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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of Human Society, by Frank W. Blackmar
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History of Human Society
+
+Author: Frank W. Blackmar
+
+Release Date: December 6, 2009 [EBook #30610]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF HUMAN SOCIETY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Al Haines
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  [Transcriber's note: Extensive research found no evidence
+  that the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF
+
+HUMAN SOCIETY
+
+
+BY
+
+FRANK W. BLACKMAR
+
+
+PROFESSOR OF SOCIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+
+NEW YORK ---- CHICAGO ---- BOSTON
+
+ATLANTA ---- SAN FRANCISCO
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1926, by
+
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+
+
+Printed in the United States of America
+
+
+
+
+{v}
+
+PREFACE
+
+This book tells what we know of man, how he first lived, how he worked
+with other men, what kinds of houses he built, what tools he made, and
+how he formed a government under which to live.  So we learn of the
+activities of men in the past and what they have passed on to us.  In
+this way we may become acquainted with the different stages in the
+process which we call civilization.
+
+The present trend of specialization in study and research has brought
+about widely differentiated courses of study in schools and a large
+number of books devoted to special subjects.  Each course of study and
+each book must necessarily represent but a fragment of the subject.
+This method of intensified study is to be commended; indeed, it is
+essential to the development of scientific truth.  Those persons who
+can read only a limited number of books and those students who can take
+only a limited number of courses of study need books which present a
+connected survey of the movement of social progress as a whole, and
+which blaze a trail through the accumulation of learning, and give an
+adequate perspective of human achievement.
+
+It is hoped, then, that this book will form the basis of a course of
+reading or study that will give the picture in small compass of this
+most fascinating subject.  If it serves its purpose well, it will be
+the introduction to more special study in particular fields or periods.
+
+That the story of this book may be always related more closely with the
+knowledge and experience of the individual reader, questions and
+problems have been added at the conclusion of each chapter, which may
+be used as subjects for {vi} discussion or topics for themes. For those
+who wish to pursue some particular phase of the subject a brief list of
+books has been selected which may profitably be read more intensively.
+
+F. W. B.
+
+
+
+
+{vii}
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+_PART I_
+
+CIVILIZATION AND PROGRESS
+
+CHAPTER                                                          PAGE
+
+I.  WHAT IS CIVILIZATION?  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      3
+
+The human trail.  Civilization may be defined.  The material evidences
+of civilization are all around us.  Primitive man faced an unknown
+world.  Civilization is expressed in a variety of ways.  Modern
+civilization includes some fundamentals.  Progress an essential
+characteristic of civilization.  Diversity is necessary to progress.
+What is the goal of civilized man? Possibilities of civilization.
+Civilization can be estimated.
+
+
+II.  THE ESSENTIALS OF PROGRESS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .     18
+
+How mankind goes forward on the trail.  Change is not necessarily
+progress.  Progress expresses itself in a variety of ideals and aims.
+Progress of the part and progress of the whole.  Social progress
+involves individual development.  Progress is enhanced by the
+interaction of groups and races.  The study of uncultured races of
+to-day.  The study of prehistoric types.  Progress is indicated by
+early cultures.  Industrial and social life of primitive man.  Cultures
+indicate the mental development of the race.  Men of genius cause
+mutations which permit progress.  The data of progress.
+
+
+III.  METHODS OF RECOUNTING HUMAN PROGRESS . . . . . . . . . .     35
+
+Difficulty of measuring progress.  Progress may be measured by the
+implements used.  The development of art.  Progress is estimated by
+economic stages.  Progress is through the food-supply.  Progress
+estimated by the different forms of social order.  Development of
+family life.  The growth of political life.  Religion important in
+civilization.  Progress through moral evolution.  Intellectual
+development of man.  Change from savagery to barbarism.  Civilization
+includes all kinds of human progress.  Table showing methods of
+recounting human progress.
+
+
+
+_PART II_
+
+FIRST STEPS OF PROGRESS
+
+IV.  PREHISTORIC MAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .     57
+
+The origin of man has not yet been determined.  Methods of recounting
+prehistoric time: (1) geologic method, (2) paleontology, (3) anatomy,
+(4) cultures.  Prehistoric types of the human race.  The unity of the
+human race.  The primitive home of man may be determined in a general
+way.  The antiquity of man is shown in racial differentiation.  The
+evidences of man's ancient life in different localities: (1) caves, (2)
+shell mounds, (3) river and glacial drifts, (4) burial-mounds, (5)
+battle-fields and village sites, (6) lake-dwellings.  Knowledge of
+man's antiquity influences reflective thinking.
+
+
+{viii}
+
+V.  THE ECONOMIC FACTORS OF PROGRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . .     82
+
+The efforts of man to satisfy physical needs.  The attempt to satisfy
+hunger and protect from cold.  The methods of procuring food in
+primitive times.  The variety of food was constantly increased.  The
+food-supply was increased by inventions.  The discovery and use of
+fire.  Cooking added to the economy of the food-supply.  The
+domestication of animals.  The beginnings of agriculture were very
+meagre.  The manufacture of clothing.  Primitive shelters and houses.
+Discovery and use of metals.  Transportation as a means of economic
+development.  Trade, or exchange of goods.  The struggle for existence
+develops the individual and the race.
+
+
+VI.  PRIMITIVE SOCIAL LIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    108
+
+The character of primitive social life.  The family is the most
+persistent of social origins.  Kinship is a strong factor in social
+organization.  The earliest form of social order.  The reign of custom.
+The Greek and Roman family was strongly organized.  In primitive
+society religion occupied a prominent place.  Spirit worship.  Moral
+conditions.  Warfare and social progress.  Mutual aid developed slowly.
+
+
+
+_PART III_
+
+SEATS OF EARLY CIVILIZATION
+
+VII.  LANGUAGE AND ART AS A MEANS OF CULTURE AND
+      SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    121
+
+The origin of language has been a subject of controversy.  Language is
+an important social function.  Written language followed speech in
+order of development.  Phonetic writing was a step in advance of the
+ideograph.  The use of manuscripts and books made permanent records.
+Language is an instrument of culture.  Art as a language of aesthetic
+ideas.  Music is a form of language.  The dance as a means of dramatic
+expression.  The fine arts follow the development of language.  The
+love of the beautiful slowly develops.
+
+
+VIII.  THE INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL NATURE ON HUMAN PROGRESS  . .    141
+
+Man is a part of universal nature.  Favorable location is necessary for
+permanent civilization.  The nature of the soil an essential condition
+of progress.  The use of land the foundation of social order.  Climate
+has much to do with the possibilities of progress.  The general aspects
+of nature determine the type of civilization.  Physical nature
+influences social order.
+
+
+IX.  CIVILIZATION OF THE ORIENT  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    152
+
+The first nations with historical records in Asia and Africa.
+Civilization in Mesopotamia.  Influences coming from the Far East.
+Egypt becomes a centre of civilization.  The coming of the Semites.
+The Phoenicians became the great navigators.  A comparison of the
+Egyptian and Babylonian empires.  The Hebrews made a permanent
+contribution to world civilization.  The civilization of India and
+China.  The coming of the Aryans.
+
+
+X.  THE ORIENTAL TYPE OF CIVILIZATION  . . . . . . . . . . . .    170
+
+The governments of the early Oriental civilizations.  War existed for
+conquest and plunder.  Religious belief was an important factor in
+despotic {ix} government.  Social organization was incomplete.
+Economic influences.  Records, writing, and paper.  The beginnings of
+science were strong in Egypt, weak in Babylon.  The contribution to
+civilization.
+
+
+XI.  BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION IN AMERICA . . . . . . . . . .    186
+
+America was peopled from the Old World.  The Incas of Peru.  Aztec
+civilization in Mexico.  The earliest centres of civilization in
+Mexico.  The Pueblo Indians of the Southwest.  The Mound-Builders of
+the Mississippi Valley.  Other types of Indian life.  Why did the
+civilization of America fail?
+
+
+
+_PART IV_
+
+WESTERN CIVILIZATION
+
+XII.  THE OLD GREEK LIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    205
+
+The old Greek life was the starting-point of Western civilization.  The
+Aegean culture preceded the coming of the Greeks.  The Greeks were of
+Aryan stock.  The coming of the Greeks.  Character of the primitive
+Greeks.  Influence of old Greek life.
+
+
+XIII.  GREEK PHILOSOPHY  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    215
+
+The transition from theology to inquiry.  Explanation of the universe
+by observation and inquiry.  The Ionian philosophy turned the mind
+toward nature.  The weakness of Ionian philosophy.  The Eleatic
+philosophers.  The Sophists.  Socrates the first moral philosopher (b.
+469 B.C.).  Platonic philosophy develops the ideal.  Aristotle the
+master mind of the Greeks.  Other schools.  Results obtained in Greek
+philosophy.
+
+
+XIV.  THE GREEK SOCIAL POLITY  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    229
+
+The struggle for Greek equality and liberty.  The Greek government an
+expanded family.  Athenian government a type of Grecian democracy.
+Constitution of Solon seeks a remedy.  Cleisthenes continues the
+reforms of Solon.  Athenian democracy failed in obtaining its best and
+highest development.  The Spartan state differs from all others.  Greek
+colonization spreads knowledge.  The conquests of Alexander.
+Contributions of Greece to civilization.
+
+
+XV.  ROMAN CIVILIZATION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    250
+
+The Romans differed in nature from the Greeks.  The social structure of
+early Rome and that of early Greece.  Civil organization of Rome.  The
+struggle for liberty.  The development of government.  The development
+of law is the most remarkable phase of the Roman civilization.
+Influence of the Greek life on Rome.  Latin literature and language.
+Development of Roman art.  Decline of the Roman Empire.  Summary of
+Roman civilization.
+
+
+XVI.  THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    268
+
+Important factors in the foundation of Western civilization.  The
+social contacts of the Christian religion.  Social conditions at the
+beginning of the Christian era.  The contact of Christianity with
+social life.  Christianity influenced the legislation of the times.
+Christians come into conflict with civil authority.  The wealth of the
+church accumulates.  Development of the hierarchy.  Attempt to dominate
+the temporal powers.  Dogmatism.  The church becomes the conservator of
+knowledge.  Service of Christianity.
+
+
+{x}
+
+XVII.  TEUTONIC INFLUENCE ON CIVILIZATION  . . . . . . . . . .    281
+
+The coming of the barbarians.  Importance of Teutonic influence.
+Teutonic liberty.  Tribal life.  Classes of society.  The home and the
+home life.  Political assemblies.  General social customs.  The
+economic life.  Contributions to law.
+
+
+XVIII.  FEUDAL SOCIETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    294
+
+Feudalism a transition of social order.  There are two elementary
+sources of feudalism.  The feudal system in its developed state based
+on land-holding.  Other elements of feudalism.  The rights of
+sovereignty.  The classification of feudal society.  Progress of
+feudalism.  State of society under feudalism.  Lack of central
+authority in feudal society.  Individual development in the dominant
+group.
+
+
+XIX.  ARABIAN CONQUEST AND CULTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    304
+
+The rise and expansion of the Arabian Empire.  The religious zeal of
+the Arab-Moors.  The foundations of science and art.  The beginnings of
+chemistry and medicine.  Metaphysics and exact science.  Geography and
+history.  Discoveries, inventions, and achievements.  Language and
+literature.  Art and architecture.  The government of the Arab-Moors
+was peculiarly centralized.  Arabian civilization soon reached its
+limits.
+
+
+XX.  THE CRUSADES STIR THE EUROPEAN MIND . . . . . . . . . . .    319
+
+What brought about the crusades.  Specific causes of the crusades.
+Unification of ideals and the breaking of feudalism.  The development
+of monarchy.  The crusades quickened intellectual development.  The
+commercial effects of the crusades.  General influence of the crusades
+on civilization.
+
+
+XXI.  ATTEMPTS AT POPULAR GOVERNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . .    328
+
+The cost of popular government.  The feudal lord and the towns.  The
+rise of free cities.  The struggle for independence.  The
+affranchisement of cities developed municipal organization.  The
+Italian cities.  Government of Venice.  Government of Florence.  The
+Lombard League.  The rise of popular assemblies in France.  Rural
+communes arose in France.  The municipalities of France.  The
+States-General was the first central organization.  Failure of attempts
+at popular government in Spain.  Democracy in the Swiss cantons.  The
+ascendancy of monarchy.  Beginning of constitutional liberty in England.
+
+
+XXII.  THE INTELLECTUAL AWAKENING OF EUROPE  . . . . . . . . .    347
+
+Social evolution is dependent upon variation.  The revival of progress
+throughout Europe.  The revival of learning a central idea of progress.
+Influence of Charlemagne.  The attitude of the church was
+retrogressive.  Scholastic philosophy marks a step in progress.
+Cathedral and monastic schools.  The rise of universities.  Failure to
+grasp scientific methods.  Inventions and discoveries.  The extension
+of commerce hastened progress.
+
+
+XXIII.  HUMANISM AND THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING . . . . . . . . .    364
+
+The discovery of manuscripts.  Who were the humanists?  Relation of
+humanism to language and literature.  Art and architecture.  The effect
+of humanism on social manners.  Relation of humanism to science and
+philosophy.  The study of the classics became fundamental in education.
+General influence of humanism.
+
+
+{xi}
+
+XXIV.  THE REFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    375
+
+The character of the Reformation.  Signs of the rising storm.  Attempts
+at reform within the church.  Immediate causes of the Reformation.
+Luther was the hero of the Reformation in Germany.  Zwingli was the
+hero of the Reformation in Switzerland.  Calvin establishes the Genevan
+system.  The Reformation in England differed from the German.  Many
+phases of reformation in other countries.  Results of the Reformation
+were far-reaching.
+
+
+XXV.  CONSTITUTIONAL LIBERTY AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION . . . .    392
+
+Progress of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.  The struggle of
+monarchy with democracy.  Struggle for constitutional liberty in
+England.  The place of France in modern civilization.  The divine right
+of kings.  The power of the nobility.  The misery of the people.  The
+church.  Influence of the philosophers.  The failure of government.
+France on the eve of the revolution.  The revolution.  Results of the
+revolution.
+
+
+
+_PART V_
+
+MODERN PROGRESS
+
+XXVI.  PROGRESS OF POLITICAL LIBERTY . . . . . . . . . . . . .    413
+
+Political liberty in the eighteenth century.  The progress of popular
+government found outside of great nations.  Reform measures in England.
+The final triumph of the French republic.  Democracy in America.
+Modern political reforms.  Republicanism in other countries.  Influence
+of democracy on monarchy.
+
+
+XXVII.  INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    429
+
+Industries radiate from the land as a centre.  The early medieval
+methods of industry.  The beginnings of trade.  Expansion of trade and
+transportation.  Invention and discoveries.  The change from handcraft
+to power manufacture.  The industrial revolution.  Modern industrial
+development.  Scientific agriculture.  The building of the city.
+Industry and civilization.
+
+
+XXVIII.  SOCIAL EVOLUTION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    443
+
+The evolutionary processes of society.  The social individual.  The
+ethnic form of society.  The territorial group.  The national group
+founded on race expansion.  The functions of new groups.  Great society
+and the social order.  Great society protects voluntary organizations.
+The widening influence of the church.  Growth of religious toleration.
+Altruism and democracy.  Modern society a machine of great complexity.
+Interrelation of different parts of society.  The progress of the race
+based on social opportunities.  The central idea of modern civilization.
+
+
+XXIX.  THE EVOLUTION OF SCIENCE  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    458
+
+Science is an attitude of mind toward life.  Scientific methods.
+Measurement in scientific research.  Science develops from centres.
+Science and democracy.  The study of the biological and physical
+sciences.  The evolutionary theory.  Science and war.  Scientific
+progress is cumulative.  The trend of scientific investigation.
+Research foundations.
+
+
+{xii}
+
+XXX.  UNIVERSAL EDUCATION AND DEMOCRACY  . . . . . . . . . . .    475
+
+Universal public education is a modern institution.  The mediaeval
+university permitted some freedom of choice.  The English and German
+universities.  Early education in the United States.  The common, or
+public, schools.  Knowledge, intelligence, and training necessary in a
+democracy.  Education has been universalized.  Research an educational
+process.  The diffusion of knowledge necessary in a democracy.
+Educational progress.  Importance of state education.  The
+printing-press and its products.  Public opinion.
+
+
+XXXI.  WORLD ECONOMICS AND POLITICS  . . . . . . . . . . . . .    486
+
+Commerce and communication.  Exchange of ideas modifies political
+organization.  Spread of political ideas.  The World War breaks down
+the barriers of thought.  Attempt to form a league for permanent peace.
+International agreement and progress.  The mutual aid of nations.
+Reorganization of international law.  The outlook for a world state.
+
+
+XXXII.  THE TREND OF CIVILIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES . . . .    495
+
+The economic outlook.  Economics of labor.  Public and corporate
+industries.  The political outlook.  Equalization of opportunity.  The
+influence of scientific thought on progress.  The relation of material
+comfort to spiritual progress.  The balance of social forces.
+Restlessness vs. happiness.  Summary of progress.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    504
+
+INDEX  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    509
+
+
+
+
+{3}
+
+_PART I_
+
+CIVILIZATION AND PROGRESS
+
+
+HISTORY OF HUMAN SOCIETY
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+WHAT IS CIVILIZATION?
+
+_The Human Trail_.--The trail of human life beginning in the mists of
+the past, winding through the ages and stretching away toward an
+unknown future, is a subject of perennial interest and worthy of
+profound thought.  No other great subject so invites the attention of
+the mind of man.  It is a very long trail, rough and unblazed,
+wandering over the continents of the earth.  Those who have travelled
+it came in contact with the mysteries of an unknown world.  They faced
+the terrors of the shifting forms of the earth, of volcanoes,
+earthquakes, floods, storms, and ice fields.  They witnessed the
+extinction of forests and animal groups, and the changing forms of
+lakes, rivers, and mountains, and, indeed, the boundaries of oceans.
+
+It is the trail of human events and human endeavor on which man
+developed his physical powers, enlarged his brain capacity, developed
+and enriched his mind, and became efficient through art and industry.
+Through inventions and discovery he turned the forces of nature to his
+use, making them serve his will.  In association with his fellows, man
+learned that mutual aid and co-operation were necessary to the survival
+of the race.  To learn this caused him more trouble than all the
+terrors and mysteries of the natural world around him.  Connected with
+the trail is a long chain of causes and effects, trial and error,
+success and failure, out of which has come the advancement of the race.
+The accumulated results of life on the trail are called _civilization_.
+
+_Civilization May Be Defined_.--To know what civilization is by study
+and observation is better than to rely upon a formal {4} definition.
+For, indeed, the word is used in so many different ways that it admits
+of a loose interpretation.  For instance, it may be used in a narrow
+sense to indicate the character and quality of the civil relations.
+Those tribes or nations having a well-developed social order, with
+government, laws, and other fixed social customs, are said to be
+civilized, while those peoples without these characters are assumed to
+be uncivilized.  It may also be considered in a somewhat different
+sense, when the arts, industries, sciences, and habits of life are
+stimulated--civilization being determined by the degree in which these
+are developed.  Whichever view is accepted, it involves a contrast of
+present ideals with past ideals, of an undeveloped with a developed
+state of human progress.
+
+But whatever notion we have of civilization, it is difficult to draw a
+fixed line between civilized and uncivilized peoples.  Mr. Lewis H.
+Morgan, in his _Ancient Society_, asserts that civilization began with
+the phonetic alphabet, and that all human activity prior to this could
+be classified as savagery or barbarism.  But there is a broader
+conception of civilization which recognizes all phases of human
+achievement, from the making of a stone axe to the construction of the
+airplane; from the rude hut to the magnificent palace; from crude moral
+and religious conditions to the more refined conditions of human
+association.  If we consider that civilization involves the whole
+process of human achievement, it must admit of a great variety of
+qualities and degrees of development, hence it appears to be a relative
+term applied to the variation of human life.  Thus, the Japanese are
+highly civilized along special lines of hand work, hand industry, and
+hand art, as well as being superior in some phases of family
+relationships.  So we might say of the Chinese, the East Indians, and
+the American Indians, that they each have well-established customs,
+habits of thought, and standards of life, differing from other nations,
+expressing different types of civilization.
+
+When a member of a primitive tribe invented the bow-and-arrow, or began
+to chip a flint nodule in order to make a stone {5} axe, civilization
+began.  As soon as people began to co-operate with one another in
+obtaining food, building houses, or for protection against wild animals
+and wild men, that is, when they began to treat each other civilly,
+they were becoming civilized.  We may say then in reality that
+civilization has been a continuous process from the first beginning of
+man's conquest of himself and nature to the modern complexities of
+social life with its multitude of products of industry and cultural
+arts.
+
+It is very common for one group or race to assume to be highly
+civilized and call the others barbarians or savages.  Thus the Hebrews
+assumed superiority when they called other people Gentiles, and the
+Greeks when they called others barbarians.  Indeed, it is only within
+recent years that we are beginning to recognize that the civilizations
+of China, Japan, and India have qualities worth studying and that they
+may have something worth while in life that the Western civilization
+has not.  Also there has been a tendency to confuse the terms Christian
+and heathen with civilized and uncivilized.  This idea arose in
+England, where, in the early history of Christianity, the people of the
+towns were more cultured than the people of the country.
+
+It happened, too, that the townspeople received Christianity before the
+people of the country, hence heathens were the people who dwelt out on
+the heath, away from town.  This local idea became a world idea when
+all non-Christian peoples were called uncivilized.  It is a fatal error
+for an individual, neighborhood, tribe, or nation to assume superiority
+to the extent that it fails to recognize good qualities in others.  One
+should not look with disdain upon a tribe of American Indians, calling
+them uncivilized because their material life is simple, when in reality
+in point of honor, faithfulness, and courage they excel a large
+proportion of the races assuming a higher civilization.
+
+_The Material Evidences of Civilization Are All Around Us_.--Behold
+this beautiful valley of the West, with its broad, {6} fertile fields,
+yielding rich harvests of corn and wheat, and brightened by varied
+forms of fruit and flower.  Farmhouses and schoolhouses dot the
+landscape, while towns and cities, with their marts of trade and busy
+industries, rise at intervals.  Here are churches, colleges, and
+libraries, indicative of the education of the community; courthouses,
+prisons, and jails, which speak of government, law, order, and
+protection.  Here are homes for the aged and weak, hospitals and
+schools for the defective, almshouses for the indigent, and
+reformatories for the wayward.  Railroads bind together all parts of
+the nation, making exchange possible, and bringing to our doors the
+products of every clime.  The telephone and the radio unite distant
+people with common knowledge, thought, and sentiment.  Factories and
+mills line the streams or cluster in village and city, marking the busy
+industrial life.  These and more mark the visible products of
+civilization.
+
+But civilization is something more than form, it is spirit; and its
+evidence may be more clearly discerned in the co-operation of men in
+political organization and industrial life, by their united action in
+religious worship and charitable service, in social order and
+educational advancement.  Observe, too, the happy homes, with all of
+their sweet and hallowed influences, and the social mingling of the
+people searching for pleasure or profit in their peaceful, harmonious
+association.  Witness the evidences of accumulated knowledge in
+newspapers, periodicals, and books, and the culture of painting,
+poetry, and music.  Behold, too, the achievements of the mind in the
+invention and discovery of the age; steam and electrical appliances
+that cause the whirl of bright machinery, that turn night into day, and
+make thought travel swift as the wings of the wind!  Consider the
+influence of chemistry, biology, and medicine on material welfare, and
+the discoveries of the products of the earth that subserve man's
+purpose!  And the central idea of all this is man, who walks upright in
+the dignity and grace of his own manhood, surrounded by the evidence of
+his own achievements.  His knowledge, his power of thought, {7} his
+moral character, and his capacity for living a large life, are
+evidences of the real civilization.  For individual culture is, after
+all, the flower and fruit, the beauty and strength of civilization.
+
+One hundred years ago neither dwelling, church, nor city greeted the
+eye that gazed over the broad expanse of the unfilled prairies.  Here
+were no accumulations of wealth, no signs of human habitation, except a
+few Indians wandering in groups or assembled in their wigwam villages.
+The evidences of art and industry were meagre, and of accumulated
+knowledge small, because the natives were still the children of nature
+and had gone but a little way in the mastery of physical forces or in
+the accumulation of knowledge.  The relative difference in their
+condition and that of those that followed them is the contrast between
+barbarism and civilization.
+
+Yet how rapid was the change that replaced the latter with the former.
+Behold great commonwealths built in half a century!  What is the secret
+of this great and marvellous change?  It is a transplanted
+civilization, not an indigenous one.  Men came to this fertile valley
+with the spiritual and material products of modern life, the outcome of
+centuries of progress.  They brought the results of man's struggle,
+with himself and with nature, for thousands of years.  This made it
+possible to build a commonwealth in half a century.  The first settlers
+brought with them a knowledge of the industrial arts; the theory and
+practice of social order; individual capacity, and a thirst for
+education.  It was necessary only to set up the machinery already
+created, and civilization went forward.  When they began the life of
+labor, the accumulated wealth of the whole world was to be had in
+exchange for the products of the soil.
+
+_Primitive Man Faced an Unknown World_.--But how different is the
+picture of primitive man suddenly brought face to face with an unknown
+world.  With no knowledge of nature or art, with no theory or practice
+of social order, he began to dig and to delve for the preservation of
+life.  Suffering the pangs of hunger, he obtained food; naked, he
+clothed himself; {8} buffeted by storm and wind and scorched by the
+penetrating rays of the sun, he built himself a shelter.  As he
+gradually became skilled in the industrial arts, his knowledge
+increased.  He formed a clearer estimate of how nature might serve him,
+and obtained more implements with which to work
+
+The social order of the family and the state slowly appeared.  Man
+became a co-operating creature, working with his fellows in the
+satisfaction of material wants and in protecting the rights of
+individuals.  Slow and painful was this process of development, but as
+he worked his capacity enlarged, his power increased, until he mastered
+the forces of nature and turned them to serve him; he accumulated
+knowledge and brought forth culture and learning; he marshalled the
+social forces in orderly process.  Each new mastery of nature or self
+was a power for the future, for civilization is cumulative in its
+nature; it works in a geometrical progression.  An idea once formed,
+others follow; one invention leads to another, and each material form
+of progress furnishes a basis for a more rapid progress and for a
+larger life.  The discovery and use of a new food product increased the
+power of civilization a hundredfold.  One step in social order leads to
+another, and thus is furnished a means of utilizing without waste all
+of the individual and social forces.
+
+Yet how irregular and faltering are the first steps of human progress.
+A step forward, followed by a long period of readjustment of the
+conditions of life; a movement forward here and a retarding force
+there.  Within this irregular movement we discover the true course of
+human progress.  One tribe, on account of peculiar advantages, makes a
+special discovery, which places it in the ascendancy and gives it power
+over others.  It has obtained a favorable location for protection
+against oppressors or a fertile soil, a good hunting ground or a
+superior climate.  It survives all opposing factors for a time, and,
+obtaining some idea of progress, it goes on adding strength unto
+strength, or is crowded from its favorable position by its warlike
+neighbors to perish from the earth, or to live a {9} stationary or even
+a deteriorating life.  A strong tribe, through internal development and
+the domination of other groups, finally becomes a great nation in an
+advanced state of civilization.  It passes through the course of
+infancy, youth, maturity, old age, and death.  But the products of its
+civilization are handed on to other nations.  Another rises and, when
+about to enter an advanced state of progress, perishes on account of
+internal maladies.  It is overshadowed with despotism, oppressed by
+priestcraft, or lacking industrial vitality to such a degree that it is
+forced to surrender the beginnings of civilization to other nations and
+other lives.
+
+The dominance of a group is dependent in part on the natural or
+inherent qualities of mind and body of its members, which give it power
+to achieve by adapting itself to conditions of nature and in mastering
+and utilizing natural resources.  Thus the tribe that makes new devices
+for procuring food or new weapons for defense, or learns how to sow
+seeds and till the soil, adds to its means of survival and progress and
+thus forges ahead of those tribes lacking in these means.  Also the
+social heritage or the inheritance of all of the products of industry
+and arts of life which are passed on from generation to generation, is
+essential to the rapid development of civilization.
+
+_Civilization Is Expressed in a Variety of Ways_.--Different ideals and
+the adaptation to different environment cause different types of life.
+The ideals of the Persian, the Greek, the Roman, and the Teuton varied.
+Still greater is the contrast between these and the Chinese and the
+Egyptian ideals.  China boasts of an ancient civilization that had its
+origin long before the faint beginnings of Western nations, and the
+Chinese are firm believers in their own culture and superior
+advancement.  The silent grandeur of the pyramids and temples of the
+Nile valley bespeak a civilization of great maturity, that did much for
+the world in general, but little for the Egyptian people.  Yet these
+types of civilization are far different from that of Western nations.
+Their ideas of culture are in great contrast to our own.  But even the
+Western nations are not uniform in {10} ideals of civil life nor in
+their practice of social order.  They are not identical in religious
+life, and their ideals of art and social progress vary.
+
+Moreover, the racial type varies somewhat and with it the national life
+and thought.  Compare England, Germany, France, and Spain as to the
+variability in characteristics of literature and art, in moral ideals,
+in ethical practice, in religious motive, and in social order.  Their
+differences are evident, but they tend to disappear under the influence
+of rapid transit and close intercommunication, which draw all modern
+nations nearer together.  Yet, granting the variability of ideals and
+of practice, there is a general consensus of opinion as to what
+constitutes civilization and what are the elements of progress.  Modern
+writers differ somewhat in opinion as to elements of civilization, but
+these differences are more apparent than real, as all true civilization
+must rest upon a solid foundation of common human traits.  The
+fundamental principles and chief characteristics are quite uniform for
+all nations and for all times, and writers who disagree as to general
+characteristics may not be classified by national boundaries; they
+represent the differences of philosophers.
+
+_Modern Civilization Includes Some Fundamentals_.--As applied at
+different periods of the world's progress and as a representation of
+different phases of life, civilization means more to-day than ever
+before; its ideal is higher, its conception broader.  In the modern,
+accepted sense it includes (1) _a definite knowledge of man and
+nature_.  The classified knowledge of science and philosophy and all
+phases of the history of man socially and individually are important in
+estimating his true progress.  All forms of thought and life are to be
+estimated in considering the full meaning of the term.  It also
+includes (2) _progress in art_.  While science deals with principles,
+art deals with rules of action.  Science gives classified knowledge,
+while art directs to a practical end.  Art provides definite plans how
+to operate.  If these plans are carried out, the field of practice is
+entered.  In its broadest conception art includes the making {11} and
+the doing, as well as the plan.  The fine arts and the industrial or
+practical arts, in all of their varied interests, are included in art
+as a factor in civilization.  This category should include the highest
+forms of painting, poetry, sculpture, and music, as well as the lowest
+forms of industrial implements.
+
+Civilization includes (3) _a well-developed ethical code_ quite
+universally observed by a community or nation.  The rule of conduct of
+man toward himself and toward his fellows is one of the essential
+points of discrimination between barbarism and civilization.  While
+ethical practice began at a very early period in the progress of man,
+it was a long time before any distinct ethical code became established.
+But the completed civilization does not exist until a high order of
+moral practice obtains; no civilization can long prevail without it.
+Of less importance, but of no less binding force, is (4) the _social
+code_, which represents the forms and conventionalities of society,
+built, it is true, largely upon the caprices of fashion, and varying
+greatly in different communities, yet more arbitrary, if possible, than
+the moral code.  It considers fitness and consistency in conduct, and
+as such is an important consideration in social usage and social
+progress.  In Europe it has its extreme in the court etiquette; in
+America, in the punctiliousness of the higher social classes of our
+large cities.  But it affects all communities, and its observance may
+be noted in rural districts as well as in the city population.
+
+The mores, or customs, of man began at a very early time and have been
+a persistent ruling power in human conduct.  Through tradition they are
+handed down from generation to generation, to be observed with more or
+less fidelity as a guide to the art of living.  Every community,
+whether primitive or developed, is controlled to a great extent by the
+prevailing custom.  It is common for individuals and families to do as
+their ancestors did.  This habit is frequently carried to such an
+extent that the deeds of the fathers are held sacred from which no one
+dare to depart.  Isolated communities continue year after year to do
+things because they had always done so, {12} holding strictly to the
+ruling custom founded on tradition, even when some better way was at
+hand.  A rare example of this human trait is given by Captain Donald
+MacMillan, who recently returned from Arctic Greenland.  He said: "We
+took two ultra-modern developments, motion pictures and radio, direct
+to a people who live and think as their ancestors did two thousand
+years ago."  He was asked: "What did they think?"  He replied: "I do
+not know."  Probably it was a case of wonder without thought.  While
+this is a dominant force which makes for the unity and perpetuity of
+the group, it is only by departure from established tradition that
+progress is made possible.
+
+Civilization involves (5) _government and law_.  The tribes and nations
+in a state of barbarism lived under the binding influence of custom.
+In this period people were born under _status_, or condition, not under
+law.  Gradually the old family life expanded into the state, and
+government became more formal.  Law appeared as the expression of the
+will of the people directly or indirectly through their
+representatives.  True, it may have been the arbitrary ruling of a
+king, but he represented the unity of the race and spoke with the
+authority of the nation.  Law found no expression until there was
+formed an organic community capable of having a will respecting the
+control of those who composed it.  It implies a governing body and a
+body governed; it implies an orderly movement of society according to a
+rule of action called law.  While social order is generally obtained
+through law and government, such is the practice in modern life that
+the orderly association of men in trade and commerce and in daily
+contact appears to stand alone and to rise above the control of the
+law.  Indeed, in a true civilization, the civil code, though an
+essential factor, seems to be outclassed by the higher social instincts
+based on the practice of social order.
+
+(6) _Religion_ must take a large place as a factor in the development
+of civilization.  The character of the religious belief of man is, to a
+certain extent, the true test of his progressive {13} nature.  His
+faith may prove a source of inspiration to reason and progressive life;
+it may prove the opposite, and lead to stagnation and retrogression.
+Upon the whole, it must be insisted that religious belief has subserved
+a large purpose in the economy of human progress.  It has been
+universal to all tribes, for even the lowest have some form of
+religious belief--at least, a belief in spiritual beings.  Religious
+belief thus became the primary source of abstract ideas, and it has
+always been conducive to social order.  It has, in modern times
+especially, furnished the foundation of morality.  By surrounding
+marriage with ceremonies it has purified the home life, upheld the
+authority of the family, and thus strengthened social order.  It has
+developed the individual by furnishing an ideal before science and
+positive knowledge made it possible.  It strengthened patriotic feeling
+on account of service rendered in supporting local government, and
+subjectively religion improved man by teaching him to obey a superior.
+Again, by its tradition it frequently stifled thought and retarded
+progress.
+
+Among other elements of civilization must be mentioned (7) _social
+well-being_.  The preceding conditions would be almost certain to
+insure social well-being and prosperity.  Yet it might be possible,
+through lack of harmony of these forces, on account of their improper
+distribution in a community, that the group might lack in general
+social prosperity.  Unless there is general contentment and happiness
+there cannot be said to be an ideal state of civilization.  And this
+social well-being is closely allied to (8) _material prosperity_, the
+most apparent element to be mentioned in the present analysis.  The
+amount of the accumulation of the wealth of a nation, its distribution
+among the people, and the manner in which it is obtained and expended,
+determine the state of civilization.  This material prosperity makes
+the better phases of civilization possible.  It is essential to modern
+progress, and our civilization should seek to render it possible for
+all classes to earn their bread and to have leisure and opportunity for
+self-culture.
+
+The mastery of the forces of nature is the basis for man's {14}
+material prosperity.  Touching nature here and there, by discovery,
+invention, and toil, causing her to yield her treasures for his
+service, is the key to all progress.  In this, it is not so much
+conflict with nature as co-operation with her, that yields utility and
+eventually mastery.  The discovery and use of new food products, the
+coal and other minerals of the earth, the forests, the water power and
+electric power, coupled with invention and adaptability to continually
+greater use, are the qualifying opportunity for advancement.  Without
+these the fine theories of the philosopher, exalted religious belief,
+and high ideals of life are of no avail.
