really
+do not follow this law, although it cannot yet be said definitely
+that this is or is not the case. On the whole, then, we cannot, for
+the next few years, expect too much from the application of Mendel's
+laws to human heredity, however much this is to be regretted.
+
+Shall we then decline to say anything about the heredity of the great
+bulk of human characteristics? By no means: we have seen that in our
+bagatelle board we talk very definitely about the distribution of all
+the peas, though only about the probable history of one pea. Mendel's
+law deals with individual inheritance. When we cannot apply this
+formula we have left still the possibility of talking about human
+heredity in the group as a whole. That is to say, we have left the
+opportunity of describing heredity by the statistical methods, with
+the crowd, not the individual, as the unit. Since we are forced into
+extensive use of this formula by our present and temporary ignorance
+of the applicability of Mendel's rule we must get a clear notion of
+how the statistical method is applied in this matter.
+
+The method is the same as that employed by the statistician in
+measuring the relatedness of any two series of varying phenomena. If
+two quantities or characteristics are so related that fluctuations in
+the one are accompanied in a regular manner by fluctuations in the
+other, the two quantities or characters are said to be correlated. For
+instance, the temperature and the rate of growth of sprouting beans
+are related in such a way that increase in the former is accompanied
+in a regular way by increase in the latter; or the width and height of
+the head, or the total stature and the length of the femur similarly
+vary regularly together so that they are said to be correlated to a
+certain extent which can be measured. This correlation may result from
+the fact that one condition is a cause, either direct or indirect, of
+the other; or there may be no such causal relation between the two
+phenomena, both resulting more or less independently from a common
+antecedent condition or cause.
+
+This phenomenon of correlation is not limited among organisms to the
+comparison of two or more different characters in a single series of
+individuals; it is applicable also to the comparison of two series of
+individuals with respect to the same characteristic. Thus we may
+compare the stature of a series of fathers with the same measurement
+in their sons. It is this form of correlation with which we are
+particularly to deal here. While it is not necessary to understand
+just how this subject is dealt with by the statistician we should know
+one or two of the elementary principles involved, in order to
+appreciate the statistical form of many statements about heredity.
+
+The stature of men may be said to vary usually between limits of 62
+and 76 inches, the average height being about 69 inches. In the
+complete absence of heredity in stature we should find that fathers of
+any given height, say 62 or 63 or 76 inches would have sons of no
+particular height but of all heights with an average of 69 inches, the
+same as in the whole group. Or if stature were completely heritable
+from one generation to the next the _total generations being the units
+compared_, then 62 or 63 or 76 inch fathers would have respectively
+sons all 62, 63, and 76 inches tall. When we examine the actual
+details of the resemblance we find, as a matter of fact, that neither
+of these possibilities is actually realized. What we do find is that
+fathers below or above the average height have sons whose average
+height is also below or above the general average but not so far below
+or above the general average as were the fathers. If we measured a
+large number of pairs of fathers and sons with respect to stature we
+should find each generation with a variability such as that
+illustrated in Fig. 3 of the stature of mothers, the limits here,
+however, being about 62 and 76 inches. But if we measured all the sons
+of 62-inch fathers they would be found to vary say from 62 to only 69
+inches, averaging about 66 inches. Similarly 63-inch fathers would
+have sons from 62 to 70 inches tall, averaging about 66.5 inches, or
+76-inch fathers might have sons from 69 to 76 inches in height,
+averaging about 72 inches, and so on for fathers of all heights. In
+general, then, we may say that fathers with a characteristic of a
+certain plus or minus deviation from the average of the whole group
+have sons who on the whole deviate in the same direction but less
+widely than the fathers, although the fact of variability comes in so
+that some few of the sons deviate as widely as, or even more widely
+than, the fathers, others deviate less widely than the fathers from
+the average of the whole group. This is the general and very important
+statistical fact of _regression_.
+
+The phenomenon of regression may be made somewhat clearer by the aid
+of a simple diagram--Fig. 10. Here are plotted first the heights, by
+inches, of a group of fathers, giving the series of dots joined by the
+diagonal _AB_. Next are plotted the average heights of the sons of
+each class of fathers: 62-inch fathers give 66-inch sons, 63-inch
+fathers 66.5-inch sons, 64-inch fathers 67-inch sons, and so for all
+the classes of fathers. These dots are then joined by the line _EF_.
+This is the _regression line_. Had it been the case that there was no
+regression in stature the different classes of fathers would have had
+sons averaging just the same as themselves and the line representing
+the heights of the sons would have coincided with the line _AB_. Or if
+regression had been complete the fathers of any class would have had
+sons averaging about 69 inches--just the same as the average of the
+whole group--and the line representing their heights would have had
+the position of _CD_ in the diagram. As a matter of fact, however,
+neither of these possibilities is actually realized and the regression
+line _EF_ is approximated in an actual series of data. A similar
+relation has been found for many characters other than stature.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Diagram illustrating the phenomenon
+    of regression. Explanation in text.]
+
+The fact of regression is of considerable importance for the theory of
+evolution as well as for the subject of Eugenics when describing the
+phenomena of heredity in this statistical manner in whole groups
+without paying attention to particular individuals. Regression is
+found in all characteristics observed in this way, psychic as well as
+purely physical. "The father [i. e., fathers] with a great excess of
+the character contributes [contribute] sons with an excess, but a less
+excess of it; the father [fathers] with a great defect of the
+character contributes [contribute] sons with a defect, but less defect
+of it."
+
+Now, whatever the actual extent of this regression is in a group we
+need to know how uniformly it occurs for all the classes of different
+deviations from the general average, that is, we need to know whether
+the extreme groups regress to the same relative extent as do those
+nearer the general average; and, further, we need to know how nearly
+the sons of fathers of any certain height are grouped about their own
+average. In other words, we should know, first, whether the regression
+of the sons of 62 and 76 or 67 and 71 inch fathers is proportionately
+the same in each case, and, second, to what extent the sons of 62-inch
+fathers vary, whether they vary as do the fathers of 62-inch sons, and
+so for each group. This kind of information we get by calculating what
+is called the _coefficient of heredity_. The calculation of this
+coefficient is a complicated process which it is unnecessary to
+describe here. It must suffice to say that a numerical coefficient can
+readily be determined, which will express the average closeness and
+regularity of the relationship between all the plus and minus
+deviations from the group average in fathers and the corresponding
+plus and minus deviations from the group average of their sons with
+respect to a given characteristic. This coefficient of heredity may
+vary between 0.0 and 1.0. When it is 0.0 there is, on the whole, no
+regularity in the relationship, i. e., no heredity; when it is 1.0
+there is, on the whole, complete regularity, i. e., heredity is
+complete. Neither of these values is ever actually found in
+determining coefficients of heredity in the parental relation; these
+are usually between 0.3 and 0.5. It should be emphasized again that
+this comparison is between whole groups and not between individuals,
+and that it fails to allow for the distinction between fluctuations
+and true variations. And, further, it should be noted that the
+information derived from such a coefficient is defective in that it
+takes into account only the relationship between the son and one
+parent; the maternal relation is just as important but this has to be
+determined separately. There is no satisfactory method of determining
+the relation between children and both parents at the same time.
+
+The coefficient of heredity is, therefore, an abstract numerical value
+which gives us a fairly precise estimate as to the probable closeness
+of the relation between deviations from the group average of any
+character in two groups of relatives. The coefficient of _correlation_
+is, in general, a measure of the relation between two different
+characteristics or conditions in a single group of individuals. The
+method of its determination and its limiting values are the same as
+for the coefficient of heredity.
+
+By experience the coefficients of heredity and correlation in general
+are found to have the following significance:
+
+  0.00-      no relation.
+  0.00-0.10--no significant relation.
+  0.10-0.25--low; relation slight though appreciable.
+  0.25-0.50--moderate; relation considerable.
+  0.50-0.75--high; relation marked.
+  0.75-0.90--very high; relation very marked.
+  0.90-1.00--nearly complete.
+       1.00--complete relation.
+
+One further point remains to be considered, which applies not so much
+to coefficients of heredity as to coefficients of correlation in
+general, i. e., to the relatedness of two different characters or
+series of events in a single group of cases or individuals. This is
+that coefficients of correlation may be either positive or negative.
+That is, the real limits of the value of the coefficient are plus one
+and minus one. The example given above of stature of fathers and sons
+gives a positive coefficient. Whenever the deviation from the average
+of one group is accompanied in the second group by a deviation in the
+same direction, the coefficient is positive. A negative correlation
+means that deviation from the average in a given direction in the
+first group is accompanied in the second group by a deviation in the
+opposite direction. If we imagine that as one measurement increased
+above its average a second related measurement decreased below its
+average the correlation in such a case would be negative. For
+instance, if we measured the relation between the number of berry
+pickers employed and the quantity of berries remaining unpicked, in a
+number of different fields we would get a negative correlation
+coefficient. Some organisms are formed in such a way that increase in
+one dimension, such as length, is associated with decrease in another,
+such as breadth; measurement of the relatedness of these dimensions
+would give a coefficient of correlation that might be very high,
+indicating a considerable relation in the deviations, but it would be
+negative. In an instance of negative correlation the relation is that
+of "the more the fewer." As we shall see presently, a negative
+correlation may be just as important and significant as a positive
+correlation.
+
+The application of the principles of heredity to our subject of
+Eugenics is of such great importance that it is reserved for separate
+consideration in the next chapter. We may, therefore, devote the
+remainder of this chapter to the consideration of data of another
+kind, which are commonly treated by this same method of determining
+correlation coefficients between two sets of varying phenomena in
+order to determine whether there is any actual relation between them
+or not. This will serve to illustrate the use of this method.
+
+We shall turn then to the subject of differential or selective
+fertility in human beings and consider its relation to Eugenics. As a
+starting point we may take the self-evident statement that a group of
+organisms will tend to maintain constant characteristics through
+successive generations only when all parts of the group are equally
+fertile. If exceptional fertility is associated with the presence or
+absence of any characteristic the number of individuals with or
+without that trait will either increase or diminish in successive
+generations, and the character of the distribution of the group as a
+whole will gradually become altered, the average moving in the
+direction of the more fertile group. Or if infertility is so
+associated, then the average of the whole group moves away from that
+condition. Eugenically, then, we should ask whether in human society
+there is at present any such association of superfertility or
+infertility with desirable or undesirable traits. It is obviously the
+aim of Eugenics to bring about an association of a high degree of
+fertility with desirable traits and a low degree of fertility with
+undesirable characteristics.
+
+First, let us look at certain data gathered relative to the size of
+the family in both normal and pathological stocks (Table II). In order
+that a stock or family should just maintain its numbers undiminished
+through successive generations and under average conditions, at least
+four children should be born to each marriage that has any children at
+all.
+
+                               TABLE II
+
+     _Fertility in Pathological and Normal Stocks._ (From Pearson)
+
+                                       NATURE OF MARRIAGE.    NO. IN
+                           AUTHORITY. (Reproductive period.)  FAMILY.
+
+  Deaf-mutes, England      Schuster      Probably complete      6.2
+  Deaf-mutes, America      Schuster      Probably complete      6.1
+  Tuberculous stock        Pearson       Probably complete      5.7
+  Albinotic stock          Pearson       Probably complete      5.9
+  Insane stock             Heron         Probably complete      6.0
+  Edinburgh degenerates    Eugenics Lab  Incomplete             6.1
+  London mentally
+    defective              Eugenics Lab  Incomplete             7.0
+  Manchester mentally
+    defective              Eugenics Lab  Incomplete             6.3
+  Criminals                Goring        Completed              6.6
+  English middle class     Pearson       15 years at least,
+                                           begun before 35      6.4
+  Family records--normals  Pearson       Completed              5.3
+  English intellectual
+    class                  Pearson       Completed              4.7
+  Working class N.S.W.     Powys         Completed              5.3
+  Danish professional
+    class                  Westergaard   15 years at least      5.2
+  Danish working class     Westergaard   25 years at least      5.3
+  Edinburgh normal
+    artisan                Eugenics Lab  Incomplete             5.9
+  London normal artisan    Eugenics Lab  Incomplete             5.1
+  American graduates       Harvard       Completed              2.0
+  English intellectuals    Webb          Said to be complete    1.5
+
+    All childless marriages are excluded except in the last two
+    cases. Inclusion of such marriages usually reduces the
+    average by 0.5 to 1.0 child.
+
+The table given shows clearly what stocks are maintaining, what
+increasing, and what diminishing their numbers.
+
+This subject has been investigated recently in a rather extensive way
+by David Heron, for the London population. Heron concentrated his
+attention upon the relation of fertility in man to social status. He
+used as indices to social status such marks as the relative number of
+professional men in a community, or the relative number of servants
+employed, or of lowest type of male laborers, or of pawnbrokers; also
+the amount of child employment pauperism, overcrowding in the home,
+tuberculosis, and pauper lunacy. Twenty-seven metropolitan boroughs of
+London were canvassed on these bases, which are certainly significant,
+though not infallible, indices to the character of a community. His
+results are shown in the briefest possible form in Table III.
+
+                              TABLE III
+
+  _Correlation of the Birth Rate with Social and Physical Characters
+                 of London Population._ (From Heron.)
+
+                                                 CORRELATION
+                                                 COEFFICIENT.
+  With number of males engaged in professions           -.78
+  With female domestics per 100 females                 -.80
+  With female domestics per 100 families                -.76
+  With general laborers per 1,000 males                 +.52
+  With pawnbrokers and general dealers per 1,000 males  +.62
+  With children employed, ages 10 to 14                 +.66
+  With persons living more than two in a room           +.70
+  With infants under one year dying per 1,000 births    +.50
+  With deaths from pulmonary tuberculosis per 100,000
+    inhabitants                                         +.59
+  With total number of paupers per 1,000 inhabitants    +.20
+  With number of lunatic paupers per 1,000 inhabitants  +.34
+
+This table gives the results of the calculation of coefficients of
+correlation between the birth rates and the conditions enumerated. We
+may just recall that this coefficient is a measure of the regularity
+with which the changes in two varying conditions or phenomena are
+associated: and further that a coefficient of 1.0 indicates perfectly
+regular association, 0.75 a very high degree of regularity. The first
+line of the table then, for example, means that when these
+twenty-seven districts were sorted out, first, with reference to the
+number of professional men dwelling in them, and then with reference
+to their respective birth rates, there was found a very high degree of
+regularity (coefficient of correlation = -.78) in the association of
+these two conditions--birth rate and number of professional men. Here
+is a very close relation, _but_, the sign of the coefficient is
+_negative_. The significance of this negative sign is that among the
+communities studied those where the number of professional men is the
+larger show always, at the same time, the lower birth rates. Coming to
+the second line of the table, it seems fair to assume that the number
+of servants employed in a district in proportion to the total number
+of residents or families there, gives a fairly though not wholly
+satisfactory indication of the social character of the community.
+Measurement of the actual relation between the proportional number of
+servants employed in a community and the birth rate in that community,
+gave practically the same result as in the case of the number of
+professional men. The more servants employed in a district the lower
+its birth rate. Two methods of measuring this relation gave
+essentially the same result; comparison of the birth rate with the
+ratio of domestics, first to the number of families, second to the
+number of females, gave -.76 and -.80 respectively--very high
+coefficients and both negative.
+
+But the sign changes and becomes positive when we come to other
+comparisons. When we count the relative number of pawnbrokers and
+general dealers, of "general laborers" (that is, men without a trade
+and without regularity of occupation and employment), of employed
+children between the ages of ten and fourteen, of persons living more
+than two in a room, when we consider the infant death rate, the death
+rate from pulmonary tuberculosis, and the relative number of
+paupers,--then we find the signs of the coefficients are all positive,
+and on the average the coefficients are more than 0.50--a moderate to
+high degree of regularity of the relation. The districts characterized
+by the larger numbers of such individuals or by higher death rates of
+these kinds, are at the same time the districts where the birth rates
+are the higher.
