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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/31369-h.zip b/31369-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..8606394 --- /dev/null +++ b/31369-h.zip diff --git a/31369-h/31369-h.htm b/31369-h/31369-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e99ba27 --- /dev/null +++ b/31369-h/31369-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1519 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Nationality and Race, by Arthur Keith. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + text-indent: 0px; + } /* page numbers */ + + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .tbrk {margin-bottom: 2em;} + + .fnanchor { font-size: .8em; text-decoration: none;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Nationality and Race from an +Anthropologist's Point of View, by Arthur Keith + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Nationality and Race from an Anthropologist's Point of View + Being the Robert Boyle lecture delivered before the Oxford + university junior scientific club on November 17, 1919 + +Author: Arthur Keith + +Release Date: February 23, 2010 [EBook #31369] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONALITY AND RACE *** + + + + +Produced by Martin Pettit and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p> + +<h1><i>Nationality and Race</i></h1> + +<h2><i>From an Anthropologist's<br />Point of View</i></h2> + +<h4>BEING THE</h4> + +<h3>ROBERT BOYLE LECTURE</h3> + +<h4>DELIVERED BEFORE THE</h4> + +<h3><i>OXFORD UNIVERSITY JUNIOR SCIENTIFIC CLUB</i></h3> + +<h3><i>On November 17, 1919</i></h3> + +<p class="tbrk"> </p> + +<h3>BY</h3> + +<h2>ARTHUR KEITH, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.</h2> + +<p class="tbrk"> </p> + +<h3>HUMPHREY MILFORD<br />OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS</h3> + +<h4>LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK<br />TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPE TOWN BOMBAY<br />1919</h4> + +<hr /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span></p> + +<h4>PRINTED IN ENGLAND<br />AT THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS</h4> + +<hr /> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> + +<h1>NATIONALITY AND RACE</h1> + +<h2>FROM AN ANTHROPOLOGIST'S POINT OF VIEW</h2> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Nationality and Race in Boyle's Time</span></h3> + +<p>It was during the lifetime of Robert Boyle that our forefathers began to +come into close contact with the races and nationalities of the outer +world. When he was born in County Cork in the year 1627, small and +isolated bands of Englishmen were elbowing Red Indians from the eastern +sea-board of North America; before his death in London in 1691, at the +age of sixty-four, he had seen these pioneer bands become united into a +British fringe stretching almost without a break from Newfoundland to +Florida. Neither he nor any one else in England could then have guessed +that in less than two centuries the narrow fringe of colonists would +have spread from shore to shore, thus carpeting a continent with a new +people. It was in his time, too, that English merchants and sailors made +a closer acquaintance with the peoples of India, of the Far East, and +with the sea-board natives of Africa and of South America. We have only +to turn to the six splendid volumes in which his experiments, +observations, and writings are preserved to see how he viewed the world +which his countrymen were opening up beneath his eyes. In a short paper, +drafted some time before his death, he gives the most minute directions +to guide navigators in drawing up reports of newly discovered lands. His +directions relate to every conceivable property or aspect of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> a new +country—its geography, mineral wealth, natural products, climate—all +but its inhabitants. Like many Englishmen of his time, Boyle conceived +that his duty by native peoples began and ended when he had seen that +they were supplied with copies of the Bible. For him, and for most of +his contemporaries, there seem to have been no racial problems; for they +did not regard the meeting and mingling of diverse races or of peoples +of different nationalities as matters which deserved investigation and +explanation. Boyle witnessed the acutest phases of the 'plantation' of +Ireland, but the inquiries he set on foot regarding that country were: +'How it cometh to pass that there are not frogs, toads, snakes, moles, +nightingales, rarely magpies' within its borders; he inquired, too, +concerning the true nature of 'diverse things which the Irish foolishly +report of St. Patrick'—especially concerning the 'birds turned into +stones for chirping when St. Patrick was preaching'. There were, of +course, racial and national problems in Boyle's time, but they had not +then presented themselves before the tribunal of the public mind as +matters demanding investigation and treatment.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Race and Nationality in Recent Years</span></h3> + +<p>We need not blame the statesmen and writers of Boyle's time for failing +to recognize the inward significance of national and racial +manifestations any more than we condemn his contemporary physicians for +failing to separate from the mass of disease such conditions as are +known to modern medical men as appendicitis and typhoid fever. Typhoid +fever and appendicitis existed in Boyle's time just as did national +disturbances and racial antipathies, but their nature and significance +passed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> undiagnosed. It was not until England had laid siege, by means +of armies of colonists, to lands inhabited by native races, or had come +to guide the destinies of great tropical empires by handfuls of civil +servants, that she realized that racial contact gives rise to live and +burning antagonisms. Nor are national problems new to England; they have +always dogged the footsteps of her statesmen. In Boyle's time a people +could make its national spirit heard and felt only by resorting to brute +force. In our times there are other means; a people mobilizes its +national spirit by means of the daily press; the promulgation of +national propaganda has become a fine art; modern statesmen have learned +that national feelings, rightly directed, have the force of an +avalanche. The problems of Race and of Nationality, then, are by no +means new, but in their modern form they are new. The far-flung lines of +the British Empire and the mobilization of the popular spirit by means +of the press and propaganda have compelled our statesmen, historians, +publicists, psychologists, and anthropologists to re-examine the nature +of the forces which lie behind racial movements and national agitations. +Of the importance of a right understanding of the nature of these forces +for the future maintenance and development of the British Empire there +cannot be any question. In the guiding of its destinies Oxford men will, +in the future as in the past, take a leading part, and much of their +success will depend on how far they have grasped the nature of the +inward forces which group mankind into races and nations. That is my +reason for making the problems of Race and Nationality the subject of +this lecture in memory of Robert Boyle.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Inherited Instincts and Modern Ideals are out of Harmony</span></h3> + +<p>It has scarcely been possible in recent years to open a newspaper +without our eye being arrested by head-lines telling us of racial +strifes or international contentions. One day we read of race riots; on +the next we learn that the inhabitants of a certain area of land demand +separation from all surrounding peoples. By a process of +'self-determination' they demand to be recognized as a separate people +or nation. These racial and national contentions are not restricted to +any particular people or land; we find them in every country. The +politician is too near to these racial and national manifestations of +the modern world to see them in their proper light; even the historian +is not far enough away from them to see them in their right perspective. +You cannot explore the secret sources from which they spring unless you +have grasped the immensity of man's unwritten history. Let me make my +meaning quite clear by an historical example chosen from man's body. +Among our modern populations there are no ailments more prevalent than +those which arise from a disordered working of the great bowel. Why this +part of our bodily machinery should fail us under modern conditions of +diet becomes quite apparent when we survey the history of man's distant +past. For the anthropologist there are only two well-marked phases in +human history. The first phase is that of Natural subsistence—an +infinitely long and monotonous chapter, stretching over a million of +years or more. The second is the phase of Artificial subsistence—a +short chapter covering a period of 10,000 or 12,000 years at the utmost, +but a period crowded with events which have a critical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> bearing on our +present and future welfare. In the first or long phase mankind was +broken into small and scattered groups which gained as best they could a +sparse, uncertain, and coarse sustenance from the natural produce of +shore and stream, moorland and woodland. In the second or short phase +man conquered nature; by means of cultivation and domestication he +forced from the soil a sure and abundant supply of food, thus rendering +possible the existence of our modern massed populations. Now the +machinery of man's body and the instinctive outfit of his brain, which +had been evolved to answer to the conditions of life presented by the +first long phase of his history, were also those which had to serve him +when he entered the new conditions of the short or modern phase. We need +not be surprised to find, then, that part of his ancient outfit is ill +adapted to modern conditions of life. Man's great bowel, including the +caecum, appendix, and colon, which answered his needs well when his +dietary was coarse and uncooked, is ill contrived to deal with foods +which are artificially prepared and highly concentrated. A school, which +was headed by the late Professor Metchnikoff, even goes so far as to +maintain that man would be improved by the complete removal of his great +bowel—a doctrine with which I totally disagree. We are all alive to the +fact that there is a lack of harmony between the ancient machinery of +our bodies and the modern conditions under which we live, but we are +only now awakening to the fact that what is true of our bodies is also +true of our minds. In that immense first phase of our history an +elaborate mental machinery had been evolved for binding small groups of +mankind into social units. This subconscious or instinctive mental +outfit, we shall see, is part of the machinery which Nature has employed +in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> evolution of races of mankind. The mental adaptations which +modern man has inherited from the immensity of his past we may briefly +describe as part of Nature's tribal machinery. The thesis, then, which I +propose to expound to you is that in our modern racial strifes and +national agitations we see man's inherited tribal instincts at war with +his present-day conditions of life. We have broken up, or are attempting +to break up, Nature's ancient tribal machinery and at the present time +are striving to replace her designs by others evolved in the minds of +modern statesmen and politicians. We moderns are like hill sheep turned +into fenced fields with all our wandering instincts still grafted on our +original nature. As in them, our instincts are at war with our +surroundings. It is the most natural thing in the world that we should +blame the barriers which have been set round us because we are scarcely +conscious of the inherited predispositions with which Nature encompasses +her tribal fields. We cannot understand the nature of our modern racial +and national problems until we perceive that in these days we are +endeavouring to build a new world out of the wreckage of an old.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Racial and National Problems in the United States of America</span></h3> + +<p>Having thus laid before you the general lines on which I propose to deal +with problems relating to race and nationality, I propose now that we +should make a lightning trip round the world and cull, as we go, samples +which will illustrate the kind of friction which arises wherever races +or nationalities come into close contact. As I have already said, every +country can yield us material for our study, but none on such a vast +experimental scale as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> United States of North America; we shall +therefore commence our hurried survey in that country. Within the +frontiers of the States is massed a population of 110 millions. When we +look closely we see that over ten millions of these inhabitants are +marked off from the rest by a frontier, a colour line, as sharply +defined and jealously guarded as the frontiers of a kingdom. Across that +racial frontier all legitimate social traffic is barred, the custodians +of the frontier being those who stand on the white side of the line. Any +attempt to cross that racial frontier produces mob war. While these ten +millions of segregated citizens abide within their racial fence, they +see millions arrive from Europe and pass freely through the national and +social gateways—which for them are barred. In the course of a +generation they see these new arrivals, men, women, and children born +and bred within the diverse nationalities of Europe, differing markedly +in appearance and speech from the original colonial stock, become slowly +stript of their alien outlook and gradually incorporated within a new +national mass. In the States, then, we see a machinery at work which +maintains racial frontiers but breaks down all national barriers. The +nature of that machinery we shall have to inquire into later, but in the +meantime I will briefly define the essential difference between a racial +and a national frontier. A marriage across a racial frontier gives rise +to an offspring so different from both parent races that it cannot be +naturally grouped with either the one or the other. A marriage across a +national frontier gives rise to a progeny which may pass as a member of +either parent nationality. Further, as I shall attempt to prove later, +nationality is the incipient stage in the process which leads on to +racial differentiation.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span></p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Problems of Canada</span></h3> + +<p>When we cross the line which separates the United States from Canada we +find a national mechanism at work which converts immigrants of alien +nationalities into loyal Canadians. In Canada, however, our attention is +arrested by an example which illustrates the persistence and the +strength of the force which perpetuates a national spirit. The ancestors +of the French Canadians began to settle in the province of Quebec early +in the seventeenth century, 150 years before the Canadian national mill +was set agoing by Englishmen. The French settlers never passed through +that mill. They came, for the greater part, from the north-west of +France, and although speaking a different tongue, adopting a different +religion, and following different customs, they were yet in point of +race not essentially different from the English founders of Canada. Yet +the descendants of these early French settlers, now numbering well over +a million and a half, and although forming but a small island in the +midst of an English-speaking ocean for more than a century and a half, +have maintained their sense of separateness—their national +frontiers—intact. There is no question here of a racial frontier as +yet, but were this national isolation of French Canadians to become +permanent, then in course of time a racial differentiation would be +produced within their territory.</p> + +<p>When we turn our faces westward and cross the Rocky Mountains we find +the minds of the white inhabitants, along the whole stretch of the +Pacific coast, occupied with a racial problem. They have erected a +racial barrier to keep out the native peoples of Asia. The native of +India is excluded just as strictly as the Chinaman or Japanese.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> They +are not excluded because of their speech or of their civilization, but +because the people of the United States and of Canada are conscious of a +certain feeling of difference—call it race prejudice, race antipathy, +or what you will. It is a conscious or subconscious state of feeling +which rebels against racial fusion.