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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/30957-h.zip b/30957-h.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..3b7b68b --- /dev/null +++ b/30957-h.zip diff --git a/30957-h/30957-h.htm b/30957-h/30957-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d9f434a --- /dev/null +++ b/30957-h/30957-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,1592 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" + "http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> + +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml"> + <head> + <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" /> + <title> + The Project Gutenberg eBook of Adequate Preparation For The Teacher Of Biological Sciences In Secondary Schools, By J. Daley Mcdonald. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p { margin-top: .75em; + text-align: justify; + margin-bottom: .75em; + } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5 { + text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ + clear: both; + } + hr { width: 33%; + margin-top: 2em; + margin-bottom: 2em; + margin-left: auto; + margin-right: auto; + clear: both; + } + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body{margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + } + + .pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ + /* visibility: hidden; */ + position: absolute; + left: 92%; + font-size: smaller; + text-align: right; + font-style: normal; + font-variant:normal; + font-weight:normal; + text-decoration: none; + } /* page numbers */ + + .blockquot{margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .center {text-align: center;} + .u {text-decoration: underline;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Adequate Preparation for the Teacher of +Biological Sciences in Secondary Schools, by James Daley McDonald + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Adequate Preparation for the Teacher of Biological Sciences in Secondary Schools + +Author: James Daley McDonald + +Release Date: January 13, 2010 [EBook #30957] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TEACHER OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Ritu Aggarwal and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + +</pre> + + + +<h1>ADEQUATE PREPARATION FOR THE<br /> +TEACHER OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES<br /> +IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS.</h1> + +<h3>J. Daley McDonald</h3> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Submitted to the School of Education of the University +of California in partial fulfillment of the minor requirements +for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.</p></div> + +<h5>November 15th<br /> +1921</h5> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Table of Contents"> +<tr> + <td>Introduction</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Retarding factors in improvement</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_4">4</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Qualifications in subject matter</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_5">5</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Scope of Biology</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_6">6</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Values and relations of Biology</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_7">7</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Adaptation of course to community conditions</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_10">10</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Freedom from textbook slavery</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Materials and laboratory equipment</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Historical setting</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Spirit of research</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_14">14</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Qualifications in method</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Factors determining correct method</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">History of scientific method</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Problem method</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_17">17</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Accuracy and logical constructive thinking</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Teacher's final method necessarily unique</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Summary of necessary qualifications</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Opportunity for adequate preparation</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Lack of professional course</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Requirements of Teachers Recommendation in Zoology</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_21">21</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Courses not adapted for teacher-preparation</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Professional course the goal</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Suggested modifications of present courses</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Course in special methods</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Practice teaching</span></td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Bibliography</td> + <td align="right"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> +<p>The use of the term <span class="u">preparation</span> herein is intended to indicate +partially the limitation of the problem attempted. The following +discussion will be concerned only with such attributes of the +successful teacher as are the direct result, or at least greatly +enhanced by thorough preparation. A sufficiently comprehensive and +difficult problem remains after still further restriction of the field +so as to include only subject matter and the method of biological +science.</p> + +<p>It is scarcely necessary to make the statement that the standards of +preparation and the facilities for meeting these standards have been +enormously improved within the past few years. Evidence of this is +found in the changes recently made in the curricula of and the +requirements for graduation from the California State Teachers +Colleges. Neither is it necessary to say that improvement must +continue. Such problems are evolutionary. Notwithstanding that +requirements for teachers certificates have been raised the country +over, the universities are not generally making very rapid strides in +affording opportunities for better preparation in subject-matter and +special methods. In corroboration, witness the recent criticisms of +the departmental courses in special methods now given in universities +generally (Swift, 1918; Taylor, 1918). The length of time or the +number of units of work required for certification may be increased +but that does not insure a finer <span class="u">quality</span> of preparation.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> +In attempting to explain the slow pace of improvement in the +quality of preparation for the teaching of science, one becomes +involved in a cycle. Science had its development in the college +and university whence it diffused slowly into the secondary schools, +and finally slightly into the elementary grades. The differences +between the aims of college science and secondary school science +were and still are not taken sufficiently into account. As an +inevitable result there are to be found in the curricula of high +schools too many science courses that are mere dilutions of the college +type, with no modification of purpose, and just enough change in +method and subject matter to bring them partially within the +power of understanding of the less mature mind. This situation +in turn reflected upon the higher institutions of learning in such +a way that it seemed that they were giving adequate training of +the correct type. And such would have been the case had the +college course in the particular science been planned for the +express purpose of being diluted to suit secondary school needs. +But it will be generally conceded that such courses never have +existed.</p> + +<p>Another retarding factor in the evolution of the problem has been the +subordination of special training in subject matter to other really less +important qualifications, in the selection of teachers. The table given +below, compiled from statistics gathered in one of the States during 1916, +shows sufficient justification for the above statement. And not only has the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> +preparation in subject matter been too little considered in choosing +teachers, but also in the administration of schools specially intended +for teacher-training. An educator of high standing in California is +credited with making the criticism of the Normal Schools of the State; +that they attempt to teach a person how to teach intelligently +something about which he knows nothing. When teachers have adequate +preparation in subject matter as well as in methods, and when they are +employed to teach only those subjects for which they are fitted, then +the problem of maintaining a high standard of teaching will be well +nigh solved.</p> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Bibliography"> +<colgroup><col width="40%" /><col width="15%" /><col width="15%" /><col width="15%" /><col width="15%" /></colgroup> +<tr> + <td align="center">Subject</td> + <td align="center">Prepared & teaching</td> + <td align="center">Not prepared & teaching</td> + <td align="center">Prepared & not teaching</td> + <td align="center">Total</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Physiology</td> + <td align="center">19</td><td align="center">8</td><td align="center">57</td><td align="center">84</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Botany</td> + <td align="center">71</td><td align="center">39</td><td align="center">74</td><td align="center">184</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Zoology</td> + <td align="center">9</td><td align="center">20</td><td align="center">5</td><td align="center">34</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Agriculture</td> + <td align="center">63</td><td align="center">14</td><td align="center">84</td><td align="center">161</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>Preparation in Subject Matter</h2> + + +<p>Before facing the problem of preparation for the teaching of +biological sciences in the secondary schools, there must be a +clear conception of the aims and legitimate purposes of these +sciences in the high school. We are fortunate in having the aims +of biology clearly and concisely stated by the Commission on the +Reorganization of Secondary Education of the N.E.A. ("Reorganization +of Science in Secondary Schools", U.S. Dep't. Interior, Bureau of +Education, Bulletin 26, 1920). These aims will not be considered +in their entirety but only in so far as they bear directly on the +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> +problems that follow. Before proceeding further, for simplification +we will assume that the teacher is assigned to teach biological +sciences only. Even then the field is quite comprehensive, for +besides instruction in general biology, there will be courses of +a more advanced type, in Zoology, Botany, Physiology, and often +Bacteriology, Sanitation, or Agriculture. However, with preparation +in the fundamentals necessary for biology a teacher should be +able to conduct such courses without difficulty. Thus the problem +is sufficiently inclusive if it concerns preparation for biology +alone.</p> + +<p>The brief literal translation of the word <span class="u">biology</span>, science of +life, is full explanation of its scope. A course in the subject +is not Zoology, nor Botany, nor Bacteriology, nor Physiology—but +rather all of these in one. Biology should logically follow the +nature study of the elementary grades. The course must be so +planned that it will give the pupils the maximum of serviceable +fundamentals and at the same time be a basis for further study in +advanced courses, if he desires to continue; but such that he will +miss none of the essentials if he does not. Since science is +the product of mature minds, the culmination of knowledge, then in +this course for adolescents, the "ology" must not be too greatly +stressed lest the essential part, the "bios" be obscured. The +goal then is a course in which a study of plant life, a study of +bacteria in relation to human welfare, a study of animal life, +and the biology of the human, are all incorporated with well +balanced emphasis. This is the type of course recommended by +the Commission on Reorganization for the ninth or tenth year +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> +pupils, so is the end toward which preparation should be made.</p> + +<p>The next question concerns what constitutes adequate preparation +for the direction of studies of animate nature. First and foremost +is a realization of the aims, or better, the values, and relations +of biology. It is a socializing subject and must be so taught—man +is social. Biology affects man vitally, directly his behavior +follows natural laws, and indirectly by illustration and comparison +brings him to a better understanding biologic laws underlying the +organization of society. By way of illustration we need only to +cite the struggle for existence and the division of labor with +their far reaching influence in determining the course of evolution. +It would be impossible, I believe, to teach biology so poorly that +it did not have some socializing value; but it comes very near +to being done in some cases, there is little doubt.