+
+In a word, then, Heron found that the greater the number of
+professional men, or of servants employed in a community, the lower
+the birth rate--a very high degree of negative correlation. On the
+other hand, the more pawnbrokers, child laborers, pauper lunatics,
+the more overcrowding and tuberculosis, the higher the birth rate--a
+high degree of positive correlation. Little doubt here as to which
+elements of the city are making the greater contributions to the next
+generation. There may be some doubt, however, so let us consider two
+possible qualifications of these results. First, is not the death rate
+also higher among these least desirable classes? Yes, it is. Is it not
+enough higher to compensate for the difference in the birth rates, so
+that after all the least desirable classes are not more than replacing
+themselves? No, it is not. After calculating the effect of the
+differential death rate among these different social groups it still
+remains true that the _net_ fertility of the undesirables is greater
+than the _net_ fertility of the desirables: the worst classes are in
+reality more than replacing themselves numerically in such
+communities; the most valuable classes are not even replacing
+themselves. Second, is not this the same condition that has always
+existed in these districts? Why any cause for supposing that this is
+going to bring new results to this society? Has not such a condition
+always been present and always been compensated for somehow?
+Fortunately, Heron is able to compare with these data of 1901 similar
+data for 1851, and is able to show that every one of these relations
+has changed in sign since that date--in fifty years. The significance
+of this change in sign is probably clear. It means here that in London
+sixty years ago there was a high degree of regularity in the relation
+such that the more professional men and well-to-do families the
+community contained, the higher the birth rate; that ten years ago
+this had all become changed so that the more of these desirable
+families found in a district the lower is the birth rate. It means
+that sixty years ago the relation was such that the more undesirables
+numbered in a district, the lower its birth rate; ten years ago the
+more undesirables, the higher the birth rate, and the coefficients of
+1901 are unusually high, indicating great closeness and regularity in
+this relation. Heron is further able to show that as regards number of
+servants employed, professional men, general laborers, and
+pawnbrokers in a district, the intensity of the relationship has
+_doubled_, besides changing in sign, in the period observed. It is not
+necessary to review the history of this change nor to discuss the
+causes involved, but it is necessary to take into account for the
+immediate future the fact of the change.
+
+Sidney Webb has recently published an account of the birth-rate
+investigations undertaken by the Fabian Society with a view to
+determine the causes leading to the rapidly falling birth rate in
+England. During the decade previous to 1901 the number of children in
+London actually diminished by about 5,000, while the total population
+increased by about 300,000. As far as they bear upon this phase of the
+subject his results fully confirm these we have been considering. The
+falling off is chiefly in the upper and middle classes, in the classes
+of thrift and independence, and it has occurred chiefly during the
+last fifty years. Webb cannot find that this is due to any physical
+deterioration in these classes; it is due to a conscious and
+deliberate limitation of the size of the family for what are thought
+prudential and economic reasons.
+
+An actual reduction in the number of children may not be an unmixed
+evil. A falling birth rate may be a good sign. This is partly a
+question for the political economist. "Suicide" may be a socially
+fortunate end for some strains. But when, in either a rising or a
+falling birth rate, we find a differential or selective relation, then
+the subject is eugenic. If the higher birth rate is among the socially
+valuable elements of each different class the Eugenist can only
+approve; to bring about such a relation is one of his aims. What we
+really find, however, is the undesirable elements increasing with the
+greatest rapidity, the better elements not even holding their own.
+
+One further aspect of the result of the smaller family remains to be
+considered. Are the various members of a single family approximately
+similar in their characteristics or are the earlier born more or less
+likely to be particularly gifted or particularly liable to disease or
+abnormal condition? Or is there no rule at all in this matter? There
+is much evidence that the incidence of pathological defect falls
+heaviest upon the earlier members of a family. Consider, for example,
+the presence of tuberculosis. We should ask, in families of two or
+more, are the tubercular members, if any, as likely to be the second
+born or third or tenth as to be the first born? The data are tabulated
+in Fig. 11, _A_. The distribution of family sizes being what it is in
+the number of families investigated and tabulated, we should expect
+that there would be about 65 tubercular first born, 60 tubercular
+second born, and so forth, on the basis of its average frequency in
+the whole community, provided the chances are equal that any member of
+the family should be affected with tuberculosis. What we actually
+find, however, is that 112 first born are affected, about 80 second
+born, and after that no relation between order of birth and
+susceptibility to tuberculosis. That is, susceptibility to
+tuberculosis is double the normal among first born children. The same
+thing is true for gross mental defect. Fig. 11, _B_, shows that the
+ratio of observed to expected insane first born children is about 4 to
+3. Such a relation has long been known to criminologists and
+frequently commented upon. Fig. 11, _C_, gives a definite expression
+to the facts here. Whereas, in the number of families observed about
+56 criminal first born were to be expected, the number actually found
+is about 120; for the second born the corresponding numbers are about
+54 and 78, and after that no marked relation is found between order of
+birth and criminality. For albinism (Fig. 11, _D_) the expected and
+observed numbers among first born are about 185 and 265, second born
+165 and 190, and thereafter no definite relation. It remains to be
+seen whether a similar relation holds for the unusually able and
+valuable members of a family; something has been said on both sides
+here, but there are available at present no data sufficiently exact to
+be worthy of consideration.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Diagrams showing the relation
+    between order of birth and incidence of pathological defect.
+    (From Pearson).]
+
+We have here a result that has very important bearings upon the value
+to the race of the large family and of the danger of the small family.
+The small family of one, two, or three children contributes on the
+average much more than its share of pathological and defective
+persons. No matter just now what the causes are, they seem to be more
+or less beyond remedy. The result for the future, however, must be
+reckoned with. This relation has important bearings upon the custom of
+primogeniture as well as upon the eugenic values of the large family.
+
+In conclusion let us give a few sentences only slightly modified from
+Pearson's "Grammar of Science." The subject of differential fertility
+is not only vitally important for the theory of evolution, but it is
+crucial for the stability of civilized societies. If the type of
+maximum fertility is not identical with the type fittest to survive in
+a given environment, then only intensive selection can keep the
+community stable. If natural selection be suspended there results a
+progressive change; the most fertile, whoever they are, tend to
+multiply at an increasing rate. In our modern societies natural
+selection has been to some extent suspended; what test have we then of
+the identity of the most fertile and the most fit? It wants but very
+few generations to carry the type from the fit to the unfit. The
+aristocracy of the intellectual and artizan classes are not equally
+fertile with the mediocre and least valuable portions of those
+classes and of society as a whole. Hence if the professional and
+intellectual classes are to be maintained in due proportions they must
+be recruited from below. This is much more serious than would appear
+at first sight. The upper middle class is the backbone of a nation,
+supplying its thinkers, leaders, and organizers. This class is not a
+mushroom growth, but the result of a long process of selecting the
+abler and fitter members of society. The middle classes produce
+relatively to the working classes a vastly greater proportion of
+ability; _it is not want of education, it is the want of stock which
+is at the basis of this difference_. A healthy society would have its
+maximum of fertility in this class and recruit the artizan class from
+the middle class rather than _vice versa_. But what do we actually
+find? A growing decrease in the birth rate of the middle and upper
+classes; a strong movement for restraint of fertility, and limitation
+of the family, touching only the intellectual classes and the
+aristocracy of the hand workers! Restraint and limitation may be most
+social and at the same time most eugenic if they begin in the first
+place to check the fertility of the unfit; but if they start at the
+wrong end of society they are worse than useless, they are nationally
+disastrous in their effects. The dearth of ability at a time of crisis
+is the worst ill that can happen to a people. Sitting quietly at home,
+a nation may degenerate and collapse, simply because it has given full
+play to selective reproduction and not bred from its best. From the
+standpoint of the patriot, no less than from that of the evolutionist
+and Eugenist, differential fertility is momentous; we must
+unreservedly condemn all movements for restraint of fertility which do
+not discriminate between the fertility of the physically and mentally
+fit and that of the unfit. Our social instincts have reduced to a
+minimum the natural elimination of the socially dangerous elements;
+they must now lead us consciously to provide against the worst effects
+of differential fertility--a survival of the most fertile, when the
+most fertile are not the socially fittest.
+
+The subject before us illustrates the direct bearing of science upon
+moral conduct and upon statecraft. The scientific study of man is not
+merely a passive intellectual viewing of nature. It teaches us the art
+of living, of building up stable and dominant nations, and it is of no
+greater importance for the scientist in his laboratory, than for the
+statesman in council and the philanthropist in society.
+
+
+
+
+                                 III
+
+                HUMAN HEREDITY AND THE EUGENIC PROGRAM
+
+
+
+
+                                 III
+
+                HUMAN HEREDITY AND THE EUGENIC PROGRAM
+
+  "A breed whose proof is in time and deeds;
+  What we are, we are--nativity is answer enough to objections."
+
+
+A few years ago official recognition was taken of the disturbing fact
+that the annual wheat yield of Great Britain was grossly deficient in
+both quantity and quality. In 1900 The National Association of British
+and Irish Millers, with almost unprecedented sagacity, raised a fund
+to provide for a series of experiments under the direction of a
+competent biologist, in order to discover if possible some means of
+restoring the former yield and quality of the native wheats. The story
+of the result reads like a romance. The experimenter--Prof. R. H.
+Biffen--collected many different varieties of wheat, native and
+foreign, each of which had some desirable qualities, and studied their
+mode of inheritance. Now, after only a few years of experimentation a
+wheat has been produced and is being grown upon a large scale in
+which have been united this desirable character of one variety, that
+character of another. From each variety has been taken some valuable
+trait, and these have all been combined into one variety possessing
+the characteristics of a short full head, beardlessness, high gluten
+content, immunity to the devastating rust, a strong supporting straw,
+and a high yield per acre. A wheat made to order and fulfilling the
+"details and specifications" of the growers.
+
+Manitoba and British Columbia opened up whole new lands of the finest
+wheat-growing capacity, but the season there is too short for the
+ripening of what were the finest varieties. This new specification was
+promptly met and the early ripening quality of some inferior variety
+was transferred to the varieties showing other highly desirable
+qualities, and these countries are now producing enormous quantities
+of the finest wheat in the world.
+
+All of this has been made possible by the discovery, mentioned in the
+preceding chapter, that many characteristics of organisms are units
+and behave as such in heredity; they can be added to races or
+subtracted from them almost at will. Pure varieties breeding true can
+be established permanently by taking into account the Mendelian laws
+of heredity. Similar results have been accomplished in many other
+plants and in many animals. A cotton has been produced which combines
+early growth, by which it escapes the ravages of the boll weevil, with
+the long fiber of the finest Sea Island varieties. Corn of almost any
+desired percentage of sugar or starch, within limits, can be produced
+to order in a few seasons. The hornless character of certain varieties
+of cattle can be transferred to any chosen breed. Sheep have been
+produced combining the excellent mutton qualities of one breed with
+the hornlessness of another, and with the fine wool qualities of still
+a third. And so on from canary birds to draft horses. New races can be
+built up to meet almost any demand, with almost any desired
+combination of known characters, and these races remain stable.
+Possibilities in this direction seem to be limited only by our present
+and rapidly lessening ignorance of the facts of Mendelian heredity in
+organisms--facts to be had for the looking.
+
+What is man that we should not be mindful of him? Why should we
+utilize all this new knowledge, all these immense possibilities of
+control and of creation, only for our pigs and cabbages? In this era
+of conservation should not our profoundest concern be the conservation
+of human protoplasm? "The State has no material resources at all
+comparable with its citizens, and no hope of perpetuity except in the
+intelligence and integrity of its people." As Saleeby puts it: "There
+is no wealth but life; and if the inherent quality of life fails,
+neither battle-ships, nor libraries, nor symphonies, nor Free Trade,
+nor Tariff Reform, nor anything else will save a nation."
+
+In this work of the creation and establishment of new and valuable
+varieties, two essential biological facts are made use of. The raw
+materials are furnished by variation--by the fact that there are
+individual and racial differences. The means of accomplishing results
+are furnished by heredity--the fact that offspring resemble the
+parents, not only in generalities, but even in particulars, and
+according to certain definite formulas.
+
+And, further, in the formation and establishment of a new race of
+plant or animal a conscious and ideal process is involved. The will of
+some organism guides the process, carefully doing away with hit and
+miss methods, and proceeding as directly as may be possible to an end
+_desired_. The facts of variation and heredity are sufficiently
+demonstrated for all organisms other than man; are they true of man
+also? Have we available the possibilities for the improvement of the
+human breed? If not, Eugenics is merely an interesting speculation. We
+have mentioned already the facts of variation in man; we undoubtedly
+do have the raw materials. What about heredity, and what about the
+directive agency? Let us look now at some of the facts of human
+heredity and consider some of the possibilities in the way of
+directive agencies. Is it going to be possible to breed a stable human
+race permanently with or without definite characteristics which now
+appear only in certain groups, or sporadically as variations?
+
+At the outset we should say that the knowledge of human heredity is as
+yet largely of the statistical sort. We know how a great many
+characters are inherited, on the average. The subject of Mendelian
+heredity is so new that there has been hardly time to investigate more
+than a few human characteristics from this point of view. Certain
+conditions add to the difficulties here. First, many, probably most,
+of the more important human traits are complexes, not units, and it is
+a long and difficult process to analyze them into their units, with
+which alone Mendelism deals. Second, in human society we cannot carry
+on definite experiments under controlled conditions, directed toward
+the solution of some concrete problem in heredity. It is true that
+Nature herself is making such experiments constantly, but at random,
+and rarely under ideal conditions of what the experimenter calls
+control or check. We have first to seek and find them out, and when
+they are found we often discover that there are lacking many of the
+facts essential to a complete or satisfactory analysis of the facts
+displayed. The comparatively small size of the human family sometimes
+makes it difficult to get data sufficiently extensive to be really
+significant. And the long period that elapses between successive human
+generations adds to the difficulty of getting precise information, for
+in dealing with the heredity of some traits comparisons must be made
+with individuals of the same ages, and the period of observation of a
+single observer seldom exceeds the duration of a single generation.
+Yet in spite of all these difficulties we have a fairly broad and
+exact knowledge of human heredity in respect to some characteristics.
+
+Human heredity involves both physical and psychical characters--both
+the body and the mind are concerned. Among other animals little if
+anything is known regarding psychic inheritance, but the physical
+traits of men are inherited in just the same ways and to the same
+degrees as in animals. This degree or intensity of inheritance may be
+expressed in coefficients of heredity between the groups of relatives
+being compared. To mention a few examples of coefficients for physical
+traits we have the following:
+
+  CHARACTER OBSERVED         PARENTAL               FRATERNAL
+                            COEFFICIENT            COEFFICIENT
+  Stature                  .49-.51 }               .51-.55 }
+  Span                     .45     }               .55     }
+  Fore Arm                 .42     }  .47          .49     }  .53
+  Eye Color                .55     }               .52     }
+  Hair Color                                       .57     - Average
+  Hair Curliness                                   .52
+  Head Measurements-three                          .55     -    "
+  Cephalic Index (Ratio between breadth and
+    length of cranium)                             .49
+
+We might give many others, but it is unnecessary. Notice that these
+parental and fraternal coefficients group about an average value of
+about .50 or slightly less. Similar coefficients have been worked out
+for other degrees of relationship; thus grandparental coefficients are
+about .25.