+
+From the foregoing it may be said that civilization in its fulness
+means all of the acquired capabilities of man as evidenced by his
+conduct and the material products arising from his physical and mental
+exertion.  It is evident that at first the structure called
+civilization began to develop very slowly and very feebly; just when it
+began it is difficult to state.  The creation of the first utility, the
+first substantial movement to increase the food supply, the first home
+for protection, the first religious ceremony, or the first organized
+household, represents the beginnings of civilization, and these are the
+landmarks along the trail of man's ascendency.
+
+_Progress Is an Essential Characteristic of Civilization_.--The goal is
+never reached, the victory is never finally achieved.  Man must move
+on, ever on.  Intellect must develop, morals improve, liberty increase,
+social order be perfected, and social growth continue.  There must be
+no halting on the road; the nation that hesitates is lost.  Progress in
+general is marked by the development of the individual, on the one
+hand, and that of society, on the other.  In well-ordered society these
+two ideas are balanced; they seek an equilibrium.  Excessive
+individualism leads to anarchy and destruction; excessive socialism
+blights and stagnates individual activity and independence and retards
+progress.  It must be admitted here as elsewhere that the individual
+culture and the individual life are, after all, the highest aims.  But
+how can these be obtained in {15} modern life without social progress?
+How can there be freedom of action for the development of the
+individual powers without social expansion?  Truly, the social and the
+individual life are complementary elements of progress.
+
+_Diversity Is Necessary to Progress_.--If progress is an essential
+characteristic of modern civilization, it may be said that diversity is
+essential to progress.  There is much said about equality and
+fraternity.  It depends on what is meant by the terms as to whether
+these are good sayings or not.  If equality means uniformity, by it man
+is easily reduced to a state of stagnation.  Diversity of life exists
+everywhere in progressive nature, where plants or animals move forward
+in the scale of existence.  Man is not an exception to the rule,
+notwithstanding his strong will force.  Men differ in strength, in
+moral and intellectual capacity, and in co-operating ability.  Hence
+they must occupy different stations in life.  And the quality and
+quantity of progress are to be estimated in different nations according
+to the diversity of life to be observed among individuals and groups.
+
+_What Is the Goal of Civilized Man?_--And it may be well to ask, as
+civilization is progressive: What is our aim in life from our own
+standpoint?  For what do men strive?  What is the ultimate of life?
+What is the best for which humanity can live?  If it were merely to
+obtain food and clothes and nothing more, the question could be easily
+answered.  If it were merely to train a man to be a monk, that he might
+spend his time in prayer and supplication for a better future life, the
+question would be simple enough.  If to pore over books to find out the
+knowledge of the past and to spend the life in investigation of truth
+were the chief aims, it would be easy to determine the object of life.
+But frequently that which we call success in life is merely a means to
+an end.
+
+And viewed in the complex activity of society, it is difficult to say
+what is the true end of life; it is difficult to determine the true end
+of civilization.  Some have said it is found in administering the
+"greatest good to the greatest number," {16} and if we consider in this
+the generations yet unborn, it reveals the actual tendency of modern
+civilization.  If the perfection of the individual is the highest ideal
+of civilization, it stops not with one individual, but includes all.
+And this asserts that social well-being must be included in the final
+aim, for full and free individual development cannot appear without it.
+The enlarged capacity for living correctly, enjoying the best of this
+life righteously, and for associating harmoniously and justly with his
+fellows, is the highest aim of the individual.  Happiness of the
+greatest number through utility is the formula for modern civilization.
+
+_Possibilities of Civilization_.--The possibilities of reaching a still
+higher state of civilization are indeed great.  The future is not full
+of foreboding, but bright and happy with promise of individual culture
+and social progress.  If opportunities are but wisely used, the
+twentieth century will witness an advancement beyond our highest
+dreams.  Yet the whole problem hinges on the right use of knowledge.
+If the knowledge of chemistry is to be used to destroy nations and
+races with gases and high explosives, such knowledge turns civilization
+to destruction.  If all of the powers of nature under man's control
+should be turned against him, civilization would be turned back upon
+itself.  Let us have "the will to believe" that we have entered an era
+of vital progress, of social improvement, of political reforms, which
+will lead to the protection of those who need protection and the
+elevation of those who desire it.  The rapid progress in art and
+architecture, in invention and industry, the building of libraries and
+the diffusion of knowledge, the improvement of our educational system,
+all being entered upon, will force the world forward at a rapid pace,
+and on such a rational basis that the delight of living will be greatly
+enhanced for all classes.
+
+_Civilization Can Be Estimated_.--This brief presentation of the
+meaning of civilization reveals the fact that civilization can be
+recounted; that it is a question of fact and philosophy that can be
+measured.  It is the story of human progress and {17} the causes which
+made it.  It presents the generalizations of all that is valuable in
+the life of the race.  It is the epitome of the history of humanity in
+its onward sweep.  In its critical sense it cannot be called history,
+for it neglects details for general statements.  Nor is it the
+philosophy of history, for it covers a broader field.  It is not
+speculation, for it deals with fact.  It is the philosophy of man's
+life as to the results of his activity.  It shows alike the unfolding
+of the individual and of society, and it represents these in every
+phase embraced in the word "progress."  To recount this progress and to
+measure civilization is the purpose of the following pages, so far as
+it may be done in the limited space assigned.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Are people of civilized races happier now than are the uncivilized
+races?
+
+2.  Would the American Indians in time have developed a high state of
+civilization?
+
+3.  Why do we not find a high state of civilization among the African
+negroes?
+
+4.  What are the material evidences of civilization in the neighborhood
+in which you live?
+
+5.  Does increased knowledge alone insure an advanced civilization?
+
+6.  Choose an important public building in your neighborhood and trace
+the sources of architecture of the different parts.
+
+
+
+
+{18}
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE ESSENTIALS OF PROGRESS
+
+_How Mankind Goes Forward on the Trail_.--Although civilization cannot
+exist without it, progress is something different from the sum-total of
+the products of civilization.  It may be said to be the process through
+which civilization is obtained, or, perhaps more fittingly, it is the
+log of the course that marks civilization.  There can be no conception
+of progress without ideals, which are standards set up toward which
+humanity travels.  And as humanity never rises above its ideals, the
+possibilities of progress are limited by them.  If ideals are high,
+there are possibilities of a high state of culture; if they are low,
+the possibilities are lessened, and, indeed, frequently are barren of
+results.  But having established ideals as beacon lights for humanity
+to follow, the final test is whether there is sufficient knowledge,
+sufficient ability, and sufficient will-power to approximate them.  In
+other words, shall humanity complete the trail of life, go on higher
+and higher grounds where are set the standards or goals to be reached;
+or will humanity rest easily and contentedly on a low level with no
+attempt to reach a higher level, or, indeed, will humanity, failing in
+desires for betterment, initiative, and will-power, drift to lower
+levels?
+
+Groups, either tribes, races, or nations, may advance along given lines
+and be stationary or even retarded along other lines of development.
+If the accumulation of wealth is the dominant ideal, it may be so
+strenuously followed as to destroy opportunity for other phases of
+life.  If the flow of energy is all toward a religious belief that
+absorbs the time and energy of people in the building of pyramids,
+mausoleums, cathedrals, and mosques, and taboos the inquiry into nature
+{19} which might yield a large improvement in the race, religion would
+be developed at the expense of race improvement.
+
+_Change Is Not Necessarily Progress_.--It is quite common in a popular
+sense for people to identify change with progress, or indeed to accept
+the wonderful changes which take place as causes of progress, when in
+reality they should have taken more care to search out the elements of
+progress of the great moving panorama of changing life.  Changes are
+frequently violent, sudden, tremendous in their immediate effect.  They
+move rapidly and involve many complexes, but progress is a slow-going
+old tortoise that plods along irrespective of storm or sunshine, life
+or death, of the cataclysms of war or the catastrophes of earthquakes
+or volcanoes.  Progress moves slowly along through political and social
+revolutions, gaining a little here and a little there, and registering
+the things that are really worth while out of the ceaseless, changing
+humanity.
+
+Achievement may take place without betterment, but all progress must
+make a record of betterment with achievement.  A man may write a book
+or invent a machine at great labor.  So far as he is concerned it is an
+achievement, but unless it is a good book, a good invention, better
+than others, so that they may be used for the advancement of the race,
+they will not form a betterment.  Many of the changes of life represent
+the results of trial and error.  "There is a way that seemeth right" to
+a nation which may end in destruction.  The evil aroused is sometimes
+greater than the good.  The prosperity of the Roman Empire was
+destroyed because of luxury and corrupt administration.  The German
+Empire developed great powers in government, education, in the arts and
+sciences, but her military purpose nearly destroyed her.  The Spanish
+Empire that once controlled a good part of the American continent
+failed because laborers were driven out of Spain and the wealth gained
+by exploitation was used to support the nobility and royalty in luxury.
+Whether the United States will continue to carry out her high purposes
+will depend upon the right use of her immense wealth and power.
+Likewise the {20} radio, the movie, and the automobile are making
+tremendous changes.  Will the opportunities they furnish improve the
+moral and intellectual character of the people--a necessary condition
+to real progress?
+
+In considering modern progress, too frequently it is estimated by the
+greatness of things, by the stupendous changes, or by the marvellous
+achievements of the age, and we pause and wonder at what has been
+accomplished; but if we think long enough and clearly enough, we may
+get a vision of real progress, and we may find it difficult to
+determine the outcome of it all, so far as the real betterment of the
+race is concerned.  Is the millionaire of to-day any happier,
+necessarily, and any more moral or of a higher religious standard than
+the primitive man or the savage of the plains or forest of to-day?
+True, he has power to achieve in many directions, but is he any happier
+or better?  It may be said that his millions may accomplish great good.
+This is true if they are properly applied.  It is also true that they
+are capable of great harm if improperly used.
+
+As we stand and gaze at the movements of the airplane, or contemplate
+its rapid flight from ocean to ocean and from land to land around the
+world, we are impressed with this great wonder of the age, the great
+achievement of the inventive power of man.  But what of the gain to
+humanity?  If it is possible to transport the mails from New York to
+San Francisco in sixteen hours instead of in five days, is there
+advantage in that except the quickening process of transportation and
+life?  Is it not worth while to inquire what the man at the other end
+of the line is going to do by having his mail four days ahead?  He will
+hurry up somebody else and somebody else will hurry the next one, and
+we only increase the rapidity of motion.  Does it really give us more
+time for leisure, and if so, are we using that leisure time in the
+development of our reflective intellectual powers or our spiritual
+life?  It is easier to see improvement in the case of the radio,
+whereby songs and lectures can be broadcast all over the earth, and the
+{21} community of life and the community of interest are developed
+thereby, and, also, the leisure hours are devoted to a contemplation of
+high ideals, of beautiful music, of noble thoughts.  We do recognize a
+modicum of progress out of the great whirring, rapid changes in
+transportation and creative industry; but let us not be deceived by
+substituting change for progress, or making the two identical.
+
+Thus human progress is something more than achievement, and it is
+something more than the exhibition of tools.  It is determined by the
+use of the tools and involves betterment of the human race.  Hence, all
+the products of social heredity, of language, of science, of religion,
+of art, and of government are progressive in proportion as they are
+successfully used for individual and social betterment.  For if
+government is used to enslave people, or science to destroy them, or
+religion to stifle them, there can be no progress.
+
+_Progress Expresses Itself in a Variety of Ideals and Aims_.--Progress
+involves many lines of development.  It may include biological
+development of the human race, the development of man, especially his
+growth of brain power.  It may consider man's adaptation to environment
+under different phases of life.  It may consider the efficiency of
+bodily structure.  In a cultural sense, progress may refer to the
+products of the industrial arts, or to the development of fine arts, or
+the advancement of religious life and belief--in fact, to the mastery
+of the resources of nature and their service to mankind in whatever
+form they may appear or in whatever phase of life they may be
+expressed.  Progress may also be indicated in the improvement in social
+order and in government, and also the increased opportunity of the
+individual to receive culture through the process of mutual aid.  In
+fact, progress must be sought for in all phases of human activity.
+Whatever phase of progress is considered, its line of demarcation is
+carefully drawn in the process of change from the old to the new, but
+the results of these changes will be the indices of either progress or
+retardation.
+
+{22}
+
+_Progress of the Part and Progress of the Whole_.--An individual might
+through hereditary qualities have superior mental traits or physical
+powers.  These also may receive specific development under favorable
+educational environment, but the inertia of the group or the race might
+render ineffective a salutary use of his powers.  A man is sometimes
+elected mayor of a town and devotes his energies to municipal
+betterment.  But he may be surrounded by corrupt politicians and
+promoters of enterprises who hedge his way at every turn.  Also, in a
+similar way, a group or tribe may go forward, and yet the products of
+its endeavor be lost to the world.  Thus a productiveness of the part
+may be exhibited without the progress of the race.  The former moves
+with concrete limitations, the latter in sweeping, cycling changes; but
+the latter cannot exist without the former, because it is from the
+parts that the whole is created, and it is the generalization of the
+accumulated knowledge or activities of the parts that makes it possible
+for the whole to develop.
+
+The evolution of the human race includes the idea of differentiation of
+parts and a generalization that makes the whole of progress.  So it is
+not easy to determine the result of a local activity as progressive
+until its relation to other parts is determined, nor until other
+activities and the whole of life are determined.  Local colorings of
+life may be so provincial in their view-point as to be practically
+valueless in the estimation of the degree and quality of progress.
+Certain towns, especially in rural districts not acquainted with better
+things, boast that they have the best school, the best court-house, the
+best climate--in fact, everything best.  When they finally awaken from
+their local dream, they discover their own deficiencies.
+
+The great development of art, literature, philosophy, and politics
+among the ancient Greeks was inefficient in raising the great masses of
+the people to a higher plane of living, but the fruits of the lives of
+these superiors were handed on to other groups to utilize, and they are
+not without influence {23} over the whole human group of to-day.  So,
+too, the religious mystic philosophy and literature of India
+represented a high state of mental development, but the products of its
+existence left the races of India in darkness because the mystic
+philosophy was not adaptable to the practical affairs of life.  The
+Indian philosophers may have handed on ideas which caused admiration
+and wonder, but they have had very little influence of a practical
+nature on Western civilization.  So society may make progress in either
+art, religion, or government for a time, and then, for the want of
+adaptation to the conditions imposed by progress, the effects may
+disappear.  Yet not all is lost, for some achievements in the form of
+tools are passed on through social heredity and utilized by other
+races.  In the long run it is the total of the progress of the race,
+the progress of the whole, that is the final test.
+
+_Social Progress Involves Individual Development_.--If we trace
+progress backward over the trail which it has followed, there are two
+lines of development more or less clearly defined.  One is the
+improvement of the racial stock through the hereditary traits of
+individuals.  The brain is enlarged, the body developed in character
+and efficiency, and the entire physical system has changed through
+variation in accordance with the laws of heredity.  What we observe is
+development in the individual, which is its primary function.  Progress
+in this line must furnish individuals of a higher type in the
+procession of the generations.  The other line is through social
+heredity, that is the accumulated products of civilization handed down
+from generation to generation.  This gives each succeeding generation a
+new, improved kit of tools, it brings each new generation into a better
+environment and surrounds it with ready-made means to carry on the
+improvement and add something for the use of the next generation.
+Knowledge of the arts and industries, language and books, are thus
+products of social heredity.  Also buildings, machinery, roads,
+educational systems, and school buildings are inherited.
+
+Connected with these two methods of development must {24} be the
+discovery of the use of the human mind evidenced by the beginning of
+reflective thought.  It is said by some writers that we are still
+largely in the age of instincts and emotions and have just recently
+entered the age of reason.  Such positive statements should be
+considered with a wider vision of life, for one cannot conceive of
+civilization at all without the beginning of reflective mental
+processes.  Simple inventions, like the use of fire, the bow-and-arrow,
+or the flint knife, may have come about primarily through the desire to
+accomplish something by subjecting means to an end, but in the
+perfection of the use of these things, which occurred very early in
+primitive life, there must have been reflective thinking in order to
+shape the knife for its purpose, make the bow-and-arrow more effective,
+and utilize fire for cooking, heating, and smelting.  All of these must
+have come primarily through the individual initiative.
+
+Frequent advocates of social achievement would lead one to suppose that
+the tribe in need of some method of cutting should assemble and pass
+the resolution that a flint knife be made, when any one knows it was
+the reflective process of the individual mind which sought adaptation
+to environment or means to accomplish a purpose.  Of course the
+philosopher may read many generalizations into this which may confuse
+one in trying to observe the simple fact, for it is to be deplored that
+much of the philosophy of to-day is a smoke screen which obscures the
+simple truth.
+
+The difference of races in achievement and in culture is traced
+primarily to hereditary traits developed through variation, through
+intrinsic stimuli, or those originating through so-called inborn
+traits.  These traits enable some races to achieve and adapt themselves
+to their environment, and cause others to fail.  Thus, some groups or
+races have perished because of living near a swamp infested with
+malaria-carrying mosquitoes or in countries where the food supply was
+insufficient.  They lacked initiative to move to a more healthful
+region or one more bountiful in food products, or else they {25} lacked
+knowledge and skill to protect themselves against mosquitoes or to
+increase the food supply.  Moreover, they had no power within them to
+seek the better environment or to change the environment for their own
+advancement.  This does not ignore the tremendous influence of
+environment in the production of race culture.  Its influence is
+tremendous, especially because environmental conditions are more under
+the direction of intelligence than is the development of hereditary
+traits.
+
+Some writers have maintained that there is no difference in the
+dynamic, mental, or physical power of races, and that the difference of
+races which we observe to-day is based upon the fact that some have
+been retarded by poor environment, and others have advanced because of
+fortunate environment.  This argument is good as far as it goes, but it
+does not tell the whole story.  It does not show why some races under
+good environment have not succeeded, while others under poor
+environment have succeeded well.  It does not show why some races have
+the wit to change to a better environment or transform the old
+environment.
+
+There seems to be a great persistency of individual traits, of family
+traits, and, in a still larger generalization, of racial traits which
+culture fails to obliterate.  As these differences of traits seem to be
+universal, it appears that the particular combination which gives motor
+power may also be a differentiation.  At least, as all races have had
+the same earth, why, if they are so equal in the beginning, would they
+not achieve?  Had they no inventive power?  Also, when these so-called
+retarded races came in contact with the more advanced races who were
+superior in arts and industries, why did they not borrow, adapt, and
+utilize these productions?  There must have been something vitally
+lacking which neither the qualities of the individual nor the stimulus
+of his surroundings could overcome.  Some have deteriorated, others
+have perished; some have reached a stationary existence, while others
+have advanced.  Through hereditary changes, nature played the {26} game
+in her own way with the leading cards in her own hand, and some races
+lost.  Hence so with races, so with individuals.
+
+_Progress Is Enhanced by the Interaction of Groups and Races_.--The
+accumulation of civilization and the state of progress may be much
+determined by the interaction of races and groups.  Just as individual
+personality is developed by contact with others, so the actions and
+reactions of tribes and races in contact bring into play the utility of
+discoveries and inventions.  Thus, knowledge of any kind may by
+diffusion become a heritage of all races.  If one tribe should acquire
+the art of making implements by chipping flint in a certain way, other
+tribes with which it comes in contact might borrow the idea and extend
+it, and thus it becomes spread over a wide area.  However, if the
+original discoverer used the chipped flint for skinning animals, the
+one who would borrow the idea might use it to make implements of
+warfare.
+
+Thus, through borrowing, progress may be a co-operative process.  The
+reference to people in any community reveals the fact that there are
+few that lead and many that follow; that there is but one Edison, but
+there are millions that follow Edison.  Even in the educational world
+there are few inventors and many followers.  This is evidence of the
+large power of imitation and adaptation and of the universal habit of
+borrowing.  On the other hand, if one chemical laboratory should
+discover a high explosive which may be used in blasting rock for making
+the foundations for buildings, a nation might borrow the idea and use
+it in warfare for the destruction of man.
+
+Mr. Clark Wissler has shown in his book on _Man and Culture_ that there
+are culture areas originating from culture centres.  From these culture
+centres the bow-and-arrow is used over a wide area.  The domestication
+of the horse, which occurred in central Asia, has spread over the whole
+world.  So stone implements of culture centres have been borrowed and
+exchanged more or less throughout the world.  The theory is that one
+tribe or race invented one thing because of the {27} adaptability to
+good environment.  The dominant necessity of a race stimulated man's
+inventive power, while another tribe would invent or discover some
+other new thing for similar reasons.  But once created, not only could
+the products be swapped or traded, but, where this was impossible,
+ideas could be borrowed and adapted through imitation.
+
+However, one should be careful not to make too hasty generalizations
+regarding the similar products in different parts of the world, for
+there is such universality of the traits of the human mind that, with
+similar stages of advancement and similar environments, man's adaptive
+power would cause him to do the same thing in very much the same way.
+Thus, it is possible for two races that have had no contact for a
+hundred thousand years to develop indigenous products of art which are
+very similar.  To illustrate from a point of contact nearer home, it is
+possible for a person living in Wisconsin and one in Massachusetts,
+having the same general environment--physical, educational, ethnic,
+religious--and having the same general traits of mind, through
+disconnected lines of differentiation, to write two books very much
+alike or two magazine articles very much alike.  In the question of
+fundamental human traits subject to the same environmental stimuli, in
+a general way we expect similar results.
+
+With all this differentiation, progress as a whole represents a
+continuous change from primitive conditions to the present complex
+life, even though its line of travel leads it through the byways of
+differentiation.  Just as the development of races has been through the
+process of differentiation from an early parent stock, cultural changes
+have followed the same law of progressive change.  Just as there is a
+unity of the human race, there is a unity of progress that involves all
+mankind.
+
+_The Study of the Uncultured Races of To-Day_.--It is difficult to
+determine the beginnings of culture and to trace its slow development.
+In accomplishing this, there are two main methods of procedure; the
+first, to find the products or {28} remains of culture left by races
+now extinct, that is, of nations and peoples that have lived and
+flourished and passed away, leaving evidence of what they brought to
+the world; also, by considering what they did with the tools with which
+they worked, and by determining the conditions under which they lived,
+a general idea of their state of progress may be obtained.  The second
+method is to determine the state of culture of living races of to-day
+who have been retarded or whose progress shows a case of arrested
+development and compare their civilization statistically observed with
+that of the prehistoric peoples whose state of progress exhibits in a
+measure similar characteristics to those of the living races.
+
+With these two methods working together, more light is continually
+being thrown upon man's ancient culture.  To illustrate this, if a
+certain kind of tool or implement is found in the culture areas of the
+extinct Neanderthal race and a similar tool is used by a living
+Australian tribe, it may be conjectured with considerable accuracy that
+the use of this tool was for similar purposes, and the thoughts and
+beliefs that clustered around its use were the same in each tribe.
+Thus may be estimated the degree of progress of the primitive race.  Or
+if an inscription on a cave of an extinct race showed a similarity to
+an inscription used by a living race, it would seem that they had the
+same background for such expression, and that similar instincts,
+emotions, and reflections were directed to a common end.  The recent
+study of anthropologists and archaeologists has brought to light much
+knowledge of primitive man which may be judged on its own evidence and
+own merits.  The verification of these early cultures by the living
+races who have reached a similar degree of progress is of great
+importance.
+
+_The Study of Prehistoric Types_.[1]--The brain capacity of modern man
+has changed little since the time of the Crô-Magnon race, which is the
+earliest ancestral type of present European races and whose existence
+dates back many {29} thousand years.  Possibly the weight of the brain
+has increased during this period because of its development, and
+undoubtedly its power is much greater in modern man than in this
+ancient type.  Prior to that there are some evidences of extinct
+species, such as Pithecanthropus Erectus, the Grimaldi man, the
+Heidelberg man, and the Neanderthal.  Judging from the skeletal remains
+that have been found of these races, there has been a general progress
+of cranial capacity.  It is not necessary here to attempt to determine
+whether this has occurred from hereditary combinations or through
+changing environment.  Undoubtedly both of these factors have been
+potential in increasing the brain power of man, and if we were to go
+farther back by way of analogy, at least, and consider the Anthropoid
+ape, the animal most resembling man, we find a vast contrast in his
+cranial capacity as compared with the lowest of the prehistoric types,
+or, indeed, of the lowest types of the uncultured living races.
+
+Starting with the Anthropoid ape, who has a register of about 350 c.c.,
+the Pithecanthropus about 900 c.c., and Neanderthal types registering
+as high as 1,620 c.c. of brain capacity, the best measures of the
+highest types of modern man show the brain capacity of 1,650 c.c.
+Specimens of the Crô-Magnon skulls show a brain capacity equal to that
+of modern man.  There is a great variation in the brain capacity of the
+Neanderthal race as exhibited in specimens found in different centres
+of culture, ranging all the way from 1,296 c.c. to 1,620 c.c.  Size is
+only one of several traits that determine brain power.  Among others
+are the weight, convolutions, texture, and education.  A small, compact
+brain may have more power than a larger brain relatively lighter.  Also
+much depends upon the centres of development.  The development of the
+frontal area, shown by the full forehead in connection with the
+distance above the ear (auditory meatus), in contrast with the
+development of the anterior lobes is indicative of power.
+
+It is interesting to note also that the progress of man as shown in the
+remnants of arts and industry corresponds in {30} development to the
+development of brain capacity, showing that the physical power of man
+kept pace with the mental development as exhibited in his mental power
+displayed in the arts and industries.  The discoveries in recent times
+of the skeletons of prehistoric man in Europe, Africa, and America, and
+the increased collection of implements showing cultures are throwing
+new light on the science of man and indicating a continuous development
+from very primitive beginnings.
+
+_Progress Is Indicated by the Early Cultures_.--It is convenient to
+divide the early culture of man, based upon his development in art into
+the Paleolithic, or unpolished, and the Neolithic, or polished, Stone
+Ages.[2]  The former is again divided into the Eolithic, Lower
+Paleolithic, and the Upper Paleolithic.  In considering these divisions
+of relative time cultures, it must be remembered that the only way we
+have of measuring prehistoric time is through the geological method,
+based upon the Ice Ages and changes in the physical contour of the
+earth.
+
+In the strata of the earth, either in the late second inter-glacial
+period or at the beginning of the third, chipped rocks, or eoliths, are
+found used by races of which the Piltdown and Heidelberg species are
+representatives.[3]  Originally man used weapons to hammer and to cut
+already prepared by nature.  Sharp-edged flints formed by the crushing
+of rocks in the descent of the glaciers or by upheavals of earth or by
+powerful torrents were picked up as needed for the purpose of cutting.
+Wherever a sharp edge was needed, these natural implements were useful.
+Gradually man learned to carry the best specimens with him.  These he
+improved by chipping the edges, making them more serviceable, or
+chipping the eolith, so as to grasp it more easily.  This represents
+the earliest relic of the beginning of civilization through art.
+Eoliths of this kind are found in Egypt in the hills bordering the Nile
+Valley, in Asia and America, as well as in southern Europe.  Perhaps at
+the same period of development man selected stones suitable for
+crushing bones or for other purposes when hammering {31} was necessary.
+These were gradually fashioned into more serviceable hammers.  In the
+latter part of this period, known as the pre-Chellean, flint implements
+were considerably improved.
+
+In the Lower Paleolithic in the pre-Neanderthal period, including what
+is known as the Chellean, new forms of implements are added to the
+earlier beginnings.  Almond-shaped flint implements, followed later by
+long, pointed implements, indicate the future development of the stone
+spear, arrowhead, knife, and axe.  Also smaller articles of use, such
+as borers, scrapers, and ploughs, appeared.  The edges of all
+implements were rough and uneven, and the forms very imperfect.
+
+_Industrial and Social Life of Primitive Man_.--In the industry of the
+early Neanderthal races (Acheulean) implements were increased in number
+and variety, being also more perfectly formed, showing the expansive
+art of man.  At this period man was a hunter, having temporary homes in
+caves and shelters, which gradually became more or less permanent, and
+used well-fashioned implements of stone.  At the close of the third
+interglacial period the climate was mild and moist, and mankind found
+the open glades suitable places for assemblages in family groups about
+the open fires; apparently the cooking of food and the making of
+implements and clothing on a small scale were the domestic occupations
+at this time.  Hunting was the chief occupation in procuring food.  The
+bison, the horse, the reindeer, the bear, the beaver, the wild boar had
+taken the place of the rhinoceros, the sabre-tooth tiger, and the
+elephant.
+
+Judging from the stage of life existing at this time, and comparing
+this with that of the lowest living races, we may safely infer that the
+family associations existed at this time, even though the habitations
+in caves and shelters were temporary.[4]
+
+  "Yet, when at length rude huts they first devised,
+  And fires and garments; and in union sweet
+  Man wedded woman, the pure joys indulged
+
+{32}
+
+  Of chaste connubial love, and children rose,
+  The rough barbarians softened.  The warm hearth
+  Their frames so melted they no more could bear,
+  As erst, th' uncovered skies.  The nuptial bed
+  Broke their wild vigor, and the fond caress
+  Of prattling children from the bosom chased
+  Their stern, ferocious manners."
+          --LUCRETIUS, "ON THE NATURE OF THINGS."
+                  AFTER OSBORN.
+
+
+Thus the Lower Paleolithic merged into the Upper; with the appearance
+of the Mousterian, Augrignacian, Solutrian, Magdalenian, and Azilian
+cultures followed the most advanced stage of the Neanderthal race
+before its final disappearance.  The list of tools and implements
+indicates a widening scope of civilization.  For war and chase and
+fishing, for industry and domestic life, for art, sculpture, and
+engraving, and for ceremonial use, a great variety of implements of
+stone and bone survived the life of the races.
+
+Spears, daggers, knives, arrowheads, fish-hooks, and harpoons;
+hand-axes, drills, hammers, scrapers, planes, needles, pins, chisels,
+wedges, gravers, etchers, mortars, and pilasters; ceremonial staffs and
+wands--all are expressions of a fulness of industrial and social life
+not recognized in earlier races.  Indications of religious ceremonies
+represent the changing mind, and the expression of mind in art suggests
+increased mental power.
+
+_Cultures Indicate the Mental Development of the Race_.--As the art and
+industry to-day represent the mental processes of man, so did these
+primitive cultures show the inventive skill and adaptive power in the
+beginnings of progress.  Perhaps instinct, emotion, and necessity
+figured more conspicuously in the early period than reflective thought,
+while in modern times we have more design and more planning, both in
+invention and construction.  Also the primitive social order was more
+an unconscious development, and lacked purpose and directing power in
+comparison with present life.
+
+{33}
+
+But there must have been inventors and leaders in primitive times, some
+brains more fertile than others, that made change and progress
+possible.  Who these unknown geniuses were human records do not
+indicate.  In modern times we single out the superiors and call them
+great.  The inventor, the statesman, the warrior, the king, have their
+achievements heralded and recorded in history.  The records of
+achievement of the great barbarous cultures, of the Assyrians, the
+Egyptians, and the Hebrews, centre around some king whose tomb
+preserves the only records, while in reality some man unknown to us was
+the real author of such progress as was made.  The reason is that
+progress was so slow that the changes passed unnoticed, being the
+products of many minds, each adding its increment of change.  Only the
+king or ruler who could control the mass mind and the mass labor could
+make sufficient spectacular demonstration worth recording, and could
+direct others to build a tomb or record inscriptions to perpetuate his
+name.
+
+_Men of Genius Cause the Mutations Which Permit Progress_.--The toiling
+multitudes always use the products of some inventive genius.  Some
+individual with specialized mental traits plans something different
+from social usages or industrial life which changes tradition and
+modifies the customs and habits of the mass.  Whether he be statesman,
+inventor, philosopher, scientist, discoverer, or military leader, he
+usually receives credit for the great progressive mutation which he has
+originated.  There can be little progress without these few fertile
+brains, just as there could be little progress unless they were
+supported by the laborers who carry out the plans of the genius.  While
+the "unknown man" is less conspicuous in the progress of the race in
+modern complex society, he is still a factor in all progress.
+
+_The Data of Progress_.--Evolution is not necessarily progress; neither
+is development progress; yet the factors that enter into evolution and
+development are essential to progress.  The laws of differentiation
+apply to progress as well as to evolution.  In the plant and animal
+life everywhere this law {34} obtains.  In man it is subservient to the
+domination of intelligent direction, yet it is in operation all of the
+time.  Some races are superior in certain lines, other races show
+superiority in other lines.  Likewise, individuals exhibit differences
+in a similar way.  Perhaps the dynamic physical or mental power of the
+individual or the race will not improve in itself, having reached its
+maximum.  There is little hope that the brain of man will ever be
+larger or stronger, but it may become more effective through training
+and increased knowledge.  Hence in the future we must look for
+achievement along co-operative and social lines.  It is to social
+expansion and social perfection that we must look for progress in the
+future.  For here the accumulated power of all may be utilized in
+providing for the welfare of the individual, who, in turn, will by his
+inventive power cause humanity to progress.
+
+The industrial, institutional, humanitarian, and educational machinery
+represents progress in action, but increased knowledge, higher ideals
+of life, broader concepts of truth, liberty of individual action which
+is interested in human life in its entirety, are the real indices of
+progress.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Why do some races progress and others deteriorate?
+
+2.  Compare different communities to show to what extent environment
+determines progress.
+
+3.  Show how the airplane is an evidence of progress.  The radio.  The
+gasoline-engine.
+
+4.  Discuss the effects of religious belief on progress.
+
+5.  Is the mental capacity of the average American greater than the
+average of the Greeks at the time of their highest culture?
+
+6.  What are the evidences that man will not advance in physical and
+mental capacity?
+
+7.  Show that the improvement of the race will be through social
+activity.
+
+
+
+[1] See Chapter IV.
+
+[2] See Chapter III.
+
+[3] See Chapter IV.
+
+[4] See Chapter VI.
+
+
+
+
+{35}
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+METHODS OF RECOUNTING HUMAN PROGRESS
+
+_Difficulty of Measuring Progress_.--In its larger generalization,
+progress may move in a straight line, but it has such a variety of
+expression and so many tributary causes that it is difficult to reduce
+it to any classification.  Owing to the difficulties that attend an
+attempt to recite all of the details of human progress, philosophers
+and historians have approached the subject from various sides, each
+seeking to make, by means of higher generalizations, a clear course of
+reasoning through the labyrinth of materials.  By adopting certain
+methods of marking off periods of existence and pointing out the
+landmarks of civilization, they have been able to estimate more truly
+the development of the race.  Civilization cannot be readily measured
+by time; indeed, the time interval in history is of little value save
+to mark order and continuity.  It has in itself no real significance;
+it is merely an arbitrary division whose importance is greatly
+exaggerated.  But while civilization is a continuous quantity, and
+cannot be readily marked off into periods without destroying its
+movement, it is necessary to make the attempt, especially in the study
+of ancient or prehistoric society; for any method which groups and
+classifies facts in logical order is helpful to the study of human
+progress.
+
+_Progress May Be Measured by the Implements Used_.--A very common
+method, based largely upon the researches of archaeologists, is to
+divide human society into four great periods, or ages, marked by the
+progress of man in the use of implements.  The first of these periods
+is called the Stone Age, and embraces the time when man used stone for
+all {36} purposes in the industrial arts so far as they had been
+developed.  For convenience this period has been further divided into
+the age of ancient or unpolished implements and the age of modern or
+polished implements.  The former includes the period when rude
+implements were chipped out of flint or other hard stone, without much
+idea of symmetry and beauty, and with no attempt to perfect or beautify
+them by smoothing and polishing their rough surface.
+
+In the second period man learned to fashion more perfectly the
+implements, and in some instances to polish them to a high degree.