</p> + +<p>A paramount aim is the improvement of living conditions, both +as it concerns measures for group sanitation and factors in the +health of the individual. This should be the almost exclusive aim +in those parts of the course dealing with bacteria and disease, +and the biology of man, or physiology and eugenics. Biology has +many applications in our economic life. It is the very foundation +of agriculture. The lumber industry is beginning to find that +there are biologic laws. The Government of the United States some +time ago established a Bureau of Fisheries for the purpose of +studying the biological problems involved in the continuance and +furtherance of our extensive fisheries industry.</p> + +<p>So far as the individual is concerned, biology should train him to +observe life phenomena accurately and to form logical conclusions, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> +through the use of problems. This ability is a valuable asset whatever +his life work may be. Also, if it is the right kind of a course, and +well taught, it will enrich the life of the boy or girl through the +aesthetic appeal of plants and animals, and so make possible a sincere +appreciation and enjoyment of nature. In addition, the study of +biology should make clear to the pupil the important part that the +intensive study of the various biological sciences has played in the +whole marvelous scientific progress of the past centuries.</p> + +<p>Along with these values certain relations of biology must be +well understood if it is to be well taught. These relations may +be conveniently segregated into five groups, 1) relations to +world problems, 2) to problems of the state, 3) to the community, +4) to the school curriculum, and 5) to individual pupils. To +world problems biology bears many relations, for example, it is +fundamental in the analysis of immigration problems, especially +those phases concerning health, over-population, and the probable +hereditary effects of assimilation through hybridization. State +problems of health protection, conservation of game and forests, +control of rodents and other crop pests, and others can only be +solved after gaining a thorough knowledge of the underlying +natural laws, and acting in accordance with them. How inadequate +a game conservation law of closed season, without regard to the +breeding habits of the animal concerned! Again, State regulations +regarding the care of mentally deficient, especially in the prevention +of intermarriage, must be given consideration from the biological +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> +as well as the ethical point of view.</p> + +<p>As we consider the smaller group unit so the relations of biology to +that group become more special. A biology course may be readily +standardized for national problems, but for any given community the +course must be somewhat unique. A course planned for a rural +population would not be fitted for a school in an overcrowded section +of a city. Where there are differences in social and biological +problems there also must be fitting adaptive changes in the course in +biology. In addition to these community relations, the teacher must +keep in mind the relations between the biology course and the other +courses in the curriculum of the school. Such a question as this +should arise in the mind of the teacher; how may my work be made to +correlate with that of Domestic Science? The possibilities are many, +there is the field of dietetics, scientific determination of the best +methods of sweeping methods by bacterial culture methods, and the role +of bacteria, yeasts and molds in the culinary arts constitute a few of +them. How about cooperation with the English Department? Certainly +every bit of written work, every oral recitation, should measure up to +standards of ability in expression as well as to standards of +attainment in the mastery of certain scientific information. This +cooperation has been carried out to great mutual benefit in some +schools. These illustrations are sufficient to illustrate, though the +teacher should not overlook any department of the school.</p> + +<p>Relations to class and to individual will be considered in conjunction +with teaching methods.</p> + +<p>The values and interrelations of biology have been discussed at +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +some length because they must serve as criteria in deciding what +constitutes adequate preparation.</p> + +<p>The comprehensiveness and vital nature of the subject, biology, +present at once an inspiration and an element of fear to the +conscientious teacher. They cause him to regard in utter amazement, +the applicant for a position who in answer to question replies "No, I +have never taken any courses in biological Science, but I can easily +prepare myself to teach it, if need be." The impossibility of such +impromptu development of skill in the teaching of biology will become +more apparent as we proceed.</p> + +<p>Besides a full appreciation of the aims and relations of the subject, +the teacher must be able to construct a course especially adapted in +content to the peculiar needs of the particular community. This +follows from what was said of relations in a previous paragraph. The +development of such a course demands sufficient knowledge of economics +and sociology to make possible a correct analysis of local conditions +and so find what is required. The course to fulfill the requirements +will necessarily be to some extent new, and just to such extent may +the teacher feel something of the inspiration of the pioneer. Relative +values must be established; emphasis must be properly placed—life of +distant regions should not be taught except as local material may not +be available to illustrate some very essential point, yet too often a +carefully pickled grasshopper is transported from Florida to +California, there to be dissected by some unfortunate high school lad. +Not only must the larger divisions of the course be carefully balanced +and tested for value, but each lesson must justify its induction into +it. It is at this point that the relation to the individual is the +chief criterion.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> +Each lesson of the series that makes up the course must +justify its place by having some rather direct bearing upon the +life of the individual pupil. The core of the lesson must be +either the pupils problem or one in which his interest can be +readily stimulated. Herein is the value of the project method +of science teaching, the problem is sure to be of interest to the +pupil since he himself chooses it. Other questions to which +the lesson must give satisfactory answer are; Why this particular +lesson, at all? What relation does it bear to the preceding and +following lessons? Is it of real value to the pupil in his living? +What biological phenomenon does it teach? Is it the best problem +to illustrate that particular phenomenon? What generalizations +and practical applications can the <span class="u">pupil</span> make?</p> + +<p>The organization of a course in biology which is fitted to +the needs of a certain community, the conditions of a particular +class of pupils, and to the needs of the individual pupils so far +as possible, requires that the teacher have an extensive knowledge +of the subject matter as a background freeing him from the necessity +of dependence on a textbook. Anyway, a biology teacher conducting +the right sort of a course, will see that the textbook is only +an incidental, if used at all. A continuation of set assignments +in most textbooks would dampen the ardor of pupils generally. +Besides, few localities have textbooks fitted to their specific +needs. One that does have is New York City. In fact it has two, +"Elementary Biology" by Peabody & Hunt, and "Civic Biology" by Hunter. +These both have a large sale throughout the United States. +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> +But, of course, in most localities they can be used only to furnish +supplementary reading, since <span class="u">portions</span> only will be adapted to the +conditions of the restricted locality. The fundamental life processes +are the same the world over, but varying environmental conditions +necessitates a variation in emphasis, in application, and in the +choice of problems which make up the course. If the teacher is well +prepared in subject matter, there is little use for a laboratory +manual except as it may suggest new methods and new experimental +materials. Students of the high school age should never be compelled +to follow a set laboratory outline with detailed instructions for +procedure; it will kill every whit of initiative. The teacher must be +so prepared, then, that he is able to steer a free course, employing +books for reference and supplementary reading almost exclusively. He +will cause the student to realize that the books are the result of +<span class="u">human</span> effort and therefor not infallible, and that they must always +take second place to first hand observation and experiment. The study +of animate nature, with endless opportunity for observation and +experiment on every hand, permits little excuse for such method as is +illustrated by "Be prepared to recite on the next three pages in the +book, tomorrow, and read experiment 37 so that you wont have to waste +any time in getting started with the laboratory work".</p> + +<p>Somewhere in the course of preparation the teacher must have +obtained a thorough knowledge of laboratory apparatus and supplies. +The selection of types of apparatus best fitted to the course, and +the knowledge of where to buy are both necessary. Also judgement +must be exercised in purchase for few are the places where funds are +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> +adequate for the ideal equipment of a laboratory. The money value +of every piece of apparatus must be balanced against its relative +usefulness in the successful culmination of the course. Besides +this there must be a knowledge of the various uses to which the available +apparatus may be put. A great deal depends on the ingenuity of +the teacher in the adaptation of even comparatively simple apparatus. +In connection with the laboratory part (and this should be the major +part) of the course, there arises the question of field work and +excursions. Laboratory is at best merely a substitute for the +great out-of-doors, so the more work that can be done in the field +the better. Aside from exploration to discover what parts of the +particular locality will yield the largest fund of valuable biological +information, the problem here is mainly one of method.</p> + +<p>The teacher to be at his best must be somewhat of a naturalist. +Upon his fund of interesting stories about the animals and plants +that the children all know, will depend very largely the appeal of +the work to the pupil. Something of the spirit that distinguished +John Muir as the great naturalist is an inestimable asset to the +teacher. If it is not among his natal blessings, he need not +be completely discouraged for it can be acquired to some degree at +least. Besides the advantage just mentioned, the fauna and flora +must be sufficiently well known so that <span class="u">choice</span> is possible for +laboratory experiment and illustrative purposes.</p> + +<p>In order to present any subject well, its historical aspect +enters into consideration. The influence of individuals, of +governments, of religion, and of the social ideals have all had +their share in determining the present status of the subject. +Science as it now is, is the result of growth, it has undergone +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> +evolution, and is at present evolving. This will be thoroughly +understood by the teacher of science, and this understanding will +determine in part the method of presentation. In the history of +the development of science there are many men well worthy of hero +worship. It is hard to find more inspirational characters than +those of Pasteur, and Lazear; men who devoted (in latter instance, +sacrificed life) their lives to service for humanity. In the +life and work of Charles Darwin we find a splendid example of +painstaking search for the truth. The records of the rocks, +(Paleontology, the nature-written history of biology) will often +come to the rescue of the teacher in clearing up the presentation +of the difficult problems of evolution. The historic attitude +must be "put over" to the pupil too, for <span class="u">he</span> must know his world +as the result of the evolutionary process, and as still in the +process of evolution.</p> + +<p>Even at the risk of adverse criticism I desire to include +among the qualifications of a good teacher the spirit of research. +This spirit can be acquired by specialization in one of the fields +of biological science, followed by some actual research work.