+
+Stated briefly, in less exact terms, these coefficients mean that,
+with respect to such traits as deviate from the group average, the
+resemblance of brothers and sisters to each other or of children to
+their parents is, on the whole, approximately mid-way between being
+complete in its deviation from the average and in not deviating at all
+from the average in the direction of the fraternal or parental
+characteristic. Grandchildren tend to deviate from the group average
+only about one fourth as far as their grandparents. It should be
+remembered that these are statistical and not individual statements,
+and that as many "exceptions" will be found in the direction of
+greater resemblance as in that of lesser resemblance.
+
+One of the present objects of the student of heredity, perhaps his
+chief object, is to be able to state the facts of human heredity in
+Mendelian terms, reducing many of the complex human traits to their
+simpler elements. Some of the chief objections to the use of the
+statistical formula of heredity are that apparently it is applicable
+only to the fluctuating variabilities of organisms; that it rarely
+takes into account the presence of (and therefore the heredity of)
+true variations or mutations--and we have seen that it is just these
+characters that are of the greatest value in evolution; and that
+heredity is after all fundamentally an individual relation which loses
+much of its definiteness and significance when we merge the individual
+in with a crowd. To some these seem fatal objections to any use of the
+statistical formula and it is certainly true that they greatly limit
+its value. But for the present at least the statistical statement of
+certain facts of heredity is still useful in this bio-social field. We
+may therefore use the statistical formulas of heredity as a kind of
+temporary expedient, enabling us to make statements regarding
+inheritance of certain characters in the group or class, pending the
+time when we shall be able to give the facts a more precise and more
+"final" expression in Mendelian formulas. Many human traits are indeed
+already known to Mendelize. Most of these are, however, "abnormal"
+traits or pathological conditions; we are still in the dark regarding
+the actually Mendelian or non-Mendelian inheritance of most of man's
+normal characteristics. We might enumerate the following Mendelizing
+human characters--eye color, color blindness, hair color and
+curliness, albinism (absence of pigment), brachydactylism (two joints
+instead of three in fingers and toes), syndactylism (union of certain
+fingers and toes), polydactylism (one or more additional fingers or
+toes in each hand or foot), keratosis (unusually thick and horny
+skin), haemophilia (lack of clotting property in the blood),
+nightblindness (ability to see only in strong light--a retinal defect
+usually), certain forms of deaf mutism and cataract, imbecility,
+Huntington's chorea (a form of dementia).
+
+In observing Mendelian heredity we should bear in mind that a given
+character may be due either to the presence or to the absence of a
+"determiner" in the germ. Long hair such as is characteristic of many
+"Angora" varieties of the guinea pig and cat, for example, is believed
+to be due to the absence of a determiner which stops its growth. Blue
+eyes are due to the absence of a brown pigment determiner, _et
+cetera_. The presence or absence in the offspring of such characters
+as we know do Mendelize can be predicted when we know the parental
+history for two generations.
+
+Turning now to the inheritance of mental traits and including, of
+course, moral traits here as well, we find that we are almost entirely
+limited to the statistical statement of results. Pearson found upon
+examining data from a large number of school children, brothers and
+sisters, that the coefficients of heredity between them were the same
+as for their physical traits. His results are summarized in Figure 12.
+The physical traits measured were, in the order plotted in the
+figure--health, eye color, hair color, hair curliness, cephalic index
+(ratio between breadth and length of cranium), head length, head
+breadth, head height. These gave an average of .54 in brothers, .53 in
+sisters, and .51 in brothers and sisters. The psychical traits in
+order were--vivacity, assertiveness, introspection, popularity,
+conscientiousness, temper, ability, handwriting. The corresponding
+averages were .52, .51, .52.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 12.--Coefficients of heredity of physical
+    and psychical characters in school children. Characters
+    enumerated in text. (From Pearson.)]
+
+Galton's pioneer works on "Hereditary Genius," "English Men of
+Science," and "Natural Inheritance" showed with great clearness the
+fact of mental and moral heredity. Wood's recent extensive study of
+"Mental and Moral Heredity in Royalty" shows the same thing, although
+not all the results of these investigations are given in mathematical
+form. Little can be said regarding Mendelian heredity of mental traits
+because the psychologist has not yet told us how to analyze even the
+common and simpler psychic characters into their fundamental units;
+since we do not know what the mental hereditary units are, obviously
+we cannot work with them. Much of our knowledge in this field does not
+permit of very accurate summary, though pointing indisputably to the
+fact of mental inheritance in spite of the very great influences of
+training and education, environment and tradition, in moulding the
+mental and moral characteristics--influences with much greater effect
+here than in connection with physical characters.
+
+Galton studied the parentage of 207 Fellows of the Royal Society, a
+Fellowship which is a real mark of distinction. He assumed that one
+per cent of the individuals represented by the class from which his
+observations were drawn, that is the higher intellectual classes,
+might be expected to be "noteworthy": among the general population the
+average is really about one in 4,000 or one fortieth of one per cent.
+On the one per cent basis Galton found that Fellows of the Royal
+Society had noteworthy fathers with 24 times the frequency to be
+expected in the absence of heredity; noteworthy brothers with 31 times
+the expected frequency; noteworthy grandfathers 12 times; and so on
+through various grades of relationship.
+
+Schuster examined the class lists of Oxford covering a period of 92
+years and found that first honor men had 36 per cent first or second
+honor fathers; second honor men had 32 per cent first or second honor
+fathers; ordinary degree men 14 per cent first or second honor
+fathers. These percentages are far in excess of that to be
+expected--perhaps 0.5 per cent--on the assumption that ability is not
+inherited. Schuster also determined the coefficients of heredity
+between fathers and sons as regards intellectual ability, the evidence
+being class marks in Oxford and Harrow; these he found to be about .3
+for the parental relation and .4 for the fraternal. The intensity of
+heredity in many forms of insanity has been determined and this runs
+up much higher--.57 parental and .50 fraternal.
+
+It is clear I take it, that the fact of human heredity does not
+concern only physical traits but extends to psychical traits as well,
+and with about the same intensity. This fact has been found true also
+for still less analyzable characters such as length of life, fertility
+or infertility and the like, and again about the same intensity of
+resemblance is found.
+
+Human heredity is a fact then just as human variability is a fact. We
+have truly the raw materials and the means for racial improvement. The
+ability to direct the evolution of the human race makes this our
+supremest duty.
+
+The facts of human heredity can more easily be brought home to us by
+the examination of some actual pedigrees and family histories. We may
+look at a few representative cases which will serve to bring out some
+additional aspects of the significance to society of the demonstrated
+fact of heredity. In the examination of single family histories we
+should remember that a single pedigree may not accurately illustrate a
+general law of heredity--again, an individual case may belong to a
+group of cases without representing them fairly. Even in observing
+illustrations of Mendel's laws allowance has to be made for the
+variability due to "chance" meetings of germ cells. It is only when
+large numbers of individuals are observed that the typical Mendelian
+fractions and ratios can be strictly observed. It must be borne in
+mind then that the histories given below illustrate the nature of the
+facts of heredity rather than the laws of heredity. Some special
+cautions in the interpretation of certain pedigrees will be suggested
+in particular cases. Many of the figures are taken from the extremely
+valuable "Treasury of Human Inheritance," now being published by the
+Eugenics Laboratory of the University of London. In these figures and
+some others a uniform series of symbols is used. Successive horizontal
+lines designated by Roman numerals indicate generations; within a
+single generation the individuals are numbered consecutively simply
+for purposes of reference. The meaning of the more common symbols is
+as shown in Table IV. We may first consider a few pedigrees showing
+the heredity of physical abnormalities or defects.
+
+                              TABLE IV.
+
+  _Symbols used in Pedigrees. As adopted by the Galton Eugenics
+                             Laboratory._
+
+  [Symbol] Male and female respectively, not possessing the trait
+           under consideration.
+  [Symbol] Male and female possessing the trait under consideration.
+  [Symbol] Unknown sex--normal or affected.
+  [Symbol] Trait incompletely developed.
+  [Symbol] Neither presence nor absence of trait can be affirmed.
+  [Symbol] With a deformity or disease of special character which
+           may possibly be associated with that under consideration.
+  [Symbol] Twins.
+  [Symbol] Indicates number of children.
+  [Symbol] Marriage.
+  [Symbol] Number of children unknown.
+  [Symbol] Number and character of children unknown.
+  _S. P._  _Sine prole._ (No offspring.)
+
+Fig. 13 illustrates a family history where brachydactylism (an
+abnormality of the digits commonly called shortfingeredness, due to
+the lack of one joint in each digit) is present and frequently
+associated with dwarfism. We may describe this case rather fully
+because it illustrates nicely the heredity of a trait according to the
+Mendelian formula. The parentage of the affected female (II, 1) who
+started this line is uncertain. The marriage was with a normal male
+whose parentage is unknown but evidently normal. This pair produced 11
+children, the character of 8 of whom is known; 4 were affected, 4
+unaffected, a Mendelian ratio resulting from the mating of a normal
+with a hybrid individual, the observed character dominating (i. e.,
+the abnormality appearing in the hybrid individuals). According to
+Mendelian laws, the normal offspring of affected hybrids when mated
+with normals should produce all normal offspring; this result is shown
+clearly through generations IV-VI, where no affected individuals are
+produced by two normal parents, although one or two of the
+grandparents were affected. Marriage of a normal person with one
+affected parent is fit because this individual is wholly without
+germinal determiners for this character. Marriage between a normal and
+an affected person is unfit (or it would be if the observed character
+were a serious defect) because approximately one half their offspring
+will be affected like the one parent. Thus in IV, 7-21, we see 12
+children from one such marriage, 7 of whom are affected, 5 unaffected.
+All of the 11 children of the 5 unaffected are normal, while of the 16
+children of the affected persons, all of whom that married at all
+married normal individuals, 9 were affected, 7 unaffected. Similar
+relations are found in generation VI, where the 9 affected persons in
+V married normals, producing 33 children, 15 of whom were affected, 18
+unaffected. Taking all the offspring of marriages between unaffected
+and affected (hybrid) persons through the four generations III-VI, we
+find 35 affected and 33 unaffected, with the condition of 3 unknown.
+There is no instance in this pedigree of the marriage of two affected
+persons, but such a marriage would be highly unfit (again in the case
+of a serious defect) because we know that all their offspring would be
+affected. Mating of two unaffected persons, even though each had one
+affected parent, would be fit because the offspring would all be
+unaffected, barring the possibility of a new variation or mutation to
+this character, which would be extremely unlikely. Such a pedigree as
+this illustrates very well how a knowledge of Mendelian heredity may
+be of the greatest value practically, in determining the fitness or
+unfitness of marriages in families where an abnormality or defect is
+known to occur. The course of the inheritance here illustrates the
+simplest form of Mendelism. We have already indicated that there are
+many other forms which we have not described and which we cannot
+undertake to describe here on account of their complexity; in such
+cases, however, it is still possible to predict with fair accuracy
+the characters of the offspring of parents whose history is known for
+one or two generations.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 13.--Family history showing
+    brachydactylism. Farabee's data. (From "Treasury of Human
+    Inheritance.")]
+
+The defect we have just been considering is dominant. Many defects are
+recessive, i. e., transmitted though not exhibited by a hybrid
+individual. Viewed from the standpoint of the character of the
+offspring, mating with such a person would be unfit only when both
+persons were similarly recessives. Such a chance similarity would be
+likely only in cases of blood relationship. Here lies the scientific
+basis for many of the legal restrictions against cousin marriage or
+the marriage of closer relatives, for here, although both persons may
+appear normal, the chances for latent ills appearing in the progeny in
+a pure and permanently fixed condition are greatly increased. Of
+course the same relation holds for characteristics which are not
+defects but really valuable traits. Marriage of cousins possessing
+valuable characters, whether apparent or not, might be allowed or
+encouraged as a means of rendering permanent a rare and valuable
+family trait which might otherwise be much less likely to become an
+established characteristic. Some discrimination should be exercised
+in the control, legal or otherwise, of such marriages.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 14.--Family history showing
+    polydactylism. (From "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")]
+
+Fig. 14 gives a brief pedigree of a family in which polydactylism
+occurs. This is a condition in which one or more additional or
+supernumerary fingers or toes are present in the extremities. The
+Mendelian character of the heredity of this defect is less clear than
+in the preceding, yet there are many indications that this is really
+an illustration of a complex Mendelian formula. Probably if the
+parentage of the individuals marrying into this family were known we
+should be able to give a complete formula. At any rate the pedigree
+illustrates the unfit character of the matings with affected persons,
+for in no instance has such a marriage resulted in the production of
+fewer than one half affected offspring.
+
+Fig. 15 illustrates a form of what is known as "split hand" or
+"lobster claw," where certain digits may be absent in the hands and
+feet. In this case all the digits are absent except the fifth. This is
+frequently associated with syndactylism or the fusion of the remaining
+digits into one or two groups. When present this usually affects all
+four extremities. Two pedigrees of this defect are illustrated in Fig.
+16. Here again we have a defect whose inheritance follows quite
+closely the Mendelian formula, although the character of the matings
+is not fully known; it is unnecessary to describe the details--the
+histories speak for themselves.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 15.--Mother and two daughters showing
+    "split hand." (From Pearson.)]
+
+Fig. 17 illustrates a pedigree of congenital cataract. This history is
+less satisfactory because the matings are given in only three
+instances. It is known from other data that this defect follows simple
+Mendelian laws. Normal individuals produce only normals, while
+affected persons produce one half or all affected offspring according
+to the character of the mating.
+
+Fig. 18 illustrates the heredity of another defect of the eye called
+night blindness. This is a retinal defect, the affected being able to
+see only in strong illumination. The particular form of the disease in
+this family resulted in total blindness later in life. Little is known
+definitely concerning the character of the matings; no mating is known
+to have been with an affected person and some are known to have been
+with unaffected. Of the 42 descendants of the first affected person
+only 6 are known to have been unaffected. Can there be any doubt
+regarding the unfitness of these matings? In generation III a single
+mating led to a family of 10 children _all_ affected by this serious
+defect, rendering them dependents.
+
+One of the most complete pedigrees of a defect on record is given in
+condensed form in Fig. 19. This summarizes the extraordinarily
+complete data of Nettleship covering nine, and in one branch ten,
+consecutive generations. The defect is another form of night blindness
+as it existed in a French family. The inheritance is obviously
+Mendelian: no affected persons are produced by unaffected parents,
+although their own brothers or sisters or one parent may have been
+affected. The pedigree gives the history of 2,040 persons, all
+descended from one affected individual. Of these 135 were known to
+have been affected, and all were children of affected parentage. Of
+the total number of progeny of affected persons mated with normals,
+130 were reported as affected and 242 as unaffected.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Two family histories showing split
+    foot. (From "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")]
+
+We may consider next the hereditary history of some forms of nervous
+defect, the exact nature of the causes of which can be less definitely
+stated than in all of the preceding instances of defect. Fig. 20 gives
+a brief history of the heredity of Huntington's chorea--a form of
+insanity which here resulted in the death of all but one of the
+affected persons in the first four generations; the fifth generation
+is the present and is incomplete. Although the matings were with
+normals in every case, yet in four of the eight marriages all of the
+offspring were affected. From one affected male 23 affected persons
+descended in four generations and their multiplication is still going
+on. There can be no doubt as to the unfitness of marriage into such a
+family.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Family history showing a form of
+    night blindness. Character of matings incompletely known.
+    (Data from Bordley.)]
+
+A very complete family history showing deaf-mutism is given in Fig.
+21. It cannot be said that in every case here the defect is innate,
+i. e., hereditary, and it is not known that the cause of the defect
+was the same in every family concerned, for deaf-mutism may result
+from several different causes. In most cases in this history, however,
+the defect behaves like a Mendelian dominant. In certain other cases
+it is clearly known to follow the Mendelian formula. Such pedigrees
+as this show how dangerous it is to marry into a family in which this
+defect exists.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Family history showing a form of
+    night blindness. (Condensed form of Nettleship's data.)]