+Although the divisions are very general and very imperfect, they map
+out the great prehistoric era of man; but they must be considered as
+irregular, on account of the fact that the Stone Era of man occurred at
+different times in different tribes.  Thus the inhabitants of North
+America were in the Stone Age less than two centuries ago, while some
+of the inhabitants of the South Sea Islands are in the Stone Age during
+the present century.  It is quite remarkable that the use of stone
+implements was universal to all tribes and nations at some period of
+their existence.
+
+After the long use of stone, man gradually became acquainted with some
+of the metals, and subsequently discovered the method of combining
+copper with tin and other alloys to form bronze, which material, to a
+large extent, added to the implements already in use.  The Bronze Age
+is the most hypothetical of all these divisions, as it does not appear
+to have been as universal as the Stone, on account of the difficulty of
+obtaining metals.  The use of copper by the Indians of the Lake
+Superior region was a very marked epoch in their development, and
+corresponds to the Bronze Age of other nations, although their
+advancement in other particulars appears to be less than that of other
+tribes of European origin which used bronze freely.  Bronze implements
+have been found in great plenty in Scandinavia and Peru, and to a
+limited extent in North America.  They certainly mark a stage of
+progress in advance of that of the inhabitants of the Stone Age.
+Bronze {37} was the chief metal for implements throughout the early
+civilization of Europe.
+
+Following the age of bronze is the Iron Age, in which the advancement
+of man is especially marked.  The bronze implements were at first
+supplemented in their use by those of iron.  But gradually iron
+implements superseded the bronze.  The Iron Age still is with us.
+Possibly it has not yet reached its highest point.  Considering the
+great structures built of iron, and the excessive use of iron in
+machinery, implements, and furniture, it is easy to realize that we are
+yet in this great period.  Though we continue to use stone more than
+the ancients and more bronze for decoration and ornament than they, yet
+both are subordinate to the use of iron.  General as the above
+classification is, it helps in an indefinite way to give us a central
+idea of progress and to mark off, somewhat indefinitely, periods of
+development.
+
+_The Development of Art_.--Utility was the great purpose underlying the
+foundation of the industrial arts.  The stone axe, or celt, was first
+made for a distinct service, but, in order to perfect its usefulness,
+its lines became more perfect and its surface more highly polished.  So
+we might say for the spear-head, the knife, or the olla.  Artistic
+lines and decorative beauty always followed the purpose of use.  This
+could be applied to all of the products of man's invention to transform
+parts of nature to his use.  On account of the durability of form, the
+attempt to trace the course of civilization by means of the development
+of the fine arts has met with much success.  Though the idea of beauty
+is not essential to the preservation of man or to the making of the
+state, it has exerted a great influence in individual-building and in
+society-building.  In our higher emotional natures aesthetic ideas have
+ruled with imperial sway.
+
+But primitive ideas of beauty appear to us very crude, and even
+repulsive.  The adornment of person with bright though rudely colored
+garments, the free use of paint on the person, and the promiscuous use
+of jewelry, as {38} practised by the primitive peoples, present a great
+contrast to modern usage.  Yet it is easy to trace the changes in
+custom and, moreover, to determine the origin of present customs.  So
+also in representative art, the rude sketch of an elephant or a buffalo
+on ivory or stone and the finished picture by a Raphael are widely
+separated in genius and execution, but there is a logical connection
+between the two found in the slowly evolving human activities.  The
+rude figure of a god moulded roughly from clay and the lifelike model
+by an Angelo have the same relations to man in his different states.
+The same comparison may be made between the low, monotonous moaning of
+the savage and the rapturous music of a Patti, or between the beating
+of the tom-tom and the lofty strains of a Mozart.
+
+_Progress Is Estimated by Economic Stages_.--The progress of man is
+more clearly represented by the successive economic stages of his life.
+Thus we have first the _primal nomadic_ period, in which man was a
+wanderer, subsisting on roots and berries, and with no definite social
+organization.  This period, like all primary periods, is largely
+hypothetical.  Having learned to capture game and fish, he entered what
+might be called the _fisher-hunter_ stage, although he was still a
+nomad, and rapidly spread over a large part of the earth's surface,
+wandering from forest to forest and from stream to stream, searching
+for the means of subsistence and clothing.
+
+When man learned to domesticate animals he made a great step forward
+and entered what is known as the _pastoral_ period, in which his chief
+occupation was the care of flocks and herds.  This contributed much to
+his material support and quickened his social and intellectual
+movement.  After a time, when he remained in one place a sufficient
+time to harvest a short crop, he began agriculture in a tentative way,
+while his chief concern was yet with flocks and herds.  He soon became
+permanently settled, and learned more fully the art of agriculture, and
+then entered the permanent _agricultural_ stage.  It was during this
+period that he made the most rapid advances in {39} the industrial arts
+and in social order.  This led to more densely populated communities,
+with permanent homes and the necessary development of law and
+government.
+
+As the products of industry increased men began to exchange "the
+relatively superfluous for the relatively necessary," and trade in the
+form of barter became a permanent custom.  This led to the use of money
+and a more extended system of exchange, and man entered the
+_commercial_ era.  This gave him a wider intercourse with surrounding
+tribes and nations, and brought about a greater diversity of ideas.
+The excessive demand for exchangeable goods, the accumulation of
+wealth, and the enlarged capacity for enjoyment centred the activities
+of life in industry, and man entered the _industrial_ stage.  At first
+he employed hand power for manufacturing goods, but soon he changed to
+power manufacture, brought about by discovery and invention.  Water and
+steam were now applied to turn machinery, and the new conditions of
+production changed the whole industrial life.  A revolution in
+industrial society caused an immediate shifting of social life.
+Classes of laborers in the great industrial army became prominent, and
+production was carried on in a gigantic way.  We are still in this
+industrial world, and as electricity comes to the aid of steam we may
+be prepared for even greater changes in the future than we have
+witnessed in the past.[1]
+
+In thus presenting the course of civilization by the different periods
+of economic life, we must keep the mind free from conventional ideas.
+For, while the general course of economic progress is well indicated,
+there was a slow blending of each period into the succeeding one.
+There is no formal procedure in the progress of man.  Yet we might
+infer from the way in which some writers present this matter that
+society moved forward in regular order, column after column.  From the
+formal and forcible way in which they have presented the history of
+early society, one might imagine that a certain tribe, having become
+weary of tending cattle and goats, resolved one {40} fine morning to
+change from the pastoral life to agriculture, and that all of the
+tribes on earth immediately concluded to do the same, when, in truth,
+the change was slow and gradual, while the centuries passed away.
+
+It is well to consider that in the expanded industrial life of man the
+old was not replaced, but supplemented, by the new, and that after the
+pastoral stage was entered, man continued to hunt and fish, and that
+after formal agriculture was begun the tending of flocks and herds
+continued, and fishing was practised at intervals.  But each succeeding
+occupation became for the time the predominant one, while others were
+relatively subordinate.  Even to-day, while we have been rushing
+forward in recent years at a rapid rate, under the power of steam and
+electricity, agriculture and commerce have made marvellous improvement.
+Though we gain the new, nothing of the old is lost.  The use of flocks
+and herds, as well as fish and game, increases each year, although not
+relatively.
+
+_Progress Is Through the Food Supply_.--This is only another view of
+the economic life.  The first period is called the natural subsistence
+period, when man used such food as he found prepared for him by nature.
+It corresponds to the primal nomadic period of the last classification.
+From this state he advanced to the use of fish for food, and then
+entered the third period, when native grains were obtained through a
+limited cultivation of the soil.  After this followed a period in which
+meat and milk were the chief articles of food.  Finally the period of
+extended and permanent agriculture was reached, and farinaceous food by
+cultivation became the main support of life.  The significance of this
+classification is observed in the fact that the amount, variety, and
+quality of the food available determine the possibility of man's
+material and spiritual advancement.  As the food supply lies at the
+foundation of human existence, prosperity is measured to a large extent
+by the food products.  The character of the food affects to a great
+extent the mental and moral capabilities of man; that is, it {41}
+limits the possibilities of civilization.  Even in modern civilization
+the effect of poor food on intellect, morals, and social order is
+easily observed.
+
+_Progress Is Estimated by Different Forms of Social Order_.--It is only
+a more general way of estimating political life, and perhaps a broader
+way, for it includes the entire social development.  By this
+classification man is first represented as wandering in a solitary
+state with the smallest amount of association with his fellows
+necessary to his existence and perpetuation, and with no social
+organization.  This status of man is hypothetical, and gives only a
+starting point for the philosophy of higher development.  No savage
+tribes have yet been discovered in which there was not at least
+association of individuals in groups, although organization might not
+yet have appeared.  It is true that some of the lower tribes, like the
+Fuegians of South America, have very tentative forms of social and
+political association.  They wander in loosely constructed groups,
+which constantly shift in association, being without permanent
+organization.  Yet the purely solitary man is merely conjectural.
+
+It is common for writers to make a classification of social groups into
+primary and secondary.[2]  The primary social groups are: first, the
+family based upon biological relations, supported by the habit of
+association; second, the play group of children, in which primitive
+characters of social order appear, and a third group is the association
+of adults in a neighborhood meeting.  In the formation of these groups,
+the process of social selection is always in evidence.  Impulse,
+feeling, and emotion play the greater parts in the formation of these
+primitive groups, while choice based on rational selection seldom
+appears.
+
+The secondary groups are those which originate through the
+differentiation of social functions in which the contact of individuals
+is less intimate than in the primary group.  Such voluntary
+associations as a church, labor organization, or {42} scientific
+society may be classified as secondary in time and in importance.
+
+Next above the human horde is represented the forced association of men
+in groups, each group struggling for its own existence.  Within the
+group there was little protection and little social order, although
+there was more or less authority of leadership manifested.  This state
+finally led to the establishment of rudimentary forms of government,
+based upon blood relationship.  These groups enlarged to full national
+life.  This third stage finally passed to the larger idea of
+international usage, and is prospective of a world state.  These four
+stages of human society, so sweeping in their generalization, still
+point to the idea of the slow evolution of social order.
+
+_The Development of Family Life_.--Starting with the hypothesis that
+man at one time associated in a state of promiscuity, he passed through
+the separate stages of polyandry and polygamy, and finally reached a
+state of monogamy and the pure home life of to-day.  Those who have
+advocated this doctrine have failed to substantiate it clearly so as to
+receive from scholars the recognition of authority.  All these forms of
+family life except the first have been observed among the savage tribes
+of modern life, but there are not sufficient data to prove that the
+human race, in the order of its development, must have passed through
+these four stages.  However, it is true that the modern form of
+marriage and pure home life did not always exist, but are among the
+achievements of modern civilization.  There certainly has been a
+gradual improvement in the relations of the members of the household,
+and notwithstanding the defects of faithlessness and ignorance, the
+modern family is the social unit and the hope of modern social progress.
+
+_The Growth of Political Life_.--Many have seen in this the only true
+measure of progress, for it is affirmed that advancement in civil life
+is the essential element of civilization.  Its importance in
+determining social order makes it a central factor in all progress.
+The _primitive family_ represents the germ {43} of early political
+foundation.  It was the first organized unit of society, and contained
+all of the rudimentary forms of government.  The executive, the
+judicial, the legislative, and the administrative functions of
+government were all combined in one simple family organization.  The
+head of the family was king, lord, judge, priest, and military
+commander all in one.  As the family expanded it formed the _gens_ or
+_clan_, with an enlarged family life and more systematic family
+government.  The religious life expanded also, and a common altar and a
+common worship were instituted.
+
+A slight progress toward social order and the tendency to distribute
+the powers of government are to be observed.  Certain property was held
+in common and certain laws regulated the family life.  The family
+groups continued to enlarge by natural increase and by adoption, all
+those coming into the gens submitting to its laws, customs, and social
+usage.  Finally several gentes united into a brotherhood association
+called by the Greeks a _phratry_, by the Romans a _curia_.  This
+brotherhood was organized on a common religious basis, with a common
+deity and a central place of worship.  It also was used partially as
+the basis of military organization.  This group represents the first
+unit based upon locality.  From it spring the ward idea and the idea of
+local self-government.
+
+The _tribe_ represented a number of gentes united for religious and
+military purposes.  Although its principal power was military, there
+were a common altar and a common worship for all members of the tribe.
+The chief, or head of the tribe, was the military leader, and usually
+performed an important part in all the affairs of the tribe.  As the
+tribe became the seat of power for military operations, the gens
+remained as the foundation of political government, for it was the
+various heads of the gentes who formed the council of the chief or king
+and later laid the foundation of the senate, wherever instituted.  It
+was common for the tribe in most instances to pass into a village
+community before developing full national life.  There were exceptions
+to this, where tribes have passed directly into {44} well-organized
+groups without the formation of the village or the city.
+
+The _village community_, next in logical order, represents a group of
+closely related people located on a given territory, with a
+half-communal system of government.  There were the little group of
+houses forming the village proper and representing the different homes
+of the family group.  There were the common pasture-land, the common
+woodland, and the fertile fields for cultivation.  These were all
+owned, except perhaps the house lot, by the entire community, and every
+year the tillable land was parcelled out by the elders of the community
+to the heads of families for tillage.  Usually the tiller of the soil
+had a right to the crop, although among the early Greeks the custom
+seems to be reversed, and the individual owned the land, but was
+compelled to place its proceeds into a common granary.  The village
+community represents the transition from a nomadic to a permanent form
+of government, and was common to all of the Aryan tribes.  The
+federation of the village communities or the expansion of the tribes
+formed the Greek city-state, common to all of the Greek communities.
+It represents the real beginning of civic life among the nations.
+
+The old family organization continued to exist, although from this time
+on there was a gradual separation of the functions of government.  The
+executive, legislative, and judicial processes became more clearly
+defined, and special duties were assigned to officers chosen for a
+particular purpose.  Formal law, too, appeared as the expression of the
+will of a definitely organized community.  Government grew more
+systematic, and expanded into a well-organized municipality.  There was
+less separation of the duties of officers than now, but there was a
+constant tendency for government to unfold and for each officer to have
+his specific powers and duties defined.  A deity watched over the city,
+and a common shrine for worship was set up for all members of the
+municipality.
+
+The next attempt to enlarge government was by federation {45} and by
+conquest and domination.[3]  The city of Rome represents, first, a
+federation of tribal city groups, and, finally, the dominant city
+ruling over many other cities and much territory.  From this it was
+only a step to the empire and imperial sway.  Athens in her most
+prosperous period attempted to do the same, but was not entirely
+successful.  After the decline of the Roman power there arose from the
+ruins of the fallen empire the modern nationalities, which used all
+forms of government hitherto known.  They partook of democracy,
+aristocracy, or imperialism, and even attempted, in some instances, to
+combine the principles of all three in one government.  While the
+modern state developed some new characteristics, it included the
+elements of the Greek and Roman governments.  The relations of these
+new states developed a new code of law, based upon international
+relations.  Though treaties were made between the Greeks and the Romans
+in their first international relations, and much earlier between the
+Hebrews and the Phoenicians, international law is of practically modern
+origin.  At present modern nations have an extended and intricate code
+of laws governing their relations.  It is an extension of government
+beyond the boundaries of nationality.
+
+Through commerce, trade, and political intercourse the nations of the
+Western World are drawn more closely together, and men talk of a world
+citizenship.  A wide philanthropy, rapid and cheap transportation, the
+accompanying influences of travel, and a world market for the products
+of the earth, all tend to level the barriers of nationality and to
+develop universal citizenship.  The prophets of our day talk of the
+coming world state, which is not likely to appear so long as the
+barriers of sea and mountain remain; yet each year witnesses a closer
+blending of the commercial, industrial, and political interests of all
+nations.  Thus we see how governments have been evolved and national
+life expanded in accordance {46} with slowly developing civilization.
+Although good government and a high state of civilization are not
+wholly in the relation of cause and effect, they always accompany each
+other, and the progress of man may be readily estimated from the
+standpoint of the development of political institutions and political
+life.
+
+_Religion Important in Civilization_.--It is not easy to trace the
+development of man by a consideration of the various religious beliefs
+entertained at different periods of his existence.  Yet there is
+unmistakably a line of constant development to be observed in religion,
+and as a rule its progress is an index of the improvement of the race.
+No one can contrast the religion of the ancient nations with the modern
+Christian religion without being impressed with the vast difference in
+conception and in practice existing between them.  In the early period
+of barbarism, and even of savagery, religious belief was an important
+factor in the development of human society.
+
+It is no less important to-day, and he who recounts civilization
+without giving it a prominent place has failed to obtain a
+comprehensive view of the philosophy of human development.  From the
+family altar of the Greeks to the state religion; from the rude altar
+of Abraham in the wilderness to the magnificent temple of Solomon at
+Jerusalem; from the harsh and cruel tenets of the Oriental religions to
+the spiritual conception and ethical practice of the Christian
+religion, one observes a marked progress.  We need only go to the crude
+unorganized superstition of the savage or to the church of the Middle
+Ages to learn that the power and influence of religion is great in
+human society building.
+
+_The Progress Through Moral Evolution_.--The moral development of the
+race, although more difficult to determine than the intellectual, may
+prove an index to the progress of man.  The first formal expression of
+moral practice is the so-called race morality or group morality, based
+upon mutual aid for common defense.  This is found to-day in all
+organized groups, such as the boy gang, the Christian church, the
+political party, {47} the social set, the educational institution, and,
+indeed, the state itself; but wherever found it has its source in a
+very primitive group action.  In the primitive struggle for existence
+man had little sympathy for his fellows, the altruistic sentiment being
+very feeble.  But gradually through the influence of the family life
+sympathy widened and deepened in its onward flow until, joining with
+the group morality, it entered the larger world of ethical practice.
+
+This phase of moral culture had its foundation in the sympathy felt by
+the mother for her offspring, a sympathy that gradually extended to the
+immediate members of the household.  As the family expanded into the
+state, human sympathy expanded likewise, until it became national in
+its significance.  Through this process there finally came a world-wide
+philanthropy which recognizes the sufferings of all human beings.  This
+sympathy has been rapidly increased by the culture of the intellect,
+the higher development of the sensibilities, and the refinement of the
+emotions; thus along the track of altruism or ethical development,
+which had its foundation in primitive life, with its ever widening and
+enlarging circles, the advancement of humanity may be traced.  The old
+egoism, the savage warfare for existence, has been constantly tempered
+by altruism, which has been a saving quality in the human race.
+
+_Intellectual Development of Man_.--Some philosophers have succeeded in
+recounting human progress by tracing the intellectual development of
+the race.  This is possible, for everything of value that has been
+done, and which has left a record, bears the mark of man's intellect.
+In the early period of his existence, man had sufficient intellect to
+direct his efforts to satisfy the common wants of life.  This exercise
+of the intellectual faculty has accompanied man's every movement, but
+it is best observed in the products of his industry and the practice of
+social order.  By doing and making, the intellect grows, and it is only
+by observing the phenomena of active life that we get a hint or trace
+of the powers and capacities of the mind.  {48} But after man begins
+the process of reflective thinking, his intellectual activities become
+stronger, and it is much easier to trace his development by considering
+the condition of religion, law, philosophy, literature, sculpture, art,
+and architecture.  These represent the best products of the mind, and
+it is along this intellectual highway that the best results of
+civilization are found.  During the modern period of progressive life
+systematic education has forced the intellectual faculties through a
+more rapid course, giving predominance to intellectual life everywhere.
+The intellectual development of nations or the intellectual development
+of man in general is a theme of never-tiring interest, as it represents
+his noblest achievements.
+
+Man from the very beginning has had a desire for knowledge, to satisfy
+curiosity.  Gradually, however, he had a desire to know in order to
+increase utility, and finally he reaches the highest state of progress
+in desiring to know for the sake of knowing.  Thus he proceeds from
+mere animal curiosity to the idealistic state of discovering "truth for
+truth's sake."  These are qualities not only of the individual in his
+development but of the racial group and, indeed, in a larger way of all
+mankind; intelligence developed in the attempt of man to discover the
+nature of the results of his instinctive, impulsive, or emotional
+actions.  Later he sought causes of these results.  Here we have
+involved increased knowledge as a basis of human action and the use of
+that knowledge through discriminating intelligence.  The intellect thus
+represents the selective and directive process in the use of knowledge.
+Hence, intelligent behavior of the individual or of the group comes
+only after accumulated knowledge based on experience.  The process of
+trial and error thus gives rise to reflective thinking.  It is a
+superior use of the intellect that more than anything else
+distinguishes the adult from the child or modern man from the primitive.
+
+_Change from Savagery to Barbarism_.--Perhaps one of the broadest
+classifications of ancient society, based upon general characteristics
+of progress, makes the two general divisions of {49} savagery and
+barbarism, and subdivides each of these into three groups.  The lowest
+status of savagery represents man as little above the brute creation,
+subsisting upon roots and berries, and with no knowledge of art or of
+social order.  The second period, called the middle status of savagery,
+represents man using fire, and using fish for food, and having
+corresponding advancement in other ways.  The upper status of savagery
+begins with the use of the bow-and-arrow and extends to the period of
+the manufacture and use of pottery.
+
+At this point the period of barbarism begins.  Its lower status,
+beginning with the manufacture of pottery, extends to the time of the
+domestication of animals.  The middle status includes not only the
+domestication of animals in the East but the practice of irrigation in
+the West and the building of walls from stone and adobe brick.  The
+upper status is marked by the use of iron and extends to the
+introduction of the phonetic alphabet and literary composition.  At
+this juncture civilization is said to dawn.
+
+"Commencing," says Mr. Morgan, the author of this classification, in
+his _Ancient Society_, "with the Australians and the Polynesians,
+following with the American Indian tribes, and concluding with the
+Roman and Grecian, which afford the best exemplification of the six
+great stages of human progress, the sum of their united experiences may
+be supposed to fairly represent that of the human family from the
+middle status of savagery to the end of the ancient civilization."  By
+this classification the Australians would be placed in the middle
+status of savagery, and the early Greeks and Romans in the upper status
+of barbarism, while the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico would be placed in
+the middle status of barbarism.  This is an excellent system for
+estimating the progress of ancient society, for around these initial
+periods may be clustered all of the elements of civilization.  It is of
+especial value in the comparative study of different races and tribes.
+
+_Civilization Includes All Kinds of Human Progress_.--The above
+representation of the principal methods of recounting {50} civilization
+shows the various phases of human progress.  Although each one is
+helpful in determining the progress of man from a particular point of
+view, none is sufficient to marshal all of the qualities of
+civilization in a completed order.  For the entire field of
+civilization should include all the elements of progress, and this
+great subject must be viewed from every side before it can be fairly
+represented to the mind of the student.  The true nature of
+civilization has been more clearly presented in thus briefly
+enumerating the different methods of estimating human progress.  But we
+must remember that civilization, though continuous, is not uniform.
+The qualities of progress which are strong in one tribe or nation are
+weak in others.  It is the total of the characteristics of man and the
+products of his activity that represents his true progress.  Nations
+have arisen, developed, and passed away; tribes have been swept from
+the face of the earth before a complete development was possible; and
+races have been obliterated by the onward march of civilization.  But
+the best products of all nations have been preserved for the service of
+others.  Ancient Chaldea received help from central Asia; Egypt and
+Judea from Babylon; Greece from Egypt; Rome from Greece; and all Europe
+and America have profited from the culture of Greece and Rome and the
+religion of Judea.  There may be a natural growth, maturity, and decay
+of nations, but civilization moves ever on toward a higher and more
+diversified life.  The products of human endeavor arrange themselves on
+the side of man in his attempt to master himself and nature.
+
+
+TABLE SHOWING METHODS OF RECOUNTING HUMAN PROGRESS
+
+I.  Method of the Kind of Implements Used.
+
+         1.  Paleolithic, or Old Stone, Age.
+         2.  Neolithic, or New Stone, Age.
+         3.  Incidental use of copper, tin, and other metals.
+         4.  The making of pottery.
+         5.  The age of bronze.
+         6.  The iron age.
+
+{51}
+
+II.  Method by Art Development.
+
+         1.  Primitive drawings in caves and engraving on ivory and
+             wood.
+         2.  The use of color in decoration of objects, especially in
+             decoration of the body.
+         3.  Beginnings of sculpture and carving figures, animals,
+             gods, and men.
+         4.  Pictorial representations--the pictograph.
+         5.  Representative art in landscapes.
+         6.  Perspective drawing.
+         7.  Idealistic art.
+         8.  Industrial arts.
+
+III.  Method of Economic Stages.
+
+         1.  The Nomadic Stage.
+         2.  The Hunter-Fisher Stage.
+         3.  The Pastoral Period.
+         4.  The Agricultural Period.
+         5.  The Commercial Period.
+         6.  The Period of Industrial Organization.
+
+IV.  Progress Estimated by the Food Supply.
+
+         1.  Natural subsistence Period.
+         2.  Fish and shell fish.
+         3.  Cultivation of native grains.
+         4.  Meat and milk.
+         5.  Farinaceous foods by systematic agriculture.
+
+V.  Method of Social Order.
+
+         1.  Solitary state of man (hypothetical).
+         2.  The human horde.
+         3.  Small groups for purposes of association.
+         4.  The secret society.
+         5.  The religious cult.
+         6.  Closely integrated groups for defense.
+         7.  Amalgamated or federated groups.
+         8.  The Race.
+
+VI.  The Family Development.
+
+         1.  State of promiscuity (hypothetical).
+         2.  Polyandry.
+         3.  Polygamy.
+         4.  Patriarchal family with polygamy.
+         5.  The Monogamic family.
+
+VII.  Progress Measured by Political Organization.
+
+         1.  The organized horde about religious ideas.
+
+{52}
+
+         2.  The completed family organization.
+               _a_.  Family.
+               _b_.  Gens.
+               _c_.  The Phratry.
+               _d_.  Patriarchal family.
+               _e_.  Tribe.
+         3.  The Ethnic state.
+         4.  State formed by conflict and amalgamation.
+         5.  International relations.
+         6.  The World State (Idealistic).
+
+VIII.  Religious Development.
+
+         1.  Belief in spiritual beings.
+         2.  Recognition of the spirit of man and other spirits.
+         3.  Animism.
+         4.  Anthropomorphic religion.
+         5.  Spiritual concept of religion.
+         6.  Ethnical religions.
+         7.  Forms of religious worship and religious practice.
+
+IX.  Moral Evolution.
+
+         1.  Race morality (gang morality).
+         2.  Sympathy for fellow beings.
+         3.  Sympathy through blood relationship.
+         4.  Patriotism: love of race and country.
+         5.  World Ethics.
+
+X.  Progress Through Intellectual Development.
+
+         1.  Sensation and reflex action.
+         2.  Instinct and emotion.
+         3.  Impulse and adaptability.
+         4.  Reflective thought.
+         5.  Invention and discovery.
+         6.  Rational direction of human life.
+         7.  Philosophy.
+         8.  Science.
+
+XI.  Progress Through Savagery and Barbarism.
+
+         1.  Lower status of savagery.
+         2.  Middle status of savagery.
+         3.  Upper status of savagery.
+         4.  Lower status of barbarism.
+         5.  Middle status of barbarism.
+         6.  Upper status of barbarism.
+         7.  Civilization (?).
+
+
+{53}
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  In what other ways than those named in this chapter may we estimate
+the progress of man?
+
+2.  Discuss the evidences of man's mental and spiritual progress.
+
+3.  The relation of wealth to progress.
+
+4.  The relation of the size of population to the prosperity of a
+nation.
+
+5.  Enumerate the arguments that the next destructive war will destroy
+civilization.
+
+6.  In what ways do you think man is better off than he was one hundred
+years ago?  One thousand years ago?
+
+7.  In what ways did the suffering caused by the Great War indicate an
+increase in world ethics?
+
+
+
+[1] See Chapter XXVII.
+
+[2] See Cooley, _Social Organization_, chap. III.
+
+[3] The transition from the ethnic state to the modern civic state was
+through conflict, conquest, and race amalgamation.
+
+
+
+
+{57}
+
+_PART II_
+
+FIRST STEPS OF PROGRESS
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+PREHISTORIC MAN
+
+_The Origin of Man Has not Yet Been Determined_.--Man's origin is still
+shrouded in mystery, notwithstanding the accumulated knowledge of the
+results of scientific investigation in the field and in the laboratory.
+The earliest historical records and relics of the seats of ancient
+civilization all point backward to an earlier period of human life.
+Looking back from the earliest civilizations along the Euphrates and
+the Nile that have recorded the deeds of man so that their evidences
+could be handed down from generation to generation, the earlier
+prehistoric records of man stretch away in the dim past for more than a
+hundred thousand years.  The time that has elapsed from the earliest
+historical records to the present is only a few minutes compared to the
+centuries that preceded it.
+
+Wherever we go in the field of knowledge, we shall find evidences of
+man's great antiquity.  We know at least that he has been on earth a
+long, long period.  As to the method of his appearance, there is no
+absolutely determining evidence.  Yet science has run back into the
+field of conjecture with such strong lines that we may assume with
+practical certainty something of his early life.  He stands at the head
+of the zoological division of the animal kingdom.  The Anthropoid Ape
+is the animal that most nearly resembles man.  It might be said to
+stand next to man in the procession of species.  So far as our
+knowledge can ascertain, it appears that man was developed in the same
+manner as the higher types in the animal and vegetable world, namely,
+by the process of evolution, and by evolution we mean continuous
+progressive change according to law, from external and internal
+stimuli.  The process of evolution is not a process of creation, nor
+does evolution move in {58} a straight line, but through the process of
+differentiation.  In no other way can one account for the multitudes of
+the types and races of the human being, except by this process of
+differentiation which is one of the main factors of evolution.
+Accompanying the process of differentiation is that of specialization
+and integration.  When types become highly specialized they fail to
+adapt themselves to new environments, and other types not so highly
+specialized prevail.  So far as the human race is concerned, it seems
+to be evolved according to the law of sympodial development--that is, a
+certain specialized part of the human race develops certain traits and
+is limited in its adaptability to a specific environment.  Closely
+allied with this are some individuals or groups possessing human traits
+that are less highly specialized, and hence are adaptable to new
+conditions.  Under new conditions the main stem of development perishes
+and the budded branch survives.
+
+We have abundant pictures of this in prehistoric times, and records
+show that this also has been the common lot of man.  Modern man thus
+could not have been developed from any of the living species of the
+Anthropoid Apes, but he might have had a common origin in the physical,
+chemical, and vital forces that produced the apes.  One line of
+specialization made the ape, another line made man.  Subsequently the
+separation of man into the various races and species came about by the
+survival of some races for a time, and then to be superseded by a
+branch of the same race which differentiated in a period of development
+before high specialization had taken place.
+
+_Methods of Recounting Prehistoric Time_.[1]--Present time is measured
+in terms of centuries, years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, and
+seconds, but the second is the determining power of mechanical
+measurement, though it is derived mainly by the movement of the earth
+around the sun and the turning of the earth on its axis.  Mechanically
+we have derived the second as the unit.  It is easy for us to think in
+hours or days or weeks, though it may be the seconds tick off unnoticed
+{59} and the years glide by unnoticed; but it is difficult to think in
+centuries--more difficult in millions of years.  The little time that
+man has been on earth compared with the creation of the earth makes it
+difficult for us to estimate the time of creation.  The much less time
+in the historical period makes it seem but a flash in the movement of
+the creation.
+
+
+======================================================================
+
+TWENTY-FOUR-HOUR DIAL ILLUSTRATING HUMAN CHRONOLOGY[2]
+
+Twenty-five thousand years equals one hour
+
+
+[Illustration: Twenty-four hour dial]
+
+
+  Age of modern man           10,000 years = less than half an hour.
+  Age of Crô-Magnon type      25,000 years = one hour.
+  Age of Neanderthal type     50,000 years = two hours.
+  Age of Piltdown type       150,000 years = six hours.
+  Age of Heidelberg type     375,000 years = fifteen hours.
+  Age of Pithecanthropus     500,000 years = twenty hours.
+
+  Beginning of Christian era   2,000 years = 4.8 minutes.
+  Discovery of America           431 years = about 1 minute.
+  Declaration of Independence    137 years = about 21 seconds.
+
+======================================================================
+
+
+There are four main methods of determining prehistoric {60} time.[3]
+One is called the (1) _geologic method_, which is based upon the fact
+that, in a slowly cooling earth and the action of water and frost, cold
+and heat, storm and glacier and volcanic eruption, the rocks on the
+earth are of different ages.  If they had never been disturbed from
+where they were first laid down, it would be very easy to reckon time
+by geological processes.  If you had a stone column twenty feet high
+built by a machine in ten hours' time, and granting that it worked
+uniformly, it would be easy to see just at what hour of the period a
+layer of stone four feet from the bottom, or ten feet from the top, was
+laid.  If, however, in the building of the wall, it should have toppled
+over several times and had to be rebuilt, it would require considerable
+study to see just at what hour a certain stone was put in the wall.
+Studying the geology of the earth in a large way, it is easy to
+determine what strata of the earth are oldest, and this may be verified
+by a consideration of the process in which these rocks were being made.
+Chemistry and physics are thus brought to the aid of geology.  It is
+easy to determine whether a rock has been fused by a fire or whether it
+has been constructed by the slow action of water and pressure of other
+rocks.  If to-day we should find in an old river bed which had been
+left high and dry on a little mesa or plateau above the present river
+bottom, layers of earth that had been put down by water, and we could
+find how much of each layer was made in a single year, it would be easy
+to estimate the number of years it took to make the whole deposit.
+Also if we could find in the lowest layer certain relics of the human
+race, we could know that the race lived at that time.  If we should
+find relics later on of a different nature, we should be able to
+estimate the progress of civilization.
+
+The second method is of (2) _paleontology_, which is developed along
+with geology.  In this we have both the vertebrate and invertebrate
+paleontology, which are divisions of the science which treats of
+ancient forms of animal and vegetable life.  There are many other
+divisions of paleontology, some {61} devoting themselves entirely to
+animal life and others to vegetable, as, for instance, paleobotany.  As
+plants and animals have gradually developed from lower to higher forms
+and the earth has been built gradually by formations at different
+periods of existence, by a comparison of the former development with
+the latter, that is, comparison with the earth, or inorganic,
+development to the life, or organic, development, we are enabled to get
+a comparative view of duration.  Thus, if in a layer of earth,
+geological time is established and there should be found bones of an
+animal, the bones of a man, and fossilized forms of ancient plants, it
+would be easy to determine their relative ages.
+
+The third method is that of (3) _anatomy_, which is a study of the
+comparative size and shape of the bones of man and other animals as a
+method of showing relative periods of existence.  Also, just as the
+structure of the bones of a child, as compared with that of a man,
+would determine their relative ages, so the bones of the species that
+have been preserved through fossilization may show the relative ages of
+different types of animals.  The study of the skeletons of animals,
+including those of man, has led to the science of anthropometry.
+
+The fourth method is to study the procession of man by (4) _cultures_,
+or the industrial and ornamental implements that have been preserved in
+the river drift, rocks, and caves of the earth from the time that man
+used them until they were discovered.  Just as we have to-day models of
+the improvement of the sewing-machine, the reaper, or the
+flying-machine, each one a little more perfect, so we shall find in the
+relics of prehistoric times this same gradual development--first a
+stone in its natural state used for cutting, then chipped to make it
+more perfect, and finally beautified in form and perfected by polishing.
+
+Thus we shall find progress from the natural stone boulder used for
+throwing and hammering, the developed product made by chipping and
+polishing the natural boulder, making it more useful and more
+beautiful, and so for all the {62} multitude of implements used in the
+hunt and in domestic affairs.  Not only do we have here an illustration
+of continuous progress in invention and use, but also an adaptation of
+new material, for we pass from the use of stone to that of metals,
+probably in the prehistoric period, although the beginnings of the use
+of bronze and iron come mainly within the periods of historical records.
