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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Training of a Forester, by Gifford Pinchot
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Training of a Forester
+
+Author: Gifford Pinchot
+
+Release Date: February 23, 2010 [EBook #31367]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TRAINING OF A FORESTER ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Tom Roch, Barbara Kosker and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images produced by Core Historical
+Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE TRAINING OF A FORESTER
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: A FOREST RANGER LOOKING FOR FIRE FROM A NATIONAL FOREST
+LOOKOUT STATION _Page 32_]
+
+
+
+
+  THE TRAINING OF A FORESTER
+
+
+
+
+  BY
+
+  GIFFORD PINCHOT
+
+
+
+
+  WITH EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+
+
+  PHILADELPHIA & LONDON
+  J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
+  1914
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
+
+  PUBLISHED FEBRUARY, 1914
+
+
+
+  PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
+  AT THE WASHINGTON SQUARE PRESS
+  PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+  To
+
+  OVERTON W. PRICE
+  FRIEND AND FELLOW WORKER
+
+  TO WHOM IS DUE, MORE THAN TO ANY OTHER MAN, THE
+  HIGH EFFICIENCY OF THE UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+At one time or another, the largest question before every young man is,
+"What shall I do with my life?" Among the possible openings, which best
+suits his ambition, his tastes, and his capacities? Along what line
+shall he undertake to make a successful career? The search for a life
+work and the choice of one is surely as important business as can occupy
+a boy verging into manhood. It is to help in the decision of those who
+are considering forestry as a profession that this little book has been
+written.
+
+To the young man who is attracted to forestry and begins to consider it
+as a possible profession, certain questions present themselves. What is
+forestry? If he takes it up, what will his work be, and where? Does it
+in fact offer the satisfying type of outdoor life which it appears to
+offer? What chance does it present for a successful career, for a career
+of genuine usefulness, and what is the chance to make a living? Is he
+fitted for it in character, mind, and body? If so, what training does he
+need? These questions deserve an answer.
+
+To the men whom it really suits, forestry offers a career more
+attractive, it may be said in all fairness, than any other career
+whatsoever. I doubt if any other profession can show a membership so
+uniformly and enthusiastically in love with the work. The men who have
+taken it up, practised it, and left it for other work are few. But to
+the man not fully adapted for it, forestry must be punishment, pure and
+simple. Those who have begun the study of forestry, and then have
+learned that it was not for them, have doubtless been more in number
+than those who have followed it through.
+
+I urge no man to make forestry his profession, but rather to keep away
+from it if he can. In forestry a man is either altogether at home or
+very much out of place. Unless he has a compelling love for the
+Forester's life and the Forester's work, let him keep out of it.
+
+  G. P.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                 PAGE
+
+  WHAT IS A FOREST?                                                13
+
+  THE FORESTER'S KNOWLEDGE                                         18
+
+  THE FOREST AND THE NATION                                        19
+
+  THE FORESTER'S POINT OF VIEW                                     23
+
+  THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FORESTRY                                    27
+
+  THE WORK OF A FORESTER                                           30
+
+  THE FOREST SERVICE                                               30
+
+  THE FOREST SUPERVISOR                                            46
+
+  THE TRAINED FORESTER                                             50
+
+  PERSONAL EQUIPMENT                                               63
+
+  STATE FOREST WORK                                                84
+
+  THE FOREST SERVICE IN WASHINGTON                                 89
+
+  PRIVATE FORESTRY                                                106
+
+  FOREST SCHOOLS                                                  114
+
+  THE OPPORTUNITY                                                 116
+
+  TRAINING                                                        123
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                                 PAGE
+
+  A FOREST RANGER LOOKING FOR FIRE FROM A NATIONAL
+  FOREST LOOKOUT STATION                                _Frontispiece_
+
+  STRINGING A FOREST TELEPHONE LINE                                32
+
+  FOREST RANGERS SCALING TIMBER                                    43
+
+  WESTERN YELLOW PINE SEED COLLECTED BY THE FOREST
+  SERVICE FOR PLANTING UP DENUDED LANDS                            47
+
+  A FOREST EXAMINER RUNNING A COMPASS LINE                         59
+
+  BRUSH PILING IN A NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER SALE                    95
+
+  FOREST RANGERS GETTING INSTRUCTION IN METHODS OF
+  WORK FROM A DISTRICT FOREST OFFICER                             105
+
+  FOREST SERVICE MEN MAKING FRESH MEASUREMENTS IN
+  THE MISSOURI SWAMPS                                             136
+
+
+
+
+THE TRAINING OF A FORESTER
+
+
+
+
+WHAT IS A FOREST?
+
+
+First, What is forestry? Forestry is the knowledge of the forest. In
+particular, it is the art of handling the forest so that it will render
+whatever service is required of it without being impoverished or
+destroyed. For example, a forest may be handled so as to produce saw
+logs, telegraph poles, barrel hoops, firewood, tan bark, or turpentine.
+The main purpose of its treatment may be to prevent the washing of soil,
+to regulate the flow of streams, to support cattle or sheep, or it may
+be handled so as to supply a wide range and combination of uses.
+Forestry is the art of producing from the forest whatever it can yield
+for the service of man.
+
+Before we can understand forestry, certain facts about the forest itself
+must be kept in mind. A forest is not a mere collection of individual
+trees, just as a city is not a mere collection of unrelated men and
+women, or a Nation like ours merely a certain number of independent
+racial groups. A forest, like a city, is a complex community with a life
+of its own. It has a soil and an atmosphere of its own, chemically and
+physically different from any other, with plants and shrubs as well as
+trees which are peculiar to it. It has a resident population of insects
+and higher animals entirely distinct from that outside. Most important
+of all, from the Forester's point of view, the members of the forest
+live in an exact and intricate system of competition and mutual
+assistance, of help or harm, which extends to all the inhabitants of
+this complicated city of trees.
+
+The trees in a forest are all helped by mutually protecting each other
+against high winds, and by producing a richer and moister soil than
+would be possible if the trees stood singly and apart. They compete
+among themselves by their roots for moisture in the soil, and for light
+and space by the growth of their crowns in height and breadth. Perhaps
+the strongest weapon which trees have against each other is growth in
+height. In certain species intolerant of shade, the tree which is
+overtopped has lost the race for good. The number of young trees which
+destroy each other in this fierce struggle for existence is prodigious,
+so that often a few score per acre are all that survive to middle or old
+age out of many tens of thousands of seedlings which entered the race of
+life on approximately even terms.
+
+Not only has a forest a character of its own, which arises from the fact
+that it is a community of trees, but each species of tree has peculiar
+characteristics and habits also. Just as in New York City, for example,
+the French, the Germans, the Italians, the Hungarians, and the Chinese
+each have quarters of their own, and in those quarters live in
+accordance with habits which distinguish each race from all the others,
+so the different species of pines and hemlocks, oaks and maples prefer
+and are found in certain definite types of locality, and live in
+accordance with definite racial habits which are as general and
+unfailing as the racial characteristics which distinguish, for example,
+the Italians from the Germans, or the Swedes from the Chinese.
+
+The most important of these characteristics of race or species are those
+which are concerned with the relation of each to light, heat, and
+moisture. Thus, a river birch will die if it has only as much water as
+will suffice to keep a post oak in the best condition, and the warm
+climate in which the balsam fir would perish is just suited to the
+requirements of a long leaf pine or a magnolia.
+
+The tolerance of a tree for shade may vary greatly at different times of
+its life, but a white pine always requires more light than a hemlock,
+and a beech throughout its life will flourish with less sunshine or
+reflected light than, for example, an oak or a tulip tree.
+
+Trees are limited in their distribution also by their adaptability, in
+which they vary greatly. Thus a bald cypress will grow both in wetter
+and in dryer land than an oak; a red cedar will flourish from Florida to
+the Canadian line, while other species, like the Eastern larch, the
+Western mountain hemlock, or the big trees of California, are confined
+in their native localities within extremely narrow limits.
+
+
+
+
+THE FORESTER'S KNOWLEDGE
+
+
+The trained Forester must know the forest as a doctor knows the human
+machine. First of all, he must be able to distinguish the different
+trees of which the forest is composed, for that is like learning to
+read. He must know the way they are made and the way they grow; but far
+more important than all else, he must base his knowledge upon that part
+of forestry which is called Silvics, the knowledge of the relation of
+trees to light, heat, and moisture, to the soil, and to each other.
+
+The well-trained Forester must also know the forest shrubs and at least
+the more important smaller forest plants, something of the insect and
+animal life of his domain, and the birds and fish. He must have a good
+working knowledge of rocks, soils, and streams, and of the methods of
+making roads, trails, and bridges. He should be an expert in woodcraft,
+able to travel the forest safely and surely by day or by night. It is
+essential that he should have a knowledge of the theory and the practice
+of lumbering, and he should know something about lumber markets and the
+value of lumber, about surveying and map making, and many other matters
+which are considered more at length in the Chapter on Training. There
+are as yet in America comparatively few men who have acquired even
+fairly well the more important knowledge which should be included in the
+training of a Forester.
+
+
+
+
+THE FOREST AND THE NATION
+
+
+The position of the forest in the housekeeping of any nation is unlike
+that of any other great natural resource, for the forest not only
+furnishes wood, without which civilization as we know it would be
+impossible, but serves also to protect or make valuable many of the
+other things without which we could not get on. Thus the forest cover
+protects the soil from the effects of wind, and holds it in place. For
+lack of it hundreds of thousands of square miles have been converted by
+the winds from moderately fertile, productive land to arid drifting
+sands. Narrow strips of forest planted as windbreaks make agriculture
+possible in certain regions by preventing destruction of crops by
+moisture-stealing dry winds which so afflict the central portions of our
+country.
+
+Without the forests the great bulk of our mining for coal, metals, and
+the precious minerals would be either impossible or vastly more
+expensive than it is at present, because the galleries of mines are
+propped with wood, and so protected against caving in. So far, no
+satisfactory substitute for the wooden railroad tie has been devised;
+and our whole system of land transportation is directly dependent for
+its existence upon the forest, which supplies more than one hundred and
+twenty million new railroad ties every year in the United States alone.
+
+The forest regulates and protects the flow of streams. Its effect is to
+reduce the height of floods and to moderate extremes of low water. The
+official measurements of the United States Geological Survey have
+finally settled this long-disputed question. By protecting mountain
+slopes against excessive soil wash, it protects also the lowlands upon
+which this wash would otherwise be deposited and the rivers whose
+channels it would clog. It is well within the truth to say that the
+utility of any system of rivers for transportation, for irrigation, for
+waterpower, and for domestic supply depends in great part upon the
+protection which forests offer to the headwaters of the streams, and
+that without such protection none of these uses can be expected long to
+endure.
+
+Of the two basic materials of our civilization, iron and wood, the
+forest supplies one. The dominant place of the forest in our national
+economy is well illustrated by the fact that no article whatsoever,
+whether of use or ornament, whether it be for food, shelter, clothing,
+convenience, protection, or decoration, can be produced and delivered to
+the user, as industry is now organized, without the help of the forest
+in supplying wood. An examination of the history of any article,
+including the production of the raw material, and its manufacture,
+transportation, and distribution, will at once make this point clear.
+
+The forest is a national necessity. Without the material, the
+protection, and the assistance it supplies, no nation can long succeed.
+Many regions of the old world, such as Palestine, Greece, Northern
+Africa, and Central India, offer in themselves the most impressive
+object lessons of the effect upon national prosperity and national
+character of the neglect of the forest and its consequent destruction.
+
+
+
+
+THE FORESTER'S POINT OF VIEW
+
+
+The central idea of the Forester, in handling the forest, is to promote
+and perpetuate its greatest use to men. His purpose is to make it serve
+the greatest good of the greatest number for the longest time. Before
+the members of any other profession dealing with natural resources, the
+Foresters acquired the long look ahead. This was only natural, because
+in forestry it is seldom that a man lives to harvest the crop which he
+helped to sow. The Forester must look forward, because the natural
+resource with which he deals matures so slowly, and because, if steps
+are to be taken to insure for succeeding generations a supply of the
+things the forest yields, they must be taken long in advance. The idea
+of using the forest first for the greatest good of the present
+generation, and then for the greatest good of succeeding generations
+through the long future of the nation and the race--that is the
+Forester's point of view.
+
+The use of foresight to insure the existence of the forest in the
+future, and, so far as practicable, the continued or increasing
+abundance of its service to men, naturally suggested the use of
+foresight in the same way as to other natural resources as well. Thus it
+was the Forester's point of view, applied not only to the forest but to
+the lands, the minerals, and the streams, which produced the
+Conservation policy. The idea of applying foresight and common-sense to
+the other natural resources as well as to the forest was natural and
+inevitable. It works out, equally as a matter of course, into the
+conception of a planned and orderly development of all that the earth
+contains for the uses of men. This leads in turn to the application of
+the same principle to other questions and resources. It was foreseen
+from the beginning by those who were responsible for inaugurating the
+Conservation movement that its natural development would in time work
+out into a planned and orderly scheme for national efficiency, based on
+the elimination of waste, and directed toward the best use of all we
+have for the greatest good of the greatest number for the longest time.
+It is easy to see that this principle (the Forester's principle, first
+brought to public attention by Foresters) is the key to national
+success.
+
+Forestry, then, is seen to be peculiarly essential to the national
+prosperity, both now and hereafter. National degradation and decay have
+uniformly followed the excessive destruction of forests by other
+nations, and will inevitably become our portion if we continue to
+destroy our forests three times faster than they are produced, as we are
+doing now. The principles of forestry, therefore, must occupy a
+commanding place in determining the future prosperity or failure of our
+nation, and this commanding position in the field of ideas is naturally
+and properly reflected in the dignity and high standing which the
+profession of forestry, young as it is, has already acquired in the
+United States. This position it must be the first care of every member
+of the profession to maintain and increase.
+
+In the long run, no profession rises higher than the degree of public
+consideration which marks its members. The profession of forestry is in
+many ways a peculiarly responsible profession, but in nothing more so
+than in its vital connection with the whole future welfare of our
+country and in the obligation which lies upon its members to see that
+its reputation and standing, which are the measures of its capacity for
+usefulness, are kept strong and clear.
+
+
+
+
+THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FORESTRY
+
+
+In the United States, forestry is passing out of the pioneer phase of
+agitation and the education of public opinion, and into the permanent
+phase of the practice of the profession. The first steps in forestry in
+this country, as in any other where the development and destruction of
+natural resources has been rapid, were necessarily directed mainly to
+informing the public mind upon the importance of forestry, and to
+building up national and State laws and organizations for the protection
+of timberlands set aside for the public benefit. The right to be heard
+with respect by the men who were already in control of the larger part
+of our total forest wealth had to be won, and has been won. What is
+more, in the teeth of the bitterest opposition of private special
+interests, the right of the public to first consideration in the
+protection and development of the forest and of all the resources it
+contains had to be asserted and established. That has now been done.
+
+In the United States these steps in the movement for the wise use of the
+forest have been taken mainly in the last dozen or fifteen years, during
+which the Federal forest organization has grown from an insignificant
+division of less than a dozen men to the present United States Forest
+Service, of more than three thousand members. During this period, also,
+forestry, both as a profession and as a public necessity, has won
+enduring public recognition, and at the same time more public timberland
+has been set aside for the public use and to remain in the public hands
+than during all the rest of our history put together. To-day the
+National Forests are reasonably safe in the protection of public
+opinion, not against all attack, it is true, but against any successful
+attempt to dismember and turn them over to the special interests who
+already control the bulk and the best of our forests. The public has
+accepted forestry as necessary to the public welfare, both in the
+present and in the future; State forest organizations are springing up;
+forestry has won the right to be heard in the business offices as well
+as in the conventions of the private owners of forest land; and the
+time for the practice of the profession has fully come.
+
+
+
+
+THE WORK OF A FORESTER
+
+
+What does a Forester do? I will try to answer this question, first, with
+reference to the United States Forest Service, and later as to the
+numerous other fields of activity which are opening or have already
+opened to the trained Forester in the United States.
+
+
+
+
+THE FOREST SERVICE
+
+
+The United States Forest Service is responsible both for the general
+progress of forestry, so far as the United States Government is
+concerned, and for the protection and use of the National Forests. These
+National Forests now cover an area of one hundred and eighty-seven
+million acres, or as much land as is included in all the New England
+States, with New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland,
+Virginia and West Virginia. The head of the Service, whose official
+title is "Forester," is charged with the great task of protecting this
+vast area against fire, theft, and other depredations, and of making all
+its resources, the wood, water, and grass, the minerals, and the soil,
+available and useful to the people of the United States under
+regulations which will secure development and prevent destruction or
+waste.
+
+The United States Forest Service consists, first, of a protective force
+of Forest Guards and Forest Rangers, who spend practically the whole of
+their time in the forest; second, of an executive staff of Forest
+Supervisors and their assistants, who have immediate charge of the
+handling of the National Forests; and third, of an administrative staff
+divided between headquarters in Washington and the six local
+administrative offices in the West, where the National Forests mainly
+lie.
+
+The work of a Forest Ranger is, first of all, to protect the District
+committed to his charge against fire. That comes before all else. For
+that purpose, the Ranger patrols his District during the seasons when
+fires are dangerous, or watches for signs of fire from certain high
+points, called fire-lookouts, or both. He keeps the trails and fire
+lines clear and the telephone in working order, and sees to it that the
+fire fighting tools, such as spades, axes, and rakes, are in good
+condition and ready for service. If he is wise, he establishes such
+relations with the people who live in his neighborhood that they become
+his volunteer assistants in watching for forest fires, in taking
+precautions against them, and in notifying him of them when they do take
+place. [Illustration: STRINGING A FOREST TELEPHONE LINE]
+
+Fighting a forest fire in some respects is like fighting a fire in a
+city. In both, the first and most necessary thing is to get men and
+apparatus to the site of the fire at the first practicable moment. For
+this purpose, fire-engines and men are always ready in the city, while
+in the forest the telephones, trails, and bridges must be kept in
+condition, and the forest officers must be ready to move instantly day
+or night.
+
+It is far better to prevent a forest fire from starting than to have to
+put it out after it has started; but in spite of all the care that can
+be exercised with the means at hand, many fires start. Each year the
+Forest Service men extinguish not less than three thousand fires, nearly
+all of them while they are still small. At times, however, when the
+woods are very dry and the wind blows hard, in spite of all that can be
+done, a fire will grow large enough to be dangerous not only to the
+forest but to human life. Thus in the summer of 1910, the driest ever
+known in certain parts of the West, high winds drove the forest fires
+clear beyond the control of the fire fighters, many of whom were
+compelled to fight for their own lives.
+
+The worst of these fires were in Montana and Idaho, where the whole
+power of the Forest Service was used against them. The Forest Rangers,
+under the orders of their Supervisors, immediately organized or took
+charge of small companies of fire fighters, and began the work of
+getting them under control. But so fierce was the wind and so terrible
+the heat of the fires and the speed with which they moved, that in many
+places it became a question of saving the lives of the fire fighters
+rather than of putting out the fires. As a matter of fact, nearly a
+hundred of the men temporarily employed to help the Government fire
+fighters lost their lives, and many more would have died but for the
+courage, resource, and knowledge of the woods of the Forest Rangers.
+
+Take, for example, the case of Ranger Edward C. Pulaski, of the Coeur
+d'Alene National Forest, stationed at Wallace, Idaho. Pulaski had charge
+of forty Italians and Poles. He had been at work with them for many
+hours, when the flames grew to be so threatening that it became a
+question of whether he could save his men. The fire was travelling
+faster than the men could make their way through the dense forest, and
+the only hope was to find some place into which the fire could not come.
+Accordingly Pulaski guided his party at a run through the blinding smoke
+to an abandoned mine he knew of in the neighborhood. When they reached
+it, he sent the men into the workings ahead of him, hung a wet blanket
+across the mouth of the tunnel, and himself stood there on guard. The
+fierce heat, the stifling air, and their deadly fear drove some of the
+foreigners temporarily insane, and a number of them tried to break out.
+With drawn revolver Pulaski held them back. One man did get by him and
+was burned to death. Many fainted in the tunnel. The Ranger himself,
+more exposed than any of his men, was terribly burned. He stood at his
+post, however, for five hours, until the fire had passed, and brought
+his party through without losing a single man except that one who got
+out of the tunnel, although his own injuries were so severe that he was
+in the hospital for two months as a result of them. The record of the
+Forest Service in these terrible fires is one of which every Forester
+may well be proud.
+
+The Ranger must protect his District, not only against fire but against
+the theft of timber and the incessant efforts of land grabbers to steal
+Government lands. To prevent the theft of timber is usually not
+difficult, but it is far harder to prevent fake homesteaders, fraudulent
+mining men, and other dishonest claimants from seizing upon land to
+which they have no right, and so preventing honest men from using these
+claims to make a living.
+
+In the past, this problem has presented the most serious difficulties,
+and still occasionally does so. There is no louder shouter for "justice"
+than a balked habitual land thief with political influence behind him.
+To illustrate the kind of attack upon the Forest Service to which
+fraudulent land claims have constantly given rise, I may cite the
+statements made during one of the annual attempts in the Senate to break
+down the Service. One of the Senators asserted that in his State the
+Forest Service was overbearing and tyrannical, and that in a particular
+case it had driven out of his home a citizen known to the Senator, and
+had left him and his family to wander houseless upon the hillside, and
+that for no good reason whatsoever.
+
+This statement, if it had been true, would at once have destroyed the
+standing of the Service in the minds of many of its friends, and would
+have led to immediate defeat in the fight then going on. Fortunately,
+the records of the Service were so complete, and the knowledge of field
+conditions on the part of the men in Washington was so thorough, that
+the mere mention of the general locality of the supposed outrage by the
+Senator made it easy to identify the individual case. The man in
+question, instead of being an honest settler with a wife and family, was
+the keeper of a disreputable saloon and dance hall, a well-known
+law-breaker whom the local authorities had tried time and again to
+dispossess and drive away. But by means of his fraudulent claim the man
+had always defeated the local officers. When, however, the officers of
+the Forest Service took the case in hand, the situation changed and
+things moved quickly. The disreputable saloon was promptly removed from
+the fraudulent land claim by means of which the keeper of it had held
+on, and this thoroughly undesirable citizen either went out of business
+or removed his abominable trade to some locality outside the National
+Forest.
+
+The actual facts were fully brought out in the debate next day, remained
+uncontradicted, and saved the fight for the Forest Service. The whole
+incident may be found at length in the Congressional Record.
+
+The Forest Ranger is charged with overseeing and regulating the free use
+of timber by settlers and others who live in or near the National
+Forests. Last year (1912) the Forest Service gave away without charge
+more than $196,000 worth of saw timber, house logs, fencing, fuel, and
+other material to men and women who needed it for their own use. Usually
+it is the Ranger's work to issue the permits for this free use, and to
+designate the timber that may be cut. For this purpose, he must be well
+acquainted with the kinds and the uses of the trees in his District, and
+it is most important that he should know something of how their
+reproduction can best be secured, in order that the free use may be
+permitted without injury to the future welfare of the forest.
+
+A Ranger oversees the use of his District for the grazing of cattle,
+sheep, and other domestic animals. He must acquaint himself with the
+brands and marks of the various owners, and should be well posted in the
+essentials of the business of raising cattle, sheep, and horses. The
+allotment of grazing areas is one of the most difficult problems to
+adjust, because the demand is almost always for much more range than is
+available and the division of what range there is among the local owners
+of stock often presents serious difficulties, in which the Ranger's
+local knowledge and advice is constantly sought by his superior officer.
+
+There is a wise law, passed at the request of the Forest Service, under
+which land in the National Forests which is shown to be agricultural may
+be entered under the homestead law, and used for the making of homes.
+This law is peculiarly hard to carry out because the ceaseless efforts
+of land grabbers to misuse it demand great vigilance on the part of the
+Forest Officers. In many cases it is the Ranger who makes the report
+upon which the decision as to the agricultural or non-agricultural
+character of the land is based, although in other cases the
+examinations to determine whether the land is really agricultural in
+character are made by Examiners especially trained for this duty.
+Serious controversies into which politics enter are often caused by the
+efforts of speculators and others, under pretext of this law, to get
+possession of lands chiefly valuable for their timber.
+
+The building and maintenance of trails, telephone lines, roads, bridges,
+and fences in his District is under the charge of the Ranger, and in
+many cases Rangers and Forest Guards are appointed by the State as
+Wardens to see to it that the game and fish laws are properly enforced.
+
+Next to the protection of his District from fire, the most important
+duty of the Ranger has to do with the sale of timber and the marking of
+the individual trees which are to be cut. The reproduction of the forest
+depends directly on what trees are kept for seed, or on how the
+existing young growth is protected and preserved in felling and swamping
+the trees which have been marked for cutting, and in skidding the logs.
+The disposal of the slash must be looked after, for it has much to do
+with forest reproduction, and with promoting safety from fire. Then, the
+scaling of the logs determines the amount of the payment the Government
+receives for its timber, and there are often regulations governing the
+transportation of the scaled logs whose enforcement is of great
+consequence to the future forest.
+
+[Illustration: FOREST RANGERS SCALING TIMBER]
+
+Nearly all of these duties the Ranger may perform in certain cases
+without supervision, if his judgment and training are sufficient, but
+the marking especially is often done under the eye or in accordance with
+the directions of the technical Forester, whose duty it is to see that
+the future of the forest is protected by enforcing the conditions of
+sale.
+
+These are but a part of the duties of the Ranger, for he is concerned
+with all the uses which his District may serve. The streams, for
+example, may be important for city water supply, irrigation, or for
+waterpower, and their use for these purposes must be under his eye.
+Hotels and saw-mills on sites leased from the Government may dot his
+District here and there. The land within National Forests may be put to
+a thousand other uses, from a bee ranch on the Cleveland Forest in
+southern California to a whaling station on the Tongass Forest in
+Alaska, all of which means work for him.
+
+The result of all this is that the Ranger comes in contact with city
+dwellers, irrigators, cattlemen, sheepmen, and horsemen, ranchers,
+storekeepers, hotel men, hunters, miners, and lumbermen, and above all
+with the settlers who live in or near his District. With all these it is
+his duty to keep on good terms, for well he knows that one man at
+certain times can set more fires than a regiment can extinguish, and
+that the best protection for his District comes from the friendly
+interest of the men who live in it or near it.
+
+A Forest Guard is in effect an assistant to the Ranger, and may be
+called upon to carry out most of the duties which fall upon a Ranger.
+
+The foregoing short statement will make it clear that preliminary
+experience as a Ranger may be of the utmost value to the man who
+proposes later on to perform in the Government Service the duties of a
+trained Forester. It is becoming more and more common, and fortunately
+so, for graduates of forest schools to begin their work in the United
+States Forest Service as Rangers or Forest Guards. The man who has done
+well a Ranger's work, like the graduate of an engineering school who,
+after graduation, has entered a machine shop as a hand, has acquired a
+body of practical information and experience which will be invaluable to
+him in the later practice of his profession, and which is far beyond the
+reach of any man who has not been trained in the actual execution of
+this work on the ground and in actual daily contact with the
+multifarious uses and users of the forest.
+
+
+
+
+THE FOREST SUPERVISOR
+
+[Illustration: WESTERN YELLOW PINE SEED COLLECTED BY THE FOREST SERVICE
+FOR PLANTING UP DENUDED LANDS]
+
+The Supervisor is the general manager of a National Forest. The
+responsibility for the protection, care, and use of it falls upon him,
+under the direction of the District Forester. The Supervisor is
+responsible for making the use of his forest as valuable and as
+convenient as possible for the people in and around the area of which he
+has charge. He deals with the organizations of forest users, such as
+local stock associations, and issues permits for grazing live stock in
+the forest. Permits for cutting small amounts of timber are granted by
+him, and he advertises in the papers the sale of larger amounts and
+receives bids from prospective purchasers; keeps the accounts of his
+forest; and makes regular reports on a variety of important subjects,
+such as the personnel of his forest force, the permanent improvements
+made or to be made, the permits issued for regular and special uses of
+the forest and for free use of timber and forage, the number and kinds
+of predatory animals killed, the amount of forest planting accomplished,
+and the expense and losses from forest fires. He has general oversight
+of the roads, trails, and other improvements on his forest; and prepares
+plans for the extension of them. In particular, he directs, controls,
+and inspects the work of the Ranger and Guards, and in general, he
+attends to the thousand and one matters which go to adjusting the use of
+the forest to the needs of the men who use it, and on which depends
+whether the forest is well or badly thought of among the people whose
+coöperation or opposition have so much to do with making its management
+successful or otherwise.
+
+The Supervisor spends about half his time in the office and half in the
+field, inspecting the work of his men and consulting with them, meeting
+local residents or associations of local residents who have propositions
+to submit for improving the service of the forest to them, or for
+correcting mistakes, or who wish to lay before the Supervisor some one
+of the numberless matters in which the forest affects their welfare. The
+usefulness of the Supervisor depends as much upon his good judgment, his
+ability to meet men and do business with them, and his knowledge of
+local needs and local affairs, as it does upon his knowledge of the
+forest itself. As in the case of every superior officer, his attitude
+toward his work, his energy, his good sense, and his good will are or
+should be reflected in the men under him, so that his position is one of
+the greatest importance in determining the success or failure of each
+National Forest, and hence of the Forest Service as a whole. More and
+more of the trained Foresters in the Service are seeking and securing
+appointments as Forest Supervisors because of the interest and
+satisfaction they find in the work. Such men handle both the
+professional and business sides of forest management. Many of their
+duties, therefore, are described in the succeeding chapter.
+
+The position of Supervisor is in many respects the most desirable a
+trained Forester can occupy in the Forest Service, and the most
+responsible of the field positions.
+
+
+
+
+THE TRAINED FORESTER
+
+
+To each forest where timber cutting has become important there are
+assigned one or more Forest Assistants or Forest Examiners. These are
+professionally trained Foresters. They are subordinate upon each forest
+to the Supervisor as manager, but it is their work which has most to do
+with deciding whether the Forest Service in general is to be successful
+or is to fail in the great task of preserving the forest by wise use.
+
+The Forest Assistant secures his position with the Service by passing an
+examination devised to test his technical knowledge and his ability.
+After he has served two years as Forest Assistant the quality and
+quantity of his work will have determined his fitness to continue in
+the employ of the Government. If he is unfit he may be dropped, for
+there are many young and ambitious men ready to step into his place. If
+he makes good he is promoted to the grade of Forest Examiner and is put
+definitely in charge of certain lines of professional work; always, of
+course, under the direction of the Supervisor, of whom he becomes the
+adviser on all problems involving technical forestry.
+
+The most important tasks of the trained Forester on a National Forest
+are the preparation of working plans for the use of the forest by
+methods which will protect and perpetuate it as well, and the carrying
+out of the plans when made. This is forestry in the technical sense of
+the word. It involves a thorough study of the kinds of timber, their
+amount and location, their rate of growth, their value, the ease or
+difficulty of their reproduction, and the methods by which the timber
+can be cut at a profit and at the same time the reproduction of the
+forest can be safely secured. A working plan usually includes a
+considerable number of maps, which often have to be drawn in the first
+place from actual surveys on the ground by the Forest Examiner. These
+maps contain the information secured by working-plan studies, and are of
+the first necessity for the wise and skilful handling of the forest.
+They often constitute, also, most important documents in the history of
+its condition and use.
+
+On many of the National Forests the need for immediate use of the timber
+is so urgent and so just that there is no time to prepare elaborate
+working plans. Timber sales must be made, and made at once; but they
+must be made, nevertheless, in a way that will fully protect the future
+welfare of the forest. Whether working plans can be prepared or not, a
+most important duty of the technical Forester is to work out the
+conditions under which a given body of timber can be cut with safety to
+the forest, especially with safety to its reproduction and future
+growth. The principal study for a timber sale will usually include an
+examination of the general features and condition of the forest, and the
+determination of the diameter down to which it is advisable to cut the
+standing trees, a diameter which must be fixed at such a size as will
+protect the forest and make the lumbering pay. It will include also an
+investigation, more or less thorough and complete, as the conditions
+warrant, of the silvical habits of one or more of the species of trees
+in that forest. The areas which form natural units for the logging and
+transportation of the timber must be worked out and laid off, and
+careful estimates, or measurements, of the amount of standing timber and
+of its value on the stump must be made, as well as of the cost of
+moving it to the mill or to the railroad.
+
+The Forest Examiner must also consider, in many cases, the building of
+logging roads or railroads, timber slides, etc., and must make a careful
+study of the material into which the trees to be cut can best be worked
+up, and of the value of such material in the market. Most of all,
+however, he must study, think over, and decide what he will recommend as
+to the conditions which are to govern the logging conditions by which
+the protection of the forest is to be insured. These conditions, fixed
+by his superiors upon the report of the Forest Examiner, determine
+whether an individual timber sale is forestry or forest destruction.
+This is the central question in the administration of the National
+Forests from the national point of view.
+
+The principal objects of the conditions laid down for a timber sale are
+always the reproduction of the forest and its safety against fire.
+Natural reproduction from self-sown seed is almost invariably the result
+desired; and so the question of the seed trees to be left, and how they
+are to be located or spaced, is fundamental, unless there is ample young
+growth already on the ground. In the latter case this young growth must
+not be smashed or bent by throwing the older trees on top of it, or
+against it, and the young saplings bent down by the felled tops must be
+promptly released.
+
+In order to avoid danger to the young growth already present or to be
+secured, as well as to protect the older trees from fires, the slash
+produced in lumbering, the tops lopped from the trees up to and beyond
+the highest point to which the lumbermen are required to take the logs,
+must be satisfactorily disposed of--either by scattering it thinly over
+the ground, by piling and burning, or often by piling alone.
+
+These and many other conditions of sale must be studied out in a form
+adapted to each particular case, and must be discussed with the men who
+propose to buy, who often have wise and practical suggestions to make.
+
+Similar questions on a less important scale present themselves and must
+be answered in the matter of small timber sales, and of timber given
+without charge under free-use permits to settlers and others.
+
+When the terms of a contract of sale have been worked out and accepted
+and the timber has been sold, then the Forest Assistant has charge of
+the extremely interesting task of marking the trees that are to be cut,
+in accordance with these terms. Usually this is done by marking all the
+trees which are to be felled, but sometimes by marking only the trees
+which are to remain.
+
+The marking is usually done by blazing each tree and stamping the
+letters "U. S." upon the blaze with a Government marking axe or hatchet.
+It must be done in such a way that the loggers will have no excuse
+either for cutting an unmarked tree or leaving a marked tree uncut, or
+_vice versa_, as the case may be. The marking may be carried out by the
+Rangers and Forest Guards under supervision of the Forest Assistant, or
+in difficult situations he may mark or direct the marking of each tree
+himself. Marking is fascinating work.
+
+Later, while the logging is under way, the Forest Examiner will often
+inspect it to see that the terms of the sale are complied with, that the
+trees cut are thrown in places where they will not unduly damage either
+young growth or the larger trees which are to remain, and that the other
+conditions laid down for the logging in the contract of sale are
+observed. The scaling of the logs to determine the amount of payment to
+the Government will many times be under his supervision, although in the
+larger sales this work, as well as the routine inspection of the
+logging, is usually carried out by a special body of expert lumbermen,
+who often bring to it a much wider knowledge of the woods than the men
+in actual charge of the lumbering.
+
+In nearly every National Forest there are areas upon which the trees
+have been destroyed by fire. Many of these are so large or so remote
+from seed-bearing trees that natural reproduction will not suffice to
+replace the forest. In such localities planting is needed, and for that
+purpose the Forest Examiner must establish and conduct a forest nursery.
+The decision on the kind of trees to plant and on the methods of raising
+and planting them, the collection of the seed, the care and
+transplanting of the young trees until they are set out on the site of
+the future forest, forms a task of absorbing interest. Such work often
+requires a high degree of technical skill. It is likely to occupy a
+larger and larger share of the time and attention of the trained men of
+the Forest Service.
+
+[Illustration: A FOREST EXAMINER RUNNING A COMPASS LINE]
+
+The Forest Assistant's or Examiner's knowledge of surveying makes it
+natural for him to take an important part in the laying out of new roads
+and trails in the forest, or in correcting the lines of old ones, and
+there is little work more immediately useful. The forest can be
+safeguarded effectively just in proportion to the ease with which all
+parts of it can be reached. Forest protection may be less technically
+interesting than other parts of the Forester's work, but nothing that he
+does is more important or pays larger dividends in future results.
+
+In addition to his studies of the habits and reproduction of the
+different trees for working plans or timber sales, or simply to increase
+his knowledge of the forest, the Forest Examiner is often called upon to
+lay out sample plots for ascertaining the exact relation of each species
+to light, heat, and moisture, or for studying its rate of growth. He may
+find it necessary to determine the effect of the grazing of cattle or
+sheep on young growth of various species and of various ages, or to
+ascertain their relative resistance to fire. In general, what time he
+can spare from more pressing duties is very fully occupied with adding
+to his silvical knowledge by observation, with studies of injurious
+insects or fungi, of the reasons for the increase or decrease of
+valuable or worthless species of trees in the forest, the innumerable
+secondary effects of forest fires, the causes of the local distribution
+of trees, or with some other of the thousand questions which give a
+never-failing interest to work in the woods.