+
+Goddard has recently published several family histories showing
+feeble-mindedness. One of the most significant of these--significant
+both socially and eugenically--is summarized here in Fig. 22. Of this
+Goddard writes: "Here we have a feeble-minded woman [IV, 3] who has
+had three husbands (including one 'who was not her husband'), and the
+result has been nothing but feeble-minded children. The story may be
+told as follows:
+
+"This woman was a handsome girl, apparently having inherited some
+refinement from her mother, although her father was a feeble-minded,
+alcoholic brute. Somewhere about the age of seventeen or eighteen she
+went out to do housework in a family in one of the towns of this State
+[New Jersey]. She soon became the mother of an illegitimate child. It
+was born in an almshouse to which she fled after she had been
+discharged from the home where she had been at work. After this,
+charitably disposed people tried to do what they could for her, giving
+her a home for herself and her child in return for the work which she
+could do. However, she soon appeared in the same condition. An effort
+was then made to discover the father of this second child, and when he
+was found to be a drunken, feeble-minded epileptic living in the
+neighborhood, in order to save the legitimacy of the child, her
+friends [_sic_] saw to it that a marriage ceremony took place. Later
+another feeble-minded child was born to them. Then the whole family
+secured a home with an unmarried farmer in the neighborhood. They
+lived there together until another child was forthcoming which the
+husband refused to own. When, finally, the farmer acknowledged this
+child to be his, the same good friends [_sic_] interfered, went into
+the courts and procured a divorce from the husband, and had the woman
+married to the father of the expected fourth child. This proved to be
+feeble-minded, and they have had four other feeble-minded children,
+making eight in all, born of this woman. There have also been one
+child stillborn and one miscarriage.
+
+"As will be seen from the chart, this woman had four feeble-minded
+brothers and sisters [IV, 6, 10, 15, 16]. These are all married and
+have children. The older of the two sisters had a child by her own
+father, when she was thirteen years old. The child died at about six
+years of age. This woman has since married. The two brothers have each
+at least one child of whose mental condition nothing is known. The
+other sister married a feeble-minded man and had three children. Two
+of these are feeble-minded and the other died in infancy. There were
+six other brothers and sisters that died in infancy."
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Family history showing Huntington's
+    chorea. Last generation incomplete. (Data from Hamilton.)]
+
+The paternal ancestry of this unfortunate woman is hardly less
+interesting, as may be seen from the diagram. All told, this family
+history, as far as it is known, includes 59 persons; the mental
+character of 12 of these is unknown; 10 died in infancy or before
+their characteristics were known; of the remaining 37, 30 were
+feeble-minded.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Family history showing deaf-mutism.
+    (From "Treasury of Human Inheritance.")]
+
+Turning now to defects of other kinds, an interesting history is
+illustrated in Fig. 23. Here a single individual fatally affected with
+angio-neurotic oedema gave rise, in four completed generations, to
+113 persons, 43 of whom were affected. In 11 this disease was the
+direct cause of death. The Mendelian character of the heredity here
+can be neither asserted nor denied. In generations II-V matings
+between normal and affected gave 42 affected and 35 unaffected
+offspring.
+
+Fig. 24 gives a brief family history showing pulmonary tuberculosis.
+In the history given susceptibility to this disease behaves as a
+Mendelian dominant. We cannot as yet say whether this is or is not a
+general rule. In describing the heredity of diseases primarily due to
+infection, one or two important cautions must be observed. Of course
+the source of the infection cannot be "hereditary," and apparently it
+is only in comparatively few instances that infection occurs during
+fetal life. To some infections certain persons are susceptible, others
+are not; some when susceptible are capable of developing immunity,
+others are not. When an infection is of such character and prevalence
+that practically all persons in approximately similar environments of
+a given character are infected, susceptibility or the power of
+developing immunity will determine whether or not an individual will
+exhibit the disease caused by the infective agent. Practically all
+persons living in the denser communities are infected with
+tuberculosis; those who are susceptible and incapable of developing
+immunity succumb, the insusceptible and those developing immunity do
+not. These conditions are heritable; but in speaking of the heredity
+of such a disease as tuberculosis it should be clear that the heredity
+concerned is really that of susceptibility and the power of developing
+immunity. Yet the person who is really susceptible can, by taking
+sufficient precaution, escape serious infection, and thus the result
+for that person would be the same as if he were insusceptible, but his
+offspring would have to take similar precautions if they were to
+escape the disease.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 22. Family history showing
+    feeble-mindedness. Data from Goddard. _A_, alcoholic; _d.i._,
+    died in infancy; _E_, epileptic; _ill._, illegitimate; _in._,
+    incest; *, same individual as _III_, 6; _n.m._, not married;
+    _S_, sexual pervert; _T_, tuberculous.]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 23.--Family history showing
+    angio-neurotic oedema. (From "Treasury of Human
+    Inheritance.")]
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 24.--Family history showing tuberculosis.
+    (Data from Klebs, after Whetham in "Treasury of Human
+    Inheritance.")]
+
+We cannot speak of heredity in connection with diseases to which all
+are susceptible and incapable of developing immunity. The presence or
+absence of such a disease is determined solely by the presence or
+absence of infection. Many physical and mental defects result from
+infection as the primary cause. If the infection is one to which all
+exposed are susceptible and incapable of developing immunity we cannot
+speak of the defect as in any way hereditary; if the infection is one
+to which some are susceptible, others not, to which some can develop
+immunity, others cannot, then we may speak of the defect as
+hereditary. Thus certain forms of blindness or insanity are due
+primarily to gonorrheal or syphilitic infection, insusceptibility to
+which is rare or unknown. Such defects cannot be considered as
+affording evidence of heredity though they reappear in successive
+generations.
+
+In general the subject of the heredity of immunity and susceptibility
+forms one of the most important eugenic aspects of this whole subject.
+In a few cases it is known that immunity or insusceptibility to
+specific forms of infection is a unit character which follows
+Mendelian laws in heredity. It can be added to races or subtracted
+from them and pure bred immune races built up. So far this has not
+been demonstrated for man. There is some circumstantial evidence that
+immunity to specific forms of infection has been a great, although
+hitherto neglected, factor in man's evolution, and even in the history
+of his civilization and conquest. It is at once obvious that here is a
+great field for the common labor of the students of heredity and of
+medicine and of Eugenics.
+
+Fig. 25 illustrates a family history of infertility. This is
+apparently hereditary, but before that could be asserted definitely to
+be so here or in any similar case, we should know that the infertility
+were not the result of an infection to which immunity is rare or
+unknown. That infertility is really hereditary in this instance is
+indicated, first, by the fact that the person marked A later, by a
+second marriage into fertile stock, had a large family, and second, by
+the fact that the individual B and his child by marriage into fertile
+stocks produced in the last generation again a large family and so
+saved this whole family from extinction.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 25.--Family history showing infertility.
+    (From Whetham.)]
+
+Before leaving the subject of the heredity of the kinds of traits we
+have been using as illustrations, we should add just a word. It is
+often objected that one cannot properly speak of the heredity of such
+general things as "insanity" or "deaf-mutism" or "blindness" or "heart
+disease," because each of these includes a great variety of specific
+forms of these disorders which cannot strictly, medically, be
+compared. But the student of heredity replies that when he speaks of
+the heredity of insanity or heart disease, that is often just what
+he means. He means that often no particular form of these defects is
+necessarily strictly heritable as such, but that in a family there may
+be a general instability of nervous system or circulatory system,
+which may take any one of several possible specific forms, the form
+actually appearing depending upon particular conditions which are
+frequently environmental and beyond determination. In some cases
+specific forms of disorder are actually heritable as such.
+
+Such an inclusive thing as "ability" may depend upon many different
+specific conditions. Yet there are families in which persons of
+exceptional ability are unusually frequent. The fact that persons of
+ability are more frequent in certain families than in the general
+population of the same social class and with about the same
+opportunity for the demonstration of inherent ability, gives evidence
+of its heredity, although we may not be able to summarize the facts
+under any particular law but must adhere to their statistical
+expression.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 26.--Family history showing ability.
+    (From Whetham.)]
+
+Figs. 26 and 27 illustrate two such pedigrees of ability. In each of
+these histories there is also a line of "unsoundness" the descent of
+which it is interesting to trace. It is instructive to compare here
+the progeny of matings of different kinds. In generation IV of Fig.
+26, the 9th and 10th persons are brother and sister. The sister was of
+considerable ability and married into a family of ability, producing 8
+offspring, 5 of whom were able. The brother was a "normal" person and
+married a similar individual, producing 10 "normal" children. It would
+be interesting to know the details regarding these two large families
+of cousins. Another interesting comparison is found in this pedigree.
+The four able brothers in generation III, coming from a stock of
+demonstrated ability, married women of undemonstrated ability and all
+told had 13 children (IV) of whom only 3 showed ability and all of
+these were in a single family. In this family of the fourth brother
+two of the able members married into able families, and among their 11
+children (second and fifth families in generation V) 8 showed ability;
+the third able member of this family, however, married as her uncles
+had, a person not known as able, and none of their 6 children showed
+unusual ability (sixth family in generation V). Fig. 27 affords other
+illustrations of this same kind. Thus in generation III the 5th and
+7th persons are able cousins of able parentage. The former married a
+normal and 1 of their 5 children showed ability; the latter married a
+person of ability and 5 of their 8 children showed ability. In both
+pedigrees the "careers" of those in the last generation are partly
+incomplete.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 27.--Family history showing ability.
+    Paternal ancestry of family shown in Fig. 26. (From
+    Whetham.)]
+
+In discussing pedigrees of ability it should be borne in mind that the
+larger proportion of able males as compared with females is hardly
+significant for the study of heredity; it may merely reflect the
+unfortunate fact that women have not had the same opportunity to
+demonstrate inherent ability as have men; or it may evidence the still
+more unfortunate fact that the distinguished achievements of able
+women have not been socially recognized as such and recorded as they
+have been for the other sex.
+
+Fig. 28 gives an interesting, though abbreviated, pedigree of three
+very able and well-known families. In this history only persons whose
+ability is in science are marked as able. Charles Darwin is the third
+individual in the third generation. His cousin, Francis Galton, the
+founder of Eugenics, is the next to the last person in the same
+generation.
+
+Many similar cases of the unusual frequency of individuals of musical
+or religious ability in certain families have been published by Galton
+and are well known. "As long as ability marries ability, a large
+proportion of able offspring is a certainty, and ability is a more
+valuable heirloom in a family than mere material wealth, which,
+moreover, will follow ability sooner or later."
+
+We might contrast with such families as have been recorded in the
+three preceding figures some well-known families at the other pole of
+society. As an interesting example we have the family described by
+Poellmann. This was established by two daughters of a woman drunkard
+who in five or six generations produced all told 834 descendants. The
+histories of 709 of these are known. Of the 709, 107 were of
+illegitimate birth; 64 were inmates of almshouses; 162 were
+professional beggars; 164 were prostitutes and 17 procurers; 76 had
+served sentences in prison aggregating 116 years; 7 were condemned for
+murder. This family is still a fertile one and the cost to the State,
+i. e., the taxpayers, already a million and a quarter dollars, is
+still increasing.
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 28.--History (condensed and incomplete)
+    of three markedly able families. (From Whetham.)]
+
+One of the best known families of this type is the so-called "Jukes"
+family of New York State so carefully investigated by Dugdale. This
+family is traced from the five daughters of a lazy and irresponsible
+fisherman born in 1720. In five generations this family numbered about
+1,200 persons, including nearly 200 who married into it. The histories
+of 540 of these are well known and about 500 more are partly known.
+This family history was easier to follow than are some others because
+there was very little marriage with the foreign-born--"a distinctively
+American family." Of these 1,200 idle, ignorant, lewd, vicious,
+pauper, diseased, imbecile, insane, and criminal specimens of
+humanity, about 300 died in infancy. Of the remaining 900, 310 were
+professional paupers in almshouses a total of 2,300 years (at whose
+expense?); 440 were physically wrecked by their own diseased
+wickedness; more than half of the women were prostitutes; 130 were
+convicted criminals; 60 were habitual thieves; 7 were murderers. Not
+one had even a common school education. Only 20 learned a trade, and
+10 of these learned it in State prison! They have cost the State over
+a million and a quarter dollars, and the cost is still going on. Who
+pays this bill? What right had an intelligent and humane society to
+allow these poor unfortunates to be born into the kind of lives they
+had to lead, not by choice but by the disadvantage of birth? Darwin
+wrote long ago "... except in the case of man himself, hardly anyone
+is so ignorant as to allow his worst animals to breed."
+
+    [Illustration: FIG. 29.--History of _Die Familie Zero_.
+    (Condensed from Joerger's data, partly after Davenport.)]
+
+Probably the most complete family history of this kind ever worked out
+is that of the "Familie Zero"--a Swiss family whose pedigree has been
+recently unraveled in a splendid manner by Joerger. In the seventeenth
+century this family divided into three lines; two of these have ever
+since remained valued and highly respected families, while the third
+has descended to the depths. This third line was established by a
+man who was himself the result of two generations of intermarriage,
+the second tainted with insanity. He was of roving disposition, and in
+the Valla Fontana found an Italian vagrant wife of vicious character.
+Their son inherited fully his parental traits and himself married a
+member of a German vagabond family--Marcus, known to this day as a
+vagabond family. This marriage sealed the fate of their hundreds of
+descendants. This pair had seven children, all characterized by
+vagabondage, thievery, drunkenness, mental and physical defect, and
+immorality. Their history for the three succeeding generations is
+incompletely summarized in Fig. 29. In 1905, 190 members of this
+family were known to be living, and probably many living are unknown
+on account of illegitimate birth.
+
+In 1861 a sympathetic and charitable priest attempted to save from
+their obvious fate many of these "Zero" children and others who
+resided in and near his village, by placing them in industrious and
+respectable families to be reared under more favorable auspices. The
+attempt failed utterly, for every one of the "Zero" children either
+ran away or was enticed away by his relatives.
+
+The blame for such an atrocity as this family or the Jukes does not
+rest with these persons themselves; it must be placed squarely upon
+the shoulders and consciences of the intelligent members of society
+who have permitted these predetermined degenerates to be brought into
+the world, and who are to-day taking no broadly sympathetic view of
+their treatment by exercising preventive measures. _Laissez faire?_
+
+At the risk of easing the conscience, let us finally return to the
+other side of society and look at a summarized statement of the
+Edwards Family given by Boies and drawn from Winship's account of the
+descendants of Jonathan Edwards. "1,394 of his descendants were
+identified in 1900, of whom 295 were college graduates; 13 presidents
+of our greatest colleges; 65 professors in colleges, besides many
+principals of other important educational institutions; 60 physicians,
+many of whom were eminent; 100 and more clergymen, missionaries, or
+theological professors; 75 were officers in the army and navy; 60
+prominent authors and writers, by whom 135 books of merit were
+written and published and 18 important periodicals edited; 33 American
+States and several foreign countries, and 92 American cities and many
+foreign cities, have profited by the beneficent influence of their
+eminent activity; 100 and more were lawyers, of whom one was our most
+eminent professor of law; 30 were judges; 80 held public office, of
+whom one was Vice President of the United States; 3 were United States
+Senators; several were governors, members of Congress, framers of
+State constitutions, mayors of cities, and ministers to foreign
+courts; one was president of the Pacific Mail Steamship Company; 15
+railroads, many banks, insurance companies, and large industrial
+enterprises have been indebted to their management. Almost if not
+every department of social progress and of the public weal has felt
+the impulse of this healthy and long-lived family. It is not known
+that any one of them was ever convicted of crime."