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Racial Problems of Spanish America</span></h3> + +<p>When we pass from the United States to Mexico we cross the boundary line +which separates the two most immense experiments in human breeding the +world has ever seen. North of this experimental Rubicon, as we have just +seen, the basal stock, which is north-west European or Nordic in origin, +has been ruled by a sense of race-caste and has consequently maintained +its racial characters. But south of our Rubicon the result of racial +contact has been absolutely different. The south-west European or +Iberian stock broke down the natural barrier which Nature had set up +between them and the natives of Mexico and South America and solved +their racial antagonisms by the fusion of blood. The results of these +two experiments, carried out on such an immense scale, we can see +to-day. The northern experiment, which is now three centuries old, has +given the world two of her most virile peoples destined to hold their +place whether humanity becomes planted out on a vast, peaceful, and +uniform cabbage-patch or still remains, as now, broken up into national +and racial factions. These northern peoples are as effective, so far at +least as concerns their chances of survival, as the original Nordic +stock. The southern experiment, which began four centuries ago, has +given the world a jangling series of small peoples, not any one of which +is equal, either in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> body or in mind, to the pioneer Iberian stock. From +the anthropologist's point of view the northern experiment is the +successful one.</p> + +<p>We have been glancing at the national and racial problems of the +American continent and we ought now to pass on to note the form in which +they are presented to us by Australasia. Before passing on, however, +there is one very important aspect of the southern or Iberian experiment +which we must consider now because it throws light on the path along +which I want to lead you. Why did the racial barrier between Iberian and +Indian break down? Was it because the Iberian did not possess—was not +influenced by—a sense of race-caste such as we have seen to dominate +the Nordic colonist? I believe that race-caste or race-prejudice is and +has been a more potent force in the Nordic than in the Iberian stock. +The Iberian people are near neighbours of the African races; in physique +they are differentiated from the African stocks in a somewhat less +degree than the Nordic stocks which represent the utmost point in the +physical specialization of all European peoples. If the Iberian pioneer +carried with him to America a lesser degree of race-caste, the process +of hybridization would begin the more easily. The great north and south +experiments differed, however, in another important circumstance. The +Nordic encountered a scattered, nomadic, proud race; the Iberian a +settled people living in dense communities. The Iberian was thus exposed +to conditions in which a racial barrier was harder to maintain.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Struggle between Race and Sex Impulses</span></h3> + +<p>But neither of these two circumstances—a lesser developed sense of +race-caste in the Iberian, nor the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> massing of the southern Indians in +settled communities—explain the disappearance of a racial frontier. The +true explanation lies in the fact that Nature has grafted in the human +mind instinctive impulses which are far stronger than those designated +as race-prejudice. Nature has spent her most painstaking efforts in +establishing within the human organization a mechanism to ensure, above +all other ends, that the individual shall continue. The instinct to +propagate is the strongest of the instinctive impulses with which +mankind has been fitted. It dominates and conquers the race instinct on +all occasions save one. Sex impulse is the battery which breaks down +race-barriers. Race instinct becomes the master of sexual impulse only +when a pure stock has established itself as a complete and growing +community in a new country. Sexual impulses are the endowments of +individual men and women; they dominate and are manifested by +individuals, whereas race antipathies are manifestations not of the +individual, but of the mass. Race instinct comes into play only when +men, women, and children of the same stock are organized into +communities. Until such a community is organized sex instinct traffics +freely across racial barriers; once organized, race instinct conquers or +restrains hybridization. It is a right understanding of the conditions +under which human instincts work that gives us the true key to the +hybridization of Spaniard and American Indian. The Iberian pioneers +exposed themselves to racial contact in Mexico and Peru under conditions +which were bound to give their sex impulses a victory over their race +instinct. No <i>Mayflower</i> reached the Spanish coasts of America; only +bands of adventurers, who established no independent home-like +settlements to form the cradles of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> race-feeling. The sex instinct was +left dominant, and by this force the racial barriers south of the +Mexican rubicon were broken down. North of this Rubicon the American +continent was colonized; south of it, there was not a colonization but a +plantation. From an anthropologist's point of view, as we shall note +later, colonization and plantation are totally different processes.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Race Problems in Australia and New Zealand</span></h3> + +<p>When we cross the Pacific to Australia we see the same racial and +national factors at work as in Saxon America. It has taken only a little +over a century for a British or Nordic stock, now numbering five +millions, to establish itself as occupant and owner of a great +continent. The Australians have had to face both national and racial +problems. The continent was colonized from separate centres, and there +was a tendency on the part of each colony to isolate itself from its +neighbours and grow up into a separate state or nationality. These +separate states or incipient nationalities were united at the +commencement of the present century by the craft of statesmanship which +made the shores of the new continent the frontiers of a national +commonwealth. The British communities in Australia bred and exhibited +the usual Saxon sense of race discrimination; almost from the first they +drew a racial frontier between themselves and the native blacks, and so +strictly has this frontier been maintained that there is no trace of the +vanishing aboriginal blood in the veins of the new nationality. The +50,000 survivors of the original owners of the continent now present a +philanthropic rather than a racial problem. But it is otherwise as +regards the millions of native peoples occupying the countries which +flank the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> Indian and China seas. Seas are the highways along which +modern peoples spread and invade accessible lands. Hence round their +shores the Australians have erected a racial barrier, admitting the +entrance of peoples of European descent but excluding all others.</p> + +<p>The student of racial and national problems cannot afford to pass New +Zealand by. In these two islands English, Scotch, Irish, and Welsh +immigrants have, in the course of the last eighty years, built up a new +nation, now numbering well over a million souls. Here and there in the +islands there has been a tendency for the immigrants to group themselves +according to their inherited nationality, but such separate groupings +tend to disappear as the new national spirit becomes dominant. Herein we +see exhibited a law with which herdsmen are familiar. A herd of cattle +which has occupied a field for some time will resist the intrusion of a +second or strange herd; but turn both herds together into a strange +pasture and mutual antipathies cease almost at once. The arrival in a +new land of immigrants from diverse countries breaks down the national +barriers within which they were born and bred. A national spirit breeds +true only on its native soil; when transplanted to a new land it becomes +plastic and mouldable. A new country dissolves ancient nationalities; no +country illustrates this truth more emphatically than New Zealand.</p> + +<p>The relationship which exists between the new nationality of New Zealand +and the ancient owners of the country—the Maori, now numbering about +50,000—is one of a unique kind. The physical differences which separate +the British and Maori types are such in degree that there can be no +question of the distinctness of their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> racial stocks. In former cases we +have seen that it was the Saxon who drew and guarded the racial +frontier; but in New Zealand each of the contending human stocks has +drawn its racial line, and each regards the other's delimitation with +respect. Such respect is rendered possible because the territorial +frontiers of Maoriland have been clearly defined. Thus wise +statesmanship keeps racial problems in a latent condition in New +Zealand.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">National and Racial Problems in South Africa</span></h3> + +<p>If we now pass to South Africa we find problems of race and of +nationality in a more acute and tangled form than anywhere else in the +world. Long before the Portuguese had turned the Cape of Good Hope +towards the end of the sixteenth century, this land was occupied by a +confusion of contending tribal peoples belonging to at least three +well-differentiated human stocks. Bantu peoples were pushing southwards, +ousting and exterminating Hottentot tribes; these were at the same time +exercising a continuous pressure on the Bush people. At the present time +this great territory, with a total area of nearly twenty times that of +England, is occupied by about six and a quarter millions of people, +fully five millions being descendants of the original native tribes, +with a slight admixture of Asiatic elements. The masters and owners of +this territory, numbering only a little over a million, are of the +Nordic or north-west European stock. About one-half of the dominant +stock drew its original guiding spirit from Holland, the other half +carried to its new home the national spirit of England. These two +nationalities, both derived from the same North Sea stock, have been +thrown together in South Africa for over a century, and yet a sense of +difference<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> in nationality has persisted, even in face of dangers which +threaten both alike. Thus South Africa has an acute friction arising +from the rubbing of one nationality on another. She has also her racial +problems; the more closely they are examined the more do their potential +dangers seem to grow. Boer and Briton may differ in speech, habit, and +outlook, but both agree that there is an impassable frontier between +them and the native races of Africa and Asia. They do not even +camouflage the racial barricade which they have erected; they purposely +expose it in its nakedness to full view, so that none may fail to see +it. The dark natives maintain their tribal and racial frontiers by their +inherited organizations, but the surveillance of the social barrier +between them and the whites lies with the dominant race. Only those who +have come into direct contact with racial antagonisms know how deeply +they are situated in the primitive organization of the human brain. Let +me cite only one witness on this point—one who would willingly believe, +if he could, that racial antagonisms are both superficial and acquired. +"That a very real problem exists in the race-consciousness of the white +and coloured peoples is evident, is sometimes painfully evident, +sometimes dangerously so. There is nothing to be gained by +under-estimating its deep-seated nature and the gravity of its issues." +This is a quotation from the presidential address given by Dr. W. Flint +to the last meeting (1919) of the South African Association for the +Advancement of Science. The mixture of races in South Africa has roused +to activity instincts or subconscious states which lie dormant in +members of a uniform population. National and racial frontiers, we shall +see, are part of Nature's evolutionary machinery. Meantime we merely +note<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> that modern industrial ideals clash with the working of Nature's +instinctive mechanisms, and in South Africa the two are in actual +collision.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Some of the National and Racial Problems of Europe</span></h3> + +<p>As we pass northwards along the African continent, over a welter of +tribal peoples, we need merely note the cry for national recognition +which ascends to us from the lower valley of the Nile. The descendants +of the ancient Egyptians, mixed with a conglomeration of racial stocks +drawn from Africa, Asia, and Europe, are agitating for 'national' +independence and isolation. It would take us too far afield to consider +the national and racial problems of the 300 millions of diverse peoples +of India who are linked together by only one bond—the government +extended to them by the British Empire. Nor need we stay now to +speculate on the nationalities which will arise from the wreckage of +Turkey, Austria, or Russia, nor shall we dally with the Balkan jumble of +nationalities. We simply note that these instincts or feelings which +compel men of like speech, habits, and traditions to group themselves +into independent national units are most active and powerful where +racial or national boundaries are most confused.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Are the Jews a Separate Race?</span></h3> + +<p>In the strict sense in which the anthropologist uses the term 'Race' +there is in Europe no racial problem. Our universal disturbances are +those of nationality. There are no two nationalities in Europe, so +different in physical appearance, that their hybrid progeny may not pass +as a member of either parent nationality. In the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>anthropologist's sense +there are no racial bastards produced by the union of European +nationalities. If we except the Lapps and other Mongolian elements in +Russia there is only one people in Europe with a legitimate claim to be +regarded as racially different from the general population. That +exception is the Jewish people. There are seven millions of them forming +an archipelago in the sea of European peoples, their main islands lying +in the centre of the continent, north and south of the Carpathians. The +Jews maintain a racial frontier, such as dominant races surround +themselves with; they carry themselves as if racially distinct. Their +original stock was clearly eastern in its derivation; the peoples of +Europe sprang from another racial source. The outliers of the Jewish +racial archipelago are exposed to the cross-currents of the Gentile +seas. The smaller islets are too far removed to be sheltered and +strengthened by the race sense which is bred and nursed wherever +permanent Jewish settlements are established. However much the Jewish +racial frontier may be strengthened by the faith which is the standard +of the race, raids have been made, are now made, across that frontier +and a certain degree of hybridization has occurred. Even thus exposed in +the eddying seas of modern civilization, the race spirit of the Jews has +preserved the greater part of the original characters carried into +Europe by the pioneer Semitic bands. In 90 per cent. of Jews the +physical or Semitic characters are apparent to the eye even of the +uninitiated Gentile. In the Jewish people we see Nature steering one of +her cargoes of differentiated humanity between the Scylla and Charybdis +of the modern sea of industrial civilization. And race instinct is her +steersman.