+
+The protection of a valuable kind of tree often depends upon the ability
+to find a use for, and therefore to remove, a less-valuable species
+which is crowding it out, for as yet the American Forester can do very
+little cutting or thinning that does not pay. Just so, the protection of
+a given tract against fire may depend upon the ability to use, and
+therefore to remove, a part or the whole of the dead and down timber
+which now makes it a fire trap. For such reasons as these, the uses of
+wood and the markets for its disposal form exceedingly important
+branches of study for the Forest Examiner, who will usually find that
+his duties require him to be thoroughly familiar with them.
+
+It is more and more common to find each Forest Officer--Ranger, Forest
+Examiner, or Supervisor--combining in himself the qualities and the
+knowledge required to fill any or all of the other positions. The
+professionally trained man who develops marked executive ability is
+likely to become a Supervisor, just as a Ranger, with the necessary
+training and experience, who may wish to devote himself to silvical
+investigations may be transferred to that work. The point is that each
+man has individual opportunity to establish and occupy the place for
+which he is best fitted.
+
+The success of the technical Forester, like that of the Ranger, and
+indeed of nearly every Government Forest Officer, in whatever position
+or line of work, will very frequently depend on his good judgment and
+practical sense, the chief ingredient of which will always be his
+knowledge of local needs and conditions, and his sympathetic
+understanding of the local point of view. This does not mean that the
+local point of view is always to control. On the contrary, the Forest
+Officer must often decide against it in the interest of the welfare of
+the larger public. But the desires and demands of the users of the
+forest should always be given the fullest hearing and the most careful
+consideration. To this rule there is no exception whatsoever.
+
+
+
+
+PERSONAL EQUIPMENT
+
+
+Forestry differs from most professions in this, that it requires as much
+vigor of body as it does vigor of mind. The sort of man to which it
+appeals, and which it seeks, is the man with high powers of observation,
+who does not shrink from responsibility, and whose mental vigor is
+balanced by physical strength and hardiness. The man who takes up
+forestry should be little interested in his own personal comfort, and
+should have and conserve endurance enough to stand severe physical work
+accompanied by mental labor equally exhausting.
+
+Foresters are still few in numbers, and the point of view which they
+represent, while it is making immense strides in public acceptance, is
+still far from general application. Therefore, Foresters are still
+missionaries in a very real sense, and since they are so few, it is of
+the utmost importance that they should stand closely together.
+Differences of opinion there must always be in all professions, but
+there is no other profession in which it is more important to keep these
+differences from working out into animosities or separations of any
+kind. We are fortunate above all in this, that American Foresters are
+united as probably the members of no other profession. This _esprit de
+corps_ has given them their greatest power of achievement, and any man
+who proposes to enter the profession should do so with this fact clearly
+in mind.
+
+The high standard which the profession of forestry, new in the United
+States, has already reached, its great power for usefulness to the
+Nation, now and hereafter, and the large responsibilities which fall so
+quickly on the men who are trained to accept it--all these things give
+to the profession a position and dignity which it should be the first
+care of every man who enters it to maintain or increase.
+
+To stand well at graduation is or ought to be far less the object of a
+Forester's training than to stand well ten or twenty years after
+graduation. It is of the first importance that the training should be
+thorough and complete.
+
+A friend of mine, John Muir, says that the best advice he can give young
+men is: "Take time to get rich." His idea of getting rich is to fill
+his mind and spirit full with observations of the nature he so deeply
+loves and so well understands; so that in his mind it is not money which
+makes riches, but life in the open and the seeing eye.
+
+Next to those basic traits of personal character, without which no man
+is worth his salt, the Forester's most important quality is the power of
+observation, the power to note and understand, or seek to understand,
+what he sees in the forest. It is just as essential a part of the
+Forester's equipment to be able to see what is wrong with a piece of
+forest, and what is required for its improvement, as it is necessary for
+a physician to be able to diagnose a disease and to prescribe the
+remedy.
+
+Silvics, which may be said to be the knowledge of how trees behave in
+health and disease toward each other, and toward light, heat, moisture,
+and the soil, is the foundation of forestry and the Forester's first
+task is to bring himself to a high point of efficiency in observing and
+interpreting these facts of the forest, and to keep himself there. It
+should be as hard work to walk through the forest, and see what is there
+to be seen, as to wrestle with the most difficult problem of
+mathematics. No man can be a good Forester without that quality of
+observation and understanding which the French call "the forester's
+eye." It is not the only quality required for success in forestry, but
+it is unquestionably the first.
+
+Perhaps the second among the qualities necessary for the Forester is
+common sense, which most often simply means a sympathetic understanding
+of the circumstances among which a man finds himself. The American
+Forester must know the United States and understand its people. Nothing
+which affects the welfare of his country should be indifferent to him.
+Forestry is a form of practical statesmanship which touches the national
+life at so many points that no Forester can safely allow himself to
+remain ignorant of the needs and purposes of his fellow citizens, or to
+be out of touch with the current questions of the day. The best citizen
+makes the best Forester, and no man can make a good Forester unless he
+is a good citizen also.
+
+The Forester can not succeed unless he understands the problems and
+point of view of his country, and that is the reason why Foresters from
+other lands were not brought into the United States in the early stages
+of the forest movement. At that time practically no American Foresters
+had yet been trained, and the great need of the situation was for men to
+do the immediately pressing work. Foresters from Germany, France,
+Switzerland, and other countries could have been obtained in abundant
+numbers and at reasonable salaries. They were not invited to come
+because, however well trained in technical forestry, they could not have
+understood the habits of thought of our people. Therefore, in too many
+cases, they would have failed to establish the kind of practical
+understanding which a Forester must have with the men who use, or work
+in, his forest, if he is to succeed. It was wiser to wait until
+Americans could be trained, for the practising Forester must handle men
+as well as trees.
+
+One of the most difficult things to do in any profession which involves
+drudgery (and I take it that no profession which does not involve
+drudgery is worth the attention of a man) is to look beyond the daily
+routine to the things which that routine is intended to assist in
+accomplishing. This is peculiarly true of forestry, in which, perhaps
+more than in any other profession, the long-distance, far-sighted
+attitude of mind is essential to success. The trees a Forester plants he
+himself will seldom live to harvest. Much of his thought about his
+forest must be in terms of centuries. The great object for which he is
+striving of necessity can not be fully accomplished during his lifetime.
+He must, therefore, accustom himself to look ahead, and to reap his
+personal satisfaction from the planned and orderly development of a
+scheme the perfect fruit of which he can never hope to see.
+
+This is one of the strongest reasons why the Forester, whether in public
+or private employment, must always look upon himself as a public
+servant. It is of the first importance that he should accustom himself
+to think of the results of his work as affecting, not primarily himself,
+but others, always including the general public. It is essential for a
+Forester to form the habit of looking far ahead, out of which grows a
+sound perspective and persistence in body and mind.
+
+One of the greatest football players of our time makes the distinction
+between a player who is "quick" and a player who is "soon." In his
+description, the "quick" player is the man who waits until the last
+moment and then moves with nervous and desperate haste in the little
+time he has left. The man who is "soon," however, almost invariably
+arrives ahead of the man who is "quick," because he has thought out in
+advance exactly where he is going and how to get there, and when the
+moment comes he does not delay his start, makes no false motions, and
+thereby makes and keeps himself efficient. Forestry is preëminently a
+profession for the "soon" man, for it is the steady preparation long in
+advance, the well-thoughtout plan well stuck to, which in forestry
+brings success.
+
+In my experience, men differ comparatively little in mere ability, in
+the quality of the mental machine, through which the spirit works. Nine
+times out of ten, it is not ability which brings success, but
+persistence and enthusiasm, which are usually, but not always, the same
+as vision and will. We all have ability enough to do the things which
+lie before us, but the man with the will to keep everlastingly at it,
+and the vision to realize the meaning and value of the results for which
+he is striving, is the man who wins in nearly every case. This is true
+in all human affairs, but it is peculiarly true of the Forester and his
+task, the end of which lies so far ahead.
+
+In a class below me at Phillips-Exeter Academy was a boy who had just
+entered the school. His great ambition was to play football, and he
+came to the practise day after day. His abilities, however, were
+apparently not on the same plane with his ambitions, and his work was so
+ridiculously poor that he became the laughing stock of the whole school.
+That, however, troubled him not at all. What held his mind was football.
+Undiscouraged and undismayed, he kept on playing football until in his
+last year he became captain of the Exeter football team.
+
+Every man of experience has known many similar cases. It is clear, I
+think, that the master qualities in achievement are neither luck nor
+mere ability, but rather enthusiasm and persistence, or vision and will.
+
+In a peculiar sense the Forester depends upon public opinion and public
+support for the means of carrying on his work, and for its final
+success. But the attention which the public gives or can give to any
+particular subject varies, and of necessity must vary, from time to
+time. Under these circumstances, it is inevitable that the Forester must
+meet discouragements, checks, and delays, as well as periods of smooth
+sailing. He should expect them, and should be prepared to discount them
+when they come. When they do come, I know of no better way of reducing
+their bad effects than for a man to make allowance for his own state of
+mind. He who can stand off and look at himself impartially, realizing
+that he will not feel to-morrow as he feels to-day, has a powerful
+weapon against the temporary discouragements which are necessarily met
+in any work that is really worth while. Progress is always in spirals,
+and there is always a good time coming. There is nothing so fatal to
+good work as that flabby spirit under which some weak men try to hide
+their inefficiency--the spirit of "What's the use?"
+
+It has been the experience of every Forester, as he goes about the
+country, to be told that a certain mountain is impassable, that a
+certain trail can not be travelled, that a certain stream can not be
+crossed, and to find that mountain, trail, and stream can all be passed
+with little serious difficulty by a man who is willing to try. Most
+things said to be impossible are so only in the mind of the man whose
+timidity or inertness keeps him from making the attempt. The whole story
+of the establishment and growth of the United States Forest Service is a
+story of the doing of things which the men who did them were warned in
+advance would be impossible. Usually the thing which "can't be done" is
+well worth trying.
+
+Perhaps I ought to add that I am not urging the young Forester to
+disregard local public opinion without the best of reasons, or to rush
+his horse blindly into the ford of a swollen stream. Good sense is the
+first condition of success. I am merely saying that in ninety-nine cases
+out of a hundred, when a thing ought to be done it can be done, if the
+effort is made with that idea in mind.
+
+All this is but one way of saying that the Forester should be his own
+severest taskmaster. The Forester must keep himself up to his own work.
+In no other profession, to my knowledge, is a man thrown so completely
+on his own responsibility. The Forester often leads an isolated life for
+weeks or months at a time, seeing the men under whom he works only at
+distant intervals. Because he is so much his own master, the
+responsibility which rests upon him is peculiarly his own, and must be
+met out of the resources within himself.
+
+The training of a Forester should lead him to be practical in the right
+sense of that word, which emphatically is not the sense of abandoning
+standards of work or conduct in order to get immediate results. The
+"practical" men with whom the Forester must do his work--lumbermen,
+cattlemen, sheepmen, settlers, forest users of all kinds--are often by
+very much his superiors in usable knowledge of the details of their
+work. Their opinions are entitled to the most complete hearing and
+respect. There is no other class of men from whose advice the Forester
+can so greatly profit if he chooses to do so. He is superior to them, if
+at all, only in his technical knowledge, and in the broader point of
+view he has derived from his professional training. It is of the first
+importance that the young Forester should know these men, should learn
+to like and respect them, and that he should get all the help he can
+from their knowledge and practical experience. The willingness to use
+the information and assistance which such men were ready to give has
+more than once meant the difference between failure and success.
+
+The young Forester, like other young men, is likely to be impatient. I
+do not blame him for it. Rightly directed, his impatience may become one
+of his best assets. But it will do no harm to remember, also, that the
+human race has reached its present degree of civilization and
+advancement only step by step, and that it seems likely to proceed in
+very much the same way hereafter. As a general rule, results slowly and
+painfully accomplished are lasting. The results to be achieved in
+forestry must be lasting if they are to be valuable.
+
+In general, the men with whom the Forester deals can adopt, and in many
+cases, ought to adopt, a new point of view but slowly. To fall in love
+at first sight with theories or policies is as rare as the same
+experience is between persons. As a rule, an intellectual conviction,
+however well founded, must be followed by a period of incubation and
+growth before it can blossom into a definite principle of action, before
+the man who holds it is ready to work or fight in order to carry it out.
+There is a rate in the adoption of new ideas beyond which only the most
+unusual circumstances will induce men's minds to move. Forestry has gone
+ahead in the United States faster than it ever did in any other land. If
+it proceeds a little less rapidly, now that so much of the field has
+been won, there will be no reason for discouragement in that.
+
+
+AS A SUBORDINATE OFFICER
+
+Necessarily the young Forester will begin as a subordinate. How soon he
+will come to give orders of his own will depend on how well he executes
+the orders of his superior. In particular, it will depend on whether he
+requires to be coddled in doing his work, or whether he is willing and
+able to stand on his own feet. The man for whom every employer of men is
+searching, everywhere and always, is the man who will accept the
+responsibility for the work he has to do--who will not lean at every
+point upon his superior for additional instructions, advice, or
+encouragement.
+
+There is no more valuable subordinate than the man to whom you can give
+a piece of work and then forget about it, in the confident expectation
+that the next time it is brought to your attention it will come in the
+form of a report that the thing has been done. When this master quality
+is joined to executive power, loyalty, and common sense, the result is a
+man whom you can trust. On the other hand, there is no greater nuisance
+to a man heavily burdened with the direction of affairs than the
+weak-backed assistant who is continually trying to get his chief to do
+his work for him, on the feeble plea that he thought the chief would
+like to decide this or that himself. The man to whom an executive is
+most grateful, the man whom he will work hardest and value most, is the
+man who accepts responsibility willingly, and is not continually under
+his feet.
+
+
+AS A SUPERIOR OFFICER
+
+The principles of effective administrative work have never, so far as I
+know, been adequately classified and defined. When they come to be
+stated one of the most important will be found to be the exact
+assignment of responsibility, so that whatever goes wrong the
+administrative head will know clearly and at once upon whom the
+responsibility falls. This is one of the reasons why, as a rule, boards
+and commissions are far less effective in getting things done than
+single men with clear-cut authority and equally clear-cut
+responsibility. Another principle, so well known that it has almost
+become a proverb, is to delegate everything you can, to do nothing that
+you can get someone else to do for you. But the wisdom of letting a good
+man alone is less commonly understood. It is sometimes as important for
+the superior officer not to worry his subordinate with useless orders as
+it is for the subordinate not to harass his superior with useless
+questions.
+
+Let a good man alone. Give him his head. Nothing will hold him so
+rigidly to his work as the feeling that he is trusted. Lead your men in
+their work, and above all make of your organization not a monarchy,
+limited or unlimited, but a democracy, in which the responsibility of
+each man for a particular piece of work shall not only be defined but
+recognized, in which the credit for each man's work, so far as possible,
+shall be attached to his own name, in which the opinions and advice of
+your subordinates are often sought before decisions are made; in a word,
+a democracy in which each man feels a personal responsibility for the
+success of the whole enterprise.
+
+The young Forester may be years removed from the chance to apply these
+principles in practice, but since no superior officer can put them into
+fruitful effect without the coöperation of his subordinates, it is well
+that they should be known at both ends of the line.
+
+
+A PUBLIC SERVANT
+
+I repeat that whether a Forester is engaged in private work or in public
+work, whether he is employed by a lumberman, an association of
+lumbermen, a fishing and shooting club, the owner of a great estate, or
+whether he is an officer of a State or of the Nation, by virtue of his
+profession he is a public servant. Because he deals with the forest, he
+has his hand upon the future welfare of his country. His point of view
+is that which must control its future welfare. He represents the planned
+and orderly development of its resources. He is the representative also
+of the forest school from which he graduates, and of his profession.
+Upon the standards which he helps to establish and maintain, the welfare
+of these, too, directly depends.
+
+
+
+
+STATE FOREST WORK
+
+
+The work of the States in forestry is still in the pioneer stage, and
+the work of a State Forester must still bear largely on the creation of
+a right public sentiment in forest matters. In State forestry the need
+for agitation has by no means passed. It is often the duty of the State
+Forester to prepare or endeavor to secure the passage of good State
+forest laws, or to interpose against the enactment of bad laws. In
+particular, much of his time is likely to be given to legislation upon
+the subjects of forest fires and forest taxation. Upon the latter there
+is as yet no sound and effective public opinion in many parts of the
+United States, and legislatures and people still do not understand how
+powerful bad methods of forest taxation have been and still are in
+forcing the destructive cutting of timber by making it impossible to
+wait for the better methods of lumbering which accompany a better
+market. I have known the taxes on standing timber to equal six per cent.
+a year on the reasonable value of the stumpage.
+
+Thirteen States have State Forests with a total area altogether of
+3,400,000 acres. Of these New York has the largest area. Its State
+Forests cover 1,645,000 acres, partly in the Adirondacks and partly in
+the Catskills; Pennsylvania comes next with nine hundred and eighty-four
+thousand acres; and Wisconsin third, with about four hundred thousand
+acres.
+
+Twenty-nine States make appropriations for forest work. Excluding
+special appropriations for courses in forestry at universities,
+colleges, and schools, the total amount spent for this purpose is about
+$1,340,000. Pennsylvania has the largest appropriation,--three hundred
+and twenty-eight thousand dollars, in addition to which a special
+appropriation of two hundred and seventy-five thousand dollars has been
+devoted to checking the chestnut blight. Minnesota comes second with two
+hundred and thirty-three thousand dollars; New York third with about
+one hundred and sixty-five thousand dollars, and Wisconsin next with
+ninety-five thousand dollars.
+
+Thirty-three States have State forest officers, of whom fifteen are
+State Foresters by title, while the majority of the remainder perform
+duties of a very similar nature.
+
+Eleven States are receiving assistance from the Federal Government under
+the Weeks law, which authorizes coöperation for fire protection,
+provided the State will furnish a sum equal to that allotted to it from
+the National fund, with a limit of ten thousand dollars to a single
+State.
+
+For purposes of reforestation, ten States maintain forest nurseries.
+During the year 1912 they produced in round numbers twenty million young
+trees, of which fourteen million were distributed to the citizens of
+these ten States.
+
+In some States the waterpower question falls within the sphere of the
+State Forester, as well as other similar Conservation matters, while it
+has usually been made his duty to assist private timberland owners in
+the handling of their holdings, whether these be the larger holdings of
+lumber companies or the farmers' woodlots. In many States the State
+Forester is made responsible for the enforcement of the State forest
+fire laws, and for the control and management of a body of State fire
+wardens, who may or may not be permanently employed in that work. The
+enforcement of laws which exempt timberlands or lands planted to timber
+from taxation, or limit the taxation upon them, are also usually under
+his supervision.
+
+The work of forestry in the various States being on the whole much less
+advanced than it is in the Nation, the State Forester must still occupy
+himself largely with those preliminary phases of the work of forestry
+through which the National Forest Service has already passed. Much
+progress, however, is being made, and we may fairly count not only that
+State forest organizations will ultimately exist in every State, but
+that the State Foresters will exert a steadily increasing influence on
+forest perpetuation in the United States.
+
+
+
+
+THE FOREST SERVICE IN WASHINGTON
+
+
+A description of what a Forester has to do which did not include the
+work of the Government Foresters at the National Capital would
+necessarily be incomplete. The following outline may, therefore, help to
+round out the picture.
+
+The Washington headquarters of the Forest Service are directly in charge
+of the Forester and his immediate assistants. The Forester has general
+supervision of the whole Service. It is he who, with the approval of the
+Secretary of Agriculture, determines the general policy which is to
+govern the Service in the very various and numerous matters with which
+it has to deal. He keeps his hand upon the whole machinery of the
+Service, holds it up to its work, and in general is responsible for
+supplying it with the right spirit and point of view, without which any
+kind of efficiency is impossible.
+
+The Forester prepares the estimates, or annual budget, for the
+expenditures of the Service, and appears before Committees of Congress
+to explain the need for money, and otherwise to set forth or defend the
+work upon which the Service is engaged. His immediate subordinates spend
+a large part of their time in the field inspecting the work of the
+Service and keeping its tone high. Their reports to the Forester keep
+him thoroughly advised as to the situation on all the National Forests,
+so that he may wisely meet each question as it comes up, and adjust the
+regulations and routine business methods of the Service to the
+constantly changing needs of the people with whom it deals.
+
+Being responsible for the personnel of the Forest Service, the Forester
+recommends to the Secretary of Agriculture, by whom the actual papers
+are issued, all appointments to it, as well as promotions, reductions,
+and dismissals. Under his immediate eye also is the very important and
+necessary work of making public the information collected by the Service
+for the use of the people. Since 1900, 370 publications of the Service
+have been issued, with a total circulation of 11,198,000 copies.
+
+The publications of the United States Forest Service include by far the
+most and the best information upon the forests of this country which has
+until now been assembled and printed. Hence, the prospective student of
+forestry can do nothing better than to write to The Forester,
+Washington, D. C. (which is the correct address), for the annotated
+catalogue of these publications which is sent free to all applicants,
+and then to secure and study such of the bulletins and circulars as best
+meet his individual needs. If he looks forward to entering the United
+States Forest Service, he should not fail to get also the Use Book, the
+volume of directions and regulations in accordance with which the
+National Forests are protected, developed, and made available and useful
+to the people of the regions in which they lie.
+
+The dendrological work of the Service, which has to do with forest
+distribution, the identification of tree species and other forest
+botanical work, is also under the immediate supervision of the Forester,
+and the Chief Lumberman reports directly to him.
+
+In addition to the work which falls immediately under the eye of the
+Forester, and which used to, but does not now, include the legal work
+necessary to support and promote the operations of the Service, there
+are seven principal parts, or branches, in the work of the Washington
+headquarters. The first of these is the Branch of Accounts, whose work I
+need not describe further than to say that the Service has always owed a
+very large part of its safety against the bitter attacks of its enemies
+to the accuracy, completeness, and general high quality of its
+accounting system.
+
+The second branch, that of Operation, has charge of the business
+administration both of the National Forests and of the other work of
+the Forest Service. Here the business methods which are necessary to
+keep the organization at a high state of efficiency are formulated, put
+in practice, and constantly revised, for it is only by such revision
+that they can be kept, as they are kept, at a level with the very best
+practice of the best modern business. There are very few Government
+bureaus of which this can be said. The Branch of Operation is
+responsible for the adoption and enforcement of labor-saving devices in
+correspondence, in handling requisitions, and in the filing and care of
+papers generally, and for the supply of stationery, tools, and
+instruments, and the renting of quarters,--in a word, for the whole of
+the more or less routine transaction of business which is essential to
+keep so large an organization at the highest point of efficiency.
+
+[Illustration: BRUSH PILING IN A NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER SALE]
+
+The office work needed in the mapping of the National Forests, with
+all their resources, boundaries, and interior holdings, is in charge of
+the Branch of Operation. So is the immense amount of drafting which is
+necessary in the other work of the Service, and the photographic
+laboratory in which maps are reproduced and where permanent photographic
+records of the condition of the forest are made.
+
+The third branch, that of Silviculture, is the most important of all. It
+has oversight of the practice of forestry on all the National Forests,
+and of all scientific forest studies in the National Forests and
+outside. It is here that the conditions in the contracts under which the
+larger timber sales are made are finally examined and approved, and here
+are found the inspectors whose duty it is not only to see that the work
+is well done, but to labor constantly for improvements in methods as
+well as in results. Here centres the preparation of forest working
+plans, and the knowledge of lumber and the lumber markets.
+
+The Branch of Silviculture has charge also of National coöperation for
+the advancement of forestry with the several States, and in particular
+for fire protection under the Weeks law. This form of coöperation has
+made the knowledge and equipment of the Forest Service available for the
+study of State forest resources and forest problems, and much of the
+progress in forestry made by the States is directly due to it.
+
+Under the Branch of Silviculture, the Office of Forest Investigations
+brings together all that is known of the nature and growth of trees in
+this country, and to some extent in other countries also, conducts
+independent studies of the greatest value in developing better methods
+of securing the reproduction of important forest trees, and computes
+the enormous number of forest measurements dealing with the stand and
+the rate of growth of trees and forests that are turned in by the
+parties engaged in forest investigation in the field. Under the Office
+of Forest Investigations, studies in forest distribution and in the
+structure of wood are carried on, and it includes the Library of the
+Forest Service, by far the most complete and effective forest library in
+the United States.
+
+The fourth branch, that of Grazing, supervises the use of the National
+Forests for pasture. Over the greater part of the West, this was the
+first use to which the forests were put, and an idea of its magnitude
+may be gathered from the fact that every year the National Forests
+supply feed for about a million and a half cattle and horses, and more
+than fourteen million sheep. It is no easy task to permit all this live
+stock to utilize the forage which the National Forests produce, and yet
+do little or no harm to the young growth on which the future of the
+forest depends. To exclude the grazing animals altogether is impossible
+and undesirable, for to do so would ruin the leading industry in many
+portions of the West. Consequently, many of the most difficult and
+perplexing questions in the practical administration of the National
+Forests have occurred in the work of the Branch of Grazing, and have
+there been solved, and many of the most bitter attacks upon it have
+there been met.
+
+The fifth branch, that of Lands, has to do with the questions which
+arise from the use of the land in the National Forests for farming or
+ranching, mining, and a very wide variety of other purposes, and with
+the exceedingly numerous and intricate questions which arise because
+there are about 21,100,000 acres of land within the boundaries of the
+National Forests whose title has already passed from the Government. The
+boundaries of the National Forests also are constantly being examined to
+determine whether they include all the land, and only the land, to be
+contained within them, and whether they should be extended or reduced.
+
+The first permits for the use of waterpower sites on Government land
+were issued by the Forest Service, and the policy which is just being
+adopted by the Interior Department and other Government organizations in
+their handling of waterpower questions was there first developed. These
+permits are prepared in the Branch of Lands. The first steps toward
+deterring men who attempt in defiance of the law to get possession of
+lands claimed to be agricultural or mineral within the National Forests
+are taken here, but the final decision on these points rests with the
+Department of the Interior. The examination of lands to determine
+whether they are agricultural in character, and therefore should be
+opened to settlement, is directed from this Branch.
+
+The uses to which National Forest lands are put are almost unbelievably
+various. Barns, borrow pits, botanical gardens, cemeteries and churches,
+dairies and dipping vats, fox ranches and fish hatcheries, hotels,
+pastures, pipe lines, power sites, residences, sanitaria and
+school-houses, stores and tunnels, these and many others make up, with
+grazing and timber sales, the uses of the National Forests, for which
+already more than half a million permits have been issued. This work
+also falls to the Branch of Lands.
+
+The sixth branch, that of Forest Products, is concerned with the whole
+question of the uses of wood and other materials produced by the forest.
+Its principal work is conducted through the Forest Products Laboratory,
+in coöperation with the University of Wisconsin at Madison. Here timber
+is tested to ascertain its strength, the products of wood distillation
+are investigated, wood pulp and paper studies of large reach are carried
+on, the methods of wood preservation and the results of applying them
+are in constant course of being examined, and the diseases of trees and
+of wood are studied in coöperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry of
+the United States Department of Agriculture. The consumption of wood,
+and the production of lumber and forest products, are also the subject
+of continuous investigation, and various necessary special studies are
+undertaken from time to time. At the moment, an effort is under way to
+find new uses and new markets for wood killed by the chestnut blight in
+the northeastern United States.
+
+The seventh branch has to do with the study, selection, and acquisition
+of lands under the Weeks law, in accordance with which eight million
+dollars was appropriated for the purchase of forest lands valuable for
+stream protection, with particular reference to the Southern
+Appalachians and the White Mountains of New England. The examination of
+the amount of merchantable timber on lands under consideration for
+purchase, the study of the character of the land and the forest, and the
+survey of the land keep a numerous body of young men very fully
+occupied. Their task is to see that none but the right land is
+recommended for acquisition by the Government, that the nature and value
+of the lands selected shall be most thoroughly known, and that the
+constant effort to make the Government pay unreasonable prices or
+purchase under unfavorable conditions shall as constantly be defeated.
+The same branch takes charge of the lands as soon as they have been
+acquired.
+
+The foregoing description of the work which is done in Washington by the
+Forest Service may help to make clear the great variety of tasks to
+which a Forester may be required to set his hand, and emphasizes the
+need of a broad training not strictly confined to purely technical
+lines. It would be defective as a description, however, and would fail
+to show the spirit in which the work is done, if no mention were made of
+the Service Meeting, at which the responsible heads of each branch and
+of the work of the Forester's office meet once a week to discuss every
+problem which confronts the Service and every phase of its work. This
+meeting is the centre where all parts of the work of the Service come
+together and arrange their mutual coöperation, and it is also the spring
+from which the essential democracy of the organization takes its rise.
+The Service Meeting is the best thing in the Forest Service, and that is
+saying a great deal.
+
+It must not be imagined that the maintenance of Forest Service
+headquarters in Washington indicates that the actual business of
+handling the National Forests is carried on at long range. In order to
+avoid any such possibility the six District offices were organized in
+1908. These are situated at Missoula, Denver, Albuquerque, Portland,
+Ogden, and San Francisco. Each of the District offices is in charge of a
+District Forester, who directs the practical carrying out of the
+policies finally determined upon in Washington, after consultation with
+the men in the field. The execution of all the work, the larger features
+of which the Washington office decides and directs (and the details of
+which it inspects), is the task of the District Forester. The District
+Forester's office is necessarily organized much on the same general
+lines as the Washington headquarters. Thus, the subjects of accounts,
+operation, silviculture, grazing, lands, and forest products are all
+represented in the District offices. In addition, a legal officer is
+necessarily attached to each District office, and each District Forester
+has in his District one or more forest experiment stations, employed
+mainly in studying questions of growth and reproduction; and three
+forest insect field stations, maintained in coöperation with the Bureau
+of Entomology, are divided among the six Districts.
+
+[Illustration: FOREST RANGERS GETTING INSTRUCTION IN METHODS OF WORK
+FROM A DISTRICT FOREST OFFICER]
+
+While the work of the Washington office is mainly that of guiding the
+work of the National Forests along broad general lines, through
+instructions to the District Foresters, the office of each District
+Forester deals directly with the Forest Supervisors, and so with the
+handling of the National Forests. A multitude of questions which the
+Supervisors can not answer are decided in the District office instead,
+as was formerly the case, of being forwarded to Washington for disposal
+there, with the consequent aggravating and needless delay. The
+establishment of the District offices has made the handling of the
+National Forests far less complicated and far more prompt, and has
+brought it far closer than ever before to the actual users,--that is,
+has made it far more quickly and accurately responsive to their needs.
+
+
+
+
+PRIVATE FORESTRY
+
+
+As yet, the practice of forestry by private owners, except for fire
+protection, has made but little progress in the United States, although
+without doubt it will be widely extended during the next ten or fifteen
+years. The concentration of timberland ownership in the United States
+has put a few men in control of vast areas of forest. Many of them are
+anxious to prevent forest destruction, so far as that may be practicable
+without interfering with their profits, and for that purpose Foresters
+are beginning to be employed. Until now the principal tasks of Foresters
+employed by lumbermen have been the measurement of the amount of lumber
+in the standing crop of trees, and the protection of forest lands from
+fire. Here and there the practice of a certain amount of forestry has
+been added, but this part of the work of the private Forester employed
+by lumbermen has not been important. It is likely, however, to increase
+with some rapidity before long. In the meantime, the private Forester
+must usually be willing to accept a good many limitations on the
+technical side of his work.
+
+It is essential for the Forester thus employed to have or promptly to
+acquire a knowledge of practical lumbering, that is, of logging,
+milling, and markets, and for the forest student who expects to enter
+this work to give special attention to these subjects.
+
+Already about 170 graduates of forest schools are in private employ, a
+considerable proportion of which number are employed by large lumbermen.
+
+The time is undoubtedly coming, and I hope it may come soon, when forest
+destruction will be legally recognized as hostile to the public welfare,
+and when lumbermen will be compelled by law to handle their forests so
+as to insure the reproduction of them under reasonable conditions and
+within a reasonable time. The idea is neither tyrannical nor new. In
+democratic Switzerland, private owners of timberland are restrained by
+law from destroying the forests upon which the welfare of that mountain
+region so largely depends, and if they disobey, their forest lands are
+replanted by the Government at the owners' expense.
+
+Another opening for Foresters in the employ of lumbermen is through the
+forest fire protective associations. Of these, two stand out most
+conspicuously at the present time, one the Northwestern Conservation and
+Forestry Association, the other the Oregon Forest Fire Association. Each
+has as its executive officer a trained Forester whose knowledge of the
+woods not only makes him exceedingly useful to his employers, but also,
+when combined with the Forester's point of view, enables him to be of
+great value in protecting the general interest in the forest.
+
+The object and methods of one of the associations is described by its
+Secretary as follows:
+
+"A field hitherto narrow but continually broadening, and offering much
+opportunity for those with peculiar qualifications, is the management of
+the coöperative forest work carried on by timber owners in many
+localities, often jointly with State and Government. This movement
+originated in the Pacific Northwest, where it still has the highest
+development, but is extending to the Lake States, New England, and
+Canada.
+
+"As a rule the primary object of these coöperative associations is fire
+prevention and their local managers must have demonstrated ability to
+organize effective patrol systems, build telephone lines, apply every
+ingenuity to supplying and equipping their forces, and, above all, to
+handle men in emergencies. But in most cases the association of forest
+owners to this end has led also to progress in many other matters
+inseparable from improvement, such as study of reforestation
+possibilities, forest legislation, educating lumberman and public in
+forest preservation, and the extension of coöperation in all these as
+well as in fire prevention from private to State and federal agencies.
+
+"The development of such activities is already employing several highly
+paid men who can command the confidence, not only of forest owners, but
+also of the public and of public officials. Advisers in legislative as
+well as technical forestry matters and particularly proficient in all
+that pertains to forest protection, their usefulness lies as much
+outside their own association as within them, and to be successful they
+must be skilful organizers and campaigners. It is these men who have
+developed to its highest extent the adaptation to forestry propaganda of
+modern publicity and advertising methods.
+
+"As a rule, however, these may be described as graduate positions,
+filled by men of experience and acquaintance with the several agencies
+involved, rather than by newly fledged Foresters. A practical knowledge
+of protection problems is essential."
+
+Forestry associations offer a different, but often a most fascinating
+field, of work for the trained Forester. There are at present 39 such
+associations. The work which they offer has much in common with the
+duties of a State Forester.
+
+Fish and game associations are beginning to employ Foresters, realizing
+that the wise handling of the forests may well go hand in hand with the
+care of the game and fish which the forest shelters and protects.
+Eventually nearly all such associations which control any considerable
+body of land in timbered regions may be expected to utilize the services
+of trained Foresters of their own.
+
+In addition to the work for lumbermen and for associations of various
+kinds, land owners in considerable variety have begun to employ
+Foresters. Among these are coal and coke companies, iron companies, wood
+pulp and paper companies which are beginning to look after their supply
+of timber; powder, arms, and ammunition companies, hydraulic and water
+companies; a great corporation engaged in the manufacture of matches;
+and a number of railroads, including the Delaware and Hudson, the
+Illinois Central, and the Pennsylvania. In addition to the need for
+cross ties, railroads are among the largest consumers of lumber. The
+Foresters who work for them are largely occupied with growing the wood
+supplies which the railroads need, and nursery practice often occupies a
+very large share of their attention.
+
+
+
+
+FOREST SCHOOLS
+
+
+Since the first one was founded in 1898, the number of forest schools in
+the United States has increased so rapidly as to create a demand for
+forest instructors which it has been exceedingly difficult to fill.
+Indeed, the increase in secondary forest schools, or schools not of the
+first grade, has doubtless been more rapid than the welfare of the
+profession or the sound practice of forestry required, and the brisk
+demand for teachers has led some men to take up the task of instruction
+who were not well fitted for it.
+
+There are in this country to-day 23 forest schools which prepare men for
+the practice of forestry as a profession, and 51 schools which devote
+themselves to general instruction in forestry or to courses for Forest
+Rangers and Forest Guards. The approximate number of teachers in all
+forest schools is at present 110, and this number will doubtless be
+still further increased by the addition of new forest schools or the
+expansion of old ones, while a certain number of places will be made
+vacant by the retirement of men who find themselves better fitted for
+other lines of work.
+
+The teaching staff at three of the principal forest schools of the
+country is as follows:
+
+At School A, 5 men give their whole time to forest instruction, and 14
+give courses in the forest school.