+
+The serious consideration of bodies of facts like those contained in
+some of these pedigrees leads every thoughtful and sympathetic, every
+humanely minded, human being to ask--What _can_ we _do_ about it? The
+display of such conditions stimulates us to measures of relief. It is
+greatly to be regretted that the honest desire to do good often leads
+to the performance of ill-considered or unconsidered acts which may
+result in positive injury to the constitution of society, or at any
+rate at best merely in the amelioration of the immediate situation
+without reference to ultimate profit or penalty, or to the necessity
+for interminable amelioration. Such relief leaves out of account the
+fact that modifications are not heritable--not permanent, practically
+without effect in the long run. "Good intentions" have a certain
+well-known value as paving material, but not as building material.
+
+The science of Eugenics includes not only the study of the data in
+this field, but further the formulation of definite courses of
+procedure; but it insists that these be based upon scientific
+principles and not upon emotional states. Philanthropic relief has
+become a serious business--is becoming a science. Eugenics is a
+science and it aims to put the human race upon such a level that the
+need for philanthropic relief will be less and continually less. We
+shall then be able to devote more of the resources of our time and
+money and energy to the production of permanent results. The Eugenist
+pleads in this work for more sympathetic consideration of the problems
+of relief--for a sympathy which is wider, which transcends the
+individual person and reaches the social group, even the nation or
+race. For just as a society is something more than the sum of its
+individual parts when taken separately, so the consideration of all
+the component individuals of a society taken separately and by
+themselves, results in something less than social consideration. Again
+"Charity refers to the individual; Statesmanship to the nation;
+Eugenics cares for both."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+What, then, does the Eugenist propose to do? What is the eugenic
+program? Eugenics is not an academic matter--not an armchair science.
+It is intensely practical--so very practical, indeed, that the
+Eugenist hesitates to make many suggestions of a definite nature
+looking directly and immediately toward specific action. Something
+must precede action. The Eugenist has been ridiculed as one
+responsible for the absurd schemes proposed in his name, perhaps
+seriously, by the unscientific but well-intentioned sympathizer. Many
+persons have been led to object to what they believed to be a eugenic
+program which is not a eugenic program at all. Thus the willingness of
+some to offer adverse criticism of the subject and its aims has grown
+largely out of a common misconception of the matter and has led Galton
+to say, "As in most other cases of novel views, the wrongheadedness of
+objectors to Eugenics has been curious." As a scientist the Eugenist
+realizes clearly and fully that his new science is in a very early
+stage of its development. It is just entering upon what are the first
+stages in the history of any science, namely, the periods of the
+formulation of elementary ideas and the collection of facts. There are
+certain groups of facts, however, of glaring significance and
+undoubted meaning, and upon these as a basis the Eugenist already has
+a few, a very few, concrete suggestions for eugenic practice. In
+conclusion, then, we may outline tentatively and briefly a
+conservative eugenic program somewhat as follows:
+
+First of all there must be an extensive collection of exact data--of
+the facts regarding all the varied aspects of racial history and
+evolution. These facts must be collected with great care and under the
+strictest scientific conditions. In this matter particularly must we
+"desert verbal discussion for statistical facts." Figures can't lie,
+but liars can figure. What we need first of all is the accumulation of
+masses of cold, hard facts, uncolored by any point of view, untinged
+by any propaganda: facts regarding the net fertility of all classes;
+facts regarding the racial effects of all sorts of environmental and
+occupational conditions; facts regarding variability and variation in
+the race; facts regarding human heredity of normal and pathological
+conditions, of physical and psychical traits. We have merely scratched
+the surface of the great masses of such data to be had for the
+looking. As Davenport has recently put it in his valuable essay on
+"Eugenics"--
+
+"While the acquisition of new data is desirable, much can be done by
+studying the extant records of institutions. The amount of such data
+is enormous. They lie hidden in records of our numerous charity
+organizations, our 42 institutions for the feeble-minded, our 115
+schools and homes for the deaf and blind, our 350 hospitals for the
+insane, our 1,200 refuge homes, our 1,300 prisons, our 1,500 hospitals
+and our 2,500 almshouses. Our great insurance companies and our
+college gymnasiums have tens of thousands of records of the characters
+of human blood lines. These records should be studied, their
+hereditary data sifted out and ... placed in their proper relations"
+that we may learn of "the great strains of human protoplasm that are
+coursing through the country." Thus shall we learn "not only the
+method of heredity of human characteristics but we shall identify
+those lines which supply our families of great men: ... We shall also
+learn whence come our 300,000 insane and feeble-minded, our 160,000
+blind or deaf, the 2,000,000 that are annually cared for by our
+hospitals and Homes, our 80,000 prisoners and the thousands of
+criminals that are not in prison, and our 100,000 paupers in
+almshouses and out.
+
+"This three or four per cent of our population is a fearful drag on
+our civilization. Shall we as an intelligent people, proud of our
+control of nature in other respects, do nothing but vote more taxes or
+be satisfied with the great gifts and bequests that philanthropists
+have made for the support of the delinquent, defective, and dependent
+classes? Shall we not rather take the steps that scientific study
+dictates as necessary to dry up the springs that feed the torrent of
+defective and degenerate protoplasm?
+
+"Greater tasks than those contemplated in the broadest scheme of the
+Eugenics committee have been carried out in this country. If only one
+half of one per cent of the 30 million dollars annually spent on
+hospitals, 20 millions on insane asylums, 20 millions for almshouses,
+13 millions on prisons, and 5 millions on the feeble-minded, deaf and
+blind were spent on the study of the bad germ plasm that makes
+necessary the annual expenditure of nearly 100 millions in the care of
+its produce we might hope to learn just how it is being reproduced and
+the best way to diminish its further spread. A _new_ plague that
+rendered four per cent of our population, chiefly at the most
+productive age, not only incompetent, but a burden costing 100
+million dollars yearly to support, would instantly attract universal
+attention, and millions would be forthcoming for its study as they
+have been for the study of cancer. But we have become so used to
+crime, disease and degeneracy that we take them as necessary evils.
+That they were, in the world's ignorance, is granted. That they must
+remain so, is denied."
+
+Of course one should not jump from this to the conclusion that the
+fact of heredity is responsible for all of this defect. Disease is so
+often the result of infections to which none is immune, and defect is
+frequently the result of such disease. Warbasse has recently stated
+that "At least one fourth of our public institutions for caring for
+defectives is made necessary by venereal disease." Doubtless an
+appreciable share of this fourth is the result of hereditary
+tendencies, the expression of which gives the opportunity for such
+infection. Here as elsewhere no single factor accounts for all of the
+facts, although when, as the result of the increase of knowledge, we
+shall become able to make more definite statements, we no doubt shall
+find that heredity is the most important single factor in the
+disgraceful prevalence of crime, disease, and defect in our
+communities: indeed this is practically demonstrated to-day. These are
+questions of the most fundamental importance in our national
+life-history: our only "hope of perpetuity" lies in the right solution
+of such problems. And the crying need is for facts, always more facts.
+
+The Galton Laboratory for Eugenics is already doing much in this
+direction and is publishing in the "Treasury of Human Inheritance"
+scores of human pedigrees. An agency is already in operation in this
+country. The American Breeders Association has appointed a Committee
+and Sub-Committees under highly competent leaders for the collection
+of exact data of human heredity upon a large scale. There is
+opportunity for everyone to help in this work in connection with the
+Eugenics Record Office already referred to.
+
+The second great element in the eugenic program is Research. It is not
+enough to collect the known facts; new facts must be forthcoming. We
+cannot, perhaps, undertake definite experiments upon human evolution,
+but we can and must take advantage of the wealth of experiment which
+Nature is carrying out around us and before our eyes could we but
+learn to read her results. We need to know more about the process of
+differential fertility, of human variability, of the effects of
+Nurture as well as of the conditions of Nature.
+
+We do know pretty well the effects, upon the individual, of training,
+education, good and ill housing conditions and conditions of labor, of
+disease, alcoholism, underfeeding. We need now to know, not to guess
+at, the effects of these things upon the race, upon human stock. A
+mere beginning has been made here in the way of a scientific treatment
+of this question, although many persons have their minds already made
+up, firmly and fully, as to the "effects of the environment." But all
+that we have guessed here may be wrong.
+
+The discussion of this subject is filled with pitfalls. The common
+form of the query as to which is of the greater importance, "heredity
+or environment," in determining individual characteristics betrays a
+completely erroneous view of what heredity is, and of the organism's
+relation to its environment. The living organism reacts to its
+environment at every stage of its existence, whether as an egg, an
+embryo, or an adult. In this reaction both factors are essential, the
+environment as essential as the organism. The result of this continued
+reaction is the development on the part of the organism of certain
+physiological processes and structural conditions or characteristics.
+The nature of these resulting states, depending upon the two
+factors--organism and environment--can be changed by altering either
+factor. In general, organisms develop under pretty much the same
+conditions as their parents and general ancestry did, and their
+germinal substances are directly continuous, and therefore very
+similar. Consequently, primary organic structure and environing
+conditions of development being alike through successive generations,
+the results of their interaction are alike. This alikeness is
+heredity--the fact of similarity between parent and offspring. The
+usually indefinite question as to the effect of the environment
+ordinarily has a real meaning however, and this is, or should be,
+whether the alteration of particular elements of the environment, the
+presence of special, unusual factors which cannot be said to be
+"normally" present--whether these produce any effect upon the organism
+which is truly heritable.
+
+This is in reality the old question of the "inheritance of acquired
+characteristics," or, in a word, of modifications--a question which
+has been debated heatedly and at length. And as in many similar
+instances the number of essays and the length and heat of the debate
+have been inversely as the number and clearness of the pertinent
+facts. The large majority of biologists have long felt that the great
+bulk of the evidence was on one side, namely, that acquired traits
+were not heritable. At the same time they have recognized the
+difficulty of explaining certain apparently demonstrated contradictory
+facts. Some recent experimental work has largely cleared away the
+theoretical difficulties in this field, and the present status of the
+old and really fundamental question may be stated as follows: External
+conditions--climate, temperature, moisture, nutritional conditions,
+results of unusual activity, and the like--incidences of the
+environment, undoubtedly produce effects upon the structure and
+behavior of the organism, but these effects must be clearly grouped
+into two distinct classes.
+
+In the first place the effect of "external" conditions may be to bring
+about a reaction between the _bodily_ parts affected and the
+environing conditions. Here the body alone is modified and not the
+germinal substance for the next generation within this body. Such
+responses to environing conditions do not affect nor involve the
+structure of the germ, and are therefore unrepresented in that series
+of reactions that result in the production of an individual of the
+next generation. In this class are found most of the instances of
+"functional modification" or acquired characteristics. In this
+category belong most of the stock illustrations--from the blacksmith's
+arm and the pianist's fingers, to the giraffe's neck and the fox's
+cunning. Here also belong the results of training and education; we
+can train and educate brain cells but not germ cells.
+
+It is characteristic of most of these bodily reactions to external
+conditions that they are adaptive; that is, when a body reacts to
+such a condition it does so by undergoing a change which makes the
+organism better fitted to the new condition--better able to exist. The
+increased keenness of vision, the strengthened muscle, the thickened
+fur--all such changes meet new or unusual demands in such a way that
+the organism has better chances of survival than it would have had
+unmodified.
+
+But in the second place there are certain environmental circumstances
+which do affect the structure of the germinal substance within the
+body of an organism. An unusually high temperature acting at a certain
+period in the life-history may bring about a change in the color of
+insects which is heritable--i. e., racial; but such a change results
+from the action of temperature upon the germ directly and not alone
+upon the body, which then itself affects the germ. It is essential to
+recognize that in all such cases it is not the structural change in
+the body that affects the germ, but it is the external condition
+itself that affects the germ directly. This is not the half of a hair;
+it is an extremely important and significant difference. The effects
+of this kind of action are not visible until the generation following
+that acted upon. They become expressed in the bodies of the organisms
+developed from the affected germs.
+
+It is characteristic of such changes as these that they may not,
+usually do not, have an adaptive relation to the condition bringing
+about the change. There is no correspondence between the bodily and
+the germinal modifications resulting from the action of the same
+condition. Furthermore, there seems to be no adaptive relation between
+the general character of the germinal disturbance and the
+environmental disturbance. Rarely some of the organismal characters
+resulting from such germinal modification may be in the direction of
+greater adaptedness; usually they are neutral or in the direction of
+utter unfitness.
+
+But such effects are heritable, whatever their nature with respect to
+adaptedness, and it becomes therefore very important to find out what
+are the conditions that may thus disturb the normal structure of the
+germ. Little more than a beginning has been made here and practically
+nothing can be said definitely with reference to the human organism
+in this respect. Enough is known, however, to make it clear that it is
+only rarely indeed that external conditions can thus affect the
+germinal structure. In most cases the effects of the incidence of
+environment are purely bodily. A most fruitful field for eugenic
+investigation is open here.
+
+One of the first problems to be attacked from this point of view is
+that of the racial (i. e., heritable) effects of such poisons as
+alcohol. It is frequently said, for instance, that some of the effects
+of alcoholism are the weakened, epileptic, or feeble-minded conditions
+of the offspring, who are also particularly liable to disease and
+infection. It can hardly be said that this is as yet thoroughly
+demonstrated. On account of the importance of this question we might
+call specific attention to some recent investigations of the problem
+of the racial influence of alcohol. The effects of alcohol upon the
+individual are fairly well known, although still a matter for debate
+in some quarters. But this is not as important eugenically as the
+possible effect upon the offspring of the use and abuse of alcohol by
+the parents. An investigation has been carried on recently through
+the Galton Laboratory for National Eugenics directed toward
+ascertaining the precise relation between alcoholism in parents and
+the height, weight, general health, and intelligence of their
+children. It was found to be perfectly true that alcoholism and
+tuberculosis show a high degree of association; but considering the
+nondrinking members of the same community just the same high frequency
+of tuberculosis was found. And the presence of alcoholism among
+parents was found to be practically without effect upon the height and
+weight of their offspring. "These results are certainly startling and
+rather upset one's preconceived ideas, but it is perhaps a consolation
+that to the obvious and visible miseries of the children arising from
+drink, lowered intelligence and physique are not added."
+
+The difficulties surrounding investigation and the interpretation of
+the results of investigation in this particular field are evidenced by
+the fact that these results have been adversely criticised, on the one
+hand, because "alcoholism" was taken to mean the continued moderate
+use of alcohol, and on the other because "alcoholism" was taken to
+mean only the occasional excessive abuse of alcohol. Much of the
+confusion surrounding the discussion of the racial effects of alcohol
+grows out of the underlying confusion of statistical and individual
+statements. It may be left open, then, whether this result from the
+Galton Laboratory is clearly demonstrated and whether the basis of
+investigation was sufficiently broad to make the facts of general
+applicability.
+
+The frequent association between alcoholism and certain forms of
+insanity is sometimes taken as evidence of a racial effect. Here again
+we find the question really left open when we appeal to facts taken in
+large numbers. In a few cases it seems to have been demonstrated that
+saturation of the bodily tissues with alcohol affects directly the
+structure of the germ cells formed at that time, and that this effect
+is seen in physical and mental disturbances of the offspring derived
+from such germ cells, and thus becomes hereditary or racial. But these
+results, like those mentioned above, need confirmation. The impairment
+of the child _in utero_ through maternal overindulgence in alcohol
+would not necessarily denote any corresponding germinal (i. e.,
+racial) effect.