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">National Movements are of Two Kinds</span></h3> + +<p>The processes of nationalization in Europe are of two kinds; on the one +hand we see smaller nationalities being compounded into larger units; on +the other we see large nationalities being disintegrated. We see fusion +taking place and we see disruption. Which is Nature's method? All the +great nationalities of Europe have been built up by fusion—Italy, +Spain, France, Great Britain, and Germany. As the last named is the most +recent and most clearly understood case of fusion we may glance at the +means by which it was accomplished. The nationalities and separate +states which were united to form the German Empire were derived from at +least three stocks, each of which show well-differentiated physical +characters. These human stocks were united by a common tongue. By war +and conquest the empire surrounded itself—isolated itself—by a ring of +enemies. The Germans carried their frontiers beyond the limits of their +speech and set out to make Danes, Frenchmen, and Poles members of their +own nationality. They sought to strengthen their national frontiers by +tariff barricades. They linked themselves together by the multiplication +of means of rapid transit and fostered the growth of a national or +tribal spirit by active, persistent, and widespread tribal propaganda. +The tribal spirit, which is an innate quality of every people, was +roused to such a pitch that in the crisis of war the national or tribal +bonds held; sixty millions of people acted as if they were members of a +Highland clan. Even defeat, if it has loosened, has not broken the +national bonds which were forged by the governing classes of Germany.</p> + +<p>In all these processes of national fusion, as in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> formation of all +trusts in the modern commercial world, the anthropologist observes that +the operation commences from above and works downwards through the mass +of the people. The governing class plays upon and fans into flame the +tribal embers of the popular mind. It is altogether a different process +which brings about the disruption of a nationality. Disruption has +nothing to do with race; the nearer the blood relationship between two +adjacent peoples the more likely is disruption to occur. We can find no +better illustration of this truth than when we cross the Baltic from +Germany to Scandinavia. The people of Norway and Sweden are of the same +racial composition; they have many interests in common; union should +have given strength. Yet after a partnership which lasted for less than +a century, they agreed to separate. In this case the movement came from +below; a tribal feeling which swept through the people of Norway +compelled a disruption. All the natural inherited forces in a people +tend towards disruption. Only when reason takes the helm can these +natural disruptive forces be overcome and the process of fusion be +effected.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">British National Problems</span></h3> + +<p>Having thus made a hurried survey of some of the more instructive, +racial, and national problems abroad we now return homewards to apply +the knowledge thus gained to the understanding of the national +manifestations of our own countrymen. There is no need to remind you +that the national spirit of Robert Boyle's native country is always +boiling up, often boiling over. Scotland, too, has a national spirit, so +has Wales; in both countries this spirit is separatist in its essence, +but the national<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> instinctive tendencies are curbed and guided by the +higher reasoning centres of the brain. In England itself the sense of +nationality is usually dormant; only an insult or a threat from without +stirs this gigantic force into life. In Ireland the national kettle is +kept always on the boil; in Scotland and Wales it is kept simmering; in +England, on the other hand, it dozes quietly on the hob. Nevertheless +English nationality is a force which pervades the whole population lying +between Berwick-on-Tweed and Land's End. In the course of centuries +statesmanship has succeeded in raising up in the minds of all the +inhabitants of the British Isles—all save in the greater part of +Ireland—a new and wider sense of nationality, a spirit of British +nationality. Why we never succeeded in raising that spirit in the whole +of Ireland represents the major part of our present quest.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Are Celts and Saxons of different Racial Stocks?</span></h3> + +<p>At the outset of our inquiry we are met by the ancient belief that the +British Isles are divided by a racial frontier which separates the +western or Celtic peoples from the eastern inhabitants of Saxon origin. +It was my fortune to be born on the border of the Celtic fringe, and no +one growing up under these circumstances can fail to realize that the +Celtic spirit is a real and live force. Is it a racial antagonism which +is elicited when Celt and Saxon are in conflict? What is the physical +difference between a Celt and a Saxon? That is a matter to which I have +given my attention for some years, and the results of my inquiries I +will place before you as briefly as I may. In the audience now before me +there are certain to be pure representatives of all our four +nationalities; Celts and Saxons as pure as any in the country are sure +to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> present in any university audience. But except for a trick of +speech or a local mannerism, the most expert anthropologist cannot tell +Celt from Saxon or an Irishman from a Scotsman. There are, to be sure, +certain physical types which prevail in one country more than in +another, but I do not know of any feature of the body or any trait of +the mind, or of any combination of features or traits which will permit +an expert, on surveying groups of university students, to say this group +is from Scotland, that from Wales, the third from Ireland, and the +fourth from England. In stature and in colouring, in form of skull and +of face, elaborate trials have revealed national difference only of the +most minor kind. Nay, we know very well the physical features of the +Saxon pioneers who became the masters of England and dominated the +lowlands of Scotland. Their graveyards have been examined by the score, +but it is not by the form of the skulls and the strength of the limb +bones that we know we are dealing with the graves of ancient Saxons, but +by the implements, ornaments, and utensils which were buried with them. +As regards shape of skull or form of bones I do not think a practised +craniologist could distinguish the skulls and bones found in an ancient +Saxon cemetery in Surrey from the remains of a Celtic grave in +Connemara, so much are Celtic and Saxon types alike. Were we to dress +one group of fishermen from the coast of Norfolk and another from the +shores of Connaught in the same garb, I do not think there is an +anthropologist in Europe who by mere inspection could tell the Irish +from the English group. From a physical point of view the Celt and Saxon +are one; whatever be the source of their mutual antagonism, it does not +lie in a difference of race. It is often said that we British are a +mixed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> and mongrel collection of types and breeds; the truth is that as +regards physical type the inhabitants of the British Isles are the most +uniform of all the large nationalities of Europe.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">All British Nationalities are of the North Sea Stock</span></h3> + +<p>The statement which I have just made, that Britons are really a uniform +folk, seems altogether at variance with the teaching of history. What I +am to say now will explain a discrepancy which, in its essence, is only +superficial. Our written history opens with the Roman invasion and +occupation of Britain; it was an 'occupation' or 'plantation', not a +true colonization. On the other hand, the Saxon and Danish invasions +ended in widely spread and true colonizations of Britain. The Norman +invasion, on the other hand, was of the nature of a plantation. I will +make the difference between the various forms of invasion apparent +presently. There have been, too, flocks of immigrant refugees at various +times. We have the most positive evidence that long before the dawn of +written history the processes of invasion and colonization had been +going on in Britain. In all these invasions, historic and prehistoric, +with one important exception, no strange or new racial stock was added +to the British Isles; all were apparently branches of the human stock +which still occupy the north-west of Europe—men of the Nordic type—or +as I should prefer to call them, the North Sea breed. We are only now +beginning to realize that even at the dawn of the present period, a +period marked by the retreat of the ice sheet from the Baltic basin, the +seashore and the sea itself were the high roads along which primitive +peoples migrated and spread. They were people<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> of the same human type +who spread themselves along the shores of the Mediterranean and occupied +its coastal lands. The distribution of the Mediterranean breed was +determined by the limits of their sea. Apparently the shores of the +North Sea were settled in a similar way. We have but scanty remains from +the midden heaps along its ancient shores to tell us about the kind of +folk these early settlers were, but so far as the evidence goes it +supports the supposition that the Nordic type was already in possession +of north-west Europe before the dawn of the Neolithic period. We can +only explain the distribution of the Nordic type along the shorelands of +the North Sea, of the Baltic, and of the British seas, on the +supposition of a primitive and ancient North Sea stock—made up of men +of the Nordic type. The earliest cave dwellers of England were of this +type. It was this North Sea stock which gave Britain not only her +original population but also her succession of colonists. It is certain +that there were also invasions of Britain from the Mediterranean stock, +but we have only to compare a sample of our modern population with one +drawn from a Mediterranean people to see how little our blood has been +affected by a southern mixture. In all these invasions and colonizations +there is only one which was not drawn from the North Sea stock. That +invasion took place in the second millenium before Christ, when the +round-headed stock of Central Europe broke through the Nordic belt, +reached the shores of the North Sea, and invaded Britain on a scale +which has never been equalled before or since save in Saxon times. That +invasion of round-heads broke first on England and Scotland, but Wales +and particularly Ireland received in time a full share of the fresh +arrivals. With this one exception all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> the invaders and settlers of the +British Isles were waves derived from the same prolific source—the +North Sea breed. We see, then, why there should be little physical +difference between Celt and Saxon. The one was an earlier wave, the +other a much later wave of the same stock. But each wave brought its own +mode of speech and its own tribal spirit. Of all the inhabitants of the +British Isles the Irish may be regarded as the purest representatives of +the North Sea or Nordic stock.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">There are Kinds of Colonization—Spontaneous and Forced</span></h3> + +<p>The refusal of the Irish to merge their sense of nationality in a common +British whole cannot be explained by any difference in blood or race. We +shall get nearer to the heart of the problem if we can discover why the +people on the north-east of Ireland, particularly in counties Antrim and +Down, in contrast with the rest of Ireland, are sharers in the common +British spirit. It is true that, even in ancient times, there was a +community of feeling between Ulstermen and the West Scotch. Even in +Neolithic times their cultures show a free intercourse. Before the +plantation of Ireland by lowland folk in the seventeenth century, Ulster +was frequented by bands of Highland Scots. Neither of these +circumstances explain the unionist spirit of Ulster. Nor is the spirit +of north-east Ulster a matter of British admixture. A careful +examination of all the available data relating to the plantation of +Ireland between 1560 and 1660 will show that an even greater proportion +of British blood was poured into Leinster and Munster than into Ulster. +At the end of the plantation period probably one Irishman out of every +three in the provinces of Leinster and Munster had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> blood of British +colonists in his veins. In this reckoning no count is made of the people +who landed and settled in Ireland in the five centuries which preceded +1560—Danes, Normans, Welsh, and English. It is not the number of +British colonists which has made north-east Ulster separatist in spirit, +so far as the rest of Ireland is concerned—and unionist, so far as +Great Britain is concerned. The north-east region of Ireland was the +only part which was truly colonized; only a real or spontaneous +colonization can carry a tribal or national spirit to a new land.</p> + +<p>For the anthropologist a true or spontaneous colonization is a totally +different process from one which is false or forced. At the very time at +which the English Government was settling or planting colonists on Irish +soil and among Irish people, a spontaneous exodus set in among the North +Sea peoples. This exodus—a people's movement—established a Saxon +fringe along the eastern sea-board of North America. The exodus, which +began in the seventeenth century, has continued to the present +time—three full centuries. Thus fed, the fringe extended until it +reached the Pacific shore. The original fringe represented a true tribal +settlement; within the pioneer communities grew up the consciousness of +nationality and of race-antagonism, which we have already noted in the +Saxon peoples of North America. The break-away—the natural process of +disintegration, represented by the War of Independence—is usually +explained as a result of bad government. The disputes between the +British Government and the colonists were certainly the circumstances +which determined the disruption, but the forces which impelled the +colonists to action were those subconscious impulses which Nature has +planted deep in the human mind as part of her evolutionary machinery.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span></p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">The Saxon Settlement of Britain</span></h3> + +<p>The colonization of North America, which took place in the full light of +history, gives us the means of understanding the Saxon colonization of +England, which otherwise lies obscure in the twilight of our written +records. In both cases we have to deal with a spontaneous or popular +movement. One was across the wide Atlantic, the other across an almost +land-locked sea. Both commenced by the formation of a fringe of true +settlement wherein inherited tribal traditions and organizations were +nursed and strengthened; in both cases the original fringe was fed by a +stream of immigrants continuing over several centuries. The chief +difference between the two movements lies in this: the American +colonists encountered a people who were so physically unlike themselves +as to raise a racial frontier, whereas the Saxon people pushed their way +into a land inhabited by people of their own stock. The progeny of the +captured British native could be reared so as to become a true Saxon. +The Saxon colonization, as it spread over the land, engulfed—when it +did not exterminate—the natives and their tribal organizations in their +agricultural village communities. The Saxon settlement of England held +and prospered because it was a true colonization.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">The Plantation and Colonization of Ireland</span></h3> + +<p>In Ireland we have an opportunity of contrasting the results of an +artificial or forced settlement with those of a natural or spontaneous +colonization. Elizabeth, James, and Cromwell settled their colonists on +Irish tribal lands, thus exposing them to the full force of the clannish +or tribal spirit which then animated the natives of Ireland.