+
+Schools B and C have each 4 men who give their whole time to the work;
+and 4 and 20 respectively who give lectures or individual courses.
+
+In addition to the work for lumbermen, associations, railroads, and
+others just mentioned, an increasing number of Foresters are required to
+care for the forests on large landed estates in different parts of the
+country. Work of this kind is at present restricted almost entirely to
+the East, and especially to New England, where several firms of
+consulting Foresters give to it the larger portion of their time. Some
+of the men thus employed are as fully occupied with the tasks of the
+professional Forester as any of the men in the Government service, while
+others give a part of their attention to the general management of the
+property, or to the protection and propagation of game and fish.
+
+
+
+
+THE OPPORTUNITY
+
+
+GOVERNMENT SERVICE
+
+There is no more useful profession than forestry. The opportunity to
+make himself count in affairs of public importance comes earlier and
+more certainly to the Forester than to the member of any other
+profession. The first and most valuable, therefore, of the incentives
+which lead the Forester to his choice is the chance to make himself of
+use to his country and to his generation.
+
+But if this is the first matter to be considered in deciding upon a
+profession, it is by no means the last, and the practical considerations
+of a fair return for good work, bread and butter for a man and his
+family, the certainty or uncertainty of employment,--such questions as
+these must have their full share of attention.
+
+There are in the United States Forest Service 1059 Forest Guards, 1247
+Forest Rangers, 233 Supervisors, and Deputy Supervisors, and 115 Forest
+Assistants and 177 Forest Examiners who, as already explained, are the
+technical men in charge of practical forestry on the National Forests.
+The six District offices together include in their membership about 50
+professional Foresters, and about 65 more are attached to the
+headquarters at Washington, so that allowing for duplications there are
+about 335 trained Foresters in the United States Forest Service.
+
+The number of new appointments to the Forest Service in the different
+permanent grades varies from year to year but may be said to be
+approximately as follows: Rangers, 240 new appointments; Forest
+Assistants, 35; other technical positions, 10. All appointments as
+Supervisor are by promotion from the lists of Forest Rangers or Forest
+Examiners.
+
+The yearly pay of the Forest Guard, who, like the Ranger, must be a
+citizen of the State in which his work lies, is from $420 to $900.
+Forest Rangers, who enter the Service through Civil Service examination,
+receive from $1100 to $1500 per annum. Forest Supervisors, practically
+all of whom are men of long experience in forest work, receive from
+$1600 to $2700 per annum. Forest Assistants enter the Forest Service
+through Civil Service examination at a salary of $1200 per annum, and
+are promoted to a maximum salary of $2500 per annum, as Forest
+Examiners. Professional Foresters at work in the District offices are
+recruited mainly from among the Forest Assistants and Examiners. They
+receive from $1100 to $3200 yearly. The technical men in charge at
+Washington get from $1100 to $5000 per annum, which last is the pay of
+the Forester, at the head of the Service.
+
+
+STATE SERVICE
+
+The pay of the State Foresters, or other trained Foresters in charge of
+State work, ranges from $1800 to $4000, and that of their technical
+assistants from $1000 to $2500. Out of the total number, only 2 are
+directly in charge of their own work, responsible only to the Governor
+and the Legislature, while 19 act as subordinates for State forest
+commissions or commissioners, who in the majority of cases are political
+appointees. In striking contrast with the United States Forest Service,
+politics has so far been a dangerous, if not a dominating, influence in
+the forest work of most of the States which have undertaken it.
+
+Like the National Forests, the State Forests already in existence will
+create an increasing demand for the service of technical Foresters.
+Indeed, as similar forests are acquired by most of the States which are
+now without them, as undoubtedly they will be, the extent of the
+opportunity for professionally trained Foresters in State work is
+certain to grow.
+
+
+PRIVATE WORK
+
+At present, the demand for Foresters in private work is far less
+pressing and the opening is far less attractive than it will be in the
+not distant future. The number of men that will be required for this
+work will depend on the development of legislation as well as upon the
+desire of the private owners, lumbermen and others, to protect and
+improve their property. The time is coming, and coming before long, when
+all private owners of forests in the mountains, or on steep slopes
+elsewhere, will be required by law to provide for their protection and
+reproduction. When that time arrives, the demand for Foresters in
+private work will increase to very large dimensions, and will probably
+do so far more rapidly than Foresters can be trained to supply it.
+
+The pay of Foresters in private work, whether in the employ of
+lumbermen, railroads, shooting and fishing clubs, the proprietors of
+large private estates, or other forest owners, has so far been somewhat
+better than that for similar services in Government employ. This money
+difference in favor of private employment is, in my judgment, likely to
+continue, and eventually the pay of consulting Foresters of established
+reputation employed in passing upon the value of forests offered as
+security for investments, or in estimating the standing timber for
+purchasers or sellers, or in other professional work of large business
+importance, will certainly reach very satisfactory figures.
+
+
+TEACHING
+
+Approximately 110 Foresters are engaged in teaching in the United States
+to-day. Their pay varies from about $1000 to about $3000, and is likely
+to increase rather more rapidly than that of other professional
+teachers, since less of them are available. It is not likely, however,
+that the number of openings in teaching forestry will be large within
+the next ten years.
+
+
+
+
+TRAINING
+
+
+The length of time which his training is to take and the particular
+courses of instruction which he shall pursue are to the young man
+contemplating the study of forestry matters of the first importance. The
+first thing to insist on in that connection is that the training must be
+thorough. It is natural that a young man should be eager to begin his
+life work and therefore somewhat impatient of the long grind of a
+thorough schooling. But however natural, it is not the part of wisdom to
+cut short the time of preparation. When the serious work of the trained
+Forester begins later on, there will be little or no time to fill the
+gaps left at school, and the earnest desire of the young Forester will
+be that he had spent more time in his preparation rather than less. In
+this matter I speak as one who has gathered a conviction from personal
+experience, and believes he knows.
+
+It would be useless to attempt to strike an average of the work
+prescribed and the courses given at the various forest schools. I shall
+describe, therefore, not an average system of instruction but one which,
+in the judgment of men entitled to an opinion, and in my own judgment,
+is sound, practical, and effective.
+
+Forest schools may roughly be divided between those which do not prepare
+men for professional work in forestry, and those which do. The latter
+may be divided again into undergraduate schools and graduate schools.
+Most of the former offer a four-year undergraduate course, and their
+students receive their degrees at the same time as other members of the
+University who entered at the same time with them. The graduate schools
+require a college degree, or its equivalent in certain subjects, before
+they will receive a student. The men who have completed their courses
+have usually, therefore, pursued more extensive and more advanced
+studies in forestry, are better trained, and are themselves older and
+more ready to accept the responsibilities which forestry brings upon
+them. For these reasons, the graduate school training is by far the more
+desirable, in my opinion.
+
+The subjects required for entrance to a graduate forest school should
+include at least one full year in college botany, covering the general
+morphology, histology, and physiology of plants, one course each in
+geology, physics, inorganic chemistry, zoölogy, and economics, with
+mathematics through trigonometry, and a reading knowledge of French or
+German. Some acquaintance with mechanical drawing is also desirable but
+not absolutely necessary. Other courses which are extremely desirable,
+if not altogether essential, are mineralogy, meteorology, mechanics,
+physical geography, organic chemistry, and possibly calculus, which may
+be of use in timber physics.
+
+One or two forest schools begin their course of training for the first
+year in July instead of in October, in order to give their students some
+acquaintance with the woods from the Forester's standpoint before the
+more formal courses begin. The result of this plan is to give increased
+vividness and reality to all the courses which follow the work in the
+woods, to make clear the application of what is taught, and so to add
+greatly to the efficiency of the teaching.
+
+In addition to this preliminary touch with the woods, any wise plan of
+teaching will include many forest excursions and much practical field
+work as vitally important parts of the instruction. This outdoor work
+should occur throughout the whole course, winter and summer, and in
+addition, the last term of the senior year may well be spent wholly in
+the woods, where the students can be trained in the management of
+logging operations and milling, and can get their final practice work in
+surveying and map-making, in preparing forest working plans, estimating
+timber, laying out roads and trails, making plans for lumber operations,
+and other similar practical work. Several of the best forest schools
+have adopted this plan.
+
+The regular courses of a graduate forest school usually cover a period
+of two years. They should fit a student for nearly every phase of
+professional work in forestry, and should give him a sound preparation
+not merely for practical work in the woods, but also for the broader
+work of forest organization in the Government Service in the United
+States and in the Philippines, and in the service of the States; for
+handling large tracts of private forest lands; for expert work in the
+employ of lumbermen and other forest owners; for public speaking and
+writing; for teaching; and for scientific research.
+
+Every well equipped forest school will have a working library of books,
+pamphlets, and lumber journals published here and abroad, an herbarium
+at least of native trees and shrubs and of the more important forest
+herbs, together with a collection of forest tree fruits and seeds, and
+specimens of domestic and foreign timbers. Exhibits showing the uses of
+woods and the various forms of tools used in lumbering, as well as the
+apparatus for laboratory work and surveying, and forest instruments for
+work in the field, are often of great value to the student.
+
+What should a young man learn at a forest school? Doubtless there will
+be some variation of opinion as to the exact course of study which will
+best fit him for the work of a Forester in the United States. The
+following list expresses the best judgment on the subject I have been
+able to form:
+
+
+DENDROLOGY:
+
+The first step in forestry is to become acquainted with the various
+kinds of trees. The coming Forester must learn to identify the woody
+plants of the United States, both in summer and in winter. He must
+understand their shapes and outward structures, and where they are
+found, and he must begin his knowledge of the individual habits of
+growth and life which distinguish the trees which are important in
+forestry.
+
+
+FOREST PHYSIOGRAPHY:
+
+Trees grow in the soil. It is important to know something of the origin
+of soils and their properties and values, and of the principal soil
+types, with special reference to their effect upon plant distribution
+and welfare. The origin, nature, value, and conservation of humus, that
+most essential ingredient of the forest floor; the field methods of
+mapping soil types; the rock types most important in their relation to
+soils, how they are made up, how they make soil, and where they
+occur--something should be learned of all this. Finally, under this
+head, the student ought to get a usable knowledge of the physiographic
+regions of the United States, their boundaries, geologic structure,
+topography, drainage, and soils,--all this naturally with special
+reference to the relation between these basic facts and the forest.
+
+
+SILVICULTURE:
+
+Silviculture is the art of caring for forests, and therefore the
+backbone of forestry. It is based upon Silvics, which is the knowledge
+of the habits or behavior of trees in their relations to light, heat,
+and moisture, to the air and soil, and to each other. It is the facts
+embraced in Silvics which explain the composition, character, and form
+of the forest; the success or failure of tree species in competition
+with each other; the distribution of trees and of forests; the
+development of each tree in height, diameter, and volume; its form and
+length of life; the methods of its reproduction; and the effect of all
+these upon the nature and the evolution of the city of trees, and upon
+forest types and their life histories.
+
+This is knowledge the Forester can not do without. Silvics is the
+foundation of his professional capacity, and as a student he can better
+afford to scamp any part of his training rather than this. A man may be
+a poor Forester who knows Silvics, but no man can be a good Forester who
+does not.
+
+The practice of Silviculture has to do with the treatment of woodlands.
+The forest student must learn the different methods of reproducing
+forests by different methods of cutting them down, and the application
+of these methods in different American forest regions. There are also
+many methods of cutting for the improvement of the character and growth
+of forests, as well as for utilizing material that otherwise would go to
+waste, before the final reproduction cuttings can be made. The ways in
+which forests need protection are equally numerous, and of these by far
+the most important in our country have to do with methods of preventing
+or extinguishing forest fires.
+
+Well managed forests are handled under working plans based on the
+silvical character and silvicultural needs of the forest, as well as
+upon the purpose set by the owner as the object of management, which is
+often closely related to questions of forest finance. The student should
+ground himself thoroughly in the making of silvicultural working plans,
+and the more practice in making them he can get, the better. So, too,
+with the marking of trees in reproduction and improvement cuttings under
+as many different kinds of forest conditions as may be possible.
+
+The artificial reproduction of forests is likely to occupy far more of
+the Forester's attention in the future than it has in the past. Hence
+the collection of tree seeds, their fertility and vitality as affecting
+their handling, the best methods of seeding and planting, and the
+lessons of past failures and successes, with the whole subject of
+nursery work and the care of young plantations, must by no means be
+overlooked.
+
+Much incidental information on the subject of forest protection will
+come to the student in the course of his studies, but special attention
+should be given to learning which of the species of forest insects are
+most injurious to forest vegetation, how their attacks are made, how
+they may be discovered, and the best ways by which such attacks can be
+mitigated or controlled. So also the diseases of timber trees will repay
+hard study. The principal fungi which causes such diseases should be
+known, how they attack the trees, and what are the remedies, as well as
+(although this is far less important) the way to treat tree wounds and
+the correct methods of pruning.
+
+
+FOREST ECONOMICS:
+
+Forest Economics is a large subject. It deals with the productive value
+of forests to their owners, and with the larger question of their place
+in the economy of the Nation. It considers their use as conservers of
+the soil and the streams; their effect on climate, locally, as in the
+case of windbreakers, and on a larger scale; and their contribution to
+the public welfare as recreation grounds and game refuges. It includes a
+knowledge of wastes from which the forests suffer, and the consequent
+loss to industry and to the public, and in this it does not omit the
+effects of forest fires. Statistics of forest consumption; the relation
+of the forest to railroads, mines, and other wood-using industries; its
+effect upon agriculture, stock raising, and manufacturing industries;
+and its effect upon the use of the streams for navigation, power,
+irrigation, and domestic water supply; all these are important. The
+student should consider also the forest resources of the United States,
+their present condition, and the needs they must be fitted to supply.
+
+
+FOREST ENGINEERING:
+
+Forest engineering is steadily becoming more and more necessary to the
+Forester. He must have a working knowledge of the use of surveying
+instruments; the making of topographic surveys; the office work required
+of an engineer; the making of topographic maps; the location of trails,
+roads, and railroads; and the construction of bridges, telephone lines,
+cabins, and fences, together with logging railroads, slides, dams, and
+flumes.
+
+
+FOREST MENSURATION:
+
+[Illustration: FOREST SERVICE MEN MAKING FRESH MEASUREMENTS IN THE
+MISSOURI SWAMPS]
+
+Forest mensuration, the art of measuring the contents and growth of
+trees and forest stands, is of fundamental importance. The principles
+and methods of timber estimating, the actual measurement of standing
+timber, log rules, the making of stem analyses to show the increase of a
+tree in diameter, height, and volume, the construction of tables of
+current and mean annual growth per acre and per tree, and the methods of
+using the information thus formulated,--all these are necessarily of
+keen interest to the man who later on will have to apply his knowledge
+in the practical management of woods.
+
+
+FOREST MANAGEMENT:
+
+Forest management is concerned with the principles involved in planning
+the handling of forests. Questions of the valuation of forests form a
+most essential part of it,--such questions as the cost of growing timber
+crops, the value of land for that purpose, the value of young timber,
+the valuation of damage to the forest, and the legal status of the
+damage and the remedy.
+
+Business principles are as necessary in the management of forests as in
+the management of mills or farms. These business principles work out in
+different forms of forest policy adapted to the needs of different kinds
+of owners, such as lumbermen and the Government. What the young Forester
+has learned about growth and yield, about timber estimates and forest
+statistics, and many other matters, all finds its application in forest
+management. He must also consider the methods and principles for
+regulating the cut of timber, or for securing sustained annual yields.
+All this forms the basis for the preparation of working plans for the
+utilization of forests under American economic and silvicultural
+conditions, not only without injury, but with benefit, to their
+continued productiveness.
+
+The subjects of forest surveying and working plans are intimately
+related. Maps are indispensable in the practical work of making a forest
+working plan. Topographic mapping, timber estimating, forest
+description, and the location of logging roads, trails, and fire lines,
+together with Silvics and a knowledge of growth and yield--these and
+many other subjects enter into the making of a practical working plan to
+harvest a forest crop and secure a second growth of timber. The student
+should get all the practice he can in marking timber for cutting under
+such a plan.
+
+The young Forester must make himself familiar with the administration of
+the National Forests. He must know how the business of the forest is
+handled, how it is protected against fire, how the timber is sold, how
+claims and entries are dealt with under the public land laws, how land
+in the National Forests is used to make homes, how trespass is
+controlled, how the livestock industry on the National Forests is
+fostered and regulated, and how the extremely valuable watersheds they
+contain are safeguarded and improved.
+
+
+THE PRACTICE OF FORESTRY:
+
+The practice of forestry is necessarily different in different kinds of
+forests and under different economic conditions. All that the Forester
+knows must here be applied, and applied in workable fashion, not only to
+the forest, but to the men who use the forest. This is peculiarly true
+of the practice of forestry in National and State Forests everywhere.
+
+
+FOREST PRODUCTS:
+
+Under this general subject, the forest student must acquaint himself,
+through the microscope, with the minute anatomy of the woody stem of
+coniferous and broadleaf trees, and the occurrence, form, structure, and
+variability of the elements which make it up. He should become familiar
+with the methods of classifying the economic woods of the United States,
+both under the microscope and with the unassisted eye, and for this
+purpose should know something of their color, gloss, grain, density,
+odor, and resonance both as aids to identification and as to their
+importance in giving value to the wood; the defects of timber; its
+moisture content, density, shrinking, checking, warping; and the effect
+of all these upon its uses.
+
+The chemical composition of wood and of minor forest products, such as
+tannins and dye stuffs, is important; the properties governing the fuel
+value and the other values of wood must be studied, as well as the
+methods of using these properties in the making of charcoal and wood
+pulp, in wood distillation, the turpentine industry, in tanning and
+dyeing, and in other industries.
+
+A field of great importance is the relation between the physical
+structure and the mechanical properties of wood. A student should inform
+himself concerning the standard methods of testing the properties of
+structural timber, by bending, compression, shearing, torsion, impact,
+and the hardness and tension tests, with their relation to heat and
+moisture, and the methods of seasoning, the use of preservatives, and
+the effect of the rate of application of the load.
+
+Woods vary as to their durability. It is important, therefore, to know
+about the causes of decay, the decay-resisting power of various woods,
+the relation of moisture content to durability, why the seasoning of
+wood is effective, the theory and the commercial methods of wood
+preservation, and its relation to the timber supply.
+
+
+LUMBERING:
+
+Lumbering the Forester should know more than a little about, as how to
+organize lumber operations, the equipment and management of logging and
+milling in various forest regions, the manufacture, seasoning, and
+grading of the rough and finished lumber, cost keeping in a lumber
+business, methods of sale, market requirements at home and abroad,
+prices, the relation of the lumber tariff to forestry, lumber
+associations, timber bonds, and insurance. The practical construction of
+logging equipment, such as aerial tramways, log slides, dams, and
+flumes, is of peculiar importance, and so are the conditions and changes
+of the lumber market.
+
+Experience on the land of some operating lumber company is of great
+value. It should include a study of logging methods, log scaling, waste
+in logging, the equipment and handling of the mill, the sawing and care
+of rough and finished lumber, its grading, and so far as possible an
+acquaintance with wood working plants of various kinds, and with the
+operations of turpentine orcharding. Studies along these lines may with
+advantage be almost indefinitely extended to include, for example the
+utilization of steam machinery for logging, the improvement of streams
+for driving logs, and other similar questions.
+
+
+FOREST LAW:
+
+The Forester must have at least a slight acquaintance with forest law,
+both State and National. It is important to know something of the
+general principles of classifying the public lands, of State laws for
+fire protection, the development of forest policies in the various
+States as legally expressed, and the important laws which govern the
+creation and management of State forest reserves.
+
+Forest taxation, State and local, which has, when excessive, so much to
+do with hastening forest destruction, is one of the most important
+questions which can engage the attention of the Forester.
+
+Under the subject of Federal Forest Law, it is not sufficient for the
+student to acquaint himself with those laws alone which govern the
+forests. He must also have some knowledge of the creation of a forest
+policy out of the public land policy of the United States, some
+acquaintance with the public land laws. A good working knowledge of the
+laws and regulations governing the National Forests is indispensable,
+and the student should at least know where to find the more important
+court decisions by which they are interpreted.
+
+
+FOREST HISTORY:
+
+The history of forestry in Europe has a certain importance in throwing
+light on our own forest history and its probable development, and this
+is especially true of the history of the administration of Government
+forest lands and of education in forestry.
+
+The history of forestry in the United States, however, is far more
+important. The Forester must know the story of the growth and change of
+National Forest organizations, the Forest Officers and their duties, the
+cost, size, and effectiveness of the Government Forest Service at
+different times, the Civil Service regulations under which it is
+recruited, and other similar matters. It is important likewise for him
+to become thoroughly saturated with an intimate knowledge of the
+development of forestry in public opinion in the United States, its
+extension to the other natural resources through the conservation
+policy, and the relation of the Forester's point of view thus expressed
+to the present welfare and future success of the Nation.
+
+It is not always possible for the forest student to become a woodsman
+before entering his profession, but it is most desirable. A Forester
+must be able to travel the forest alone by day and by night, he should
+be a good fisherman and a good hunter (which is far more important than
+to be a good shot), and deeply interested in both fish and game. The
+better horseman he is the better Forester he will be, and especially if
+he can pack and handle pack horses in the woods. So that whether the
+young Forester begins with a practical knowledge of woodcraft or not, he
+must not fail to acquire or improve it, for without it he will endanger
+the whole success of his career.
+
+Some knowledge of first aid to the injured is likely to be of great and
+sudden value to a man so much of whose life must be spent in the woods,
+at a distance from medical aid. The time spent in getting information on
+this subject will be anything but wasted.
+
+
+ENGLISH:
+
+The ability to write and to speak good, plain, understandable English is
+a prime requisite in the Forester's training. It is a part of education
+frequently neglected, especially by those in engineering or scientific
+pursuits; yet its importance for the Forester is very large. As already
+pointed out, the Forester is on the firing line of the conservation
+movement; he is pioneering in a new profession. For this reason he will
+often need to explain his stand and convert others to his beliefs. In
+addition, he must make available to others the results he secures from
+the study of new facts. A usable command of his own language will stand
+him in good stead, whether he needs to talk face to face with another
+man, or from a platform to a concourse of people, or to put into
+readable printed form the results of his observations or his thinking.
+
+When the young Forester has completed the courses of his school training
+in America, the question may be raised whether he should supplement his
+training by study abroad. I am strongly of opinion that he should do so
+if he can. Study abroad is not indispensable for the American Forester,
+but it can do him nothing but good to see in practical operation the
+methods of forestry which have resulted from the long experience of
+other lands, and especially to become familiar with the effect of sound
+forestry on the forest.
+
+
+
+    +-----------------------------------------------+
+    |             Transcriber's Note:               |
+    |                                               |
+    | Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the  |
+    | original document have been preserved.        |
+    |                                               |
+    | Typographical errors corrected in the text:   |
+    |                                               |
+    | Page 135  windbrakes changed to windbreaks    |
+    +-----------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Training of a Forester, by Gifford Pinchot
+
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+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Training of A Forester, by Gifford Pinchot.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+    p {  margin-top: .5em;
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+    .tr       {margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; margin-top: 5%; margin-bottom: 5%; padding: 1em; background-color: #f6f2f2; color: black; border: dotted black 1px;} /* transcriber's notes */
+
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+               /*  visibility: hidden;  */
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+
+    </style>
+   </head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Training of a Forester, by Gifford Pinchot
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Training of a Forester
+
+Author: Gifford Pinchot
+
+Release Date: February 23, 2010 [EBook #31367]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TRAINING OF A FORESTER ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Tom Roch, Barbara Kosker and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images produced by Core Historical
+Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<div class="img">
+<img border="0" src="images/cover.jpg" width="35%" alt="Book Cover" />
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h1>THE TRAINING OF A FORESTER</h1>
+
+<br />
+<br />\<br />
+<br />
+
+<div class="img"><a name="frontis" id="frontis"></a>
+<a href="images/frontis.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/frontis.jpg" width="70%" alt="A FOREST RANGER LOOKING FOR FIRE" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">A FOREST RANGER LOOKING FOR FIRE FROM A NATIONAL FOREST LOOKOUT STATION &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; <i>Page 32</i></p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h1>  THE TRAINING OF A FORESTER</h1>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h4>  BY</h4>
+
+<h2>  GIFFORD PINCHOT</h2>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h3>  WITH EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS</h3>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<div class="img">
+<img border="0" src="images/deco.png" width="8%" alt="Publisher's Mark" />
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h4>  PHILADELPHIA &amp; LONDON<br />
+  J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY<br />
+  1914</h4>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h5>COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY<br />
+<br />
+PUBLISHED FEBRUARY, 1914<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY<br />
+AT THE WASHINGTON SQUARE PRESS<br />
+PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.<br />
+</h5>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<h4>To</h4>
+<h3>OVERTON W. PRICE</h3>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Friend and Fellow Worker</span><br />
+<br />
+TO WHOM IS DUE, MORE THAN TO ANY OTHER MAN, THE<br />
+HIGH EFFICIENCY OF THE UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE</h4>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span>
+<br />
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>At one time or another, the largest question before every young man is,
+"What shall I do with my life?" Among the possible openings, which best
+suits his ambition, his tastes, and his capacities? Along what line
+shall he undertake to make a successful career? The search for a life
+work and the choice of one is surely as important business as can occupy
+a boy verging into manhood. It is to help in the decision of those who
+are considering forestry as a profession that this little book has been
+written.</p>
+
+<p>To the young man who is attracted to forestry and begins to consider it
+as a possible profession, certain questions present themselves. What is
+forestry? If he takes it up, what will his work be, and where? Does it
+in fact offer the satisfying type of outdoor life which it appears to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span>
+offer? What chance does it present for a successful career, for a career
+of genuine usefulness, and what is the chance to make a living? Is he
+fitted for it in character, mind, and body? If so, what training does he
+need? These questions deserve an answer.</p>
+
+<p>To the men whom it really suits, forestry offers a career more
+attractive, it may be said in all fairness, than any other career
+whatsoever. I doubt if any other profession can show a membership so
+uniformly and enthusiastically in love with the work. The men who have
+taken it up, practised it, and left it for other work are few. But to
+the man not fully adapted for it, forestry must be punishment, pure and
+simple. Those who have begun the study of forestry, and then have
+learned that it was not for them, have doubtless been more in number
+than those who have followed it through.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span>I urge no man to make forestry his profession, but rather to keep away
+from it if he can. In forestry a man is either altogether at home or
+very much out of place. Unless he has a compelling love for the
+Forester's life and the Forester's work, let him keep out of it.</p>
+
+<p class="right">G. P.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span>
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="90%">&nbsp;</td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="10%" style="font-size: 80%;">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">What is a Forest?</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">The Forester's Knowledge</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">The Forest and the Nation</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">The Forester's Point of View</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">The Establishment of Forestry</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">The Work of a Forester</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">The Forest Service</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">The Forest Supervisor</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">The Trained Forester</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_50">50</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">Personal Equipment</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_63">63</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">State Forest Work</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_84">84</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">The Forest Service in Washington</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">Private Forestry</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_106">106</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">Forest Schools</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">The Opportunity</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">Training</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_123">123</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span>
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span><br />
+<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<div class="centered">
+<table border="0" width="70%" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" summary="Illustrations">
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl" width="85%"></td>
+  <td class="tdr" width="15%" style="font-size: 80%;">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">A Forest Ranger Looking for Fire From a National Forest Lookout Station</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#frontis"><i>Frontispiece</i></a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">Stringing a Forest Telephone Line</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#imagep032">32</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">Forest Rangers Scaling Timber</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#imagep043">43</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">Western Yellow Pine Seed Collected by the Forest Service for Planting
+    up Denuded Lands</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#imagep047">47</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">A Forest Examiner Running a Compass Line</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#imagep059">59</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">Brush Piling in a National Forest Timber Sale</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#imagep095">95</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">Forest Rangers Getting Instruction in Methods Of Work from a District
+    Forest Officer</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#imagep105">105</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+  <td class="tdl smcap">Forest Service Men Making Fresh Measurements in the Missouri Swamps</td>
+  <td class="tdrb"><a href="#imagep136">136</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<br /><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span><br />
+<h2>THE TRAINING OF A FORESTER</h2>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<h2>WHAT IS A FOREST?</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>First, What is forestry? Forestry is the knowledge of the forest. In
+particular, it is the art of handling the forest so that it will render
+whatever service is required of it without being impoverished or
+destroyed. For example, a forest may be handled so as to produce saw
+logs, telegraph poles, barrel hoops, firewood, tan bark, or turpentine.
+The main purpose of its treatment may be to prevent the washing of soil,
+to regulate the flow of streams, to support cattle or sheep, or it may
+be handled so as to supply a wide range and combination of uses.
+Forestry is the art of producing from the forest whatever it can yield
+for the service of man.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span>Before we can understand forestry, certain facts about the forest itself
+must be kept in mind. A forest is not a mere collection of individual
+trees, just as a city is not a mere collection of unrelated men and
+women, or a Nation like ours merely a certain number of independent
+racial groups. A forest, like a city, is a complex community with a life
+of its own. It has a soil and an atmosphere of its own, chemically and
+physically different from any other, with plants and shrubs as well as
+trees which are peculiar to it. It has a resident population of insects
+and higher animals entirely distinct from that outside. Most important
+of all, from the Forester's point of view, the members of the forest
+live in an exact and intricate system of competition and mutual
+assistance, of help or harm, which extends to all the inhabitants of
+this complicated city of trees.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span>The trees in a forest are all helped by mutually protecting each other
+against high winds, and by producing a richer and moister soil than
+would be possible if the trees stood singly and apart. They compete
+among themselves by their roots for moisture in the soil, and for light
+and space by the growth of their crowns in height and breadth. Perhaps
+the strongest weapon which trees have against each other is growth in
+height. In certain species intolerant of shade, the tree which is
+overtopped has lost the race for good. The number of young trees which
+destroy each other in this fierce struggle for existence is prodigious,
+so that often a few score per acre are all that survive to middle or old
+age out of many tens of thousands of seedlings which entered the race of
+life on approximately even terms.</p>
+
+<p>Not only has a forest a character of its own, which arises from the fact
+that it is a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>community of trees, but each species of tree has peculiar
+characteristics and habits also. Just as in New York City, for example,
+the French, the Germans, the Italians, the Hungarians, and the Chinese
+each have quarters of their own, and in those quarters live in
+accordance with habits which distinguish each race from all the others,
+so the different species of pines and hemlocks, oaks and maples prefer
+and are found in certain definite types of locality, and live in
+accordance with definite racial habits which are as general and
+unfailing as the racial characteristics which distinguish, for example,
+the Italians from the Germans, or the Swedes from the Chinese.</p>
+
+<p>The most important of these characteristics of race or species are those
+which are concerned with the relation of each to light, heat, and
+moisture. Thus, a river birch will die if it has only as much water as
+will suffice <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>to keep a post oak in the best condition, and the warm
+climate in which the balsam fir would perish is just suited to the
+requirements of a long leaf pine or a magnolia.</p>
+
+<p>The tolerance of a tree for shade may vary greatly at different times of
+its life, but a white pine always requires more light than a hemlock,
+and a beech throughout its life will flourish with less sunshine or
+reflected light than, for example, an oak or a tulip tree.</p>
+
+<p>Trees are limited in their distribution also by their adaptability, in
+which they vary greatly. Thus a bald cypress will grow both in wetter
+and in dryer land than an oak; a red cedar will flourish from Florida to
+the Canadian line, while other species, like the Eastern larch, the
+Western mountain hemlock, or the big trees of California, are confined
+in their native localities within extremely narrow limits.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span><br />
+<h2>THE FORESTER'S KNOWLEDGE</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>The trained Forester must know the forest as a doctor knows the human
+machine. First of all, he must be able to distinguish the different
+trees of which the forest is composed, for that is like learning to
+read. He must know the way they are made and the way they grow; but far
+more important than all else, he must base his knowledge upon that part
+of forestry which is called Silvics, the knowledge of the relation of
+trees to light, heat, and moisture, to the soil, and to each other.</p>
+
+<p>The well-trained Forester must also know the forest shrubs and at least
+the more important smaller forest plants, something of the insect and
+animal life of his domain, and the birds and fish. He must have a good
+working knowledge of rocks, soils, and streams, and of the methods of
+making <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span>roads, trails, and bridges. He should be an expert in woodcraft,
+able to travel the forest safely and surely by day or by night. It is
+essential that he should have a knowledge of the theory and the practice
+of lumbering, and he should know something about lumber markets and the
+value of lumber, about surveying and map making, and many other matters
+which are considered more at length in the Chapter on Training. There
+are as yet in America comparatively few men who have acquired even
+fairly well the more important knowledge which should be included in the
+training of a Forester.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>THE FOREST AND THE NATION</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>The position of the forest in the housekeeping of any nation is unlike
+that of any other great natural resource, for the forest not only
+furnishes wood, without which <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span>civilization as we know it would be
+impossible, but serves also to protect or make valuable many of the
+other things without which we could not get on. Thus the forest cover
+protects the soil from the effects of wind, and holds it in place. For
+lack of it hundreds of thousands of square miles have been converted by
+the winds from moderately fertile, productive land to arid drifting
+sands. Narrow strips of forest planted as windbreaks make agriculture
+possible in certain regions by preventing destruction of crops by
+moisture-stealing dry winds which so afflict the central portions of our
+country.</p>
+
+<p>Without the forests the great bulk of our mining for coal, metals, and
+the precious minerals would be either impossible or vastly more
+expensive than it is at present, because the galleries of mines are
+propped with wood, and so protected against caving in. So far, no
+satisfactory substitute for the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span>wooden railroad tie has been devised;
+and our whole system of land transportation is directly dependent for
+its existence upon the forest, which supplies more than one hundred and
+twenty million new railroad ties every year in the United States alone.</p>
+
+<p>The forest regulates and protects the flow of streams. Its effect is to
+reduce the height of floods and to moderate extremes of low water. The
+official measurements of the United States Geological Survey have
+finally settled this long-disputed question. By protecting mountain
+slopes against excessive soil wash, it protects also the lowlands upon
+which this wash would otherwise be deposited and the rivers whose
+channels it would clog. It is well within the truth to say that the
+utility of any system of rivers for transportation, for irrigation, for
+waterpower, and for domestic supply depends in great part upon the
+protection which forests <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span>offer to the headwaters of the streams, and
+that without such protection none of these uses can be expected long to
+endure.</p>
+
+<p>Of the two basic materials of our civilization, iron and wood, the
+forest supplies one. The dominant place of the forest in our national
+economy is well illustrated by the fact that no article whatsoever,
+whether of use or ornament, whether it be for food, shelter, clothing,
+convenience, protection, or decoration, can be produced and delivered to
+the user, as industry is now organized, without the help of the forest
+in supplying wood. An examination of the history of any article,
+including the production of the raw material, and its manufacture,
+transportation, and distribution, will at once make this point clear.</p>
+
+<p>The forest is a national necessity. Without the material, the
+protection, and the assistance it supplies, no nation can long succeed.
+Many regions of the old world, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>such as Palestine, Greece, Northern
+Africa, and Central India, offer in themselves the most impressive
+object lessons of the effect upon national prosperity and national
+character of the neglect of the forest and its consequent destruction.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>THE FORESTER'S POINT OF VIEW</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>The central idea of the Forester, in handling the forest, is to promote
+and perpetuate its greatest use to men. His purpose is to make it serve
+the greatest good of the greatest number for the longest time. Before
+the members of any other profession dealing with natural resources, the
+Foresters acquired the long look ahead. This was only natural, because
+in forestry it is seldom that a man lives to harvest the crop which he
+helped to sow. The Forester must look <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>forward, because the natural
+resource with which he deals matures so slowly, and because, if steps
+are to be taken to insure for succeeding generations a supply of the
+things the forest yields, they must be taken long in advance. The idea
+of using the forest first for the greatest good of the present
+generation, and then for the greatest good of succeeding generations
+through the long future of the nation and the race&mdash;that is the
+Forester's point of view.</p>
+
+<p>The use of foresight to insure the existence of the forest in the
+future, and, so far as practicable, the continued or increasing
+abundance of its service to men, naturally suggested the use of
+foresight in the same way as to other natural resources as well. Thus it
+was the Forester's point of view, applied not only to the forest but to
+the lands, the minerals, and the streams, which produced the
+Conservation policy. The idea <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>of applying foresight and common-sense to
+the other natural resources as well as to the forest was natural and
+inevitable. It works out, equally as a matter of course, into the
+conception of a planned and orderly development of all that the earth
+contains for the uses of men. This leads in turn to the application of
+the same principle to other questions and resources. It was foreseen
+from the beginning by those who were responsible for inaugurating the
+Conservation movement that its natural development would in time work
+out into a planned and orderly scheme for national efficiency, based on
+the elimination of waste, and directed toward the best use of all we
+have for the greatest good of the greatest number for the longest time.