</p> + +<p>Research in science is fundamental. It has three aims or +ends, 1) discovery of facts thus increasing the sum total of +knowledge. This is science for science sake. 2) Individual +development. And, 3) Social service. These last two aims are +most important to the teacher. So, his problem for investigation +should have some practical bearing, and should be of his own +choosing, not pointedly suggested by the professor in charge as is +too often the case. If the research student is given a problem +which is some minor part of a larger problem being investigated by +his professor it will preclude the very thing the prospective teacher +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> +needs, namely practice in recognizing, analyzing, and solving a +problem in its entirety and solely on his own resources. Being +a mere helper is probably not the best way to secure such ability. +Investigation may be broadening and developing to the individual +or it may prove to be quite the reverse, but that lies within the +control of the individual. Research for the teacher must emphasize +equally actual additions to knowledge and personal attitude. It +must not be an end in itself but a means to an end. The attitude +of the investigator is essential to the understanding of children +for the child is first of all an investigator. His questions, +"what? why? how? when?" prove this beyond doubt. What is this but +a search for truth, causal factors, and interrelations? Education +uses this wholesome curiosity as a foundation principle, so the +teacher must exhibit a sympathetic understanding of this universal +attribute of children. No better summary of a discussion of the +values of research can be found for our purposes than that by +G. W. A. Luckey. It follows.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>"In order that teaching may be intelligent and in harmony +with the laws of nature there must be a deeper and clearer +knowledge of human growth and development. The teacher must +know the nature of the individual to be taught and the ends to +be reached in proper nurture. This can not be gained through +the study of books alone, but may come through properly directed +research in the workshop of life."</p> + +<p>One of the aims of present day education is "to develop a man, the +best man possible under the conditions; to assist nature through +nurture; to enable the individual to find himself and to evolve +naturally and rapidly to the highest levels and +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> +even to rise above them. According to this conception ... the +initiative must come from within. The aim of the teacher should be to +develop a self-sustaining, self-directing, altruistic individual +keenly alive to the interests of humanity. Such an ideal is +progressive, scientific, and fits one through studies of yesterday and +today to live the best and truest life tomorrow. To see and appreciate +this ideal, research is necessary."</p></div> + +<p>The last requirement to be considered in this discussion, is a good +foundation in Physics and Chemistry. Biological science is not +entirely separable from physical science, for a majority of life +phenomena, in final analysis can be explained only in terms of +physical science. Physiology has for its very foundation Physics and +Chemistry. Among the newest of the sciences is Biochemistry, the +chemistry of life; and within its limits are some of the most +promising fields of research. No argument is necessary, a knowledge of +physical science is indispensable in the interpretation of life +phenomena, and the understanding of biological processes.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>PREPARATION in METHODS</h2> + + +<p>Method is more closely associated with personality and with native +ability than is subject matter. So much more must preparation in this +field be general in nature. It must mainly concern the general +principles of the scientific method. Specific problems and minor +details will have to be worked out in actual practice. The final +method found most satisfactory by any teacher, will be to some extent +unique, but will be largely determined by three factors; the aptitudes +of the teacher, himself, the group that he is teaching, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> +and lastly, the consideration of the individual pupil. Ability to adapt +ones procedure so as to most nearly meet these requirements, will come +about only through experience. Ability to profit by experience, the +human attribute which makes possible the progress of civilization, is +a no less valuable asset to a teacher than to any other member of +society.</p> + +<p>Balliet points out that science teaching has passed through +three stages in the past generation. The first stage is characterized +by the textbook method, occasionally supplemented by illustrative +experiment, performed by the teacher. The second stage is +characterized by individual laboratory experiment, a manual for a +guide, and by a lack of application of the principles except for a +few traditional cases. The third stage improves upon the second +by leading the pupil, after formulating his generalizations, to +apply them to the facts and phenomena of nature. "But", continues +Balliet, "we must advance to a fourth stage. We must not only +apply the generalizations, but make the <span class="u">explanation</span> of the facts +and phenomena of nature—the interpretation of nature—the very +goal of science teaching." All problems should be chosen then in +the light of this last aim. The problems must be natural, not in +any way artificial, and they should be those of the immediate +environment of the pupil. To meet these obligations may be in +some cases difficult, but it should not be impossible.</p> + +<p>In biological science there is a rich field permitting a +considerable choice in method. There are observations, projects, +experiments, excursions, individual reports, book readings, quizzes, +and conferences. In a single well chosen problem or project +nearly all of these will be employed. Biology lends itself ideally +to the problem method of teaching. By using some every day problem +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> +of the pupil, his interest is assured. Even a seemingly simple +problem if skilfully directed, will ramify into several fields of +biology before its solution is completed. And the number of +practicable problems is almost limitless, but not all are equally +good for the purpose, so the teacher must often tactfully modify +the pupils choice. Original choices are likely to be too complex +for the pupil to solve at his stage of progress, so must be +simplified, without his feeling that he has been interfered with, +without causing a wane in his interest. It is clear that the real +problem in the problem-method is the teacher's. Practically, it +is quite impossible to handle <span class="u">individual</span> projects in large classes. +In the writer's experience, he has had on the average 80 different +pupils per day in four separate classes. It is clearly beyond the +power of any teacher to direct simultaneously eighty different +projects, and it would be a physical impossibility to furnish the +necessary laboratory apparatus. So, for this reason the teacher +may find it necessary to divide, as diplomatically as possible, +the classes into congenial groups, each with its problem, so that +the total number of problems will be so limited that each one may +be given adequate attention. It seems that such must be the limitation +of the problem-method under the conditions prevailing in the +public schools today.</p> + +<p>The procedure in solving a problem will consist of these steps +in the order named, 1) understanding of the purpose, 2) the procedure +or method of attack, 3) observation of results, 4) and the +use of these in making some generalizations or arriving at some +conclusions. Then there must follow a testing of these generalizations +or conclusions by further experimentation. Accuracy must +be the keynote of all work, accuracy in recording experiments, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> +accuracy in observation, accuracy in drawing, which serves as a +shortcut method of description. Neatness is very desireable but +should never supercede thinking and understanding. If the problem +has stimulated some accurate logical thinking on the part of the +pupil, then time spent on it has been well spent. If, besides, it +has yielded some valuable useable information, the solving of the +problem has been a marked success. The laboratory method has been +such an emancipation from the textbook slavery that there is some +tendency to elevate it to an end in itself, whereas it must serve +only as a very valuable <span class="u">means</span> to an end. "The ideal laboratory +is only a reasonably good substitute for the out-of-doors."</p> + +<p>So far as preparation in the methods of science teaching is +concerned, much good may be accomplished in teachers courses and +in practice teaching. But it must necessarily be of a general +nature, for the unique individual method, determined by the interaction +of teacher and pupil and the reaction of both to subject +matter can evolve only hand in hand with teaching experience.</p> + +<p>Before proceeding further it might be well, by way of summary, to +remind ourselves that the minimum qualifications for a teacher of +biology must include the following; a) a large fund of the most +interesting and most valuable facts of biology, b) a full realization +of the values and vital relations of biology to humanity, c) ability +to develop a course meeting the unique needs of the community, +d) familiarity with purchase and useability of laboratory equipment, +e) knowledge of the history of science, f) spirit of and sympathy with +research, g) a knowledge of physical science as related to biology, +h) and knowledge of the laboratory method and its value in the +promotion of accurate logical constructive thinking.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span></p> +<h2>OPPORTUNITY FOR ADEQUATE PREPARATION.</h2> + + +<p>What possibilities of making adequate preparation, are to be +found in colleges and universities? And how much preparation is +required by the Teacher's Recommendation or other standards of +fitness? In search of the answers to our questions, we may study +conditions at the University of California, for there is as good +opportunity and standards are as high in this school as anywhere +in the country. The quantity of preparation is fairly assured by +the five-year requirement for the Teacher's Recommendation, but the +quality of the preparation is not so certainly assured. With the +possible exception of the Education Department, no department considers +the training of teachers even nearly equal in importance to +the production of specialists in the subject who shall devote their +lives to research. The subject is regarded as an end in itself.</p> + +<p>If a person were directed to make preparation for the teaching +of biology, he would be at a loss in searching for the Biology +Department, or even a department that gave a good comprehensive +course in biology. The subject as best taught in the secondary +schools is subdivided into various components, each with its special +aim. The prospective teacher has no carefully prepared course of +study for his pursuit, as has the prospective doctor, engineer, or +farmer. The state provides a specially adapted course of training +for its veterinarians, those who care for its livestock. Why not +a special course of high standard for those who plan to devote their +lives to the direction of the formative years of its children? It +is probably explained in large part by the failure to recognize +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> +teaching as a profession. The Schools of Education throughout the +country have been insisting upon real professional training for +teachers but other departments are deplorably slow in cooperating.</p> + +<p>In order to avoid becoming entangled in abstractions, we may +choose a specific instance to show the difficulties in the way of +securing the correct <span class="u">kind</span> of preparation, even though the quantity +is guaranteed. The Zoology Department (I choose this department +neither because it is worse nor better than any other, but because +I am better acquainted with the content of its courses) makes the +following requirements for the Teacher's Recommendation:</p> + +<div class="blockquot"> +<p>General Zoology</p> + +<p>Invertebrate Zoology—</p> +<div class="blockquot"><p>an advanced course which omits all consideration of insects, +and all discussion of parasitic forms.</p></div> + +<p>Vertebrate Zoology—</p> +<div class="blockquot"><p>mainly a course in comparative morphology, +which gives no field knowledge of California vertebrates, the most +essential thing for the high school teacher.</p></div> + +<p>and one subject from each of the following groups,</p> + +<p>Group I<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Comparative Anatomy.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Cytology—</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"><p>basic principles must be understood by the teacher but he +should not have to spend one whole half year to acquire them.</p></div> +<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Embryology.—</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"><p>the above is also true for this course.</p></div> + +<p>Group II.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Biology of Water Supplies—</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"><p>this course is primarily for sanitary engineers.</p></div> +<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Protozoology—</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"><p>All that is necessary of this could be incorporated +in a general course.</p></div> +<p><span style="margin-left: 1em;">Parasitology—</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"><p>essential for health instruction and for +illustration of certain biological principles.</p></div> + +<p>Group III.<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Experimental Zoology } combination of these valuable.