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> The +consequence was that the progeny of the British colonists, as it grew +up, absorbed the Irish tribal spirit, for this spirit, being more +primitive and more easily understood than a sense of nationality, always +makes a dominant appeal to the young mind. The blood which English +statesmen of the seventeenth century poured into Ireland to quench its +national flame only served to feed it. It was otherwise in the +north-east of Ireland—particularly in Down and Antrim. These counties +were settled in the earlier decades of the seventeenth century by a +process of spontaneous colonization. The movement commenced in a small +way in 1606 by Hugh Montgomery, a south Scotch laird, purchasing a large +tract of the O'Neill's land in county Down. He settled that land with +his relations and tenantry—a farming community. Such was the beginning +of the colonial fringe on the north-east coast of Ulster. The fringe was +fed by a spontaneous exodus of farming folk mainly from the south of +Scotland, but the stream was also kept up and maintained from the north +of England and from Scottish counties as far north as those of Aberdeen +and Inverness. The men who flocked to Ulster found it easier to raise +crops on the greensward of Antrim than on the heathery hill-sides of +Aberdeenshire. Herein we see a repetition, but on a small scale, of the +Saxon colonization of England. The settled communities established by +the Scotch pioneers sheltered and nursed the national spirit they +brought with them. As the fringe of colonists expanded it came to cover +Antrim and Down and made inroads on adjacent counties, overwhelming and +absorbing the tribal organization of the native population. In 1672 Sir +William Petty estimated that there were 100,000 Scots in Ulster. Thus<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> +in the north-east of Ireland there has been established a people which +manifests all the qualities of a new nationality. History can explain to +us how it has come about that the inhabitants of Ireland, all of them +derivatives of the same breed of Europeans, should be divided into two +peoples, each possessed by its own peculiar sense of nationality. The +north is predominantly industrial and Protestant; the south is +predominantly pastoral and Catholic. But these circumstances are not +sufficient to account for a national—almost a racial—antagonism +between the inhabitants of a single small island who have so much to +gain by a sense of unity. To understand national antagonisms we have to +look at the inheritance which modern man has carried with him from his +distant past.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">The Nature of Tribal Instinct</span></h3> + +<p>I now enter the third stage of my argument. In the first I cited and +discussed the various forms in which racial and national feelings are +manifested by various peoples abroad; in my second I dealt with the +nature of the various national movements at home. We now set out in +search of the root from which the flower of our complex modern +civilization has sprung. In the world of to-day we see many peoples +exhibiting every phase in the evolution of that organization which +permits mankind to live in massed populations. Fortunately for us there +yet survive, in outlandish parts of the earth, remnants of native races +retaining the primitive organization which guided mankind through that +great hinterland of time lying between the emergence from apedom and the +dawn of the modern world. For the student of sociology the immense +primitive first stage of man's history is by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> far the more important. In +his <i>Voyage of the Beagle</i>, Darwin draws a picture of the Fuegians which +gives us a real insight into the ancient state of social organization. +Spencer and Gillan supply us with complementary pictures representing +the conditions of life among native tribes of Central Australia. These +primitive peoples live on the natural produce of the territory which +they inhabit and claim as their own. Their social organization +represents for us the conditions in which the modern races of mankind +were evolved. It is in such primitive societies that there must have +existed the machinery which differentiated mankind into races and racial +breeds. It is in the long first phase that we must search for the origin +of the social impulses and tendencies which have come down to modern man +by inheritance.<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a></p> + +<p>When we survey a country still in the most primitive stage of human +society, the first observation to impress us is the fact that its +inhabitants are separated into definitely isolated groups. Such groups +are usually small, consisting of men, women, and children belonging to +several closely related families and numbering two or three hundred +souls. Each group, forming an elemental community, occupies, and +considers itself the owner of, a definite tract of country; there is +developed in them a feeling—an attachment—which serves to bind them to +the soil on which they live. When we look at the nature of the bonds +which serve to bind the members of a primitive community together, we +see that they are formed out of subconscious impulses or instincts. +These instincts form an essential part of the machinery of organization. +There<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> is usually no head man or chieftain to determine the action of +the community; there is no deliberative assembly to lay down rules of +conduct. In Galton's phrase the members of a primitive community form 'a +sentient web', dominated by traditional beliefs and customs. I have no +wish to analyse the subconscious states and instinctive reactions which +rule and bind together the members of a primitive community; what I want +to make clear is that the tribal instincts have above all an isolating +effect. These instincts serve not only as a machinery for binding the +members of a community together, but also as a means of separating them +from all surrounding groups. Within the community this machinery compels +unity of sentiment and of action; it serves to repress schism and +faction. But the tribal machinery is operative only up to the +territorial boundaries of the community. At that limit the tribal +instincts immediately change in their mode of action. The tribal +instincts surround the community with a frontier, across which there is +no peaceful traffic, only robbery and plunder; or at the best covert +enmity. The tribal frontier is also a blood barrier; across it the +tribal instinct forbids any form of peaceful matrimonial exchange or +tribal intermixture. Nothing impressed Darwin so much as the ring of +neutral territory which surrounded the primitive Fuegian settlements.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Tribal Isolation provides the Conditions necessary for Race-breeding</span></h3> + +<p>The tribal or clannish spirit tends to manifest itself in many forms, +but in all its varieties there is a common factor—that of isolation. At +first sight we are tempted to regard the tribal spirit as part of a +machinery evolved for the protection and survival of a primitive +community,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> but to any one who has searched for conditions which will +explain the origin of separate races of mankind, the conviction grows +that the tribal spirit is an essential part of Nature's evolutionary +machinery. It was in these isolated cradles of primitive mankind that +Nature nursed and reared new races. When a breeder wishes to produce a +new type of animal, or to preserve a 'sport', his first step is to +isolate the group of animals with which he is to experiment. The +isolated stock becomes the cradle in which he hopes to rear his new +breed. The experimental breeder, in such instances, copies the +conditions which rule in primitive human communities. Under modern +civilization Nature's cradles have been smashed to atoms, but the tribal +instincts which Nature intended for the propagation of new breeds of +humanity have come down to modern man in undiminished force. Hence our +present national and racial troubles.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">The Conditions of Tribal Disintegration</span></h3> + +<p>The tribal spirit, which maintains the unity of an elementary community, +is efficient just so long as personal contact between its members is +possible. If a tribal community becomes overgrown, so that mutual +contact between its members is rendered impossible, then a manifestation +of a different nature appears—that of disruption or swarming. The +disintegrating tendency is just as much a part of Nature's evolutionary +contrivance as is the isolating and unifying effect of the tribal +spirit. For breeding purposes the group must be kept within certain +bounds. Modern man has overcome the tendency to disruption on the part +of massed communities by the invention of means of rapid +intercommunication. The<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span> daily press, the hourly post, and a network of +electric wires can bind a hundred millions of modern people into a +sentient tribal web.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">The Origin of Race Feeling</span></h3> + +<p>Small isolated communities are the cradles in which new tribal breeds of +mankind are reared. But how do new races arise? If isolation were to be +continued throughout long intervals of time we may justly infer that the +physical and mental characters of a breed would become more and more +emphasized until a stage of differentiation is reached which we must +regard as racial. A racial spirit is merely the tribal spirit matured +and consolidated. The manifestations which begin as tribal, end, in the +course of time, by becoming racial. We cannot account for the +differentiation of mankind into distinct races, nor the existence of +many intermediate forms which link one human race to another, unless we +postulate the existence in mankind of a deeply rooted tribal mechanism.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Transformation of a Tribal into a National Spirit</span></h3> + +<p>Having thus glanced at the nature of the instinctive machinery which has +controlled human communities throughout the greater part of man's +history we now return to ask ourselves: What have become of the tribal +instincts which were so deeply grafted in the nature of our ancestors? +Our tribal forefathers are not so far removed from us. We can still +trace the distribution of the Highland clans in Scotland; the tribal +spirit is still strong in the Scottish glens. The organization of +Ireland was on a tribal basis even when the Anglo-Normans settled there; +in subsequent centuries, even until the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> times of the British +settlements, the tribal spirit was still rampant in Ireland; even now it +is very much alive. Two thousand years ago Great Britain was in a tribal +state from end to end. Practically every one of us is the descendant of +ancestors who, forty generations back, were exercising their tribal +instincts to the full. The Roman occupation did much to break down the +tribal organization of Britain; the Saxon colonization did still more. +The forces, however, which forged the tribal links into a national chain +were commerce, communication, and the building of massed populations. +Tribes were united to form nations, but there is no greater mistake than +to suppose that the subconscious tribal impulses or instincts were +wholly converted into a sense of common nationality.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">Tribal Instincts now manifested in Everyday Life</span></h3> + +<p>We have only to watch our commoner actions and predilections to see that +in our modern States the spirit of nationality has only absorbed a +fraction of our tribal instincts. Every one of you regards your own +college and all the men belonging to it with pride; other colleges and +other men you view with a critical eye. You cheer your own crews and +teams; you want to see them beat all their rivals; you take sides. In +all of these actions and prejudices you manifest the elementary basis of +a tribal spirit. Every week we see hundreds of thousands attend football +or other competitive games, not so much to see an exhibition of skill as +to see their own side win. The spectators, as they cheer, are moved by a +tribal spirit. If we do not belong to a cricketing county we may go so +far as to adopt one as a foster-parent in order that we may exercise our +tribal instincts in being elated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> by its success or cast down by its +failure. Local national politics give us many opportunities of +exercising our tribal instincts. In politics we have to take sides; a +political party is a tribal organization, using ancient means for +compelling a unity of sentiment amongst its members. The church, too, +provides modern tribesmen with occasions for exercising their inherited +impulses; a heresy hunt finds its counterpart in the most ancient of +tribal communities. Women even more than men are slaves of their tribal +instincts; they are as susceptible to the dictates of fashion as their +ancient sisters were impressionable to the movings of the tribal spirit. +The local spirit which is so inherent a trait of the countryman, +particularly in the case of the Scotsman, Irishman, and Welshman, is +another, and often a very powerful, manifestation of the tribal spirit. +Men from the same locality or district, when they go to live in foreign +communities, are drawn together by a clannish sentiment—a manifestation +of their inherited tribal instincts. Turn in what direction you will, +you will find amongst modern peoples innumerable tribal manifestations +which find no room for display in the more intellectual exhibitions of a +national spirit.</p> + +<p>In present-day politics we see the tribal spirit striving to work out +certain novel effects. Although in ancient times a tribal frontier +usually corresponded to a territorial frontier, such was not always the +case. The tribal spirit is strong enough to hold a people together even +when there is no territorial boundary. In modern massed populations, as +in the organization of both ancient and modern India, the tribal spirit +works so as to produce frontiers between classes of citizens; trades +unions are in essence artificial tribal organizations. Except for the +existence of tribal instincts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> within the inherited mental organization +of the manual workers, such unions were impossible. Many writers believe +that class or sectional tribal organizations can actually be made to cut +across national and even racial frontiers. We have seen, however, that +at the declaration of war, all such sectional bonds snap, for war is the +match which fires the tribal spirit, exalts it to a national flame, and +destroys intertribal schisms. All the petty manifestations of the tribal +spirit are changed by war; the impulses which moved men and women in +peace time to games and sports, to party politics, to heresy +hunting—even to displays of fashion—are turned to patriotic desires +and deeds.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">A Knowledge of Tribal and Racial Spirit is essential for Statesmen</span></h3> + +<p>Several modern statesmen have grasped the important part played by the +tribal spirit in unifying the action of modern nations. I shall cite +only three examples to illustrate this form of political +insight—Bismarck, Lincoln, and Lloyd George. Bismarck employed war to +rouse and unify the German peoples; three campaigns were sufficient to +raise an unbounded feeling of tribal confidence and superiority. He gave +the German Empire a sharply demarcated tribal frontier; he purposely +surrounded his country with a ring of animosity, true to his tribal +instincts. Abraham Lincoln's tribal problem was of another kind. The +conditions which led up to the Civil War concerned the freeing of +slaves; but Lincoln made the war, when it became inevitable, an +intratribal quarrel. He realized that the danger to the United States +was disintegration, one which must continually threaten all +nationalities compounded out of great massed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>populations. Lincoln +therefore made the main issue of the war the right of a single state or +a confederation of states to secede from the main tribe or union. The +Civil War determined the issue in favour of the North: the natural +process of tribal disruption was declared illegal. Lloyd George's task +was of a different nature. He touched and wakened Britain's sleeping +tribal instincts with the insight of genius. War gave him his +opportunity, but had he not known that tribal instincts lie deeply +buried in man's emotional nature and are intertwined with his most +primitive feeling he could not have known how to touch the ancient +strings. Intellectual appeals had failed to stir the primitive and basal +tribal impulses of the people.