+It is easy to see that this principle (the Forester's principle, first
+brought to public attention by Foresters) is the key to national
+success.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>Forestry, then, is seen to be peculiarly essential to the national
+prosperity, both now and hereafter. National degradation and decay have
+uniformly followed the excessive destruction of forests by other
+nations, and will inevitably become our portion if we continue to
+destroy our forests three times faster than they are produced, as we are
+doing now. The principles of forestry, therefore, must occupy a
+commanding place in determining the future prosperity or failure of our
+nation, and this commanding position in the field of ideas is naturally
+and properly reflected in the dignity and high standing which the
+profession of forestry, young as it is, has already acquired in the
+United States. This position it must be the first care of every member
+of the profession to maintain and increase.</p>
+
+<p>In the long run, no profession rises higher than the degree of public
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span>consideration which marks its members. The profession of forestry is in
+many ways a peculiarly responsible profession, but in nothing more so
+than in its vital connection with the whole future welfare of our
+country and in the obligation which lies upon its members to see that
+its reputation and standing, which are the measures of its capacity for
+usefulness, are kept strong and clear.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FORESTRY</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>In the United States, forestry is passing out of the pioneer phase of
+agitation and the education of public opinion, and into the permanent
+phase of the practice of the profession. The first steps in forestry in
+this country, as in any other where the development and destruction of
+natural resources has been rapid, were necessarily directed <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span>mainly to
+informing the public mind upon the importance of forestry, and to
+building up national and State laws and organizations for the protection
+of timberlands set aside for the public benefit. The right to be heard
+with respect by the men who were already in control of the larger part
+of our total forest wealth had to be won, and has been won. What is
+more, in the teeth of the bitterest opposition of private special
+interests, the right of the public to first consideration in the
+protection and development of the forest and of all the resources it
+contains had to be asserted and established. That has now been done.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States these steps in the movement for the wise use of the
+forest have been taken mainly in the last dozen or fifteen years, during
+which the Federal forest organization has grown from an insignificant
+division of less than a dozen men to the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span>present United States Forest
+Service, of more than three thousand members. During this period, also,
+forestry, both as a profession and as a public necessity, has won
+enduring public recognition, and at the same time more public timberland
+has been set aside for the public use and to remain in the public hands
+than during all the rest of our history put together. To-day the
+National Forests are reasonably safe in the protection of public
+opinion, not against all attack, it is true, but against any successful
+attempt to dismember and turn them over to the special interests who
+already control the bulk and the best of our forests. The public has
+accepted forestry as necessary to the public welfare, both in the
+present and in the future; State forest organizations are springing up;
+forestry has won the right to be heard in the business offices as well
+as in the conventions of the private owners of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>forest land; and the
+time for the practice of the profession has fully come.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>THE WORK OF A FORESTER</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>What does a Forester do? I will try to answer this question, first, with
+reference to the United States Forest Service, and later as to the
+numerous other fields of activity which are opening or have already
+opened to the trained Forester in the United States.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>THE FOREST SERVICE</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>The United States Forest Service is responsible both for the general
+progress of forestry, so far as the United States Government is
+concerned, and for the protection and use of the National Forests. These
+National Forests now cover an area of one hundred and eighty-seven
+million acres, or as much land as is included in all the New <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>England
+States, with New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland,
+Virginia and West Virginia. The head of the Service, whose official
+title is "Forester," is charged with the great task of protecting this
+vast area against fire, theft, and other depredations, and of making all
+its resources, the wood, water, and grass, the minerals, and the soil,
+available and useful to the people of the United States under
+regulations which will secure development and prevent destruction or
+waste.</p>
+
+<p>The United States Forest Service consists, first, of a protective force
+of Forest Guards and Forest Rangers, who spend practically the whole of
+their time in the forest; second, of an executive staff of Forest
+Supervisors and their assistants, who have immediate charge of the
+handling of the National Forests; and third, of an administrative staff
+divided between headquarters <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span>in Washington and the six local
+administrative offices in the West, where the National Forests mainly
+lie.</p>
+
+<p>The work of a Forest Ranger is, first of all, to protect the District
+committed to his charge against fire. That comes before all else. For
+that purpose, the Ranger patrols his District during the seasons when
+fires are dangerous, or watches for signs of fire from certain high
+points, called fire-lookouts, or both. He keeps the trails and fire
+lines clear and the telephone in working order, and sees to it that the
+fire fighting tools, such as spades, axes, and rakes, are in good
+condition and ready for service. If he is wise, he establishes such
+relations with the people who live in his neighborhood that they become
+his volunteer assistants in watching for forest fires, in taking
+precautions against them, and in notifying him of them when they do take
+place. </p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep032" id="imagep032"></a>
+<a href="images/imagep032.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep032.jpg" width="70%" alt="STRINGING A FOREST TELEPHONE LINE" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">STRINGING A FOREST TELEPHONE LINE</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span>Fighting a forest fire in some respects is like fighting a fire in a
+city. In both, the first and most necessary thing is to get men and
+apparatus to the site of the fire at the first practicable moment. For
+this purpose, fire-engines and men are always ready in the city, while
+in the forest the telephones, trails, and bridges must be kept in
+condition, and the forest officers must be ready to move instantly day
+or night.</p>
+
+<p>It is far better to prevent a forest fire from starting than to have to
+put it out after it has started; but in spite of all the care that can
+be exercised with the means at hand, many fires start. Each year the
+Forest Service men extinguish not less than three thousand fires, nearly
+all of them while they are still small. At times, however, when the
+woods are very dry and the wind blows hard, in spite of all that can be
+done, a fire will grow large enough to be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>dangerous not only to the
+forest but to human life. Thus in the summer of 1910, the driest ever
+known in certain parts of the West, high winds drove the forest fires
+clear beyond the control of the fire fighters, many of whom were
+compelled to fight for their own lives.</p>
+
+<p>The worst of these fires were in Montana and Idaho, where the whole
+power of the Forest Service was used against them. The Forest Rangers,
+under the orders of their Supervisors, immediately organized or took
+charge of small companies of fire fighters, and began the work of
+getting them under control. But so fierce was the wind and so terrible
+the heat of the fires and the speed with which they moved, that in many
+places it became a question of saving the lives of the fire fighters
+rather than of putting out the fires. As a matter of fact, nearly a
+hundred of the men temporarily employed to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span>help the Government fire
+fighters lost their lives, and many more would have died but for the
+courage, resource, and knowledge of the woods of the Forest Rangers.</p>
+
+<p>Take, for example, the case of Ranger Edward C. Pulaski, of the C&oelig;ur
+d'Alene National Forest, stationed at Wallace, Idaho. Pulaski had charge
+of forty Italians and Poles. He had been at work with them for many
+hours, when the flames grew to be so threatening that it became a
+question of whether he could save his men. The fire was travelling
+faster than the men could make their way through the dense forest, and
+the only hope was to find some place into which the fire could not come.
+Accordingly Pulaski guided his party at a run through the blinding smoke
+to an abandoned mine he knew of in the neighborhood. When they reached
+it, he sent the men into the workings ahead of him, hung a wet blanket
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span>across the mouth of the tunnel, and himself stood there on guard. The
+fierce heat, the stifling air, and their deadly fear drove some of the
+foreigners temporarily insane, and a number of them tried to break out.
+With drawn revolver Pulaski held them back. One man did get by him and
+was burned to death. Many fainted in the tunnel. The Ranger himself,
+more exposed than any of his men, was terribly burned. He stood at his
+post, however, for five hours, until the fire had passed, and brought
+his party through without losing a single man except that one who got
+out of the tunnel, although his own injuries were so severe that he was
+in the hospital for two months as a result of them. The record of the
+Forest Service in these terrible fires is one of which every Forester
+may well be proud.</p>
+
+<p>The Ranger must protect his District, not only against fire but against
+the theft of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>timber and the incessant efforts of land grabbers to steal
+Government lands. To prevent the theft of timber is usually not
+difficult, but it is far harder to prevent fake homesteaders, fraudulent
+mining men, and other dishonest claimants from seizing upon land to
+which they have no right, and so preventing honest men from using these
+claims to make a living.</p>
+
+<p>In the past, this problem has presented the most serious difficulties,
+and still occasionally does so. There is no louder shouter for "justice"
+than a balked habitual land thief with political influence behind him.
+To illustrate the kind of attack upon the Forest Service to which
+fraudulent land claims have constantly given rise, I may cite the
+statements made during one of the annual attempts in the Senate to break
+down the Service. One of the Senators asserted that in his State the
+Forest Service was <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>overbearing and tyrannical, and that in a particular
+case it had driven out of his home a citizen known to the Senator, and
+had left him and his family to wander houseless upon the hillside, and
+that for no good reason whatsoever.</p>
+
+<p>This statement, if it had been true, would at once have destroyed the
+standing of the Service in the minds of many of its friends, and would
+have led to immediate defeat in the fight then going on. Fortunately,
+the records of the Service were so complete, and the knowledge of field
+conditions on the part of the men in Washington was so thorough, that
+the mere mention of the general locality of the supposed outrage by the
+Senator made it easy to identify the individual case. The man in
+question, instead of being an honest settler with a wife and family, was
+the keeper of a disreputable saloon and dance hall, a well-known
+law-breaker whom the local authorities had tried time and again <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>to
+dispossess and drive away. But by means of his fraudulent claim the man
+had always defeated the local officers. When, however, the officers of
+the Forest Service took the case in hand, the situation changed and
+things moved quickly. The disreputable saloon was promptly removed from
+the fraudulent land claim by means of which the keeper of it had held
+on, and this thoroughly undesirable citizen either went out of business
+or removed his abominable trade to some locality outside the National
+Forest.</p>
+
+<p>The actual facts were fully brought out in the debate next day, remained
+uncontradicted, and saved the fight for the Forest Service. The whole
+incident may be found at length in the Congressional Record.</p>
+
+<p>The Forest Ranger is charged with overseeing and regulating the free use
+of timber by settlers and others who live in or near the National
+Forests. Last year (1912) the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span>Forest Service gave away without charge
+more than $196,000 worth of saw timber, house logs, fencing, fuel, and
+other material to men and women who needed it for their own use. Usually
+it is the Ranger's work to issue the permits for this free use, and to
+designate the timber that may be cut. For this purpose, he must be well
+acquainted with the kinds and the uses of the trees in his District, and
+it is most important that he should know something of how their
+reproduction can best be secured, in order that the free use may be
+permitted without injury to the future welfare of the forest.</p>
+
+<p>A Ranger oversees the use of his District for the grazing of cattle,
+sheep, and other domestic animals. He must acquaint himself with the
+brands and marks of the various owners, and should be well posted in the
+essentials of the business of raising cattle, sheep, and horses. The
+allotment of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span>grazing areas is one of the most difficult problems to
+adjust, because the demand is almost always for much more range than is
+available and the division of what range there is among the local owners
+of stock often presents serious difficulties, in which the Ranger's
+local knowledge and advice is constantly sought by his superior officer.</p>
+
+<p>There is a wise law, passed at the request of the Forest Service, under
+which land in the National Forests which is shown to be agricultural may
+be entered under the homestead law, and used for the making of homes.
+This law is peculiarly hard to carry out because the ceaseless efforts
+of land grabbers to misuse it demand great vigilance on the part of the
+Forest Officers. In many cases it is the Ranger who makes the report
+upon which the decision as to the agricultural or non-agricultural
+character of the land is based, although in other cases the
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>examinations to determine whether the land is really agricultural in
+character are made by Examiners especially trained for this duty.
+Serious controversies into which politics enter are often caused by the
+efforts of speculators and others, under pretext of this law, to get
+possession of lands chiefly valuable for their timber.</p>
+
+<p>The building and maintenance of trails, telephone lines, roads, bridges,
+and fences in his District is under the charge of the Ranger, and in
+many cases Rangers and Forest Guards are appointed by the State as
+Wardens to see to it that the game and fish laws are properly enforced.</p>
+
+<p>Next to the protection of his District from fire, the most important
+duty of the Ranger has to do with the sale of timber and the marking of
+the individual trees which are to be cut. The reproduction of the forest
+depends directly on what trees are kept for seed, or on how the
+existing young growth is protected and preserved in felling and swamping
+the trees which have been marked for cutting, and in skidding the logs.
+The disposal of the slash must be looked after, for it has much to do
+with forest reproduction, and with promoting safety from fire. Then, the
+scaling of the logs determines the amount of the payment the Government
+receives for its timber, and there are often regulations governing the
+transportation of the scaled logs whose enforcement is of great
+consequence to the future forest.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep043" id="imagep043"></a>
+<a href="images/imagep043.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep043.jpg" width="70%" alt="FOREST RANGERS SCALING TIMBER" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">FOREST RANGERS SCALING TIMBER</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>Nearly all of these duties the Ranger may perform in certain cases
+without supervision, if his judgment and training are sufficient, but
+the marking especially is often done under the eye or in accordance with
+the directions of the technical Forester, whose duty it is to see that
+the future of the forest is protected by enforcing the conditions of
+sale.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span>These are but a part of the duties of the Ranger, for he is concerned
+with all the uses which his District may serve. The streams, for
+example, may be important for city water supply, irrigation, or for
+waterpower, and their use for these purposes must be under his eye.
+Hotels and saw-mills on sites leased from the Government may dot his
+District here and there. The land within National Forests may be put to
+a thousand other uses, from a bee ranch on the Cleveland Forest in
+southern California to a whaling station on the Tongass Forest in
+Alaska, all of which means work for him.</p>
+
+<p>The result of all this is that the Ranger comes in contact with city
+dwellers, irrigators, cattlemen, sheepmen, and horsemen, ranchers,
+storekeepers, hotel men, hunters, miners, and lumbermen, and above all
+with the settlers who live in or near his District. With all these it is
+his duty to keep on good <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span>terms, for well he knows that one man at
+certain times can set more fires than a regiment can extinguish, and
+that the best protection for his District comes from the friendly
+interest of the men who live in it or near it.</p>
+
+<p>A Forest Guard is in effect an assistant to the Ranger, and may be
+called upon to carry out most of the duties which fall upon a Ranger.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing short statement will make it clear that preliminary
+experience as a Ranger may be of the utmost value to the man who
+proposes later on to perform in the Government Service the duties of a
+trained Forester. It is becoming more and more common, and fortunately
+so, for graduates of forest schools to begin their work in the United
+States Forest Service as Rangers or Forest Guards. The man who has done
+well a Ranger's work, like the graduate of an <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>engineering school who,
+
+after graduation, has entered a machine shop as a hand, has acquired a
+body of practical information and experience which will be invaluable to
+him in the later practice of his profession, and which is far beyond the
+reach of any man who has not been trained in the actual execution of
+this work on the ground and in actual daily contact with the
+multifarious uses and users of the forest.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>THE FOREST SUPERVISOR</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>The Supervisor is the general manager of a National Forest. The
+responsibility for the protection, care, and use of it falls upon him,
+under the direction of the District Forester. The Supervisor is
+responsible for making the use of his forest as valuable and as
+convenient as possible for the people in and around the area of which he
+has charge. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span>He deals with the organizations of forest users, such as
+local stock associations, and issues permits for grazing live stock in
+the forest. Permits for cutting small amounts of timber are granted by
+him, and he advertises in the papers the sale of larger amounts and
+receives bids from prospective purchasers; keeps the accounts of his
+forest; and makes regular reports on a variety of important subjects,
+such as the personnel of his forest force, the permanent improvements
+made or to be made, the permits issued for regular and special uses of
+the forest and for free use of timber and forage, the number and kinds
+of predatory animals killed, the amount of forest planting accomplished,
+and the expense and losses from forest fires. He has general oversight
+of the roads, trails, and other improvements on his forest; and prepares
+plans for the extension of them. In particular, he directs, controls,
+and inspects <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span>the work of the Ranger and Guards, and in general, he
+attends to the thousand and one matters which go to adjusting the use of
+the forest to the needs of the men who use it, and on which depends
+whether the forest is well or badly thought of among the people whose
+co&ouml;peration or opposition have so much to do with making its management
+successful or otherwise.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep047" id="imagep047"></a>
+<a href="images/imagep047.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep047.jpg" width="70%" alt="WESTERN YELLOW PINE SEED" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">WESTERN YELLOW PINE SEED COLLECTED BY THE FOREST SERVICE FOR PLANTING UP DENUDED LANDS</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Supervisor spends about half his time in the office and half in the
+field, inspecting the work of his men and consulting with them, meeting
+local residents or associations of local residents who have propositions
+to submit for improving the service of the forest to them, or for
+correcting mistakes, or who wish to lay before the Supervisor some one
+of the numberless matters in which the forest affects their welfare. The
+usefulness of the Supervisor depends as much upon his good judgment, his
+ability to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>meet men and do business with them, and his knowledge of
+local needs and local affairs, as it does upon his knowledge of the
+forest itself. As in the case of every superior officer, his attitude
+toward his work, his energy, his good sense, and his good will are or
+should be reflected in the men under him, so that his position is one of
+the greatest importance in determining the success or failure of each
+National Forest, and hence of the Forest Service as a whole. More and
+more of the trained Foresters in the Service are seeking and securing
+appointments as Forest Supervisors because of the interest and
+satisfaction they find in the work. Such men handle both the
+professional and business sides of forest management. Many of their
+duties, therefore, are described in the succeeding chapter.</p>
+
+<p>The position of Supervisor is in many respects the most desirable a
+trained Forester <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>can occupy in the Forest Service, and the most
+responsible of the field positions.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>THE TRAINED FORESTER</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>To each forest where timber cutting has become important there are
+assigned one or more Forest Assistants or Forest Examiners. These are
+professionally trained Foresters. They are subordinate upon each forest
+to the Supervisor as manager, but it is their work which has most to do
+with deciding whether the Forest Service in general is to be successful
+or is to fail in the great task of preserving the forest by wise use.</p>
+
+<p>The Forest Assistant secures his position with the Service by passing an
+examination devised to test his technical knowledge and his ability.
+After he has served two years as Forest Assistant the quality and
+quantity of his work will have determined his fitness <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span>to continue in
+the employ of the Government. If he is unfit he may be dropped, for
+there are many young and ambitious men ready to step into his place. If
+he makes good he is promoted to the grade of Forest Examiner and is put
+definitely in charge of certain lines of professional work; always, of
+course, under the direction of the Supervisor, of whom he becomes the
+adviser on all problems involving technical forestry.</p>
+
+<p>The most important tasks of the trained Forester on a National Forest
+are the preparation of working plans for the use of the forest by
+methods which will protect and perpetuate it as well, and the carrying
+out of the plans when made. This is forestry in the technical sense of
+the word. It involves a thorough study of the kinds of timber, their
+amount and location, their rate of growth, their value, the ease or
+difficulty of their reproduction, and the methods by which the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span>timber
+can be cut at a profit and at the same time the reproduction of the
+forest can be safely secured. A working plan usually includes a
+considerable number of maps, which often have to be drawn in the first
+place from actual surveys on the ground by the Forest Examiner. These
+maps contain the information secured by working-plan studies, and are of
+the first necessity for the wise and skilful handling of the forest.
+They often constitute, also, most important documents in the history of
+its condition and use.</p>
+
+<p>On many of the National Forests the need for immediate use of the timber
+is so urgent and so just that there is no time to prepare elaborate
+working plans. Timber sales must be made, and made at once; but they
+must be made, nevertheless, in a way that will fully protect the future
+welfare of the forest. Whether working plans can be prepared or not, a
+most important duty of the technical <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>Forester is to work out the
+conditions under which a given body of timber can be cut with safety to
+the forest, especially with safety to its reproduction and future
+growth. The principal study for a timber sale will usually include an
+examination of the general features and condition of the forest, and the
+determination of the diameter down to which it is advisable to cut the
+standing trees, a diameter which must be fixed at such a size as will
+protect the forest and make the lumbering pay. It will include also an
+investigation, more or less thorough and complete, as the conditions
+warrant, of the silvical habits of one or more of the species of trees
+in that forest. The areas which form natural units for the logging and
+transportation of the timber must be worked out and laid off, and
+careful estimates, or measurements, of the amount of standing timber and
+of its value on the stump must <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span>be made, as well as of the cost of
+moving it to the mill or to the railroad.</p>
+
+<p>The Forest Examiner must also consider, in many cases, the building of
+logging roads or railroads, timber slides, etc., and must make a careful
+study of the material into which the trees to be cut can best be worked
+up, and of the value of such material in the market. Most of all,
+however, he must study, think over, and decide what he will recommend as
+to the conditions which are to govern the logging conditions by which
+the protection of the forest is to be insured. These conditions, fixed
+by his superiors upon the report of the Forest Examiner, determine
+whether an individual timber sale is forestry or forest destruction.
+This is the central question in the administration of the National
+Forests from the national point of view.</p>
+
+<p>The principal objects of the conditions <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>laid down for a timber sale are
+always the reproduction of the forest and its safety against fire.
+Natural reproduction from self-sown seed is almost invariably the result
+desired; and so the question of the seed trees to be left, and how they
+are to be located or spaced, is fundamental, unless there is ample young
+growth already on the ground. In the latter case this young growth must
+not be smashed or bent by throwing the older trees on top of it, or
+against it, and the young saplings bent down by the felled tops must be
+promptly released.</p>
+
+<p>In order to avoid danger to the young growth already present or to be
+secured, as well as to protect the older trees from fires, the slash
+produced in lumbering, the tops lopped from the trees up to and beyond
+the highest point to which the lumbermen are required to take the logs,
+must be satisfactorily disposed of&mdash;either by scattering it <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span>thinly over
+the ground, by piling and burning, or often by piling alone.</p>
+
+<p>These and many other conditions of sale must be studied out in a form
+adapted to each particular case, and must be discussed with the men who
+propose to buy, who often have wise and practical suggestions to make.</p>
+
+<p>Similar questions on a less important scale present themselves and must
+be answered in the matter of small timber sales, and of timber given
+without charge under free-use permits to settlers and others.</p>
+
+<p>When the terms of a contract of sale have been worked out and accepted
+and the timber has been sold, then the Forest Assistant has charge of
+the extremely interesting task of marking the trees that are to be cut,
+in accordance with these terms. Usually this is done by marking all the
+trees which are to be felled, but sometimes by marking only the trees
+which are to remain.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span>The marking is usually done by blazing each tree and stamping the
+letters "U. S." upon the blaze with a Government marking axe or hatchet.
+It must be done in such a way that the loggers will have no excuse
+either for cutting an unmarked tree or leaving a marked tree uncut, or
+<i>vice versa</i>, as the case may be. The marking may be carried out by the
+Rangers and Forest Guards under supervision of the Forest Assistant, or
+in difficult situations he may mark or direct the marking of each tree
+himself. Marking is fascinating work.</p>
+
+<p>Later, while the logging is under way, the Forest Examiner will often
+inspect it to see that the terms of the sale are complied with, that the
+trees cut are thrown in places where they will not unduly damage either
+young growth or the larger trees which are to remain, and that the other
+conditions laid down for the logging in the contract of sale <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span>are
+observed. The scaling of the logs to determine the amount of payment to
+the Government will many times be under his supervision, although in the
+larger sales this work, as well as the routine inspection of the
+logging, is usually carried out by a special body of expert lumbermen,
+who often bring to it a much wider knowledge of the woods than the men
+in actual charge of the lumbering.</p>
+
+<p>In nearly every National Forest there are areas upon which the trees
+have been destroyed by fire. Many of these are so large or so remote
+from seed-bearing trees that natural reproduction will not suffice to
+replace the forest. In such localities planting is needed, and for that
+purpose the Forest Examiner must establish and conduct a forest nursery.
+The decision on the kind of trees to plant and on the methods of raising
+and planting them, the collection of the seed, the care and
+transplanting of the young trees until they are set out on the site of
+the future forest, forms a task of absorbing interest. Such work often
+requires a high degree of technical skill. It is likely to occupy a
+larger and larger share of the time and attention of the trained men of
+the Forest Service.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep059" id="imagep059"></a>
+<a href="images/imagep059.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep059.jpg" width="30%" alt="A FOREST EXAMINER RUNNING A COMPASS LINE" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">A FOREST EXAMINER RUNNING A COMPASS LINE</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>The Forest Assistant's or Examiner's knowledge of surveying makes it
+natural for him to take an important part in the laying out of new roads
+and trails in the forest, or in correcting the lines of old ones, and
+there is little work more immediately useful. The forest can be
+safeguarded effectively just in proportion to the ease with which all
+parts of it can be reached. Forest protection may be less technically
+interesting than other parts of the Forester's work, but nothing that he
+does is more important or pays larger dividends in future results.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>In addition to his studies of the habits and reproduction of the
+different trees for working plans or timber sales, or simply to increase
+his knowledge of the forest, the Forest Examiner is often called upon to
+lay out sample plots for ascertaining the exact relation of each species
+to light, heat, and moisture, or for studying its rate of growth. He may
+find it necessary to determine the effect of the grazing of cattle or
+sheep on young growth of various species and of various ages, or to
+ascertain their relative resistance to fire. In general, what time he
+can spare from more pressing duties is very fully occupied with adding
+to his silvical knowledge by observation, with studies of injurious
+insects or fungi, of the reasons for the increase or decrease of
+valuable or worthless species of trees in the forest, the innumerable
+secondary effects of forest fires, the causes of the local distribution
+of trees, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span>or with some other of the thousand questions which give a
+never-failing interest to work in the woods.</p>
+
+<p>The protection of a valuable kind of tree often depends upon the ability
+to find a use for, and therefore to remove, a less-valuable species
+which is crowding it out, for as yet the American Forester can do very
+little cutting or thinning that does not pay. Just so, the protection of
+a given tract against fire may depend upon the ability to use, and
+therefore to remove, a part or the whole of the dead and down timber
+which now makes it a fire trap. For such reasons as these, the uses of
+wood and the markets for its disposal form exceedingly important
+branches of study for the Forest Examiner, who will usually find that
+his duties require him to be thoroughly familiar with them.</p>
+
+<p>It is more and more common to find each Forest Officer&mdash;Ranger, Forest
+Examiner, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>or Supervisor&mdash;combining in himself the qualities and the
+knowledge required to fill any or all of the other positions. The
+professionally trained man who develops marked executive ability is
+likely to become a Supervisor, just as a Ranger, with the necessary
+training and experience, who may wish to devote himself to silvical
+investigations may be transferred to that work. The point is that each
+man has individual opportunity to establish and occupy the place for
+which he is best fitted.</p>
+
+<p>The success of the technical Forester, like that of the Ranger, and
+indeed of nearly every Government Forest Officer, in whatever position
+or line of work, will very frequently depend on his good judgment and
+practical sense, the chief ingredient of which will always be his
+knowledge of local needs and conditions, and his sympathetic
+understanding of the local point of view. This <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span>does not mean that the
+local point of view is always to control. On the contrary, the Forest
+Officer must often decide against it in the interest of the welfare of
+the larger public. But the desires and demands of the users of the
+forest should always be given the fullest hearing and the most careful
+consideration. To this rule there is no exception whatsoever.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>PERSONAL EQUIPMENT</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>Forestry differs from most professions in this, that it requires as much
+vigor of body as it does vigor of mind. The sort of man to which it
+appeals, and which it seeks, is the man with high powers of observation,
+who does not shrink from responsibility, and whose mental vigor is
+balanced by physical strength and hardiness. The man who takes up
+forestry should be little interested in his <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>own personal comfort, and
+should have and conserve endurance enough to stand severe physical work
+accompanied by mental labor equally exhausting.</p>
+
+<p>Foresters are still few in numbers, and the point of view which they
+represent, while it is making immense strides in public acceptance, is
+still far from general application. Therefore, Foresters are still
+missionaries in a very real sense, and since they are so few, it is of
+the utmost importance that they should stand closely together.
+Differences of opinion there must always be in all professions, but
+there is no other profession in which it is more important to keep these
+differences from working out into animosities or separations of any
+kind. We are fortunate above all in this, that American Foresters are
+united as probably the members of no other profession. This <i>esprit de
+corps</i> has given them their greatest power of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span>achievement, and any man
+who proposes to enter the profession should do so with this fact clearly
+in mind.</p>
+
+<p>The high standard which the profession of forestry, new in the United
+States, has already reached, its great power for usefulness to the
+Nation, now and hereafter, and the large responsibilities which fall so
+quickly on the men who are trained to accept it&mdash;all these things give
+to the profession a position and dignity which it should be the first
+care of every man who enters it to maintain or increase.</p>
+
+<p>To stand well at graduation is or ought to be far less the object of a
+Forester's training than to stand well ten or twenty years after
+graduation. It is of the first importance that the training should be
+thorough and complete.</p>
+
+<p>A friend of mine, John Muir, says that the best advice he can give young
+men is: <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>"Take time to get rich." His idea of getting rich is to fill
+his mind and spirit full with observations of the nature he so deeply
+loves and so well understands; so that in his mind it is not money which
+makes riches, but life in the open and the seeing eye.</p>
+
+<p>Next to those basic traits of personal character, without which no man
+is worth his salt, the Forester's most important quality is the power of
+observation, the power to note and understand, or seek to understand,
+what he sees in the forest. It is just as essential a part of the
+Forester's equipment to be able to see what is wrong with a piece of
+forest, and what is required for its improvement, as it is necessary for
+a physician to be able to diagnose a disease and to prescribe the
+remedy.</p>
+
+<p>Silvics, which may be said to be the knowledge of how trees behave in
+health and disease toward each other, and toward light, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>heat, moisture,
+and the soil, is the foundation of forestry and the Forester's first
+task is to bring himself to a high point of efficiency in observing and
+interpreting these facts of the forest, and to keep himself there. It
+should be as hard work to walk through the forest, and see what is there
+to be seen, as to wrestle with the most difficult problem of
+mathematics. No man can be a good Forester without that quality of
+observation and understanding which the French call "the forester's
+eye." It is not the only quality required for success in forestry, but
+it is unquestionably the first.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps the second among the qualities necessary for the Forester is
+common sense, which most often simply means a sympathetic understanding
+of the circumstances among which a man finds himself. The American
+Forester must know the United States and understand its people. Nothing
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span>which affects the welfare of his country should be indifferent to him.
+Forestry is a form of practical statesmanship which touches the national
+life at so many points that no Forester can safely allow himself to
+remain ignorant of the needs and purposes of his fellow citizens, or to
+be out of touch with the current questions of the day. The best citizen
+makes the best Forester, and no man can make a good Forester unless he
+is a good citizen also.</p>
+
+<p>The Forester can not succeed unless he understands the problems and
+point of view of his country, and that is the reason why Foresters from
+other lands were not brought into the United States in the early stages
+of the forest movement. At that time practically no American Foresters
+had yet been trained, and the great need of the situation was for men to
+do the immediately pressing work. Foresters from Germany, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span>France,
+Switzerland, and other countries could have been obtained in abundant
+numbers and at reasonable salaries. They were not invited to come
+because, however well trained in technical forestry, they could not have
+understood the habits of thought of our people. Therefore, in too many
+cases, they would have failed to establish the kind of practical
+understanding which a Forester must have with the men who use, or work
+in, his forest, if he is to succeed. It was wiser to wait until
+Americans could be trained, for the practising Forester must handle men
+as well as trees.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most difficult things to do in any profession which involves
+drudgery (and I take it that no profession which does not involve
+drudgery is worth the attention of a man) is to look beyond the daily
+routine to the things which that routine is intended to assist in
+accomplishing. This is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>peculiarly true of forestry, in which, perhaps
+more than in any other profession, the long-distance, far-sighted
+attitude of mind is essential to success. The trees a Forester plants he
+himself will seldom live to harvest. Much of his thought about his
+forest must be in terms of centuries. The great object for which he is
+striving of necessity can not be fully accomplished during his lifetime.
+He must, therefore, accustom himself to look ahead, and to reap his
+personal satisfaction from the planned and orderly development of a
+scheme the perfect fruit of which he can never hope to see.</p>
+
+<p>This is one of the strongest reasons why the Forester, whether in public
+or private employment, must always look upon himself as a public
+servant. It is of the first importance that he should accustom himself
+to think of the results of his work as affecting, not primarily himself,
+but others, always <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>including the general public. It is essential for a
+Forester to form the habit of looking far ahead, out of which grows a
+sound perspective and persistence in body and mind.</p>
+
+<p>One of the greatest football players of our time makes the distinction
+between a player who is "quick" and a player who is "soon." In his
+description, the "quick" player is the man who waits until the last
+moment and then moves with nervous and desperate haste in the little
+time he has left. The man who is "soon," however, almost invariably
+arrives ahead of the man who is "quick," because he has thought out in
+advance exactly where he is going and how to get there, and when the
+moment comes he does not delay his start, makes no false motions, and
+thereby makes and keeps himself efficient. Forestry is pre&euml;minently a
+profession for the "soon" man, for it is the steady preparation long in
+advance, the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>well-thoughtout plan well stuck to, which in forestry
+brings success.</p>
+
+<p>In my experience, men differ comparatively little in mere ability, in
+the quality of the mental machine, through which the spirit works. Nine
+times out of ten, it is not ability which brings success, but
+persistence and enthusiasm, which are usually, but not always, the same
+as vision and will. We all have ability enough to do the things which
+lie before us, but the man with the will to keep everlastingly at it,
+and the vision to realize the meaning and value of the results for which
+he is striving, is the man who wins in nearly every case. This is true
+in all human affairs, but it is peculiarly true of the Forester and his
+task, the end of which lies so far ahead.</p>
+
+<p>In a class below me at Phillips-Exeter Academy was a boy who had just
+entered the school. His great ambition was to play <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span>football, and he
+came to the practise day after day. His abilities, however, were
+apparently not on the same plane with his ambitions, and his work was so
+ridiculously poor that he became the laughing stock of the whole school.
+That, however, troubled him not at all. What held his mind was football.
+Undiscouraged and undismayed, he kept on playing football until in his
+last year he became captain of the Exeter football team.</p>
+
+<p>Every man of experience has known many similar cases. It is clear, I
+think, that the master qualities in achievement are neither luck nor
+mere ability, but rather enthusiasm and persistence, or vision and will.</p>
+
+<p>In a peculiar sense the Forester depends upon public opinion and public
+support for the means of carrying on his work, and for its final
+success. But the attention which the public gives or can give to any
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span>particular subject varies, and of necessity must vary, from time to
+time. Under these circumstances, it is inevitable that the Forester must
+meet discouragements, checks, and delays, as well as periods of smooth
+sailing. He should expect them, and should be prepared to discount them
+when they come. When they do come, I know of no better way of reducing
+their bad effects than for a man to make allowance for his own state of
+mind. He who can stand off and look at himself impartially, realizing
+that he will not feel to-morrow as he feels to-day, has a powerful
+weapon against the temporary discouragements which are necessarily met
+in any work that is really worth while. Progress is always in spirals,
+and there is always a good time coming. There is nothing so fatal to
+good work as that flabby spirit under which some weak men try to hide
+their inefficiency&mdash;the spirit of "What's the use?"</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>It has been the experience of every Forester, as he goes about the
+country, to be told that a certain mountain is impassable, that a
+certain trail can not be travelled, that a certain stream can not be
+crossed, and to find that mountain, trail, and stream can all be passed
+with little serious difficulty by a man who is willing to try. Most
+things said to be impossible are so only in the mind of the man whose
+timidity or inertness keeps him from making the attempt. The whole story
+of the establishment and growth of the United States Forest Service is a
+story of the doing of things which the men who did them were warned in
+advance would be impossible. Usually the thing which "can't be done" is
+well worth trying.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps I ought to add that I am not urging the young Forester to
+disregard local public opinion without the best of reasons, or to rush
+his horse blindly into the ford of a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span>swollen stream. Good sense is the
+first condition of success. I am merely saying that in ninety-nine cases
+out of a hundred, when a thing ought to be done it can be done, if the
+effort is made with that idea in mind.</p>
+
+<p>All this is but one way of saying that the Forester should be his own
+severest taskmaster. The Forester must keep himself up to his own work.
+In no other profession, to my knowledge, is a man thrown so completely
+on his own responsibility. The Forester often leads an isolated life for
+weeks or months at a time, seeing the men under whom he works only at
+distant intervals. Because he is so much his own master, the
+responsibility which rests upon him is peculiarly his own, and must be
+met out of the resources within himself.</p>
+
+<p>The training of a Forester should lead him to be practical in the right
+sense of that word, which emphatically is not the sense of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>abandoning
+standards of work or conduct in order to get immediate results. The
+"practical" men with whom the Forester must do his work&mdash;lumbermen,
+cattlemen, sheepmen, settlers, forest users of all kinds&mdash;are often by
+very much his superiors in usable knowledge of the details of their
+work. Their opinions are entitled to the most complete hearing and
+respect. There is no other class of men from whose advice the Forester
+can so greatly profit if he chooses to do so. He is superior to them, if
+at all, only in his technical knowledge, and in the broader point of
+view he has derived from his professional training. It is of the first
+importance that the young Forester should know these men, should learn
+to like and respect them, and that he should get all the help he can
+from their knowledge and practical experience. The willingness to use
+the information and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span>assistance which such men were ready to give has
+more than once meant the difference between failure and success.</p>
+
+<p>The young Forester, like other young men, is likely to be impatient. I
+do not blame him for it. Rightly directed, his impatience may become one
+of his best assets. But it will do no harm to remember, also, that the
+human race has reached its present degree of civilization and
+advancement only step by step, and that it seems likely to proceed in
+very much the same way hereafter. As a general rule, results slowly and
+painfully accomplished are lasting. The results to be achieved in
+forestry must be lasting if they are to be valuable.</p>
+
+<p>In general, the men with whom the Forester deals can adopt, and in many
+cases, ought to adopt, a new point of view but slowly. To fall in love
+at first sight with theories or policies is as rare as the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>same
+experience is between persons. As a rule, an intellectual conviction,
+however well founded, must be followed by a period of incubation and
+growth before it can blossom into a definite principle of action, before
+the man who holds it is ready to work or fight in order to carry it out.