+
+It is not possible here to follow the interesting history of the
+glacial movement, but a few words of explanation seem necessary.  The
+Ice Age, or the glacial period, refers to a span of time ranging from
+500,000 years ago, at the beginning of the first glaciation, to the
+close of the post-glacial period, about 25,000 years ago.  During this
+period great ice caps, ranging in the valleys and spreading out on the
+plains over a broad area, proceeded from the north of Europe to the
+south, covering at the extreme stages nearly the entire surface of the
+continent.  This great movement consists of four distinct forward
+movements and their return movements.  There is evidence to show that
+before the south movement of the first great ice cap, a temperate
+climate extended very far toward the pole and gave opportunity for
+vegetation now extinct in that region.
+
+But as the river of ice proceeded south, plants and animals retreated
+before it, some of them changing their nature to endure the excessive
+cold.  Then came a climatic change which melted the ice and gradually
+drove the margin of the glacier farther north.  Immediately under the
+influence of the warm winds the vegetation and animals followed slowly
+at a distance the movement of the glacier.  Then followed a long
+inter-glacial period before the southerly movement of the returning ice
+cap.  This in turn retreated to the north, and thus four separate times
+this great movement, one of the greatest geological phenomena of the
+earth, occurred, leaving an opportunity to study four different glacial
+periods with three warmer interglacial and one warm post-glacial.
+
+This movement gave great opportunity for the study of {63} geology,
+paleontology, and the archeology of man.  That is, the story of the
+relationship of the earth to plant, animal, and man was revealed.  The
+regularity of these movements and the amount of material evidence found
+furnish a great opportunity for measuring geological time movements and
+hence the life of plants and animals, including man.
+
+The table on page 64 will contribute to the clearness of this brief
+statement about the glacial periods.
+
+
+======================================================================
+
+{64}
+
+THE ICE AGE IN EUROPE[5]
+
+Geological time-unit 25,000 years
+
+                            RELA-
+                            TIVE     TOTAL
+                            TIME     TIME      HUMAN         ANIMAL AND
+      GLACIERS       UNIT   YRS.     YRS.      LIFE          PLANT LIFE
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+      Post-Glacial     1    25,000   25,000    Crô-Magnon    Horse, Stag, Rein-
+        Daum                                   Azilian         deer, Musk-Ox,
+        Geschintz                              Magdalenian     Arctic Fox, Pine,
+        Bühl                                   Solutrian       Birch, Oak
+                                               Aurignacian
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+      4th Glacial      1    25,000   50,000    Mousterian    Reindeer, period of
+        Wurm Ice                               Neanderthal     Tundra, Alpine,
+                                                               Steppe, Meadow
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Q   3d Inter-        4   100,000  150,000    Pre-Neander-  Last warm Asiatic
+  U     glacial                                  thal          and African ani-
+  A                                            Piltdown        mals
+  R ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  T   3d Glacial       1    25,000  175,000                  Woolly Mammoth,
+  E     Riss                                                   Rhinoceros,
+  R                                                            Reindeer
+  N ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  A   2d Inter-        8   200,000  375,000    Heidelberg    African and Asiatic
+  R     glacial                                  Race          Animals, Ele-
+  Y     Mindel-Riss                                            phant, Hippo-
+                                                               potamus
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+      2d Glacial       1    25,000  400,000                  Cold weather
+        Mindel                                                 animals
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+      1st Inter-       3    75,000  475,000    Pithecan-     Hippopotamus,
+        glacial                                  thropus       Elephant, Afri-
+                                                 Erectus       can and Asiatic
+                                                               plants
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+      1st Glacial      1    25,000   500,000
+  =============================================================================
+  T
+  E
+  R
+  T
+  I
+  A
+  R
+  Y
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+======================================================================
+
+
+_Prehistoric Types of the Human Race_.--The earliest record of human
+life yet discovered is the _Pithecanthropus Erectus_ (Trinil), the
+apelike man who walked upright, found in Java by Du Bois, about the
+year 1892.  Enough of the skeletal remains of human beings were found
+at this time to indicate a man of rather crude form and low brain
+capacity (about 885 c.c.), with possible powers of speech but with no
+probably developed language or no assumption of the acquaintance with
+the arts of life.[4]
+
+The remains of this man associated with the remains of one other
+skeleton, probably a woman, and with the bones of extinct animals, were
+found in a geological stratum which indicates his age at about 500,000
+years.  Professor McGregor, after a careful anatomical study, has
+reproduced the head and bust of Pithecanthropus, which helps us to
+visualize this primitive species as of rather low cultural type.  The
+low forehead, massive jaw, and receding chin give us a vision of an
+undeveloped species of the human race, in some respects not much above
+the anthropoid apes, yet in other characters distinctly human.
+
+There follows a long interval of human development which is only
+conjectural until the discovery of the bones of the Heidelberg man,
+found at the south of the River Neckar.  These are the first records of
+the human race found in southern Europe.  The type of man is still
+apelike in some respects, but far in advance of the Pithecanthropus in
+structure and general appearance.  The restoration by the Belgian
+artist Mascré {65} under the direction of Professor A. Rotot, of
+Brussels, is indicative of larger brain capacity than the Trinil race.
+It had a massive jaw, distinctive nose, heavy arched brows, and still
+the receding chin.  Not many cultural remains were found in strata of
+the second interglacial period along with the remains of extinct
+animals, such as the ancient elephant, Etruscan rhinoceros, primitive
+bison, primitive ox, Auvergne bear, and lion.  A fauna and a flora as
+well as a geological structure were found which would indicate that
+this race existed at this place about 375,000 years ago.  From these
+evidences very little may be determined of the Heidelberg man's
+cultural development, but much may be inferred.  Undoubtedly, like the
+Pithecanthropus, he was a man without the tools of civilization, or at
+least had not developed far in this way.
+
+About 150,000 years ago there appeared in Europe races of mankind that
+left more relics of their civilization.[6] These were the
+Neanderthaloid races.  There is no evidence of the connection of these
+races with the Java man or the Heidelberg man.  Here, as elsewhere in
+the evolution of races and species, nature does not work in a straight
+line of descent, but by differentiation and variation.
+
+In 1856 the first discovery of a specimen of the Neanderthal man was
+found at the entrance of a small ravine on the right bank of the River
+Dussel, in Rhenish Prussia.  This was the first discovery of the
+Paleolithic man to cause serious reflection on the possibility of a
+prehistoric race in Europe.  Its age is estimated at 50,000 years.
+This was followed by other discoveries of the Mid-Pleistocene period,
+until there were a number of discoveries of similar specimens of the
+Neanderthal race, varying in some respects from each other.  The first
+had a brain capacity of 1230 c.c., while that of the average European
+is about 1500 c.c.  Some of the specimens showed a skull capacity
+larger than the first specimen, but the average is lower than that of
+any living race, unless it be that of the Australians.
+
+{66}
+
+Later were discovered human remains of a somewhat higher type, known as
+the Aurignacian, of the Crô-Magnon race.  These are probably ancestors
+of the living races of Europe existing 25,000 to 50,000 years ago.
+They represent the first races to which may be accorded definite
+relationship with the recent races.
+
+Thus we have evidences of the great antiquity of man and a series of
+remains showing continual advancement over a period of nearly 500,000
+years--the Pithecanthropus, Heidelberg, Piltdown, and Neanderthal,
+though expressing gradations of development in the order named, appear
+to be unrelated in their origin and descent, and are classed as
+separate species long since extinct.  The Crô-Magnon people seem more
+directly related to modern man.  Perhaps in the Neolithic Age they may
+have been the forebears of present races, either through direct or
+indirect lines.
+
+_The Unity of the Human Race_.--Though there are evidences, as shown
+above, that there were many branches of the human race, or species,
+some of which became extinct without leaving any records of the passing
+on of their cultures to others, there is a pretty generally concerted
+opinion that all branches of the human race are related and have sprung
+from the same ancestors.  There have been differences of opinion
+regarding this view, some holding that there are several centres of
+development in which the precursor of man assumed a human form
+(polygenesis), and others holding that according to the law of
+differentiation and zoological development there must have been at some
+time one origin of the species (monogenesis).  So far as the scientific
+investigation of mankind is concerned, it is rather immaterial which
+theory is accepted.  We know that multitudes of tribes and races differ
+in minor parts of structure, differ in mental capacity, and hence in
+qualities of civilization, and yet in general form, brain structure,
+and mental processes, it is the same human being wherever found.  So we
+may assume that there is a unity of the race.
+
+If we consider the human race to have sprung from a single {67} pair,
+or even the development of man from a single species, it must have
+taken a long time to have developed the great marks of racial
+differences that now exist.  The question of unity or plurality of race
+origins has been much discussed, and is still somewhat in controversy,
+although the predominance of evidence is much in favor of the descent
+of man from a single species and from a single place.  The elder
+Agassiz held that there were several separate species of the race,
+which accounts for the wide divergence of characteristics and
+conditions.  But it is generally admitted from a zoological standpoint
+that man originated from a single species, although it does not
+necessarily follow that he came from a single pair.  It is the
+diversity or the unity of the race from a single pair which gives rise
+to the greatest controversy.
+
+There is a wide diversity of opinion among ethnologists on this
+question.  Agassiz was followed by French writers, among whom were
+Topinard and Hervé, who held firmly to the plurality of centres of
+origin and distribution.  Agassiz thought there were at least nine
+centres in which man appeared, each independent of the others.  Morton
+thought he could point out twenty-two such centres, and Nott and
+Gliddon advanced the idea that there were distinct races of people.
+But Darwin, basing his arguments upon the uniformity of physical
+structure and similarity of mental characteristics, held that man came
+from a single progenitor.  This theory is the most acceptable, and it
+is easily explained, if we admit time enough for the necessary changes
+in the structure and appearance of man.  It is the simplest hypothesis
+that is given, and explains the facts relative to the existence of man
+much more easily than does the theory in reference to diversity of
+origins.  The majority of ethnologists of America and Europe appear to
+favor the idea that man came from a single pair, arose from one place,
+and spread thence over the earth's surface.
+
+_The Primitive Home of Man May Be Determined in a General Way_.--The
+location of the cradle of the race has not {68} yet been satisfactorily
+established.  The inference drawn from the Bible story of the creation
+places it in or near the valley of the Euphrates River.  Others hold
+that the place was in Europe, and others still in America.  A theory
+has also been advanced that a continent or group of large islands
+called Lemuria, occupying the place where the Indian Ocean now lies,
+and extending from Ceylon to Madagascar, was the locality in which the
+human race originated.  The advocates of this theory hold to it chiefly
+on the ground that it is necessary to account for the peopling of
+Australia and other large islands and continents, and that it is the
+country best fitted by climate and other physical conditions for the
+primitive race.  This submerged continent would enable the races to
+migrate readily to different parts of the world, still going by dry
+land.
+
+There is little more than conjecture upon this subject, and the
+continent called Lemuria is as mythical as the Ethiopia of Ptolemy and
+the Atlantis of Plato.  It is a convenient theory, as it places the
+cradle of the race near the five great rivers, the Tigris, Euphrates,
+Indus, Ganges, and the Nile.  The supposed home also lies in a zone in
+which the animals most resembling man are found, which is an important
+consideration; as, in the development of the earth, animals appeared
+according to the conditions of climate and food supply, so the portion
+of the earth best prepared for man's early life is most likely to be
+his first home.
+
+Although it is impossible to determine the first home of man, either
+from a scientific or an historical standpoint, there are a few
+well-acknowledged theories to be observed: First, as the islands of the
+ocean were not peopled when first discovered by modern navigators, it
+is reasonable to suppose that the primitive home of man was on one of
+the continents.  As man is the highest and last development of organic
+nature, it is advocated, with considerable force of argument, that his
+first home was in a region suitable to the life of the anthropoid apes.
+As none of these, either living or fossil, are found in Australia or
+America, these continents are practically excluded from the probable
+list of places for the early home of man.
+
+{69}
+
+In considering the great changes which have taken place in the earth's
+surface, southern India and southern Africa were large islands at the
+time of man's appearance; hence, there is little probability of either
+of these being the primitive home.  None of the oldest remains of man
+have been found in the high northern latitudes of Europe or America.
+We have then left a strip of country on the southern slope of the great
+mountain chain which begins in western Europe and extends to the
+Himalaya Mountains, in Asia, which appears to be the territory in which
+was situated the early home of man.  The geological relics and the
+distribution of the race both point to the fact that in this belt man's
+life began; but it is not determined whether it was in Europe or in
+Asia, there being adherents to both theories.
+
+_The Antiquity of Man Is Shown in Racial Differentiation_.--Granted
+that the life of the human race has originated from a common biological
+origin and from a common geographical centre, it has taken a very long
+time for the races to be differentiated into the physical traits they
+possess to-day, as it has taken a long time for man to spread over the
+earth.  The generalized man wandering along the streams and through the
+forests in search of food, seeking for shelter under rocks and in caves
+and trees, was turned aside by the impassable barriers of mountains, or
+the forbidding glacier, the roaring torrent, or the limits of the ocean
+itself, and spread over the accessible parts of the earth's surface
+until he had covered the selected districts on the main portions of the
+globe.  Then came race specialization, where a group remained a long
+time in the same environment and inbred in the same stock, developing
+specialized racial characters.  These changes were very slow, and the
+wide difference to-day between the Asiatic, the African, and the
+European is indicative of the long period of years which brought them
+about.  Certainly, six thousand years would not suffice to make such
+changes.
+
+Of course one must realize that just as, in the period of childhood,
+the plastic state of life, changes of structure and appearance are more
+rapid than in the mature man, after {70} traits and characters have
+become more fixed, so by analogy we may assume that this was the way of
+the human race and that in the earlier period changes were more rapid
+than they are to-day.  Thus in the cross-fertilizations and
+amalgamation of races we would expect a slower development than under
+these earlier conditions, yet when we realize the persistence of the
+types of Irish and German, of Italian and Greek, of Japanese and
+Chinese, even though the races become amalgamated, we must infer that
+the racial types were very slow in developing.
+
+If we consider the variations in the structure and appearance of the
+several tribes and races with which we come in contact in every-day
+life, we are impressed with the amount of time necessary to make these
+changes.  Thus the Anglo-American, whom we sometimes call Caucasian,
+taken as one type of the perfection of physical structure and mental
+habit, with his brown hair, having a slight tendency to curl, his fair
+skin, high, prominent, and broad forehead, his great brain capacity,
+his long head and delicately moulded features, contrasts very strongly
+with the negro, with his black skin, long head, with flat, narrow
+forehead, thick lips, projecting jaw, broad nose, and black and woolly
+hair.  The Chinese, with his yellow skin, flat nose, black, coarse
+hair, and oblique, almond-shaped eyes, and round skull, marks another
+distinct racial type.  Other great races have different
+characteristics, and among our own race we find a further separation
+into two great types, the blonds and the brunettes.
+
+What a long period of time must have elapsed to have changed the racial
+characteristics!  From pictures made three thousand years ago in Egypt
+the differences of racial characteristics were very clearly depicted in
+the hair, the features of the face, and, indeed, the color of the skin.
+If at this period the racial differences were clearly marked, at what
+an early date must they have been wanting!  So, also, the antiquity of
+man is evinced in the fact that the oldest skeletons found show him at
+that early period to be in possession of an average {71} brain capacity
+and a well-developed frame.  If changes in structure have taken place,
+they have gradually appeared only during a long period of years.  Yet,
+when it is considered that man is a migratory creature, who can adapt
+himself to any condition of climate or other environment, and it is
+realized that in the early stage of his existence his time was occupied
+for a long period in hunting and fishing, and that from this practice
+he entered the pastoral life to continue, to a certain extent, his
+wanderings, it is evident that there is sufficient opportunity for the
+development of independent characteristics.  Also the effects of sun
+and storm, of climate and other environments have a great influence in
+the slow changes of the race which have taken place.  The change in
+racial traits is dependent largely upon biological selection, but
+environment and social selection probably had at least indirect
+influence in the evolution of racial characters.
+
+_The Evidences of Man's Ancient Life in Different Localities_.--The
+sources of the remains of the life of primitive man are (1) Caves, (2)
+Shell Mounds, (3) River and Glacial Drift, (4) Burial Mounds, (5)
+Battlefields and Village Sites, and (6) Lake Dwellings.  It is from
+these sources that most of the evidence of man's early life has come.
+
+_Caves_ (1).--It has been customary to allude to the cave man as if he
+were a distinct species or group of the human race, when in reality men
+at all times through many thousands of years dwelt in caves according
+to their convenience.  However, there was a period in European life
+when groups of the human race used caves for permanent habitations and
+thus developed certain racial types and habits.  Doubtless these were
+established long enough in permanent seats to develop a specialized
+type which might be known as the cave man, just as racial types have
+been developed in other conditions of habitation and life.  What
+concerns us most here is that the protection which the cave afforded
+this primitive man has been a means of protecting the records of his
+life, and thus added to the evidence of human progress.  Many of these
+{72} caves were of limestone with rough walls and floor, and in most
+instances rifts in the roof allowed water to percolate and drop to the
+floor.
+
+Frequently the water was impregnated with limestone solution, which
+became solidified as each drop left a deposit at the point of
+departure.  This formed rough stalactites, which might be called stone
+icicles, because their formation was similar to the formation of an
+icicle of the water dropping from the roof.  So likewise on the floor
+of the cave where the limestone solution dropped was built up from the
+bottom a covering of limestone with inverted stone icicles called
+stalagmites.  Underneath the latter were found layer after layer of
+relics from the habitation of man, encased in stone to be preserved
+forever or until broken into by some outside pressure.  Of course,
+comparatively few of all the relics around these habitations were
+preserved, because those outside of the stone encasement perished, as
+did undoubtedly large masses of remains around the mouth of the cave.
+
+In these caves of Europe are found the bones of man, flint implements,
+ornaments of bone with carvings, and the necklaces of animals' teeth,
+along with the bones of extinct animals.  In general the evidence shows
+the habits of the life of man and also the kind of animals with which
+he associated whose period of life was determined by other evidence.
+Besides this general evidence, there was a special determination of the
+progress of man, because the relics were in layers extending over a
+long period of years, giving evidence that from time to time implements
+of higher order were used, either showing progress or that different
+races may have occupied the cave at different times and left evidences
+of their industrial, economic, and social life.  In some of the caves
+skulls have been discovered showing a brain case of an average
+capacity, along with others of inferior size.  Probably the greater
+part of this cave life was in the upper part of the Paleolithic Stone
+Age.
+
+In some of these caves at the time of the Magdalenian {73} culture,
+which was a branch of the Crô-Magnon culture, there are to be found
+drawings and paintings of the horse, the cave bear, the mammoth, the
+bison, and many other animals, showing strong beginnings of
+representative art.  Also, in these caves were found bones and stone
+implements of a more highly finished product than those of the earlier
+primitive types of Europe.
+
+_Shell Mounds_ (2).--Shell mounds of Europe and America furnish
+definite records of man's life.  The shell mounds of greatest historic
+importance are found along the shores of the Baltic in Denmark.  Here
+are remains of a primitive people whose diet seems to be principally
+shell-fish obtained from the shores of the sea.  Around their kitchens
+the shells of mussels, scallops, and oysters were piled in heaps, and
+in these shell mounds, or Kitchenmiddens, as they are called
+(Kjokkenmoddings), are found implements, the bones of birds and
+mammals, as well as the remains of plants.  Also, by digging to the
+bottom of these mounds specimens of pottery are found, showing that the
+civilization belonged largely to the Neolithic period of man.
+
+There are evidences also of the succession of the varieties of trees
+corresponding to the evidences found in the peat bogs, the oak
+following the fir, which in turn gave way to the beech.  These refuse
+heaps are usually in ridgelike mounds, sometimes hundreds of yards in
+length.  The weight of the millions of shells and other refuse
+undoubtedly pressed the shells down into the soft earth and still the
+mound enlarged, the habitation being changed or raised higher, rather
+than to take the trouble to clear away the shells from the habitation.
+The variety of implements and the degrees of culture which they exhibit
+give evidence that men lived a long time in this particular locality.
+Undoubtedly it was the food quest that caused people to assemble here.
+The evidences of the coarse, dark pottery, the stone axes, clubs, and
+arrow-heads, and the bones of dogs show a state of civilization in
+which differentiation of life existed.  Shell mounds are also found
+along the {74} Pacific coast, showing the life of Indians from the time
+when they first began to use shell-fish for food.  In these mounds
+implements showing the relative stages of development have been found.
+
+_River and Glacial Drift_ (3).--The action of glaciers and glacial
+rivers and lakes has through erosion changed the surface of the soil,
+tearing out some parts of the earth's surface and depositing the soil
+elsewhere.  These river floods carried out bones of man and the
+implements in use, and deposited them, together with the bones of
+animals with which he lived.  Many of these relics have been preserved
+through thousands of years and frequently are brought to light.  The
+geological records are thus very important in throwing light upon the
+antiquity of man.  It is in the different layers or strata of the earth
+caused by these changes that we find the relics of ancient life.  The
+earth thus reveals in its rocks and gravel drift the permanent records
+of man's early life.  Historical geology shows us that the crust of the
+earth has been made by a series of layers, one above the other, and
+that the geologist determining the order of their creation has a means
+of ascertaining their relative age, and thus can measure approximately
+the life of the plants and animals connected with each separate
+layer.[7]  The relative ages of fishes, reptiles, and mammals,
+including man, are thus readily determined.
+
+It is necessary to refer to the method of classification adopted by
+geologists, who have divided the time of earth-making into three great
+periods, representing the growth of animal life, determined by the
+remains found in the strata or drift.  These periods mark general
+portions of time.  Below the first is the period of earliest rock
+formation (Archaean), in which there is no life, and which is called
+Azoic for that reason.  There is a short period above this, usually
+reckoned as outside the ancient life, on account of the few forms of
+animals found there; but the first great period (Paleozoic) represents
+non-vertebrate life, as well as the life of fishes and reptiles, and
+includes {75} also the coal measures, which represent a period of heavy
+vegetation.  The middle period (Mesozoic) includes the more completely
+developed lizards and crocodiles, and the appearance of mammals and
+birds.  The animal life of the third period (Cenozoic) resembles
+somewhat the modern species.  This period includes the Tertiary and the
+Quaternary and the recent sub-periods.  Man, the highest being in the
+order of creation, appears in the Quaternary period.  Of the immense
+ages of time represented by the geological periods the life of man
+represents but a small portion, just as the existence of man as
+recorded in history is but a modern period of his great life.  The
+changes, then, which have taken place in the animals and plants and the
+climate in the different geological periods have been instrumental in
+determining the age of man; that is, if in a given stratum human
+remains are found, and the relative age of that stratum is known, it is
+easy to estimate the relative age of man.
+
+Whether man existed prior to the glacial epoch is still in doubt.  Some
+anthropologists hold that he appeared at the latter part of the
+Tertiary, that is, in the Pliocene.  Reasons for assumption exist,
+though there is not sufficient evidence to make it conclusive.  The
+question is still in controversy, and doubtless will be until new
+discoveries bring new evidence.  If there is doubt about the finding of
+human relics in the Tertiary, there is no doubt about the evidence of
+man during the Quaternary, including the whole period of the glacial
+epoch, extending 500,000 years into the past.
+
+The relics of man which are found in the drift and elsewhere are the
+stone implements and the flakes chipped from the flint as he fashioned
+it into an axe, knife, or hatchet.  The implements commonly found are
+arrow-heads, knives, lance-heads, pestles, etc.  Human bones have been
+found imbedded in the rock or the sand.  Articles made of horn, bones
+of animals, especially the reindeer, notched or cut pieces of wood have
+been found.  Also there are evidences of rude drawings on stone, bone,
+or ivory; fragments of charcoal, which give {76} evidence of the use of
+fire in cooking or creating artificial heat, are found, and long bones
+split longitudinally to obtain marrow for food, and, finally, the
+remnants of pottery.  These represent the principal relics found in the
+Stone Age; to these may be added the implements in bronze and iron of
+later periods.
+
+A good example of the use of these relics to determine chronology is
+shown in the peat bogs of Denmark.  At the bottom are found trees of
+pine which grew on the edges of the bog and have fallen in.  Nearer the
+top are found oak and white birch-trees, and in the upper layer are
+found beech-trees closely allied to the species now covering the
+country.  The pines, oaks, and birches are not to be seen in that part
+of the country at present.  Here, then, is evidence of the successive
+replacement of different species of trees.  It is evident that it must
+have taken a long time for one species thus to replace another, but how
+long it is impossible to say.  In some of these bogs is found a
+gradation of implements, unpolished stone at the bottom, polished stone
+above, followed by bronze, and finally iron.  These are associated with
+the different forms of vegetable remains.
+
+In Europe stone implements occur in association with fossil remains of
+the cave lion, the cave hyena, the old elephant and rhinoceros--all
+extinct species.  Also the bones and horns of the reindeer are
+prominent in these remains, for at that time the reindeer came farther
+south than at present.  In southern France similar implements are
+associated with ivory and bones, with rude markings, and the bones of
+man--even a complete skeleton being found at one place.  These are all
+found in connection with the bones of the elk, ibex, aurochs, and
+reindeer.
+
+_Burial Mounds_ (4).--It is difficult to determine at just what period
+human beings began to bury their dead.  Primarily the bodies were
+disposed of the same as any other carrion that might occur--namely,
+they were left to decay wherever they dropped, or were subject to the
+disposal by wild {77} animals.  After the development of the idea of
+the perpetuation of life in another world, even though it were
+temporary or permanent, thoughts of preparing the body for its journey
+into the unknown land and for its residence thereafter caused people to
+place food and implements and clothing in the grave.  This practice
+probably occurred about the beginning of the Neolithic period of man's
+existence, and has continued on to the present date.
+
+Hence it is that in the graves of primitive man we find deposited the
+articles of daily use at the period in which he lived.  These have been
+preserved many centuries, showing something of the life of the people
+whose remains were deposited in the mounds.  Also in connection with
+this in furtherance of a religious idea were great dolmens and stone
+temples, where undoubtedly the ancients met to worship.  They give some
+evidence at least of the development of the religious and ceremonial
+life among these primitive people and to that extent they are of great
+importance.  It is evidence also, in another way, that the religious
+idea took strong hold of man at an early period of his existence.
+Evidences of man in Britain from the tumuli, or burial mounds, from
+rude stone temples like the famous Stonehenge place his existence on
+the island at a very early date.  Judging from skulls and skeletons
+there were several distinct groups of prehistoric man in Britain,
+varying from the extreme broad skulls to those of excessive length.
+They carry us back to the period of the Early Stone Age.  Relics, too,
+of the implements and mounds show something of the primitive conditions
+of the inhabitants in Britain of which we have any permanent record.
+
+_Battlefields and Village Sites_ (5).--In the later Neolithic period of
+man the tribes had been fully developed over a great part of the
+earth's surface, and fought for their existence, principally over
+territories having a food supply.  Other reasons for tribal conflict,
+such as real or imagined race differences and the ambition for race
+survival, caused constant warfare.  {78} Upon these battlefields were
+left the implements of war.  Those of stone, and, it may be said
+secondarily, of iron and bronze, were preserved.  It is not uncommon
+now in almost any part of the United States where the rains fall upon a
+ploughed field over which a battle had been fought, to find exposed a
+large number of arrow-heads and stone axes, all other perishable
+implements having long since decayed.  Or in some instances the wind
+blowing the sand exposes the implements which were long ago deposited
+during a battle.  Also, wherever the Indian villages were located for a
+period of years, the accumulations of utensils and implements occurred
+which were buried by the action of wind or water.  This represents a
+source of evidence of man's early life.
+
+_Lake Dwellings_ (6).--The idea of protection is evidenced everywhere
+in the history of primitive man; protection against the physical
+elements, protection against wild beasts and wilder men.  We find along
+the lakes and bays in both Europe and America the tendency to build the
+dwelling out in the water and approach it from the land with a narrow
+walk which could be taken up when not used, or to approach it by means
+of a rude boat.  In this way the dwellers could defend themselves
+against the onslaughts of tribal enemies.  These dwellings have been
+most numerous along the Swiss lakes, although some are found in
+Scotland, in the northern coast of South America, and elsewhere.  Their
+importance rests in the fact that, like the shell mounds
+(Kitchenmiddens), the refuse from these cabins shows large deposits of
+the implements and utensils that were in use during the period of
+tribal residence.  Here we find not only stone implements, running from
+the crude form of the Unpolished Stone Age to the highly polished, but
+also records of implements of bronze and small implements for domestic
+use of bone and polished stone.  Also there are evidences that
+different tribes or specialized races occupied these dwellings at
+different times, because of the variation of civilization implied by
+the implements in use.  The British Museum has a very large classified
+collection of {79} the implements procured from lake dwellings of
+Switzerland.  Other museums also have large collections.  A part of
+them run back into the prehistoric period of man and part extend even
+down to the historic.
+
+_Knowledge of Man's Antiquity Influences Reflective Thinking_.--The
+importance of studying the antiquity of man is the light which it
+throws upon the causes of later civilization.  In considering any phase
+of man's development it is necessary to realize he has been a long time
+on earth and that, while the law of the individual life is development,
+that of the human race is slowly evolutionary; hence, while we may look
+for immediate and rapid change, we can only be assured of a very slow
+progressive movement at all periods of man's existence.  The knowledge
+of his antiquity will give us a historical view which is of tremendous
+importance in considering the purpose and probable result of man's life
+on earth.  When we realize that we have evidence of the struggle of man
+for five hundred thousand years to get started as far as we have in
+civilization, and that more changes affecting man's progress may occur
+in a single year now than in a former thousand years, we realize
+something of the background of struggle before our present civilization
+could appear.  We realize, also, that his progress in the arts has been
+very slow and that, while there are many changes in art formation of
+to-day, we still have the evidences of the primitive in every completed
+picture, or plastic form, or structural work.  But the slow progress of
+all this shows, too, that the landmarks of civilization of the past are
+few and far between--distant mile-posts appearing at intervals of
+thousands of years.  Such a contemplation gives us food for thought and
+should invite patience when we wish in modern times for social
+transformations to become instantaneous, like the flash of the scimitar
+or the burst of an electric light.
+
+The evidence that man has been a long time on earth explodes the
+long-accepted theory of six thousand years as the age of man.  It also
+explodes the theory of instantaneous {80} creation which was expressed
+by some of the mediaeval philosophers.  Indeed, it explodes the theory
+of a special creation of man without connection with the creation of
+other living beings.  No doubt, there was a specialized creation of
+man, otherwise he never would have been greater than the anthropoids
+nor, indeed, than other mammals, but his specialization came about as
+an evolutionary process which gave him a tremendous brain-power whereby
+he was enabled to dominate all the rest of the world.  So far as
+philosophy is concerned as to man's life, purpose, and destiny, the
+influence of the study of anthropology would change the philosopher's
+vision of life to a certain extent.  The recognition that man is "part
+and parcel" of the universe, subject to cosmic law, as well as a
+specialized type, subject to the laws of evolution, and, indeed, that
+he is of a spiritual nature through which he is subjected to spiritual
+law, causes the philosopher to pause somewhat before he determines the
+purpose, the life, or the destiny of man.
+
+If we are to inquire how man came into the world, when he came, what he
+has been doing, how he developed, and whither the human trail leads, we
+shall encounter many unsolved theories.  Indeed, the facts of his life
+are suggestive of the mystery of being.  If it be suggested that he is
+"part and parcel" of nature and has slowly arisen out of lower forms,
+it should not be a humiliating thought, for his daily life is dependent
+upon the lower elements of nature.  The life of every day is dependent
+upon the dust of the earth.  The food he eats comes from the earth just
+the same as that of the hog, the rabbit, or the fish.  If, upon this
+foundation, he has by slow evolution built a more perfect form,
+developed a brain and a mind which give him the greatest flights of
+philosophy, art, and religion, is it not a thing to excite pride of
+being?  Could there be any greater miracle than evolving nature and
+developing life?  Indeed, is there any greater than the development of
+the individual man from a small germ not visible to the naked eye,
+through the egg, the embryo, infant, youth, to full-grown man?  Why not
+the working of the same law to {81} the development of man from the
+beginning.  Does it lessen the dignity of creation if this is done
+according to law?  On the other hand, does it not give credit to the
+greatness and power of the Creator if we recognize his wisdom in making
+the universe, including man, the most important factor, according to a
+universal plan worked out by far-reacting laws?
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Evidences of the great antiquity of man.
+
+2.  Physical and mental traits of the anthropoid apes.
+
+3.  The life and culture of the Neanderthal Race.
+
+4.  What are the evidences in favor of the descent of man from a single
+progenitor?
+
+5.  Explain the law of differentiation as applied to plants and animals.
+
+6.  Compare in general the arts of man in the Old Stone Age with those
+of the New Stone Age.
+
+7.  What has been the effect of the study of prehistoric man on modern
+thought as shown in the interpretation of History?  Philosophy?
+Religion?
+
+
+
+[1] See Diagram, p. 59.
+
+[2] See Haeckel, Schmidt, Ward, Robinson, Osborn, Todd.
+
+[3] See Osborn, _Men of the Old Stone Age_.
+
+[4] See Chapter II.
+
+[5] After Osborn.  Read from bottom up.
+
+[6] Estimates of Neanderthal vary from 150,000 to 50,000 years ago.
+
+[7] See p. 64.
+
+
+
+
+{82}
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE ECONOMIC FACTORS OF PROGRESS
+
+_The Efforts of Man to Satisfy Physical Needs_.--All knowledge of
+primitive man, whether derived from the records of cultures he has left
+or assumed from analogy of living tribes of a low order of
+civilization, discovers him wandering along the streams in the valleys
+or by the shores of lakes and oceans, searching for food and
+incidentally seeking protection in caves and trees.  The whole earth
+was his so far as he could appropriate it.  He cared nothing for
+ownership; he only wanted room to search for the food nature had
+provided.  When he failed to find sufficient food as nature left it, he
+starved.  So in his wandering life he adapted himself to nature as he
+found it.  In the different environments he acquired different customs
+and habits of life.  If he came in contact with other tribes, an
+exchange of knowledge and customs took place, and both tribes were
+richer thereby.  However, the universality of the human mind made it
+possible for two detached tribes, under similar environment and similar
+stimuli, to develop the same customs and habits of life, provided they
+had the same degree of development.  Hence, we have independent group
+development and group borrowing.
+
+When nature failed to provide him with sufficient food, he learned to
+force her to yield a larger supply.  When natural objects were
+insufficient for his purposes, he made artificial tools to supplement
+them.  Slowly he became an inventor.  Slowly he mastered the art of
+living.  Thus physical needs were gradually satisfied, and the
+foundation for the superstructure of civilization was laid.
+
+_The Attempt to Satisfy Hunger and to Protect from Cold_.--To this
+statement must be added the fact that struggle with {83} his fellows
+arose from the attempt to obtain food, and we have practically the
+whole occupation of man in a state of savagery.  At least, the simple
+activities represent the essential forces at the foundation of human
+social life.  The attempt to preserve life either through instinct,
+impulse, emotion, or rational selection is fundamental in all animal
+existence.  The other great factor at the foundation of human effort is
+the desire to perpetuate the species.  This, in fact, is the mere
+projection of the individual life into the next generation, and is
+fundamentally important to the individual and to the race alike.  All
+modern efforts can be traced to these three fundamental activities.
+But in seeking to satisfy the cravings of hunger and to avoid the pain
+of cold, man has developed a varied and active life.  About these two
+centres cluster all the simple forces of human progress.  Indeed,
+invention and discovery and the advancement of the industrial arts
+receive their initial impulses from these economic relations.
+
+We have only to turn our attention to the social life around us to
+observe evidences of the great importance of economic factors.  Even
+now it will be observed that the greater part of economic activities
+proceeds from the effort to procure food, clothing, and shelter, while
+a relatively smaller part is engaged in the pursuit of education,
+culture, and pleasure.  The excellence of educational systems, the
+highest flights of philosophy, the greatest achievement of art, and the
+best inspiration of religion cannot exist without a wholesome economic
+life at the foundation.  It should not be humiliating to man that this
+is so, for in the constitution of things, labor of body and mind, the
+struggle for existence and the accumulations of the products of
+industry yield a large return in themselves in discipline and culture;
+and while we use these economic means to reach higher ideal states,
+they represent the ladder on which man makes the first rounds of his
+ascent.