</p> + +<h3><span class="smcap">The Problem of Ireland</span></h3> + +<p>There was one part of the country, however, where Lloyd George's appeal +did not succeed in evoking British patriotism; it left the greater part +of the people of Ireland not only apathetic but even more actively +hostile than before. Yet their country formed an intrinsic part of these +islands; their economic interests had much more to gain by the success +of Britain than of Germany. History throws light on only part of this +thorny problem; the real difficulty thus encountered dates back to +prehistoric days—to the origin of the inherent, inherited, and +deeply-rooted tribal instincts of the Irish people. The Irish spirit +leapt up, as it had often done before, into a naming tribal antagonism +directed against everything British. What then is a British statesman to +do? We too have our tribal instincts, and their first impulse on being +awakened is—as it was in ancient days—to meet force with force, even +to extermination. That is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> ancient tribal practice; but in these +days we have entered another era in the world's history when intelligent +effort must master and direct our inherited instincts. Statesmen know +that forcible means, when applied to extinguish a national flame, only +serve to feed it. Statecraft has never discovered, and I think it never +will discover, a method of forcing or grafting a new national or tribal +spirit on an old people. We have seen that a nation can colonize only +when the force which drives its members to migrate arises spontaneously +within the communities; a colonization initiated and conducted by a +government always fails to hold. Nationalization is a similar process; +the forces which control and guide it must arise within the hearts of +the people; it cannot be imposed on them from above. All that a +statesman can do is to provide conditions in which a favourable spirit +is most likely to develop and mature. He must sow judiciously for years +and wait patiently for his harvest—even if it be for generations. +Ireland's friendship is a prize which is worth working for and waiting +for, even if it costs Britain a weary century of patient courtship.</p> + +<div class="footnotes"><h3>FOOTNOTES:</h3> + +<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> I have dealt more fully with primitive tribal organization +in 'Certain Factors concerned in the Evolution of Human Races', <i>Journ. +Royal Anthropological Institute</i>, 1916, vol. 46, p. 10.</p></div></div> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Nationality and Race from an +Anthropologist's Point of View, by Arthur Keith + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONALITY AND RACE *** + +***** This file should be named 31369-h.htm or 31369-h.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/1/3/6/31369/ + +Produced by Martin Pettit and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Nationality and Race from an Anthropologist's Point of View + Being the Robert Boyle lecture delivered before the Oxford + university junior scientific club on November 17, 1919 + +Author: Arthur Keith + +Release Date: February 23, 2010 [EBook #31369] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONALITY AND RACE *** + + + + +Produced by Martin Pettit and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +_Nationality and Race_ + +_From an Anthropologist's Point of View_ + +BEING THE + +ROBERT BOYLE LECTURE + +DELIVERED BEFORE THE + +_OXFORD UNIVERSITY JUNIOR SCIENTIFIC CLUB_ + +_On November 17, 1919_ + +BY + +ARTHUR KEITH, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. + +HUMPHREY MILFORD +OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS +LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW NEW YORK +TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPE TOWN BOMBAY +1919 + + +PRINTED IN ENGLAND +AT THE OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS + + + + +NATIONALITY AND RACE + +FROM AN ANTHROPOLOGIST'S POINT OF VIEW + + +NATIONALITY AND RACE IN BOYLE'S TIME + +It was during the lifetime of Robert Boyle that our forefathers began to +come into close contact with the races and nationalities of the outer +world. When he was born in County Cork in the year 1627, small and +isolated bands of Englishmen were elbowing Red Indians from the eastern +sea-board of North America; before his death in London in 1691, at the +age of sixty-four, he had seen these pioneer bands become united into a +British fringe stretching almost without a break from Newfoundland to +Florida. Neither he nor any one else in England could then have guessed +that in less than two centuries the narrow fringe of colonists would +have spread from shore to shore, thus carpeting a continent with a new +people. It was in his time, too, that English merchants and sailors made +a closer acquaintance with the peoples of India, of the Far East, and +with the sea-board natives of Africa and of South America. We have only +to turn to the six splendid volumes in which his experiments, +observations, and writings are preserved to see how he viewed the world +which his countrymen were opening up beneath his eyes. In a short paper, +drafted some time before his death, he gives the most minute directions +to guide navigators in drawing up reports of newly discovered lands. His +directions relate to every conceivable property or aspect of a new +country--its geography, mineral wealth, natural products, climate--all +but its inhabitants. Like many Englishmen of his time, Boyle conceived +that his duty by native peoples began and ended when he had seen that +they were supplied with copies of the Bible. For him, and for most of +his contemporaries, there seem to have been no racial problems; for they +did not regard the meeting and mingling of diverse races or of peoples +of different nationalities as matters which deserved investigation and +explanation. Boyle witnessed the acutest phases of the 'plantation' of +Ireland, but the inquiries he set on foot regarding that country were: +'How it cometh to pass that there are not frogs, toads, snakes, moles, +nightingales, rarely magpies' within its borders; he inquired, too, +concerning the true nature of 'diverse things which the Irish foolishly +report of St. Patrick'--especially concerning the 'birds turned into +stones for chirping when St. Patrick was preaching'. There were, of +course, racial and national problems in Boyle's time, but they had not +then presented themselves before the tribunal of the public mind as +matters demanding investigation and treatment. + + +RACE AND NATIONALITY IN RECENT YEARS + +We need not blame the statesmen and writers of Boyle's time for failing +to recognize the inward significance of national and racial +manifestations any more than we condemn his contemporary physicians for +failing to separate from the mass of disease such conditions as are +known to modern medical men as appendicitis and typhoid fever. Typhoid +fever and appendicitis existed in Boyle's time just as did national +disturbances and racial antipathies, but their nature and significance +passed undiagnosed. It was not until England had laid siege, by means +of armies of colonists, to lands inhabited by native races, or had come +to guide the destinies of great tropical empires by handfuls of civil +servants, that she realized that racial contact gives rise to live and +burning antagonisms. Nor are national problems new to England; they have +always dogged the footsteps of her statesmen. In Boyle's time a people +could make its national spirit heard and felt only by resorting to brute +force. In our times there are other means; a people mobilizes its +national spirit by means of the daily press; the promulgation of +national propaganda has become a fine art; modern statesmen have learned +that national feelings, rightly directed, have the force of an +avalanche. The problems of Race and of Nationality, then, are by no +means new, but in their modern form they are new. The far-flung lines of +the British Empire and the mobilization of the popular spirit by means +of the press and propaganda have compelled our statesmen, historians, +publicists, psychologists, and anthropologists to re-examine the nature +of the forces which lie behind racial movements and national agitations. +Of the importance of a right understanding of the nature of these forces +for the future maintenance and development of the British Empire there +cannot be any question. In the guiding of its destinies Oxford men will, +in the future as in the past, take a leading part, and much of their +success will depend on how far they have grasped the nature of the +inward forces which group mankind into races and nations. That is my +reason for making the problems of Race and Nationality the subject of +this lecture in memory of Robert Boyle. + + +INHERITED INSTINCTS AND MODERN IDEALS ARE OUT OF HARMONY + +It has scarcely been possible in recent years to open a newspaper +without our eye being arrested by head-lines telling us of racial +strifes or international contentions. One day we read of race riots; on +the next we learn that the inhabitants of a certain area of land demand +separation from all surrounding peoples. By a process of +'self-determination' they demand to be recognized as a separate people +or nation. These racial and national contentions are not restricted to +any particular people or land; we find them in every country. The +politician is too near to these racial and national manifestations of +the modern world to see them in their proper light; even the historian +is not far enough away from them to see them in their right perspective. +You cannot explore the secret sources from which they spring unless you +have grasped the immensity of man's unwritten history. Let me make my +meaning quite clear by an historical example chosen from man's body. +Among our modern populations there are no ailments more prevalent than +those which arise from a disordered working of the great bowel. Why this +part of our bodily machinery should fail us under modern conditions of +diet becomes quite apparent when we survey the history of man's distant +past. For the anthropologist there are only two well-marked phases in +human history. The first phase is that of Natural subsistence--an +infinitely long and monotonous chapter, stretching over a million of +years or more. The second is the phase of Artificial subsistence--a +short chapter covering a period of 10,000 or 12,000 years at the utmost, +but a period crowded with events which have a critical bearing on our +present and future welfare. In the first or long phase mankind was +broken into small and scattered groups which gained as best they could a +sparse, uncertain, and coarse sustenance from the natural produce of +shore and stream, moorland and woodland. In the second or short phase +man conquered nature; by means of cultivation and domestication he +forced from the soil a sure and abundant supply of food, thus rendering +possible the existence of our modern massed populations. Now the +machinery of man's body and the instinctive outfit of his brain, which +had been evolved to answer to the conditions of life presented by the +first long phase of his history, were also those which had to serve him +when he entered the new conditions of the short or modern phase. We need +not be surprised to find, then, that part of his ancient outfit is ill +adapted to modern conditions of life. Man's great bowel, including the +caecum, appendix, and colon, which answered his needs well when his +dietary was coarse and uncooked, is ill contrived to deal with foods +which are artificially prepared and highly concentrated. A school, which +was headed by the late Professor Metchnikoff, even goes so far as to +maintain that man would be improved by the complete removal of his great +bowel--a doctrine with which I totally disagree. We are all alive to the +fact that there is a lack of harmony between the ancient machinery of +our bodies and the modern conditions under which we live, but we are +only now awakening to the fact that what is true of our bodies is also +true of our minds. In that immense first phase of our history an +elaborate mental machinery had been evolved for binding small groups of +mankind into social units. This subconscious or instinctive mental +outfit, we shall see, is part of the machinery which Nature has employed +in the evolution of races of mankind. The mental adaptations which +modern man has inherited from the immensity of his past we may briefly +describe as part of Nature's tribal machinery. The thesis, then, which I +propose to expound to you is that in our modern racial strifes and +national agitations we see man's inherited tribal instincts at war with +his present-day conditions of life. We have broken up, or are attempting +to break up, Nature's ancient tribal machinery and at the present time +are striving to replace her designs by others evolved in the minds of +modern statesmen and politicians. We moderns are like hill sheep turned +into fenced fields with all our wandering instincts still grafted on our +original nature. As in them, our instincts are at war with our +surroundings. It is the most natural thing in the world that we should +blame the barriers which have been set round us because we are scarcely +conscious of the inherited predispositions with which Nature encompasses +her tribal fields. We cannot understand the nature of our modern racial +and national problems until we perceive that in these days we are +endeavouring to build a new world out of the wreckage of an old. + + +RACIAL AND NATIONAL PROBLEMS IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA + +Having thus laid before you the general lines on which I propose to deal +with problems relating to race and nationality, I propose now that we +should make a lightning trip round the world and cull, as we go, samples +which will illustrate the kind of friction which arises wherever races +or nationalities come into close contact. As I have already said, every +country can yield us material for our study, but none on such a vast +experimental scale as the United States of North America; we shall +therefore commence our hurried survey in that country. Within the +frontiers of the States is massed a population of 110 millions. When we +look closely we see that over ten millions of these inhabitants are +marked off from the rest by a frontier, a colour line, as sharply +defined and jealously guarded as the frontiers of a kingdom. Across that +racial frontier all legitimate social traffic is barred, the custodians +of the frontier being those who stand on the white side of the line. Any +attempt to cross that racial frontier produces mob war. While these ten +millions of segregated citizens abide within their racial fence, they +see millions arrive from Europe and pass freely through the national and +social gateways--which for them are barred. In the course of a +generation they see these new arrivals, men, women, and children born +and bred within the diverse nationalities of Europe, differing markedly +in appearance and speech from the original colonial stock, become slowly +stript of their alien outlook and gradually incorporated within a new +national mass. In the States, then, we see a machinery at work which +maintains racial frontiers but breaks down all national barriers. The +nature of that machinery we shall have to inquire into later, but in the +meantime I will briefly define the essential difference between a racial +and a national frontier. A marriage across a racial frontier gives rise +to an offspring so different from both parent races that it cannot be +naturally grouped with either the one or the other. A marriage across a +national frontier gives rise to a progeny which may pass as a member of +either parent nationality. Further, as I shall attempt to prove later, +nationality is the incipient stage in the process which leads on to +racial differentiation. + + +PROBLEMS OF CANADA + +When we cross the line which separates the United States from Canada we +find a national mechanism at work which converts immigrants of alien +nationalities into loyal Canadians. In Canada, however, our attention is +arrested by an example which illustrates the persistence and the +strength of the force which perpetuates a national spirit. The ancestors +of the French Canadians began to settle in the province of Quebec early +in the seventeenth century, 150 years before the Canadian national mill +was set agoing by Englishmen. The French settlers never passed through +that mill. They came, for the greater part, from the north-west of +France, and although speaking a different tongue, adopting a different +religion, and following different customs, they were yet in point of +race not essentially different from the English founders of Canada. Yet +the descendants of these early French settlers, now numbering well over +a million and a half, and although forming but a small island in the +midst of an English-speaking ocean for more than a century and a half, +have maintained their sense of separateness--their national +frontiers--intact. There is no question here of a racial frontier as +yet, but were this national isolation of French Canadians to become +permanent, then in course of time a racial differentiation would be +produced within their territory. + +When we turn our faces westward and cross the Rocky Mountains we find +the minds of the white inhabitants, along the whole stretch of the +Pacific coast, occupied with a