+There is a rate in the adoption of new ideas beyond which only the most
+unusual circumstances will induce men's minds to move. Forestry has gone
+ahead in the United States faster than it ever did in any other land. If
+it proceeds a little less rapidly, now that so much of the field has
+been won, there will be no reason for discouragement in that.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">AS A SUBORDINATE OFFICER</p>
+
+<p>Necessarily the young Forester will begin as a subordinate. How soon he
+will come to give orders of his own will depend on how <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>well he executes
+the orders of his superior. In particular, it will depend on whether he
+requires to be coddled in doing his work, or whether he is willing and
+able to stand on his own feet. The man for whom every employer of men is
+searching, everywhere and always, is the man who will accept the
+responsibility for the work he has to do&mdash;who will not lean at every
+point upon his superior for additional instructions, advice, or
+encouragement.</p>
+
+<p>There is no more valuable subordinate than the man to whom you can give
+a piece of work and then forget about it, in the confident expectation
+that the next time it is brought to your attention it will come in the
+form of a report that the thing has been done. When this master quality
+is joined to executive power, loyalty, and common sense, the result is a
+man whom you can trust. On the other hand, there is no greater nuisance
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>to a man heavily burdened with the direction of affairs than the
+weak-backed assistant who is continually trying to get his chief to do
+his work for him, on the feeble plea that he thought the chief would
+like to decide this or that himself. The man to whom an executive is
+most grateful, the man whom he will work hardest and value most, is the
+man who accepts responsibility willingly, and is not continually under
+his feet.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">AS A SUPERIOR OFFICER</p>
+
+<p>The principles of effective administrative work have never, so far as I
+know, been adequately classified and defined. When they come to be
+stated one of the most important will be found to be the exact
+assignment of responsibility, so that whatever goes wrong the
+administrative head will know clearly and at once upon whom the
+responsibility falls. This is one of the reasons why, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span>as a rule, boards
+and commissions are far less effective in getting things done than
+single men with clear-cut authority and equally clear-cut
+responsibility. Another principle, so well known that it has almost
+become a proverb, is to delegate everything you can, to do nothing that
+you can get someone else to do for you. But the wisdom of letting a good
+man alone is less commonly understood. It is sometimes as important for
+the superior officer not to worry his subordinate with useless orders as
+it is for the subordinate not to harass his superior with useless
+questions.</p>
+
+<p>Let a good man alone. Give him his head. Nothing will hold him so
+rigidly to his work as the feeling that he is trusted. Lead your men in
+their work, and above all make of your organization not a monarchy,
+limited or unlimited, but a democracy, in which the responsibility of
+each man for a particular <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span>piece of work shall not only be defined but
+recognized, in which the credit for each man's work, so far as possible,
+shall be attached to his own name, in which the opinions and advice of
+your subordinates are often sought before decisions are made; in a word,
+a democracy in which each man feels a personal responsibility for the
+success of the whole enterprise.</p>
+
+<p>The young Forester may be years removed from the chance to apply these
+principles in practice, but since no superior officer can put them into
+fruitful effect without the co&ouml;peration of his subordinates, it is well
+that they should be known at both ends of the line.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">A PUBLIC SERVANT</p>
+
+<p>I repeat that whether a Forester is engaged in private work or in public
+work, whether he is employed by a lumberman, an <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span>association of
+lumbermen, a fishing and shooting club, the owner of a great estate, or
+whether he is an officer of a State or of the Nation, by virtue of his
+profession he is a public servant. Because he deals with the forest, he
+has his hand upon the future welfare of his country. His point of view
+is that which must control its future welfare. He represents the planned
+and orderly development of its resources. He is the representative also
+of the forest school from which he graduates, and of his profession.
+Upon the standards which he helps to establish and maintain, the welfare
+of these, too, directly depends.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>STATE FOREST WORK</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>The work of the States in forestry is still in the pioneer stage, and
+the work of a State Forester must still bear largely on the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span>creation of
+a right public sentiment in forest matters. In State forestry the need
+for agitation has by no means passed. It is often the duty of the State
+Forester to prepare or endeavor to secure the passage of good State
+forest laws, or to interpose against the enactment of bad laws. In
+particular, much of his time is likely to be given to legislation upon
+the subjects of forest fires and forest taxation. Upon the latter there
+is as yet no sound and effective public opinion in many parts of the
+United States, and legislatures and people still do not understand how
+powerful bad methods of forest taxation have been and still are in
+forcing the destructive cutting of timber by making it impossible to
+wait for the better methods of lumbering which accompany a better
+market. I have known the taxes on standing timber to equal six per cent.
+a year on the reasonable value of the stumpage.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span>Thirteen States have State Forests with a total area altogether of
+3,400,000 acres. Of these New York has the largest area. Its State
+Forests cover 1,645,000 acres, partly in the Adirondacks and partly in
+the Catskills; Pennsylvania comes next with nine hundred and eighty-four
+thousand acres; and Wisconsin third, with about four hundred thousand
+acres.</p>
+
+<p>Twenty-nine States make appropriations for forest work. Excluding
+special appropriations for courses in forestry at universities,
+colleges, and schools, the total amount spent for this purpose is about
+$1,340,000. Pennsylvania has the largest appropriation,&mdash;three hundred
+and twenty-eight thousand dollars, in addition to which a special
+appropriation of two hundred and seventy-five thousand dollars has been
+devoted to checking the chestnut blight. Minnesota comes second with two
+hundred and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>thirty-three thousand dollars; New York third with about
+one hundred and sixty-five thousand dollars, and Wisconsin next with
+ninety-five thousand dollars.</p>
+
+<p>Thirty-three States have State forest officers, of whom fifteen are
+State Foresters by title, while the majority of the remainder perform
+duties of a very similar nature.</p>
+
+<p>Eleven States are receiving assistance from the Federal Government under
+the Weeks law, which authorizes co&ouml;peration for fire protection,
+provided the State will furnish a sum equal to that allotted to it from
+the National fund, with a limit of ten thousand dollars to a single
+State.</p>
+
+<p>For purposes of reforestation, ten States maintain forest nurseries.
+During the year 1912 they produced in round numbers twenty million young
+trees, of which fourteen million were distributed to the citizens of
+these ten States.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>In some States the waterpower question falls within the sphere of the
+State Forester, as well as other similar Conservation matters, while it
+has usually been made his duty to assist private timberland owners in
+the handling of their holdings, whether these be the larger holdings of
+lumber companies or the farmers' woodlots. In many States the State
+Forester is made responsible for the enforcement of the State forest
+fire laws, and for the control and management of a body of State fire
+wardens, who may or may not be permanently employed in that work. The
+enforcement of laws which exempt timberlands or lands planted to timber
+from taxation, or limit the taxation upon them, are also usually under
+his supervision.</p>
+
+<p>The work of forestry in the various States being on the whole much less
+advanced than it is in the Nation, the State Forester must still occupy
+himself largely <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>with those preliminary phases of the work of forestry
+through which the National Forest Service has already passed. Much
+progress, however, is being made, and we may fairly count not only that
+State forest organizations will ultimately exist in every State, but
+that the State Foresters will exert a steadily increasing influence on
+forest perpetuation in the United States.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>THE FOREST SERVICE IN WASHINGTON</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>A description of what a Forester has to do which did not include the
+work of the Government Foresters at the National Capital would
+necessarily be incomplete. The following outline may, therefore, help to
+round out the picture.</p>
+
+<p>The Washington headquarters of the Forest Service are directly in charge
+of the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span>Forester and his immediate assistants. The Forester has general
+supervision of the whole Service. It is he who, with the approval of the
+Secretary of Agriculture, determines the general policy which is to
+govern the Service in the very various and numerous matters with which
+it has to deal. He keeps his hand upon the whole machinery of the
+Service, holds it up to its work, and in general is responsible for
+supplying it with the right spirit and point of view, without which any
+kind of efficiency is impossible.</p>
+
+<p>The Forester prepares the estimates, or annual budget, for the
+expenditures of the Service, and appears before Committees of Congress
+to explain the need for money, and otherwise to set forth or defend the
+work upon which the Service is engaged. His immediate subordinates spend
+a large part of their time in the field inspecting the work <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span>of the
+Service and keeping its tone high. Their reports to the Forester keep
+him thoroughly advised as to the situation on all the National Forests,
+so that he may wisely meet each question as it comes up, and adjust the
+regulations and routine business methods of the Service to the
+constantly changing needs of the people with whom it deals.</p>
+
+<p>Being responsible for the personnel of the Forest Service, the Forester
+recommends to the Secretary of Agriculture, by whom the actual papers
+are issued, all appointments to it, as well as promotions, reductions,
+and dismissals. Under his immediate eye also is the very important and
+necessary work of making public the information collected by the Service
+for the use of the people. Since 1900, 370 publications of the Service
+have been issued, with a total circulation of 11,198,000 copies.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span>The publications of the United States Forest Service include by far the
+most and the best information upon the forests of this country which has
+until now been assembled and printed. Hence, the prospective student of
+forestry can do nothing better than to write to The Forester,
+Washington, D. C. (which is the correct address), for the annotated
+catalogue of these publications which is sent free to all applicants,
+and then to secure and study such of the bulletins and circulars as best
+meet his individual needs. If he looks forward to entering the United
+States Forest Service, he should not fail to get also the Use Book, the
+volume of directions and regulations in accordance with which the
+National Forests are protected, developed, and made available and useful
+to the people of the regions in which they lie.</p>
+
+<p>The dendrological work of the Service, which has to do with forest
+distribution, the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span>identification of tree species and other forest
+botanical work, is also under the immediate supervision of the Forester,
+and the Chief Lumberman reports directly to him.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the work which falls immediately under the eye of the
+Forester, and which used to, but does not now, include the legal work
+necessary to support and promote the operations of the Service, there
+are seven principal parts, or branches, in the work of the Washington
+headquarters. The first of these is the Branch of Accounts, whose work I
+need not describe further than to say that the Service has always owed a
+very large part of its safety against the bitter attacks of its enemies
+to the accuracy, completeness, and general high quality of its
+accounting system.</p>
+
+<p>The second branch, that of Operation, has charge of the business
+administration both of the National Forests and of the other work <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span>of
+the Forest Service. Here the business methods which are necessary to
+keep the organization at a high state of efficiency are formulated, put
+in practice, and constantly revised, for it is only by such revision
+that they can be kept, as they are kept, at a level with the very best
+practice of the best modern business. There are very few Government
+bureaus of which this can be said. The Branch of Operation is
+responsible for the adoption and enforcement of labor-saving devices in
+correspondence, in handling requisitions, and in the filing and care of
+papers generally, and for the supply of stationery, tools, and
+instruments, and the renting of quarters,&mdash;in a word, for the whole of
+the more or less routine transaction of business which is essential to
+keep so large an organization at the highest point of efficiency.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep095" id="imagep095"></a>
+<a href="images/imagep095.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep095.jpg" width="70%" alt="BRUSH PILING IN A NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER SALE" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">BRUSH PILING IN A NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER SALE</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The office work needed in the mapping of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>the National Forests, with
+all their resources, boundaries, and interior holdings, is in charge of
+the Branch of Operation. So is the immense amount of drafting which is
+necessary in the other work of the Service, and the photographic
+laboratory in which maps are reproduced and where permanent photographic
+records of the condition of the forest are made.</p>
+
+<p>The third branch, that of Silviculture, is the most important of all. It
+has oversight of the practice of forestry on all the National Forests,
+and of all scientific forest studies in the National Forests and
+outside. It is here that the conditions in the contracts under which the
+larger timber sales are made are finally examined and approved, and here
+are found the inspectors whose duty it is not only to see that the work
+is well done, but to labor constantly for improvements in methods as
+well as in results. Here centres <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span>the preparation of forest working
+plans, and the knowledge of lumber and the lumber markets.</p>
+
+<p>The Branch of Silviculture has charge also of National co&ouml;peration for
+the advancement of forestry with the several States, and in particular
+for fire protection under the Weeks law. This form of co&ouml;peration has
+made the knowledge and equipment of the Forest Service available for the
+study of State forest resources and forest problems, and much of the
+progress in forestry made by the States is directly due to it.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Branch of Silviculture, the Office of Forest Investigations
+brings together all that is known of the nature and growth of trees in
+this country, and to some extent in other countries also, conducts
+independent studies of the greatest value in developing better methods
+of securing the reproduction of important forest trees, and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>computes
+the enormous number of forest measurements dealing with the stand and
+the rate of growth of trees and forests that are turned in by the
+parties engaged in forest investigation in the field. Under the Office
+of Forest Investigations, studies in forest distribution and in the
+structure of wood are carried on, and it includes the Library of the
+Forest Service, by far the most complete and effective forest library in
+the United States.</p>
+
+<p>The fourth branch, that of Grazing, supervises the use of the National
+Forests for pasture. Over the greater part of the West, this was the
+first use to which the forests were put, and an idea of its magnitude
+may be gathered from the fact that every year the National Forests
+supply feed for about a million and a half cattle and horses, and more
+than fourteen million sheep. It is no easy task to permit all this live
+stock to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>utilize the forage which the National Forests produce, and yet
+do little or no harm to the young growth on which the future of the
+forest depends. To exclude the grazing animals altogether is impossible
+and undesirable, for to do so would ruin the leading industry in many
+portions of the West. Consequently, many of the most difficult and
+perplexing questions in the practical administration of the National
+Forests have occurred in the work of the Branch of Grazing, and have
+there been solved, and many of the most bitter attacks upon it have
+there been met.</p>
+
+<p>The fifth branch, that of Lands, has to do with the questions which
+arise from the use of the land in the National Forests for farming or
+ranching, mining, and a very wide variety of other purposes, and with
+the exceedingly numerous and intricate questions which arise because
+there are about <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span>21,100,000 acres of land within the boundaries of the
+National Forests whose title has already passed from the Government. The
+boundaries of the National Forests also are constantly being examined to
+determine whether they include all the land, and only the land, to be
+contained within them, and whether they should be extended or reduced.</p>
+
+<p>The first permits for the use of waterpower sites on Government land
+were issued by the Forest Service, and the policy which is just being
+adopted by the Interior Department and other Government organizations in
+their handling of waterpower questions was there first developed. These
+permits are prepared in the Branch of Lands. The first steps toward
+deterring men who attempt in defiance of the law to get possession of
+lands claimed to be agricultural or mineral within the National Forests
+are taken here, but the final decision <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span>on these points rests with the
+Department of the Interior. The examination of lands to determine
+whether they are agricultural in character, and therefore should be
+opened to settlement, is directed from this Branch.</p>
+
+<p>The uses to which National Forest lands are put are almost unbelievably
+various. Barns, borrow pits, botanical gardens, cemeteries and churches,
+dairies and dipping vats, fox ranches and fish hatcheries, hotels,
+pastures, pipe lines, power sites, residences, sanitaria and
+school-houses, stores and tunnels, these and many others make up, with
+grazing and timber sales, the uses of the National Forests, for which
+already more than half a million permits have been issued. This work
+also falls to the Branch of Lands.</p>
+
+<p>The sixth branch, that of Forest Products, is concerned with the whole
+question of the uses of wood and other materials produced by the forest.
+Its principal work is <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span>conducted through the Forest Products Laboratory,
+in co&ouml;peration with the University of Wisconsin at Madison. Here timber
+is tested to ascertain its strength, the products of wood distillation
+are investigated, wood pulp and paper studies of large reach are carried
+on, the methods of wood preservation and the results of applying them
+are in constant course of being examined, and the diseases of trees and
+of wood are studied in co&ouml;peration with the Bureau of Plant Industry of
+the United States Department of Agriculture. The consumption of wood,
+and the production of lumber and forest products, are also the subject
+of continuous investigation, and various necessary special studies are
+undertaken from time to time. At the moment, an effort is under way to
+find new uses and new markets for wood killed by the chestnut blight in
+the northeastern United States.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span>The seventh branch has to do with the study, selection, and acquisition
+of lands under the Weeks law, in accordance with which eight million
+dollars was appropriated for the purchase of forest lands valuable for
+stream protection, with particular reference to the Southern
+Appalachians and the White Mountains of New England. The examination of
+the amount of merchantable timber on lands under consideration for
+purchase, the study of the character of the land and the forest, and the
+survey of the land keep a numerous body of young men very fully
+occupied. Their task is to see that none but the right land is
+recommended for acquisition by the Government, that the nature and value
+of the lands selected shall be most thoroughly known, and that the
+constant effort to make the Government pay unreasonable prices or
+purchase under unfavorable conditions shall as constantly be defeated.
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span>The same branch takes charge of the lands as soon as they have been
+acquired.</p>
+
+<p>The foregoing description of the work which is done in Washington by the
+Forest Service may help to make clear the great variety of tasks to
+which a Forester may be required to set his hand, and emphasizes the
+need of a broad training not strictly confined to purely technical
+lines. It would be defective as a description, however, and would fail
+to show the spirit in which the work is done, if no mention were made of
+the Service Meeting, at which the responsible heads of each branch and
+of the work of the Forester's office meet once a week to discuss every
+problem which confronts the Service and every phase of its work. This
+meeting is the centre where all parts of the work of the Service come
+together and arrange their mutual co&ouml;peration, and it is also the spring
+from which the essential democracy <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span>of the organization takes its rise.
+The Service Meeting is the best thing in the Forest Service, and that is
+saying a great deal.</p>
+
+<p>It must not be imagined that the maintenance of Forest Service
+headquarters in Washington indicates that the actual business of
+handling the National Forests is carried on at long range. In order to
+avoid any such possibility the six District offices were organized in
+1908. These are situated at Missoula, Denver, Albuquerque, Portland,
+Ogden, and San Francisco. Each of the District offices is in charge of a
+District Forester, who directs the practical carrying out of the
+policies finally determined upon in Washington, after consultation with
+the men in the field. The execution of all the work, the larger features
+of which the Washington office decides and directs (and the details of
+which it inspects), is the task of the District Forester. The District
+Forester's office is necessarily organized much on the same general
+lines as the Washington headquarters. Thus, the subjects of accounts,
+operation, silviculture, grazing, lands, and forest products are all
+represented in the District offices. In addition, a legal officer is
+necessarily attached to each District office, and each District Forester
+has in his District one or more forest experiment stations, employed
+mainly in studying questions of growth and reproduction; and three
+forest insect field stations, maintained in co&ouml;peration with the Bureau
+of Entomology, are divided among the six Districts.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep105" id="imagep105"></a>
+<a href="images/imagep105.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep105.jpg" width="70%" alt="FOREST RANGERS GETTING INSTRUCTION" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">FOREST RANGERS GETTING INSTRUCTION IN METHODS OF WORK FROM A DISTRICT FOREST OFFICER</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span>While the work of the Washington office is mainly that of guiding the
+work of the National Forests along broad general lines, through
+instructions to the District Foresters, the office of each District
+Forester deals directly with the Forest Supervisors, and so with the
+handling of the National Forests. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span>A multitude of questions which the
+Supervisors can not answer are decided in the District office instead,
+as was formerly the case, of being forwarded to Washington for disposal
+there, with the consequent aggravating and needless delay. The
+establishment of the District offices has made the handling of the
+National Forests far less complicated and far more prompt, and has
+brought it far closer than ever before to the actual users,&mdash;that is,
+has made it far more quickly and accurately responsive to their needs.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>PRIVATE FORESTRY</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>As yet, the practice of forestry by private owners, except for fire
+protection, has made but little progress in the United States, although
+without doubt it will be widely extended during the next ten or fifteen
+years. The concentration of timberland ownership <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span>in the United States
+has put a few men in control of vast areas of forest. Many of them are
+anxious to prevent forest destruction, so far as that may be practicable
+without interfering with their profits, and for that purpose Foresters
+are beginning to be employed. Until now the principal tasks of Foresters
+employed by lumbermen have been the measurement of the amount of lumber
+in the standing crop of trees, and the protection of forest lands from
+fire. Here and there the practice of a certain amount of forestry has
+been added, but this part of the work of the private Forester employed
+by lumbermen has not been important. It is likely, however, to increase
+with some rapidity before long. In the meantime, the private Forester
+must usually be willing to accept a good many limitations on the
+technical side of his work.</p>
+
+<p>It is essential for the Forester thus <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>employed to have or promptly to
+acquire a knowledge of practical lumbering, that is, of logging,
+milling, and markets, and for the forest student who expects to enter
+this work to give special attention to these subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Already about 170 graduates of forest schools are in private employ, a
+considerable proportion of which number are employed by large lumbermen.</p>
+
+<p>The time is undoubtedly coming, and I hope it may come soon, when forest
+destruction will be legally recognized as hostile to the public welfare,
+and when lumbermen will be compelled by law to handle their forests so
+as to insure the reproduction of them under reasonable conditions and
+within a reasonable time. The idea is neither tyrannical nor new. In
+democratic Switzerland, private owners of timberland are restrained by
+law from destroying the forests <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span>upon which the welfare of that mountain
+region so largely depends, and if they disobey, their forest lands are
+replanted by the Government at the owners' expense.</p>
+
+<p>Another opening for Foresters in the employ of lumbermen is through the
+forest fire protective associations. Of these, two stand out most
+conspicuously at the present time, one the Northwestern Conservation and
+Forestry Association, the other the Oregon Forest Fire Association. Each
+has as its executive officer a trained Forester whose knowledge of the
+woods not only makes him exceedingly useful to his employers, but also,
+when combined with the Forester's point of view, enables him to be of
+great value in protecting the general interest in the forest.</p>
+
+<p>The object and methods of one of the associations is described by its
+Secretary as follows:</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span>"A field hitherto narrow but continually broadening, and offering much
+opportunity for those with peculiar qualifications, is the management of
+the co&ouml;perative forest work carried on by timber owners in many
+localities, often jointly with State and Government. This movement
+originated in the Pacific Northwest, where it still has the highest
+development, but is extending to the Lake States, New England, and
+Canada.</p>
+
+<p>"As a rule the primary object of these co&ouml;perative associations is fire
+prevention and their local managers must have demonstrated ability to
+organize effective patrol systems, build telephone lines, apply every
+ingenuity to supplying and equipping their forces, and, above all, to
+handle men in emergencies. But in most cases the association of forest
+owners to this end has led also to progress in many other matters
+inseparable from improvement, such as study <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span>of reforestation
+possibilities, forest legislation, educating lumberman and public in
+forest preservation, and the extension of co&ouml;peration in all these as
+well as in fire prevention from private to State and federal agencies.</p>
+
+<p>"The development of such activities is already employing several highly
+paid men who can command the confidence, not only of forest owners, but
+also of the public and of public officials. Advisers in legislative as
+well as technical forestry matters and particularly proficient in all
+that pertains to forest protection, their usefulness lies as much
+outside their own association as within them, and to be successful they
+must be skilful organizers and campaigners. It is these men who have
+developed to its highest extent the adaptation to forestry propaganda of
+modern publicity and advertising methods.</p>
+
+<p>"As a rule, however, these may be <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span>described as graduate positions,
+filled by men of experience and acquaintance with the several agencies
+involved, rather than by newly fledged Foresters. A practical knowledge
+of protection problems is essential."</p>
+
+<p>Forestry associations offer a different, but often a most fascinating
+field, of work for the trained Forester. There are at present 39 such
+associations. The work which they offer has much in common with the
+duties of a State Forester.</p>
+
+<p>Fish and game associations are beginning to employ Foresters, realizing
+that the wise handling of the forests may well go hand in hand with the
+care of the game and fish which the forest shelters and protects.
+Eventually nearly all such associations which control any considerable
+body of land in timbered regions may be expected to utilize the services
+of trained Foresters of their own.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span>In addition to the work for lumbermen and for associations of various
+kinds, land owners in considerable variety have begun to employ
+Foresters. Among these are coal and coke companies, iron companies, wood
+pulp and paper companies which are beginning to look after their supply
+of timber; powder, arms, and ammunition companies, hydraulic and water
+companies; a great corporation engaged in the manufacture of matches;
+and a number of railroads, including the Delaware and Hudson, the
+Illinois Central, and the Pennsylvania. In addition to the need for
+cross ties, railroads are among the largest consumers of lumber. The
+Foresters who work for them are largely occupied with growing the wood
+supplies which the railroads need, and nursery practice often occupies a
+very large share of their attention.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span><br />
+<h2>FOREST SCHOOLS</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>Since the first one was founded in 1898, the number of forest schools in
+the United States has increased so rapidly as to create a demand for
+forest instructors which it has been exceedingly difficult to fill.
+Indeed, the increase in secondary forest schools, or schools not of the
+first grade, has doubtless been more rapid than the welfare of the
+profession or the sound practice of forestry required, and the brisk
+demand for teachers has led some men to take up the task of instruction
+who were not well fitted for it.</p>
+
+<p>There are in this country to-day 23 forest schools which prepare men for
+the practice of forestry as a profession, and 51 schools which devote
+themselves to general instruction in forestry or to courses for Forest
+Rangers and Forest Guards. The approximate number of teachers in all
+forest schools <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span>is at present 110, and this number will doubtless be
+still further increased by the addition of new forest schools or the
+expansion of old ones, while a certain number of places will be made
+vacant by the retirement of men who find themselves better fitted for
+other lines of work.</p>
+
+<p>The teaching staff at three of the principal forest schools of the
+country is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>At School A, 5 men give their whole time to forest instruction, and 14
+give courses in the forest school.</p>
+
+<p>Schools B and C have each 4 men who give their whole time to the work;
+and 4 and 20 respectively who give lectures or individual courses.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the work for lumbermen, associations, railroads, and
+others just mentioned, an increasing number of Foresters are required to
+care for the forests on large <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span>landed estates in different parts of the
+country. Work of this kind is at present restricted almost entirely to
+the East, and especially to New England, where several firms of
+consulting Foresters give to it the larger portion of their time. Some
+of the men thus employed are as fully occupied with the tasks of the
+professional Forester as any of the men in the Government service, while
+others give a part of their attention to the general management of the
+property, or to the protection and propagation of game and fish.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>THE OPPORTUNITY</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">GOVERNMENT SERVICE</p>
+
+<p>There is no more useful profession than forestry. The opportunity to
+make himself count in affairs of public importance comes earlier and
+more certainly to the Forester <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span>than to the member of any other
+profession. The first and most valuable, therefore, of the incentives
+which lead the Forester to his choice is the chance to make himself of
+use to his country and to his generation.</p>
+
+<p>But if this is the first matter to be considered in deciding upon a
+profession, it is by no means the last, and the practical considerations
+of a fair return for good work, bread and butter for a man and his
+family, the certainty or uncertainty of employment,&mdash;such questions as
+these must have their full share of attention.</p>
+
+<p>There are in the United States Forest Service 1059 Forest Guards, 1247
+Forest Rangers, 233 Supervisors, and Deputy Supervisors, and 115 Forest
+Assistants and 177 Forest Examiners who, as already explained, are the
+technical men in charge of practical forestry on the National Forests.
+The six District offices together include in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span>their membership about 50
+professional Foresters, and about 65 more are attached to the
+headquarters at Washington, so that allowing for duplications there are
+about 335 trained Foresters in the United States Forest Service.</p>
+
+<p>The number of new appointments to the Forest Service in the different
+permanent grades varies from year to year but may be said to be
+approximately as follows: Rangers, 240 new appointments; Forest
+Assistants, 35; other technical positions, 10. All appointments as
+Supervisor are by promotion from the lists of Forest Rangers or Forest
+Examiners.</p>
+
+<p>The yearly pay of the Forest Guard, who, like the Ranger, must be a
+citizen of the State in which his work lies, is from $420 to $900.
+Forest Rangers, who enter the Service through Civil Service examination,
+receive from $1100 to $1500 per annum. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span>Forest Supervisors, practically
+all of whom are men of long experience in forest work, receive from
+$1600 to $2700 per annum. Forest Assistants enter the Forest Service
+through Civil Service examination at a salary of $1200 per annum, and
+are promoted to a maximum salary of $2500 per annum, as Forest
+Examiners. Professional Foresters at work in the District offices are
+recruited mainly from among the Forest Assistants and Examiners. They
+receive from $1100 to $3200 yearly. The technical men in charge at
+Washington get from $1100 to $5000 per annum, which last is the pay of
+the Forester, at the head of the Service.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">STATE SERVICE</p>
+
+<p>The pay of the State Foresters, or other trained Foresters in charge of
+State work, ranges from $1800 to $4000, and that of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>their technical
+assistants from $1000 to $2500. Out of the total number, only 2 are
+directly in charge of their own work, responsible only to the Governor
+and the Legislature, while 19 act as subordinates for State forest
+commissions or commissioners, who in the majority of cases are political
+appointees. In striking contrast with the United States Forest Service,
+politics has so far been a dangerous, if not a dominating, influence in
+the forest work of most of the States which have undertaken it.</p>
+
+<p>Like the National Forests, the State Forests already in existence will
+create an increasing demand for the service of technical Foresters.
+Indeed, as similar forests are acquired by most of the States which are
+now without them, as undoubtedly they will be, the extent of the
+opportunity for professionally trained Foresters in State work is
+certain to grow.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>PRIVATE WORK</p>
+
+<p>At present, the demand for Foresters in private work is far less
+pressing and the opening is far less attractive than it will be in the
+not distant future. The number of men that will be required for this
+work will depend on the development of legislation as well as upon the
+desire of the private owners, lumbermen and others, to protect and
+improve their property. The time is coming, and coming before long, when
+all private owners of forests in the mountains, or on steep slopes
+elsewhere, will be required by law to provide for their protection and
+reproduction. When that time arrives, the demand for Foresters in
+private work will increase to very large dimensions, and will probably
+do so far more rapidly than Foresters can be trained to supply it.</p>
+
+<p>The pay of Foresters in private work, whether in the employ of
+lumbermen, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span>railroads, shooting and fishing clubs, the proprietors of
+large private estates, or other forest owners, has so far been somewhat
+better than that for similar services in Government employ. This money
+difference in favor of private employment is, in my judgment, likely to
+continue, and eventually the pay of consulting Foresters of established
+reputation employed in passing upon the value of forests offered as
+security for investments, or in estimating the standing timber for
+purchasers or sellers, or in other professional work of large business
+importance, will certainly reach very satisfactory figures.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="cen">TEACHING</p>
+
+<p>Approximately 110 Foresters are engaged in teaching in the United States
+to-day. Their pay varies from about $1000 to about $3000, and is likely
+to increase rather more rapidly than that of other professional
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>teachers, since less of them are available. It is not likely, however,
+that the number of openings in teaching forestry will be large within
+the next ten years.</p>
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<hr />
+<br />
+<h2>TRAINING</h2>
+<br />
+
+<p>The length of time which his training is to take and the particular
+courses of instruction which he shall pursue are to the young man
+contemplating the study of forestry matters of the first importance. The
+first thing to insist on in that connection is that the training must be
+thorough. It is natural that a young man should be eager to begin his
+life work and therefore somewhat impatient of the long grind of a
+thorough schooling. But however natural, it is not the part of wisdom to
+cut short the time of preparation. When the serious work of the trained
+Forester begins later on, there will <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span>be little or no time to fill the
+gaps left at school, and the earnest desire of the young Forester will
+be that he had spent more time in his preparation rather than less. In
+this matter I speak as one who has gathered a conviction from personal
+experience, and believes he knows.</p>
+
+<p>It would be useless to attempt to strike an average of the work
+prescribed and the courses given at the various forest schools. I shall
+describe, therefore, not an average system of instruction but one which,
+in the judgment of men entitled to an opinion, and in my own judgment,
+is sound, practical, and effective.</p>
+
+<p>Forest schools may roughly be divided between those which do not prepare
+men for professional work in forestry, and those which do. The latter
+may be divided again into undergraduate schools and graduate schools.
+Most of the former offer a <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span>four-year undergraduate course, and their
+students receive their degrees at the same time as other members of the
+University who entered at the same time with them. The graduate schools
+require a college degree, or its equivalent in certain subjects, before
+they will receive a student. The men who have completed their courses
+have usually, therefore, pursued more extensive and more advanced
+studies in forestry, are better trained, and are themselves older and
+more ready to accept the responsibilities which forestry brings upon
+them. For these reasons, the graduate school training is by far the more
+desirable, in my opinion.</p>
+
+<p>The subjects required for entrance to a graduate forest school should
+include at least one full year in college botany, covering the general
+morphology, histology, and physiology of plants, one course each in
+geology, physics, inorganic chemistry, <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>zo&ouml;logy, and economics, with
+mathematics through trigonometry, and a reading knowledge of French or
+German. Some acquaintance with mechanical drawing is also desirable but
+not absolutely necessary. Other courses which are extremely desirable,
+if not altogether essential, are mineralogy, meteorology, mechanics,
+physical geography, organic chemistry, and possibly calculus, which may
+be of use in timber physics.</p>
+
+<p>One or two forest schools begin their course of training for the first
+year in July instead of in October, in order to give their students some
+acquaintance with the woods from the Forester's standpoint before the
+more formal courses begin. The result of this plan is to give increased
+vividness and reality to all the courses which follow the work in the
+woods, to make clear the application of what is taught, and so to add
+greatly to the efficiency of the teaching.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>In addition to this preliminary touch with the woods, any wise plan of
+teaching will include many forest excursions and much practical field
+work as vitally important parts of the instruction. This outdoor work
+should occur throughout the whole course, winter and summer, and in
+addition, the last term of the senior year may well be spent wholly in
+the woods, where the students can be trained in the management of
+logging operations and milling, and can get their final practice work in
+surveying and map-making, in preparing forest working plans, estimating
+timber, laying out roads and trails, making plans for lumber operations,
+and other similar practical work. Several of the best forest schools
+have adopted this plan.</p>
+
+<p>The regular courses of a graduate forest school usually cover a period
+of two years. They should fit a student for nearly every <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span>phase of
+professional work in forestry, and should give him a sound preparation
+not merely for practical work in the woods, but also for the broader
+work of forest organization in the Government Service in the United
+States and in the Philippines, and in the service of the States; for
+handling large tracts of private forest lands; for expert work in the
+employ of lumbermen and other forest owners; for public speaking and
+writing; for teaching; and for scientific research.</p>
+
+<p>Every well equipped forest school will have a working library of books,
+pamphlets, and lumber journals published here and abroad, an herbarium
+at least of native trees and shrubs and of the more important forest
+herbs, together with a collection of forest tree fruits and seeds, and
+specimens of domestic and foreign timbers. Exhibits showing the uses of
+woods and the various forms <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span>of tools used in lumbering, as well as the
+apparatus for laboratory work and surveying, and forest instruments for
+work in the field, are often of great value to the student.</p>
+
+<p>What should a young man learn at a forest school? Doubtless there will
+be some variation of opinion as to the exact course of study which will
+best fit him for the work of a Forester in the United States. The
+following list expresses the best judgment on the subject I have been
+able to form:</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin"><span class="smcap">Dendrology</span>:</p>
+
+<p>The first step in forestry is to become acquainted with the various
+kinds of trees. The coming Forester must learn to identify the woody
+plants of the United States, both in summer and in winter. He must
+understand their shapes and outward structures, and where they are
+found, and he must begin his knowledge of the individual habits of
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>growth and life which distinguish the trees which are important in
+forestry.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin"><span class="smcap">Forest Physiography</span>:</p>
+
+<p>Trees grow in the soil. It is important to know something of the origin
+of soils and their properties and values, and of the principal soil
+types, with special reference to their effect upon plant distribution
+and welfare. The origin, nature, value, and conservation of humus, that
+most essential ingredient of the forest floor; the field methods of
+mapping soil types; the rock types most important in their relation to
+soils, how they are made up, how they make soil, and where they
+occur&mdash;something should be learned of all this. Finally, under this
+head, the student ought to get a usable knowledge of the physiographic
+regions of the United States, their boundaries, geologic structure,
+topography, drainage, and soils,&mdash;all this <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span>naturally with special
+reference to the relation between these basic facts and the forest.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin"><span class="smcap">Silviculture</span>:</p>
+
+<p>Silviculture is the art of caring for forests, and therefore the
+backbone of forestry. It is based upon Silvics, which is the knowledge
+of the habits or behavior of trees in their relations to light, heat,
+and moisture, to the air and soil, and to each other. It is the facts
+embraced in Silvics which explain the composition, character, and form
+of the forest; the success or failure of tree species in competition
+with each other; the distribution of trees and of forests; the
+development of each tree in height, diameter, and volume; its form and
+length of life; the methods of its reproduction; and the effect of all
+these upon the nature and the evolution of the city of trees, and upon
+forest types and their life histories.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span>This is knowledge the Forester can not do without. Silvics is the
+foundation of his professional capacity, and as a student he can better
+afford to scamp any part of his training rather than this. A man may be
+a poor Forester who knows Silvics, but no man can be a good Forester who
+does not.</p>
+
+<p>The practice of Silviculture has to do with the treatment of woodlands.