+
+It is often the case that alcoholic excess, like other forms of
+excess, may be an indication of a lack of complete mental balance or
+sanity, sure to have become expressed in some form. The lack of
+balance in the offspring of such persons is a simple case of heredity
+and not the result of the parental use of alcohol. The alcoholism of
+the parent was a result, an indication, and not a cause. There may be
+instances of the direct action of external conditions upon the germ,
+and in a very true sense the body is a part of the external
+environment of the germ, but to say that such an action has been
+demonstrated for alcohol is premature. It should be easily possible to
+get real evidence upon this and similar questions. But at present it
+is safest to leave the whole question of the racial effects of alcohol
+entirely open pending more and better evidence.
+
+To summarize, then, we may say that the evidence for an inherited
+effect of the misuse of alcohol is not as clear as one might wish; it
+may be true. There is the greatest need for the careful scientific
+investigation of this and allied problems. Much of the evidence here
+is not of the kind that can be used to prove things--it consists
+largely of the demonstration of the fact of association rather than of
+causation. In order to show that a changed environment has produced a
+change in the innate characters of the organisms affected it must be
+demonstrated that the organismal change continues to be inherited
+after the environment has again become what it was originally, and as
+yet this has not been done. Indeed when tested in this way it is found
+that a permanently heritable alteration can thus be produced only
+rarely and by environmental changes of the most profound character.
+
+Research in another direction is greatly needed. We should examine and
+reexamine current as well as proposed social practices and reforms
+from the racial point of view. We should know before going much
+farther whether the extensive social improvements that are annually
+effected are to any considerable degree racially permanent. We should
+investigate not only the racial effects of the unfavorable social
+conditions themselves, but also the racial effects of the measures
+directed toward the relief of such conditions. It is conceivable that
+measures of relief may be practically without permanent effect or even
+racially detrimental. It would seem that the social worker and
+philanthropist should welcome any biologically fundamental truths
+touching these questions, and yet it is curiously true that there are
+some such persons who seem to prefer not to know the whole truth here,
+perhaps because they fear it may disclose the unwelcome fact that much
+of their effort has resulted in amelioration rather than in
+correction. It should be remembered that simple relief is well worth
+while, even though often without resulting racial benefit. When it is
+not actually detrimental racially, relief is an economic, social, and
+moral duty. The Eugenist, by disclosing the fact that racial effects
+can actually be accomplished, enlarges rather than diminishes the
+opportunities for relief and his knowledge should be welcomed and use
+made of it.
+
+Heretofore the social point of view has been practically the only
+point of view in much of this work, and the result is that usually
+following when action is based upon half-truth. David Starr Jordan
+says: "Charity creates the misery she tries to relieve; she never
+relieves half the misery she creates," and he goes on to say that
+_unwise_ charity is responsible for half the pauperism of the world;
+that it is the duty of charity to remove the _causes_ of weakness and
+suffering and equally to see that weakness and suffering are not
+needlessly perpetuated. In this connection the following quotation
+from Elderton is apt: "... the influence of the parental environmental
+factor on the welfare of children is ... at present and has been in
+the past the chief direction of legislative and philanthropic attack
+on social evils. Degeneracy of every form has been attributed to
+poverty, bad housing, unhealthy trades, drinking, industrial
+occupation of women, and other direct or indirect environmental
+influences on offspring. If we could by education, by legislation, or
+by social effort change the environmental conditions, would the race
+at once rise to a markedly higher standard of physique and mentality?
+Much, if not the whole battle for social reform, has been based on the
+assumption that this question was obviously to be answered in the
+affirmative. No direct investigation has really ever been made of the
+intensity of the influence of environment on man. To modify the
+obviously repellent was the immediate instinct of the more gently
+nurtured and controlling social class. Was this direction of social
+reform really capable of effecting any substantial change? Nay, by
+lessening the selective death rate, may it not have contributed to
+emphasizing the very evils it was intended to lessen? These are the
+problems which occur to the eugenist and call for investigation and,
+if possible, settlement.... It is conceivable that the relation
+between children's physique, for example, and parental occupation is
+an indirect result of the inheritance of physique and a correlation
+between parents' physique and their occupation. In other words, what
+we are attributing to environment may be a secondary influence of
+heredity itself. A weakling may have no option but to follow an
+unhealthy trade, a man is a tailor or shoemaker, because he has not
+the physique for smith or navvy. His offspring may be physically
+inferior because he is a weakling and not because he follows an
+unhealthy trade. Clearly, to solve our problem, we must know if there
+be any correlation between the same character in the parent as we are
+observing in the child and the environment we are correlating with the
+child's character. Unfortunately data enabling us to determine the
+relationship of any mental or physical character of the parent with
+the environment which is supposed to influence the child is rarely
+forthcoming."
+
+Just to suggest one further train of thought, we might point out that
+several movements apparently of high social value have been attended
+by a curious and largely unforeseen back action. Thus the enforcement
+of certain forms of Employer's Liability laws has led to
+discrimination against married persons by large employers of labor and
+a premium thus put upon nonmarriage. The result of Child Labor
+legislation has been in some cases an enormous rise in the death rate
+of young children among the classes concerned, indicating that the
+children receive less care, now that they have ceased to be a
+prospective family asset and have become chiefly a burden for many
+years. In other cases the result has been so serious a limitation in
+the birth rate that communities are dying out and factories are
+closing for want of sufficient help. Such problems are not only social
+but economic and eugenic, and they cannot be seen squarely from any
+single point of view. It is doubtless shocking to the cultured mind
+that the chief reason for bringing children into the world should be
+their economic value as contributors to the family income. But in
+reality does this point of view differ fundamentally from that very
+commonly taken of the value of a large family except in the nature of
+the standard by which their value is measured? May there not be a
+difference of opinion as to whether children are better or worse off
+when brought up with some degree of care to be employed under humane
+conditions of labor, than when left uncared for to die in large
+proportions of disease and neglect?
+
+Finally, studies in heredity, whether on man or on other animals or on
+plants, are sure to be of value here because we know that the
+fundamental processes of heredity are the same in all organisms. Above
+all, the Eugenist needs to know more of Mendelian heredity in man.
+The facts of heredity stated in the statistical form of averages and
+coefficients do not affect the man in the street materially--he rather
+enjoys taking chances. An extensive eugenic practice can be
+established only when we can say definitely what the individual or
+family inheritance will be in a given instance--not what it will be
+with such and such a degree of probability, although that probability
+be high. We may not be such a long way off from this ideal, which is
+an essential for the inauguration of eugenic practice upon a large
+scale. For the Eugenist this is the richest field for investigation
+and one which is certain to yield large results.
+
+The Eugenist's demand for more facts will doubtless become an
+important factor in the progress of biological science. The practical
+application of the knowledge of heredity in the production of
+domesticated or cultivated varieties of animals and plants is becoming
+annually more extensive; and with the recognition of the possibility
+of the application of this knowledge to the control of the evolution
+of man himself, will come a rapid increase in biological knowledge
+and in the earnestness of the student of heredity. And at the same
+time another result may be that the science of biology shall come to
+be appraised publicly more nearly at its real value. The biological
+worker knows that his science comes into contact with human life at
+every point, that a knowledge of the fundamental principles of the
+science of life cannot fail to enrich, enlighten, and ennoble the life
+of every human being. But the community does not yet realize this, to
+its own great loss. Is it not possible that the Eugenist, finding his
+fundamentals in biology, by emphasizing the facts of the possibility
+and the necessity of controlling human evolution, may be able to bring
+to society a vital sense of the importance of this science with a
+directness and a vividness which the bacteriologist and hygienist have
+not been able thus far to realize? Is it even too much to hope that
+the idea that the "humanities" include only the study of man's
+comparatively recent past, may now more rapidly give place to a
+broader conception which shall include not only the whole of man's
+past, but the study of his future as well? Could any ideal be more
+vitally, more profoundly human or more worthy of study and devotion,
+than this of the production of a race of men, clean and sound in mind
+and body? Be that as it may, the development of this bio-social field
+can scarcely fail to stimulate strongly the treatment of all social
+problems with a strictly scientific method. Nothing less than exact
+methods, and results exactly stated, will satisfy the genuine and
+really valuable social student of the near future. As one recent
+writer has feelingly put it: "We have had essays enough."
+
+Eugenic practice for the immediate future is the third part of our
+program. Must we wait until more data are collected, more facts
+uncovered, before we undertake any definite proposals for eugenic
+procedure? Although this is the most difficult aspect of the subject,
+largely through lack of a sufficiently broad fact-basis, yet we are
+certainly in possession of enough information to make plain a few
+necessary steps. Most of the concrete proposals directed toward the
+reduction of the undesirables and the increase of the desirables have
+been visionary, impractical, or too limited in their view-point.
+Above all, they have been open to the objection that they have gone
+too far in the direction of that zone which separates the two classes.
+It should be said again that most of these proposals have been those
+of the amateur enthusiast, not of the seriously scientific Eugenist;
+they have grown out of that common habit of "getting far from the
+facts and philosophizing about them."
+
+As Pearson points out, we must start from three fundamental biological
+ideas. First, "That the relative weight of nature and nurture must not
+_a priori_ be assumed but must be scientifically measured; and thus
+far our experience is that nature dominates nurture, and that
+inheritance is more vital than environment." Second, "That there
+exists no demonstrable inheritance of acquired characters. Environment
+modifies the bodily characters of the existing generation, but does
+not [often] modify the germ plasms from which the next generation
+springs. At most, environment can provide a selection of which germ
+plasms among the many provided shall be potential and which shall
+remain latent." Third, "That all human qualities are inherited in a
+marked and probably equal degree." "If these ideas represent the
+substantial truth, you will see how the whole function of the eugenist
+is theoretically simplified. He cannot hope by nurture and by
+education to create new germinal types. He can only hope by selective
+environment to obtain the types most conducive to racial welfare and
+to national progress. If we see this point clearly and grasp it to the
+full, what a flood of light it sheds on half the schemes for the
+amelioration of the people.... The widely prevalent notion that
+bettered environment and improved education mean a _progressive_
+evolution of humanity is found to be without any satisfactory
+scientific basis. Improved conditions of life mean better health for
+the existing population; greater educational facilities mean greater
+capacity for finding and using existing ability; they do not connote
+that the next generation will be either physically or mentally better
+than its parents. Selection of parentage is the sole effective process
+known to science by which a race can continuously progress. The rise
+and fall of nations are in truth summed up in the maintenance or
+cessation of that process of selection. Where the battle is to the
+capable and thrifty, where the dull and idle have no chance to
+propagate their kind, there the nation will progress, even if the land
+be sterile, the environment unfriendly and educational facilities
+small."
+
+As a concrete example of a most commendable eugenic practice we should
+mention the sterilization of certain classes of criminal and insane as
+it is now practiced in the States of Indiana and Connecticut. For the
+last four years (since March, 1907) the laws of Indiana have permitted
+the performance of the operation of vasectomy upon "confirmed
+criminals, idiots, rapists, and imbeciles" after rigid scrutiny of all
+the mental and physical conditions of the individual case and upon the
+concurrent judgment of three competent and impartial persons. The
+title and significant parts of the text of this law are as follows:
+
+    _An Act_, entitled, An Act to prevent procreation of
+    confirmed criminals, idiots, imbeciles, and
+    rapists--providing that superintendents, or boards of
+    managers, of institutions where such persons are confined
+    shall have the authority, and are empowered to appoint a
+    committee of experts, consisting of two physicians, to
+    examine into the mental condition of such inmates.
+
+    _Whereas_, Heredity plays a most important part in the
+    transmission of crime, idiocy, and imbecility;
+
+    _Therefore_, Be it enacted by the General Assembly of the
+    State of Indiana, That on and after the passage of this act
+    it shall be compulsory for each and every institution in the
+    State, entrusted with the care of confirmed criminals,
+    idiots, rapists, and imbeciles, to appoint upon its staff, in
+    addition to the regular institutional physician, two (2)
+    skilled surgeons of recognized ability, whose duty it shall
+    be, in conjunction with the chief physician of the
+    institution, to examine the mental and physical condition of
+    such inmates as are recommended by the institutional
+    physician and board of managers. If, in the judgment of this
+    committee of experts and the board of managers, procreation
+    is inadvisable, and there is no probability of improvement of
+    the mental and physical condition of the inmate, it shall be
+    lawful for the surgeons to perform such operation for the
+    prevention of procreation as shall be decided safest and most
+    effective. But this operation shall not be performed except
+    in cases that have been pronounced unimprovable: Provided,
+    That in no case shall the consultation fee be more than three
+    (3) dollars to each expert, to be paid out of the funds
+    appropriated for the maintenance of such institution.
+
+This operation of vasectomy, sometimes known as "Rentoul's operation,"
+consists, in the male, in the removal of a small portion of each sperm
+duct; the individual is thus rendered sterile in a completely
+effective and permanent way. At the same time there are none of the
+harmful effects, either physical or mental, such as usually follow the
+better known forms of sterilization which are in reality
+asexualization rather than sterilization. Vasectomy is a simple
+"office" operation occupying only a few minutes and requiring at the
+most the application of only a local anaesthetic, such as cocaine; and
+there are no disturbing nor even inconvenient after effects. In the
+female the corresponding operation of ooephorotomy consists in removing
+a small portion of each Fallopian tube. In Indiana nearly a thousand
+persons have already been successfully treated, many upon their own
+request--a circumstance entirely unforeseen. Similar laws have been
+passed in Oregon and Connecticut, and are being carefully considered
+in several other States.
+
+In order that the exact nature of such proposals may be better known
+generally we may give here also the text of the Connecticut law which
+is somewhat more inclusive and more flexible than that of Indiana. The
+Connecticut Statute, enacted in August, 1909, is as follows:
+
+    _An Act_, concerning operations for the Prevention of
+    Procreation.--Be it enacted by the Senate and House of
+    Representatives in General Assembly convened:
+
+    _Section 1._ The directors of the State prison and the
+    superintendents of State hospitals for the insane at
+    Middletown and Norwich are hereby authorized and directed to
+    appoint for each of said institutions, respectively, two
+    skilled surgeons, who, in conjunction with the physician or
+    surgeon in charge at each of said institutions, shall examine
+    such persons as are reported to them by the warden,
+    superintendent, or the physician or surgeon in charge, to be
+    persons by whom procreation would be inadvisable.
+
+    Such board shall examine the physical and mental condition of
+    such persons, and their record and family history so far as
+    the same can be ascertained, and if in the judgment of the
+    majority of said board, procreation by any such person would
+    produce children with an inherited tendency to crime,
+    insanity, feeble-mindedness, idiocy, or imbecility, and there
+    is no probability that the condition of any such person so
+    examined will improve to such an extent as to render
+    procreation by such person advisable, or, if the physical and
+    mental condition of any such person will be substantially
+    improved thereby, then the said board shall appoint one of
+    its members to perform the operation of vasectomy or
+    ooephorectomy, as the case may be, upon such person. Such
+    operation shall be performed in a safe and humane manner, and
+    the board making such examination, and the surgeon performing
+    such operation, shall receive from the State such
+    compensation, for services rendered, as the warden of the
+    State prison or the superintendent of either of such
+    hospitals shall deem reasonable.
+
+    _Section 2._ Except as authorized by this Act, every person
+    who shall perform, encourage, assist in, or otherwise promote
+    the performance of either of the operations described in
+    Section 1 of this Act, for the purpose of destroying the
+    power to procreate the human species; or any person who shall
+    knowingly permit either of such operations to be performed
+    upon such person--unless the same be a medical
+    necessity--shall be fined not more than one thousand dollars,
+    or imprisoned in the State prison not more than five years,
+    or both.
+
+These States are to be commended in the highest possible terms for
+their enlightened action in this direction. Who can say how many
+families of Jukes and Zeros have already been inhibited by this simple
+and humane means? "Could such a law be enforced in the whole United
+States, less than four generations would eliminate nine tenths of the
+crime, insanity and sickness of the present generation in our land.