racial problem. They have erected a +racial barrier to keep out the native peoples of Asia. The native of +India is excluded just as strictly as the Chinaman or Japanese. They +are not excluded because of their speech or of their civilization, but +because the people of the United States and of Canada are conscious of a +certain feeling of difference--call it race prejudice, race antipathy, +or what you will. It is a conscious or subconscious state of feeling +which rebels against racial fusion. + + +RACIAL PROBLEMS OF SPANISH AMERICA + +When we pass from the United States to Mexico we cross the boundary line +which separates the two most immense experiments in human breeding the +world has ever seen. North of this experimental Rubicon, as we have just +seen, the basal stock, which is north-west European or Nordic in origin, +has been ruled by a sense of race-caste and has consequently maintained +its racial characters. But south of our Rubicon the result of racial +contact has been absolutely different. The south-west European or +Iberian stock broke down the natural barrier which Nature had set up +between them and the natives of Mexico and South America and solved +their racial antagonisms by the fusion of blood. The results of these +two experiments, carried out on such an immense scale, we can see +to-day. The northern experiment, which is now three centuries old, has +given the world two of her most virile peoples destined to hold their +place whether humanity becomes planted out on a vast, peaceful, and +uniform cabbage-patch or still remains, as now, broken up into national +and racial factions. These northern peoples are as effective, so far at +least as concerns their chances of survival, as the original Nordic +stock. The southern experiment, which began four centuries ago, has +given the world a jangling series of small peoples, not any one of which +is equal, either in body or in mind, to the pioneer Iberian stock. From +the anthropologist's point of view the northern experiment is the +successful one. + +We have been glancing at the national and racial problems of the +American continent and we ought now to pass on to note the form in which +they are presented to us by Australasia. Before passing on, however, +there is one very important aspect of the southern or Iberian experiment +which we must consider now because it throws light on the path along +which I want to lead you. Why did the racial barrier between Iberian and +Indian break down? Was it because the Iberian did not possess--was not +influenced by--a sense of race-caste such as we have seen to dominate +the Nordic colonist? I believe that race-caste or race-prejudice is and +has been a more potent force in the Nordic than in the Iberian stock. +The Iberian people are near neighbours of the African races; in physique +they are differentiated from the African stocks in a somewhat less +degree than the Nordic stocks which represent the utmost point in the +physical specialization of all European peoples. If the Iberian pioneer +carried with him to America a lesser degree of race-caste, the process +of hybridization would begin the more easily. The great north and south +experiments differed, however, in another important circumstance. The +Nordic encountered a scattered, nomadic, proud race; the Iberian a +settled people living in dense communities. The Iberian was thus exposed +to conditions in which a racial barrier was harder to maintain. + + +STRUGGLE BETWEEN RACE AND SEX IMPULSES + +But neither of these two circumstances--a lesser developed sense of +race-caste in the Iberian, nor the massing of the southern Indians in +settled communities--explain the disappearance of a racial frontier. The +true explanation lies in the fact that Nature has grafted in the human +mind instinctive impulses which are far stronger than those designated +as race-prejudice. Nature has spent her most painstaking efforts in +establishing within the human organization a mechanism to ensure, above +all other ends, that the individual shall continue. The instinct to +propagate is the strongest of the instinctive impulses with which +mankind has been fitted. It dominates and conquers the race instinct on +all occasions save one. Sex impulse is the battery which breaks down +race-barriers. Race instinct becomes the master of sexual impulse only +when a pure stock has established itself as a complete and growing +community in a new country. Sexual impulses are the endowments of +individual men and women; they dominate and are manifested by +individuals, whereas race antipathies are manifestations not of the +individual, but of the mass. Race instinct comes into play only when +men, women, and children of the same stock are organized into +communities. Until such a community is organized sex instinct traffics +freely across racial barriers; once organized, race instinct conquers or +restrains hybridization. It is a right understanding of the conditions +under which human instincts work that gives us the true key to the +hybridization of Spaniard and American Indian. The Iberian pioneers +exposed themselves to racial contact in Mexico and Peru under conditions +which were bound to give their sex impulses a victory over their race +instinct. No _Mayflower_ reached the Spanish coasts of America; only +bands of adventurers, who established no independent home-like +settlements to form the cradles of race-feeling. The sex instinct was +left dominant, and by this force the racial barriers south of the +Mexican rubicon were broken down. North of this Rubicon the American +continent was colonized; south of it, there was not a colonization but a +plantation. From an anthropologist's point of view, as we shall note +later, colonization and plantation are totally different processes. + + +RACE PROBLEMS IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND + +When we cross the Pacific to Australia we see the same racial and +national factors at work as in Saxon America. It has taken only a little +over a century for a British or Nordic stock, now numbering five +millions, to establish itself as occupant and owner of a great +continent. The Australians have had to face both national and racial +problems. The continent was colonized from separate centres, and there +was a tendency on the part of each colony to isolate itself from its +neighbours and grow up into a separate state or nationality. These +separate states or incipient nationalities were united at the +commencement of the present century by the craft of statesmanship which +made the shores of the new continent the frontiers of a national +commonwealth. The British communities in Australia bred and exhibited +the usual Saxon sense of race discrimination; almost from the first they +drew a racial frontier between themselves and the native blacks, and so +strictly has this frontier been maintained that there is no trace of the +vanishing aboriginal blood in the veins of the new nationality. The +50,000 survivors of the original owners of the continent now present a +philanthropic rather than a racial problem. But it is otherwise as +regards the millions of native peoples occupying the countries which +flank the Indian and China seas. Seas are the highways along which +modern peoples spread and invade accessible lands. Hence round their +shores the Australians have erected a racial barrier, admitting the +entrance of peoples of European descent but excluding all others. + +The student of racial and national problems cannot afford to pass New +Zealand by. In these two islands English, Scotch, Irish, and Welsh +immigrants have, in the course of the last eighty years, built up a new +nation, now numbering well over a million souls. Here and there in the +islands there has been a tendency for the immigrants to group themselves +according to their inherited nationality, but such separate groupings +tend to disappear as the new national spirit becomes dominant. Herein we +see exhibited a law with which herdsmen are familiar. A herd of cattle +which has occupied a field for some time will resist the intrusion of a +second or strange herd; but turn both herds together into a strange +pasture and mutual antipathies cease almost at once. The arrival in a +new land of immigrants from diverse countries breaks down the national +barriers within which they were born and bred. A national spirit breeds +true only on its native soil; when transplanted to a new land it becomes +plastic and mouldable. A new country dissolves ancient nationalities; no +country illustrates this truth more emphatically than New Zealand. + +The relationship which exists between the new nationality of New Zealand +and the ancient owners of the country--the Maori, now numbering about +50,000--is one of a unique kind. The physical differences which separate +the British and Maori types are such in degree that there can be no +question of the distinctness of their racial stocks. In former cases we +have seen that it was the Saxon who drew and guarded the racial +frontier; but in New Zealand each of the contending human stocks has +drawn its racial line, and each regards the other's delimitation with +respect. Such respect is rendered possible because the territorial +frontiers of Maoriland have been clearly defined. Thus wise +statesmanship keeps racial problems in a latent condition in New +Zealand. + + +NATIONAL AND RACIAL PROBLEMS IN SOUTH AFRICA + +If we now pass to South Africa we find problems of race and of +nationality in a more acute and tangled form than anywhere else in the +world. Long before the Portuguese had turned the Cape of Good Hope +towards the end of the sixteenth century, this land was occupied by a +confusion of contending tribal peoples belonging to at least three +well-differentiated human stocks. Bantu peoples were pushing southwards, +ousting and exterminating Hottentot tribes; these were at the same time +exercising a continuous pressure on the Bush people. At the present time +this great territory, with a total area of nearly twenty times that of +England, is occupied by about six and a quarter millions of people, +fully five millions being descendants of the original native tribes, +with a slight admixture of Asiatic elements. The masters and owners of +this territory, numbering only a little over a million, are of the +Nordic or north-west European stock. About one-half of the dominant +stock drew its original guiding spirit from Holland, the other half +carried to its new home the national spirit of England. These two +nationalities, both derived from the same North Sea stock, have been +thrown together in South Africa for over a century, and yet a sense of +difference in nationality has persisted, even in face of dangers which +threaten both alike. Thus South Africa has an acute friction arising +from the rubbing of one nationality on another. She has also her racial +problems; the more closely they are examined the more do their potential +dangers seem to grow. Boer and Briton may differ in speech, habit, and +outlook, but both agree that there is an impassable frontier between +them and the native races of Africa and Asia. They do not even +camouflage the racial barricade which they have erected; they purposely +expose it in its nakedness to full view, so that none may fail to see +it. The dark natives maintain their tribal and racial frontiers by their +inherited organizations, but the surveillance of the social barrier +between them and the whites lies with the dominant race. Only those who +have come into direct contact with racial antagonisms know how deeply +they are situated in the primitive organization of the human brain. Let +me cite only one witness on this point--one who would willingly believe, +if he could, that racial antagonisms are both superficial and acquired. +"That a very real problem exists in the race-consciousness of the white +and coloured peoples is evident, is sometimes painfully evident, +sometimes dangerously so. There is nothing to be gained by +under-estimating its deep-seated nature and the gravity of its issues." +This is a quotation from the presidential address given by Dr. W. Flint +to the last meeting (1919) of the South African Association for the +Advancement of Science. The mixture of races in South Africa has roused +to activity instincts or subconscious states which lie dormant in +members of a uniform population. National and racial frontiers, we shall +see, are part of Nature's evolutionary machinery. Meantime we merely +note that modern industrial ideals clash with the working of Nature's +instinctive mechanisms, and in South Africa the two are in actual +collision. + + +SOME OF THE NATIONAL AND RACIAL PROBLEMS OF EUROPE + +As we pass northwards along the African continent, over a welter of +tribal peoples, we need merely note the cry for national recognition +which ascends to us from the lower valley of the Nile. The descendants +of the ancient Egyptians, mixed with a conglomeration of racial stocks +drawn from Africa, Asia, and Europe, are agitating for 'national' +independence and isolation. It would take us too far afield to consider +the national and racial problems of the 300 millions of diverse peoples +of India who are linked together by only one bond--the government +extended to them by the British Empire. Nor need we stay now to +speculate on the nationalities which will arise from the wreckage of +Turkey, Austria, or Russia, nor shall we dally with the Balkan jumble of +nationalities. We simply note that these instincts or feelings which +compel men of like speech, habits, and traditions to group themselves +into independent national units are most active and powerful where +racial or national boundaries are most confused. + + +ARE THE JEWS A SEPARATE RACE? + +In the strict sense in which the anthropologist uses the term 'Race' +there is in Europe no racial problem. Our universal disturbances are +those of nationality. There are no two nationalities in Europe, so +different in physical appearance, that their hybrid progeny may not pass +as a member of either parent nationality. In the anthropologist's sense +there are no racial bastards produced by the union of European +nationalities. If we except the Lapps and other Mongolian elements in +Russia there is only one people in Europe with a legitimate claim to be +regarded as racially different from the general population. That +exception is the Jewish people. There are seven millions of them forming +an archipelago in the sea of European peoples, their main islands lying +in the centre of the continent, north and south of the Carpathians. The +Jews maintain a racial frontier, such as dominant races surround +themselves with; they carry themselves as if racially distinct. Their +original stock was clearly eastern in its derivation; the peoples of +Europe sprang from another racial source. The outliers of the Jewish +racial archipelago are exposed to the cross-currents of the Gentile +seas. The smaller islets are too far removed to be sheltered and +strengthened by the race sense which is bred and nursed wherever +permanent Jewish settlements are established. However much the Jewish +racial frontier may be strengthened by the faith which is the standard +of the race, raids have been made, are now made, across that frontier +and a certain degree of hybridization has occurred. Even thus exposed in +the eddying seas of modern civilization, the race spirit of the Jews has +preserved the greater part of the original characters carried into +Europe by the pioneer Semitic bands. In 90 per cent. of Jews the +physical or Semitic characters are apparent to the eye even of the +uninitiated Gentile. In the Jewish people we see Nature steering one of +her cargoes of differentiated humanity between the Scylla and Charybdis +of the modern sea of industrial civilization. And race instinct is her +steersman. + + +NATIONAL MOVEMENTS ARE OF TWO KINDS + +The processes of nationalization in Europe are of two kinds; on the one +hand we see smaller nationalities being compounded into larger units; on +the other we see large nationalities being disintegrated. We see fusion +taking place and we see disruption. Which is Nature's method? All the +great nationalities of Europe have been built up by fusion--Italy, +Spain, France, Great Britain, and Germany. As the last named is the most +recent and most clearly understood case of fusion we may glance at the +means by which it was accomplished. The nationalities and separate +states which were united to form the German Empire were derived from at +least three stocks, each of which show well-differentiated physical +characters. These human stocks were united by a common tongue. By war +and conquest the empire surrounded itself--isolated itself--by a ring of +enemies. The Germans carried their frontiers beyond the limits of their +speech and set out to make Danes, Frenchmen, and Poles members of their +own nationality. They sought to strengthen their