+The forest student must learn the different methods of reproducing
+forests by different methods of cutting them down, and the application
+of these methods in different American forest regions. There are also
+many methods of cutting for the improvement of the character and growth
+of forests, as well as for utilizing material that otherwise would go to
+waste, before the final reproduction cuttings can be made. The ways in
+which forests need protection are equally numerous, and of these by far
+the most important in our <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>country have to do with methods of preventing
+or extinguishing forest fires.</p>
+
+<p>Well managed forests are handled under working plans based on the
+silvical character and silvicultural needs of the forest, as well as
+upon the purpose set by the owner as the object of management, which is
+often closely related to questions of forest finance. The student should
+ground himself thoroughly in the making of silvicultural working plans,
+and the more practice in making them he can get, the better. So, too,
+with the marking of trees in reproduction and improvement cuttings under
+as many different kinds of forest conditions as may be possible.</p>
+
+<p>The artificial reproduction of forests is likely to occupy far more of
+the Forester's attention in the future than it has in the past. Hence
+the collection of tree seeds, their fertility and vitality as affecting
+their handling, the best methods of seeding and <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>planting, and the
+lessons of past failures and successes, with the whole subject of
+nursery work and the care of young plantations, must by no means be
+overlooked.</p>
+
+<p>Much incidental information on the subject of forest protection will
+come to the student in the course of his studies, but special attention
+should be given to learning which of the species of forest insects are
+most injurious to forest vegetation, how their attacks are made, how
+they may be discovered, and the best ways by which such attacks can be
+mitigated or controlled. So also the diseases of timber trees will repay
+hard study. The principal fungi which causes such diseases should be
+known, how they attack the trees, and what are the remedies, as well as
+(although this is far less important) the way to treat tree wounds and
+the correct methods of pruning.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin smcap">Forest Economics:</p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+
+<p>Forest Economics is a large subject. It deals with the productive value
+of forests to their owners, and with the larger question of their place
+in the economy of the Nation. It considers their use as conservers of
+the soil and the streams; their effect on climate, locally, as in the
+case of windbreakers, and on a larger scale; and their contribution to
+the public welfare as recreation grounds and game refuges. It includes a
+knowledge of wastes from which the forests suffer, and the consequent
+loss to industry and to the public, and in this it does not omit the
+effects of forest fires. Statistics of forest consumption; the relation
+of the forest to railroads, mines, and other wood-using industries; its
+effect upon agriculture, stock raising, and manufacturing industries;
+and its effect upon the use of the streams for navigation, power,
+irrigation, and domestic water <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span>supply; all these are important. The
+student should consider also the forest resources of the United States,
+their present condition, and the needs they must be fitted to supply.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin"><span class="smcap">Forest Engineering</span>:</p>
+
+<p>Forest engineering is steadily becoming more and more necessary to the
+Forester. He must have a working knowledge of the use of surveying
+instruments; the making of topographic surveys; the office work required
+of an engineer; the making of topographic maps; the location of trails,
+roads, and railroads; and the construction of bridges, telephone lines,
+cabins, and fences, together with logging railroads, slides, dams, and
+flumes.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin"><span class="smcap">Forest Mensuration</span>:</p>
+
+<p>Forest mensuration, the art of measuring the contents and growth of
+trees and forest stands, is of fundamental importance. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>The principles
+and methods of timber estimating, the actual measurement of standing
+timber, log rules, the making of stem analyses to show the increase of a
+tree in diameter, height, and volume, the construction of tables of
+current and mean annual growth per acre and per tree, and the methods of
+using the information thus formulated,&mdash;all these are necessarily of
+keen interest to the man who later on will have to apply his knowledge
+in the practical management of woods.</p>
+
+<div class="img"><a name="imagep136" id="imagep136"></a>
+<a href="images/imagep136.jpg">
+<img border="0" src="images/imagep136.jpg" width="40%" alt="FOREST SERVICE MEN MAKING FRESH MEASUREMENTS IN THE MISSOURI SWAMPS" /></a><br />
+<p class="cen" style="margin-top: .2em;">FOREST SERVICE MEN MAKING FRESH MEASUREMENTS IN THE MISSOURI SWAMPS</p>
+</div>
+
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin"><span class="smcap">Forest Management</span>:</p>
+
+<p>Forest management is concerned with the principles involved in planning
+the handling of forests. Questions of the valuation of forests form a
+most essential part of it,&mdash;such questions as the cost of growing timber
+crops, the value of land for that purpose, the value of young timber,
+the valuation of <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>damage to the forest, and the legal status of the
+damage and the remedy.</p>
+
+<p>Business principles are as necessary in the management of forests as in
+the management of mills or farms. These business principles work out in
+different forms of forest policy adapted to the needs of different kinds
+of owners, such as lumbermen and the Government. What the young Forester
+has learned about growth and yield, about timber estimates and forest
+statistics, and many other matters, all finds its application in forest
+management. He must also consider the methods and principles for
+regulating the cut of timber, or for securing sustained annual yields.
+All this forms the basis for the preparation of working plans for the
+utilization of forests under American economic and silvicultural
+conditions, not only without injury, but with benefit, to their
+continued productiveness.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>The subjects of forest surveying and working plans are intimately
+related. Maps are indispensable in the practical work of making a forest
+working plan. Topographic mapping, timber estimating, forest
+description, and the location of logging roads, trails, and fire lines,
+together with Silvics and a knowledge of growth and yield&mdash;these and
+many other subjects enter into the making of a practical working plan to
+harvest a forest crop and secure a second growth of timber. The student
+should get all the practice he can in marking timber for cutting under
+such a plan.</p>
+
+<p>The young Forester must make himself familiar with the administration of
+the National Forests. He must know how the business of the forest is
+handled, how it is protected against fire, how the timber is sold, how
+claims and entries are dealt with under the public land laws, how land
+in the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span>National Forests is used to make homes, how trespass is
+controlled, how the livestock industry on the National Forests is
+fostered and regulated, and how the extremely valuable watersheds they
+contain are safeguarded and improved.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin"><span class="smcap">The Practice of Forestry</span>:</p>
+
+<p>The practice of forestry is necessarily different in different kinds of
+forests and under different economic conditions. All that the Forester
+knows must here be applied, and applied in workable fashion, not only to
+the forest, but to the men who use the forest. This is peculiarly true
+of the practice of forestry in National and State Forests everywhere.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin"><span class="smcap">Forest Products</span>:</p>
+
+<p>Under this general subject, the forest student must acquaint himself,
+through the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span>microscope, with the minute anatomy of the woody stem of
+coniferous and broadleaf trees, and the occurrence, form, structure, and
+variability of the elements which make it up. He should become familiar
+with the methods of classifying the economic woods of the United States,
+both under the microscope and with the unassisted eye, and for this
+purpose should know something of their color, gloss, grain, density,
+odor, and resonance both as aids to identification and as to their
+importance in giving value to the wood; the defects of timber; its
+moisture content, density, shrinking, checking, warping; and the effect
+of all these upon its uses.</p>
+
+<p>The chemical composition of wood and of minor forest products, such as
+tannins and dye stuffs, is important; the properties governing the fuel
+value and the other values of wood must be studied, as well as the
+methods of using these properties in <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>the making of charcoal and wood
+pulp, in wood distillation, the turpentine industry, in tanning and
+dyeing, and in other industries.</p>
+
+<p>A field of great importance is the relation between the physical
+structure and the mechanical properties of wood. A student should inform
+himself concerning the standard methods of testing the properties of
+structural timber, by bending, compression, shearing, torsion, impact,
+and the hardness and tension tests, with their relation to heat and
+moisture, and the methods of seasoning, the use of preservatives, and
+the effect of the rate of application of the load.</p>
+
+<p>Woods vary as to their durability. It is important, therefore, to know
+about the causes of decay, the decay-resisting power of various woods,
+the relation of moisture content to durability, why the seasoning of
+wood is effective, the theory and the <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span>commercial methods of wood
+preservation, and its relation to the timber supply.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin"><span class="smcap">Lumbering</span>:</p>
+
+<p>Lumbering the Forester should know more than a little about, as how to
+organize lumber operations, the equipment and management of logging and
+milling in various forest regions, the manufacture, seasoning, and
+grading of the rough and finished lumber, cost keeping in a lumber
+business, methods of sale, market requirements at home and abroad,
+prices, the relation of the lumber tariff to forestry, lumber
+associations, timber bonds, and insurance. The practical construction of
+logging equipment, such as aerial tramways, log slides, dams, and
+flumes, is of peculiar importance, and so are the conditions and changes
+of the lumber market.</p>
+
+<p>Experience on the land of some <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span>operating lumber company is of great
+value. It should include a study of logging methods, log scaling, waste
+in logging, the equipment and handling of the mill, the sawing and care
+of rough and finished lumber, its grading, and so far as possible an
+acquaintance with wood working plants of various kinds, and with the
+operations of turpentine orcharding. Studies along these lines may with
+advantage be almost indefinitely extended to include, for example the
+utilization of steam machinery for logging, the improvement of streams
+for driving logs, and other similar questions.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin"><span class="smcap">Forest Law</span>:</p>
+
+<p>The Forester must have at least a slight acquaintance with forest law,
+both State and National. It is important to know something of the
+general principles of classifying the public lands, of State laws for
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>fire protection, the development of forest policies in the various
+States as legally expressed, and the important laws which govern the
+creation and management of State forest reserves.</p>
+
+<p>Forest taxation, State and local, which has, when excessive, so much to
+do with hastening forest destruction, is one of the most important
+questions which can engage the attention of the Forester.</p>
+
+<p>Under the subject of Federal Forest Law, it is not sufficient for the
+student to acquaint himself with those laws alone which govern the
+forests. He must also have some knowledge of the creation of a forest
+policy out of the public land policy of the United States, some
+acquaintance with the public land laws. A good working knowledge of the
+laws and regulations governing the National Forests is indispensable,
+and the student should at least know where to find <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span>the more important
+court decisions by which they are interpreted.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin"><span class="smcap">Forest History</span>:</p>
+
+<p>The history of forestry in Europe has a certain importance in throwing
+light on our own forest history and its probable development, and this
+is especially true of the history of the administration of Government
+forest lands and of education in forestry.</p>
+
+<p>The history of forestry in the United States, however, is far more
+important. The Forester must know the story of the growth and change of
+National Forest organizations, the Forest Officers and their duties, the
+cost, size, and effectiveness of the Government Forest Service at
+different times, the Civil Service regulations under which it is
+recruited, and other similar matters. It is important likewise for him
+to become thoroughly saturated with an intimate <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span>knowledge of the
+development of forestry in public opinion in the United States, its
+extension to the other natural resources through the conservation
+policy, and the relation of the Forester's point of view thus expressed
+to the present welfare and future success of the Nation.</p>
+
+<p>It is not always possible for the forest student to become a woodsman
+before entering his profession, but it is most desirable. A Forester
+must be able to travel the forest alone by day and by night, he should
+be a good fisherman and a good hunter (which is far more important than
+to be a good shot), and deeply interested in both fish and game. The
+better horseman he is the better Forester he will be, and especially if
+he can pack and handle pack horses in the woods. So that whether the
+young Forester begins with a practical knowledge of woodcraft or not, he
+must not fail to <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span>acquire or improve it, for without it he will endanger
+the whole success of his career.</p>
+
+<p>Some knowledge of first aid to the injured is likely to be of great and
+sudden value to a man so much of whose life must be spent in the woods,
+at a distance from medical aid. The time spent in getting information on
+this subject will be anything but wasted.</p>
+<br />
+
+<p class="noin"><span class="smcap">English</span>:</p>
+
+<p>The ability to write and to speak good, plain, understandable English is
+a prime requisite in the Forester's training. It is a part of education
+frequently neglected, especially by those in engineering or scientific
+pursuits; yet its importance for the Forester is very large. As already
+pointed out, the Forester is on the firing line of the conservation
+movement; he is pioneering in a new profession. For this reason he will
+often need to explain his stand and convert others <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span>to his beliefs. In
+addition, he must make available to others the results he secures from
+the study of new facts. A usable command of his own language will stand
+him in good stead, whether he needs to talk face to face with another
+man, or from a platform to a concourse of people, or to put into
+readable printed form the results of his observations or his thinking.</p>
+
+<p>When the young Forester has completed the courses of his school training
+in America, the question may be raised whether he should supplement his
+training by study abroad. I am strongly of opinion that he should do so
+if he can. Study abroad is not indispensable for the American Forester,
+but it can do him nothing but good to see in practical operation the
+methods of forestry which have resulted from the long experience of
+other lands, and especially to become familiar with the effect of sound
+forestry on the forest.</p>
+
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<br />
+
+<div class="tr">
+<p class="cen"><a name="TN" id="TN"></a>Transcriber's Note</p>
+<br />
+
+Some inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in
+the original document has been preserved.<br />
+<br />
+Typographical errors corrected in the text:<br />
+<br />
+Page&nbsp; 135&nbsp; windbrakes changed to windbreaks<br />
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Training of a Forester, by Gifford Pinchot
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,2694 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Training of a Forester, by Gifford Pinchot
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Training of a Forester
+
+Author: Gifford Pinchot
+
+Release Date: February 23, 2010 [EBook #31367]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TRAINING OF A FORESTER ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Tom Roch, Barbara Kosker and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images produced by Core Historical
+Literature in Agriculture (CHLA), Cornell University)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE TRAINING OF A FORESTER
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: A FOREST RANGER LOOKING FOR FIRE FROM A NATIONAL FOREST
+LOOKOUT STATION _Page 32_]
+
+
+
+
+  THE TRAINING OF A FORESTER
+
+
+
+
+  BY
+
+  GIFFORD PINCHOT
+
+
+
+
+  WITH EIGHT ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+
+
+  PHILADELPHIA & LONDON
+  J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
+  1914
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1914, BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
+
+  PUBLISHED FEBRUARY, 1914
+
+
+
+  PRINTED BY J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY
+  AT THE WASHINGTON SQUARE PRESS
+  PHILADELPHIA, U. S. A.
+
+
+
+
+  To
+
+  OVERTON W. PRICE
+  FRIEND AND FELLOW WORKER
+
+  TO WHOM IS DUE, MORE THAN TO ANY OTHER MAN, THE
+  HIGH EFFICIENCY OF THE UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+At one time or another, the largest question before every young man is,
+"What shall I do with my life?" Among the possible openings, which best
+suits his ambition, his tastes, and his capacities? Along what line
+shall he undertake to make a successful career? The search for a life
+work and the choice of one is surely as important business as can occupy
+a boy verging into manhood. It is to help in the decision of those who
+are considering forestry as a profession that this little book has been
+written.
+
+To the young man who is attracted to forestry and begins to consider it
+as a possible profession, certain questions present themselves. What is
+forestry? If he takes it up, what will his work be, and where? Does it
+in fact offer the satisfying type of outdoor life which it appears to
+offer? What chance does it present for a successful career, for a career
+of genuine usefulness, and what is the chance to make a living? Is he
+fitted for it in character, mind, and body? If so, what training does he
+need? These questions deserve an answer.
+
+To the men whom it really suits, forestry offers a career more
+attractive, it may be said in all fairness, than any other career
+whatsoever. I doubt if any other profession can show a membership so
+uniformly and enthusiastically in love with the work. The men who have
+taken it up, practised it, and left it for other work are few. But to
+the man not fully adapted for it, forestry must be punishment, pure and
+simple. Those who have begun the study of forestry, and then have
+learned that it was not for them, have doubtless been more in number
+than those who have followed it through.
+
+I urge no man to make forestry his profession, but rather to keep away
+from it if he can. In forestry a man is either altogether at home or
+very much out of place. Unless he has a compelling love for the
+Forester's life and the Forester's work, let him keep out of it.
+
+  G. P.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                 PAGE
+
+  WHAT IS A FOREST?                                                13
+
+  THE FORESTER'S KNOWLEDGE                                         18
+
+  THE FOREST AND THE NATION                                        19
+
+  THE FORESTER'S POINT OF VIEW                                     23
+
+  THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FORESTRY                                    27
+
+  THE WORK OF A FORESTER                                           30
+
+  THE FOREST SERVICE                                               30
+
+  THE FOREST SUPERVISOR                                            46
+
+  THE TRAINED FORESTER                                             50
+
+  PERSONAL EQUIPMENT                                               63
+
+  STATE FOREST WORK                                                84
+
+  THE FOREST SERVICE IN WASHINGTON                                 89
+
+  PRIVATE FORESTRY                                                106
+
+  FOREST SCHOOLS                                                  114
+
+  THE OPPORTUNITY                                                 116
+
+  TRAINING                                                        123
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+                                                                 PAGE
+
+  A FOREST RANGER LOOKING FOR FIRE FROM A NATIONAL
+  FOREST LOOKOUT STATION                                _Frontispiece_
+
+  STRINGING A FOREST TELEPHONE LINE                                32
+
+  FOREST RANGERS SCALING TIMBER                                    43
+
+  WESTERN YELLOW PINE SEED COLLECTED BY THE FOREST
+  SERVICE FOR PLANTING UP DENUDED LANDS                            47
+
+  A FOREST EXAMINER RUNNING A COMPASS LINE                         59
+
+  BRUSH PILING IN A NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER SALE                    95
+
+  FOREST RANGERS GETTING INSTRUCTION IN METHODS OF
+  WORK FROM A DISTRICT FOREST OFFICER                             105
+
+  FOREST SERVICE MEN MAKING FRESH MEASUREMENTS IN
+  THE MISSOURI SWAMPS                                             136
+
+
+
+
+THE TRAINING OF A FORESTER
+
+
+
+
+WHAT IS A FOREST?
+
+
+First, What is forestry? Forestry is the knowledge of the forest. In
+particular, it is the art of handling the forest so that it will render
+whatever service is required of it without being impoverished or
+destroyed. For example, a forest may be handled so as to produce saw
+logs, telegraph poles, barrel hoops, firewood, tan bark, or turpentine.
+The main purpose of its treatment may be to prevent the washing of soil,
+to regulate the flow of streams, to support cattle or sheep, or it may
+be handled so as to supply a wide range and combination of uses.
+Forestry is the art of producing from the forest whatever it can yield
+for the service of man.
+
+Before we can understand forestry, certain facts about the forest itself
+must be kept in mind. A forest is not a mere collection of individual
+trees, just as a city is not a mere collection of unrelated men and
+women, or a Nation like ours merely a certain number of independent
+racial groups. A forest, like a city, is a complex community with a life
+of its own. It has a soil and an atmosphere of its own, chemically and
+physically different from any other, with plants and shrubs as well as
+trees which are peculiar to it. It has a resident population of insects
+and higher animals entirely distinct from that outside. Most important
+of all, from the Forester's point of view, the members of the forest
+live in an exact and intricate system of competition and mutual
+assistance, of help or harm, which extends to all the inhabitants of
+this complicated city of trees.
+
+The trees in a forest are all helped by mutually protecting each other
+against high winds, and by producing a richer and moister soil than
+would be possible if the trees stood singly and apart. They compete
+among themselves by their roots for moisture in the soil, and for light
+and space by the growth of their crowns in height and breadth. Perhaps
+the strongest weapon which trees have against each other is growth in
+height. In certain species intolerant of shade, the tree which is
+overtopped has lost the race for good. The number of young trees which
+destroy each other in this fierce struggle for existence is prodigious,
+so that often a few score per acre are all that survive to middle or old
+age out of many tens of thousands of seedlings which entered the race of
+life on approximately even terms.
+
+Not only has a forest a character of its own, which arises from the fact
+that it is a community of trees, but each species of tree has peculiar
+characteristics and habits also. Just as in New York City, for example,
+the French, the Germans, the Italians, the Hungarians, and the Chinese
+each have quarters of their own, and in those quarters live in
+accordance with habits which distinguish each race from all the others,
+so the different species of pines and hemlocks, oaks and maples prefer
+and are found in certain definite types of locality, and live in
+accordance with definite racial habits which are as general and
+unfailing as the racial characteristics which distinguish, for example,
+the Italians from the Germans, or the Swedes from the Chinese.
+
+The most important of these characteristics of race or species are those
+which are concerned with the relation of each to light, heat, and
+moisture. Thus, a river birch will die if it has only as much water as
+will suffice to keep a post oak in the best condition, and the warm
+climate in which the balsam fir would perish is just suited to the
+requirements of a long leaf pine or a magnolia.
+
+The tolerance of a tree for shade may vary greatly at different times of
+its life, but a white pine always requires more light than a hemlock,
+and a beech throughout its life will flourish with less sunshine or
+reflected light than, for example, an oak or a tulip tree.
+
+Trees are limited in their distribution also by their adaptability, in
+which they vary greatly. Thus a bald cypress will grow both in wetter
+and in dryer land than an oak; a red cedar will flourish from Florida to
+the Canadian line, while other species, like the Eastern larch, the
+Western mountain hemlock, or the big trees of California, are confined
+in their native localities within extremely narrow limits.
+
+
+
+
+THE FORESTER'S KNOWLEDGE
+
+
+The trained Forester must know the forest as a doctor knows the human
+machine. First of all, he must be able to distinguish the different
+trees of which the forest is composed, for that is like learning to
+read. He must know the way they are made and the way they grow; but far
+more important than all else, he must base his knowledge upon that part
+of forestry which is called Silvics, the knowledge of the relation of
+trees to light, heat, and moisture, to the soil, and to each other.
+
+The well-trained Forester must also know the forest shrubs and at least
+the more important smaller forest plants, something of the insect and
+animal life of his domain, and the birds and fish. He must have a good
+working knowledge of rocks, soils, and streams, and of the methods of
+making roads, trails, and bridges. He should be an expert in woodcraft,
+able to travel the forest safely and surely by day or by night. It is
+essential that he should have a knowledge of the theory and the practice
+of lumbering, and he should know something about lumber markets and the
+value of lumber, about surveying and map making, and many other matters
+which are considered more at length in the Chapter on Training. There
+are as yet in America comparatively few men who have acquired even
+fairly well the more important knowledge which should be included in the
+training of a Forester.
+
+
+
+
+THE FOREST AND THE NATION
+
+
+The position of the forest in the housekeeping of any nation is unlike
+that of any other great natural resource, for the forest not only
+furnishes wood, without which civilization as we know it would be
+impossible, but serves also to protect or make valuable many of the
+other things without which we could not get on. Thus the forest cover
+protects the soil from the effects of wind, and holds it in place. For
+lack of it hundreds of thousands of square miles have been converted by
+the winds from moderately fertile, productive land to arid drifting
+sands. Narrow strips of forest planted as windbreaks make agriculture
+possible in certain regions by preventing destruction of crops by
+moisture-stealing dry winds which so afflict the central portions of our
+country.
+
+Without the forests the great bulk of our mining for coal, metals, and
+the precious minerals would be either impossible or vastly more
+expensive than it is at present, because the galleries of mines are
+propped with wood, and so protected against caving in. So far, no
+satisfactory substitute for the wooden railroad tie has been devised;
+and our whole system of land transportation is directly dependent for
+its existence upon the forest, which supplies more than one hundred and
+twenty million new railroad ties every year in the United States alone.
+
+The forest regulates and protects the flow of streams. Its effect is to
+reduce the height of floods and to moderate extremes of low water. The
+official measurements of the United States Geological Survey have
+finally settled this long-disputed question. By protecting mountain
+slopes against excessive soil wash, it protects also the lowlands upon
+which this wash would otherwise be deposited and the rivers whose
+channels it would clog. It is well within the truth to say that the
+utility of any system of rivers for transportation, for irrigation, for
+waterpower, and for domestic supply depends in great part upon the
+protection which forests offer to the headwaters of the streams, and
+that without such protection none of these uses can be expected long to
+endure.
+
+Of the two basic materials of our civilization, iron and wood, the
+forest supplies one. The dominant place of the forest in our national
+economy is well illustrated by the fact that no article whatsoever,
+whether of use or ornament, whether it be for food, shelter, clothing,
+convenience, protection, or decoration, can be produced and delivered to
+the user, as industry is now organized, without the help of the forest
+in supplying wood. An examination of the history of any article,
+including the production of the raw material, and its manufacture,
+transportation, and distribution, will at once make this point clear.
+
+The forest is a national necessity. Without the material, the
+protection, and the assistance it supplies, no nation can long succeed.
+Many regions of the old world, such as Palestine, Greece, Northern
+Africa, and Central India, offer in themselves the most impressive
+object lessons of the effect upon national prosperity and national
+character of the neglect of the forest and its consequent destruction.
+
+
+
+
+THE FORESTER'S POINT OF VIEW
+
+
+The central idea of the Forester, in handling the forest, is to promote
+and perpetuate its greatest use to men. His purpose is to make it serve
+the greatest good of the greatest number for the longest time. Before
+the members of any other profession dealing with natural resources, the
+Foresters acquired the long look ahead. This was only natural, because
+in forestry it is seldom that a man lives to harvest the crop which he
+helped to sow. The Forester must look forward, because the natural
+resource with which he deals matures so slowly, and because, if steps
+are to be taken to insure for succeeding generations a supply of the
+things the forest yields, they must be taken long in advance. The idea
+of using the forest first for the greatest good of the present
+generation, and then for the greatest good of succeeding generations
+through the long future of the nation and the race--that is the
+Forester's point of view.
+
+The use of foresight to insure the existence of the forest in the
+future, and, so far as practicable, the continued or increasing
+abundance of its service to men, naturally suggested the use of
+foresight in the same way as to other natural resources as well. Thus it
+was the Forester's point of view, applied not only to the forest but to
+the lands, the minerals, and the streams, which produced the
+Conservation policy. The idea of applying foresight and common-sense to
+the other natural resources as well as to the forest was natural and
+inevitable. It works out, equally as a matter of course, into the
+conception of a planned and orderly development of all that the earth
+contains for the uses of men. This leads in turn to the application of
+the same principle to other questions and resources. It was foreseen
+from the beginning by those who were responsible for inaugurating the
+Conservation movement that its natural development would in time work
+out into a planned and orderly scheme for national efficiency, based on
+the elimination of waste, and directed toward the best use of all we
+have for the greatest good of the greatest number for the longest time.
+It is easy to see that this principle (the Forester's principle, first
+brought to public attention by Foresters) is the key to national
+success.
+
+Forestry, then, is seen to be peculiarly essential to the national
+prosperity, both now and hereafter. National degradation and decay have
+uniformly followed the excessive destruction of forests by other
+nations, and will inevitably become our portion if we continue to
+destroy our forests three times faster than they are produced, as we are
+doing now. The principles of forestry, therefore, must occupy a
+commanding place in determining the future prosperity or failure of our
+nation, and this commanding position in the field of ideas is naturally
+and properly reflected in the dignity and high standing which the
+profession of forestry, young as it is, has already acquired in the
+United States. This position it must be the first care of every member
+of the profession to maintain and increase.
+
+In the long run, no profession rises higher than the degree of public
+consideration which marks its members. The profession of forestry is in
+many ways a peculiarly responsible profession, but in nothing more so
+than in its vital connection with the whole future welfare of our
+country and in the obligation which lies upon its members to see that
+its reputation and standing, which are the measures of its capacity for
+usefulness, are kept strong and clear.
+
+
+
+
+THE ESTABLISHMENT OF FORESTRY
+
+
+In the United States, forestry is passing out of the pioneer phase of
+agitation and the education of public opinion, and into the permanent
+phase of the practice of the profession. The first steps in forestry in
+this country, as in any other where the development and destruction of
+natural resources has been rapid, were necessarily directed mainly to
+informing the public mind upon the importance of forestry, and to
+building up national and State laws and organizations for the protection
+of timberlands set aside for the public benefit. The right to be heard
+with respect by the men who were already in control of the larger part
+of our total forest wealth had to be won, and has been won. What is
+more, in the teeth of the bitterest opposition of private special
+interests, the right of the public to first consideration in the
+protection and development of the forest and of all the resources it
+contains had to be asserted and established. That has now been done.
+
+In the United States these steps in the movement for the wise use of the
+forest have been taken mainly in the last dozen or fifteen years, during
+which the Federal forest organization has grown from an insignificant
+division of less than a dozen men to the present United States Forest
+Service, of more than three thousand members. During this period, also,
+forestry, both as a profession and as a public necessity, has won
+enduring public recognition, and at the same time more public timberland
+has been set aside for the public use and to remain in the public hands
+than during all the rest of our history put together. To-day the
+National Forests are reasonably safe in the protection of public
+opinion, not against all attack, it is true, but against any successful
+attempt to dismember and turn them over to the special interests who
+already control the bulk and the best of our forests. The public has
+accepted forestry as necessary to the public welfare, both in the
+present and in the future; State forest organizations are springing up;
+forestry has won the right to be heard in the business offices as well
+as in the conventions of the private owners of forest land; and the
+time for the practice of the profession has fully come.
+
+
+
+
+THE WORK OF A FORESTER
+
+
+What does a Forester do? I will try to answer this question, first, with
+reference to the United States Forest Service, and later as to the
+numerous other fields of activity which are opening or have already
+opened to the trained Forester in the United States.
+
+
+
+
+THE FOREST SERVICE
+
+
+The United States Forest Service is responsible both for the general
+progress of forestry, so far as the United States Government is
+concerned, and for the protection and use of the National Forests. These
+National Forests now cover an area of one hundred and eighty-seven
+million acres, or as much land as is included in all the New England
+States, with New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland,
+Virginia and West Virginia. The head of the Service, whose official
+title is "Forester," is charged with the great task of protecting this
+vast area against fire, theft, and other depredations, and of making all
+its resources, the wood, water, and grass, the minerals, and the soil,
+available and useful to the people of the United States under
+regulations which will secure development and prevent destruction or
+waste.
+
+The United States Forest Service consists, first, of a protective force
+of Forest Guards and Forest Rangers, who spend practically the whole of
+their time in the forest; second, of an executive staff of Forest
+Supervisors and their assistants, who have immediate charge of the
+handling of the National Forests; and third, of an administrative staff
+divided between headquarters in Washington and the six local
+administrative offices in the West, where the National Forests mainly
+lie.
+
+The work of a Forest Ranger is, first of all, to protect the District
+committed to his charge against fire. That comes before all else. For
+that purpose, the Ranger patrols his District during the seasons when
+fires are dangerous, or watches for signs of fire from certain high
+points, called fire-lookouts, or both. He keeps the trails and fire
+lines clear and the telephone in working order, and sees to it that the
+fire fighting tools, such as spades, axes, and rakes, are in good
+condition and ready for service. If he is wise, he establishes such
+relations with the people who live in his neighborhood that they become
+his volunteer assistants in watching for forest fires, in taking
+precautions against them, and in notifying him of them when they do take
+place. [Illustration: STRINGING A FOREST TELEPHONE LINE]
+
+Fighting a forest fire in some respects is like fighting a fire in a
+city. In both, the first and most necessary thing is to get men and
+apparatus to the site of the fire at the first practicable moment. For
+this purpose, fire-engines and men are always ready in the city, while
+in the forest the telephones, trails, and bridges must be kept in
+condition, and the forest officers must be ready to move instantly day
+or night.
+
+It is far better to prevent a forest fire from starting than to have to
+put it out after it has started; but in spite of all the care that can
+be exercised with the means at hand, many fires start. Each year the
+Forest Service men extinguish not less than three thousand fires, nearly
+all of them while they are still small. At times, however, when the
+woods are very dry and the wind blows hard, in spite of all that can be
+done, a fire will grow large enough to be dangerous not only to the
+forest but to human life. Thus in the summer of 1910, the driest ever
+known in certain parts of the West, high winds drove the forest fires
+clear beyond the control of the fire fighters, many of whom were
+compelled to fight for their own lives.
+
+The worst of these fires were in Montana and Idaho, where the whole
+power of the Forest Service was used against them. The Forest Rangers,
+under the orders of their Supervisors, immediately organized or took
+charge of small companies of fire fighters, and began the work of
+getting them under control. But so fierce was the wind and so terrible
+the heat of the fires and the speed with which they moved, that in many
+places it became a question of saving the lives of the fire fighters
+rather than of putting out the fires. As a matter of fact, nearly a
+hundred of the men temporarily employed to help the Government fire
+fighters lost their lives, and many more would have died but for the
+courage, resource, and knowledge of the woods of the Forest Rangers.
+
+Take, for example, the case of Ranger Edward C. Pulaski, of the Coeur
+d'Alene National Forest, stationed at Wallace, Idaho. Pulaski had charge
+of forty Italians and Poles. He had been at work with them for many
+hours, when the flames grew to be so threatening that it became a
+question of whether he could save his men. The fire was travelling
+faster than the men could make their way through the dense forest, and
+the only hope was to find some place into which the fire could not come.
+Accordingly Pulaski guided his party at a run through the blinding smoke
+to an abandoned mine he knew of in the neighborhood. When they reached
+it, he sent the men into the workings ahead of him, hung a wet blanket
+across the mouth of the tunnel, and himself stood there on guard. The
+fierce heat, the stifling air, and their deadly fear drove some of the
+foreigners temporarily insane, and a number of them tried to break out.
+With drawn revolver Pulaski held them back. One man did get by him and
+was burned to death. Many fainted in the tunnel. The Ranger himself,
+more exposed than any of his men, was terribly burned. He stood at his
+post, however, for five hours, until the fire had passed, and brought
+his party through without losing a single man except that one who got
+out of the tunnel, although his own injuries were so severe that he was
+in the hospital for two months as a result of them. The record of the
+Forest Service in these terrible fires is one of which every Forester
+may well be proud.
+
+The Ranger must protect his District, not only against fire but against
+the theft of timber and the incessant efforts of land grabbers to steal
+Government lands. To prevent the theft of timber is usually not
+difficult, but it is far harder to prevent fake homesteaders, fraudulent
+mining men, and other dishonest claimants from seizing upon land to
+which they have no right, and so preventing honest men from using these
+claims to make a living.
+
+In the past, this problem has presented the most serious difficulties,
+and still occasionally does so. There is no louder shouter for "justice"
+than a balked habitual land thief with political influence behind him.
+To illustrate the kind of attack upon the Forest Service to which
+fraudulent land claims have constantly given rise, I may cite the
+statements made during one of the annual attempts in the Senate to break
+down the Service. One of the Senators asserted that in his State the
+Forest Service was overbearing and tyrannical, and that in a particular
+case it had driven out of his home a citizen known to the Senator, and
+had left him and his family to wander houseless upon the hillside, and
+that for no good reason whatsoever.
+
+This statement, if it had been true, would at once have destroyed the
+standing of the Service in the minds of many of its friends, and would
+have led to immediate defeat in the fight then going on. Fortunately,
+the records of the Service were so complete, and the knowledge of field
+conditions on the part of the men in Washington was so thorough, that
+the mere mention of the general locality of the supposed outrage by the
+Senator made it easy to identify the individual case. The man in
+question, instead of being an honest settler with a wife and family, was
+the keeper of a disreputable saloon and dance hall, a well-known
+law-breaker whom the local authorities had tried time and again to
+dispossess and drive away. But by means of his fraudulent claim the man
+had always defeated the local officers. When, however, the officers of
+the Forest Service took the case in hand, the situation changed and
+things moved quickly. The disreputable saloon was promptly removed from
+the fraudulent land claim by means of which the keeper of it had held
+on, and this thoroughly undesirable citizen either went out of business
+or removed his abominable trade to some locality outside the National
+Forest.
+
+The actual facts were fully brought out in the debate next day, remained
+uncontradicted, and saved the fight for the Forest Service. The whole
+incident may be found at length in the Congressional Record.
+
+The Forest Ranger is charged with overseeing and regulating the free use
+of timber by settlers and others who live in or near the National
+Forests. Last year (1912) the Forest Service gave away without charge
+more than $196,000 worth of saw timber, house logs, fencing, fuel, and
+other material to men and women who needed it for their own use. Usually
+it is the Ranger's work to issue the permits for this free use, and to
+designate the timber that may be cut. For this purpose, he must be well
+acquainted with the kinds and the uses of the trees in his District, and
+it is most important that he should know something of how their
+reproduction can best be secured, in order that the free use may be
+permitted without injury to the future welfare of the forest.