+
+_The Methods of Procuring Food in Primitive Times_.--Judging from the
+races and tribes that are more nearly in a state of nature than any
+other, it may be reasonably assumed that {84} in his first stage of
+existence, man subsisted almost wholly upon a vegetable diet, and that
+gradually he gave more and more attention to animal food.  His
+structure and physiology make it possible for him to use both animal
+and vegetable food.  Primarily, with equal satisfaction the procuring
+of food must have been rather an individual than a social function.
+Each individual sought his own breakfast wherever he might find it.  It
+was true then, as now, that people proceeded to the breakfast table in
+an aggregation, and flocked around the centres of food supply; so we
+may assume the picture of man stealing away alone, picking fruits,
+nuts, berries, gathering clams or fish, was no more common than the
+fact of present-day man getting his own breakfast alone.  The main
+difference is that in the former condition individuals obtained the
+food as nature left it, and passed it directly from the bush or tree to
+the mouth, while in modern times thousands of people have been working
+indirectly to make it possible for a man to wait on himself.
+
+Jack London, in his _Before Adam_, gives a very interesting picture of
+the tribe going out to the carrot field for its breakfast, each
+individual helping himself.  However, such an aggregation around a
+common food supply must eventually lead to co-operative economic
+methods.  But we do find even among modern living tribes of low degree
+of culture the group following the food quest, whether it be to the
+carrot patch, the nut-bearing trees, the sedgy seashore for mussels and
+clams, the lakes for wild rice, or to the forest and plains where
+abound wild game.
+
+We find it difficult to think otherwise than that the place of man's
+first appearance was one abounding in edible fruits.  This fact arises
+from the study of man's nature and evidences of the location of his
+first appearance, together with the study of climate and vegetation.
+There are a good many suggestions also that man in his primitive
+condition was prepared for a vegetable diet, and indications are that
+later he acquired use of meat as food.  Indeed, the berries and edible
+roots of {85} certain regions are in sufficient quantity to sustain
+life throughout a greater part of the year.  The weaker tribes of
+California at the time of the first European invaders, and for many
+centuries previous, found a greater part of their sustenance in edible
+roots extracted from the soil, in nuts, seeds of wild grains, and
+grasses.  It is true they captured a little wild game, and in certain
+seasons many of them made excursions to the ocean or frequented the
+streams for fish or shell-fish, but their chief diet was vegetable.  It
+must be remembered, also, that all of the cultivated fruits to-day
+formerly existed, in one variety or another, in the wild species.  Thus
+the citrous fruits, the date, the banana, breadfruit, papaw, persimmon,
+apple, cherry, plum, pear, all grew in a wild state, providing food for
+man if he were ready to take it as provided.  Rational selection has
+assisted nature in improving the quality of grains and fruits and in
+developing new varieties.
+
+In the tropical regions was found the greatest supply of edible fruits.
+Thus the Malays and the Papuans find sufficient food on trees to supply
+their wants.  Many people in some of the groups in the South Sea
+Islands live on cocoanuts.  In South America several species of trees
+are cultivated by the natives for the food they furnish.  The palm
+family contributes much food to the natives, and also furnishes a large
+supply of food to the markets of the world.  The well-known breadfruit
+tree bears during eight successive months in the year, and by burying
+the fruit in the ground it may be preserved for food for the remaining
+four months.  Thus a single plant may be made to provide a continuous
+food supply for the inhabitants of the Moluccas and Philippines.  Many
+other instances of fruits in abundance, such as the nuts from the
+araucarias of South America, and beans from the mesquite of Mexico,
+might be given to show that it is possible for man to subsist without
+the use of animal food.
+
+_The Variety of Food Was Constantly Increased_.--Undoubtedly, one of
+the chief causes of the wandering of primitive man over the earth, in
+the valleys, along stream, lake, and ocean, {86} over the plains and
+through the hills, was the quest for food to preserve life; and even
+after tribes became permanent residents in a certain territory, there
+was a constant shifting from one source of food supply to another
+throughout the seasons.  However, after tribes became more settled, the
+increase of population encroached upon the native food supply, and man
+began to use his invention for the purpose of its increase.  He learned
+how to plant seeds which were ordinarily believed to be sown by the
+gods, and to till the soil and raise fruits and vegetables for his own
+consumption.  This was a period of accidental agriculture, or hoe
+culture, whereby the ground was tilled by women with hoes of stone, or
+bone, or wood.  In the meantime, the increase of animal food became a
+necessity.  Man learned how to snare and trap animals, to fish and to
+gather shell-fish, learning by degrees to use new foods as discovered
+as nature left them.  Life become a veritable struggle for existence as
+the population increased and the lands upon which man dwelt yielded
+insufficient supply of food.  The increased variety of food allowed man
+to adapt himself to the different climates.  Thus in the colder
+climates animal food became desirable to enable him to resist more
+readily the rigors of climate.  It was not necessary, it is supposed,
+to give him physical courage or intellectual development, for there
+appear to be evidences of tribes like the Maoris of New Zealand, who on
+the diet of fish and roots became a most powerful and sagacious people.
+But the change from a vegetable diet to a meat-and-fish diet in the
+early period brought forth renewed energy of body and mind, not only on
+account of the necessary physical exertion but on account of the
+invention of devices for the capture of fish and game.
+
+_The Food Supply Was Increased by Inventions_.--Probably the first meat
+food supply was in the form of shell-fish which could be gathered near
+the shores of lakes and streams.  Probably small game was secured by
+the use of stones and sticks and by running the animal down until he
+was exhausted or until he hid in a place inaccessible to the pursuer.
+The {87} boomerang, as used by the Australians in killing game, may
+have been an early product of the people of Neolithic Europe.  In the
+latter part of the Paleolithic Age, fish-hooks of bone were used, and
+probably snares invented for small game.  The large game could not be
+secured without the use of the spear and the co-operation of a number
+of hunters.  In all probability this occurred in the New Stone Age.
+
+The invention of the bow-and-arrow was of tremendous importance in
+securing food.  It is not known what led to its invention, although the
+discovery of the flexible power of the shrub, or the small sapling,
+must have occurred to man as he struggled through the brush.  It is
+thought by some that the use of the bow fire-drill, which was for the
+purpose of striking fire by friction, might have displayed driving
+power when the drill wound up in the string of the bow flew from its
+confinement.  However, this is conjectural; but, judging from the
+inventions of known tribes, it is evident that necessity has always
+been the moving power in invention.  The bow-and-arrow was developed in
+certain centres and probably through trade and exchange extended to
+other tribes and groups until it was universally used.  It is
+interesting to note how many thousands of years this must have been the
+chief weapon for destroying animals or crippling game at a distance.
+Even as late as the Norman conquest, the bow-and-arrow was the chief
+means of defense of the Anglo-Saxon yeoman, and for many previous
+centuries in the historic period had been the chief implement in
+warfare and in the chase.  The use of the spear in fishing supplemented
+that of the hook, and is found among all low-cultured tribes of the
+present day.  The American Indian will stand on a rock in the middle of
+a stream, silently, for an hour if necessary, watching for a chance to
+spear a salmon.  These small devices were of tremendous importance in
+increasing the food supply, and the making of them became a permanent
+industry.
+
+Along with the bow and arrow were developed many kinds of spears, axes,
+and hammers, invented chiefly to be used in {88} war, but also used for
+economic reasons.  In the preparation of animal food, in the tanning of
+skins, in the making of clothing, another set of stone implements was
+developed.  So, likewise, in the grinding of seeds, the mortar and
+pestle were used, and the small hand-mill or grinder was devised.  The
+sign of the mortar and pestle at the front of drug-stores brings to
+mind the fact that its first use was not for preparing medicines, but
+for grinding grains and seeds.
+
+_The Discovery and Use of Fire_.--The use of fire was practised in the
+early history of man.  Among the earliest records in caves are found
+evidences of the use of fire.  Charcoal is practically indestructible,
+and, although it may be crushed, the small particles maintain their
+shape in the clays and sands.  In nearly all of the relics of man
+discovered in caves, the evidences of fire are to be found, and no
+living tribe has yet been discovered so low in the scale of life as to
+be without the knowledge of fire and probably its simple uses, although
+a few tribes have been for the time being without fire when first
+discovered.  This might seem to indicate that at a very early period
+man did not know how to create fire artificially, but carried it and
+preserved it in his wanderings.  There are indications that a certain
+individual was custodian of the fire, and later it was carried by the
+priest or _cacique_.  Here, as in other instances in the development of
+the human race, an economic factor soon assumes a religious
+significance, and fire becomes sacred.
+
+There are many conjectures respecting the discovery of fire.  Probably
+the two real sources are of lightning that struck forest trees and set
+them on fire and the action of volcanoes in throwing out burning lava,
+which ignited combustible material.  Either one or the other, and
+perhaps both, of these methods may have furnished man with fire.
+Others have suggested that the rubbing together of dead limbs of trees
+in the forests after they were moved by the winds, may have created
+fire by friction.  It is possible, also, that the sun's rays may have,
+when concentrated on combustible {89} material, caused spontaneous
+ignition.  The idea has been advanced that some of the forest fires of
+recent times have been ignited in this way.  However, it is evident
+that there are enough natural sources in the creation of fire to enable
+tribes to use it for the purposes of artificial heat, cooking, and
+later, in the age of metals, of smelting ores.
+
+There has always been a mystery connected with the origin and use of
+fire, which has led to many myths.  Thus, the Greeks insisted that
+Prometheus, in order to perform a great service to humanity, stole fire
+from heaven and gave it to man.  For this crime against the authority
+of the gods, he was chained to a rock to suffer the torture of the
+vulture who pecked at his vitals.  Aeschylus has made the most of this
+old legend in his great drama of _Prometheus Bound_.  Nearly every
+tribe or nation has some tradition regarding the origin of fire.
+Because of its mystery and its economic value, it was early connected
+with religion and made sacred in many instances.  It was thus preserved
+at the altar, never being allowed to become extinct without the fear of
+dire calamity.  Perhaps the economic and religious ideas combined,
+because tribes in travelling from place to place exercised great care
+to preserve it.  The use of fire in worship became almost universal
+among tribes and ancient nations.  Thus the Hebrews and the Aryans,
+including Greeks, Romans, and Persians, as well as the Chinese and
+Japanese, used fire in worship.  Among other tribes it was worshipped
+as a symbol or even as a real deity.  Even in the Christian religion,
+the use of the burning incense may have some psychological connection
+with the idea of purification through fire.  Whether its mysterious
+nature led to its connection with worship, and the superstition
+connected with its continued burning, or whether from economic reasons
+it became a sacred matter, has never been determined.  The custom that
+a fire should never go out upon the altar, and that it should be
+carried in migrations from place to place, would seem to indicate that
+these two motives were closely allied, if not related in cause and
+effect.
+
+{90}
+
+Evidently, fire was used for centuries before man invented methods of
+reproducing it.  Simple as the process involved, it was a great
+invention; or it may be stated that many devices were resorted to for
+the creation of artificial fire.  Perhaps the earliest was that of
+rubbing two pieces of dry wood together, producing fire by friction.
+This could be accomplished by persistent friction of two ordinary
+pieces of dry wood, or by drilling a hole in a dry piece of wood with a
+pointed stick until heat was developed and a spark produced to ignite
+pieces of dry bark or grass.  Another way was to make a groove in a
+block of wood and run the end of a stick rapidly back and forth through
+the groove.  An invention called the fire-drill was simply a method of
+twirling rapidly in the hand a wooden drill which was in contact with
+dry wood, or by winding a string of the bow several times around the
+drill and moving the bow back and forth horizontally, giving rapid
+motion to the drill.
+
+As tribes became more advanced, they used two pieces of flint with
+which to strike fire, and after the discovery of iron, the flint and
+iron were used.  How many centuries these simple devices were essential
+to the progress and even to the life of tribes, is not known; but when
+we realize that but a few short years ago our fathers lighted the fire
+with flint and steel, and that before the percussion cap was invented,
+the powder in the musket was ignited by flint and hammer, we see how
+important to civilization were these simple devices of producing fire
+artificially.  So simple an invention as the discovery of the friction
+match saved hours of labor and permitted hours of leisure to be used in
+other ways.  It is one of the vagaries of human progress that a simple
+device remains in use for thousands of years before its clumsy method
+gives way to a new invention only one step in advance of the old.
+
+_Cooking Added to the Economy of the Food Supply_.--Primitive man
+doubtless consumed his food raw.  The transition of the custom of
+uncooked food to cooked food must have been gradual.  We only know that
+many of the backward tribes of {91} to-day are using primitive methods
+of cooking, and the man of the Stone Ages had methods of cooking the
+meat of animals.  In all probability, the suggestion came as people
+were grouped around the fire for artificial heat, and then, either by
+intention or desire, the experiment of cooking began.  After man had
+learned to make water-tight baskets, a common device of cooking was to
+put water in the basket and, after heating stones on a fire, put them
+in the basket to heat the water and then place the food in the basket
+to be cooked.  This method is carried on by the Indians in some parts
+of Alaska to this day, where they use a water-tight basket for this
+purpose.  Probably this method of cooking food was a later development
+than the roasting of food on coals or in the ashes, or in the use of
+the wooden spit.  Catlin, in his _North American Indians_, relates that
+certain tribes of Indians dig a hole in the ground and line it with
+hide filled with water, then place hot stones in the water, in which
+they place their fish, game, or meat for cooking.  This is interesting,
+because it carries out a more or less universal idea of adaptation to
+environment.  Probably the plains Indians had no baskets or other
+vessels to use for this purpose, but they are found to have used
+similar methods of cooking grasshoppers.  They dig a hole in the
+ground, build a fire in the hole, and take the fire out and put in the
+grasshoppers.  Thus, they have an exhibition of the first fireless
+cooker.
+
+It is thought by some that the need of vessels which would endure the
+heat was the cause of the invention of pottery.  While there seems to
+be little evidence of this, it is easy to conjecture that when water
+was needed to be heated in a basket, a mass of clay would be put on the
+bottom of the basket before it was put over the coals of fire.  After
+the cooking was done, the basket could easily be detached from the
+clay, leaving a hard-baked bowl.  This led to the suggestion of making
+bowls of clay and baking them for common use.  Others suggest that the
+fact of making holes in the ground for cooking purposes gave the
+suggestion that by the use of clay a portable vessel might be made for
+similar purposes.
+
+{92}
+
+The economic value of cooking rests in the fact that a larger utility
+comes from the cooked than from the raw food.  Though the phenomena of
+physical development of tribes and nations cannot be explained by the
+chemical constituents of food, although they are not without a positive
+influence.  Evidently the preparation of food has much to do with man's
+progress, and the art of cooking was a great step in advance.  The
+better utilization of food was a time-saving process--and, indeed, in
+many instances may have been a life-saving affair.
+
+_The Domestication of Animals_.--The time and place of the
+domestication of animals are not satisfactorily determined.  We know
+that Paleolithic man had domesticated the dog, and probably for
+centuries this was the only animal domesticated; but it is known that
+low forest tribes have tamed monkeys and parrots for pets, and savage
+tribes frequently have a band of dogs for hunting game or guarding the
+hut.  While it may be supposed that domestication of animals may have
+occurred in the prehistoric period, the use of such animals has been in
+the historic period.  There are many evidences of the domesticated dog
+at the beginning of the Neolithic period.  However, these animals may
+have still been nearly half wild.  It is not until the period of the
+Lake Dwellings of Switzerland that we can discriminate between the wild
+animals and those that have been tamed.  In the Lake Dwelling débris
+are found the bones of the wild bull, or _urus_, of Europe.  Probably
+this large, long-horned animal was then in a wild state, and had been
+hunted for food.  Alongside of these remains are those of a small,
+short-horned animal, supposed to have been domesticated.  Later, though
+still in the Neolithic period, remains of short-horned tame cattle
+appear in the refuse of the Lake Dwellings.  It is thought by some that
+these two varieties--the long-horned _urus_ and the short-horned
+domesticated animal brought from the south--were crossed, which gave
+rise to the origin of the present stock of modern cattle in central
+Europe.  Pigs and sheep were probably domesticated in Asia {93} and
+brought into Europe during the later Neolithic or early Bronze period.
+
+The horse was domesticated in Asia, and Clark Wissler[1] shows that to
+be one great centre of cultural distribution for this animal.  It
+spread from Asia into Europe, and from Europe into America.  The llama
+was early domesticated in South America.  The American turkey had its
+native home in Mexico, the hen in Asia.  The dog, though domesticated
+very early in Asia, has gone wherever the human race has migrated, as
+the constant companion of man.  The horse, while domesticated in Asia,
+depends upon the culture of Europe for his large and extended use, and
+has spread over the world.  We find that in the historic period the
+Aryan people everywhere made use of the domesticated goat, horse, and
+dog.  In the northern part of Europe, the reindeer early became of
+great service to the inhabitants for milk, meat, and clothing.  The
+great supply of milk and meat from domesticated animals added
+tremendously to the food supply of the race, and made it possible for
+it to develop in other lines.  Along with the food supply has been the
+use of these animals for increasing the clothing supply through hides,
+furs, skins, and wool.  The domestication of animals laid the
+foundation for great economic advancement.
+
+_The Beginnings of Agriculture Were Very Meagre_.--Man had gathered
+seeds and fruit and berries for many years before he conceived the
+notion of planting seeds and cultivating crops.  It appears to be a
+long time before he knew enough to gather seeds and plant them for a
+harvest.  Having discovered this, it was only necessary to have the
+will and energy to prepare the soil, sow the seed, and harvest a crop
+in order to enter upon agriculture.  But to learn this simple act must
+have required many crude experiments.  In the migrations of mankind
+they adopted a little intermittent agriculture, planting the grains
+while the tribe paused for pasture of flocks and herds, and resting
+long enough for a crop to be harvested.  {94} They gradually began to
+supplement the work of the pastoral with temporary agriculture, which
+was used as a means of supplementing the food supply.  It was not until
+people settled in permanent habitations and ceased their pastoral
+wanderings that real agriculture became established.  Even then it was
+a crude process, and, like every other economic industry of ancient
+times, its development was excessively slow.
+
+The wandering tribes of North America at the time of the discovery had
+reached the state of raising an occasional crop of corn.  Indeed, some
+tribes were quite constant in limited agriculture.  The sedentary
+Indians of New Mexico, old Mexico, and Peru also cultivated corn and
+other plants, as did those of Central America.  The first tillage of
+the soil was meagre, and the invention of agricultural implements
+proceeded slowly.  At first wandering savages carried a pointed stick
+to dig up the roots and tubers used for food.  The first agriculturists
+used sticks for stirring the soil, which finally became flattened in
+the form of a paddle or rude spade.  The hoe was evolved from the stone
+pick or hatchet.  It is said that the women of the North American
+tribes used a hoe made of an elk's shoulder-blade and a handle of wood.
+In Sweden the earliest records of tillage represent a huge hoe made
+from a stout limb of spruce with the sharpened root.  This was finally
+made heavier, and men dragged it through the soil in the manner of
+ploughing.  Subsequently the plough was made in two pieces, a handle
+having been added.  Finally a pair of cows yoked together were
+compelled to drag the plough.  Probably this is a fair illustration of
+the manner of the evolution of the plough in other countries.  It is
+also typical of the evolution of all modern agricultural implements.
+
+We need only refer to our own day to see how changes take place.  The
+writer has cut grain with the old-fashioned sickle, the scythe, the
+cradle, and the reaper, and has lived to see the harvester cut and
+thresh the grain in the field.  The Egyptians use until this day wooden
+ploughs of an ancient type formed from limbs of trees, having a share
+pointed with metal.  {95} The old Spanish colonists used a similar
+plough in California and Mexico as late as the nineteenth century.
+From these ploughs, which merely stirred the soil imperfectly, there
+has been a slow evolution to the complete steel plough and disk of
+modern times.  A glance at the collection of perfected farm machinery
+at any modern agricultural fair reveals what man has accomplished since
+the beginning of the agricultural art.  In forest countries the
+beginning of agriculture was in the open places, or else the natives
+cut and burned the brush and timber, and frequently, after one or two
+crops, moved on to other places.  The early settlers of new territories
+pursue the same method with their first fields, while the turning of
+the prairie sod of the Western plains was frequently preceded by the
+burning of the prairie grass and brush.
+
+The method of attachment to the soil determined economic progress.  Man
+in his early wanderings had no notion of ownership of the land.  All he
+wished was to have room to go wherever the food quest directed him, and
+apparently he had no reflections on the subject.  The matters of fact
+regarding mountain, sea, river, ocean, and glacier which influenced his
+movements were practically no different from the fact of other tribes
+that barred his progress or interfered with his methods of life.  In
+the hunter-fisher stage of existence, human contacts became frequent,
+and led to contention and warfare over customary hunting grounds.  Even
+in the pastoral period the land was occupied by moving upon it, and
+held as long as the tribe could maintain itself against other tribes
+that wished the land for pasture.  Gradually, however, even in
+temporary locations, a more permanent attachment to the soil came
+through clusters of dwellings and villages, and the habit of using
+territory from year to year for pastorage led to a claim of the tribe
+for that territory.  So the idea of possession grew into the idea of
+permanent ownership and the idea of rights to certain parts of the
+territory became continually stronger.  This method of settlement had
+much to do with not only the economic life of people, but in
+determining the nature of their {96} social organizations and
+consequently the efficiency of their social activity.  Evidently, the
+occupation of a certain territory as a dwelling-place was the source of
+the idea of ownership in land.
+
+Nearly all of Europe, at least, came into permanent cultivation through
+the village community.[2]  A tribe settled in a given valley and held
+the soil in common.  There was at a central place an irregular
+collection of rude huts, called the village.  Each head of the family
+owned and permanently occupied one of these.  The fertile or tillable
+land was laid out in lots, each family being allowed the use of a lot
+for one or more years, but the whole land was the common property of
+the tribe, and was under the direction of the village elders.  The
+regulation of the affairs of the agricultural community developed
+government, law, and social cohesion.  The social advancement after the
+introduction of permanent agriculture was great in every way.  The
+increased food supply was an untold blessing; the closer association
+necessary for the new kind of life, the building of distinct homes, and
+the necessity of a more general citizenship and a code of public law
+brought forth the social or community idea of progress.  Side by side
+with the village community system there was a separate development of
+individual ownership and tillage, which developed into the manorial
+system.  It is not necessary to discuss this method here except to say
+that this, together with the permanent occupation of the house-lot in
+the village, gave rise to the private ownership of property in land.
+As to how private ownership of personal property began, it is easy to
+suppose that, having made an implement or tool, the person claimed the
+right of perpetual possession or ownership; also, that in the chase the
+captured game belonged to the one who made the capture; the clothing to
+the maker.  In some instances where game was captured by the group,
+each was given a share in proportion to his station in life, or again
+in proportion to the service each performed in the capture.  Yet, in
+this {97} early period possessory right was frequently determined on
+the basis that might makes right.
+
+_The Manufacture of Clothing_.--The motive of clothing has been that of
+ornament and protection from the pain of cold.  The ornamentation of
+the body was earlier in its appearance in human progress than the
+making of clothing for the protection of the body; and after the latter
+came into use, ornamentation continued, thus making clothing more and
+more artistic.  As to how man protected his body before he began to
+kill wild animals for food, is conjectural.  Probably he dwelt in a
+warm climate, where very little clothing was needed, but, undoubtedly,
+the cave man and, in fact, all of the groups of the race occurring in
+Europe and Asia in the latter part of the Old Stone Age and during the
+New Stone Age used the skins of animals for clothing.  Later, after
+weaving had begun, grasses and fibres taken from plants in a rude way
+were plaited for making clothing.  Subsequently these fibres were
+prepared, twisted into thread, and woven regularly into garments.  The
+main source of supply came from reeds, rushes, wild flax, cotton,
+fibres of the century plant, the inner bark of trees, and other sources
+according to the environment.
+
+Nothing can be more interesting than the progress made in clothing,
+combining as it does the objects of protection from cold, the adornment
+of the person, and the preservation of modesty.  Indians of the forests
+of the tropical regions and on the Pacific coast, when first
+discovered, have been found entirely naked.  These were usually without
+modesty.  That is, they felt no need of clothing on account of the
+presence of others.  There are many evidences to show that the first
+clothing was for ornament and for personal attraction rather than for
+protection.  The painting of the body, the dressing of the hair, the
+wearing of rings in the nose, ears, and lips, the tattooing of the
+body, all are to be associated with the first clothing, which may be
+merely a narrow belt or an ornamental piece of cloth--all merely for
+show, for adornment and attraction.
+
+{98}
+
+There are relics of ornaments found in caves of early man, and, as
+before mentioned, relics of paints.  The clothing of early man can be
+conjectured by the implements with which he was accustomed to dress the
+skins of animals.  Among living tribes the bark of trees represents the
+lowest form of clothing.  In Brazil there is found what is known as the
+"shirt tree," which provides covering for the body.  When a man wants a
+new garment he pulls the bark from a tree of a suitable size, making a
+complete girdle.  This he soaks and beats until it is soft, and,
+cutting holes for the arms, dons his tailor-made garment.  In some
+countries, particularly India, aprons are made of leaves.  But the
+garment made of the skins of animals is the most universal among living
+savage and barbarous tribes, even after the latter have learned to spin
+and weave fabrics.  The tanning of skins is carried on with a great
+deal of skill, and rich and expensive garments are worn by the
+wealthier members of savage tribes.
+
+The making of garments from threads, strings, or fibres was an art
+discovered a little later.  At first rude aprons were woven from long
+strips of bark.  The South Sea Islanders made short gowns of plaited
+rushes, and the New Zealanders wore rude garments from strings made of
+native flax.  These early products were made by the process of working
+the fibres by hand into a string or thread.  The use of a simple
+spindle, composed of a stone like a large button, with a stick run
+through a hole in the centre, facilitated the making of thread and the
+construction of rude looms.  It was but a step from these to the
+spinning-wheels and looms of the Middle Ages.  When the Spaniards
+discovered the Pueblo Indians, they were wearing garments of their own
+weaving from cotton and wood fibres.  Strong cords attached to the
+limbs of trees and to a piece of wood on the ground formed the
+framework of the loom, and the native sat down to weave the garment.
+With slight improvements on this old style, the Navajos continue to
+weave their celebrated blankets.  What an effort it must have cost,
+what a necessity must have crowded man to have compelled him to resort
+to this method of procuring clothing!
+
+{99}
+
+The artistic taste in dress has always accompanied the development of
+the useful, although dress has always been used more or less for
+ornament, and taste has changed by slow degrees.  The primitive races
+everywhere delighted in bright colors, and in most instances these
+border on the grotesque in arrangement and combination.  But many
+people not far advanced in barbarism have colors artistically arranged
+and dress with considerable skill.  Ornaments change in the progress of
+civilization from coarse, ungainly shells, pieces of wood, or bits of
+metal, to more finely wrought articles of gold and silver.
+
+_Primitive Shelters and Houses_.--The shelters of primitive man were
+more or less temporary, for wherever he happened to be in his
+migrations he sought shelter from storm or cold in the way most
+adaptable to his circumstances.  There was in this connection, also,
+the precaution taken to protect against predatory animals and wild men.
+As his stay in a given territory became more permanent, the home or
+shelter gradually grew more permanent.  So far as we can ascertain, man
+has always been known to build some sort of shelter.  As apes build
+their shelters in trees, birds build their nests, and beavers dam water
+to make their homes, it is impossible to suppose that man, with
+superior intelligence, was ever simple enough to continue long without
+some sort of shelter constructed with his own hands.  At first the
+shelter of trees, rocks, and caves served his purpose wherever
+available.  Subsequently, when he had learned to build houses, their
+structure was usually dependent more upon environment than upon his
+inventive genius.  Whether he built a platform house or nest in a tree,
+or provided a temporary brush shelter, or bark hut, or stone or adobe
+building, depended a good deal upon the material at hand and the
+necessity of protection.  The main thing was to protect against cold or
+storm, wild animals, and, eventually, wild men.
+
+The progress in architecture among the nations of ancient civilization
+was quite rapid.  Massive structures were built for capacity and
+strength, which the natives soon learned to {100} decorate within and
+without.  The buildings were made of large blocks of hewn stone, fitted
+together mechanically by the means of cement, which made secure
+foundations for ages.  When in the course of time the arch was
+discovered, it alone became a power to advance the progress of
+architecture.  We have seen pass before our eyes a sudden transition in
+dwelling houses.
+
+The first inhabitants of some parts of the Western prairies dwelt in
+tents.  These were next exchanged for the "dugout," and this for a rude
+hut.  Subsequently the rude hut was made into a barn or pig-pen, and a
+respectable farmhouse was built; and finally this, too, has been
+replaced by a house of modern style and conveniences.  If we could
+consider this change to have extended over thousands of years, from the
+first shelter of man to the finished modern building, it would be a
+picture of the progress of man in the art of building.  In this slow
+process man struggled without means and with crude notions of life in
+every form.  The aim, first, was for protection, then comfort and
+durability, and finally for beauty.  The artistic in building has kept
+pace with other forms of civilization evinced in other ways.
+
+One of the most interesting exhibits of house-building for protection
+is found in the cliff dwellings, whose ruins are to be seen in Arizona
+and New Mexico.  Tradition and other evidences point to the conclusion
+that certain tribes had developed a state of civilization as high as a
+middle period of barbarism, on the plains, where they had made a
+beginning of systematic agriculture, and that they were afterward
+driven out by wilder tribes and withdrew, seeking the cliffs for
+protection.  There they built under the projecting cliffs the large
+communal houses, where they dwelt for a long period of time.
+Subsequently their descendants went into the valleys and developed the
+Pueblo villages, with their large communal houses of _adobe_.
+
+_Discovery and Use of Metals_.--It is not known just when the human
+race first discovered and used any one of the metals {101} now known to
+commerce and industry, but it can be assumed that their discovery
+occurred at a very early period and their use followed quickly.
+Reasoning back from the nature and condition of the wild tribes of
+to-day, who are curiously attracted by bright colors, whether in metals
+or beads or clothing, and realizing how universally they used the
+minerals and plants for coloring, it would be safe to assume that the
+satisfaction of the curiosity of primitive man led to the discovery of
+bright metals at a very early time.  Pieces of copper, gold, and iron
+would easily have been found in a free state in metal-bearing soil, and
+treasured as articles of value.  Copper undoubtedly was used by the
+American Indians, and probably by the inhabitants of Europe during the
+Neolithic Age--it being found in a native state in sufficient
+quantities to be hammered into implements.
+
+Thus copper has been found in large pieces in its native state, not
+only in Europe but in Mexico and other parts of North America,
+particularly in the Lake Superior region; but as the soft hematite iron
+was found in larger quantities in a free state, it would seem that the
+use of iron in a small degree must have occurred at about the same
+time, or perhaps a little later.  The process of smelting must have
+been suggested by the action of fire built on or near ore beds, where a
+crude process of accidental smelting took place.  Combined with tin
+ore, the copper was made into bronze in Peru and Mexico at the time of
+the discovery.  In Europe there are abundant remains to show the early
+use of metals.  Probably copper and tin were in use before iron,
+although iron may have been discovered first.  There are numerous tin
+mines in Asia and copper mines in Cyprus.  At first, metals were
+probably worked while cold through hammering, the softest metals
+doubtless being used before others.
+
+It is difficult to tell how smelting was discovered, although the
+making and use of bronze implements is an indication of the first
+process of smelting ores and combining metals.  When tin was first
+discovered is not known, but we know that bronze {102} implements made
+from an alloy of copper, tin, and usually other metals were used by the
+Greeks and other Aryan peoples in the early historic period, about six
+thousand years ago.  In Egypt and Babylon many of the inscriptions make
+mention of the use of iron as well as bronze, although the extended use
+of the former must have come about some time after the latter.  At
+first all war instruments were stone and wood and later bronze, which
+were largely replaced by iron at a still later period.  The making of
+spears, swords, pikes, battle-axes, and other implements of war had
+much to do with the development of ingenious work in metals.  The final
+perfection of metal work could only be attained by the manufacture of
+finely treated steel.  Probably the tempering of steel began at the
+time iron came prominently into use.
+
+Other metals, such as silver, quicksilver, gold, and lead, came into
+common use in the early stages of civilization, all of which added
+greatly to the arts and industries.  Nearly all of the metals were used
+for money at various times.  The aids to trade and commerce which these
+metals gave on account of their universal use and constant measure of
+value cannot be overestimated.
+
+_Transportation as a Means of Economic Development_.--Early methods of
+carrying goods from one place to another were on the backs of human
+beings.  Many devices were made for economy of service and strength in
+carrying.  Bands over the shoulders and over the head were devised for
+the purpose of securing the pack on the back.  An Indian woman of the
+Southwest would carry a large basket, or _keiho_, on her back, secured
+by a band around her head for the support of the load.  A Pueblo woman
+will carry a large bowl filled with water or other material, on the top
+of her head, balancing it by walking erect.  Indeed, in more recent
+times washerwomen in Europe, and of the colored race in America, carry
+baskets of clothes and pails of water on their heads.  The whole
+process of the development of transportation came about through
+invention to be relieved from this bodily service.
+
+{103}
+
+As the dog was the first animal domesticated, he was early used to help
+in transportation by harnessing him to a rude sled, or drag, by means
+of which he pulled articles from one place to another.  The Eskimos
+have used dogs and the sled to a greater extent than any other race.
+The use of the camel, the llama, the horse, and the ass for packing
+became very common after their domestication.  Huge packs were strapped
+upon the backs of these animals, and goods thus transported from one
+place to another.  To such an extent was the camel used, even in the
+historic period, for transportation in the Orient that he has been
+called the "ship of the desert."  The plains Indians had a method of
+attaching two poles, one at each side of an Indian pony, which extended
+backward, dragging on the ground.  Upon these poles was built a little
+platform, on which goods were deposited and thus transported from one
+camp to another.
+
+It must have been a long time before water transportation performed any
+considerable economic service.  It is thought by some that primitive
+man conceived the idea of the use of water for transportation through
+his experience of floating logs, or drifts, or his own process of
+swimming and floating.  Jack London pictures two primitives playing on
+the logs near the shore of a stream.  Subsequently the logs cast loose,
+and the primitives were floated away from the shore.  They learned by
+putting their hands in the water and paddling that they could make the
+logs move in the direction which they wished to go.  Perhaps this
+explanation is as good as any, inasmuch as the beginnings of modern
+transportation still dwell in the mist of the past.  However, in
+support of the log theory is the fact that modern races use primitive
+boats made of long reeds tied together, forming a loglike structure.
+The _balsa_ of the Indians of the north coasts of South America is a
+very good representation of this kind of boat.
+
+Evidently, the first canoes were made by hollowing logs and sharpening
+the ends at bow and stern.  This form of boat-making has been carried
+to a high degree of skill by the {104} Indians of the northwest coast
+of America and by the natives of the Hawaiian Islands.  The birch-bark
+canoe, made for lighter work and overland transportation, is more
+suggestive of the light reed boat than of the log canoe.  Also, the
+boats made of a framework covered with the skins of animals were
+prominent at certain periods of the development of races who lived on
+animal food.  But later the development of boats with frames covered
+with strips of board and coated with pitch became the great vehicle of
+commerce through hundreds of years.  It certainly is a long journey
+from the floating log to the modern floating passenger palace, freight
+leviathan, or armed dreadnought, but the journey was accomplished by
+thousands of steps, some short and some long, through thousands of
+years of progress.
+
+_Trade, or Exchange of Goods_.--In Mr. Clark Wissler's book on _Man and
+Culture_, he has shown quite conclusively that there are certain
+culture areas whereby certain inventions, discoveries, or customs have
+originated and spread over a given territory.  This recognition of a
+centre of origin of custom or invention is in accordance with the whole
+process of social development.  For instance, in a given area occupied
+by modern civilized people, there are a very few who invent or
+originate things, and others follow through imitation or suggestion.