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Animal Behavior }</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Heredity, Evolution, and Eugenics—</span></p> +<div class="blockquot"><p>this course is very essential for <span class="u">any</span> teacher.</p></div> +<p>(Required in the fifth year, the Teachers' Course, some work in research, and practice teaching.)</p> +</div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> +Taken as a whole, the chief criticism to be made is that the subject has +been so subdivided to insure no overlapping of courses, that it +becomes necessary to take every course in order to obtain a well +rounded preparation in the field. This requires more time than +any individual can devote to it, for he must also have preparation +in Botany, Physiology, and Bacteriology and Hygiene, and in these +departments the arrangement of courses is essentially the same. +The general course in Zoology is inadequate, for it is planned for +an introduction to the more advanced courses and is careful not to +steal too much from their fund of interesting information. The +aim is to lay a thorough foundation rather than to discuss the +more interesting facts and general principles of biology, though I +am glad to believe that the present trend is decidedly in this +latter direction.</p> + +<p>Here we find adequate preparation for a teacher of <span class="u">Zoology</span>, +but in no secondary school of the state will a teacher be employed +for Zoology alone. In high schools the biological science curriculum +the first course must be <span class="u">Biology</span>, and it must be all-inclusive, +for it is all of the biological science that the majority of the +pupils will take. It would be a great step in advance if every +school <span class="u">required</span> even that much for graduation.</p> + +<p>Of the courses in Invertebrate Zoology and Vertebrate Zoology, it can +be safely said that they overlook the importance of field work. Boys +and girls sometimes have a surprisingly large superficial knowledge of +the plants and animals of their vicinity, and this knowledge is of the +sort obtained through observation of their ways in nature, that is, it +is a <span class="u">field</span> knowledge. The teacher must be prepared to use this to +the greatest possible extent, but how can this be expected +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +if the teacher knows little if any more than the children about the habits +of plants and animals. Such training would have to be obtained through +some of the field work of the Museum of Vertebrate zoology. But no +work in that department is required for the Teachers Recommendation. A +knowledge, though not an intensive knowledge, of each of the subjects +that make up the three groups included in the requirements is quite +necessary but it is out of the question for a person to take them all +unless he specialize in Zoology. Not all can be expected to major in +Zoology, and those that do will find it necessary to omit much that is +essential in the other departments of biological science. Each +department should have a general course covering fully its field of +work so that those majoring in some other department may in minimum +time gain a fair knowledge of its field. It is very doubtful if such a +course is given in any department at present.</p> + +<p>At present only a meagre view is had of the history of Biology, +until the fifth year when it is given as seminar work. And at no +time, in any course, are the aims and relations of biology presented +in such a way as to be helpful to one attempting to plan the most +valuable type of high school course. Graduate research has been +sufficiently considered previously, and the teachers' course will +be considered last.</p> + +<p>It will be conceded generally in thinking of the solution of the +problem that the ideal arrangement would be a real teachers' course, +at least five years in length. This could be comparatively easily +accomplished by a slight modification of the departments concerned and +their hearty cooperation with the Department of Education. The disregard +for method on the part of the former and the failure to realize the +importance of a thorough knowledge of subject matter by the latter, can +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> +are obstacles that can be easily overcome I am sure. +The student would enter upon this course with the intention of +becoming a teacher, just as does any student enter upon his +professional course with the intention of becoming the professional +man for which his training is preparing him. Few freshmen now come to +the University of California with the intention of becoming teachers +in the secondary schools, that I admit, but the reasons and the remedy +for that are not for discussion here. Suffice it to say that when +reward is adequate, then the profession will grow and come to be made +up of the highest type of men and women.</p> + +<p>The time of the Teachers Course is not far distant and it might be +worth while to see what could be done without radical modifications in +the curricula of the departments as they now are. For a working basis +I would like to present the following skeleton programme, which seems +practicable. In this schedule all preparation except that in subject +matter and method is understood to be included in "electives". A major +in Zoology is assumed. Each biological science department would have a +course of similar plan built about its major as a core.</p> + +<div class="blockquot"><p> +First year,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Geography or Geology</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Aims of science and its human values.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Chemistry</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Electives</span><br /> +<br /> +Second year,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zoology,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Physics,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Electives</span><br /> +<br /> +Third year,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zoology—advanced courses</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Botany,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Physiology</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Electives</span><br /> +<br /> +Fourth year,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zoology—advanced courses</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Bacteriology, and Public Health</span><br /> +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Electives</span><br /> +<br /> +Fifth year,<br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Zoology—research</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">History of Science</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Teachers' Course, correlated with and supplementary to practice teaching.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Electives</span><br /> +</p></div> + +<p>The reasons for selection and sequence of subjects in this +schedule are fairly evident from what has gone before, but a few +points will bear additional explanation.</p> + +<p>A course in the aims and values of science should be introductory, for +in the absence of general knowledge concerning values, such as has +grown up with other professions, the student must be given early in +his work an enthusiasm for it and a sort of guide for future choice of +subjects for study. The difference in aim between university and +secondary school science must be clearly understood at the start. Too +often, university courses accept science as an end in itself and it is +taught from that point of view, whereas the prospective teacher must +hold to his point of view, that to humanity generally science is only +a very effective means to an end; it is just a faithful servant.</p> + +<p>The schedule just submitted may seem to be overbalanced with +science courses, but it must be somewhat so, especially if courses +are not to be completely reorganized. Science would not need to +consume quite so large a part of the time if special courses were +given for teachers—another argument for a high grade, strictly +professional course.</p> + +<p>Duplication of teachers' courses in special methods would be +eliminated for a single course for all of the departments of biological +science would be sufficient. Biology is the hub, and not +the separate biological sciences, in the courses in this field in the +secondary schools. The methods concerned are <span class="u">biological</span> <span class="u">methods</span>, +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> +and therefore a single course for all prospective teachers of +biological science regardless of the nature of their major work, +is a logical procedure. Whether such a course is a success or a +failure is largely dependent on the professor in charge. In the +past there have been many failures, mainly because the person +conducting it has never had secondary school experience, knows +little or nothing of the problems, and has no sincere enthusiasm +for the teaching of science to boys and girls below the university +age.</p> + +<p>The course suggested would cover an entire year. At least that +much time is required to give any direction or instruction that is +worth while. The first half of the year might well be devoted to +a digestion and correlation of all previous work, organizing it into +a form easily useable in the work to follow. Questions of method, +recitation, laboratory and field work, textbooks and reference books +purchase and use of equipment, must be given consideration in some +part of the course. An outline course, with the separate lessons +that make it up should be worked out in detail, for some particular +locality, preferably the one where practice teaching is to be done. +This should then be carefully tested by the criteria of a good +biology course, as pointed out by the best authorities, and by +<span class="u">common</span> <span class="u">sense</span>. But why make this skeleton outline beforehand? Why +be prepared in anything? It will be too late to prepare at the +moment the problem has to be met. Few new teachers will find a +well planned course awaiting their arrival in a new field, and +without previous experience a new teacher is likely to build up a +course without due respect to relative values which comes only with +a perspective of a course in its entirety. To illustrate, in the +course given by an inexperienced teacher there is too much chance of +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> +six weeks time being spent on the study of the grasshopper, with +only four weeks left at the end of the school year to be devoted +to the biology of the human. The mapping of a course, by way of +practice, gives the prospective teacher practice in the exercise of +judgment, with helpful constructive criticism.</p> + +<p>Practice teaching now becomes only the trying out of the course and +accompanying methods. As, one practice teacher remarked when this plan +was suggested "But, I might have to make my course all over." Such +would often be the case. Any wide-awake teacher will change his course +more or less from year to year. Even if the first plan were entirely +discarded the energy and thought prompted by its making would not be +lost. And now let us change the name given to those in charge of +practice teachers. Advisor would be more fitting than <span class="u">super</span>visor, +for they should remain in the background except for rendering helpful +service, and making constructive criticism in excess of destructive.</p> + +<p>In order for practice teaching to be effective there must be nothing +of an artificial sort enter in. Conditions must be of the regular sort +met every day in the teaching game. This statement seems superfluous, +but a visit to some of the classes where practice teaching is being +done will justify its insertion here. The practice teacher should not +be handed over a laboratory properly equipped. Of course, the +equipment should be available. The course should not be "ready-cut". +The practice teacher must meet <span class="u">all</span> of the problems and this is +cheating him out of a part of his fun. Through his solution of these problems +there will be a two-fold benefit, for the <span class="u">advisor</span> too may profit by +the ingenuity of the newcomer. Resignation should be requested of any advisor +who has outgrown the ability to learn. It is most likely to be the "green" +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> +person, who will develop really new methods, or evolve a more fitting +experiment, or turn a bit of apparatus to a new use. Above all, the +practice teacher should be required to scout for living +material—there will usually be an abundance all about him, and +much that is of interest should find its way into the laboratory. +Training in the use of living material can not be over emphasized.</p> + +<p>The course which I have outlined in the previous pages, is not +satisfactory, but I firmly believe that it would be an improvement +over the present situation. When tried out it would show many +shortcomings, but by trial and improvement has our entire educational +system evolved. Even an ideal professional course in use today would +be obsolete tomorrow. It would be unfortunate were it not so, for +growth involves ecdysis, and growth is the law of nature.</p> + + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p> +<h2>Literature from which helpful<br /> +suggestions were received during the course<br /> +of this work.</h2> + + +<table border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Bibliography"> +<colgroup><col width="30%" /><col width="70%" /></colgroup> +<tr> + <td>Bagley, W. C.