+
+A Ranger oversees the use of his District for the grazing of cattle,
+sheep, and other domestic animals. He must acquaint himself with the
+brands and marks of the various owners, and should be well posted in the
+essentials of the business of raising cattle, sheep, and horses. The
+allotment of grazing areas is one of the most difficult problems to
+adjust, because the demand is almost always for much more range than is
+available and the division of what range there is among the local owners
+of stock often presents serious difficulties, in which the Ranger's
+local knowledge and advice is constantly sought by his superior officer.
+
+There is a wise law, passed at the request of the Forest Service, under
+which land in the National Forests which is shown to be agricultural may
+be entered under the homestead law, and used for the making of homes.
+This law is peculiarly hard to carry out because the ceaseless efforts
+of land grabbers to misuse it demand great vigilance on the part of the
+Forest Officers. In many cases it is the Ranger who makes the report
+upon which the decision as to the agricultural or non-agricultural
+character of the land is based, although in other cases the
+examinations to determine whether the land is really agricultural in
+character are made by Examiners especially trained for this duty.
+Serious controversies into which politics enter are often caused by the
+efforts of speculators and others, under pretext of this law, to get
+possession of lands chiefly valuable for their timber.
+
+The building and maintenance of trails, telephone lines, roads, bridges,
+and fences in his District is under the charge of the Ranger, and in
+many cases Rangers and Forest Guards are appointed by the State as
+Wardens to see to it that the game and fish laws are properly enforced.
+
+Next to the protection of his District from fire, the most important
+duty of the Ranger has to do with the sale of timber and the marking of
+the individual trees which are to be cut. The reproduction of the forest
+depends directly on what trees are kept for seed, or on how the
+existing young growth is protected and preserved in felling and swamping
+the trees which have been marked for cutting, and in skidding the logs.
+The disposal of the slash must be looked after, for it has much to do
+with forest reproduction, and with promoting safety from fire. Then, the
+scaling of the logs determines the amount of the payment the Government
+receives for its timber, and there are often regulations governing the
+transportation of the scaled logs whose enforcement is of great
+consequence to the future forest.
+
+[Illustration: FOREST RANGERS SCALING TIMBER]
+
+Nearly all of these duties the Ranger may perform in certain cases
+without supervision, if his judgment and training are sufficient, but
+the marking especially is often done under the eye or in accordance with
+the directions of the technical Forester, whose duty it is to see that
+the future of the forest is protected by enforcing the conditions of
+sale.
+
+These are but a part of the duties of the Ranger, for he is concerned
+with all the uses which his District may serve. The streams, for
+example, may be important for city water supply, irrigation, or for
+waterpower, and their use for these purposes must be under his eye.
+Hotels and saw-mills on sites leased from the Government may dot his
+District here and there. The land within National Forests may be put to
+a thousand other uses, from a bee ranch on the Cleveland Forest in
+southern California to a whaling station on the Tongass Forest in
+Alaska, all of which means work for him.
+
+The result of all this is that the Ranger comes in contact with city
+dwellers, irrigators, cattlemen, sheepmen, and horsemen, ranchers,
+storekeepers, hotel men, hunters, miners, and lumbermen, and above all
+with the settlers who live in or near his District. With all these it is
+his duty to keep on good terms, for well he knows that one man at
+certain times can set more fires than a regiment can extinguish, and
+that the best protection for his District comes from the friendly
+interest of the men who live in it or near it.
+
+A Forest Guard is in effect an assistant to the Ranger, and may be
+called upon to carry out most of the duties which fall upon a Ranger.
+
+The foregoing short statement will make it clear that preliminary
+experience as a Ranger may be of the utmost value to the man who
+proposes later on to perform in the Government Service the duties of a
+trained Forester. It is becoming more and more common, and fortunately
+so, for graduates of forest schools to begin their work in the United
+States Forest Service as Rangers or Forest Guards. The man who has done
+well a Ranger's work, like the graduate of an engineering school who,
+after graduation, has entered a machine shop as a hand, has acquired a
+body of practical information and experience which will be invaluable to
+him in the later practice of his profession, and which is far beyond the
+reach of any man who has not been trained in the actual execution of
+this work on the ground and in actual daily contact with the
+multifarious uses and users of the forest.
+
+
+
+
+THE FOREST SUPERVISOR
+
+[Illustration: WESTERN YELLOW PINE SEED COLLECTED BY THE FOREST SERVICE
+FOR PLANTING UP DENUDED LANDS]
+
+The Supervisor is the general manager of a National Forest. The
+responsibility for the protection, care, and use of it falls upon him,
+under the direction of the District Forester. The Supervisor is
+responsible for making the use of his forest as valuable and as
+convenient as possible for the people in and around the area of which he
+has charge. He deals with the organizations of forest users, such as
+local stock associations, and issues permits for grazing live stock in
+the forest. Permits for cutting small amounts of timber are granted by
+him, and he advertises in the papers the sale of larger amounts and
+receives bids from prospective purchasers; keeps the accounts of his
+forest; and makes regular reports on a variety of important subjects,
+such as the personnel of his forest force, the permanent improvements
+made or to be made, the permits issued for regular and special uses of
+the forest and for free use of timber and forage, the number and kinds
+of predatory animals killed, the amount of forest planting accomplished,
+and the expense and losses from forest fires. He has general oversight
+of the roads, trails, and other improvements on his forest; and prepares
+plans for the extension of them. In particular, he directs, controls,
+and inspects the work of the Ranger and Guards, and in general, he
+attends to the thousand and one matters which go to adjusting the use of
+the forest to the needs of the men who use it, and on which depends
+whether the forest is well or badly thought of among the people whose
+cooperation or opposition have so much to do with making its management
+successful or otherwise.
+
+The Supervisor spends about half his time in the office and half in the
+field, inspecting the work of his men and consulting with them, meeting
+local residents or associations of local residents who have propositions
+to submit for improving the service of the forest to them, or for
+correcting mistakes, or who wish to lay before the Supervisor some one
+of the numberless matters in which the forest affects their welfare. The
+usefulness of the Supervisor depends as much upon his good judgment, his
+ability to meet men and do business with them, and his knowledge of
+local needs and local affairs, as it does upon his knowledge of the
+forest itself. As in the case of every superior officer, his attitude
+toward his work, his energy, his good sense, and his good will are or
+should be reflected in the men under him, so that his position is one of
+the greatest importance in determining the success or failure of each
+National Forest, and hence of the Forest Service as a whole. More and
+more of the trained Foresters in the Service are seeking and securing
+appointments as Forest Supervisors because of the interest and
+satisfaction they find in the work. Such men handle both the
+professional and business sides of forest management. Many of their
+duties, therefore, are described in the succeeding chapter.
+
+The position of Supervisor is in many respects the most desirable a
+trained Forester can occupy in the Forest Service, and the most
+responsible of the field positions.
+
+
+
+
+THE TRAINED FORESTER
+
+
+To each forest where timber cutting has become important there are
+assigned one or more Forest Assistants or Forest Examiners. These are
+professionally trained Foresters. They are subordinate upon each forest
+to the Supervisor as manager, but it is their work which has most to do
+with deciding whether the Forest Service in general is to be successful
+or is to fail in the great task of preserving the forest by wise use.
+
+The Forest Assistant secures his position with the Service by passing an
+examination devised to test his technical knowledge and his ability.
+After he has served two years as Forest Assistant the quality and
+quantity of his work will have determined his fitness to continue in
+the employ of the Government. If he is unfit he may be dropped, for
+there are many young and ambitious men ready to step into his place. If
+he makes good he is promoted to the grade of Forest Examiner and is put
+definitely in charge of certain lines of professional work; always, of
+course, under the direction of the Supervisor, of whom he becomes the
+adviser on all problems involving technical forestry.
+
+The most important tasks of the trained Forester on a National Forest
+are the preparation of working plans for the use of the forest by
+methods which will protect and perpetuate it as well, and the carrying
+out of the plans when made. This is forestry in the technical sense of
+the word. It involves a thorough study of the kinds of timber, their
+amount and location, their rate of growth, their value, the ease or
+difficulty of their reproduction, and the methods by which the timber
+can be cut at a profit and at the same time the reproduction of the
+forest can be safely secured. A working plan usually includes a
+considerable number of maps, which often have to be drawn in the first
+place from actual surveys on the ground by the Forest Examiner. These
+maps contain the information secured by working-plan studies, and are of
+the first necessity for the wise and skilful handling of the forest.
+They often constitute, also, most important documents in the history of
+its condition and use.
+
+On many of the National Forests the need for immediate use of the timber
+is so urgent and so just that there is no time to prepare elaborate
+working plans. Timber sales must be made, and made at once; but they
+must be made, nevertheless, in a way that will fully protect the future
+welfare of the forest. Whether working plans can be prepared or not, a
+most important duty of the technical Forester is to work out the
+conditions under which a given body of timber can be cut with safety to
+the forest, especially with safety to its reproduction and future
+growth. The principal study for a timber sale will usually include an
+examination of the general features and condition of the forest, and the
+determination of the diameter down to which it is advisable to cut the
+standing trees, a diameter which must be fixed at such a size as will
+protect the forest and make the lumbering pay. It will include also an
+investigation, more or less thorough and complete, as the conditions
+warrant, of the silvical habits of one or more of the species of trees
+in that forest. The areas which form natural units for the logging and
+transportation of the timber must be worked out and laid off, and
+careful estimates, or measurements, of the amount of standing timber and
+of its value on the stump must be made, as well as of the cost of
+moving it to the mill or to the railroad.
+
+The Forest Examiner must also consider, in many cases, the building of
+logging roads or railroads, timber slides, etc., and must make a careful
+study of the material into which the trees to be cut can best be worked
+up, and of the value of such material in the market. Most of all,
+however, he must study, think over, and decide what he will recommend as
+to the conditions which are to govern the logging conditions by which
+the protection of the forest is to be insured. These conditions, fixed
+by his superiors upon the report of the Forest Examiner, determine
+whether an individual timber sale is forestry or forest destruction.
+This is the central question in the administration of the National
+Forests from the national point of view.
+
+The principal objects of the conditions laid down for a timber sale are
+always the reproduction of the forest and its safety against fire.
+Natural reproduction from self-sown seed is almost invariably the result
+desired; and so the question of the seed trees to be left, and how they
+are to be located or spaced, is fundamental, unless there is ample young
+growth already on the ground. In the latter case this young growth must
+not be smashed or bent by throwing the older trees on top of it, or
+against it, and the young saplings bent down by the felled tops must be
+promptly released.
+
+In order to avoid danger to the young growth already present or to be
+secured, as well as to protect the older trees from fires, the slash
+produced in lumbering, the tops lopped from the trees up to and beyond
+the highest point to which the lumbermen are required to take the logs,
+must be satisfactorily disposed of--either by scattering it thinly over
+the ground, by piling and burning, or often by piling alone.
+
+These and many other conditions of sale must be studied out in a form
+adapted to each particular case, and must be discussed with the men who
+propose to buy, who often have wise and practical suggestions to make.
+
+Similar questions on a less important scale present themselves and must
+be answered in the matter of small timber sales, and of timber given
+without charge under free-use permits to settlers and others.
+
+When the terms of a contract of sale have been worked out and accepted
+and the timber has been sold, then the Forest Assistant has charge of
+the extremely interesting task of marking the trees that are to be cut,
+in accordance with these terms. Usually this is done by marking all the
+trees which are to be felled, but sometimes by marking only the trees
+which are to remain.
+
+The marking is usually done by blazing each tree and stamping the
+letters "U. S." upon the blaze with a Government marking axe or hatchet.
+It must be done in such a way that the loggers will have no excuse
+either for cutting an unmarked tree or leaving a marked tree uncut, or
+_vice versa_, as the case may be. The marking may be carried out by the
+Rangers and Forest Guards under supervision of the Forest Assistant, or
+in difficult situations he may mark or direct the marking of each tree
+himself. Marking is fascinating work.
+
+Later, while the logging is under way, the Forest Examiner will often
+inspect it to see that the terms of the sale are complied with, that the
+trees cut are thrown in places where they will not unduly damage either
+young growth or the larger trees which are to remain, and that the other
+conditions laid down for the logging in the contract of sale are
+observed. The scaling of the logs to determine the amount of payment to
+the Government will many times be under his supervision, although in the
+larger sales this work, as well as the routine inspection of the
+logging, is usually carried out by a special body of expert lumbermen,
+who often bring to it a much wider knowledge of the woods than the men
+in actual charge of the lumbering.
+
+In nearly every National Forest there are areas upon which the trees
+have been destroyed by fire. Many of these are so large or so remote
+from seed-bearing trees that natural reproduction will not suffice to
+replace the forest. In such localities planting is needed, and for that
+purpose the Forest Examiner must establish and conduct a forest nursery.
+The decision on the kind of trees to plant and on the methods of raising
+and planting them, the collection of the seed, the care and
+transplanting of the young trees until they are set out on the site of
+the future forest, forms a task of absorbing interest. Such work often
+requires a high degree of technical skill. It is likely to occupy a
+larger and larger share of the time and attention of the trained men of
+the Forest Service.
+
+[Illustration: A FOREST EXAMINER RUNNING A COMPASS LINE]
+
+The Forest Assistant's or Examiner's knowledge of surveying makes it
+natural for him to take an important part in the laying out of new roads
+and trails in the forest, or in correcting the lines of old ones, and
+there is little work more immediately useful. The forest can be
+safeguarded effectively just in proportion to the ease with which all
+parts of it can be reached. Forest protection may be less technically
+interesting than other parts of the Forester's work, but nothing that he
+does is more important or pays larger dividends in future results.
+
+In addition to his studies of the habits and reproduction of the
+different trees for working plans or timber sales, or simply to increase
+his knowledge of the forest, the Forest Examiner is often called upon to
+lay out sample plots for ascertaining the exact relation of each species
+to light, heat, and moisture, or for studying its rate of growth. He may
+find it necessary to determine the effect of the grazing of cattle or
+sheep on young growth of various species and of various ages, or to
+ascertain their relative resistance to fire. In general, what time he
+can spare from more pressing duties is very fully occupied with adding
+to his silvical knowledge by observation, with studies of injurious
+insects or fungi, of the reasons for the increase or decrease of
+valuable or worthless species of trees in the forest, the innumerable
+secondary effects of forest fires, the causes of the local distribution
+of trees, or with some other of the thousand questions which give a
+never-failing interest to work in the woods.
+
+The protection of a valuable kind of tree often depends upon the ability
+to find a use for, and therefore to remove, a less-valuable species
+which is crowding it out, for as yet the American Forester can do very
+little cutting or thinning that does not pay. Just so, the protection of
+a given tract against fire may depend upon the ability to use, and
+therefore to remove, a part or the whole of the dead and down timber
+which now makes it a fire trap. For such reasons as these, the uses of
+wood and the markets for its disposal form exceedingly important
+branches of study for the Forest Examiner, who will usually find that
+his duties require him to be thoroughly familiar with them.
+
+It is more and more common to find each Forest Officer--Ranger, Forest
+Examiner, or Supervisor--combining in himself the qualities and the
+knowledge required to fill any or all of the other positions. The
+professionally trained man who develops marked executive ability is
+likely to become a Supervisor, just as a Ranger, with the necessary
+training and experience, who may wish to devote himself to silvical
+investigations may be transferred to that work. The point is that each
+man has individual opportunity to establish and occupy the place for
+which he is best fitted.
+
+The success of the technical Forester, like that of the Ranger, and
+indeed of nearly every Government Forest Officer, in whatever position
+or line of work, will very frequently depend on his good judgment and
+practical sense, the chief ingredient of which will always be his
+knowledge of local needs and conditions, and his sympathetic
+understanding of the local point of view. This does not mean that the
+local point of view is always to control. On the contrary, the Forest
+Officer must often decide against it in the interest of the welfare of
+the larger public. But the desires and demands of the users of the
+forest should always be given the fullest hearing and the most careful
+consideration. To this rule there is no exception whatsoever.
+
+
+
+
+PERSONAL EQUIPMENT
+
+
+Forestry differs from most professions in this, that it requires as much
+vigor of body as it does vigor of mind. The sort of man to which it
+appeals, and which it seeks, is the man with high powers of observation,
+who does not shrink from responsibility, and whose mental vigor is
+balanced by physical strength and hardiness. The man who takes up
+forestry should be little interested in his own personal comfort, and
+should have and conserve endurance enough to stand severe physical work
+accompanied by mental labor equally exhausting.
+
+Foresters are still few in numbers, and the point of view which they
+represent, while it is making immense strides in public acceptance, is
+still far from general application. Therefore, Foresters are still
+missionaries in a very real sense, and since they are so few, it is of
+the utmost importance that they should stand closely together.
+Differences of opinion there must always be in all professions, but
+there is no other profession in which it is more important to keep these
+differences from working out into animosities or separations of any
+kind. We are fortunate above all in this, that American Foresters are
+united as probably the members of no other profession. This _esprit de
+corps_ has given them their greatest power of achievement, and any man
+who proposes to enter the profession should do so with this fact clearly
+in mind.
+
+The high standard which the profession of forestry, new in the United
+States, has already reached, its great power for usefulness to the
+Nation, now and hereafter, and the large responsibilities which fall so
+quickly on the men who are trained to accept it--all these things give
+to the profession a position and dignity which it should be the first
+care of every man who enters it to maintain or increase.
+
+To stand well at graduation is or ought to be far less the object of a
+Forester's training than to stand well ten or twenty years after
+graduation. It is of the first importance that the training should be
+thorough and complete.
+
+A friend of mine, John Muir, says that the best advice he can give young
+men is: "Take time to get rich." His idea of getting rich is to fill
+his mind and spirit full with observations of the nature he so deeply
+loves and so well understands; so that in his mind it is not money which
+makes riches, but life in the open and the seeing eye.
+
+Next to those basic traits of personal character, without which no man
+is worth his salt, the Forester's most important quality is the power of
+observation, the power to note and understand, or seek to understand,
+what he sees in the forest. It is just as essential a part of the
+Forester's equipment to be able to see what is wrong with a piece of
+forest, and what is required for its improvement, as it is necessary for
+a physician to be able to diagnose a disease and to prescribe the
+remedy.
+
+Silvics, which may be said to be the knowledge of how trees behave in
+health and disease toward each other, and toward light, heat, moisture,
+and the soil, is the foundation of forestry and the Forester's first
+task is to bring himself to a high point of efficiency in observing and
+interpreting these facts of the forest, and to keep himself there. It
+should be as hard work to walk through the forest, and see what is there
+to be seen, as to wrestle with the most difficult problem of
+mathematics. No man can be a good Forester without that quality of
+observation and understanding which the French call "the forester's
+eye." It is not the only quality required for success in forestry, but
+it is unquestionably the first.
+
+Perhaps the second among the qualities necessary for the Forester is
+common sense, which most often simply means a sympathetic understanding
+of the circumstances among which a man finds himself. The American
+Forester must know the United States and understand its people. Nothing
+which affects the welfare of his country should be indifferent to him.
+Forestry is a form of practical statesmanship which touches the national
+life at so many points that no Forester can safely allow himself to
+remain ignorant of the needs and purposes of his fellow citizens, or to
+be out of touch with the current questions of the day. The best citizen
+makes the best Forester, and no man can make a good Forester unless he
+is a good citizen also.
+
+The Forester can not succeed unless he understands the problems and
+point of view of his country, and that is the reason why Foresters from
+other lands were not brought into the United States in the early stages
+of the forest movement. At that time practically no American Foresters
+had yet been trained, and the great need of the situation was for men to
+do the immediately pressing work. Foresters from Germany, France,
+Switzerland, and other countries could have been obtained in abundant
+numbers and at reasonable salaries. They were not invited to come
+because, however well trained in technical forestry, they could not have
+understood the habits of thought of our people. Therefore, in too many
+cases, they would have failed to establish the kind of practical
+understanding which a Forester must have with the men who use, or work
+in, his forest, if he is to succeed. It was wiser to wait until
+Americans could be trained, for the practising Forester must handle men
+as well as trees.
+
+One of the most difficult things to do in any profession which involves
+drudgery (and I take it that no profession which does not involve
+drudgery is worth the attention of a man) is to look beyond the daily
+routine to the things which that routine is intended to assist in
+accomplishing. This is peculiarly true of forestry, in which, perhaps
+more than in any other profession, the long-distance, far-sighted
+attitude of mind is essential to success. The trees a Forester plants he
+himself will seldom live to harvest. Much of his thought about his
+forest must be in terms of centuries. The great object for which he is
+striving of necessity can not be fully accomplished during his lifetime.
+He must, therefore, accustom himself to look ahead, and to reap his
+personal satisfaction from the planned and orderly development of a
+scheme the perfect fruit of which he can never hope to see.
+
+This is one of the strongest reasons why the Forester, whether in public
+or private employment, must always look upon himself as a public
+servant. It is of the first importance that he should accustom himself
+to think of the results of his work as affecting, not primarily himself,
+but others, always including the general public. It is essential for a
+Forester to form the habit of looking far ahead, out of which grows a
+sound perspective and persistence in body and mind.
+
+One of the greatest football players of our time makes the distinction
+between a player who is "quick" and a player who is "soon." In his
+description, the "quick" player is the man who waits until the last
+moment and then moves with nervous and desperate haste in the little
+time he has left. The man who is "soon," however, almost invariably
+arrives ahead of the man who is "quick," because he has thought out in
+advance exactly where he is going and how to get there, and when the
+moment comes he does not delay his start, makes no false motions, and
+thereby makes and keeps himself efficient. Forestry is preeminently a
+profession for the "soon" man, for it is the steady preparation long in
+advance, the well-thoughtout plan well stuck to, which in forestry
+brings success.
+
+In my experience, men differ comparatively little in mere ability, in
+the quality of the mental machine, through which the spirit works. Nine
+times out of ten, it is not ability which brings success, but
+persistence and enthusiasm, which are usually, but not always, the same
+as vision and will. We all have ability enough to do the things which
+lie before us, but the man with the will to keep everlastingly at it,
+and the vision to realize the meaning and value of the results for which
+he is striving, is the man who wins in nearly every case. This is true
+in all human affairs, but it is peculiarly true of the Forester and his
+task, the end of which lies so far ahead.
+
+In a class below me at Phillips-Exeter Academy was a boy who had just
+entered the school. His great ambition was to play football, and he
+came to the practise day after day. His abilities, however, were
+apparently not on the same plane with his ambitions, and his work was so
+ridiculously poor that he became the laughing stock of the whole school.
+That, however, troubled him not at all. What held his mind was football.
+Undiscouraged and undismayed, he kept on playing football until in his
+last year he became captain of the Exeter football team.
+
+Every man of experience has known many similar cases. It is clear, I
+think, that the master qualities in achievement are neither luck nor
+mere ability, but rather enthusiasm and persistence, or vision and will.
+
+In a peculiar sense the Forester depends upon public opinion and public
+support for the means of carrying on his work, and for its final
+success. But the attention which the public gives or can give to any
+particular subject varies, and of necessity must vary, from time to
+time. Under these circumstances, it is inevitable that the Forester must
+meet discouragements, checks, and delays, as well as periods of smooth
+sailing. He should expect them, and should be prepared to discount them
+when they come. When they do come, I know of no better way of reducing
+their bad effects than for a man to make allowance for his own state of
+mind. He who can stand off and look at himself impartially, realizing
+that he will not feel to-morrow as he feels to-day, has a powerful
+weapon against the temporary discouragements which are necessarily met
+in any work that is really worth while. Progress is always in spirals,
+and there is always a good time coming. There is nothing so fatal to
+good work as that flabby spirit under which some weak men try to hide
+their inefficiency--the spirit of "What's the use?"
+
+It has been the experience of every Forester, as he goes about the
+country, to be told that a certain mountain is impassable, that a
+certain trail can not be travelled, that a certain stream can not be
+crossed, and to find that mountain, trail, and stream can all be passed
+with little serious difficulty by a man who is willing to try. Most
+things said to be impossible are so only in the mind of the man whose
+timidity or inertness keeps him from making the attempt. The whole story
+of the establishment and growth of the United States Forest Service is a
+story of the doing of things which the men who did them were warned in
+advance would be impossible. Usually the thing which "can't be done" is
+well worth trying.
+
+Perhaps I ought to add that I am not urging the young Forester to
+disregard local public opinion without the best of reasons, or to rush
+his horse blindly into the ford of a swollen stream. Good sense is the
+first condition of success. I am merely saying that in ninety-nine cases
+out of a hundred, when a thing ought to be done it can be done, if the
+effort is made with that idea in mind.
+
+All this is but one way of saying that the Forester should be his own
+severest taskmaster. The Forester must keep himself up to his own work.
+In no other profession, to my knowledge, is a man thrown so completely
+on his own responsibility. The Forester often leads an isolated life for
+weeks or months at a time, seeing the men under whom he works only at
+distant intervals. Because he is so much his own master, the
+responsibility which rests upon him is peculiarly his own, and must be
+met out of the resources within himself.
+
+The training of a Forester should lead him to be practical in the right
+sense of that word, which emphatically is not the sense of abandoning
+standards of work or conduct in order to get immediate results. The
+"practical" men with whom the Forester must do his work--lumbermen,
+cattlemen, sheepmen, settlers, forest users of all kinds--are often by
+very much his superiors in usable knowledge of the details of their
+work. Their opinions are entitled to the most complete hearing and
+respect. There is no other class of men from whose advice the Forester
+can so greatly profit if he chooses to do so. He is superior to them, if
+at all, only in his technical knowledge, and in the broader point of
+view he has derived from his professional training. It is of the first
+importance that the young Forester should know these men, should learn
+to like and respect them, and that he should get all the help he can
+from their knowledge and practical experience. The willingness to use
+the information and assistance which such men were ready to give has
+more than once meant the difference between failure and success.
+
+The young Forester, like other young men, is likely to be impatient. I
+do not blame him for it. Rightly directed, his impatience may become one
+of his best assets. But it will do no harm to remember, also, that the
+human race has reached its present degree of civilization and
+advancement only step by step, and that it seems likely to proceed in
+very much the same way hereafter. As a general rule, results slowly and
+painfully accomplished are lasting. The results to be achieved in
+forestry must be lasting if they are to be valuable.
+
+In general, the men with whom the Forester deals can adopt, and in many
+cases, ought to adopt, a new point of view but slowly. To fall in love
+at first sight with theories or policies is as rare as the same
+experience is between persons. As a rule, an intellectual conviction,
+however well founded, must be followed by a period of incubation and
+growth before it can blossom into a definite principle of action, before
+the man who holds it is ready to work or fight in order to carry it out.
+There is a rate in the adoption of new ideas beyond which only the most
+unusual circumstances will induce men's minds to move. Forestry has gone
+ahead in the United States faster than it ever did in any other land. If
+it proceeds a little less rapidly, now that so much of the field has
+been won, there will be no reason for discouragement in that.
+
+
+AS A SUBORDINATE OFFICER
+
+Necessarily the young Forester will begin as a subordinate. How soon he
+will come to give orders of his own will depend on how well he executes
+the orders of his superior. In particular, it will depend on whether he
+requires to be coddled in doing his work, or whether he is willing and
+able to stand on his own feet. The man for whom every employer of men is
+searching, everywhere and always, is the man who will accept the
+responsibility for the work he has to do--who will not lean at every
+point upon his superior for additional instructions, advice, or
+encouragement.
+
+There is no more valuable subordinate than the man to whom you can give
+a piece of work and then forget about it, in the confident expectation
+that the next time it is brought to your attention it will come in the
+form of a report that the thing has been done. When this master quality
+is joined to executive power, loyalty, and common sense, the result is a
+man whom you can trust. On the other hand, there is no greater nuisance
+to a man heavily burdened with the direction of affairs than the
+weak-backed assistant who is continually trying to get his chief to do
+his work for him, on the feeble plea that he thought the chief would
+like to decide this or that himself. The man to whom an executive is
+most grateful, the man whom he will work hardest and value most, is the
+man who accepts responsibility willingly, and is not continually under
+his feet.
+
+
+AS A SUPERIOR OFFICER
+
+The principles of effective administrative work have never, so far as I
+know, been adequately classified and defined. When they come to be
+stated one of the most important will be found to be the exact
+assignment of responsibility, so that whatever goes wrong the
+administrative head will know clearly and at once upon whom the
+responsibility falls. This is one of the reasons why, as a rule, boards
+and commissions are far less effective in getting things done than
+single men with clear-cut authority and equally clear-cut
+responsibility. Another principle, so well known that it has almost
+become a proverb, is to delegate everything you can, to do nothing that
+you can get someone else to do for you. But the wisdom of letting a good
+man alone is less commonly understood. It is sometimes as important for
+the superior officer not to worry his subordinate with useless orders as
+it is for the subordinate not to harass his superior with useless
+questions.
+
+Let a good man alone. Give him his head. Nothing will hold him so
+rigidly to his work as the feeling that he is trusted. Lead your men in
+their work, and above all make of your organization not a monarchy,
+limited or unlimited, but a democracy, in which the responsibility of
+each man for a particular piece of work shall not only be defined but
+recognized, in which the credit for each man's work, so far as possible,
+shall be attached to his own name, in which the opinions and advice of
+your subordinates are often sought before decisions are made; in a word,
+a democracy in which each man feels a personal responsibility for the
+success of the whole enterprise.
+
+The young Forester may be years removed from the chance to apply these
+principles in practice, but since no superior officer can put them into
+fruitful effect without the cooperation of his subordinates, it is well
+that they should be known at both ends of the line.
+
+
+A PUBLIC SERVANT
+
+I repeat that whether a Forester is engaged in private work or in public
+work, whether he is employed by a lumberman, an association of
+lumbermen, a fishing and shooting club, the owner of a great estate, or
+whether he is an officer of a State or of the Nation, by virtue of his
+profession he is a public servant. Because he deals with the forest, he
+has his hand upon the future welfare of his country. His point of view
+is that which must control its future welfare. He represents the planned
+and orderly development of its resources. He is the representative also
+of the forest school from which he graduates, and of his profession.
+Upon the standards which he helps to establish and maintain, the welfare
+of these, too, directly depends.
+
+
+
+
+STATE FOREST WORK
+
+
+The work of the States in forestry is still in the pioneer stage, and
+the work of a State Forester must still bear largely on the creation of
+a right public sentiment in forest matters. In State forestry the need
+for agitation has by no means passed. It is often the duty of the State
+Forester to prepare or endeavor to secure the passage of good State
+forest laws, or to interpose against the enactment of bad laws. In
+particular, much of his time is likely to be given to legislation upon
+the subjects of forest fires and forest taxation. Upon the latter there
+is as yet no sound and effective public opinion in many parts of the
+United States, and legislatures and people still do not understand how
+powerful bad methods of forest taxation have been and still are in
+forcing the destructive cutting of timber by making it impossible to
+wait for the better methods of lumbering which accompany a better
+market. I have known the taxes on standing timber to equal six per cent.
+a year on the reasonable value of the stumpage.
+
+Thirteen States have State Forests with a total area altogether of
+3,400,000 acres. Of these New York has the largest area. Its State
+Forests cover 1,645,000 acres, partly in the Adirondacks and partly in
+the Catskills; Pennsylvania comes next with nine hundred and eighty-four
+thousand acres; and Wisconsin third, with about four hundred thousand
+acres.
+
+Twenty-nine States make appropriations for forest work. Excluding
+special appropriations for courses in forestry at universities,
+colleges, and schools, the total amount spent for this purpose is about
+$1,340,000. Pennsylvania has the largest appropriation,--three hundred
+and twenty-eight thousand dollars, in addition to which a special
+appropriation of two hundred and seventy-five thousand dollars has been
+devoted to checking the chestnut blight. Minnesota comes second with two
+hundred and thirty-three thousand dollars; New York third with about
+one hundred and sixty-five thousand dollars, and Wisconsin next with
+ninety-five thousand dollars.
+
+Thirty-three States have State forest officers, of whom fifteen are
+State Foresters by title, while the majority of the remainder perform
+duties of a very similar nature.
+
+Eleven States are receiving assistance from the Federal Government under
+the Weeks law, which authorizes cooperation for fire protection,
+provided the State will furnish a sum equal to that allotted to it from
+the National fund, with a limit of ten thousand dollars to a single
+State.
+
+For purposes of reforestation, ten States maintain forest nurseries.
+During the year 1912 they produced in round numbers twenty million young
+trees, of which fourteen million were distributed to the citizens of
+these ten States.
+
+In some States the waterpower question falls within the sphere of the
+State Forester, as well as other similar Conservation matters, while it
+has usually been made his duty to assist private timberland owners in
+the handling of their holdings, whether these be the larger holdings of
+lumber companies or the farmers' woodlots. In many States the State
+Forester is made responsible for the enforcement of the State forest
+fire laws, and for the control and management of a body of State fire
+wardens, who may or may not be permanently employed in that work. The
+enforcement of laws which exempt timberlands or lands planted to timber
+from taxation, or limit the taxation upon them, are also usually under
+his supervision.
+
+The work of forestry in the various States being on the whole much less
+advanced than it is in the Nation, the State Forester must still occupy
+himself largely with those preliminary phases of the work of forestry
+through which the National Forest Service has already passed. Much
+progress, however, is being made, and we may fairly count not only that
+State forest organizations will ultimately exist in every State, but
+that the State Foresters will exert a steadily increasing influence on
+forest perpetuation in the United States.
+
+
+
+
+THE FOREST SERVICE IN WASHINGTON
+
+
+A description of what a Forester has to do which did not include the
+work of the Government Foresters at the National Capital would
+necessarily be incomplete. The following outline may, therefore, help to
+round out the picture.
+
+The Washington headquarters of the Forest Service are directly in charge
+of the Forester and his immediate assistants. The Forester has general
+supervision of the whole Service. It is he who, with the approval of the
+Secretary of Agriculture, determines the general policy which is to
+govern the Service in the very various and numerous matters with which
+it has to deal. He keeps his hand upon the whole machinery of the
+Service, holds it up to its work, and in general is responsible for
+supplying it with the right spirit and point of view, without which any
+kind of efficiency is impossible.
+
+The Forester prepares the estimates, or annual budget, for the
+expenditures of the Service, and appears before Committees of Congress
+to explain the need for money, and otherwise to set forth or defend the
+work upon which the Service is engaged. His immediate subordinates spend
+a large part of their time in the field inspecting the work of the
+Service and keeping its tone high. Their reports to the Forester keep
+him thoroughly advised as to the situation on all the National Forests,
+so that he may wisely meet each question as it comes up, and adjust the
+regulations and routine business methods of the Service to the
+constantly changing needs of the people with whom it deals.
+
+Being responsible for the personnel of the Forest Service, the Forester
+recommends to the Secretary of Agriculture, by whom the actual papers
+are issued, all appointments to it, as well as promotions, reductions,
+and dismissals. Under his immediate eye also is the very important and
+necessary work of making public the information collected by the Service
+for the use of the people. Since 1900, 370 publications of the Service
+have been issued, with a total circulation of 11,198,000 copies.
+
+The publications of the United States Forest Service include by far the
+most and the best information upon the forests of this country which has
+until now been assembled and printed. Hence, the prospective student of
+forestry can do nothing better than to write to The Forester,
+Washington, D. C. (which is the correct address), for the annotated
+catalogue of these publications which is sent free to all applicants,
+and then to secure and study such of the bulletins and circulars as best
+meet his individual needs. If he looks forward to entering the United
+States Forest Service, he should not fail to get also the Use Book, the
+volume of directions and regulations in accordance with which the
+National Forests are protected, developed, and made available and useful
+to the people of the regions in which they lie.
+
+The dendrological work of the Service, which has to do with forest
+distribution, the identification of tree species and other forest
+botanical work, is also under the immediate supervision of the Forester,
+and the Chief Lumberman reports directly to him.
+
+In addition to the work which falls immediately under the eye of the
+Forester, and which used to, but does not now, include the legal work
+necessary to support and promote the operations of the Service, there
+are seven principal parts, or branches, in the work of the Washington
+headquarters. The first of these is the Branch of Accounts, whose work I
+need not describe further than to say that the Service has always owed a
+very large part of its safety against the bitter attacks of its enemies
+to the accuracy, completeness, and general high quality of its
+accounting system.
+
+The second branch, that of Operation, has charge of the business
+administration both of the National Forests and of the other work of
+the Forest Service. Here the business methods which are necessary to
+keep the organization at a high state of efficiency are formulated, put
+in practice, and constantly revised, for it is only by such revision
+that they can be kept, as they are kept, at a level with the very best
+practice of the best modern business. There are very few Government
+bureaus of which this can be said. The Branch of Operation is
+responsible for the adoption and enforcement of labor-saving devices in
+correspondence, in handling requisitions, and in the filing and care of
+papers generally, and for the supply of stationery, tools, and
+instruments, and the renting of quarters,--in a word, for the whole of
+the more or less routine transaction of business which is essential to
+keep so large an organization at the highest point of efficiency.