+So it was with the discoveries and inventions of primitive man.  For
+example, we know that in Oklahoma and Arkansas, as well as in other
+places in the United States, certain stone quarries or mines are found
+that produce a certain kind of flint or chert used in making
+arrow-heads or spearheads and axes.  Tribes that developed these traded
+with other tribes that did not have them, so that from these centres
+implements were scattered all over the West.  A person may pick up on a
+single village site or battle-ground different implements coming from a
+dozen or more different quarries or centres and made by different
+tribes hundreds of miles apart in residence.
+
+This diffusion of knowledge and things of material {105} workmanship,
+or of methods of life, is through a system of borrowing, trading, or
+swapping--or perhaps sometimes through conquest and robbery; but as
+soon as an article of any kind could be made which could be subjected
+to general use of different tribes in different localities, it began to
+travel from a centre and to be used over a wide area.  Certain tribes
+became special workers in specialized lines.  Thus some were
+bead-makers, others expert tanners of hides, others makers of bows and
+arrows of peculiar quality, and others makers of stone implements.  The
+incidental swapping of goods by tribes finally led to a systematic
+method of a travelling trader who brought goods from one tribe to
+another, exchanging as he went.  This early trade had an effect in more
+rapid extension of culture, because in that case one tribe could have
+the invention, discovery, and art of all tribes.  In connection with
+this is to be noted the slow change of custom regarding religious
+belief and ceremony or tribal consciousness.  The pride of family and
+race development, the assumption of superiority leading to race
+aversion, interfered with intelligence and the spread of ideas and
+customs; but most economic processes that were not bound up with
+religious ceremonies or tribal customs were easily exchanged and
+readily accepted between the tribes.
+
+Exchange of goods and transportation went hand in hand in their
+development, very slowly and surely.  After trade had become pretty
+well established, it became necessary to have a medium of exchange.
+Some well-known article whose value was very well recognized among the
+people who were trading became the standard for fixing prices in
+exchange.  Thus, in early Anglo-Saxon times the cow was the unit of the
+measure of value.  Sometimes a shell, as a _cowrie_ of India or the
+wampum of the American Indian, was used for this purpose.  Wheat has
+been at one time in America, and tobacco in another, a measure of
+exchange because of the scarcity of money.
+
+Gradually, as the discovery and use of precious metals became common
+and desirable because of their brightness {106} and service in
+implement and ornament, they became the medium of exchange.  Thus,
+copper and gold, iron and bronze have been used as metallic means of
+exchange--that is, as money.  So from the beginning of trade and
+swapping article for article, it came to be common eventually to swap
+an article for something called money and then use the money for the
+purchase of other desirable articles.  This made it possible for the
+individual to carry about in a small compass the means of obtaining any
+article in the market within the range of the purchasing power of his
+money.  Trade, transportation, and exchange not only had a vast deal to
+do with economic progress but were of tremendous importance in social
+development.  They were powerful in diffusion, extension, and promotion
+of culture.
+
+_The Struggle for Existence Develops the Individual and the Race_.--The
+remnants and relics of the arts and industries of man give us a fair
+estimate of the process of man's mind and the accomplishment of his
+physical labor.  It is through the effort involved in the struggle for
+existence that he has made his various steps forward.  Truly the actual
+life of primitive man tends to verify the adage that "necessity is the
+mother of invention."  It was this tremendous demand on him for the
+means of existence that caused him to create the things that protected
+and improved his life.  It was the insistent struggle which forced him
+to devise means of taking advantage of nature and thus led to invention
+and discovery.  Every new invention and every new discovery showed the
+expansion of his mind, as well as gave him the means of material
+improvement.  It also added to his bodily vigor and added much to the
+development of his physical powers.  Upon this economic foundation has
+been built a superstructure of intellectual power, of moral worth and
+social improvement, for these in their highest phases of existence may
+be traced back to the early beginnings of life, where man was put to
+his utmost effort to supply the simplest of human wants.
+
+
+{107}
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  The change in social life caused by the cultivation of the soil.
+
+2.  The effect of the discovery and use of fire on civilization.
+
+3.  What was the social effect of the exchange of economic products?
+
+4.  What influence had systematic labor on individual development?
+
+5.  Show how the discovery and use of a new food advances civilization.
+
+6.  Compare primitive man's food supply with that of a modern city
+dweller.
+
+7.  Trace a cup of coffee to its original source and show the different
+classes of people engaged in its production.
+
+
+
+[1] _Man and Culture_.
+
+[2] See Chapter III.
+
+
+
+
+{108}
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+PRIMITIVE SOCIAL LIFE
+
+_The Character of Primitive Social Life_.--Judging from the cultures of
+prehistoric man in Europe and from analogies of living races that
+appear to have the same state of culture, strong inferences may be
+drawn as to the nature of the beginnings of human association.  The
+hypothesis that man started as an individual and developed social life
+through mutual aid as he came in contact with his fellows does not
+cover the whole subject.  It is not easy to conceive man in a state of
+isolation at any period of his life, but it appears true that his early
+associations were simple and limited to a few functions.  The evidence
+of assemblage in caves, the kind of implements used, and the drawings
+on the walls of caves would appear to indicate that an early group life
+existed from the time of the first human cultures.  The search for food
+caused men to locate at the same place.  The number that could be
+supplied with food from natural subsistence in a given territory must
+have been small.  Hence, it would appear that the early groups
+consisted of small bands.  They moved on if the population encroached
+upon the food supply.
+
+Also, the blood-related individuals formed the nucleus of the group.
+The dependency of the child on the mother led to the first permanent
+location as the seat of the home and the foundation of the family.  As
+the family continued to develop and became the most permanent of all
+social institutions, it is easy to believe as a necessity that it had a
+very early existence.  It came out of savagery into barbarism and
+became one of the principal bulwarks of civilization.
+
+It may be accepted as a hypothesis that there was a time in the history
+of every branch of the human race when social order was indefinite and
+that out of this incoherence came by {109} degrees a complex organized
+society.  It was in such a rude state that the relations of individuals
+to each other were not clearly defined by custom, but were temporary
+and incidental.  Family ties were loose and irregular, custom had not
+become fixed, law was unheard of, government was unknown unless it was
+a case of temporary leadership, and unity of purpose and reciprocal
+social life were wanting.  Indeed, it is a picture of a human horde but
+little above the animal herd in its nature and composition.  Living
+tribes such as the Fuegians and Australians, and the extinct
+Tasmanians, represent very nearly the status of the horde--a sort of
+social protoplasm.  They wander in groups, incidentally through the
+influence of temporary advantage or on account of a fitful social
+instinct.  Co-operation, mutual aid, and reciprocal mental action were
+so faint that in many cases life was practically non-social.
+Nevertheless, even these groups had aggregated, communicated, and had
+language and other evidences of social heredity.
+
+_The Family Is the Most Persistent of Social Origins_.--The relation of
+parent and child was the most potent influence in establishing
+coherency of the group, and next to it, though of later development,
+was the relation of man and woman--that is, the sex relation.  While
+the family is a universal social unit, it appears in many different
+forms in different tribes and, indeed, exhibits many changes in its
+development in the same tribe.  There is no probability that mankind
+existed in a complete state of promiscuity in sex relations, yet these
+relations varied in different tribes.  Mating was always a habit of the
+race and early became regulated by custom.  The variety of forms of
+mating leads us to think the early sex life of man was not of a
+degraded nature.  Granted that matrimony had not reached the high state
+of spiritual life contemplated in modern ideals, there are instances of
+monogamic marriage and pure, dignified rites in primitive peoples.
+Polygamy and polyandry were of later development.
+
+A study of family life within the historic period, especially of
+Greeks, Romans, and Teutons, and possibly the Hebrews, {110} compared
+with the family life of the Australian and some of the North American
+Indian tribes, reveals great contrasts in the prevailing customs of
+matrimony.  All forms of marriage conceivable may be observed from rank
+animalism to high spiritual union; of numerous ideals, customs, and
+usages and ceremonies, as well as great confusion of purpose.  It may
+be assumed, therefore, that there was a time in the history of every
+branch of the human race when family customs were indefinite and family
+coherence was lacking.  Also that society was in a rude state in which
+the relations of individuals to each other and to the general social
+group were not clearly defined.  There are found to-day among the lower
+races, in the Pacific islands, Africa, and South America, evidences of
+lack of cohesive life.  They represent groups of people without
+permanent organization, held together by temporary advantage, with
+crude, purposeless customs, with the exercise of fitful social instinct.
+
+However, it is out of such conditions that the tribes, races, and
+nations of the early historic period have evolved into barbaric
+organization.  Reasoning backward by the comparative method, one may
+trace the survivals of ancient customs.  Following the social heredity
+of the oldest civilized tribes, such as the Egyptians, Babylonians,
+Greeks, Romans, and Teutonic peoples, there is evidence of the rise
+from a rude state of savagery to a higher social life.  Historical
+records indicate the passage from the middle state of barbarism to
+advanced civil life, even though the earlier phases of social life of
+primitive man remain obscure.  The study of tradition and a comparison
+of customs and language of races yield a definite knowledge of the
+evolution of society.
+
+_Kinship Is a Strong Factor in Social Organization_.--Of all causes
+that held people in coherent union, perhaps kinship, natural and
+artificial, was the most potent.  All of the direct and indirect
+offspring of a single pair settled in the same family group.  This
+enlarged family took its place as the only organ of social order.  Not
+only did all the relatives settle and {111} become members of one body,
+but also strangers who needed protection were admitted to the family by
+subscribing to their customs and religion.  Thus the father of the
+family had a numerous following, composed of relatives by birth and by
+adoption.  He was the ruler of this enlarged household, declaring the
+customs of his fathers, leading the armed men in war, directing the
+control of property, for he alone was the owner of all their
+possessions, acting as priest in the administration of religious
+ceremonies--a service performed only by him--and acting as judge in
+matters of dispute or discipline.  Thus the family was a compact
+organization with a central authority, in which both chief and people
+were bound by custom.
+
+Individuals were born under status and must submit to whatever was
+customary in the rule of the family or tribe.  There was no law other
+than custom to determine the relation of individuals to one another.
+Each must abide in the sphere of activity into which he was born.  He
+could not rise above it, but must submit to the arbitrary rule of
+traditional usage.  The only position an individual had was in the
+family, and he must observe what custom had taught.  This made family
+life arbitrary and conventional.
+
+_The Earliest Form of Social Order_.--The family is sometimes called
+the unit of society.  The best historical records of the family are
+found in the Aryan people, such as the Greeks, the Romans, and the
+Teutons.  Outside of this there are many historical references to the
+Aryans in their primitive home in Asia, and the story of the Hebrew
+people, a branch of the Semitic race, shows many phases of tribal and
+family life.  The ancient family differed from the modern in
+organization and composition.  The first historical family was the
+patriarchal, by which we mean a family group in which descent was
+traced in the male line, and in which authority was vested in the
+eldest living male inhabitant.  It is held by some that this is the
+original family type, and that the forms which we find among savage
+races are degenerate forms of the above.  Some have {112} advocated
+that the patriarchal family was the developed form of the family, and
+only occurred after a long evolution through states of promiscuity,
+polygamy, and polyandry.  There is much evidence that the latter
+assumption is true.  But there is evidence that the patriarchal family
+was the first political unit of all the Aryan races, and also of the
+Semitic as well, and that monogamic marriage was developed in these
+ancient societies so far as historical evidence can determine.  The
+ancient Aryans in their old home, those who came into India, Greece,
+Rome, and the northern countries of Europe, whether Celt or Teuton, all
+give evidence of the permanency of early family organization.
+
+_The Reign of Custom_.--For a long period custom reigned supreme, and
+arbitrary social life became conventionalized, and the change from
+precedent became more and more difficult.  The family was despotic,
+exacting, unyielding in its nature, and individual activity was
+absorbed in it.  So powerful was this early sway of customary law that
+many tribes never freed themselves from its bondage.  Others by degrees
+slowly evolved from its crystallizing influences.  Changes in custom
+came about largely through the migration of tribes, which brought new
+scenes and new conditions, the intercourse of one tribe with another in
+trade and war, and the gradual shifting of the internal life of the
+social unit.  Those tribes that were isolated were left behind in the
+progress of the race, and to many of them still clung the customs
+practised thousands of years before.  Those that went forward from this
+first status grew by practice rather than by change of ideals.  It is
+the law of all progress that ideals are conservative, and that they can
+be broken away from only by the procedure of actual practice.
+Gradually the reign of customary law gave way to the laws framed by the
+people.  The family government gave way to the political; the
+individual eventually became the political unit, and freedom of action
+prevailed in the entire social body.
+
+_The Greek and Roman Family Was Strongly Organized_.--In Greece and
+Rome the family enlarged and formed the gens, {113} the gentes united
+into a tribe, and the tribe passed into the nation.  In all of this
+formulated government the individual was represented by his family and
+received no recognition except as a member of such.  The tribal chief
+became the king, or, as he is sometimes called, the patriarchal
+president, because he presided over a band of equals in power, namely,
+the assembled elders of the tribe.  The heads of noble families were
+called together to consider the affairs of government, and at a common
+meal the affairs of the nation were discussed over viands and wine.
+The king thus gathered the elders about him for the purpose of
+considering measures to be laid before the people.  The popular
+assembly, composed of all the citizens, was called to sanction what the
+king and the elders had decreed.  Slowly the binding forms of
+traditional usage were broken down, and the king and his people were
+permitted to enact those laws which best served the immediate ends of
+government.  True, the old formal life of the family continued to
+exist.  There were the gentes, tribes, and phratries, or brotherhoods,
+that still existed, and the individual entered the state in civil
+capacity through his family.  But by degrees the old family régime gave
+way to the new political life, and sovereign power was vested in
+monarchy, democracy, or aristocracy, according to the nature of the
+sovereignty.
+
+The functions or activities and powers of governments, which were
+formerly vested in the patriarchal chief, or king, and later in king,
+people, and council, gradually became separated and were delegated to
+different authorities, though the sharp division of legislative,
+judicial, and executive functions which characterizes our modern
+governments did not exist.  These forms of government were more or less
+blended, and it required centuries to distribute the various powers of
+government into special departments and develop modern forms.
+
+_In Primitive Society Religion Occupied a Prominent Place_.--While
+kinship was first in order in the foundation of units of social
+organization, religion was second to it in importance.  {114} Indeed,
+it is considered by able writers as the foundation of the family and,
+as the ethnic state is but the expanded family, the vital power in the
+formation of the state.  Among the Aryan tribes religion was a
+prominent feature of association.  In the Greek household stood the
+family altar, resting upon the first soil in possession of the family.
+Only members of the household could worship at this shrine, and only
+the eldest male members of the family in good standing could conduct
+religious service.  When the family grew into the gens it also had a
+separate altar and a separate worship.  Likewise, the tribe had its own
+worship, and when the city was formed it had its own temple and a
+particular deity, whom the citizens worshipped.  In the ancient family
+the worship of the house spirit or a deified ancestor was the common
+practice.  This practice of the worship of departed heroes and
+ancestors, which prevailed in all of the various departments of old
+Greek society, tended to develop unity and purity of family and tribe.
+As family forms passed into political, the religion changed from a
+family to a national religion.
+
+Among the lower tribes the religious life is still most powerful in
+influencing their early life.  Mr. Tylor, in his valuable work on
+_Primitive Culture_, has devoted a good part of two large volumes to
+the treatment of early religious belief.  While recognizing that there
+is no complete definition of religion, he holds that "belief in
+spiritual beings" is a minimum definition which will apply to all
+religions, and, indeed, about the only one that will.  The lower races
+each had simple notions of the spiritual world.  They believed in a
+soul and its existence after death.  Nearly all believed in both good
+and evil spirits, and in one or more greater gods or spirits who ruled
+and managed the universe.  In this early stage of religious belief
+philosophy and religion were one.  The belief in the after life of the
+spirit is evidenced by implements which were placed in the grave for
+the use of the departed, and by food which was placed at the grave for
+his subsistence on the journey.  Indeed, some even set aside food at
+each meal for the departed; others, as {115} instanced by the Greeks,
+placed tables in the burying ground for the dead.  Many views were
+entertained by the early people concerning the origin of the soul and
+its course after death.  But in all of the rude conditions of life
+religion was indefinite and uncultured.  From lower simple forms it
+arose to more complex systems and to higher generalizations.
+
+Religious influence on progress has been very great.  There are those
+who have neglected the subject of religion in the discussion of the
+history of civilization.  Other writers have considered it of little
+importance, and still others believe it to have been a positive
+hindrance to the development of the race.  Religion, in general, as
+practised by savage and barbarous races, based, as it is largely, on
+superstition, must of a necessity be conservative and non-progressive.
+Yet the service which it performs in making the tribe or family
+cohesive and in giving an impetus to the development of the mind before
+the introduction of science and art as special studies is, indeed,
+great.  The early forms of culture are found almost wholly in religious
+belief and practice.
+
+The religious ceremonies at the grave of a departed companion, around
+the family altar or in the congregation, whether in the temple or in
+the open air, tended to social cohesion and social activity.  The
+exercise of religious belief in a superior being and a recognition of
+his authority, had a tendency to bring the actions of individuals into
+orderly arrangement and to develop unity of life.  It also had a strong
+tendency to prepare the simple mind of the primitive man for later
+intellectual development.  It gave the mind something to contemplate,
+something to reason about, before it reached a stage of scientific
+investigation.  Its moral influence is unquestioned.  While some of the
+early religions are barbarous in the extreme in their degenerate state,
+as a whole they teach man to consider himself and his fellows, and
+develop an ethical relationship.  And while altruism as a great factor
+in religious and in social progress appeared at a comparatively recent
+period, it has been in existence from the earliest associations of men
+to {116} the present time, and usually makes its strongest appeal
+through religious belief.  Religion thus becomes a great
+society-builder, as well as a means of individual culture.
+
+_Spirit Worship_.--The recognition of the continued journey of the
+spirit after death was in itself an altruistic practice.  Much of the
+worship of the controlling spirit was conducted to secure especial
+favor to the departed soul.  The burial service in early religious
+practice became a central idea in permanent religious rites.  Perhaps
+the earliest phase of religious belief arises out of the idea that the
+spirit or soul of man has control over the body.  It gives rise to the
+notion of spirit and the idea of continued existence.  Considering the
+universe as material existence, according to primitive belief, it is
+the working of the superior spirit over the physical elements that
+gives rise to natural phenomena.
+
+One of the early stages of religious progress is to attempt to form a
+meeting-place with the spirit.  This desire is seen in the lowest
+tribes and in the highest civilization of to-day.  When Cabrillo came
+to the coast of southern California he found natives that had never
+before come in contact with civilized people.  He describes a rude
+temple made by driving stakes in the ground in a circular form, and
+partitioning the enclosure by similar rows of stakes.  At the centre
+was a rude platform, on which were placed the feathers of certain birds
+pleasing to the spirit.  The natives came to this temple occasionally,
+and, circling around it, went through many antics of worship.  This
+represents the primitive idea of location in worship.  Not different in
+its fundamental conception from the rude altar of stones built by
+Abraham at Bethel, the Greek altar, or the mighty columns of St.
+Peter's, it was the simple meeting-place of man and the spirit.  For
+all of these represent location in worship, and just as the modern
+worshipper enters the church or cathedral to meet God, so did the
+primitive savage fix locations for the meeting of the spirit.
+
+Man finally attempted to control the spirit for his own advantage.  A
+rude form of religion was reached, found in {117} certain stages of the
+development of all religions, in which man sought to manipulate or
+exorcise the spirits who existed in the air or were located in trees,
+stones, and other material forms.  Out of this came a genuine worship
+of the powerful, and supplication for help and support.  Seeking aid
+and favor became the fundamental ideas in religious worship.  Simple in
+the beginning, it sought to appease the wrath of the evil spirit and
+gain the favor of the good.  But finally it sought to worship on
+account of the sublimity and power possessed by the object of worship.
+With the advancement of religious practice, religious beliefs and
+religious ceremonies became more complex.  Great systems of mythology
+sprang up among nations about to enter the precincts of civilization,
+and polytheism predominated.  Purely ethical religions were of a later
+development, for the notion of the will of the gods concerning the
+treatment of man by his fellows belongs to an advanced stage of
+religious belief.  The ethical importance of religion reaches its
+culmination in the religion of Jesus Christ.
+
+_Moral Conditions_.--The slow development of altruistic notions
+presages a deficiency of moral action in the early stages of human
+progress.  True it is that moral conditions seem never to be entirely
+wanting in this early period.  There are many conflicting accounts of
+the moral practice of different savage and barbarous tribes when first
+discovered by civilized man.  Tribes differ much in this respect, and
+travellers have seen them from different standpoints.  Wherever a
+definite moral practice cannot be observed, it may be assumed that the
+standard is very low.  Moral progress seems to consist in the
+constantly shifting standards of right and wrong, of justice and
+injustice.  Perhaps the moral action of the savage should be viewed
+from two standpoints--namely, the position of the average savage of the
+tribe, and from the vantage of modern ethical standards.  It is only by
+considering it from these two views that we have the true estimation of
+his moral status.  There must be a difference between conventionality
+and morality, and many who have judged the moral status of {118} the
+savage have done so more from a conventional than from a moral
+standard.  True that morality must be judged from the individual motive
+and from social effects of individual action.  Hence it is that the
+observance of conventional rules must be a phase of morality; yet it is
+not all of morality.  Where conventionality does not exist, the motive
+of action must be the true moral test.
+
+The actions of some savages and of barbarous people are revolting in
+the extreme, and so devoid of sympathy for the sufferings of their
+fellow-beings as to lead us to assume that they are entirely without
+moral sentiment.  The repulsive spectacle of human sacrifice is
+frequently brought about by religious fervor, while the people have
+more or less altruistic practice in other ways.  This practice was
+common to very many tribes, and indeed to some nations entering the
+pale of civilization.  Cannibalism, revolting as it may seem, may be
+practised by a group of people which, in every other respect, shows
+moral qualities.  It is composed of kind husbands, mothers, brothers,
+and sisters, who look after each other's welfare.  The treatment of
+infants, not only by savage tribes but by the Greek and Roman nations
+after their entrance into civilized life, represents a low status of
+morality, for it was the common custom to expose infants, even in these
+proud nations.  The degraded condition of woman, as slave and tool of
+man in the savage state, and indeed in the ancient civilization, does
+not speak well for the high standard of morality of the past.  More
+than this, the disregard of the rights of property and person and the
+common practice of revolting brutality, are conclusive evidence of the
+low moral status of early mankind.
+
+Speaking of the Sioux Indians, a writer says: "They regard most of the
+vices as virtues.  Theft, arson, rape, and murder are among them
+regarded with distinction, and the young Indian from childhood is
+taught to regard killing as the highest of virtues."  And a writer who
+had spent many years among the natives of the Pacific coast said that
+"whatever is {119} falsehood in the European is truth in the Indian,
+and vice versa."  Whether we consider the savages or barbarians of
+modern times, or the ancient nations that laid claim to civilization,
+we find a gradual evolution of the moral practice and a gradual change
+of the standard of right.  This standard has constantly advanced until
+it rests to-day on the Golden Rule and other altruistic principles of
+Christian teaching.
+
+_Warfare and Social Progress_.--The constant warfare of savages and
+barbarians was not without its effects in developing the individual and
+social life.  Cruel and objectionable as it is, the study and practice
+of war was an element of strength.  It developed physical courage, and
+taught man to endure suffering and hardships.  It developed
+intellectual power in the struggle to circumvent and overcome enemies.
+It led to the device and construction of arms, machines, engines, guns,
+and bridges, for facilitating the carrying on of successful warfare;
+all of this was instrumental in developing the inventive genius and
+engineering skill of man.
+
+In a political way warfare developed tribal or national unity, and
+bound more closely together the different groups in sympathy and common
+interest.  It thus became useful in the preparation for successful
+civil government.  It prepared some to rule and others to obey, and
+divided the governing from the governed, an essential characteristic of
+all forms of government.  Military organization frequently accompanied
+or preceded the formation of the modern state.  Sparta and Rome, and in
+more modern times Prussia, were built upon military foundations.
+
+The effect of war in depopulating countries has proved a detriment to
+civilization by disturbing economic and social development and by
+destroying thousands of lives.  Looking back over the track which the
+human race has made in its persistent advance, it is easy to see that
+the ravages of war are terrible.  While ethical considerations have
+entered into warfare and made its effects less terrible, it still is
+deplorable.  It is not a necessity to modern civilization for the {120}
+development of intellectual or physical strength, nor for the
+development of either patriotism or courage.  Modern warfare is a relic
+of barbarism, and the sooner we can avoid it the better.  Social
+progress means the checking of war in every way and the development of
+the arts of peace.  It is high time that the ethical process between
+nations should take the place of the art of war.
+
+_Mutual Aid Developed Slowly_.--Owing to ignorance and to the instinct
+for self-preservation, man starts on his journey toward progress on an
+individualistic and selfish basis.  Gradually he learns to associate
+with his fellows on a co-operative basis.  The elements which enter
+into this formal association are the exercise of a general blood
+relationship, religion, economic life, social and political
+organization.  With the development of each of these, social order
+progresses.  Yet, in the clashing interests of individuals and tribes,
+in the clumsy methods adopted in the mastery of nature, what a waste of
+human energy; what a loss of human life!  How long it has taken mankind
+to associate on rational principles, to develop a pure home life, to
+bring about toleration in religion, to develop economic co-operation,
+to establish liberality in government, and to promote equality and
+justice!  By the rude master, experience, has man been taught all this
+at an immense cost.  Yet there was no other way possible.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Study your community to determine that society is formed by the
+interactions of individuals.
+
+2.  Discuss the earliest forms of mutual aid.
+
+3.  Why is the family called the unit of social organization?
+
+4.  Why did religion occupy such an important place in primitive
+society?
+
+5.  To what extent and in what manner did the patriarchal family take
+the place of the state?
+
+6.  What is the relation of morals to religion?
+
+7.  What are the primary social groups?  What the secondary?
+
+
+
+
+{121}
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+LANGUAGE AND ART AS A MEANS OF CULTURE AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
+
+_The Origin of Language Has Been a Subject of Controversy_.--Since man
+began to philosophize on the causes of things, tribes and races and,
+indeed, philosophers of all times have attempted to determine the
+origin of language and to define its nature.  In early times language
+was a mystery, and for lack of better explanation it was frequently
+attributed to the direct gift of the Deity.  The ancient Aryans deified
+language, and represented it by a goddess "which rushes onward like the
+wind, which bursts through heaven and earth, and, awe-inspiring to each
+one that it loves, makes him a Brahmin, a poet, and a sage."  Men used
+language many centuries before they seriously began to inquire into its
+origin and structure.  The ancient Hindu philosophers, the Greeks, and
+all early nations that had begun a speculative philosophy, wonderingly
+tried to ascertain whence language came.  Modern philologists have
+carried their researches so far as to ascertain with tolerable accuracy
+the history and life of language and to determine with the help of
+other scientists the facts and phenomena of its origin.
+
+Language, in its broadest sense, includes any form of expression by
+which thoughts and feelings are communicated from one individual to
+another.  Words may be spoken, gestures made, cries uttered, pictures
+or characters drawn, or letters made as means of expression.  The
+deaf-mute converses with his fingers and his lips; the savage
+communicates by means of gesticulation.  It is easy to conceive of a
+community in which all communication is carried on in sign language.
+It is said that the Grebos of Africa carry this mode of expression
+{122} to such an extent that the persons and tenses of the mood are
+indicated with the hands alone.
+
+It has been advocated by some that man first learned to talk by
+imitating the sounds of nature.  It is sometimes called the "bow-wow"
+theory of the origin of language.  Words are used to express the
+meaning of nature.  Thus the purling of the brook, the lowing of the
+cow, the barking of the dog, the moaning of the wind, the rushing of
+water, the cry of animals, and other expressions of nature were
+imitated, and thus formed the root words of language.  This theory was
+very commonly upheld by the philosophers of the eighteenth century, but
+is now regarded as an entirely inadequate explanation of the process of
+the development of language.  It is true that every language has words
+formed by the imitation of sound, but these are comparatively few, and
+as languages are traced toward their origin, such words seem to have
+continually less importance.  Nothing conclusive has been proved
+concerning the origin of any language by adopting this theory.
+
+Another theory is that the exclamations and interjections suddenly made
+have been the formation of root words, which in turn give rise to the
+complex forms of language.  This can scarcely be considered of much
+force, for the difference between sudden explosive utterance and words
+expressing full ideas is so great as to be of little value in
+determining the real formation of language.  These sudden interjections
+are more of the nature of gesture than of real speech.
+
+The theologians insisted for many years that language was a gift of
+God, but failed to show how man could learn the language after it was
+given him.  They tried to show that man was created with his full
+powers of speech, thought, and action, and that a vocabulary was given
+him to use on the supposition that he would know how to use it.  But,
+in fact, nothing yet has been proved concerning the first beginnings of
+language.  There is no reason why man should be fully equipped in
+language any more than in intellect, moral quality, or economic
+condition, and it is shown conclusively that in all these {123}
+characteristics he has made a slow evolution.  Likewise the further
+back towards its origin we trace any language or any group of languages
+the simpler we find it, coming nearer and yet nearer to the root
+speech.  If we could have the whole record of man, back through that
+period into which historical records cannot go, and into which
+comparative philology throws but a few rays of light, doubtless we
+should find that at one time man used gesture, facial expression, and
+signs, interspersed with sounds at intervals, as his chief means of
+expression.  Upon this foundation mankind has built the superstructure
+of language.
+
+Some philosophers hold that the first words used were names applied to
+familiar objects.  Around these first names clustered ideas, and
+gradually new words appeared.  With the names and gestures it was easy
+to convey thought.  Others, refuting this idea, have held that the
+first words represented general notions and not names.  From these
+general notions there were gradually instituted the specific words
+representing separate ideas.  Others have held that language is a gift,
+and springs spontaneously in the nature of man, arising from his own
+inherent qualities.  Possibly from different standpoints there is a
+grain of truth in each one of these theories, although all combined are
+insufficient to explain the whole truth.
+
+No theory yet devised answers all the questions concerning the origin
+of language.  It may be truly asserted that language is an acquisition,
+starting with the original capacity for imperfect speech found in the
+physiological structure of man.  This is accompanied by certain
+tendencies of thought and life which furnish the psychical notion of
+language-formation.  These represent the foundations of language, and
+upon this, through action and experience, the superstructure of
+language has been built.  There has been a continuous evolution from
+simple to complex forms.
+
+_Language Is an Important Social Function_.--Whatever conjectures may
+be made by philosophers or definite knowledge determined by
+philologists, it is certain that language has been {124} built up by
+human association.  Granted that the physiological function of speech
+was a characteristic of the first beings to bear the human form, it is
+true that its development has come about by the mental interactions of
+individuals.  No matter to what extent language was used by a given
+generation, it was handed on through social heredity to the next
+generation.  Thus, language represents a continuous stream of
+word-bearing thought, moving from the beginning of human association to
+the present time.  It is through it that we have a knowledge of the
+past and frame the thoughts of the present.  While it is easy to
+concede that language was built up in the attempt of man to communicate
+his feelings, emotions, and thoughts to others, it in turn has been a
+powerful coercive influence and a direct social creation.  Only those
+people who could understand one another could be brought into close
+relationships, and for this purpose some generally accepted system of
+communicating ideas became essential.  Moreover, the tribes and
+assimilated nations found the force of common language in the coherency
+of group life.  Thus it became a powerful instrument in developing
+tribal, racial, or national independence.  If the primal force of early
+family or tribal organization was that of sex and blood relationship,
+language became a most powerful ally in forcing the group into formal
+social action, and in furnishing a means of defense against the social
+encroachments of other tribes and nations.
+
+It must be observed, however, that the social boundaries of races are
+not coincident with the divisions of language.  In general the tendency
+is for a race to develop an independent language, for racial
+development was dependent upon isolation from other groups.  But from
+the very earliest associations to the present time there has been a
+tendency for assimilation of groups even to the extent of direct
+amalgamation of those occupying contiguous territory, or through
+conquest.  In the latter event, the conquered group usually took the
+language of the conquerors, although this has not always followed, as
+eventually the stronger language becomes the more important {125}
+through use.  For instance, for a time after the Norman Conquest,
+Norman French became, in the centres of government and culture at
+least, the dominant language, but eventually was thrown aside by a more
+useful language as English institutions came to the front.  As race and
+language may not represent identical groups, it is evident that a
+classification of language cannot be taken as conclusive evidence in
+the classification of races.  However, in the main it is true.  A
+classification of all of the languages of the Indians of North America
+would be a classification of all the tribes that have been
+differentiated in physical structure and other racial traits, as well
+as of habits and customs.  Yet a tribe using a common language may be
+composed of a number of racial elements.
+
+When it comes to the modern state, language does not coincide with
+natural boundaries.  Thus, in Switzerland German is spoken in the north
+and northeast, French in the southwest, and Italian in the southeast.
+However, in this case, German is the dominant language taught in
+schools and used largely in literature.  Also, in Belgium, where one
+part of the people speak Flemish and the other French, they are living
+under the same national unity so far as government is concerned,
+although there have always remained distinctive racial types.  In
+Mexico there are a number of tribes that, though using the dominant
+Spanish language, called Mexican, are in their closer associations
+speaking the primitive languages of their race or tribe which have come
+down to them through long ages of development.  Sometimes, however, a
+tribe shows to be a mosaic of racial traits and languages, brought
+about by the complete amalgamation of tribes.  A very good example of
+this complete amalgamation would be that of the Hopi Indians of New
+Mexico, where distinctive group words and racial traits may be traced
+to three different tribes.  But to refer to a more complete
+civilization, where the Spanish language is spoken in Spain, we find
+the elements of Latin, Teutonic, Arabic, and Old Iberian speech, which
+are suggestive of different racial traits pointing to different racial
+origins.
+
+{126}
+
+Regardless of origin and tradition, language gradually conforms to the
+type of civilization in existence.  A strong, vigorous industrial
+nation would through a period of years develop a tendency for a
+vigorous language which would express the spirit and life of the
+people, while a dreamy, conservative nation would find little change in
+the language.  Likewise, periods of romance or of war have a tendency
+to make changes in the form of speech in conformity to ideals of life.
+On the other hand, social and intellectual progress is frequently
+dependent upon the character of the language used to the extent that it
+may be said that language is an indication of the progress of a people
+in the arts of civilized life.  It is evident in comparing the Chinese
+language with the French, great contrasts are shown in the ease in
+which ideas are represented and the stream of thought borne on its way.
+The Chinese language is a clumsy machine as compared with the flexible
+and smooth-gliding French.  It appears that if it were possible for the
+Chinese to change their language for a more flexible, smooth-running
+instrument, it would greatly facilitate their progress in art, science,
+and social life.
+
+_Written Language Followed Speech in Order of Development_.--Many
+centuries elapsed before any systematic writing or engraving recorded
+human events.  The deeds of the past were handed on through tradition,
+in the cave, around the campfire, and in the primitive family.  Stories
+of the past, being rehearsed over and over, became a permanent
+heritage, passing on from generation to generation.  But this method of
+descent of knowledge was very indefinite, because story-tellers,
+influenced by their environment, continually built the present into the
+past, and so the truth was not clearly expressed.
+
+Slowly man began to make a permanent record of deeds and events, the
+first beginnings of which were very feeble, and were included in
+drawings on the walls of caves, inscriptions on bone, stone, and ivory,
+and symbols woven in garments.  All represented the first beginnings of
+the representative art of language.
+
+{127}
+
+Gradually picture-writing became so systematized that an expression of
+continuous thought might be recorded and transferred from one to
+another through the observation of the symbols universally recognized.