</td> + <td>The training of teachers as a phase of democracy's educational programme. Ed. Adm. & Supervsn. vol.4 no.1, Jan.'18.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Balliet, T. M. and Robinson, C. H.</td> + <td>Training of Science Teachers. N. E. A. Report, vol.54, 1916, pp.734-7.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Bessey, C. E.</td> + <td>Preparation of botanical teachers. Science, N.S., vol.33, pp.633-9, 1911.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Boas, F. S.</td> + <td>Teachers and research. Contemp., vol.116, pp.426-431. 1919.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Boggs, L. P.</td> + <td>Making Teachers. School & Soc., vol.7, pp.369-74.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Caldwell, W. O.</td> + <td>Preparation of the teacher of biology. School Sci. & Math., vol.16, pp.385-92.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Coulter, J. G.</td> + <td>The training of elementary science teachers. School Rev., vol.24, pp.26-30.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Curtis, C.B.</td> + <td>Secondary school science. Ed. Adm. & Supervsn., vol.3, Nov.1917.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Dewey, J. D.</td> + <td>Democracy and Education.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Kent R. A.</td> + <td>University preparation of teachers for high schools. School Rev., vol.27, pp.172-85.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Lange, A. F.</td> + <td>Preparation of high school teachers from the standpoint of the university. U. C. A. Report, 1907, pp.718-23.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Lloyd, F. E. and Bigelow, M. A.</td> + <td>The teaching of biology. 1909. Longmans, Green & Co.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Luckey, G. W. A.</td> + <td>Essentials in the training of a teacher. School and Society, vol.1, pp.263-9.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>McElroy, R. M.</td> + <td>Teaching teachers. Ind., vol.93, pp.525-.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Pillsbury, W. H.</td> + <td>Buffalo plan of teacher training. Elem. Sch. Jr. vol.21, pp.595-606.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Swift, F. H.</td> + <td>College courses in methods of teaching high school subjects. Sch. & Soc., vol.6, pp.691-9.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Taylor, W. S.</td> + <td>Project methods in teacher-training courses. Sch. & Soc., vol.8, pp.487-90.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Wieman, H. L.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></td> + <td>Teachcing the scientific method vs. teaching the facts of science. Sch. & Soc., vol.3, pp.243-5.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Williams, J.T.</td> + <td>Teacher training in colleges. Sch. & Soc., vol.9, pp.105-9.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>Winship, A. E.</td> + <td>Prepare rather than train for teaching. N. E. A. Report, 1918, pp.222-6.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>————</td> + <td>Research vs. teaching. Sch. & Soc., vol.11, pp.684-5.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>————</td> + <td>Research as a means of teacher training. Sch. & Soc., vol.3, pp.243-5.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>————</td> + <td>Reorganization of science in secondary schools. U. S. Dep't. Interior, Bureau Ed., Bull.26, 1920.</td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td>————</td> + <td>Cardinal principles of secondary education. U. S. Dep't. Interior, Bureau Ed., Bull.35, 1918.</td> +</tr> +</table> + + +<h4>Twiss, G.R.—Principles of Science Teaching.<br /> +Macmillan. 1917.</h4> + + +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES</h2> +<p>1. Tables have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the +closest paragraph break.</p> + +<p>2. The original pages included corrections made by hand which have +been retained in this e-text.</p> + +<p>3. The following misprints have been corrected:</p> +<div class="blockquot"><p> + "intellegently" corrected to "intelligently" (page 5)<br /> + "basterial" corrected to "bacterial" (page 9)<br /> + "would would" corrected to "would" (page 11)<br /> + "natuer" corrected to "nature" (page 15)<br /> + "Abilty" corrected to "Ability" (page 17)<br /> + "Baillet" corrected to "Balliet" (page 17)<br /> + "taht" corrected to "that" (page 22)<br /> + "modificacations" corrected to "modifications" (page 24)<br /> + "succes" corrected to "success" (page 26)<br /> + "in" corrected to "In" at start of sentence (page 26)<br /> + "fialures" corrected to "failures" (page 26)<br /> + "toworrow" corrected to "tomorrow" (page 28)<br /> + "Teahcing" corrected to "Teaching" (page 30)</p></div> + +<p>4. Some of the punctuation errors, e.g., comma instead of period, +extra period, etc. in the original have been silently corrected +while those requiring interpretation have been left as such.</p> + +<p>5. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Adequate Preparation for the Teacher of Biological Sciences in Secondary Schools + +Author: James Daley McDonald + +Release Date: January 13, 2010 [EBook #30957] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TEACHER OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES *** + + + + +Produced by Bryan Ness, Ritu Aggarwal and the Online +Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This +file was produced from images generously made available +by The Internet Archive/American Libraries.) + + + + + + + + + + ADEQUATE PREPARATION FOR THE + TEACHER OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES + IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS. + + + J. Daley McDonald + + + Submitted to the School of Education of the University of + California in partial fulfillment of the minor requirements + for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. + + November 15th + 1921 + + + + + CONTENTS + + + Introduction 3 + Retarding factors in improvement 4 + Qualifications in subject matter 5 + Scope of Biology 6 + Values and relations of Biology 7 + Adaptation of course to community conditions 10 + Freedom from textbook slavery 11 + Materials and laboratory equipment 12 + Historical setting 13 + Spirit of research 14 + Qualifications in method 16 + Factors determining correct method 16 + History of scientific method 17 + Problem method 17 + Accuracy and logical constructive thinking 18 + Teacher's final method necessarily unique 19 + Summary of necessary qualifications 19 + Opportunity for adequate preparation 20 + Lack of professional course 20 + Requirements of Teachers Recommendation in Zoology 21 + Courses not adapted for teacher-preparation 22 + Professional course the goal 23 + Suggested modifications of present courses 24 + Course in special methods 25 + Practice teaching 27 + Bibliography 29 + + + + +The use of the term _preparation_ herein is intended to indicate +partially the limitation of the problem attempted. The following +discussion will be concerned only with such attributes of the +successful teacher as are the direct result, or at least greatly +enhanced by thorough preparation. A sufficiently comprehensive and +difficult problem remains after still further restriction of the field +so as to include only subject matter and the method of biological +science. + +It is scarcely necessary to make the statement that the standards of +preparation and the facilities for meeting these standards have been +enormously improved within the past few years. Evidence of this is +found in the changes recently made in the curricula of and the +requirements for graduation from the California State Teachers +Colleges. Neither is it necessary to say that improvement must +continue. Such problems are evolutionary. Notwithstanding that +requirements for teachers certificates have been raised the country +over, the universities are not generally making very rapid strides in +affording opportunities for better preparation in subject-matter and +special methods. In corroboration, witness the recent criticisms of +the departmental courses in special methods now given in universities +generally (Swift, 1918; Taylor, 1918). The length of time or the +number of units of work required for certification may be increased +but that does not insure a finer _quality_ of preparation. + +In attempting to explain the slow pace of improvement in the quality +of preparation for the teaching of science, one becomes involved in a +cycle. Science had its development in the college and university +whence it diffused slowly into the secondary schools, and finally +slightly into the elementary grades. The differences between the aims +of college science and secondary school science were and still are not +taken sufficiently into account. As an inevitable result there are to +be found in the curricula of high schools too many science courses +that are mere dilutions of the college type, with no modification of +purpose, and just enough change in method and subject matter to bring +them partially within the power of understanding of the less mature +mind. This situation in turn reflected upon the higher institutions of +learning in such a way that it seemed that they were giving adequate +training of the correct type. And such would have been the case had +the college course in the particular science been planned for the +express purpose of being diluted to suit secondary school needs. But +it will be generally conceded that such courses never have existed. + +Another retarding factor in the evolution of the problem has been the +subordination of special training in subject matter to other really +less important qualifications, in the selection of teachers. The table +given below, compiled from statistics gathered in one of the States +during 1916, shows sufficient justification for the above statement. +And not only has the preparation in subject matter been too little +considered in choosing teachers, but also in the administration of +schools specially intended for teacher-training. An educator of high +standing in California is credited with making the criticism of the +Normal Schools of the State; that they attempt to teach a person how +to teach intelligently something about which he knows nothing. When +teachers have adequate preparation in subject matter as well as in +methods, and when they are employed to teach only those subjects for +which they are fitted, then the problem of maintaining a high standard +of teaching will be well nigh solved. + + Subject | Prepared & | Not prepared | Prepared and | Total + | teaching | & teaching | not teaching | + -----------+------------+--------------+--------------+------- + Physiology | 19 | 8 | 57 | 84 + -----------+------------+--------------+--------------+------- + Botany | 71 | 39 | 74 | 184 + -----------+------------+--------------+--------------+------- + Zoology | 9 | 20 | 5 | 34 + -----------+------------+--------------+--------------+------- + Agriculture| 63 | 14 | 84 | 161 + -----------+------------+--------------+--------------+------- + + + + + Preparation in Subject Matter + + +Before facing the problem of preparation for the teaching of +biological sciences in the secondary schools, there must be a clear +conception of the aims and legitimate purposes of these sciences in +the high school. We are fortunate in having the aims of biology +clearly and concisely stated by the Commission on the Reorganization +of Secondary Education of the N.E.A. ("Reorganization of Science in +Secondary Schools", U.S. Dep't. Interior, Bureau of Education, +Bulletin 26, 1920). These aims will not be considered in their +entirety but only in so far as they bear directly on the problems +that follow. Before proceeding further, for simplification we will +assume that the teacher is assigned to teach biological sciences only. +Even then the field is quite comprehensive, for besides instruction in +general biology, there will be courses of a more advanced type, in +Zoology, Botany, Physiology, and often Bacteriology, Sanitation, or +Agriculture. However, with preparation in the fundamentals necessary +for biology a teacher should be able to conduct such courses without +difficulty. Thus the problem is sufficiently inclusive if it concerns +preparation for biology alone. + +The brief literal translation of the word _biology_, science of life, +is full explanation of its scope. A course in the subject is not +Zoology, nor Botany, nor Bacteriology, nor Physiology--but rather all +of these in one. Biology should logically follow the nature study of +the elementary grades. The course must be so planned that it will give +the pupils the maximum of serviceable fundamentals and at the same +time be a basis for further study in advanced courses, if he desires +to continue; but such that he will miss none of the essentials if he +does not. Since science is the product of mature minds, the +culmination of knowledge, then in this course for adolescents, the +"ology" must not be too greatly stressed lest the essential part, the +"bios" be obscured. The goal then is a course in which a study of +plant life, a study of bacteria in relation to human welfare, a study +of animal life, and the biology of the human, are all incorporated +with well balanced emphasis. This is the type of course recommended by +the Commission on Reorganization for the ninth or tenth year pupils, +so is the end toward which preparation should be made. + +The next question concerns what constitutes adequate preparation for +the direction of studies of animate nature. First and foremost is a +realization of the aims, or better, the values, and relations of +biology. It is a socializing subject and must be so taught--man is +social. Biology affects man vitally, directly his behavior follows +natural laws, and indirectly by illustration and comparison brings him +to a better understanding biologic laws underlying the organization of +society. By way of illustration we need only to cite the struggle for +existence and the division of labor with their far reaching influence +in determining the course of evolution. It would be impossible, I +believe, to teach biology so poorly that it did not have some +socializing value; but it comes very near to being done in some cases, +there is little doubt. + +A paramount aim is the improvement of living conditions, both as it +concerns measures for group sanitation and factors in the health of +the individual. This should be the almost exclusive aim in those parts +of the course dealing with bacteria and disease, and the biology of +man, or physiology and eugenics. Biology has many applications in our +economic life. It is the very foundation of agriculture. The lumber +industry is beginning to find that there are biologic laws. The +Government of the United States some time ago established a Bureau of +Fisheries for the purpose of studying the biological problems involved +in the continuance and furtherance of our extensive fisheries +industry. + +So far as the individual is concerned, biology should train him to +observe life phenomena accurately and to form logical conclusions, +through the use of problems. This ability is a valuable asset whatever +his life work may be. Also, if it is the right kind of a course, and +well taught, it will enrich the life of the boy or girl through the +aesthetic appeal of plants and animals, and so make possible a sincere +appreciation and enjoyment of nature. In addition, the study of +biology should make clear to the pupil the important part that the +intensive study of the various biological sciences has played in the +whole marvelous scientific progress of the past centuries. + +Along with these values certain relations of biology must be well +understood if it is to be well taught. These relations may be +conveniently segregated into five groups, 1) relations to world +problems, 2) to problems of the state, 3) to the community, 4) to the +school curriculum, and 5) to individual pupils. To world problems +biology bears many relations, for example, it is fundamental in the +analysis of immigration problems, especially those phases concerning +health, over-population, and the probable hereditary effects of +assimilation through hybridization. State problems of health +protection, conservation of game and forests, control of rodents and +other crop pests, and others can only be solved after gaining a +thorough knowledge of the underlying natural laws, and acting in +accordance with them. How inadequate a game conservation law of closed +season, without regard to the breeding habits of the animal concerned! +Again, State regulations regarding the care of mentally deficient, +especially in the prevention of intermarriage, must be given +consideration from the biological as well as the ethical point of +view. + +As we consider the smaller group unit so the relations of biology to +that group become more special. A biology course may be readily +standardized for national problems, but for any given community the +course must be somewhat unique. A course planned for a rural +population would not be fitted for a school in an overcrowded section +of a city. Where there are differences in social and biological +problems there also must be fitting adaptive changes in the course in +biology. In addition to these community relations, the teacher must +keep in mind the relations between the biology course and the other +courses in the curriculum of the school. Such a question as this +should arise in the mind of the teacher; how may my work be made to +correlate with that of Domestic Science? The possibilities are many, +there is the field of dietetics, scientific determination of the best +methods of sweeping methods by bacterial culture methods, and the role +of bacteria, yeasts and molds in the culinary arts constitute a few of +them. How about cooperation with the English Department? Certainly +every bit of written work, every oral recitation, should measure up to +standards of ability in expression as well as to standards of +attainment in the mastery of certain scientific information. This +cooperation has been carried out to great mutual benefit in some +schools. These illustrations are sufficient to illustrate, though the +teacher should not overlook any department of the school. + +Relations to class and to individual will be considered in conjunction +with teaching methods. + +The values and interrelations of biology have been discussed at some +length because they must serve as criteria in deciding what +constitutes adequate preparation. + +The comprehensiveness and vital nature of the subject, biology, +present at once an inspiration and an element of fear to the +conscientious teacher. They cause him to regard in utter amazement, +the applicant for a position who in answer to question replies "No, I +have never taken any courses in biological Science, but I can easily +prepare myself to teach it, if need be." The impossibility of such +impromptu development of skill in the teaching of biology will become +more apparent as we proceed. + +Besides a full appreciation of the aims and relations of the subject, +the teacher must be able to construct a course especially adapted in +content to the peculiar needs of the particular community. This +follows from what was said of relations in a previous paragraph. The +development of such a course demands sufficient knowledge of economics +and sociology to make possible a correct analysis of local conditions +and so find what is required. The course to fulfill the requirements +will necessarily be to some extent new, and just to such extent may +the teacher feel something of the inspiration of the pioneer. Relative +values must be established; emphasis must be properly placed--life of +distant regions should not be taught except as local material may not +be available to illustrate some very essential point, yet too often a +carefully pickled grasshopper is transported from Florida to +California, there to be dissected by some unfortunate high school lad. +Not only must the larger divisions of the course be carefully balanced +and tested for value, but each lesson must justify its induction into +it. It is at this point that the relation to the individual is the +chief criterion. + +Each lesson of the series that makes up the course must justify its +place by having some rather direct bearing upon the life of the +individual pupil. The core of the lesson must be either the pupils +problem or one in which his interest can be readily stimulated. Herein +is the value of the project method of science teaching, the problem is +sure to be of interest to the pupil since he himself chooses it. Other +questions to which the lesson must give satisfactory answer are; Why +this particular lesson, at all? What relation does it bear to the +preceding and following lessons? Is it of real value to the pupil in +his living? What biological phenomenon does it teach? Is it the best +problem to illustrate that particular phenomenon? What generalizations +and practical applications can the _pupil_ make? + +The organization of a course in biology which is fitted to the needs +of a certain community, the conditions of a particular class of +pupils, and to the needs of the individual pupils so far as possible, +requires that the teacher have an extensive knowledge of the subject +matter as a background freeing him from the necessity of dependence on +a textbook. Anyway, a biology teacher conducting the right sort of a +course, will see that the textbook is only an incidental, if used at +all. A continuation of set assignments in most textbooks would dampen +the ardor of pupils generally. Besides, few localities have textbooks +fitted to their specific needs. One that does have is New York City. +In fact it has two, "Elementary Biology" by Peabody & Hunt, and "Civic +Biology" by Hunter. These both have a large sale throughout the United +States, But, of course, in most localities they can be used only to +furnish supplementary reading, since _portions_ only will be adapted +to the conditions of the restricted locality. The fundamental life +processes are the same the world over, but varying environmental +conditions necessitates a variation in emphasis, in application, and +in the choice of problems which make up the course. If the teacher is +well prepared in subject matter, there is little use for a laboratory +manual except as it may suggest new methods and new experimental +materials. Students of the high school age should never be compelled +to follow a set laboratory outline with detailed instructions for +procedure; it will kill every whit of initiative. The teacher must be +so prepared, then, that he is able to steer a free course, employing +books for reference and supplementary reading almost exclusively. He +will cause the student to realize that the books are the result of +_human_ effort and therefor not infallible, and that they must always +take second place to first hand observation and experiment. The study +of animate nature, with endless opportunity for observation and +experiment on every hand, permits little excuse for such method as is +illustrated by "Be prepared to recite on the next three pages in the +book, tomorrow, and read experiment 37 so that you wont have to waste +any time in getting started with the laboratory work". + +Somewhere in the course of preparation the teacher must have obtained +a thorough knowledge of laboratory apparatus and supplies. The +selection of types of apparatus best fitted to the course, and the +knowledge of where to buy are both necessary. Also judgement must be +exercised in purchase for few are the places where funds are adequate +for the ideal equipment of a laboratory. The money value of every +piece of apparatus must be balanced against its relative usefulness in +the successful culmination of the course. Besides this there must be a +knowledge of the various uses to which the available apparatus may be +put. A great deal depends on the ingenuity of the teacher in the +adaptation of even comparatively simple apparatus. In connection with +the laboratory part (and this should be the major part) of the course, +there arises the question of field work and excursions. Laboratory is +at best merely a substitute for the great out-of-doors, so the more +work that can be done in the field the better. Aside from exploration +to discover what parts of the particular locality will yield the +largest fund of valuable biological information, the problem here is +mainly one of method. + +The teacher to be at his best must be somewhat of a naturalist. Upon +his fund of interesting stories about the animals and plants that the +children all know, will depend very largely the appeal of the work to +the pupil. Something of the spirit that distinguished John Muir as the +great naturalist is an inestimable asset to the teacher. If it is not +among his natal blessings, he need not be completely discouraged for +it can be acquired to some degree at least. Besides the advantage just +mentioned, the fauna and flora must be sufficiently well known so that +_choice_ is possible for laboratory experiment and illustrative +purposes. + +In order to present any subject well, its historical aspect enters +into consideration. The influence of individuals, of governments, of +religion, and of the social ideals have all had their share in +determining the present status of the subject. Science as it now is, +is the result of growth, it has undergone evolution, and is at +present evolving. This will be thoroughly understood by the teacher of +science, and this understanding will determine in part the method of +presentation. In the history of the development of science there are +many men well worthy of hero worship. It is hard to find more +inspirational characters than those of Pasteur, and Lazear; men who +devoted (in latter instance, sacrificed life) their lives to service +for humanity. In the life and work of Charles Darwin we find a +splendid example of painstaking search for the truth. The records of +the rocks, (Paleontology, the nature-written history of biology) will +often come to the rescue of the teacher in clearing up the +presentation of the difficult problems of evolution. The historic +attitude must be "put over" to the pupil too, for _he_ must know his +world as the result of the evolutionary process, and as still in the +process of evolution. + +Even at the risk of adverse criticism I desire to include among the +qualifications of a good teacher the spirit of research. This spirit +can be acquired by specialization in one of the fields of biological +science, followed by some actual research work. + +Research in science is fundamental. It has three aims or ends, 1) +discovery of facts thus increasing the sum total of knowledge. This is +science for science sake. 2) Individual development. And, 3) Social +service. These last two aims are most important to the teacher. So, +his problem for investigation should have some practical bearing, and +should be of his own choosing, not pointedly suggested by the +professor in charge as is too often the case. If the research student +is given a problem which is some minor part of a larger problem being +investigated by his professor it will preclude the very thing the +prospective teacher needs, namely practice in recognizing, analyzing, +and solving a problem