+Asylums, prisons and hospitals would decrease, and the problems of the
+unemployed, the indigent old, and the hopelessly degenerate would
+cease to trouble civilization."
+
+And yet probably for years to come those mental states and conditions
+of servitude graciously termed "conservatism" will continue to insure
+an undiminished horde of these unfortunates. The situation here is
+interestingly analogous to that in connection with certain of the
+infectious diseases. Concerning the eradication of typhoid fever, to
+mention a single concrete example, competent authorities declare that
+we now possess all of the information necessary to make typhoid fever
+as obsolete in civilized communities as is cholera or smallpox. "The
+average third-year medical student knows enough about typhoid fever to
+be able to stamp it out if he were endowed with absolute power."
+"Typhoid fever has passed beyond the catalogue of diseases; it is a
+crime." Our knowledge of the causes of many of the conditions leading
+to gross physical and mental defect and criminality has progressed
+already to such a point that we could if we would eradicate them in
+large proportion from our civilization. The great horde of defectives,
+once in the world, have the right to live and to enjoy as best they
+may whatever freedom is compatible with the lives and freedom of the
+other members of society. They have not the right to produce and
+reproduce more of their kind for a too generous and too blindly
+"charitable" society to contend against. The greater crime consists
+in allowing the hereditary criminal to be born.
+
+A well-known British alienist, Tredgold, after pointing out that the
+duty of medical science is to fight and relieve disease in every shape
+and form, adds: "That if social science does not keep pace with
+medical science in this matter the end will be national disaster. In
+other words, I would lay it down as a general principle that as soon
+as a nation reaches that stage of civilization in which medical
+knowledge and humanitarian sentiment operate to prolong the existence
+of the unfit, then it becomes imperative upon that nation to devise
+such social laws as will insure that these unfit do not propagate
+their kind.
+
+"For, mark you, it is not as if these degenerates mated solely amongst
+themselves. Were that so, it is possible that, even in spite of the
+physician, the accumulated morbidity would become so powerful as to
+work out its own salvation by bringing about the sterility and
+extinction of its victims. The danger lies in the fact that these
+degenerates mate with the _healthy_ members of the community and
+thereby constantly drag fresh blood into the vortex of disease and
+lower the general vigour of the nation."
+
+Such a practice as vasectomy then represents nicely the eugenic aim of
+allowing the individual, who is himself never to be blamed for his
+hereditary constitution, the greatest possible personal freedom and
+liberty, of allowing full play of sympathy for the individual, and at
+the same time of exercising the greatest sympathy to society in
+prohibiting the hereditary criminal from procreating a long line of
+descendants endowed as badly as he himself was through no fault of his
+own, but through the gross neglect of society.
+
+Another quotation from Pearson: "To-day we feed our criminals up, and
+we feed up our insane, we let both out of the prison or asylum
+'reformed' or 'cured,' as the case may be, only after a few months to
+return to State supervision, leaving behind them the germs of a new
+generation of deteriorants. The average number of crimes due to the
+convicts in his Majesty's prisons to-day is ten apiece. We cannot
+reform the criminal, nor cure the insane from the standpoint of
+heredity; the taint varies not with their mental or moral conduct.
+These are the products of the somatic cells; the disease lies deeper
+in their germinal constitution. Education for the criminal, fresh air
+for the tuberculous, rest and food for the neurotic--these are
+excellent, they may bring control, sound lungs, and sanity to the
+individual; but they will not save the offspring from the need of like
+treatment, nor from the danger of collapse when the time of strain
+comes. They cannot make a nation sound in mind and body, they merely
+screen degeneracy behind a throng of arrested degenerates. Our highly
+developed human sympathy will no longer allow us to watch the State
+purify itself by the aid of crude natural selection. We see pain and
+suffering only to relieve it, without inquiry as to the moral
+character of the sufferer or as to his national or racial value. And
+this is right--no man is responsible for his own being; and nature and
+nurture, over which he had no control, have made him the being he is,
+good or evil. But here science steps in, crying: Let the reprieve be
+accepted, but next remind the social conscience of its duty to the
+race ... let there be no heritage if you would build up and preserve a
+virile and efficient people. Here, I hold, we reach the kernel of the
+truth which the science of eugenics has at present revealed."
+
+It is also a part of eugenic practice to oppose vigorously and
+unmistakably any social practice leading to the reduction in the
+reproductivity of the desirable and valuable elements of society.
+There is to be included here for censure a long list of customs and
+practices, from the enforced celibacy of the Church to the horror of
+horrors--warfare. A moment's reflection will suggest many
+reprehensible practices of this kind more or less current in certain
+classes or communities. The requirement of nonmarriage on the part of
+women teachers--persons of tested and demonstrated ability, is a very
+general practice of decidedly noneugenic character. In Great Britain
+more than 75,000 nurses, all of whom must have passed physical
+examination, are cut off from reproduction by the same requirement of
+nonmarriage. Many less striking but all too common practices have the
+final effect of forbidding marriage to the healthy, physically or
+mentally capable, helpful, classes. "Help wanted. Must be
+unencumbered."
+
+More vigorously and more unmistakably does the Eugenist discourage
+anything that leads to matings of the unfit and, above all, to their
+reproduction. Many countries, from Servia to the Argentine Republic,
+have statutes forbidding the marriage of the insane, idiots, deaf and
+dumb, certain classes of criminals, and persons afflicted with certain
+contagious diseases. It is to be hoped that these laws are enforced
+with greater effectiveness than that with which our own less stringent
+laws of similar character are administered. After all, it is the
+reproduction of these persons that should be limited, and among many
+of these classes the fact of nonmarriage would provide not the
+slightest barrier to reproduction.
+
+It is unfortunately true, but true none the less, that there are
+current forms of so-called philanthropy which, by relieving defective
+parents of the care of their defective offspring, thus encourage them
+in the production of more defective offspring; and so the flames are
+fed. Relief is the smallest part of the problem. Any condition which
+leads to the multiplication of the innately defective and dependent
+classes must be sternly opposed. No matter how benign the guise of any
+form of relief or charity, if it encourages or permits even indirectly
+the free reproduction of these classes, it must be resolutely opposed
+and soon abandoned. "It is not enough to preach with horror and
+indignation against normal parents who restrict their families. Equal
+reprobation should be the lot of those who, with inherited insanity,
+feeble-mindedness, or disease, bring children into the world to
+perpetuate their infirmities. It should not be overlooked that the
+realization of the power of limiting the birth rate, while it has
+produced untold harm, when applied blindly and in accordance with
+individual caprice, may become an instrument for good if it extends to
+the worst stocks, while the better stocks once more undertake their
+natural duties."
+
+Practical Eugenics need not be limited to its philanthropic and
+legislative aspects. There are other social mechanisms which could be
+used to encourage the multiplication of the fitter, abler families.
+In Munich, under the enlightened leadership of Dr. Alfred Ploetz, a
+society for the study and promotion of social and racial hygiene
+(Internationale Gesellschaft fuer Rassen-Hygiene) has made a most
+excellent and significant beginning. This society is doing much not
+only to collect data and investigate scientifically problems within
+its field, but also to spread widely the facts of racial integrity.
+Its members agree, among other things, to undergo thorough medical
+examination prior to marriage as to their fitness for that state and
+agree to abstain from marriage, or at least from parenthood, if found
+to be unfit.
+
+Much can be done by suggestion and suasion regarding the choice of
+mates and the rearing of large families. When one touches upon this
+subject he is pretty likely to be met with the objection that the
+selection of mates is so largely an impulsive, emotional affair that
+it is quite beyond control. "Marriages," they say, "are made in
+heaven." But when we consider the number that can scarcely be said to
+be completed there the statement seems open to some question. As a
+matter of fact, it is perfectly clear, as Galton, Ellis, and others
+have shown, that all peoples, from the Kaffir and the Dyak to the
+Hindu and the modern European or American, are surrounded with
+restrictions in marriage often of the greatest stringency. And yet,
+since these are matters of established social custom, even of
+religious observance, we submit almost without knowing it.
+
+That results can be really accomplished in this direction and by this
+method is clearly shown by the history of the Jewish people, and by
+the Roman Catholics, among whom there are distinctly fewer divorces
+and childless marriages than among Protestants. In many countries and
+communities the organized Church still exercises an immense influence
+over the whole subject of marriage: the Church could easily become a
+powerful factor in eugenic practice. Such a control can and should be
+given eugenic direction by the establishment of a more discriminative
+attitude, looking toward a reduction in the reproductivity of the
+dependent or defective as well as to the increased reproductivity of
+the valuable and able. In all of the discussion of "race suicide" and
+the value to the State of the large family, how seldom do we hear any
+mention of quality! To plan the organization and conduct of a State
+without regulating and controlling the quality of its membership is
+like adopting plans and elevations for a costly building without
+making any specifications as to materials.
+
+In concrete eugenic practice it seems probable that most can be
+accomplished for the present by striving to limit the multiplication
+of the undesirable, dependent, or dangerous elements of the social
+group. There can be less uncertainty here. The social organization has
+already marked certain kinds of individuals as unfit and unworthy,
+whose liberty must be limited in many directions for the social
+welfare. This aspect of the matter can be put upon a dollars and cents
+basis very clearly, and this is apparently the only relation that
+affects a good many people. Why should the able and worthy and thrifty
+members of society be compelled to pay, as they are in this country
+alone, $100,000,000 annually, not to mention the vast sums voluntarily
+contributed toward "charitable" purposes, for the support of the
+criminal and pauper and defective classes who themselves contribute
+nothing of value and whose very existence is evidence of criminal
+disregard of the right of every individual to be well born, into a
+healthy and sane life? The only answer, if it be an answer,
+is--because the competent are willing to foot the bill. Millions for
+tribute but not one cent for defense. And yet a penny's worth of
+defense outweighs a million's worth of cure.
+
+In the practice of Eugenics the greatest caution must be exercised.
+All eugenic practice must be tested by the most careful and
+scrutinizing scientific methods. Mendelian heredity gives a different
+answer from Job's to his own query: "Who can bring a clean thing out
+of an unclean?" It also makes clear how it may often happen that it
+needs but three generations to go from Fifth Avenue to the Bowery, and
+back again. Many so-called criminals may be anachronisms, some only
+modificationally bad. But there are many cases, many practices,
+regarding which there can be no doubt: the Eugenist says, treat these,
+and let the doubtful cases alone until as a result of the increase of
+knowledge there is no doubt. And while it is easy to say that we
+_believe_ the criminal or the insane are the products of a wrong
+environment, it is also easy to say that we believe they are not. What
+the Eugenist demands is _knowledge_, then belief, and action based
+thereon.
+
+Finally, the eugenic program calls for the spread of the facts, far
+and wide, through all classes of society. Bring forcibly before the
+people the facts of human heredity. Teach them to understand the force
+of the eugenic ideal of good breeding. "The prevalent opinion that
+almost anybody is good enough to marry is chiefly due to the fact that
+in this case, cause and effect, marriage and the feebleness of
+offspring, are so distant from each other that the near-sighted eye
+does not distinctly perceive the connection between them." By
+education we must produce first of all a thoughtfulness in the
+community regarding the racial responsibilities of marriage and
+reproduction. Human beings are frequently rational creatures; placing
+before them clear and truthful ideas regarding fit and unfit matings
+cannot fail of an ultimate effect. "The virtue of repetition, the
+summation of suggestion, which sells pills and pickles, which makes
+Free Trade or Tariff Reform a national issue, this force operating as
+a slight but persistent influence when linked to eugenic proposals
+will in a few years' time make these proposals a living force to the
+common man." By talking and teaching, in season and out, the community
+will be compelled to think on these things; they will be forced into
+the public conscience and the pressure of public opinion will rise for
+the eugenic and against the noneugenic ideals of mating and the
+rearing of families. And the rest will come in due season and more
+effective and permanent results will follow than are likely to come
+from any amount of premature legislation. As Galton writes: "The
+enlightenment of the individual is a necessary preamble to practical
+Eugenics, but social opinion by praise or blame constantly influences
+individual conduct." "Public opinion is commonly far in advance of
+private morality, because society as a whole keenly appreciates acts
+that tend to its advantage, and condemns those that do not. It
+applauds acts of heroism that perhaps not one of the applauders would
+be disposed to emulate." "The first and main point is to secure the
+general intellectual acceptance of Eugenics as a hopeful and most
+important study. Then let its principles work into the heart of the
+nation, who will gradually give practical effect to them in ways that
+we may not wholly foresee."
+
+In this educational part of the eugenic program, and particularly in
+the encouragement of research directed toward the solution of eugenic
+problems and the establishment of eugenic practices, there lies one of
+the greatest opportunities ever opened to the philanthropist. The
+genuine philanthropist is he who would at this moment make possible
+the rapid solution of many of the still baffling problems of human
+heredity and who would help to spread and teach the gospel of true
+racial integrity. But while it has been easy to interest
+philanthropists in the relief of social disorders, few can be
+interested in the causes at work which make the necessity for relief
+seem so imperative.
+
+The patient unraveler of the Jukes family history has said, "I am
+informed that $28,000 was raised in two days to purchase a rare
+collection of antique jewelry and bronze recently discovered in
+classic ground forty feet below the _debris_. I do not hear of
+as many pence being offered to fathom the _debris_ of our
+civilization--however rich the yield!" Possibly one reason for this
+neglect or omission has heretofore been the lack of evidence that real
+results could be accomplished in this field. Now that it is so obvious
+that we have a real foundation of fact from which to work we may
+expect soon some degree of recognition of the supreme importance of
+the need for investigation in subjects allied to Eugenics, and of
+devotion to eugenic aims.
+
+"Whether or no the importance of the issues at stake comes to be
+recognized fully by the nation at large, individuals and families have
+it in their power to act on the knowledge they have acquired.... When
+once more the importance of good birth comes to be recognized in a new
+sense, ... it will be understood to be more important to marry into a
+family with a good hereditary record of physical, mental, and moral
+qualities than it ever has been considered to be allied to one with
+sixteen quarterings." "Families in which good and noble qualities of
+mind and body have become hereditary form a natural aristocracy, and,
+if such families take pride in recording their pedigrees, marry among
+themselves, and establish a predominant fertility, they can assure
+success and position to the majority of their descendants in any
+political future. They can become the guardians and trustees of a
+sound inborn heritage, which, incorruptible and undefiled, they can
+preserve in purity and vigour throughout whatever period of ignorance
+and decay may be in store for the nation at large. Neglect to hand on
+undimmed the priceless germinal qualities which such families possess,
+can be regarded only as the betrayal of a sacred trust....
+
+"We look, then, for a day in the near future, when, in some circles at
+any rate, a comparison of scientific pedigrees will replace, or at all
+events precede, the discussion of settlements in the preliminaries to
+a marriage; when birth and good-breeding (in its wide sense),
+character and ability will be the qualities most prized in the choice
+of mates; when a bad ancestral strain likely to reappear in
+succeeding generations will suppress an incipient passion as
+effectually as it is now cured by a deficiency of education or a
+superfluity of accent." (Whetham.)
+
+As matters are at present it is all too often the case that marriage
+is _followed_ by the disclosure or discovery of a family history of
+sterility, or criminality, or insanity. In a truly enlightened society
+the failure to make known such conditions in the antecedents to a
+marriage will be regarded as evidence of the greatest moral obliquity,
+if not of criminal misdemeanor.