national frontiers by +tariff barricades. They linked themselves together by the multiplication +of means of rapid transit and fostered the growth of a national or +tribal spirit by active, persistent, and widespread tribal propaganda. +The tribal spirit, which is an innate quality of every people, was +roused to such a pitch that in the crisis of war the national or tribal +bonds held; sixty millions of people acted as if they were members of a +Highland clan. Even defeat, if it has loosened, has not broken the +national bonds which were forged by the governing classes of Germany. + +In all these processes of national fusion, as in the formation of all +trusts in the modern commercial world, the anthropologist observes that +the operation commences from above and works downwards through the mass +of the people. The governing class plays upon and fans into flame the +tribal embers of the popular mind. It is altogether a different process +which brings about the disruption of a nationality. Disruption has +nothing to do with race; the nearer the blood relationship between two +adjacent peoples the more likely is disruption to occur. We can find no +better illustration of this truth than when we cross the Baltic from +Germany to Scandinavia. The people of Norway and Sweden are of the same +racial composition; they have many interests in common; union should +have given strength. Yet after a partnership which lasted for less than +a century, they agreed to separate. In this case the movement came from +below; a tribal feeling which swept through the people of Norway +compelled a disruption. All the natural inherited forces in a people +tend towards disruption. Only when reason takes the helm can these +natural disruptive forces be overcome and the process of fusion be +effected. + + +BRITISH NATIONAL PROBLEMS + +Having thus made a hurried survey of some of the more instructive, +racial, and national problems abroad we now return homewards to apply +the knowledge thus gained to the understanding of the national +manifestations of our own countrymen. There is no need to remind you +that the national spirit of Robert Boyle's native country is always +boiling up, often boiling over. Scotland, too, has a national spirit, so +has Wales; in both countries this spirit is separatist in its essence, +but the national instinctive tendencies are curbed and guided by the +higher reasoning centres of the brain. In England itself the sense of +nationality is usually dormant; only an insult or a threat from without +stirs this gigantic force into life. In Ireland the national kettle is +kept always on the boil; in Scotland and Wales it is kept simmering; in +England, on the other hand, it dozes quietly on the hob. Nevertheless +English nationality is a force which pervades the whole population lying +between Berwick-on-Tweed and Land's End. In the course of centuries +statesmanship has succeeded in raising up in the minds of all the +inhabitants of the British Isles--all save in the greater part of +Ireland--a new and wider sense of nationality, a spirit of British +nationality. Why we never succeeded in raising that spirit in the whole +of Ireland represents the major part of our present quest. + + +ARE CELTS AND SAXONS OF DIFFERENT RACIAL STOCKS? + +At the outset of our inquiry we are met by the ancient belief that the +British Isles are divided by a racial frontier which separates the +western or Celtic peoples from the eastern inhabitants of Saxon origin. +It was my fortune to be born on the border of the Celtic fringe, and no +one growing up under these circumstances can fail to realize that the +Celtic spirit is a real and live force. Is it a racial antagonism which +is elicited when Celt and Saxon are in conflict? What is the physical +difference between a Celt and a Saxon? That is a matter to which I have +given my attention for some years, and the results of my inquiries I +will place before you as briefly as I may. In the audience now before me +there are certain to be pure representatives of all our four +nationalities; Celts and Saxons as pure as any in the country are sure +to be present in any university audience. But except for a trick of +speech or a local mannerism, the most expert anthropologist cannot tell +Celt from Saxon or an Irishman from a Scotsman. There are, to be sure, +certain physical types which prevail in one country more than in +another, but I do not know of any feature of the body or any trait of +the mind, or of any combination of features or traits which will permit +an expert, on surveying groups of university students, to say this group +is from Scotland, that from Wales, the third from Ireland, and the +fourth from England. In stature and in colouring, in form of skull and +of face, elaborate trials have revealed national difference only of the +most minor kind. Nay, we know very well the physical features of the +Saxon pioneers who became the masters of England and dominated the +lowlands of Scotland. Their graveyards have been examined by the score, +but it is not by the form of the skulls and the strength of the limb +bones that we know we are dealing with the graves of ancient Saxons, but +by the implements, ornaments, and utensils which were buried with them. +As regards shape of skull or form of bones I do not think a practised +craniologist could distinguish the skulls and bones found in an ancient +Saxon cemetery in Surrey from the remains of a Celtic grave in +Connemara, so much are Celtic and Saxon types alike. Were we to dress +one group of fishermen from the coast of Norfolk and another from the +shores of Connaught in the same garb, I do not think there is an +anthropologist in Europe who by mere inspection could tell the Irish +from the English group. From a physical point of view the Celt and Saxon +are one; whatever be the source of their mutual antagonism, it does not +lie in a difference of race. It is often said that we British are a +mixed and mongrel collection of types and breeds; the truth is that as +regards physical type the inhabitants of the British Isles are the most +uniform of all the large nationalities of Europe. + + +ALL BRITISH NATIONALITIES ARE OF THE NORTH SEA STOCK + +The statement which I have just made, that Britons are really a uniform +folk, seems altogether at variance with the teaching of history. What I +am to say now will explain a discrepancy which, in its essence, is only +superficial. Our written history opens with the Roman invasion and +occupation of Britain; it was an 'occupation' or 'plantation', not a +true colonization. On the other hand, the Saxon and Danish invasions +ended in widely spread and true colonizations of Britain. The Norman +invasion, on the other hand, was of the nature of a plantation. I will +make the difference between the various forms of invasion apparent +presently. There have been, too, flocks of immigrant refugees at various +times. We have the most positive evidence that long before the dawn of +written history the processes of invasion and colonization had been +going on in Britain. In all these invasions, historic and prehistoric, +with one important exception, no strange or new racial stock was added +to the British Isles; all were apparently branches of the human stock +which still occupy the north-west of Europe--men of the Nordic type--or +as I should prefer to call them, the North Sea breed. We are only now +beginning to realize that even at the dawn of the present period, a +period marked by the retreat of the ice sheet from the Baltic basin, the +seashore and the sea itself were the high roads along which primitive +peoples migrated and spread. They were people of the same human type +who spread themselves along the shores of the Mediterranean and occupied +its coastal lands. The distribution of the Mediterranean breed was +determined by the limits of their sea. Apparently the shores of the +North Sea were settled in a similar way. We have but scanty remains from +the midden heaps along its ancient shores to tell us about the kind of +folk these early settlers were, but so far as the evidence goes it +supports the supposition that the Nordic type was already in possession +of north-west Europe before the dawn of the Neolithic period. We can +only explain the distribution of the Nordic type along the shorelands of +the North Sea, of the Baltic, and of the British seas, on the +supposition of a primitive and ancient North Sea stock--made up of men +of the Nordic type. The earliest cave dwellers of England were of this +type. It was this North Sea stock which gave Britain not only her +original population but also her succession of colonists. It is certain +that there were also invasions of Britain from the Mediterranean stock, +but we have only to compare a sample of our modern population with one +drawn from a Mediterranean people to see how little our blood has been +affected by a southern mixture. In all these invasions and colonizations +there is only one which was not drawn from the North Sea stock. That +invasion took place in the second millenium before Christ, when the +round-headed stock of Central Europe broke through the Nordic belt, +reached the shores of the North Sea, and invaded Britain on a scale +which has never been equalled before or since save in Saxon times. That +invasion of round-heads broke first on England and Scotland, but Wales +and particularly Ireland received in time a full share of the fresh +arrivals. With this one exception all the invaders and settlers of the +British Isles were waves derived from the same prolific source--the +North Sea breed. We see, then, why there should be little physical +difference between Celt and Saxon. The one was an earlier wave, the +other a much later wave of the same stock. But each wave brought its own +mode of speech and its own tribal spirit. Of all the inhabitants of the +British Isles the Irish may be regarded as the purest representatives of +the North Sea or Nordic stock. + + +THERE ARE KINDS OF COLONIZATION--SPONTANEOUS AND FORCED + +The refusal of the Irish to merge their sense of nationality in a common +British whole cannot be explained by any difference in blood or race. We +shall get nearer to the heart of the problem if we can discover why the +people on the north-east of Ireland, particularly in counties Antrim and +Down, in contrast with the rest of Ireland, are sharers in the common +British spirit. It is true that, even in ancient times, there was a +community of feeling between Ulstermen and the West Scotch. Even in +Neolithic times their cultures show a free intercourse. Before the +plantation of Ireland by lowland folk in the seventeenth century, Ulster +was frequented by bands of Highland Scots. Neither of these +circumstances explain the unionist spirit of Ulster. Nor is the spirit +of north-east Ulster a matter of British admixture. A careful +examination of all the available data relating to the plantation of +Ireland between 1560 and 1660 will show that an even greater proportion +of British blood was poured into Leinster and Munster than into Ulster. +At the end of the plantation period probably one Irishman out of every +three in the provinces of Leinster and Munster had blood of British +colonists in his veins. In this reckoning no count is made of the people +who landed and settled in Ireland in the five centuries which preceded +1560--Danes, Normans, Welsh, and English. It is not the number of +British colonists which has made north-east Ulster separatist in spirit, +so far as the rest of Ireland is concerned--and unionist, so far as +Great Britain is concerned. The north-east region of Ireland was the +only part which was truly colonized; only a real or spontaneous +colonization can carry a tribal or national spirit to a new land. + +For the anthropologist a true or spontaneous colonization is a totally +different process from one which is false or forced. At the very time at +which the English Government was settling or planting colonists on Irish +soil and among Irish people, a spontaneous exodus set in among the North +Sea peoples. This exodus--a people's movement--established a Saxon +fringe along the eastern sea-board of North America. The exodus, which +began in the seventeenth century, has continued to the present +time--three full centuries. Thus fed, the fringe extended until it +reached the Pacific shore. The original fringe represented a true tribal +settlement; within the pioneer communities grew up the consciousness of +nationality and of race-antagonism, which we have already noted in the +Saxon peoples of North America. The break-away--the natural process of +disintegration, represented by the War of Independence--is usually +explained as a result of bad government. The disputes between the +British Government and the colonists were certainly the circumstances +which determined the disruption, but the forces which impelled the +colonists to action were those subconscious impulses which Nature has +planted deep in the human mind as part of her evolutionary machinery. + + +THE SAXON SETTLEMENT OF BRITAIN + +The colonization of North America, which took place in the full light of +history, gives us the means of understanding the Saxon colonization of +England, which otherwise lies obscure in the twilight of our written +records. In both cases we have to deal with a spontaneous or popular +movement. One was across the wide Atlantic, the other across an almost +land-locked sea. Both commenced by the formation of a fringe of true +settlement wherein inherited tribal traditions and organizations were +nursed and strengthened; in both cases the original fringe was fed by a +stream of immigrants continuing over several centuries. The chief +difference between the two movements lies in this: the American +colonists encountered a people who were so physically unlike themselves +as to raise a racial frontier, whereas the Saxon people pushed their way +into a land inhabited by people of their own stock. The progeny of the +captured British native could be reared so as to become a true Saxon. +The Saxon colonization, as it spread over the land, engulfed--when it +did not exterminate--the natives and their tribal organizations in their +agricultural village communities. The Saxon settlement of England held +and prospered because it was a true colonization. + + +THE PLANTATION AND COLONIZATION OF IRELAND + +In Ireland we have an opportunity of contrasting the results of an +artificial or forced settlement with those of a natural or spontaneous +colonization. Elizabeth, James, and Cromwell settled their colonists on +Irish tribal lands, thus exposing them to the full force of the clannish +or tribal spirit which then animated the natives of Ireland. The +consequence was that the progeny of the British colonists, as it grew +up, absorbed the Irish tribal spirit, for this spirit, being more +primitive and more easily understood than a sense of nationality, always +makes a dominant appeal to the young mind. The blood which English +statesmen of the seventeenth century poured into Ireland to quench its +national flame only served to feed it. It was otherwise in the +north-east of Ireland--particularly in Down and Antrim. These counties +were settled in the earlier decades of the seventeenth century by a +process of spontaneous colonization. The movement commenced in a small +way in 1606 by Hugh Montgomery, a south Scotch laird, purchasing a large +tract of the O'Neill's land in county Down. He settled that land with +his relations and tenantry--a farming community. Such was the beginning +of the colonial fringe on the north-east coast of Ulster. The fringe was +fed by a spontaneous exodus of farming folk mainly from the south of +Scotland, but the stream was also kept up and maintained from the north +of England and from Scottish counties as far north as those of Aberdeen +and Inverness. The men who flocked to Ulster found it easier to raise +crops on the greensward of Antrim than on the heathery hill-sides of +Aberdeenshire. Herein we see a repetition, but on a small scale, of the +Saxon colonization of England. The settled communities established by +the Scotch pioneers sheltered and nursed the national spirit they +brought with them. As the fringe of colonists expanded it came to cover +Antrim and Down and made inroads on adjacent counties, overwhelming and +absorbing the tribal organization of the native population. In 1672 Sir +William Petty estimated that there were 100,000 Scots in Ulster. Thus +in the north-east of Ireland there has been established a people which +manifests all the qualities of a new nationality. History can explain to +us how it has come about that the inhabitants of Ireland, all of them +derivatives of the same breed of Europeans, should be divided into two +peoples, each possessed by its own peculiar sense of nationality. The +north is predominantly industrial and Protestant; the south is +predominantly pastoral and Catholic. But these circumstances are not +sufficient to account for a national--almost a racial--antagonism +between the inhabitants of a single small island who have so much to +gain by a sense of unity. To understand national antagonisms we have to +look at the inheritance which modern man has carried with him from his +distant past. + + +THE NATURE OF TRIBAL INSTINCT + +I now enter the third stage of my argument. In the first I cited and +discussed the various forms in which racial and national feelings are +manifested by various peoples abroad; in my second I dealt with the +nature of the various national movements at home. We now set out in +search of the root from which the flower of our complex modern +civilization has sprung. In the world of to-day we see many peoples +exhibiting every phase in the evolution of that organization which +permits mankind to live in massed populations. Fortunately for us there +yet survive, in outlandish parts of the earth, remnants of native races +retaining the primitive organization which guided mankind through that +great hinterland of time lying between the emergence from apedom and the +dawn of the modern world. For the student of sociology the immense +primitive first stage of man's history is by far the more important. In +his _Voyage of the Beagle_, Darwin draws a picture of the Fuegians which +gives us a real insight into the ancient state of social organization. +Spencer and Gillan supply us with complementary pictures representing +the conditions of life among native tribes of Central Australia. These +primitive peoples live on the natural produce of the territory which +they inhabit and claim as their own. Their social organization +represents for us the conditions in which the modern races of mankind +were evolved. It is in such primitive societies that there must have +existed the machinery which differentiated mankind into races and racial +breeds. It is in the long first phase that we must search for the origin +of the social impulses and tendencies which have come down to modern man +by inheritance.