in its entirety and solely on his own resources. +Being a mere helper is probably not the best way to secure such +ability. Investigation may be broadening and developing to the +individual or it may prove to be quite the reverse, but that lies +within the control of the individual. Research for the teacher must +emphasize equally actual additions to knowledge and personal attitude. +It must not be an end in itself but a means to an end. The attitude of +the investigator is essential to the understanding of children for the +child is first of all an investigator. His questions, "what? why? how? +when?" prove this beyond doubt. What is this but a search for truth, +causal factors, and interrelations? Education uses this wholesome +curiosity as a foundation principle, so the teacher must exhibit a +sympathetic understanding of this universal attribute of children. No +better summary of a discussion of the values of research can be found +for our purposes than that by G. W. A. Luckey. It follows. + + "In order that teaching may be intelligent and in harmony + with the laws of nature there must be a deeper and clearer + knowledge of human growth and development. The teacher must + know the nature of the individual to be taught and the ends + to be reached in proper nurture. This can not be gained + through the study of books alone, but may come through + properly directed research in the workshop of life." + + One of the aims of present day education is "to develop a + man, the best man possible under the conditions; to assist + nature through nurture; to enable the individual to find + himself and to evolve naturally and rapidly to the highest + levels and even to rise above them. According to this + conception ... the initiative must come from within. The aim + of the teacher should be to develop a self-sustaining, + self-directing, altruistic individual keenly alive to the + interests of humanity. Such an ideal is progressive, + scientific, and fits one through studies of yesterday and + today to live the best and truest life tomorrow. To see and + appreciate this ideal, research is necessary." + +The last requirement to be considered in this discussion, is a good +foundation in Physics and Chemistry. Biological science is not +entirely separable from physical science, for a majority of life +phenomena, in final analysis can be explained only in terms of +physical science. Physiology has for its very foundation Physics and +Chemistry. Among the newest of the sciences is Biochemistry, the +chemistry of life; and within its limits are some of the most +promising fields of research. No argument is necessary, a knowledge of +physical science is indispensable in the interpretation of life +phenomena, and the understanding of biological processes. + + + + + PREPARATION in METHODS + + +Method is more closely associated with personality and with native +ability than is subject matter. So much more must preparation in this +field be general in nature. It must mainly concern the general +principles of the scientific method. Specific problems and minor +details will have to be worked out in actual practice. The final +method found most satisfactory by any teacher, will be to some extent +unique, but will be largely determined by three factors; the aptitudes +of the teacher, himself, the group that he is teaching, and lastly, +the consideration of the individual pupil. Ability to adapt ones +procedure so as to most nearly meet these requirements, will come +about only through experience. Ability to profit by experience, the +human attribute which makes possible the progress of civilization, is +a no less valuable asset to a teacher than to any other member of +society. + +Balliet points out that science teaching has passed through three +stages in the past generation. The first stage is characterized by the +textbook method, occasionally supplemented by illustrative experiment, +performed by the teacher. The second stage is characterized by +individual laboratory experiment, a manual for a guide, and by a lack +of application of the principles except for a few traditional cases. +The third stage improves upon the second by leading the pupil, after +formulating his generalizations, to apply them to the facts and +phenomena of nature. "But", continues Balliet, "we must advance to a +fourth stage. We must not only apply the generalizations, but make the +_explanation_ of the facts and phenomena of nature--the interpretation +of nature--the very goal of science teaching." All problems should be +chosen then in the light of this last aim. The problems must be +natural, not in any way artificial, and they should be those of the +immediate environment of the pupil. To meet these obligations may be +in some cases difficult, but it should not be impossible. + +In biological science there is a rich field permitting a considerable +choice in method. There are observations, projects, experiments, +excursions, individual reports, book readings, quizzes, and +conferences. In a single well chosen problem or project nearly all of +these will be employed. Biology lends itself ideally to the problem +method of teaching. By using some every day problem of the pupil, his +interest is assured. Even a seemingly simple problem if skilfully +directed, will ramify into several fields of biology before its +solution is completed. And the number of practicable problems is +almost limitless, but not all are equally good for the purpose, so the +teacher must often tactfully modify the pupils choice. Original +choices are likely to be too complex for the pupil to solve at his +stage of progress, so must be simplified, without his feeling that he +has been interfered with, without causing a wane in his interest. It +is clear that the real problem in the problem-method is the teacher's. +Practically, it is quite impossible to handle _individual_ projects in +large classes. In the writer's experience, he has had on the average +80 different pupils per day in four separate classes. It is clearly +beyond the power of any teacher to direct simultaneously eighty +different projects, and it would be a physical impossibility to +furnish the necessary laboratory apparatus. So, for this reason the +teacher may find it necessary to divide, as diplomatically as +possible, the classes into congenial groups, each with its problem, so +that the total number of problems will be so limited that each one may +be given adequate attention. It seems that such must be the limitation +of the problem-method under the conditions prevailing in the public +schools today. + +The procedure in solving a problem will consist of these steps in the +order named, 1) understanding of the purpose, 2) the procedure or +method of attack, 3) observation of results, 4) and the use of these +in making some generalizations or arriving at some conclusions. Then +there must follow a testing of these generalizations or conclusions by +further experimentation. Accuracy must be the keynote of all work, +accuracy in recording experiments, accuracy in observation, accuracy +in drawing, which serves as a shortcut method of description. Neatness +is very desireable but should never supercede thinking and +understanding. If the problem has stimulated some accurate logical +thinking on the part of the pupil, then time spent on it has been well +spent. If, besides, it has yielded some valuable useable information, +the solving of the problem has been a marked success. The laboratory +method has been such an emancipation from the textbook slavery that +there is some tendency to elevate it to an end in itself, whereas it +must serve only as a very valuable _means_ to an end. "The ideal +laboratory is only a reasonably good substitute for the out-of-doors." + +So far as preparation in the methods of science teaching is concerned, +much good may be accomplished in teachers courses and in practice +teaching. But it must necessarily be of a general nature, for the +unique individual method, determined by the interaction of teacher and +pupil and the reaction of both to subject matter can evolve only hand +in hand with teaching experience. + +Before proceeding further it might be well, by way of summary, to +remind ourselves that the minimum qualifications for a teacher of +biology must include the following; a) a large fund of the most +interesting and most valuable facts of biology, b) a full realization +of the values and vital relations of biology to humanity, c) ability +to develop a course meeting the unique needs of the community, +d) familiarity with purchase and useability of laboratory equipment, +e) knowledge of the history of science, f) spirit of and sympathy with +research, g) a knowledge of physical science as related to biology, +h) and knowledge of the laboratory method and its value in the +promotion of accurate logical constructive thinking. + + + + + OPPORTUNITY FOR ADEQUATE PREPARATION. + + +What possibilities of making adequate preparation, are to be found in +colleges and universities? And how much preparation is required by the +Teacher's Recommendation or other standards of fitness? In search of +the answers to our questions, we may study conditions at the +University of California, for there is as good opportunity and +standards are as high in this school as anywhere in the country. The +quantity of preparation is fairly assured by the five-year requirement +for the Teacher's Recommendation, but the quality of the preparation +is not so certainly assured. With the possible exception of the +Education Department, no department considers the training of teachers +even nearly equal in importance to the production of specialists in +the subject who shall devote their lives to research. The subject is +regarded as an end in itself. + +If a person were directed to make preparation for the teaching of +biology, he would be at a loss in searching for the Biology +Department, or even a department that gave a good comprehensive course +in biology. The subject as best taught in the secondary schools is +subdivided into various components, each with its special aim. The +prospective teacher has no carefully prepared course of study for his +pursuit, as has the prospective doctor, engineer, or farmer. The state +provides a specially adapted course of training for its veterinarians, +those who care for its livestock. Why not a special course of high +standard for those who plan to devote their lives to the direction of +the formative years of its children? It is probably explained in large +part by the failure to recognize teaching as a profession. The +Schools of Education throughout the country have been insisting upon +real professional training for teachers but other departments are +deplorably slow in cooperating. + +In order to avoid becoming entangled in abstractions, we may choose a +specific instance to show the difficulties in the way of securing the +correct _kind_ of preparation, even though the quantity is guaranteed. +The Zoology Department (I choose this department neither because it is +worse nor better than any other, but because I am better acquainted +with the content of its courses) makes the following requirements for +the Teacher's Recommendation: + + General Zoology + Invertebrate Zoology -- an advanced course which omits all + consideration of insects, and all + discussion of parasitic forms. + Vertebrate Zoology -- mainly a course in comparative morphology, + which gives no field knowledge of California + vertebrates, the most essential thing for + the high school teacher. + + and one subject from each of the following groups, + + Group I + Comparative Anatomy. + Cytology -- basic principles must be understood by the teacher + but he should not have to spend one whole half year + to acquire them. + Embryology -- the above is also true for this course. + + Group II. + Biology of Water Supplies -- this course is primarily for + sanitary engineers. + Protozoology -- All that is necessary of this could be + incorporated in a general course. + Parasitology -- essential for health instruction and for + illustration of certain biological principles. + + Group III. + Experimental Zoology } combination of these valuable. + Animal Behavior } + Heredity, Evolution, and Eugenics -- this course is very essential + for _any_ teacher. + + (Required in the fifth year, the Teachers' Course, some work in + research, and practice teaching.) + +Taken as a whole, the chief criticism to be made is that the subject +has been so subdivided to insure no overlapping of courses, that it +becomes necessary to take every course in order to obtain a well +rounded preparation in the field. This requires more time than any +individual can devote to it, for he must also have preparation in +Botany, Physiology, and Bacteriology and Hygiene, and in these +departments the arrangement of courses is essentially the same. The +general course in Zoology is inadequate, for it is planned for an +introduction to the more advanced courses and is careful not to steal +too much from their fund of interesting information. The aim is to lay +a thorough foundation rather than to discuss the more interesting +facts and general principles of biology, though I am glad to believe +that the present trend is decidedly in this latter direction. + +Here we find adequate preparation for a teacher of _Zoology_, but in +no secondary school of the state will a teacher be employed for +Zoology alone. In high schools the biological science curriculum the +first course must be _Biology_, and it must be all-inclusive, for it +is all of the biological science that the majority of the pupils will +take. It would be a great step in advance if every school _required_ +even that much for graduation. + +Of the courses