+
+The wise and honored founder of Eugenics looks forward to the
+inclusion of eugenic ideals as a factor in religion. "Eugenics,"
+Galton writes, "strengthens the sense of social duty in so many
+important particulars that the conclusions derived from its study
+ought to find a welcome home in every tolerant religion." "Eugenic
+belief extends the function of philanthropy to future generations; it
+renders its action more pervading than hitherto, by dealing with
+families and societies in their entirety; and it enforces the
+importance of the marriage covenant, by directing serious attention to
+the probable quality of the future offspring. It strongly forbids all
+forms of sentimental charity that are harmful to the race, while it
+eagerly seeks opportunity for acts of personal kindness as some
+equivalent to the loss of what it forbids. It brings the tie of
+kinship into prominence, and strongly encourages love and interest in
+family and race. In brief, eugenics is a virile creed, full of
+hopefulness, and appealing to many of the noblest feelings of our
+nature."
+
+And Whetham adds: "Hitherto the development of our race has been
+unconscious, and we have been allowed no responsibility for its right
+course. Now, in the fulness of time ... we are treated as children no
+more, and the conscious fashioning of the human race is given into our
+hands. Let us put away childish things, stand up with open eyes, and
+face our responsibilities."
+
+
+
+
+                                INDEX
+
+
+
+
+                                INDEX
+
+
+  Ability, heredity of, 146, 147.
+    heredity and pedigrees of, 176-181.
+
+  Acquired characteristics, relation of, to heredity, 199-207.
+
+  Adaptedness, 200-202.
+
+  Albinism, and order of birth, 125, 126.
+    heredity of, 142.
+
+  Alcoholism, heritable effects of, 203-207.
+
+  American Breeders' Association, 15, 196.
+
+  Andalusian fowl, heredity of color in, 81-83.
+
+  Angio-neurotic oedema, pedigree of, 168, 170.
+
+  Aristotle, 18.
+
+
+  Bagatelle board, to illustrate variability, 58-60.
+
+  Bateson, William, 81, 100.
+
+  Bentley, Madison, quoted, 19.
+
+  Biffen, R. H., 133.
+
+  Biology, and Sociology, 8, 35-45.
+    eugenic applications of, 38-40, 49 _et seq._
+
+  Biometric Laboratory, 14.
+
+  Bio-Sociology, 8.
+
+  Birth rate, and social status, 116-123.
+    decreasing, in England, 122.
+
+  Boies, abstract of Winship's data of Edwards family, 187, 188.
+
+  Booth, classification of London population, 70.
+
+  Brachydactylism, heredity of, 142.
+    pedigree of, 150-153.
+
+
+  Cataract, heredity of, 143.
+    pedigree of, 157, 159.
+
+  Cephalic index, heredity of, 140, 144.
+
+  Chance, law of, 56-58.
+
+  Child labor laws, effect of, 211, 212.
+
+  Chorea, Huntington's, heredity of, 143.
+    pedigree of, 160, 165.
+
+  Church, influence and opportunities of, 231.
+
+  Civic worth, variability of, 70.
+
+  Coefficient of correlation, 110, 111.
+
+  Coefficient of correlation
+    between birth rate and  social status, 117.
+    positive and negative, 111-113.
+    significance of, 111.
+
+  Coefficient of heredity, 109.
+    human, 140.
+
+  Coefficient of variability, 62, 63.
+    human, 69.
+
+  Color blindness, heredity of, 142.
+
+  Connecticut, vasectomy statute of, 220-222.
+
+  Conservation of human protoplasm, 136.
+
+  Correlation, 103, 104.
+    coefficient of, 110, 111.
+    social status and birth rate, 116-123.
+
+  Cousin marriage, regulation of, 154, 155.
+
+  Criminality, and order of birth, 125, 126.
+    increase in, 29.
+
+
+  Darwin, pedigree of, 181, 183.
+    quoted, 6, 184.
+
+  Data, need for and collection of, 192.
+
+  Davenport, quoted, 192-195.
+
+  Deaf, United States census of, 34.
+
+  Deaf and dumb, United States census of, 34.
+
+  Deaf-mutism, heredity of, 143.
+
+  Deaf-mutism, pedigree of, 160, 167.
+
+  Defect, and order of birth, 123-126.
+
+  Defectives, number of, in Great Britain, 31.
+    United States census of, 34.
+
+  Dependents, United States census of, 34.
+
+  Determiners, absence of, 143.
+    in germ, 54.
+    in Mendelian heredity, 88-95.
+
+  Development of the individual, 51.
+    as a form of reaction, 52, 53.
+
+  _Die Familie Zero_, 184-187.
+
+  Differential fertility, 113-121.
+
+  Dominance, in Mendelian heredity, 84.
+    irregular and incomplete, 87.
+
+  Dominant characteristics, 85.
+
+  Drapers' Company, 14.
+
+  Dugdale, account of "Jukes" family, 182-184.
+    quoted, 236, 237.
+
+
+  Education, 20, 71.
+    heritable effects of, 200.
+
+  Edwards, Jonathan, descendants of, 187, 188.
+
+  Elderton, quoted, 209-211.
+
+  Employer's liability laws, effects of, 211.
+
+  England, falling birth rate in, 122.
+    number of defectives in, 31, 32.
+
+  Environment, effects of, 197-207.
+
+  Eugenics, aims of, 5, 42-45, 114, 123.
+    as a factor in religion, 239, 240.
+    definition of, 3.
+    encouragement of ideals of, 234-240.
+    history of, 10-13.
+    objections to, 191.
+    practice of, 215-234.
+    program of, 189-240.
+
+  Eugenics Committee of American Breeders' Association, 15, 196.
+
+  Eugenics Education Society, 14.
+
+  Eugenics Laboratory, 14.
+
+  Eugenics Record Office, 15.
+
+  _Eugenics Review_, 14.
+
+  External conditions, effects of, 199-203.
+
+  Eye color, heredity of, 140, 142, 143.
+
+
+  Fabian Society, 122.
+
+  _Familie Zero_, 184-187.
+
+  Family histories. _See_ Pedigrees.
+
+  Feeble-minded, in Great Britain, 32.
+    in United States, 34.
+
+  Feeble-mindedness, pedigree of, 162-169.
+
+  Fellows of the Royal Society, mental heredity in, 145, 146.
+
+  Fertility, and social status, 116-123.
+    differential (selective), 113, 121.
+    in normal and pathological stocks, 115.
+    of various classes, 120, 121.
+
+  Fluctuation, 56.
+
+  Forearm, heredity in length of, 140.
+
+  Fowl, color heredity in Andalusian, 81-83.
+
+  Functional modification, non-inheritance of, 199-207.
+
+
+  Galton, Sir Francis, illustrations of variability, 58, 63.
+    in history of Eugenics, 9-13.
+    on mental heredity, 144-146.
+    pedigree of, 181-183.
+    quoted, 5, 44, 45, 236, 239, 240.
+
+  Gametic coupling, 100.
+
+  Germ, relation of, to adult structure, 50.
+
+  Germ cells, relation of, to Mendel's law, 88-94.
+
+  Goddard, account of feeble-minded family, 162-169.
+
+  Great Britain, number of defectives, etc., 31, 32.
+
+  Greece, 9, 10.
+
+  Guinea-pig, heredity of color in, 84-87.
+
+
+  Haemophilia, heredity of, 143.
+
+  Hair color and curliness, heredity of, 140, 142.
+
+  Harrow, mental heredity in students of, 147.
+
+  Head measurements, heredity of, 140.
+
+  Heredity, coefficient of, 109, 140.
+    definition of, 77.
+    human, 137-188.
+    Mendelian formula of, 80-102.
+      in human traits, 142.
+    need for studies in, 212, 213.
+    of acquired characters (modifications), 199-207.
+    psychic characters, 143-147.
+    relation of, to Eugenics, 78, 79.
+    statistical formula of, 80, 102-113.
+
+  Heron, David,
+    birth rate, and net fertility of social classes, 116, 119-121.
+
+  Homicides, number of, in United States, 30.
+
+  Huntington's chorea, heredity of, 143.
+    pedigree of, 160, 165.
+
+
+  Idiots, statistics of, 32.
+
+  Imbeciles, statistics of, 32.
+
+  Imbecility, heredity of, 143.
+
+  Immunity, relation of, to heredity of disease, 168-173.
+
+  Index of variability, 62.
+
+  Indiana, vasectomy statute of, 218, 219.
+
+  Infection, heredity of, diseases and defects due to, 168-173.
+
+  Infertility, pedigree of, 174, 175.
+
+  Inheritance. _See_ Heredity.
+
+  Insane, statistics of, 31-34.
+
+  Insanity, and order of birth, 124-126.
+    associated with alcoholism, 205, 206.
+
+  _Internationale Gesellschaft fuer Rassen-Hygiene_, 230.
+
+
+  Jennings, 66.
+
+  Johannsen, 66.
+
+  Jordan, David Starr, quoted, 209.
+
+  Joerger, _Die Familie Zero_, 184-187.
+
+  "Jukes" family, 182-184.
+
+
+  Keratosis, heredity of, 142.
+
+
+  Lankester, Sir E. Ray, "Kingdom of Man," 21-24.
+    quoted, 7.
+
+  _L'Elite_, 10.
+
+  Lobster claw, heredity of, 155.
+    pedigree of, 155, 157.
+
+  London, number of children in, 122.
+    university of, 14.
+
+
+  Man's place in Nature, 6, 7.
+
+  Marriage, antecedents to, 238, 239.
+    restrictions in, 228-232.
+
+  Mediocrity, 61.
+
+  Mendel, Gregor, 83, 84.
+
+  Mendelian formula of heredity, 80-102.
+
+  Mendelism and eugenic practice, 97, 233.
+
+  Mendel's law, and unit characters, 95-99.
+    characteristics inherited according to, 98, 99.
+      human, 142, 143.
+    complications of, 100.
+    present limitations of, 100-102.
+
+  Mental ability, pedigrees of, 176-181.
+
+  Mental defect, heredity of, 147, 160, 165, 162-169.
+
+  Mental traits, heredity of, 143-147.
+
+  Models, illustrating variability and variation, 59, 63-64.
+
+  Murders, number of, 30.
+
+  Mutation, 63-66.
+
+
+  National Association of British and Irish Millers, 133.
+
+  Natural selection, 21-23, 45.
+
+  Nettleship, pedigree of night blindness, 158-163.
+
+  Night blindness, heredity of, 143.
+    pedigrees of, 157, 158, 161, 163.
+
+  Normal frequency curve, 56-60.
+
+  Nurture, 17, 76.
+
+
+  Oedema, pedigree of angio-neurotic, 168-170.
+
+  Ohio Institution for the Feeble-Minded, superintendent quoted, 33.
+
+  Oneida community, 10.
+
+  Ontogeny, 51.
+
+  Ooephorectomy (ooephorotomy), 218-222.
+
+  Order of birth and pathological defect, 123-126.
+
+  Oxford, mental heredity in graduates of, 146, 147.
+
+
+  Paupers, United States census of, 34.
+
+  Pearson, Karl, 14, 27, 36.
+    heredity in school children, 143, 144.
+    quoted, 127-130, 216-218, 225-227.
+
+  Pedigrees of ability, 176-181.
+
+  Pedigrees of angio-neurotic oedema, 168, 170.
+    of brachydactylism, 150-153.
+    of cataract, 157, 159.
+    of deaf-mutism, 160, 167.
+    of feeble-mindedness, 162-169.
+    of Huntington's chorea, 160, 165.
+    of infertility, 174, 175.
+    of lobster claw or split hand, 155-157.
+    of night blindness, 157-163.
+    of polydactylism, 155, 156.
+    of tuberculosis, 168-171.
+
+  Plato, 3, 9.
+
+  Ploetz, Dr. Alfred, 230.
+
+  Poellman, family described by, 181.
+
+  Polydactylism, heredity of, 142.
+    pedigree of, 155, 156.
+
+  Population, of Europe and North America, 25, 26.
+
+  Practice of Eugenics, 192-240.
+
+  Prisoners, number of, in United States, 29, 30.
+
+  Probability, law of, 56-59.
+
+  Pure bred, 97.
+
+  Pure line, 67, 72.
+
+
+  Recessive characteristics, 85.
+
+  Regression, 105-108.
+
+  Regression line, 106, 107.
+
+  Rentoul, statistics of defectives, 31.
+
+  Rentoul's operation, 218-222.
+
+  Research, in the eugenic program, and need for, 196-215.
+
+  Restrictions in marriage, 154, 155, 230, 231.
+
+  Royal Society, mental heredity in Fellows of, 145, 146.
+
+
+  School children, heredity in, 143, 144.
+
+  Schuster, on mental heredity, 146, 147.
+
+  Scottish Commission, statistics of insane, 31.
+
+  Selective fertility, 113-122.
+
+  Sex limited heredity, 100.
+
+  Size of family, 114, 115.
+    and relative proportion of defectives, 126.
+
+  Social practices, investigation of, 207-212.
+    opposed to Eugenics, 227, 228.
+
+  Social status, and birth rate, 116-123.
+
+  Social variation, 75.
+
+  Society for social and racial hygiene (Munich), 230.
+
+  Sociological Society, 12.
+
+  Sociology, aims of, 35, 42.
+    and Biology, 8, 35-45.
+
+  Span, heredity of, 140.
+
+  Species, relation of, to pure line, 66.
+
+  Split hand. _See_ Lobster claw.
+
+  Sports, 65.
+
+  Standard deviation, 62.
+
+  Statistical formula of heredity, 80, 81, 102-113.
+
+  Stature, heredity of, 140.
+    of mothers, 56, 57.
+
+  Sterilization, eugenic value of, 222-225.
+    statutes permitting, 218-223.
+
+  "Studies in National Deterioration," 14.
+
+  Symbols used in pedigrees, 149.
+
+  Syndactylism, heredity of, 142.
+
+
+  Theognis, 3.
+
+  Thomson, 40.
+
+  "Treasury of Human Inheritance," 196.
+    symbols used by, 148-150.
+
+  Tredgold, quoted, 224, 225.
+
+  Tuberculosis, and order of birth, 124, 125.
+    associated with alcoholism, 204.
+    pedigree of pulmonary, 168, 171.
+
+  Typhoid fever, eradication of, 223.
+
+
+  Unit characters, 53.
+    list of, 98, 99.
+
+  Unit characters, relation of, to Mendel's law, 95-99.
+
+  United States Census Reports, statistics of defectives, etc., 28-34.
+
+  University of London, 14.
+
+
+  Variability, 56-63.
+    measure (coefficient) of, 61-63.
+    of human traits, 69, 70.
+
+  Variation, 55-70.
+    and modification, 75.
+    application of, in Eugenics, 70-77.
+    distinguished from variability, 63, 64.
+
+  Vasectomy, 218-225.
+    Connecticut statute permitting, 220-222.
+    Indiana statute permitting, 218, 219.
+
+
+  Wallace, Alfred Russell, 6.
+
+  Warbasse, quoted, 195.
+
+  Webb, Sidney, 122.
+
+  Wheat, new varieties of, 133, 134.
+
+  Whetham, quoted, 35, 74, 75, 229, 237-239, 240.
+
+  Winship, data regarding Edwards family, 187, 188.
+
+  Woods, heredity in royalty, 145.
+
+
+  _Zero, Die Familie_, 184-187.
+
+
+
+
+                         TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES
+
+
+1. Passages in italics are surrounded by _underscores_.
+
+2. Illustration captions are indicated by =caption=.
+
+3. Images and tables have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to
+the closest paragraph break.
+
+4. Figure 17 is missing from the scanned pages even though there is no
+break in the continuity of page numbers.
+
+5. The word oedema uses an oe ligature in the original.
+
+6. The following misprints have been corrected:
+      "stattistical" corrected to "statistical" (page 81)
+      Removed stray bracket in "second parent)" (page 93)
+      Added period at end of abbreviation "N.S.W" (page 115)
+      "conditons" corrected to "conditions" (page 245)
+
+7. Other than the corrections listed above, printer's inconsistencies
+in spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been
+retained.
+
+
+
+
+
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