+But these pictures on rocks and ivory, and later on tablets, have been
+preserved, and are expressive of the first steps of man in the art of
+written language.  The picture-writing so common to savages and
+barbarians finally passes from a simple _rebus_ to a very complex
+written language, as in the case of the Egyptian or Mexican.  The North
+American Indians used picture-writing in describing battles, or an
+expedition across a lake, or an army on a march, or a buffalo hunt.  A
+simple picture shows that fifty-one warriors, led by a chief and his
+assistant, in five canoes, took three days to cross a lake and land
+their forces on the other side.
+
+The use of pictographs is the next step in the process of written
+language.  It represents a generalized form of symbols which may be put
+together in such a way as to express complete thoughts.  Originally
+they were merely symbols or signs of ideas, which by being slightly
+changed in form or position led to the expression of a complete thought.
+
+Following the pictograph is the ideograph, which is but one more step
+in the progress of systematic writing.  Here the symbol has become so
+generalized that it has a significance quite independent of its origin.
+In other words, it becomes idealized and conventionalized, so that a
+specific symbol stood for a universal idea.  It could be made specific
+by changing its form or position.  All that was necessary now was to
+have a sufficient number of general symbols representing ideas, to
+build up a constructive language.  The American Indian and the Chinese
+have apparently passed through all stages of the picture-writing, the
+use of the pictograph and of the ideograph.  In fact, the Chinese
+language is but an extension of these three methods of expression.  The
+objects were originally designated by a rude drawing, and then, to
+modify the meaning, different characters were attached to the picture.
+Thus a monosyllabic {128} language was built up, and the root word had
+many meanings by the modification of its form and sometimes by the
+change of its position.  The hieroglyphic writings of the Egyptians,
+Moabites, Persians, and Assyrians went through these methods of
+language development, as their records show to this day.
+
+_Phonetic Writing Was a Step in Advance of the Ideograph_.--The
+difference between the phonetic writing and the picture-writing rests
+in the fact that the symbol representing the object is expressive of an
+idea or a complete thought, while in phonetic writing the symbol
+represents a sound which combined with other sounds expresses an idea
+called a word and complete thoughts through combination of words.  The
+discovery and use of a phonetic alphabet represent the key to modern
+civilization.  The invention of writing elevated man from a state of
+barbarism to a state of civilization.  About the tenth century before
+Christ the Phoenicians, Hebrews, and other allied Semitic races began
+to use the alphabet.  Each letter was named from a word beginning with
+it.  The Greeks learned the alphabet from the Phoenicians, and the
+Greeks, in turn, passed it to the Romans.  The alphabet continually
+changed from time to time.  The old Phoenician was weak in vowel
+sounds, but the defect was remedied in the Greek and Roman alphabets
+and in the alphabets of the Teutonic nations.  Fully equipped with
+written and spoken speech, the nations of the world were prepared for
+the interchange of thought and ideas and for the preservation of
+knowledge in an accurate manner.  History could be recorded, laws
+written and preserved, and the beginnings of science elaborated.
+
+_The Use of Manuscripts and Books Made Permanent Records_.--At first
+all records were made by pen, pencil, or stylus, and manuscripts were
+represented on papyrus paper or parchment, and could only be duplicated
+by copying.  In Alexandria before the Christian era one could buy a
+copy of the manuscript of a great author, but it was at a high price.
+It finally became customary for monks, in their secluded retreats, to
+spend a good part of their lives in copying and preserving {129} the
+manuscript writings of great authors.  But it was not until printing
+was invented that the world of letters rapidly moved forward.  Probably
+about the sixth century A.D. the Chinese began to print a group of
+characters from blocks, and by the tenth century they were engaged in
+keeping their records in this way.  Gutenberg, Faust, and others
+improved upon the Chinese method by a system of movable type.  But what
+a wonderful change since the fourteenth century printing!  Now, with
+modern type-machines, fine grades of paper made by improved machinery,
+and the use of immense steam presses, the making of an ordinary book is
+very little trouble.  Looking back over the course of events incident
+to the development of the modern complex and flexible language we
+observe, first, the rude picture scrawled on horn or rock.  This was
+followed by the representation of the sound of the name of the picture,
+which passed into the mere sound sign.  Finally, the relation between
+the figure and the sound becomes so arbitrary that the child learns the
+a, b, c as pure signs representing sounds which, in combination, make
+words which stand for ideas.
+
+_Language Is an Instrument of Culture_.--Culture areas always spread
+beyond the territory of language groups.  Culture depends upon the
+discovery and utilization of the forces of nature through invention and
+adaptation.  It may spread through imitation over very large human
+territory.  Man has universal mental traits, with certain powers and
+capacities that are developed in a relative order and in a degree of
+efficiency; but there are many languages and many civilizations of high
+and low degree.  Through human speech the life of the past may be
+handed on to others and the life of the present communicated to one
+another.  The physiological power of speech which exists in all permits
+every human group to develop a language in accordance with its needs
+and as influenced by its environment.  Thus language advanced very
+rapidly as an instrument of communication even at a very early period
+of cultural development.  A recent study of the {130} languages of the
+American Indians has shown the high degree of the art of expression
+among people of the Neolithic culture.  This would seem to indicate
+that primitive peoples are more definite in thought and more observant
+in the relation of cause and effect than is usually supposed.  Thus,
+definite language permits more precise thought, and definite thought,
+in turn, insists on more exact expression in language.  The two aid
+each other in development of cultural ideas, and invention and language
+move along together in the development of the human race.  It becomes a
+great human invention, and as such it not only preserves the thoughts
+of the past but unlocks the knowledge of the present.
+
+Not only is language the means of communication, and the great racial
+as well as social bond of union, but it represents knowledge, culture,
+and refinement.  The strength and beauty of genuine artistic expression
+have an elevating influence on human life and become a means of social
+progress.  The drama and the choicest forms of prose and poetry in
+their literary aspects furnish means of presenting great thoughts and
+high ideals, and, thus combined with the beauty of expression, not only
+furnish the best evidence of moral and intellectual progress but make a
+perennial source of information in modern social life.  Hence it is
+that language and culture in all of their forms go hand in hand so
+closely that a high degree of culture is not attained without a
+dignified and expressive language.
+
+_Art as a Language of Aesthetic Ideas_.--The development of aesthetic
+ideas and aesthetic representations has kept pace with progress in
+other phases of civilization.  The notion of beauty as entertained by
+the savage is crude, and its representation is grotesque.  Its first
+expression is observed in the adornment of the body, either by paint,
+tattooing, or by ornaments.  The coarse, glaring colors placed upon the
+face or body, with no regard for the harmony of color, may attract
+attention, but has little expression of beauty from a modern standard.
+The first adornment in many savage tribes consisted in tattooing the
+body, an art which was finally rendered {131} useless after clothing
+was fully adopted, except as a totemic design representing the unity of
+the tribe.  This custom was followed by the use of rude jewelry for
+arms, neck, ears, nose, or lips.  Other objects of clothing and
+ornament were added from time to time, the bright colors nearly always
+prevailing.  There must have been in all tribes a certain standard of
+artistic taste, yet so low in many instances as to suggest only the
+grotesque.  The taste displayed in the costumes of savages within the
+range of our own observation is remarkable for its variety.  It ranges
+all the way from a small piece of cloth to the elaborate robes made of
+highly colored cotton and woollen goods.  The Celts were noted for
+their highly colored garments and the artistic arrangement of the same.
+The Greeks displayed a grace and simplicity in dress never yet
+surpassed by any other nation.  Yet the dress of early Greeks, Romans,
+and Teutons was meagre in comparison with modern elaborate costumes.
+All of this is a method of expression of the emotions and ideas and, in
+one sense, is a language of the aesthetic.
+
+Representative art, even among primitive peoples, carries with it a
+distinctive language.  It is a representation of ideas, as well as an
+attempt at beauty of expression.  The figures on pottery and basketry
+frequently carry with them religious ideas for the expression and
+perpetuation of religious emotion and belief.  Even rude drawings
+attempt to record the history of the deeds of the race.  Progress is
+shown in better lines, in better form, and a more exquisite blending of
+colors.  That many primitive people display a high degree of art and a
+low degree of general culture is one of the insoluble problems of the
+race.  Perhaps it may be attributed primarily to the fact that all
+artistic expression originally sprang from the emotional side of life,
+and, in addition, may be in part attributed to the early training in
+the acute observation of the forms of nature by primitive people upon
+which depended their existence.
+
+_Music Is a Form of Language_.--Early poetry was a recital of deeds,
+and a monotonous chant, which finally became recorded as language
+developed.  The sagas and the war songs {132} were the earliest
+expressions which later were combined with dramatic action.  The poetry
+of primitive races has no distinguishing characteristics except metre
+or rhythm.  It is usually an oft-recurring expression of the same idea.
+Yet there are many fragmentary examples of lyric poetry, though it is
+mostly egoistic, the individual reciting his deeds or his desires.
+From the natives of Greenland we have the following about the hovering
+of the clouds about the mountain:
+
+  "The great Koonak mountain, over there--
+  I see it;
+  The great Koonak mountain, over there--
+  I am looking at it;
+  The bright shining in the South, over there--
+  I admire it;
+  The other side of Koonak--
+  It stretches out--
+  That which Koonak--
+  Seaward encloses.
+  See how they in the South
+  Move and change--
+  See how in the South
+  They beautify one another;
+  While it toward the sea
+  Is veiled--by changing clouds
+  Veiled toward the sea
+  Beautifying one another."
+
+
+The emotional nature of savages varies greatly in different tribes.
+The lives of some seem to be moved wholly through the emotions, while
+others are stolid or dull.  The variations in musical ability and
+practice of savage and barbarous races are good evidence of this.  Many
+of the tribes in Africa have their rude musical instruments, and chant
+their simple, monotonous music.  The South Sea Islanders beat hollow
+logs with clubs, marking time and creating melody by these notes.  The
+Dahomans use a reed fife, on which they play music of several notes.
+In all primitive music, time is the chief element, and this is not
+always kept with any degree of accuracy.  The {133} chanting of war
+songs, the moaning of the funeral dirge, or the sprightly singing with
+the dance, shows the varied expression of the emotional nature.
+
+No better illustration of the arts of pleasure may be observed than the
+practices of the Zuñi Indians and other Pueblo Indians of New Mexico.
+The Zuñi melodies are sung on various festival occasions.  Some are
+sacred melodies, used in worship; others are on the occasion of the
+celebration of the rabbit hunt, the rain dances, and the corn dances.
+Among the Pueblo Indians the cachina dance is for the purpose of
+invoking bountiful rains and good harvests.  In all of their feasts,
+games, plays, and dances there are connected ceremonies of a religious
+nature.  Religion occupies a very strong position in the minds of the
+people.  Possessed of a superstitious nature, it was inevitable that
+all the arts of pleasure should partake somewhat of the religious
+ceremony.  The song and the dance and the beating of the drums always
+accompanied every festival.
+
+_The Dance as a Means of Dramatic Expression_.--Among primitive peoples
+the dance, poetry, and music were generally introduced together, and
+were parts of one drama.  As such it was a social institution, with the
+religious, war, or play element fully represented.  Most primitive
+dances were conducted by men only.  In the celebrated _Corroboree_ of
+the Australians, men danced and the women formed the orchestra.[1]
+This gymnastic dance was common to many tribes.  The dances of the
+Moros and Igorrotes at the St. Louis Exposition partook, in a similar
+way, of the nature of the gymnastic dance.  The war dances of the
+plains Indians of America are celebrated for their grotesqueness.  The
+green-corn dance and the cachina of the Pueblos and the snake dance of
+the Moqui all have an economic foundation.  In all, however, the play
+element in man and the desire for dramatic expression and the art of
+mimicry are evident.  The chief feature of the dance of the primitive
+people is the regular time beat.  This is more prominent than the grace
+of movement.  Yet this agrees with {134} the nature of their music, for
+in this the time element is more prominent than the tune.  Rhythm is
+the strong element in the primitive art of poetry, music, or the dance,
+but all have an immense socializing influence.  The modern dance has
+added to rhythm the grace of expression and developed the social
+tendencies.  In it love is a more prominent feature than war or
+religion.
+
+Catlin, in his _North American Indians_, describes the buffalo dance of
+the Mandan Indians, which appears to be more of a service toward an
+economic end than an art of pleasure.  After an unsuccessful hunt the
+returned warriors bring out their buffalo masks, made of the head and
+horns and tail of the buffalo.  These they don, and continue to dance
+until worn out.  Ten or fifteen dancers form a ring and, accompanied by
+drumming, yelling, and rattling, dance until the first exhausted one
+goes through the pantomime of being shot with the bow and arrow,
+skinned, and cut up; but the dance does not lag, for another masked
+dancer takes the place of the fallen one.  The dance continues day and
+night, without cessation, sometimes for two or three weeks, or until a
+herd of buffaloes appears in sight; then the warriors change the dance
+for the hunt.
+
+The dancing of people of lower culture was carried on in many instances
+to express feelings and wishes.  Many of the dances of Egypt, Greece,
+and other early civilizations were of this nature.  Sacred hymns to the
+gods were chanted in connection with the dancing; but the sacred dance
+has become obsolete, in Western civilization its place being taken by
+modern church music.
+
+_The Fine Arts Follow the Development of Language_.--While art varied
+in different tribes, we may assume in general that there was a
+continuity of culture development from the rude clay idol of primitive
+folk to the Venus de Milo or the Winged Victory; from the pictures on
+rocks and in caves to the Sistine Madonna; from the uncouth cooking
+bowl of clay to the highest form of earthenware vase; and from the
+monotonous {135} strain of African music to the lofty conception of
+Mozart.  But this is a continuity of ideas covering the whole human
+race as a unit, rather than the progressive development of a single
+branch of the race.
+
+Consider for a moment the mental and physical environment of the
+ancient cave or forest dweller.  The skies to him were marked only as
+they affected his bodily comfort in sunshine or storm; the trees
+invited his attention as they furnished him food or shelter; the
+roaring torrent was nothing to him except as it obstructed his journey;
+the sun and the moon and the stars in the heavens filled him with
+portentous awe, and the spirits in the invisible world worked for his
+good or for his evil.  Beyond his utilitarian senses no art emotion
+stirred in these signs of creation.  Perhaps the first art emotion was
+aroused in contemplation of the human body.  Through vanity, fear, or
+love he began to decorate it.  He scarifies or tattoos his naked body
+with figures upon his back, arms, legs, and face to represent an idea
+of beauty.  While the tribal or totemic design may have originated the
+custom, he wishes to be attractive to others, and his first emotions of
+beauty are thus expressed.  The second step is to paint his face and
+body to express love, fear, hate, war, or religious emotions.  This
+leads on to the art of decorating the body with ornaments, and
+subsequently to the ornamentation of clothing.
+
+The art of representation at first possessed little artistic beauty,
+though the decorations on walls of caves show skill in lines and color.
+The first representations sought only intelligence in communicating
+thought.  The bas-reliefs of the ancients showed skill in
+representation.  The ideal was finally developed until the aesthetic
+taste was improved, and the Greek sculpture shows a high development of
+artistic taste.  In it beauty and truth were harmoniously combined.
+The arts of sculpture and painting are based upon the imagination.
+Through its perfect development, and the improvement in the art of
+execution, have been secured the aesthetic products of man.  Yet there
+is always a mingling of the emotional nature {136} in the development
+of fine arts.  The growth of the fine arts consists in intensifying the
+pleasurable sensations of eye and ear.  This is done by enlarging the
+capacity for pleasure and increasing the opportunity for its
+satisfaction.  The beginnings of the fine arts were small, and the
+capacity to enjoy must have been slowly developed.  Of the arts that
+appeal to the eye there may be enumerated sculpture, painting, drawing,
+landscape-gardening, and architecture.  The pleasure from all except
+the last comes from an attempt to represent nature.  Architecture is
+founded upon the useful, and combines the industrial and the fine arts
+in one.  The attempt to imitate nature is to satisfy the emotions
+aroused in its contemplation.
+
+_The Love of the Beautiful Slowly Develops_.--There must have developed
+in man the desire to make a more perfect arrow-head, axe, or celt for
+the efficiency of service, and later for beauty of expression.  There
+must early have developed an idea of good form and bright colors in
+clothing.  So, too, in the mixing of colors for the purpose of
+expressing the emotions there gradually came about a refinement in
+blending.  Nor could man's attention be called constantly to the
+beautiful plants and flowers, to the bright-colored stones, metals, and
+gems found in the earth without developing something more than mere
+curiosity concerning them.  He must early have discovered the
+difference between objects which aroused desire for possession and
+those that did not.  Ultimately he preferred a more beautifully
+finished stone implement than one crudely constructed--a more beautiful
+and showy flower than one that was imperfect, and likewise more
+beautiful human beings than those that were crude and ugly.
+
+The pleasure of sound manifested itself at an earlier stage than the
+pleasure of form, although the degree of advancement in music varies in
+different tribes.  Thus the inhabitants of Africa have a much larger
+capacity for recognizing and enjoying the effect of harmonious sounds
+than the aborigines of America.  While all nations have the faculty of
+obtaining pleasure from harmonious sounds, it varies greatly, yet not
+more {137} widely than between separate individuals.  It may be
+considered quite a universal faculty.  The love of the beautiful in
+form, color, and in harmonious sound, is a permanent social force, and
+has much to do in the progress of civilization.  Yet it is not an
+essential force, for the beginnings of civilization could have been
+made without it.  However, it gives relief to the cold business world;
+the formal association of men is softened and embellished by painting,
+poetry, and music.  Thus considered, it represents an important part of
+the modern social development.  Art culture, which represents the
+highest expression of our civilization, has its softening influences on
+human life.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  The importance of language in the development of culture.
+
+2.  Does language always originate the same way in different localities?
+
+3.  Does language develop from a common centre or from many centres?
+
+4.  What bearing has the development of language upon the culture of
+religion, music, poetry, and art?
+
+5.  Which were the more important impulses, clothing for protection or
+for adornment?
+
+6.  Show that play is an important factor in society-building.
+
+7.  Compare pictograph, ideograph, and phonetic writing.
+
+
+
+[1] Keane, _The World's Peoples_, p. 49.
+
+
+
+
+{141}
+
+_PART III_
+
+THE SEATS OF EARLY CIVILIZATIONS
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL NATURE ON HUMAN PROGRESS
+
+_Man Is a Part of Universal Nature_.--He is an integral part of the
+universe, and as such he must ever be subject to the physical laws
+which control it.  Yet, as an active, thinking being, conscious of his
+existence, it is necessary to consider him in regard to the relations
+which he sustains to the laws and forces of physical nature external to
+himself.  He is but a particle when compared to a planet or a sun, but
+he is greater than a planet because he is conscious of his own
+existence, and the planet is not.  Yet his whole life and being, so far
+as it can be reasoned about, is dependent upon his contact with
+external nature.  By adaptation to physical environment he may live;
+without adaptation he cannot live.
+
+As a part of evolved nature, man comes into the world ignorant of his
+surroundings.  He is ever subject to laws which tend to sweep him
+onward with the remaining portions of the system of which he is a part,
+but his slowly awakening senses cause him to examine his surroundings.
+First, he has a curiosity to know what the world about him is like, and
+he begins a simple inquiry which leads to investigation.  The knowledge
+he acquires is adapted to his use day by day as his vision extends.
+Through these two processes he harmonizes his life with the world about
+him.  By degrees he endeavors to bring the materials and the forces of
+nature into subjection to his will.  Thus he progresses from the
+student to the master.  External nature is unconscious, submitting
+passively to the laws that control it, but man, ever conscious of
+himself and his effort, attempts to dominate the forces surrounding him
+and this struggle to overcome environment has characterized his {142}
+progress.  But in this struggle, nature has reciprocated its influence
+on man in modifying his development and leaving her impress on him.
+Limited he has ever been and ever will be by his environment.  Yet
+within the limits set by nature he is master of his own destiny and
+develops by his own persistent endeavor.
+
+Indeed, the epitome of civilization is a struggle of nature and
+thought, the triumph of the psychical over the physical; and while he
+slowly but surely overcomes the external physical forces and makes them
+subordinate to his own will and genius, civilization must run along
+natural courses even though its products are artificial.  In many
+instances nature appears bountiful and kind to man, but again she
+appears mean and niggardly.  It is man's province to take advantage of
+her bounty and by toil and invention force her to yield her coveted
+treasures.  Yet the final outcome of it all is determined by the extent
+to which man masters himself.
+
+_Favorable Location Is Necessary for Permanent Civilization_.--In the
+beginning only those races have made progress that have sought and
+obtained favorable location.  Reflect upon the early civilizations of
+the world and notice that every one was begun in a favorable location.
+Observe the geographical position of Egypt, in a narrow, fertile valley
+bounded by the desert and the sea, cut off from contact with other
+races.  There was an opportunity for the Egyptians to develop
+continuity of life sufficient to permit the beginnings of civilization.
+Later, when wealth and art had developed, Egypt became the prey of
+covetous invading nations.  So ancient Chaldea, for a time far removed
+from contact with other tribes, and protected by desert, mountain, and
+sea, was able to begin a civilization.
+
+But far more favorable, not only for a beginning of civilization but
+for a high state of development, was the territory occupied by the
+Grecian tribes.  Shut in from the north by a mountain range, surrounded
+on every other side by the sea, a fertile and well-watered land, of
+mild climate, it was protected {143} from the encroachments of
+"barbarians."  The influence of geographical contour is strongly marked
+in the development of the separate states of Greece.  The small groups
+that settled down on a family basis were separated from each other by
+ranges of hills, causing each community to develop its own
+characteristic life.  These communities had a common language,
+differing somewhat in dialect, and the foundation of a common religion,
+but there never could exist sufficient similarity of character or unity
+of sentiment to permit them to unite into a strong central nation.  A
+variety of life is evinced everywhere.  Those who came in contact with
+the ocean differed from those who dwelt in the interior, shut in by the
+mountains.  The contact with the sea gives breadth of thought,
+largeness of life, while those who are enclosed by mountains lead a
+narrow life, intense in thought and feeling.  Without the protection of
+nature, the Grecian states probably would never have developed the high
+state of civilization which they reached.
+
+Rome presents a similar example.  It is true that the Italian tribes
+that entered the peninsula had considerable force of character and
+thorough development as they were about to enter upon a period of
+civilization.  Like the Greeks, the discipline of their early Aryan
+ancestors had given them much of strength and character.  Yet the
+favorable location of Italy, bounded on the north by a high mountain
+range and enclosed by the sea, gave abundant opportunity for the
+national germs to thrive and grow.  Left thus to themselves, dwelling
+under the protection of the snow-capped Alps, and surrounded by the
+beneficent sea, national life expanded, government and law developed
+and thrived, and the arts of civilized life were practised.  The
+national greatness of the Romans may in part be attributed to the
+period of repose in which they pursued unmolested the arts of peace
+before their era of conquest began.
+
+Among the mountains of Switzerland are people who claim never to have
+been conquered.  In the wild rush of the {144} barbarian hordes into
+the Roman Empire they were not overrun.  They retain to this day their
+early sentiments of liberty; their greatness is in freedom and
+equality.  The mountains alone protected them from the assaults of the
+enemy and the crush of moving tribes.
+
+Other nations might be mentioned that owe much to geographical
+position.  More than once in the early part of her history it protected
+Spain from destruction.  The United States, in a large measure, owes
+her independent existence to the fact that the ocean rolls between her
+and the mother country.  On the other hand, Ireland has been hampered
+in her struggle for independent government on account of her proximity
+to England.  The natural defense against enemies, the protection of
+mountains and forests, the proximity to the ocean, all have had their
+influence in the origin and development of nations.  Yet races, tribes,
+and nations, once having opportunity to develop and become strong, may
+flourish without the protecting conditions of nature.  They may defy
+the mountains, seas, and the streams, and the onslaughts of the wild
+tribes.
+
+_The Nature of the Soil an Essential Condition of Progress_.--But
+geography alone, although a great factor in progress, is powerless
+without a fertile soil to yield a food supply for a large population.
+The first great impetus of all early civilizations occurred through
+agriculture.  Not until this had developed so as to give a steady food
+supply were people able to have sufficient leisure to develop the other
+arts of life.  The abundant food supply furnished by the fertility of
+the Nile valley was the key to the Egyptian civilization.  The valley
+was overflowed annually by the river, which left a fertilizing sediment
+upon the land already prepared for cultivation.  Thus annually without
+excessive labor the soil was watered, fertilized, and prepared for the
+seed.  Even when irrigation was introduced, in order to obtain a larger
+supply of food, the cultivation of the soil was a very easy matter.
+Agriculture consisted primarily in sowing seed on ready prepared ground
+and {145} reaping the harvest.  The certainty of the crop assured a
+living.  The result of cheap food was to rapidly multiply the race,
+which existed on a low plane.  It created a mass of inferior people
+ruled by a few despots.
+
+What is true of Egypt is true of all of the early civilizations, as
+they each started where a fertile soil could easily be tilled.  The
+inhabitants of ancient Chaldea developed their civilization on a
+fertile soil.  The great cities of Nineveh and Babylon were surrounded
+by rich valleys, and the yield of agricultural products made
+civilization possible.  The earliest signs of progress in India were
+along the valleys of the Ganges and the Indus.  Likewise, in the New
+World, the tribes that approached the nearest to civilization were
+situated in fertile districts in Peru, Central America, Mexico, and New
+Mexico.
+
+_The Use of Land the Foundation of Social Order_.--The manner in which
+tribes and nations have attached themselves to the soil has determined
+the type of social organization.  Before the land was treated as
+property of individuals or regarded as a permanent possession by
+tribes, the method in which the land was held and its use determined
+the quality of civilization, and the land factor became more important
+as a determiner of social order as civilization progressed.  It was
+exceedingly important in determining the quality of the Greek life, and
+the entire structure of Roman civilization was based on the land
+question.  Master the land tenure of Rome and you have laid the
+foundation of Roman history.  The desire for more land and for more
+room was the chief cause of the barbarian invasion of the empire.  All
+feudal society, including lords and vassals, government and courts, was
+based upon the plan of feudal land-holding.
+
+In modern times in England the land question has been at times the
+burning political and economic question of the nation, and is a
+disturbing factor in recent times.  In the United States, rapid
+progress is due more to the bounteous supply of free, fertile lands
+than to any other single cause.  Broad, fertile valleys are more
+pertinent as the foundation {146} of nation-building than men are
+accustomed to believe; and now that nearly all the public domain has
+been apportioned among the citizens, intense desire for land remains
+unabated, and its method of treatment through landlord and tenant is
+rapidly becoming a troublesome question.  The relation of the soil to
+the population presents new problems, and the easy-going civilization
+will be put to a new test.
+
+_Climate Has Much to Do with the Possibilities of Progress_.--The early
+seats of civilization mentioned above were all located in warm
+climates.  Leisure is essential to all progress.  Where it takes man
+all of his time to earn a bare subsistence there is not much room for
+improvement.  A warm climate is conducive to leisure, because its
+requirements of food and clothing are less imperative than in cold
+countries.  The same quantity of food will support more people in warm
+than in cold climates.  This, coupled with the fact that nature is more
+spontaneous in furnishing a bountiful supply in warm climates than in
+cold, renders the first steps in progress much more possible.  The food
+in warm climates is of a light vegetable character, which is easily
+prepared for use; indeed, in many instances it is already prepared.  In
+cold countries, where it is necessary to consume large amounts of fatty
+food to sustain life, the food supply is meagre, because this can only
+be obtained from wild animals.  In this region it costs immense labor
+to obtain sufficient food for the support of life; likewise, in a cold
+climate it takes much time to tame animals for use and to build huts to
+protect from the storm and the cold.  The result is that the
+propagation of the race is slow, and progress in social and individual
+life is retarded.
+
+We should expect, therefore, all of the earliest civilization to be in
+warm regions.  In this we are not disappointed, in noting Egypt,
+Babylon, Mexico, and Peru.  Soil and climate co-operate in furnishing
+man a suitable place for his first permanent development.  There is,
+however, in this connection, one danger to be pointed out, arising from
+the conditions of cheap food--namely, a rapid propagation of the race,
+which {147} entails misery through generations.  In these early
+populous nations, great want and misery frequently prevailed among the
+masses of the people.  Thousands of laborers, competing for sustenance,
+reduce the earning capacity to a very small amount, and this reduces
+the standard of life.  Yet because food and shelter cost little, they
+are able to live at a low standard and to multiply rapidly.  Human life
+becomes cheap, is valued little by despotic rulers, who enslave their
+fellows.  Another danger in warm climates which counteracts the
+tendency of nations to progress, is the fact that warm climates
+enervate man and make him less active; hence it occurs that in colder
+climates with unfavorable surroundings great progress is made on
+account of the excessive energy and strong will-force of the
+inhabitants.
+
+In temperate climates man has reached the highest state of progress.
+In this zone the combination of a moderately cheap food supply and the
+necessity of excessive energy to supply food, clothing, and protection
+has been most conducive to the highest forms of progress.  While,
+therefore, the civilization of warm climates has led to despotism,
+inertia, and the degradation of the masses, the civilization of
+temperate climates has led to freedom, elevation of humanity, and
+progress in the arts.  This illustrates how essential is individual
+energy in taking advantage of what nature has provided.
+
+_The General Aspects of Nature Determine the Type of
+Civilization_.--While the general characteristics of nature have much
+to do with the development of the races of the earth, it is only a
+single factor in the great complex of influences.  People living in the
+mountain fastnesses, those living at the ocean side, and those living
+on great interior plains vary considerably as to mental characteristics
+and views of life in general.  Buckle has expanded this idea at some
+length in his comparison of India and Greece.  He has endeavored to
+show that "the history of the human mind can only be understood by
+connecting with it the history and aspects of the material universe."
+He holds that everything in India tended to depress the {148} dignity
+of man, while everything in Greece tended to exalt it.  After comparing
+these two countries of ancient civilization in respect to the
+development of the imagination, he says: "To sum up the whole, it may
+be said that the Greeks had more respect for human powers; the Hindus
+for superhuman.  The first dealt with the known and available, the
+second with the unknown and mysterious."  He attributes this difference
+largely to the fact that the imagination was excessively developed in
+India, while the reason predominated in Greece.  The cause attributed
+to the development of the imagination in India is the aspect of nature.
+
+Everything in India is overshadowed with the immensity of nature.  Vast
+plains, lofty mountains, mighty, turbulent rivers, terrible storms, and
+demonstrations of natural forces abound to awe and terrify.  The causes
+of all are so far beyond the conception of man that his imagination is
+brought into play to furnish images for his excited and terrified mind.
+Hence religion is extravagant, abstract, terrible.  Literature is full
+of extravagant poetic images.  The individual is lost in the system of
+religion, figures but little in literature, and is swallowed up in the
+immensity of the universe.  While, on the other hand, the fact that
+Greece had no lofty mountains, no great plains; had small rivulets in
+the place of rivers, and few destructive storms, was conducive to the
+development of calm reflection and reason.  Hence, in Greece man
+predominated over nature; in India, nature overpowered man.[1]
+
+There is much of truth in this line of argument, but it must not be
+carried too far.  For individual and racial characteristics have much
+to do with the development of imagination, reason, and religion.  The
+difference, too, in the time of development, must also be considered,
+for Greece was a later product, and had the advantage of much that had
+preceded in human progress.  And so far as can be determined, the
+characteristics of the Greek colonists were quite well established
+{149} before they left Asia.  The supposition, also, that man is
+subject entirely to the influence of physical nature for his entire
+progress, must be taken with modification.  His mind-force, his
+individual will-force, must be accounted for, and these occupy a large
+place in the history of his progress.  No doubt the thunders of Niagara
+and the spectacle of the volume of water inspire poetic admiration in
+the minds of the thousands who have gazed on this striking physical
+phenomenon of nature.  It is awe-inspiring; it arouses the emotions; it
+creates poetic imagination.  But the final result of contact with the
+will of man is to turn part of that force from its channels, to move
+the bright machinery engaged in creating things useful and beautiful
+which contribute to the larger well-being of man.
+
+Granting that climate, soil, geographical position, and the aspects of
+nature have a vast influence in limiting the possibilities of man's
+progress, and in directing his mental as well as physical
+characteristics, it must not be forgotten that in the contact with
+these it is his mastery over them which constitutes progress, and this
+involves the activity of his will-power.  Man is not a slave to his
+environment.  He is not a passive creature acted upon by sun and storm
+and subjected to the powers of the elements.  True, that there are set
+about him limitations within which he must ever act.  Yet from
+generation to generation he forces back these limits, enlarges the
+boundary of his activities, increases the scope of his knowledge, and
+brings a larger number of the forces of nature in subjection to his
+will.
+
+_Physical Nature Influences Social Order_.--Not only is civilization
+primarily based upon the physical powers and resources of nature, but
+the quality of social order is determined thereby.  Thus, people
+following the streams, plains, and forests would develop a different
+type of social order from those who would settle down to permanent
+seats of agriculture.  The Bedouin Arabs of the desert, although among
+the oldest of organized groups, have changed very little through the
+passing centuries, because their mode of life permits only a {150}
+simple organization.  Likewise, it is greatly in contrast with the
+modern nations, built upon industrial and commercial life, with all of
+the machinery run by the powers of nature.  When Rome developed her
+aristocratic proprietors to whom the land was apportioned in great
+estates, the old free farming population disappeared and slavery became
+a useful adjunct in the methods adopted for cultivating the soil.  On
+the other hand, the old village community where land was held in common
+developed a small co-operative group closely united on the basis of
+mutual aid.  The great landed estates of England and Germany must, so
+long as they continue, influence the type of social order and of
+government that will exist in those countries.
+
+As the individual is in a measure subservient to the external laws
+about him, so must the social group of which he forms a part be so
+controlled.  The flexibility and variability of human nature, with its
+power of adaptation, make it possible to develop different forms of
+social order.  The subjective side of social development, wherein the
+individual seeks to supply his own wants and follow the directions of
+his own will, must ever be a modifying power acting upon the social
+organization.  Thus society becomes a great complex of variabilities
+which cannot be reduced to exact laws similar to those found in
+physical nature.  Nevertheless, if society in its development is not
+dependent upon immutable laws similar to those discovered in the forces
+of nature, yet as part of the great scheme of nature it is directly
+dependent upon the physical forces that permit it to exist the same as
+the individual.  This would give rise to laws of human association
+which are modified by the laws of external nature.  Thus, while society
+is psychical in its nature, it is ever dependent upon the material and
+the physical for its existence.  However, through co-operation, man is
+able to more completely master his environment than by working
+individually.  It is only by mutual aid and social organization that he
+is able to survive and conquer.
+
+
+{151}
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Give examples coming within your own observation of the influence
+of soil and climate on the character of society.
+
+2.  Does the character of the people in Central America depend more on
+climate than on race?
+
+3.  In what ways does the use of land determine the character of social
+order?
+
+4.  Are the ideals and habits of thought of the people living along the
+Atlantic Coast different from those of the Middle West?  If so, in what
+respect?
+
+5.  Is the attitude toward life of the people of the Dakota wheat belt
+different from those of New York City?
+
+6.  Compare a mining community with an agricultural community and
+record the differences in social order and attitude toward life.
+
+
+
+[1] Henry Thomas Buckle, _History of Civilization in England_.  General
+Introduction.
+
+
+
+
+{152}
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+CIVILIZATION OF THE ORIENT
+
+_The First Nations with Historical Records in Asia and Africa_.--The
+seats of the most ancient civilizations are found in the fertile
+valleys of the Euphrates and the Nile.  These centres of civilization
+were founded on the fertility of the river valleys and the fact of
+their easy cultivation.  Just when the people began to develop these
+civilizations and whence they came are not determined.  It is out of
+the kaleidoscopic picture of wandering humanity seeking food and
+shelter, the stronger tribes pushing and crowding the weaker, that
+these permanent seats of culture became established.  Ceasing to wander
+after food, they settled down to make the soil yield its products for
+the sustenance of life.  Doubtless they found other tribes and races
+had been there before them, though not for permanent habitation.  But
+the culture of any one group of people fades away toward its origins,
+mingling its customs and life with those who preceded them.  Sometimes,
+indeed, when a tribe settled down to permanent achievement, its whole
+civilization is swept away by more savage conquerors.  Sometimes,
+however, the blood of the invaders mingled with the conquered, and the
+elements of art, religion, and language of both groups have built up a
+new type of civilization.