+
+[Illustration: BRUSH PILING IN A NATIONAL FOREST TIMBER SALE]
+
+The office work needed in the mapping of the National Forests, with
+all their resources, boundaries, and interior holdings, is in charge of
+the Branch of Operation. So is the immense amount of drafting which is
+necessary in the other work of the Service, and the photographic
+laboratory in which maps are reproduced and where permanent photographic
+records of the condition of the forest are made.
+
+The third branch, that of Silviculture, is the most important of all. It
+has oversight of the practice of forestry on all the National Forests,
+and of all scientific forest studies in the National Forests and
+outside. It is here that the conditions in the contracts under which the
+larger timber sales are made are finally examined and approved, and here
+are found the inspectors whose duty it is not only to see that the work
+is well done, but to labor constantly for improvements in methods as
+well as in results. Here centres the preparation of forest working
+plans, and the knowledge of lumber and the lumber markets.
+
+The Branch of Silviculture has charge also of National cooperation for
+the advancement of forestry with the several States, and in particular
+for fire protection under the Weeks law. This form of cooperation has
+made the knowledge and equipment of the Forest Service available for the
+study of State forest resources and forest problems, and much of the
+progress in forestry made by the States is directly due to it.
+
+Under the Branch of Silviculture, the Office of Forest Investigations
+brings together all that is known of the nature and growth of trees in
+this country, and to some extent in other countries also, conducts
+independent studies of the greatest value in developing better methods
+of securing the reproduction of important forest trees, and computes
+the enormous number of forest measurements dealing with the stand and
+the rate of growth of trees and forests that are turned in by the
+parties engaged in forest investigation in the field. Under the Office
+of Forest Investigations, studies in forest distribution and in the
+structure of wood are carried on, and it includes the Library of the
+Forest Service, by far the most complete and effective forest library in
+the United States.
+
+The fourth branch, that of Grazing, supervises the use of the National
+Forests for pasture. Over the greater part of the West, this was the
+first use to which the forests were put, and an idea of its magnitude
+may be gathered from the fact that every year the National Forests
+supply feed for about a million and a half cattle and horses, and more
+than fourteen million sheep. It is no easy task to permit all this live
+stock to utilize the forage which the National Forests produce, and yet
+do little or no harm to the young growth on which the future of the
+forest depends. To exclude the grazing animals altogether is impossible
+and undesirable, for to do so would ruin the leading industry in many
+portions of the West. Consequently, many of the most difficult and
+perplexing questions in the practical administration of the National
+Forests have occurred in the work of the Branch of Grazing, and have
+there been solved, and many of the most bitter attacks upon it have
+there been met.
+
+The fifth branch, that of Lands, has to do with the questions which
+arise from the use of the land in the National Forests for farming or
+ranching, mining, and a very wide variety of other purposes, and with
+the exceedingly numerous and intricate questions which arise because
+there are about 21,100,000 acres of land within the boundaries of the
+National Forests whose title has already passed from the Government. The
+boundaries of the National Forests also are constantly being examined to
+determine whether they include all the land, and only the land, to be
+contained within them, and whether they should be extended or reduced.
+
+The first permits for the use of waterpower sites on Government land
+were issued by the Forest Service, and the policy which is just being
+adopted by the Interior Department and other Government organizations in
+their handling of waterpower questions was there first developed. These
+permits are prepared in the Branch of Lands. The first steps toward
+deterring men who attempt in defiance of the law to get possession of
+lands claimed to be agricultural or mineral within the National Forests
+are taken here, but the final decision on these points rests with the
+Department of the Interior. The examination of lands to determine
+whether they are agricultural in character, and therefore should be
+opened to settlement, is directed from this Branch.
+
+The uses to which National Forest lands are put are almost unbelievably
+various. Barns, borrow pits, botanical gardens, cemeteries and churches,
+dairies and dipping vats, fox ranches and fish hatcheries, hotels,
+pastures, pipe lines, power sites, residences, sanitaria and
+school-houses, stores and tunnels, these and many others make up, with
+grazing and timber sales, the uses of the National Forests, for which
+already more than half a million permits have been issued. This work
+also falls to the Branch of Lands.
+
+The sixth branch, that of Forest Products, is concerned with the whole
+question of the uses of wood and other materials produced by the forest.
+Its principal work is conducted through the Forest Products Laboratory,
+in cooperation with the University of Wisconsin at Madison. Here timber
+is tested to ascertain its strength, the products of wood distillation
+are investigated, wood pulp and paper studies of large reach are carried
+on, the methods of wood preservation and the results of applying them
+are in constant course of being examined, and the diseases of trees and
+of wood are studied in cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry of
+the United States Department of Agriculture. The consumption of wood,
+and the production of lumber and forest products, are also the subject
+of continuous investigation, and various necessary special studies are
+undertaken from time to time. At the moment, an effort is under way to
+find new uses and new markets for wood killed by the chestnut blight in
+the northeastern United States.
+
+The seventh branch has to do with the study, selection, and acquisition
+of lands under the Weeks law, in accordance with which eight million
+dollars was appropriated for the purchase of forest lands valuable for
+stream protection, with particular reference to the Southern
+Appalachians and the White Mountains of New England. The examination of
+the amount of merchantable timber on lands under consideration for
+purchase, the study of the character of the land and the forest, and the
+survey of the land keep a numerous body of young men very fully
+occupied. Their task is to see that none but the right land is
+recommended for acquisition by the Government, that the nature and value
+of the lands selected shall be most thoroughly known, and that the
+constant effort to make the Government pay unreasonable prices or
+purchase under unfavorable conditions shall as constantly be defeated.
+The same branch takes charge of the lands as soon as they have been
+acquired.
+
+The foregoing description of the work which is done in Washington by the
+Forest Service may help to make clear the great variety of tasks to
+which a Forester may be required to set his hand, and emphasizes the
+need of a broad training not strictly confined to purely technical
+lines. It would be defective as a description, however, and would fail
+to show the spirit in which the work is done, if no mention were made of
+the Service Meeting, at which the responsible heads of each branch and
+of the work of the Forester's office meet once a week to discuss every
+problem which confronts the Service and every phase of its work. This
+meeting is the centre where all parts of the work of the Service come
+together and arrange their mutual cooperation, and it is also the spring
+from which the essential democracy of the organization takes its rise.
+The Service Meeting is the best thing in the Forest Service, and that is
+saying a great deal.
+
+It must not be imagined that the maintenance of Forest Service
+headquarters in Washington indicates that the actual business of
+handling the National Forests is carried on at long range. In order to
+avoid any such possibility the six District offices were organized in
+1908. These are situated at Missoula, Denver, Albuquerque, Portland,
+Ogden, and San Francisco. Each of the District offices is in charge of a
+District Forester, who directs the practical carrying out of the
+policies finally determined upon in Washington, after consultation with
+the men in the field. The execution of all the work, the larger features
+of which the Washington office decides and directs (and the details of
+which it inspects), is the task of the District Forester. The District
+Forester's office is necessarily organized much on the same general
+lines as the Washington headquarters. Thus, the subjects of accounts,
+operation, silviculture, grazing, lands, and forest products are all
+represented in the District offices. In addition, a legal officer is
+necessarily attached to each District office, and each District Forester
+has in his District one or more forest experiment stations, employed
+mainly in studying questions of growth and reproduction; and three
+forest insect field stations, maintained in cooperation with the Bureau
+of Entomology, are divided among the six Districts.
+
+[Illustration: FOREST RANGERS GETTING INSTRUCTION IN METHODS OF WORK
+FROM A DISTRICT FOREST OFFICER]
+
+While the work of the Washington office is mainly that of guiding the
+work of the National Forests along broad general lines, through
+instructions to the District Foresters, the office of each District
+Forester deals directly with the Forest Supervisors, and so with the
+handling of the National Forests. A multitude of questions which the
+Supervisors can not answer are decided in the District office instead,
+as was formerly the case, of being forwarded to Washington for disposal
+there, with the consequent aggravating and needless delay. The
+establishment of the District offices has made the handling of the
+National Forests far less complicated and far more prompt, and has
+brought it far closer than ever before to the actual users,--that is,
+has made it far more quickly and accurately responsive to their needs.
+
+
+
+
+PRIVATE FORESTRY
+
+
+As yet, the practice of forestry by private owners, except for fire
+protection, has made but little progress in the United States, although
+without doubt it will be widely extended during the next ten or fifteen
+years. The concentration of timberland ownership in the United States
+has put a few men in control of vast areas of forest. Many of them are
+anxious to prevent forest destruction, so far as that may be practicable
+without interfering with their profits, and for that purpose Foresters
+are beginning to be employed. Until now the principal tasks of Foresters
+employed by lumbermen have been the measurement of the amount of lumber
+in the standing crop of trees, and the protection of forest lands from
+fire. Here and there the practice of a certain amount of forestry has
+been added, but this part of the work of the private Forester employed
+by lumbermen has not been important. It is likely, however, to increase
+with some rapidity before long. In the meantime, the private Forester
+must usually be willing to accept a good many limitations on the
+technical side of his work.
+
+It is essential for the Forester thus employed to have or promptly to
+acquire a knowledge of practical lumbering, that is, of logging,
+milling, and markets, and for the forest student who expects to enter
+this work to give special attention to these subjects.
+
+Already about 170 graduates of forest schools are in private employ, a
+considerable proportion of which number are employed by large lumbermen.
+
+The time is undoubtedly coming, and I hope it may come soon, when forest
+destruction will be legally recognized as hostile to the public welfare,
+and when lumbermen will be compelled by law to handle their forests so
+as to insure the reproduction of them under reasonable conditions and
+within a reasonable time. The idea is neither tyrannical nor new. In
+democratic Switzerland, private owners of timberland are restrained by
+law from destroying the forests upon which the welfare of that mountain
+region so largely depends, and if they disobey, their forest lands are
+replanted by the Government at the owners' expense.
+
+Another opening for Foresters in the employ of lumbermen is through the
+forest fire protective associations. Of these, two stand out most
+conspicuously at the present time, one the Northwestern Conservation and
+Forestry Association, the other the Oregon Forest Fire Association. Each
+has as its executive officer a trained Forester whose knowledge of the
+woods not only makes him exceedingly useful to his employers, but also,
+when combined with the Forester's point of view, enables him to be of
+great value in protecting the general interest in the forest.
+
+The object and methods of one of the associations is described by its
+Secretary as follows:
+
+"A field hitherto narrow but continually broadening, and offering much
+opportunity for those with peculiar qualifications, is the management of
+the cooeperative forest work carried on by timber owners in many
+localities, often jointly with State and Government. This movement
+originated in the Pacific Northwest, where it still has the highest
+development, but is extending to the Lake States, New England, and
+Canada.
+
+"As a rule the primary object of these cooeperative associations is fire
+prevention and their local managers must have demonstrated ability to
+organize effective patrol systems, build telephone lines, apply every
+ingenuity to supplying and equipping their forces, and, above all, to
+handle men in emergencies. But in most cases the association of forest
+owners to this end has led also to progress in many other matters
+inseparable from improvement, such as study of reforestation
+possibilities, forest legislation, educating lumberman and public in
+forest preservation, and the extension of cooperation in all these as
+well as in fire prevention from private to State and federal agencies.
+
+"The development of such activities is already employing several highly
+paid men who can command the confidence, not only of forest owners, but
+also of the public and of public officials. Advisers in legislative as
+well as technical forestry matters and particularly proficient in all
+that pertains to forest protection, their usefulness lies as much
+outside their own association as within them, and to be successful they
+must be skilful organizers and campaigners. It is these men who have
+developed to its highest extent the adaptation to forestry propaganda of
+modern publicity and advertising methods.
+
+"As a rule, however, these may be described as graduate positions,
+filled by men of experience and acquaintance with the several agencies
+involved, rather than by newly fledged Foresters. A practical knowledge
+of protection problems is essential."
+
+Forestry associations offer a different, but often a most fascinating
+field, of work for the trained Forester. There are at present 39 such
+associations. The work which they offer has much in common with the
+duties of a State Forester.
+
+Fish and game associations are beginning to employ Foresters, realizing
+that the wise handling of the forests may well go hand in hand with the
+care of the game and fish which the forest shelters and protects.
+Eventually nearly all such associations which control any considerable
+body of land in timbered regions may be expected to utilize the services
+of trained Foresters of their own.
+
+In addition to the work for lumbermen and for associations of various
+kinds, land owners in considerable variety have begun to employ
+Foresters. Among these are coal and coke companies, iron companies, wood
+pulp and paper companies which are beginning to look after their supply
+of timber; powder, arms, and ammunition companies, hydraulic and water
+companies; a great corporation engaged in the manufacture of matches;
+and a number of railroads, including the Delaware and Hudson, the
+Illinois Central, and the Pennsylvania. In addition to the need for
+cross ties, railroads are among the largest consumers of lumber. The
+Foresters who work for them are largely occupied with growing the wood
+supplies which the railroads need, and nursery practice often occupies a
+very large share of their attention.
+
+
+
+
+FOREST SCHOOLS
+
+
+Since the first one was founded in 1898, the number of forest schools in
+the United States has increased so rapidly as to create a demand for
+forest instructors which it has been exceedingly difficult to fill.
+Indeed, the increase in secondary forest schools, or schools not of the
+first grade, has doubtless been more rapid than the welfare of the
+profession or the sound practice of forestry required, and the brisk
+demand for teachers has led some men to take up the task of instruction
+who were not well fitted for it.
+
+There are in this country to-day 23 forest schools which prepare men for
+the practice of forestry as a profession, and 51 schools which devote
+themselves to general instruction in forestry or to courses for Forest
+Rangers and Forest Guards. The approximate number of teachers in all
+forest schools is at present 110, and this number will doubtless be
+still further increased by the addition of new forest schools or the
+expansion of old ones, while a certain number of places will be made
+vacant by the retirement of men who find themselves better fitted for
+other lines of work.
+
+The teaching staff at three of the principal forest schools of the
+country is as follows:
+
+At School A, 5 men give their whole time to forest instruction, and 14
+give courses in the forest school.
+
+Schools B and C have each 4 men who give their whole time to the work;
+and 4 and 20 respectively who give lectures or individual courses.
+
+In addition to the work for lumbermen, associations, railroads, and
+others just mentioned, an increasing number of Foresters are required to
+care for the forests on large landed estates in different parts of the
+country. Work of this kind is at present restricted almost entirely to
+the East, and especially to New England, where several firms of
+consulting Foresters give to it the larger portion of their time. Some
+of the men thus employed are as fully occupied with the tasks of the
+professional Forester as any of the men in the Government service, while
+others give a part of their attention to the general management of the
+property, or to the protection and propagation of game and fish.
+
+
+
+
+THE OPPORTUNITY
+
+
+GOVERNMENT SERVICE
+
+There is no more useful profession than forestry. The opportunity to
+make himself count in affairs of public importance comes earlier and
+more certainly to the Forester than to the member of any other
+profession. The first and most valuable, therefore, of the incentives
+which lead the Forester to his choice is the chance to make himself of
+use to his country and to his generation.
+
+But if this is the first matter to be considered in deciding upon a
+profession, it is by no means the last, and the practical considerations
+of a fair return for good work, bread and butter for a man and his
+family, the certainty or uncertainty of employment,--such questions as
+these must have their full share of attention.
+
+There are in the United States Forest Service 1059 Forest Guards, 1247
+Forest Rangers, 233 Supervisors, and Deputy Supervisors, and 115 Forest
+Assistants and 177 Forest Examiners who, as already explained, are the
+technical men in charge of practical forestry on the National Forests.
+The six District offices together include in their membership about 50
+professional Foresters, and about 65 more are attached to the
+headquarters at Washington, so that allowing for duplications there are
+about 335 trained Foresters in the United States Forest Service.
+
+The number of new appointments to the Forest Service in the different
+permanent grades varies from year to year but may be said to be
+approximately as follows: Rangers, 240 new appointments; Forest
+Assistants, 35; other technical positions, 10. All appointments as
+Supervisor are by promotion from the lists of Forest Rangers or Forest
+Examiners.
+
+The yearly pay of the Forest Guard, who, like the Ranger, must be a
+citizen of the State in which his work lies, is from $420 to $900.
+Forest Rangers, who enter the Service through Civil Service examination,
+receive from $1100 to $1500 per annum. Forest Supervisors, practically
+all of whom are men of long experience in forest work, receive from
+$1600 to $2700 per annum. Forest Assistants enter the Forest Service
+through Civil Service examination at a salary of $1200 per annum, and
+are promoted to a maximum salary of $2500 per annum, as Forest
+Examiners. Professional Foresters at work in the District offices are
+recruited mainly from among the Forest Assistants and Examiners. They
+receive from $1100 to $3200 yearly. The technical men in charge at
+Washington get from $1100 to $5000 per annum, which last is the pay of
+the Forester, at the head of the Service.
+
+
+STATE SERVICE
+
+The pay of the State Foresters, or other trained Foresters in charge of
+State work, ranges from $1800 to $4000, and that of their technical
+assistants from $1000 to $2500. Out of the total number, only 2 are
+directly in charge of their own work, responsible only to the Governor
+and the Legislature, while 19 act as subordinates for State forest
+commissions or commissioners, who in the majority of cases are political
+appointees. In striking contrast with the United States Forest Service,
+politics has so far been a dangerous, if not a dominating, influence in
+the forest work of most of the States which have undertaken it.
+
+Like the National Forests, the State Forests already in existence will
+create an increasing demand for the service of technical Foresters.
+Indeed, as similar forests are acquired by most of the States which are
+now without them, as undoubtedly they will be, the extent of the
+opportunity for professionally trained Foresters in State work is
+certain to grow.
+
+
+PRIVATE WORK
+
+At present, the demand for Foresters in private work is far less
+pressing and the opening is far less attractive than it will be in the
+not distant future. The number of men that will be required for this
+work will depend on the development of legislation as well as upon the
+desire of the private owners, lumbermen and others, to protect and
+improve their property. The time is coming, and coming before long, when
+all private owners of forests in the mountains, or on steep slopes
+elsewhere, will be required by law to provide for their protection and
+reproduction. When that time arrives, the demand for Foresters in
+private work will increase to very large dimensions, and will probably
+do so far more rapidly than Foresters can be trained to supply it.
+
+The pay of Foresters in private work, whether in the employ of
+lumbermen, railroads, shooting and fishing clubs, the proprietors of
+large private estates, or other forest owners, has so far been somewhat
+better than that for similar services in Government employ. This money
+difference in favor of private employment is, in my judgment, likely to
+continue, and eventually the pay of consulting Foresters of established
+reputation employed in passing upon the value of forests offered as
+security for investments, or in estimating the standing timber for
+purchasers or sellers, or in other professional work of large business
+importance, will certainly reach very satisfactory figures.
+
+
+TEACHING
+
+Approximately 110 Foresters are engaged in teaching in the United States
+to-day. Their pay varies from about $1000 to about $3000, and is likely
+to increase rather more rapidly than that of other professional
+teachers, since less of them are available. It is not likely, however,
+that the number of openings in teaching forestry will be large within
+the next ten years.
+
+
+
+
+TRAINING
+
+
+The length of time which his training is to take and the particular
+courses of instruction which he shall pursue are to the young man
+contemplating the study of forestry matters of the first importance. The
+first thing to insist on in that connection is that the training must be
+thorough. It is natural that a young man should be eager to begin his
+life work and therefore somewhat impatient of the long grind of a
+thorough schooling. But however natural, it is not the part of wisdom to
+cut short the time of preparation. When the serious work of the trained
+Forester begins later on, there will be little or no time to fill the
+gaps left at school, and the earnest desire of the young Forester will
+be that he had spent more time in his preparation rather than less. In
+this matter I speak as one who has gathered a conviction from personal
+experience, and believes he knows.
+
+It would be useless to attempt to strike an average of the work
+prescribed and the courses given at the various forest schools. I shall
+describe, therefore, not an average system of instruction but one which,
+in the judgment of men entitled to an opinion, and in my own judgment,
+is sound, practical, and effective.
+
+Forest schools may roughly be divided between those which do not prepare
+men for professional work in forestry, and those which do. The latter
+may be divided again into undergraduate schools and graduate schools.
+Most of the former offer a four-year undergraduate course, and their
+students receive their degrees at the same time as other members of the
+University who entered at the same time with them. The graduate schools
+require a college degree, or its equivalent in certain subjects, before
+they will receive a student. The men who have completed their courses
+have usually, therefore, pursued more extensive and more advanced
+studies in forestry, are better trained, and are themselves older and
+more ready to accept the responsibilities which forestry brings upon
+them. For these reasons, the graduate school training is by far the more
+desirable, in my opinion.
+
+The subjects required for entrance to a graduate forest school should
+include at least one full year in college botany, covering the general
+morphology, histology, and physiology of plants, one course each in
+geology, physics, inorganic chemistry, zooelogy, and economics, with
+mathematics through trigonometry, and a reading knowledge of French or
+German. Some acquaintance with mechanical drawing is also desirable but
+not absolutely necessary. Other courses which are extremely desirable,
+if not altogether essential, are mineralogy, meteorology, mechanics,
+physical geography, organic chemistry, and possibly calculus, which may
+be of use in timber physics.
+
+One or two forest schools begin their course of training for the first
+year in July instead of in October, in order to give their students some
+acquaintance with the woods from the Forester's standpoint before the
+more formal courses begin. The result of this plan is to give increased
+vividness and reality to all the courses which follow the work in the
+woods, to make clear the application of what is taught, and so to add
+greatly to the efficiency of the teaching.
+
+In addition to this preliminary touch with the woods, any wise plan of
+teaching will include many forest excursions and much practical field
+work as vitally important parts of the instruction. This outdoor work
+should occur throughout the whole course, winter and summer, and in
+addition, the last term of the senior year may well be spent wholly in
+the woods, where the students can be trained in the management of
+logging operations and milling, and can get their final practice work in
+surveying and map-making, in preparing forest working plans, estimating
+timber, laying out roads and trails, making plans for lumber operations,
+and other similar practical work. Several of the best forest schools
+have adopted this plan.
+
+The regular courses of a graduate forest school usually cover a period
+of two years. They should fit a student for nearly every phase of
+professional work in forestry, and should give him a sound preparation
+not merely for practical work in the woods, but also for the broader
+work of forest organization in the Government Service in the United
+States and in the Philippines, and in the service of the States; for
+handling large tracts of private forest lands; for expert work in the
+employ of lumbermen and other forest owners; for public speaking and
+writing; for teaching; and for scientific research.
+
+Every well equipped forest school will have a working library of books,
+pamphlets, and lumber journals published here and abroad, an herbarium
+at least of native trees and shrubs and of the more important forest
+herbs, together with a collection of forest tree fruits and seeds, and
+specimens of domestic and foreign timbers. Exhibits showing the uses of
+woods and the various forms of tools used in lumbering, as well as the
+apparatus for laboratory work and surveying, and forest instruments for
+work in the field, are often of great value to the student.
+
+What should a young man learn at a forest school? Doubtless there will
+be some variation of opinion as to the exact course of study which will
+best fit him for the work of a Forester in the United States. The
+following list expresses the best judgment on the subject I have been
+able to form:
+
+
+DENDROLOGY:
+
+The first step in forestry is to become acquainted with the various
+kinds of trees. The coming Forester must learn to identify the woody
+plants of the United States, both in summer and in winter. He must
+understand their shapes and outward structures, and where they are
+found, and he must begin his knowledge of the individual habits of
+growth and life which distinguish the trees which are important in
+forestry.
+
+
+FOREST PHYSIOGRAPHY:
+
+Trees grow in the soil. It is important to know something of the origin
+of soils and their properties and values, and of the principal soil
+types, with special reference to their effect upon plant distribution
+and welfare. The origin, nature, value, and conservation of humus, that
+most essential ingredient of the forest floor; the field methods of
+mapping soil types; the rock types most important in their relation to
+soils, how they are made up, how they make soil, and where they
+occur--something should be learned of all this. Finally, under this
+head, the student ought to get a usable knowledge of the physiographic
+regions of the United States, their boundaries, geologic structure,
+topography, drainage, and soils,--all this naturally with special
+reference to the relation between these basic facts and the forest.
+
+
+SILVICULTURE:
+
+Silviculture is the art of caring for forests, and therefore the
+backbone of forestry. It is based upon Silvics, which is the knowledge
+of the habits or behavior of trees in their relations to light, heat,
+and moisture, to the air and soil, and to each other. It is the facts
+embraced in Silvics which explain the composition, character, and form
+of the forest; the success or failure of tree species in competition
+with each other; the distribution of trees and of forests; the
+development of each tree in height, diameter, and volume; its form and
+length of life; the methods of its reproduction; and the effect of all
+these upon the nature and the evolution of the city of trees, and upon
+forest types and their life histories.
+
+This is knowledge the Forester can not do without. Silvics is the
+foundation of his professional capacity, and as a student he can better
+afford to scamp any part of his training rather than this. A man may be
+a poor Forester who knows Silvics, but no man can be a good Forester who
+does not.
+
+The practice of Silviculture has to do with the treatment of woodlands.
+The forest student must learn the different methods of reproducing
+forests by different methods of cutting them down, and the application
+of these methods in different American forest regions. There are also
+many methods of cutting for the improvement of the character and growth
+of forests, as well as for utilizing material that otherwise would go to
+waste, before the final reproduction cuttings can be made. The ways in
+which forests need protection are equally numerous, and of these by far
+the most important in our country have to do with methods of preventing
+or extinguishing forest fires.
+
+Well managed forests are handled under working plans based on the
+silvical character and silvicultural needs of the forest, as well as
+upon the purpose set by the owner as the object of management, which is
+often closely related to questions of forest finance. The student should
+ground himself thoroughly in the making of silvicultural working plans,
+and the more practice in making them he can get, the better. So, too,
+with the marking of trees in reproduction and improvement cuttings under
+as many different kinds of forest conditions as may be possible.
+
+The artificial reproduction of forests is likely to occupy far more of
+the Forester's attention in the future than it has in the past. Hence
+the collection of tree seeds, their fertility and vitality as affecting
+their handling, the best methods of seeding and planting, and the
+lessons of past failures and successes, with the whole subject of
+nursery work and the care of young plantations, must by no means be
+overlooked.
+
+Much incidental information on the subject of forest protection will
+come to the student in the course of his studies, but special attention
+should be given to learning which of the species of forest insects are
+most injurious to forest vegetation, how their attacks are made, how
+they may be discovered, and the best ways by which such attacks can be
+mitigated or controlled. So also the diseases of timber trees will repay
+hard study. The principal fungi which causes such diseases should be
+known, how they attack the trees, and what are the remedies, as well as
+(although this is far less important) the way to treat tree wounds and
+the correct methods of pruning.
+
+
+FOREST ECONOMICS:
+
+Forest Economics is a large subject. It deals with the productive value
+of forests to their owners, and with the larger question of their place
+in the economy of the Nation. It considers their use as conservers of
+the soil and the streams; their effect on climate, locally, as in the
+case of windbreakers, and on a larger scale; and their contribution to
+the public welfare as recreation grounds and game refuges. It includes a
+knowledge of wastes from which the forests suffer, and the consequent
+loss to industry and to the public, and in this it does not omit the
+effects of forest fires. Statistics of forest consumption; the relation
+of the forest to railroads, mines, and other wood-using industries; its
+effect upon agriculture, stock raising, and manufacturing industries;
+and its effect upon the use of the streams for navigation, power,
+irrigation, and domestic water supply; all these are important. The
+student should consider also the forest resources of the United States,
+their present condition, and the needs they must be fitted to supply.
+
+
+FOREST ENGINEERING:
+
+Forest engineering is steadily becoming more and more necessary to the
+Forester. He must have a working knowledge of the use of surveying
+instruments; the making of topographic surveys; the office work required
+of an engineer; the making of topographic maps; the location of trails,
+roads, and railroads; and the construction of bridges, telephone lines,
+cabins, and fences, together with logging railroads, slides, dams, and
+flumes.
+
+
+FOREST MENSURATION:
+
+[Illustration: FOREST SERVICE MEN MAKING FRESH MEASUREMENTS IN THE
+MISSOURI SWAMPS]
+
+Forest mensuration, the art of measuring the contents and growth of
+trees and forest stands, is of fundamental importance. The principles
+and methods of timber estimating, the actual measurement of standing
+timber, log rules, the making of stem analyses to show the increase of a
+tree in diameter, height, and volume, the construction of tables of
+current and mean annual growth per acre and per tree, and the methods of
+using the information thus formulated,--all these are necessarily of
+keen interest to the man who later on will have to apply his knowledge
+in the practical management of woods.
+
+
+FOREST MANAGEMENT:
+
+Forest management is concerned with the principles involved in planning
+the handling of forests. Questions of the valuation of forests form a
+most essential part of it,--such questions as the cost of growing timber
+crops, the value of land for that purpose, the value of young timber,
+the valuation of damage to the forest, and the legal status of the
+damage and the remedy.
+
+Business principles are as necessary in the management of forests as in
+the management of mills or farms. These business principles work out in
+different forms of forest policy adapted to the needs of different kinds
+of owners, such as lumbermen and the Government. What the young Forester
+has learned about growth and yield, about timber estimates and forest
+statistics, and many other matters, all finds its application in forest
+management. He must also consider the methods and principles for
+regulating the cut of timber, or for securing sustained annual yields.
+All this forms the basis for the preparation of working plans for the
+utilization of forests under American economic and silvicultural
+conditions, not only without injury, but with benefit, to their
+continued productiveness.
+
+The subjects of forest surveying and working plans are intimately
+related. Maps are indispensable in the practical work of making a forest
+working plan. Topographic mapping, timber estimating, forest
+description, and the location of logging roads, trails, and fire lines,
+together with Silvics and a knowledge of growth and yield--these and
+many other subjects enter into the making of a practical working plan to
+harvest a forest crop and secure a second growth of timber. The student
+should get all the practice he can in marking timber for cutting under
+such a plan.
+
+The young Forester must make himself familiar with the administration of
+the National Forests. He must know how the business of the forest is
+handled, how it is protected against fire, how the timber is sold, how
+claims and entries are dealt with under the public land laws, how land
+in the National Forests is used to make homes, how trespass is
+controlled, how the livestock industry on the National Forests is
+fostered and regulated, and how the extremely valuable watersheds they
+contain are safeguarded and improved.
+
+
+THE PRACTICE OF FORESTRY:
+
+The practice of forestry is necessarily different in different kinds of
+forests and under different economic conditions. All that the Forester
+knows must here be applied, and applied in workable fashion, not only to
+the forest, but to the men who use the forest. This is peculiarly true
+of the practice of forestry in National and State Forests everywhere.
+
+
+FOREST PRODUCTS:
+
+Under this general subject, the forest student must acquaint himself,
+through the microscope, with the minute anatomy of the woody stem of
+coniferous and broadleaf trees, and the occurrence, form, structure, and
+variability of the elements which make it up. He should become familiar
+with the methods of classifying the economic woods of the United States,
+both under the microscope and with the unassisted eye, and for this
+purpose should know something of their color, gloss, grain, density,
+odor, and resonance both as aids to identification and as to their
+importance in giving value to the wood; the defects of timber; its
+moisture content, density, shrinking, checking, warping; and the effect
+of all these upon its uses.
+
+The chemical composition of wood and of minor forest products, such as
+tannins and dye stuffs, is important; the properties governing the fuel
+value and the other values of wood must be studied, as well as the
+methods of using these properties in the making of charcoal and wood
+pulp, in wood distillation, the turpentine industry, in tanning and
+dyeing, and in other industries.
+
+A field of great importance is the relation between the physical
+structure and the mechanical properties of wood. A student should inform
+himself concerning the standard methods of testing the properties of
+structural timber, by bending, compression, shearing, torsion, impact,
+and the hardness and tension tests, with their relation to heat and
+moisture, and the methods of seasoning, the use of preservatives, and
+the effect of the rate of application of the load.
+
+Woods vary as to their durability. It is important, therefore, to know
+about the causes of decay, the decay-resisting power of various woods,
+the relation of moisture content to durability, why the seasoning of
+wood is effective, the theory and the commercial methods of wood
+preservation, and its relation to the timber supply.
+
+
+LUMBERING:
+
+Lumbering the Forester should know more than a little about, as how to
+organize lumber operations, the equipment and management of logging and
+milling in various forest regions, the manufacture, seasoning, and
+grading of the rough and finished lumber, cost keeping in a lumber
+business, methods of sale, market requirements at home and abroad,
+prices, the relation of the lumber tariff to forestry, lumber
+associations, timber bonds, and insurance. The practical construction of
+logging equipment, such as aerial tramways, log slides, dams, and
+flumes, is of peculiar importance, and so are the conditions and changes
+of the lumber market.
+
+Experience on the land of some operating lumber company is of great
+value. It should include a study of logging methods, log scaling, waste
+in logging, the equipment and handling of the mill, the sawing and care
+of rough and finished lumber, its grading, and so far as possible an
+acquaintance with wood working plants of various kinds, and with the
+operations of turpentine orcharding. Studies along these lines may with
+advantage be almost indefinitely extended to include, for example the
+utilization of steam machinery for logging, the improvement of streams
+for driving logs, and other similar questions.
+
+
+FOREST LAW:
+
+The Forester must have at least a slight acquaintance with forest law,
+both State and National. It is important to know something of the
+general principles of classifying the public lands, of State laws for
+fire protection, the development of forest policies in the various
+States as legally expressed, and the important laws which govern the
+creation and management of State forest reserves.
+
+Forest taxation, State and local, which has, when excessive, so much to
+do with hastening forest destruction, is one of the most important
+questions which can engage the attention of the Forester.
+
+Under the subject of Federal Forest Law, it is not sufficient for the
+student to acquaint himself with those laws alone which govern the
+forests. He must also have some knowledge of the creation of a forest
+policy out of the public land policy of the United States, some
+acquaintance with the public land laws. A good working knowledge of the
+laws and regulations governing the National Forests is indispensable,
+and the student should at least know where to find the more important
+court decisions by which they are interpreted.
+
+
+FOREST HISTORY:
+
+The history of forestry in Europe has a certain importance in throwing
+light on our own forest history and its probable development, and this
+is especially true of the history of the administration of Government
+forest lands and of education in forestry.
+
+The history of forestry in the United States, however, is far more
+important. The Forester must know the story of the growth and change of
+National Forest organizations, the Forest Officers and their duties, the
+cost, size, and effectiveness of the Government Forest Service at
+different times, the Civil Service regulations under which it is
+recruited, and other similar matters. It is important likewise for him
+to become thoroughly saturated with an intimate knowledge of the
+development of forestry in public opinion in the United States, its
+extension to the other natural resources through the conservation
+policy, and the relation of the Forester's point of view thus expressed
+to the present welfare and future success of the Nation.
+
+It is not always possible for the forest student to become a woodsman
+before entering his profession, but it is most desirable. A Forester
+must be able to travel the forest alone by day and by night, he should
+be a good fisherman and a good hunter (which is far more important than
+to be a good shot), and deeply interested in both fish and game. The
+better horseman he is the better Forester he will be, and especially if
+he can pack and handle pack horses in the woods. So that whether the
+young Forester begins with a practical knowledge of woodcraft or not, he
+must not fail to acquire or improve it, for without it he will endanger
+the whole success of his career.
+
+Some knowledge of first aid to the injured is likely to be of great and
+sudden value to a man so much of whose life must be spent in the woods,
+at a distance from medical aid. The time spent in getting information on
+this subject will be anything but wasted.
+
+
+ENGLISH:
+
+The ability to write and to speak good, plain, understandable English is
+a prime requisite in the Forester's training. It is a part of education
+frequently neglected, especially by those in engineering or scientific
+pursuits; yet its importance for the Forester is very large. As already
+pointed out, the Forester is on the firing line of the conservation
+movement; he is pioneering in a new profession. For this reason he will
+often need to explain his stand and convert others to his beliefs. In
+addition, he must make available to others the results he secures from
+the study of new facts. A usable command of his own language will stand
+him in good stead, whether he needs to talk face to face with another
+man, or from a platform to a concourse of people, or to put into
+readable printed form the results of his observations or his thinking.
+
+When the young Forester has completed the courses of his school training
+in America, the question may be raised whether he should supplement his
+training by study abroad. I am strongly of opinion that he should do so
+if he can. Study abroad is not indispensable for the American Forester,
+but it can do him nothing but good to see in practical operation the
+methods of forestry which have resulted from the long experience of
+other lands, and especially to become familiar with the effect of sound
+forestry on the forest.
+
+
+
+    +-----------------------------------------------+
+    |             Transcriber's Note:               |
+    |                                               |
+    | Inconsistent hyphenation and spelling in the  |
+    | original document have been preserved.        |
+    |                                               |
+    | Typographical errors corrected in the text:   |
+    |                                               |
+    | Page 135  windbrakes changed to windbreaks    |
+    +-----------------------------------------------+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Training of a Forester, by Gifford Pinchot
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