in Invertebrate Zoology and Vertebrate Zoology, it can +be safely said that they overlook the importance of field work. Boys +and girls sometimes have a surprisingly large superficial knowledge of +the plants and animals of their vicinity, and this knowledge is of the +sort obtained through observation of their ways in nature, that is, it +is a _field_ knowledge. The teacher must be prepared to use this to +the greatest possible extent, but how can this be expected if the +teacher knows little if any more than the children about the habits of +plants and animals. Such training would have to be obtained through +some of the field work of the Museum of Vertebrate zoology. But no +work in that department is required for the Teachers Recommendation. A +knowledge, though not an intensive knowledge, of each of the subjects +that make up the three groups included in the requirements is quite +necessary but it is out of the question for a person to take them all +unless he specialize in Zoology. Not all can be expected to major in +Zoology, and those that do will find it necessary to omit much that is +essential in the other departments of biological science. Each +department should have a general course covering fully its field of +work so that those majoring in some other department may in minimum +time gain a fair knowledge of its field. It is very doubtful if such a +course is given in any department at present. + +At present only a meagre view is had of the history of Biology, until +the fifth year when it is given as seminar work. And at no time, in +any course, are the aims and relations of biology presented in such a +way as to be helpful to one attempting to plan the most valuable type +of high school course. Graduate research has been sufficiently +considered previously, and the teachers' course will be considered +last. + +It will be conceded generally in thinking of the solution of the +problem that the ideal arrangement would be a real teachers' course, +at least five years in length. This could be comparatively easily +accomplished by a slight modification of the departments concerned and +their hearty cooperation with the Department of Education. The +disregard for method on the part of the former and the failure to +realize the importance of a thorough knowledge of subject matter by +the latter, can are obstacles that can be easily overcome I am sure. +The student would enter upon this course with the intention of +becoming a teacher, just as does any student enter upon his +professional course with the intention of becoming the professional +man for which his training is preparing him. Few freshmen now come to +the University of California with the intention of becoming teachers +in the secondary schools, that I admit, but the reasons and the remedy +for that are not for discussion here. Suffice it to say that when +reward is adequate, then the profession will grow and come to be made +up of the highest type of men and women. + +The time of the Teachers Course is not far distant and it might be +worth while to see what could be done without radical modifications in +the curricula of the departments as they now are. For a working basis +I would like to present the following skeleton programme, which seems +practicable. In this schedule all preparation except that in subject +matter and method is understood to be included in "electives". A major +in Zoology is assumed. Each biological science department would have a +course of similar plan built about its major as a core. + + First year, + Geography or Geology + Aims of science and its human values. + Chemistry + Electives + + Second year, + Zoology, + Physics, + Electives + + Third year, + Zoology--advanced courses + Botany, + Physiology + Electives + + Fourth year, + Zoology--advanced courses + Bacteriology, and Public Health + Electives + + Fifth year, + Zoology--research + History of Science + Teachers' Course, correlated with and supplementary to + practice teaching. + Electives + +The reasons for selection and sequence of subjects in this schedule +are fairly evident from what has gone before, but a few points will +bear additional explanation. + +A course in the aims and values of science should be introductory, for +in the absence of general knowledge concerning values, such as has +grown up with other professions, the student must be given early in +his work an enthusiasm for it and a sort of guide for future choice of +subjects for study. The difference in aim between university and +secondary school science must be clearly understood at the start. Too +often, university courses accept science as an end in itself and it is +taught from that point of view, whereas the prospective teacher must +hold to his point of view, that to humanity generally science is only +a very effective means to an end; it is just a faithful servant. + +The schedule just submitted may seem to be overbalanced with science +courses, but it must be somewhat so, especially if courses are not to +be completely reorganized. Science would not need to consume quite so +large a part of the time if special courses were given for +teachers--another argument for a high grade, strictly professional +course. + +Duplication of teachers' courses in special methods would be +eliminated for a single course for all of the departments of +biological science would be sufficient. Biology is the hub, and not +the separate biological sciences, in the courses in this field in the +secondary schools. The methods concerned are _biological methods_, +and therefore a single course for all prospective teachers of +biological science regardless of the nature of their major work, is a +logical procedure. Whether such a course is a success or a failure is +largely dependent on the professor in charge. In the past there have +been many failures, mainly because the person conducting it has never +had secondary school experience, knows little or nothing of the +problems, and has no sincere enthusiasm for the teaching of science to +boys and girls below the university age. + +The course suggested would cover an entire year. At least that much +time is required to give any direction or instruction that is worth +while. The first half of the year might well be devoted to a digestion +and correlation of all previous work, organizing it into a form easily +useable in the work to follow. Questions of method, recitation, +laboratory and field work, textbooks and reference books purchase and +use of equipment, must be given consideration in some part of the +course. An outline course, with the separate lessons that make it up +should be worked out in detail, for some particular locality, +preferably the one where practice teaching is to be done. This should +then be carefully tested by the criteria of a good biology course, as +pointed out by the best authorities, and by _common sense_. But why +make this skeleton outline beforehand? Why be prepared in anything? It +will be too late to prepare at the moment the problem has to be met. +Few new teachers will find a well planned course awaiting their +arrival in a new field, and without previous experience a new teacher +is likely to build up a course without due respect to relative values +which comes only with a perspective of a course in its entirety. To +illustrate, in the course given by an inexperienced teacher there is +too much chance of six weeks time being spent on the study of the +grasshopper, with only four weeks left at the end of the school year +to be devoted to the biology of the human. The mapping of a course, by +way of practice, gives the prospective teacher practice in the +exercise of judgment, with helpful constructive criticism. + +Practice teaching now becomes only the trying out of the course and +accompanying methods. As, one practice teacher remarked when this plan +was suggested "But, I might have to make my course all over." Such +would often be the case. Any wide-awake teacher will change his course +more or less from year to year. Even if the first plan were entirely +discarded the energy and thought prompted by its making would not be +lost. And now let us change the name given to those in charge of +practice teachers. Advisor would be more fitting than _super_visor, +for they should remain in the background except for rendering helpful +service, and making constructive criticism in excess of destructive. + +In order for practice teaching to be effective there must be nothing +of an artificial sort enter in. Conditions must be of the regular sort +met every day in the teaching game. This statement seems superfluous, +but a visit to some of the classes where practice teaching is being +done will justify its insertion here. The practice teacher should not +be handed over a laboratory properly equipped. Of course, the +equipment should be available. The course should not be "ready-cut". +The practice teacher must meet _all_ of the problems and this is +cheating him out of a part of his fun. Through his solution of these +problems there will be a two-fold benefit, for the _advisor_ too may +profit by the ingenuity of the newcomer. Resignation should be +requested of any advisor who has outgrown the ability to learn. It is +most likely to be the "green" person, who will develop really new +methods, or evolve a more fitting experiment, or turn a bit of +apparatus to a new use. Above all, the practice teacher should be +required to scout for living material--there will usually be an +abundance all about him, and much that is of interest should find its +way into the laboratory. Training in the use of living material can +not be over emphasized. + +The course which I have outlined in the previous pages, is not +satisfactory, but I firmly believe that it would be an improvement +over the present situation. When tried out it would show many +shortcomings, but by trial and improvement has our entire educational +system evolved. Even an ideal professional course in use today would +be obsolete tomorrow. It would be unfortunate were it not so, for +growth involves ecdysis, and growth is the law of nature. + + + + + Literature from which helpful + suggestions were received during the course + of this work. + + + Bagley, W. C. The training of teachers as a phase of democracy's + educational programme. Ed. Adm. & Supervsn. vol.4 + no.1, Jan.'18. + + Balliet, T. M. and Robinson, C. H. Training of Science Teachers. + N. E. A. Report, vol.54, 1916, pp.734-7. + + Bessey, C. E. Preparation of botanical teachers. Science, N.S., + vol.33, pp.633-9, 1911. + + Boas, F. S. Teachers and research. Contemp., vol.116, pp.426-431. + 1919. + + Boggs, L. P. Making Teachers. School & Soc., vol.7, pp.369-74. + + Caldwell, W. O. Preparation of the teacher of biology. School + Sci. & Math., vol.16, pp.385-92. + + Coulter, J. G. The training of elementary science teachers. + School Rev., vol.24, pp.26-30. + + Curtis, C.B. Secondary school science. Ed. Adm. & Supervsn., + vol.3, Nov.1917. + + Dewey, J. D. Democracy and Education. + + Kent R. A. University preparation of teachers for high schools. + School Rev., vol.27, pp.172-85. + + Lange, A. F. Preparation of high school teachers from the + standpoint of the university. U. C. A. Report, 1907, + pp.718-23. + + Lloyd, F. E. and Bigelow, M. A. The teaching of biology. 1909. + Longmans, Green & Co. + + Luckey, G. W. A. Essentials in the training of a teacher. School + and Society, vol.1, pp.263-9. + + McElroy, R. M. Teaching teachers. Ind., vol.93, pp.525-. + + Pillsbury, W. H. Buffalo plan of teacher training. Elem. Sch. Jr. + vol.21, pp.595-606. + + Swift, F. H. College courses in methods of teaching high school + subjects. Sch. & Soc., vol.6, pp.691-9. + + Taylor, W. S. Project methods in teacher-training courses. Sch. & + Soc., vol.8, pp.487-90. + + Wieman, H. L. Teaching the scientific method vs. teaching the + facts of science. Sch. & Soc., vol.3, pp.243-5. + + Williams, J.T. Teacher training in colleges. Sch. & Soc., vol.9, + pp.105-9. + + Winship, A. E. Prepare rather than train for teaching. N. E. A. + Report, 1918, pp.222-6. + + ---- Research vs. teaching. Sch. & Soc., vol.11, pp. 684-5. + + ---- Research as a means of teacher training. Sch. & Soc., vol.3, + pp.243-5. + + ---- Reorganization of science in secondary schools. U. S. Dep't. + Interior, Bureau Ed., Bull.26, 1920. + + ---- Cardinal principles of secondary education. U. S. Dep't. + Interior, Bureau Ed., Bull.35, 1918. + + + Twiss, G.R.--Principles of Science Teaching. + Macmillan. 1917. + + + + + TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES + + +1. Passages in underlines are surrounded by _underscores_. + +2. Tables have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the +closest paragraph break. + +3. The original pages included corrections made by hand which have +been retained in this e-text. + +4. The following misprints have been corrected: + "intellegently" corrected to "intelligently" (page 5) + "basterial" corrected to "bacterial" (page 9) + "would would" corrected to "would" (page 11) + "natuer" corrected to "nature" (page 15) + "Abilty" corrected to "Ability" (page 17) + "Baillet" corrected to "Balliet" (page 17) + "taht" corrected to "that" (page 22) + "modificacations" corrected to "modifications" (page 24) + "succes" corrected to "success" (page 26) + "in" corrected to "In" at start of sentence (page 26) + "fialures" corrected to "failures" (page 26) + "toworrow" corrected to "tomorrow" (page 28) + "Teahcing" corrected to "Teaching" (page 30) + +5. Some of the punctuation errors, e.g., comma instead of period, +extra period, etc. in the original have been silently corrected +while those requiring interpretation have been left as such. + +6. 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