[1] + +When we survey a country still in the most primitive stage of human +society, the first observation to impress us is the fact that its +inhabitants are separated into definitely isolated groups. Such groups +are usually small, consisting of men, women, and children belonging to +several closely related families and numbering two or three hundred +souls. Each group, forming an elemental community, occupies, and +considers itself the owner of, a definite tract of country; there is +developed in them a feeling--an attachment--which serves to bind them to +the soil on which they live. When we look at the nature of the bonds +which serve to bind the members of a primitive community together, we +see that they are formed out of subconscious impulses or instincts. +These instincts form an essential part of the machinery of organization. +There is usually no head man or chieftain to determine the action of +the community; there is no deliberative assembly to lay down rules of +conduct. In Galton's phrase the members of a primitive community form 'a +sentient web', dominated by traditional beliefs and customs. I have no +wish to analyse the subconscious states and instinctive reactions which +rule and bind together the members of a primitive community; what I want +to make clear is that the tribal instincts have above all an isolating +effect. These instincts serve not only as a machinery for binding the +members of a community together, but also as a means of separating them +from all surrounding groups. Within the community this machinery compels +unity of sentiment and of action; it serves to repress schism and +faction. But the tribal machinery is operative only up to the +territorial boundaries of the community. At that limit the tribal +instincts immediately change in their mode of action. The tribal +instincts surround the community with a frontier, across which there is +no peaceful traffic, only robbery and plunder; or at the best covert +enmity. The tribal frontier is also a blood barrier; across it the +tribal instinct forbids any form of peaceful matrimonial exchange or +tribal intermixture. Nothing impressed Darwin so much as the ring of +neutral territory which surrounded the primitive Fuegian settlements. + + +TRIBAL ISOLATION PROVIDES THE CONDITIONS NECESSARY FOR RACE-BREEDING + +The tribal or clannish spirit tends to manifest itself in many forms, +but in all its varieties there is a common factor--that of isolation. At +first sight we are tempted to regard the tribal spirit as part of a +machinery evolved for the protection and survival of a primitive +community, but to any one who has searched for conditions which will +explain the origin of separate races of mankind, the conviction grows +that the tribal spirit is an essential part of Nature's evolutionary +machinery. It was in these isolated cradles of primitive mankind that +Nature nursed and reared new races. When a breeder wishes to produce a +new type of animal, or to preserve a 'sport', his first step is to +isolate the group of animals with which he is to experiment. The +isolated stock becomes the cradle in which he hopes to rear his new +breed. The experimental breeder, in such instances, copies the +conditions which rule in primitive human communities. Under modern +civilization Nature's cradles have been smashed to atoms, but the tribal +instincts which Nature intended for the propagation of new breeds of +humanity have come down to modern man in undiminished force. Hence our +present national and racial troubles. + + +THE CONDITIONS OF TRIBAL DISINTEGRATION + +The tribal spirit, which maintains the unity of an elementary community, +is efficient just so long as personal contact between its members is +possible. If a tribal community becomes overgrown, so that mutual +contact between its members is rendered impossible, then a manifestation +of a different nature appears--that of disruption or swarming. The +disintegrating tendency is just as much a part of Nature's evolutionary +contrivance as is the isolating and unifying effect of the tribal +spirit. For breeding purposes the group must be kept within certain +bounds. Modern man has overcome the tendency to disruption on the part +of massed communities by the invention of means of rapid +intercommunication. The daily press, the hourly post, and a network of +electric wires can bind a hundred millions of modern people into a +sentient tribal web. + + +THE ORIGIN OF RACE FEELING + +Small isolated communities are the cradles in which new tribal breeds of +mankind are reared. But how do new races arise? If isolation were to be +continued throughout long intervals of time we may justly infer that the +physical and mental characters of a breed would become more and more +emphasized until a stage of differentiation is reached which we must +regard as racial. A racial spirit is merely the tribal spirit matured +and consolidated. The manifestations which begin as tribal, end, in the +course of time, by becoming racial. We cannot account for the +differentiation of mankind into distinct races, nor the existence of +many intermediate forms which link one human race to another, unless we +postulate the existence in mankind of a deeply rooted tribal mechanism. + + +TRANSFORMATION OF A TRIBAL INTO A NATIONAL SPIRIT + +Having thus glanced at the nature of the instinctive machinery which has +controlled human communities throughout the greater part of man's +history we now return to ask ourselves: What have become of the tribal +instincts which were so deeply grafted in the nature of our ancestors? +Our tribal forefathers are not so far removed from us. We can still +trace the distribution of the Highland clans in Scotland; the tribal +spirit is still strong in the Scottish glens. The organization of +Ireland was on a tribal basis even when the Anglo-Normans settled there; +in subsequent centuries, even until the times of the British +settlements, the tribal spirit was still rampant in Ireland; even now it +is very much alive. Two thousand years ago Great Britain was in a tribal +state from end to end. Practically every one of us is the descendant of +ancestors who, forty generations back, were exercising their tribal +instincts to the full. The Roman occupation did much to break down the +tribal organization of Britain; the Saxon colonization did still more. +The forces, however, which forged the tribal links into a national chain +were commerce, communication, and the building of massed populations. +Tribes were united to form nations, but there is no greater mistake than +to suppose that the subconscious tribal impulses or instincts were +wholly converted into a sense of common nationality. + + +TRIBAL INSTINCTS NOW MANIFESTED IN EVERYDAY LIFE + +We have only to watch our commoner actions and predilections to see that +in our modern States the spirit of nationality has only absorbed a +fraction of our tribal instincts. Every one of you regards your own +college and all the men belonging to it with pride; other colleges and +other men you view with a critical eye. You cheer your own crews and +teams; you want to see them beat all their rivals; you take sides. In +all of these actions and prejudices you manifest the elementary basis of +a tribal spirit. Every week we see hundreds of thousands attend football +or other competitive games, not so much to see an exhibition of skill as +to see their own side win. The spectators, as they cheer, are moved by a +tribal spirit. If we do not belong to a cricketing county we may go so +far as to adopt one as a foster-parent in order that we may exercise our +tribal instincts in being elated by its success or cast down by its +failure. Local national politics give us many opportunities of +exercising our tribal instincts. In politics we have to take sides; a +political party is a tribal organization, using ancient means for +compelling a unity of sentiment amongst its members. The church, too, +provides modern tribesmen with occasions for exercising their inherited +impulses; a heresy hunt finds its counterpart in the most ancient of +tribal communities. Women even more than men are slaves of their tribal +instincts; they are as susceptible to the dictates of fashion as their +ancient sisters were impressionable to the movings of the tribal spirit. +The local spirit which is so inherent a trait of the countryman, +particularly in the case of the Scotsman, Irishman, and Welshman, is +another, and often a very powerful, manifestation of the tribal spirit. +Men from the same locality or district, when they go to live in foreign +communities, are drawn together by a clannish sentiment--a manifestation +of their inherited tribal instincts. Turn in what direction you will, +you will find amongst modern peoples innumerable tribal manifestations +which find no room for display in the more intellectual exhibitions of a +national spirit. + +In present-day politics we see the tribal spirit striving to work out +certain novel effects. Although in ancient times a tribal frontier +usually corresponded to a territorial frontier, such was not always the +case. The tribal spirit is strong enough to hold a people together even +when there is no territorial boundary. In modern massed populations, as +in the organization of both ancient and modern India, the tribal spirit +works so as to produce frontiers between classes of citizens; trades +unions are in essence artificial tribal organizations. Except for the +existence of tribal instincts within the inherited mental organization +of the manual workers, such unions were impossible. Many writers believe +that class or sectional tribal organizations can actually be made to cut +across national and even racial frontiers. We have seen, however, that +at the declaration of war, all such sectional bonds snap, for war is the +match which fires the tribal spirit, exalts it to a national flame, and +destroys intertribal schisms. All the petty manifestations of the tribal +spirit are changed by war; the impulses which moved men and women in +peace time to games and sports, to party politics, to heresy +hunting--even to displays of fashion--are turned to patriotic desires +and deeds. + + +A KNOWLEDGE OF TRIBAL AND RACIAL SPIRIT IS ESSENTIAL FOR STATESMEN + +Several modern statesmen have grasped the important part played by the +tribal spirit in unifying the action of modern nations. I shall cite +only three examples to illustrate this form of political +insight--Bismarck, Lincoln, and Lloyd George. Bismarck employed war to +rouse and unify the German peoples; three campaigns were sufficient to +raise an unbounded feeling of tribal confidence and superiority. He gave +the German Empire a sharply demarcated tribal frontier; he purposely +surrounded his country with a ring of animosity, true to his tribal +instincts. Abraham Lincoln's tribal problem was of another kind. The +conditions which led up to the Civil War concerned the freeing of +slaves; but Lincoln made the war, when it became inevitable, an +intratribal quarrel. He realized that the danger to the United States +was disintegration, one which must continually threaten all +nationalities compounded out of great massed populations. Lincoln +therefore made the main issue of the war the right of a single state or +a confederation of states to secede from the main tribe or union. The +Civil War determined the issue in favour of the North: the natural +process of tribal disruption was declared illegal. Lloyd George's task +was of a different nature. He touched and wakened Britain's sleeping +tribal instincts with the insight of genius. War gave him his +opportunity, but had he not known that tribal instincts lie deeply +buried in man's emotional nature and are intertwined with his most +primitive feeling he could not have known how to touch the ancient +strings. Intellectual appeals had failed to stir the primitive and basal +tribal impulses of the people. + + +THE PROBLEM OF IRELAND + +There was one part of the country, however, where Lloyd George's appeal +did not succeed in evoking British patriotism; it left the greater part +of the people of Ireland not only apathetic but even more actively +hostile than before. Yet their country formed an intrinsic part of these +islands; their economic interests had much more to gain by the success +of Britain than of Germany. History throws light on only part of this +thorny problem; the real difficulty thus encountered dates back to +prehistoric days--to the origin of the inherent, inherited, and +deeply-rooted tribal instincts of the Irish people. The Irish spirit +leapt up, as it had often done before, into a naming tribal antagonism +directed against everything British. What then is a British statesman to +do? We too have our tribal instincts, and their first impulse on being +awakened is--as it was in ancient days--to meet force with force, even +to extermination. That is the ancient tribal practice; but in these +days we have entered another era in the world's history when intelligent +effort must master and direct our inherited instincts. Statesmen know +that forcible means, when applied to extinguish a national flame, only +serve to feed it. Statecraft has never discovered, and I think it never +will discover, a method of forcing or grafting a new national or tribal +spirit on an old people. We have seen that a nation can colonize only +when the force which drives its members to migrate arises spontaneously +within the communities; a colonization initiated and conducted by a +government always fails to hold. Nationalization is a similar process; +the forces which control and guide it must arise within the hearts of +the people; it cannot be imposed on them from above. All that a +statesman can do is to provide conditions in which a favourable spirit +is most likely to develop and mature. He must sow judiciously for years +and wait patiently for his harvest--even if it be for generations. +Ireland's friendship is a prize which is worth working for and waiting +for, even if it costs Britain a weary century of patient courtship. + +FOOTNOTE: + +[1] I have dealt more fully with primitive tribal organization in +'Certain Factors concerned in the Evolution of Human Races', _Journ. +Royal Anthropological Institute_, 1916, vol. 46, p. 10. + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Nationality and Race from an +Anthropologist's Point of View, by Arthur Keith + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK NATIONALITY AND RACE *** + +***** This file should be named 31369.txt or 31369.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/3/1/3/6/31369/ + +Produced by Martin Pettit and the Online Distributed +Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was +produced from images generously made available by The +Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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