+
+The geography of the section comprising the nations where the earliest
+achievements have left permanent records, indicates a land extending
+from a territory east of the Tigris and Euphrates westward to the
+eastern shore of the Mediterranean and southward into Egypt.
+Doubtless, this region was one much traversed by tribes of various
+languages and cultures.  Emerging from the Stone Age, we find the
+civilization ranging from northern Africa and skirting Arabia through
+Palestine {153} and Assyria down into the valley of the Tigris and the
+Euphrates.  Doubtless, the civilization that existed in this region was
+more or less closely related in general type, but had derived its
+character from many primitive sources.  As history dawns on the
+achievements of these early nations, it is interesting to note that
+there was a varied rainfall within this territory.  Some parts were
+well watered, others having long seasonal periods of drought followed
+by periodical rains.  It would appear, too, the uncertainty of rainfall
+seemed to increase rather than diminish, for in the valley of the
+Euphrates, as well as in the valley of the Nile, the inhabitants were
+forced to resort to artificial irrigation for the cultivation of their
+crops.
+
+It is not known at what time the Chaldeans began to build their
+artificial systems of irrigation, but it must have been brought about
+by the gain of the population on the food supply, or perhaps an
+increased uncertainty of rainfall.  At any rate, the irrigation works
+became a systematic part of their industry, and were of great size and
+variety.  It took a great deal of engineering skill to construct
+immense ditches necessary to control the violent floods of the
+Euphrates and the Tigris.  So far as evidence goes, the irrigation was
+carried on by the gravity system, by which canals were built from
+intakes from the river and extended throughout the cultivated district.
+In Egypt for a long time the periodical overflow of the Nile brought in
+the silt for fertilizer and water for moisture.  When the flood
+subsided, seed was planted and the crop raised and harvested.  As the
+population spread, the use of water for irrigation became more general,
+and attempts were made to distribute its use not only over a wider
+range of territory but more regularly throughout the seasons, thus
+making it possible to harvest more than one crop a year, or to develop
+diversified agriculture.  The Egyptians used nearly all the modern
+methods of procuring, storing, and distributing water.  Hence, in these
+centres of warm climate, fertile land, and plenty of moisture, the
+earth was made to yield an immense harvest, which made it possible to
+support a large population.  {154} The food supply having been
+established, the inhabitants could devote themselves to other things,
+and slowly developed the arts and industries.
+
+_Civilization in Mesopotamia_.--The Tigris and Euphrates, two great
+rivers having their sources in mountain regions, pouring their floods
+for centuries into the Persian Gulf, made a broad, fertile valley along
+their lower courses.  The soil was of inexhaustible fertility and easy
+of cultivation.  The climate was almost rainless, and agriculture was
+dependent upon artificial irrigation.  The upper portion of this great
+river valley was formed of undulating plains stretching away to the
+north, where, almost treeless, they furnished great pasture ranges for
+flocks and herds, which also added to the permanency of the food supply
+and helped to develop the wealth and prosperity of the country.  It was
+in this climate, so favorable for the development of early man, and
+with this fertile soil yielding such bountiful productions, that the
+ancient Chaldean civilization started, which was followed by the
+Babylonian and Assyrian civilizations, each of which developed a great
+empire.  These empires, ruling in turn, not only represented centres of
+civilization and wealth, but they acquired the overlordship of
+territories far and wide, their monarchs ruling eastward toward India
+and westward toward Phoenicia.  In early times ancient Chaldea, located
+on the lower Euphrates, was divided into two parts, the lower portion
+known as Sumer, and the other, the upper, known as Akkad.  While in the
+full development of these civilizations the Semitic race was dominant,
+there is every appearance that much of the culture of these primitive
+peoples came from farther east.
+
+_Influences Coming from the Far East_.--The early inhabitants of this
+country have sometimes been called Turanian to distinguish them from
+Aryans, Semites, and other races sometimes called Hamitic.  They seem
+to have been closely allied to the Mongolian type of people who
+developed centres of culture in the Far East and early learned the use
+of metals and developed a high degree of skill in handicraft.  The
+Akkadians, {155} or Sumer-Akkadians, appear to have come from the
+mountain districts north and east, and entered this fertile valley to
+begin the work of civilization at a very early period.  Their rude
+villages and primitive systems of life were to be superseded by
+civilizations of other races that, utilizing the arts and industries of
+the Akkadians, carried their culture to a much higher standard.  The
+Akkadians are credited with bringing into this country the methods of
+making various articles from gold and iron which have been found in
+their oldest tombs.  They are credited with having laid the foundation
+of the industrial arts which were manifested at an early time in
+ancient Chaldea, Egypt, and later in Babylonia and Phoenicia.  Whatever
+foundation there may be for this theory, the subsequent history of the
+civilizations which have developed from Thibet as a centre would seem
+to attribute the early skill in handiwork in the metals and in
+porcelain and glass to these people.  They also early learned to make
+inscriptions for permanent record in a crude way and to construct
+buildings made of brick.
+
+The Akkadians brought with them a religious system which is shown in a
+collection of prayers and sacred texts found recorded in the ruins at
+the great library at Nineveh.  Their religion seemed to be a complex of
+animism and nature-worship.  To them the universe was peopled with
+spirits who occupied different spheres and performed different
+services.  Scores of evil spirits working in groups of seven controlled
+the earth and man.  Besides these there were numberless demons which
+assailed man in countless forms, which worked daily and hourly to do
+him harm, to control his spirit, to bring confusion to his work, to
+steal the child from the father's knee, to drive the son from the
+father's house, or to withhold from the wife the blessings of children.
+They brought evil days.  They brought ill-luck and misfortune.  Nothing
+could prevent their destructiveness.  These spirits, falling like rain
+from the skies to the earth, could leap from house to house,
+penetrating the doors like serpents.  Their dwelling-places were
+scattered in {156} the marshes by the sea, where sickly pestilence
+arose, and in the deserts, where the hot winds drifted the sands.
+Sickness and disease were represented by the demons of pestilence and
+of fever, which bring destruction upon man.  It was a religion of
+fatalism, which held that man was ever attacked by unseen enemies
+against whom there was no means of defense.  There was little hope in
+life and none after death.  There was no immortality and no eternal
+life.  These spirits were supposed to be under the control of sorcerers
+and magicians or priests, resembling somewhat the medicine men of the
+wild tribes of North America, who had power to compel them, and to
+inflict death or disaster upon the objects of their censure and wrath.
+Thus, these primitive peoples of early Chaldea were terrorized by the
+spirits of the earth and by the wickedness of those who manipulated the
+spirits.
+
+The only bright side of this picture was the creation of other spirits
+conceived to be essentially good and beneficial, and to whom prayers
+were directed for protection and help.  Such beings were superior to
+all evil spirits, provided their support could be invoked.  So the
+spirit of heaven and the spirit of earth both appealed to the
+imagination of these primitive people, who thought that these unseen
+creatures called gods possessed all knowledge and wisdom, which was
+used to befriend and protect.  Especially would they look to the spirit
+of earth as their particular protector, who had power to break the
+spell of the spirits, compel obedience, and bring terror into the
+hearts of the wicked ones.  Such, in brief, was the religious system
+which these people created for themselves.  Later, after the Semitic
+invasion, a system of religion developed more colossal in its
+imagination and yet not less cruel in its final decrees regarding human
+life and destiny.  It passed into the purely imaginative religion, and
+the worship of the sun and moon and the stars gave man's imagination a
+broader vision, even if it did not lift him to a higher standard of
+moral conduct.
+
+It is not known at what date these early civilizations began, {157} but
+there is some evidence that the Akkadians appeared in the valley not
+less than four thousand years before Christ, and that subsequently they
+were conquered by the Elamites in the east, who obtained the supremacy
+for a season, and then were reinforced by the Semitic peoples, who
+ranged northeast, and, from northern Africa through Arabia, eastward to
+the Euphrates.[1]
+
+_Egypt Becomes a Centre of Civilization_.--The men of Egypt are
+supposed to be related racially to the Caucasian people who dwelt in
+the northern part of Africa, from whom they separated at a very early
+period, and went into the Nile valley to settle.  Their present racial
+connection makes them related to the well-known Berber type, which has
+a wide range in northern Africa.  Some time after the departure of the
+Hamitic branch of the Caucasian race into Egypt, it is supposed that
+another people passed on beyond, entering Arabia, later spreading over
+Assyria, Babylon, Palestine, and Phoenicia.  These were called the
+Semites.  Doubtless, this passage was long continued and irregular, and
+there are many intermixtures of the races now distinctly Berber and
+Arabic, so that in some parts of Egypt, and north of Egypt, we find an
+Arab-Berber mongrel type.  Doubtless, when the Egyptian stock of the
+Berber type came into Egypt they found other races whose life dates
+back to the early Paleolithic, as the stone implements found in the
+hills and caves and graves showed not only Neolithic but Paleolithic
+culture.  Also, the wavering line of Sudan negro types extended across
+Africa from east to west and came in contact with the Caucasian stock
+of northern Africa, and we find many negroid intermixtures.
+
+The Egyptians, however, left to themselves for a number of centuries,
+began rapid ascendency.  First, as before stated, their food supply was
+permanent and abundant.  Second, there were inducements also for the
+development of the art of measurement of land which later led to the
+development of general principles of measurement.  There was
+observation of {158} the sun and moon and the stars, and a development
+of the art of building of stone and brick, out of which the vast
+pyramid tombs of kings were built.  The artificers, too, had learned to
+work in precious stones and metals and weave garments, also to write
+inscriptions on tombs and also on the papyrus.  It would seem as if the
+civilization once started through so many centuries had become
+sufficiently substantial to remain permanent or to become progressive,
+but Egypt was subject to a great many drawbacks.  The nation that has
+the food supply of the world is sooner or later bound to come into
+trouble.  So it appears in the case of Egypt, with her vast food
+resources and accumulation of wealth; she was eventually doomed to the
+attacks of jealous and envious nations.
+
+The history of Egypt is represented by dynasties of kings and changes
+of government through a long period interrupted by the invasion of
+tribes from the west and the north, which interfered with the
+uniformity of development.  It is divided into two great centres of
+development, Lower Egypt, or the Delta, and Upper Egypt, frequently
+differing widely in the character of civilization.  Yet, in the latter
+part of her supremacy Egypt went to war with the Semitic peoples of
+Babylon and Assyria for a thousand years.  It was the great granary of
+the world and a centre of wealth and culture.
+
+The kings of Egypt were despots who were regarded by the people as
+gods.  They were the head not only of the state but of the religious
+system, and consequently through this double headship were enabled to
+rule with absolute sway.  The priesthood, together with a few nobles,
+represented the intellectual and social aristocracy of the country.
+Next to them were the warriors, who were an exclusive class.  Below
+these came the shepherds and farmers, and finally the slaves.  While
+the caste system did not prevail with as much rigidity here as in
+India, all groups of people were bound by the influence of class
+environment, from which they were unable to extricate themselves.
+Poorer classes became so degraded that in times of famine they were
+obliged to sell their liberty, their lives, or {159} their labor to
+kings for food.  They became merely toiling animals, forced for the
+want of bread to build the monuments of kings.  The records of Egyptian
+civilization through art, writing, painting, sculpture, architecture,
+and the great pyramids, obelisks, and sphinxes were but the records of
+the glory of kings, built upon the shame of humanity.  True, indeed,
+there was some advance in the art of writing, in the science of
+astronomy and geometry, and the manufacture of glass, pottery, linens,
+and silk in the industrial arts.  The revelations brought forth in
+recent years from the tombs of these kings, where were stored the art
+treasures representing the civilization of the time, exhibit something
+of the splendors of royalty and give some idea of the luxuries of the
+civilization of the higher classes.  Here were stored the finest
+products of the art of the times.
+
+The wonders of Egypt were manifested in the structure of the pyramids,
+which were merely tombs of kings, which millions of laborers spent
+their lives in building.  They represent the most stupendous structures
+of ancient civilization whose records remain.  Old as they appear, as
+we look backward to the beginning of history, they represent a
+culminating period of Egyptian art.  Sixty-seven of these great
+structures extended for about sixty miles above the city of Cairo,
+along the edge of the Libyan Desert.  They are placed along the great
+Egyptian natural burying place in the western side of the Nile valley,
+as a sort of boulevard of the tombs of kings and nobles.  Most of them
+are constructed of stone, although several are of adobe or sun-dried
+brick.  The latter have crumbled into great conical mountains, like
+those of the pyramid temples of Babylon.
+
+The largest pyramid, Cheops, rises to a height of 480 feet, having a
+base covering 13 acres.  The historian Herodotus relates that 120,000
+men were employed for 20 years in the erection of this great structure.
+It has never been explained how these people, not yet well developed in
+practical mechanics, and not having discovered the use of steam and
+with no {160} use of iron, could have reared these vast structures.
+Besides the pyramids, great palaces and temples of the kings of Thebes
+in Upper Egypt rivalled in grandeur the lonely pyramids of Memphis.
+Age after age, century after century, witnessed the building of these
+temples, palaces, and tombs.  It is said that the palace of Karnak, the
+most wonderful structure of ancient or modern times, was more than five
+hundred years in the process of building, and it is unknown how many
+hundreds of thousands of men spent their lives for this purpose.
+
+So, too, the mighty sphinxes and colossal statues excite the wonder and
+admiration of the world.  Especially to be mentioned in this connection
+are the colossi of Thebes, which are forty-seven feet high, each hewn
+from a single block of granite.  Upon the solitary plain these mute
+figures sat, serene and vigilant, keeping their untiring watch through
+the passage of the centuries.
+
+_The Coming of the Semites_.--While the ancient civilization at the
+mouth of the Euphrates had its origin in primitive peoples from the
+mountains eastward beyond the Euphrates, and the ancient Egyptian
+civilization received its impetus from a Caucasian tribe of northern
+Africa, the great civilization from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus
+River was developed by the Semites.  Westward from the Euphrates, over
+Arabia, and through Syria to the Mediterranean coast were wandering
+tribes of Arabs.  Perhaps the most typical ancient type of the Semitic
+race is found in Arabia.  In these desert lands swarms of people have
+passed from time to time over the known world.  Their early life was
+pastoral and nomadic; hence they necessarily occupied a large territory
+and were continually on the move.  The country appears to have been,
+from the earliest historic records, gradually growing drier--having
+less regular rainfall.
+
+So these people were forced at times to the mountain valleys and the
+grasslands of the north, and as far as the agricultural lands in the
+river valleys, hovering around the settled districts for food supplies
+for themselves and their herds.  After {161} the early settlement of
+Sumer and Akkad, these Semitic tribes moved into the valley of the
+Euphrates, and under Sargon I conquered ancient Babylonia at Akkad and
+afterward extended the conquest south over Sumer.  They found two main
+cities to the west of the Euphrates, Ur and Eridu.  Having invaded this
+territory, they adopted the arts and industries already established,
+but brought in the dominant power and language of the conquerors.  Four
+successive invasions of these people into this territory eventually
+changed the whole life into Semitic civilization.
+
+Later a branch moved north and settled higher up on the Tigris,
+founding the city of Nineveh.  The Elamites, another Semitic tribe on
+the east of the Euphrates, founded the great cities of Susa and
+Ecbatana.  Far to the northwest were the Armenian group of Semites, and
+directly east on the shores of the Mediterranean were the Phoenicians.
+This whole territory eventually became Semitic in type of civilization.
+Also, the Hixos, or shepherd kings, invaded Egypt and dominated that
+territory for two hundred years.  Later the Phoenicians became the
+great sea-going people of the world and extended their colonies along
+the coasts through Greece, Italy, northern Africa, and Spain.  So there
+was the Semitic influence from the Pillars of Hercules far east to the
+River Indus, in India.
+
+Strange to say, the mighty empires of Babylon and Nineveh and Phoenicia
+and Elam failed, while a little territory including the valley of the
+Jordan, called Palestine, containing a small and insignificant branch
+of the Semitic race, called Hebrews, developed a literature, language,
+and religion which exercised a most powerful influence in all
+civilizations even to the present time.
+
+_The Phoenicians Became the Great Navigators_.--While the Phoenicians
+are given credit for establishing the first great sea power, they were
+not the first navigators.  Long before they developed, boats plied up
+and down the Euphrates River, and in the island of Crete and elsewhere
+the ancient Aegeans carried on their trade in ships with Egypt and the
+eastern {162} Mediterranean.  The Aegean civilization preceded the
+Greeks and existed at a time when Egypt and Babylon were young.  The
+principal city of Cnossus exhibited also a high state of civilization,
+as shown in the ruins discovered by recent explorers in the island of
+Crete.  It is known that they had trade with early Egypt, but whether
+their city was destroyed by an earthquake or by the savage Greek
+pirates of a later day is undetermined.  The Phoenicians, however,
+developed a strip of territory along the east shore of the
+Mediterranean, and built the great cities of Tyre and Sidon.  From
+these parent cities they extended their trade down through the
+Mediterranean and out through the Pillars of Hercules, and founded
+their colonies in Africa, Greece, Italy, and Spain.  Long after Tyre
+and Sidon, the parent states, had declined, Carthage developed one of
+the most powerful cities and governments of ancient times.  No doubt,
+the Phoenicians deserve great credit for advancing shipbuilding, trade,
+and commerce, and in extending their explorations over a wide range of
+the known earth.  To them, also, we give credit for the perfection of
+the alphabet and the manufacture of glass, precious stones, and dyes;
+but their prominence in history appears in the long struggle between
+the Carthaginians and the Romans.
+
+_A Comparison of the Egyptian and Babylonian Civilizations_.--Taken as
+a whole, there is a similarity in some respects between the Egyptian
+and the Babylonian civilizations.  Coming from different racial groups,
+from different centres, there must necessarily be contrasts in many of
+the arts of life.  Egypt was an isolated country with a long river
+flowing through its entire length, which brought from the mountains the
+detritus which kept its valleys fertile.  Communication was established
+through the whole length by boats, which had a tendency to promote
+social intercourse and establish national life.  With the Mediterranean
+on the north, the Red Sea on the east, and the Libyan Desert to the
+west, it was tolerably well protected even though not shut in by high
+mountain ranges.  Yet it was open at all times for the hardy invaders
+who sought food for {163} flocks and herds and people.  There was
+always "corn in Egypt" to those people suffering from drought in the
+semi-arid districts of Africa and Arabia.
+
+Nevertheless, while Egypt suffered many invasions, she maintained with
+considerable constancy the ancient racial traits, and had a continuity
+of development through the passing centuries which retained many of the
+primitive characteristics.  The valley of the Euphrates was kept
+fertile by the flow of the great rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates,
+which, having a large watershed in the mountains, brought floods down
+through the valleys bearing the silt which made the land fertile.  But
+in both countries at an early period the population encroached upon the
+natural supply of food, and methods of irrigation were introduced to
+increase the food supply.  The attempts to build palaces, monuments,
+and tombs were characteristic of both peoples.  On account of the
+dryness of the climate, these great monuments have been preserved with
+a freshness through thousands of years.  In the valley of the Euphrates
+many of the cities that were reduced to ruin were covered with the
+drifting sands and floods until they are buried beneath the surface.
+
+In sculpture, painting, and in art, as well as in permanency of her
+mighty pyramids, sphinxes, and tombs, Egypt stands far ahead of
+Babylonia.  The difference is mainly expressed in action, for in Egypt
+there is an expression of calm, solemnity, and peace in the largest
+portions of the architectural works, while in Babylonia there is less
+skill and more action.  The evidences of the type of civilization are
+similar in one respect, namely, that during the thousand years of
+development the great monuments were left to show the grandeur of
+kings, monarchs, and priests, built by thousands of slaves suffering
+from the neglect of their superiors through ages of toil.  Undoubtedly,
+this failure to recognize the rights of suffering humanity gradually
+brought destruction upon these great nations.  If the strength of a
+great nation was spent in building up the mighty representations of the
+glory and power of kings {164} to the neglect of the improvement of the
+race as a whole, it could mean nothing else but final destruction.
+
+While we contemplate with wonder the greatness of the monuments of the
+pyramids and the sphinxes of Egypt and the winged bulls of Assyria, it
+is a sad reflection on the cost of material and life which it took to
+build them.  No wonder, then, that to-day, where once people lived and
+thought and toiled, where nations grew and flourished, where fields
+were tilled and harvests were abundant, and where the whole earth was
+filled with national life, there is nothing remaining but a barren
+waste and drifting sands, all because men failed to fully estimate real
+human values and worth.  Marvellous as many of the products of these
+ancient civilizations appear, there is comparatively little to show
+when it is considered that four thousand years elapsed to bring them
+about.  Mighty as the accomplishments were, the slow process of
+development shows a lack of vital progress.  We cannot escape the idea
+that the despotism existing in Oriental nations must have crushed out
+the best life and vigor of a people.  It is mournful to contemplate the
+destruction of these mighty civilizations, yet we may thoughtfully
+question what excuse could be advanced for their continuance.
+
+It is true that Egypt had an influence on Greece, which later became so
+powerful in her influences on Western civilizations; and doubtless
+Babylon contributed much to the Hebrews, who in turn have left a
+lasting impression upon the world.  The method of dispersion of
+cultures of a given centre shows that all races have been great
+borrowers, and usually when one art, industry, or custom has been
+thoroughly established, it may continue to influence other races after
+the race that gave the product has passed away, or other nations, while
+the original nation has perished.
+
+_The Hebrews Made a Permanent Contribution to World
+Civilization_.--Tradition, pretty well supported by history, shows that
+Abraham came out of Ur of Chaldea about 1,900 years before Christ, and
+with his family moved northward into {165} Haran for larger pasture for
+his flocks on the grassy plains of Mesopotamia.  Thence he proceeded
+westward to Palestine, made a trip to Egypt, and returned to the upper
+reaches of the Jordan.  Here his tribe grew and flourished, and
+finally, after the manner of pastoral peoples, moved into Egypt for
+corn in time of drought.  There his people lived for several hundred
+years, attached to the Egyptian nation, and adopting many phases of the
+Egyptian civilization.  When he turned his back upon his people in
+Babylon, he left polytheism behind.  He obtained conception of one
+supreme being, ruler and creator of the universe, who could not be
+shown in the form of an image made by man.
+
+This was not the first time in the history of the human race when
+nations had approximated the idea of one supreme God above all gods and
+men, but it was the first time the conception that He was the only God
+and pure monotheism obtained the supremacy.  No doubt, in the history
+of the Hebrew development this idea came as a gradual growth rather
+than as an instantaneous inspiration.  In fact, all nations who have
+reached any advanced degree of religious development have approached
+the idea of monotheism, but it remained for the Hebrews to put it in
+practice in their social life and civil polity.  It became the great
+central controlling thought of national life.
+
+Compared with the great empires of Babylon and Nineveh and Egypt, the
+Hebrew nation was small, crude, barbarous, insignificant, but the idea
+of one god controlling all, who passed in conception from a god of
+authority, imminence, and revenge, to a god of justice and
+righteousness, who controlled the affairs of men, developed the Hebrew
+concept of human relations.  It led them to develop a legal-ethical
+system which became the foundation of the Hebrew commonwealth and
+established a code of laws for the government of the nation, which has
+been used by all subsequent nations as the foundation of the moral
+element in their civil code.  Moses was not the first lawgiver of the
+world of nations.  Indeed, before {166} Abraham left his ancient home
+in Chaldea there was ruling in Babylon King Hammurabi, who formulated a
+wise code of laws, said to be the first of which we have any record in
+the history of the human race.  The Hebrew nation was always
+subordinate to other nations, but after its tribes developed into a
+kingdom and their king, Saul, was succeeded by David and Solomon, it
+reached a high state of civilization in certain lines.  Yet, at its
+best, under the reign of David and Solomon, it was upon the whole a
+barbarous nation.  When the Hebrews were finally conquered and led into
+captivity in Babylon, they reflected upon their ancient life, their
+laws, their literature, and there was compiled a greater part of the
+Bible.  This instrument has been greater than the palaces of Babylon or
+the pyramids of Egypt, or great conquests of military hosts in the
+perpetuation of the life of a nation.  Its history, its religion, its
+literature in proverbs and songs, its laws, its moral code, all have
+been enduring monuments that have lasted and will last as long as the
+human race continues its attempt to establish justice among men.
+
+_The Civilizations of India and China_.--Before leaving the subject of
+the Oriental civilizations, at least brief mention must be made of the
+development of the Hindu philosophy and religion.  In the valleys of
+the great rivers of India, in the shadow of the largest mountains
+rising to the skies, there developed a great people of great learning
+and wonderful philosophy.  In their abstract conceptions they built up
+the most wonderful and complex theogony and theology ever invented by
+men.  This system, represented by elements of law, theology, philosophy
+and language, literature and learning, is found in the Vedas and the
+great literary remnants of the poets.  They reveal to us the intensity
+of learning at the time of the highest development of the Indian
+philosophy.  However, its influence, wrapped up in the Brahminical
+religion of fatalism, was largely non-progressive.
+
+Later, about 500 years before Christ, when Gautama Buddha developed his
+ethical philosophy of life, new hope came {167} into the world.  But
+this did not stay for the regeneration of India, but, rather, declined
+and passed on into China and Japan.  The influence of Indian
+civilization on Western civilization has been very slight, owing to the
+great separation between the two, and largely because their objectives
+have been different.  The former devoted itself to the reflection of
+life, the latter resolved itself into action.  Nevertheless, we shall
+find in the Greek philosophy and Greek religion shadows of the learning
+of the Orient.  But the Hindu civilization, while developing much that
+is grand and noble, like many Oriental civilizations, left the great
+masses of the people unaided and unhelped.  When it is considered what
+might have been accomplished in India, it is well characterized as a
+"land of regrets."
+
+In the dispersion of the human race over the earth, one of the first
+great centres of culture was found in Thibet, in Asia.  Here is
+supposed to be the origin of the Mongolian peoples, and the Chinese
+represent one of the chief branches of the Mongolian race.  At a very
+early period they developed an advanced stage of civilization with many
+commendable features.  Their art, the form of pottery and porcelain,
+their traditional codes of law, were influential in the Far East.
+Their philosophy culminated in Confucius, who lived about 500 years
+before Christ, and their religion was founded by Tao Tse, who existed
+many centuries before.  He was the founder of the Taoan religion of
+China.  But the civilization of China extended throughout the Far East,
+spread into Korea, and then into Japan.  It has had very little contact
+with the Western civilization, and its history is still obscure, but
+there are many marvellous things done in China which are now in more
+recent years being faithfully studied and recorded.  Their art in
+porcelain and metals had its influence on other nations and has been of
+a lasting nature.
+
+_The Coming of the Aryans_.--The third great branch of the Caucasian
+people, whose primitive home seems to have been in central Asia, is the
+Aryan.  Somewhere north of the great {168} territory of the Semites,
+there came gradually down into Nineveh and Babylon and through Armenia
+a people of different type from the Semites and from the Egyptians.
+They lived on the great grassy plains of central Asia, wandering with
+their flocks and herds, and settling down long enough to raise a crop,
+and then move on.  They lived a simple life, but were a vigorous,
+thrifty, and family-loving people; and while the great civilization of
+Babylon, Assyria, and Egypt was developing, they were pushing down from
+the north.  They finally developed in Persia a great national life.
+
+Subsequently, under Darius I, a great Aryan empire was established in
+the seats of the old civilization which he had conquered, whose extent
+was greater than the world had hitherto known.  It extended over the
+old Assyrian and Babylonian empires, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria, in
+Caucasian and Caspian regions; covered Media and Persia, and extended
+into India as far as the Indus.  The old Semitic civilizations were
+passing away, and the control of the Aryan race was appearing.  Later
+these Persians found themselves at war with the Greeks, who were of the
+same racial stock.  The Persian Empire was no great improvement over
+the later Babylonian and Assyrian Empires.  It had become more
+specifically a world empire, which set out to conquer and plunder other
+nations.  It might have been enlightened to a certain extent, but it
+had received the idea of militarism and conquest.  It was the first
+great empire of the Orient to come in contact with a rising Western
+civilization, then centering in Greece.
+
+This Aryan stock, when considered in Europe or Western civilization, is
+known as the Nordic race.  In the consideration of Western civilization
+further discussion will be given of the origin and dispersion of this
+race.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Study the economic foundation of Egypt.  Babylon.  Arabia.
+
+2.  Why did Oriental nations go to war?  Show by example.
+
+3.  What did Egypt and Babylon contribute of lasting value to
+civilization?
+
+{169}
+
+4.  What was the Hebrew contribution?
+
+5.  Why did these ancient empires decline and disappear?
+
+6.  Study the points of difference between the civilization of Babylon
+and Egypt and Western civilization.
+
+7.  Contrast the civilization of India and China with Western
+civilization.
+
+
+
+[1] L. W. King, _History of Sumer and Akkad_.  _History of Babylon_.
+
+
+
+
+{170}
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE ORIENTAL TYPE OF CIVILIZATION
+
+_The Governments of the Early Oriental Civilizations_.--In comparing
+the Oriental civilizations which sprang up almost independently in
+different parts of Asia and Africa with European civilizations, we
+shall be impressed with the despotism of these ancient governments.  It
+is not easy to determine why this feature should have been so
+universal, unless it could be attributed to human traits inherent in
+man at this particular stage of his development.  Perhaps, also, in
+emerging from a patriarchal state of society, where small, independent
+groups were closely united with the oldest male member as leader and
+governor of all, absolute authority under these conditions was
+necessary for the preservation of the tribe or group, and it became a
+fixed custom which no one questioned.
+
+Subsequently, when the population increased around a common centre and
+various tribes and groups were subjected to a central organization, the
+custom of absolute rule was transferred from the small group to the
+king, who ruled over all.  Also, the nature of most of these
+governments may have been influenced by the type of religion which
+prevailed.  It became systematized under the direction of priests, who
+stood between the people and the great unknown, holding absolute sway
+but working on the emotion of fear.  Perhaps, also, a large group of
+people with a limited food supply were easily reduced to a state of
+slavery and dwelt in a territory as a mass of unorganized humanity,
+subservient only to the superior directing power.  It appears to be a
+lack of organized popular will.  The religions, too, looked intensely
+to the authority of the past, developing fixity of customs, habits,
+laws, {171} and social usages.  These conditions were conducive to the
+exercise of the despotism of those in power.
+
+_War Existed for Conquest and Plunder_.--The kings of these Oriental
+despotisms seemed to be possessed with inordinate vanity, and when once
+raised to power used not only all the resources of the nation and of
+the people for magnifying that power, but also used the masses of the
+people at home at labor, and abroad in war, for the glory of the
+rulers.  Hence, wars of conquest were frequent, always accompanied with
+the desire for plunder of territory, the wealth of temples, and the
+coffers of the rulers.  Many times wars were based upon whims of kings
+and rulers and trivial matters, which can only be explained through
+excessive egoism and vanity; yet in nearly every instance the idea of
+conquest was to increase the wealth of the nation and power of the king
+by going to war.  There was, of course, jealousy of nations and rivalry
+for supremacy, as the thousand years of war between Egypt and Babylonia
+illustrates, or as the conquest of Babylon by Assyria, or, indeed, the
+later conquest of the whole East by the Persian monarchs, testifies.
+These great wars were characterized by the crude struggle and slaughter
+of hordes of people.  Not until the horse and chariot came into use was
+there any great improvement in methods of warfare.  Bronze weapons and,
+later, iron were used in most of these wars.  It was merely barbarism
+going to war with barbarism in order to increase barbaric splendor.
+
+_Religious Belief Was an Important Factor in Despotic Government_.--In
+the beginning we shall find that animism, or the belief in spirits, was
+common to all nations and tribes.  There was in the early religious
+life of people a wild, unorganized superstition, which brought them in
+subjection to the control of the spirits of the world.  In the slow
+development of the masses, these ideas always remained prominent, and
+however highly developed religious life became, however pure the system
+of religious philosophy and religious worship, as represented by the
+most intelligent and farthest advanced of the {172} people, it yet
+remains true that the masses of the people were mastered and ruled by a
+gross superstition; and possibly this answers the question to a large
+extent as to why the religion of the Orient could, on the one hand,
+reach such heights of purity of spirit and worship and, on the other,
+such a degradation in thought, conception, and practice.  It could
+reach to the skies with one arm and into the grossest phases of
+nature-worship with the other.
+
+It appears the time came when, as a matter of self-defense, man must
+manipulate and control spirits to save himself from destruction, and
+there were persons particularly adapted to this process, who formed the
+germs of the great system of priesthood.  They stood between the masses
+and the spirits, and as the system developed and the number of priests
+increased, they became the ones who ruled the masses in place of the
+spirits.  The priesthood, then, wherever it has developed a great
+system, has exercised an almost superhuman power over the ignorant, the
+debased, and the superstitious.  It was the policy of kings to
+cultivate and protect this priesthood, and it was largely this which
+enabled them to have power over the masses.  Having once obtained this
+power, and the military spirit having arisen in opposition to foreign
+tribes, the priests were at the head of the military, religious, and
+civil systems of the nation.  Indeed, the early king was the high
+priest of the tribe, and he inherited through long generations the
+particular function of leader of religious worship.
+
+It will be easy to conceive that where the art of embalming was carried
+on, people believed in the future life of the soul.  The religious
+system of the Egyptians was, indeed, of very remarkable character.  The
+central idea in their doctrine was the unity of God, whom they
+recognized as the one Supreme Being, who was given the name of Creator,
+Eternal Father, to indicate the various characters in which he
+appeared.  This pure monotheism was seldom grasped by the great masses
+of the people; indeed, it is to be supposed that many of the priestly
+order scarcely rose to its pure conceptions.  But there {173} were
+other groups or dynasties of gods which were worshipped throughout
+Egypt.  These were mostly mythical beings, who were supposed to perform
+especial functions in the creation and control of the universe.  Among
+these Osiris and Isis, his wife and sister, were important, and their
+worship common throughout all Egypt.  Osiris came upon the earth in the
+interests of mankind, to manifest the true and the good in life.  He
+was put to death by the machinations of the evil spirit, was buried and
+rose, and became afterward the judge of the dead.  In this we find the
+greatest mystery in the Egyptian religion.  Typhon was the god of the
+evil spirits, a wicked, rebellious devil, who held in his grasp all the
+terrors of disease and of the desert.  Sometimes he was in the form of
+a frightful serpent, again in the form of a crocodile or hippopotamus.
+
+Seeking through the light of religious mystery to explain all the
+natural phenomena observed in physical nature, the Egyptians fell into
+the habit of coarse animal worship.  The cat, the snake, the crocodile,
+and the bull became sacred animals, to kill which was the vilest
+sacrilege.  Even if one was so unfortunate as to kill one of these
+sacred animals by accident, he was in danger of his life at the hands
+of the infuriated mob.  It is related that a Roman soldier, having
+killed a sacred cat, was saved from destruction by the multitude only
+by the intercession of the great ruler Ptolemy.  The taking of the life
+of one of these sacred creatures caused the deepest mourning, and
+frequently the wildest terror, while every member of the family shaved
+his head at the death of a dog.
+
+There was symbolism, too, in all this worship.  Thus the scarabeus, or
+beetle, which was held to be especially sacred, was considered as the
+emblem of the sun.  Thousands of these relics may be found in the
+different museums, having been preserved to the present time.  The
+bull, Apis, not only was a sacred creature, but was held to be a real
+god.  It was thought that the soul of Osiris pervaded the spirit of the
+bull, and at the bull's death it passed on into that of his successor.
+The worship of the lower forms of life led to a coarseness in religious
+{174} belief and practice.  How it came about is difficult to
+ascertain.  It is supposed by some scholars that the animal worship had
+its origin in the low form of worship belonging to the indigenous
+tribes of Egypt, and that the higher order was introduced by the
+Hamites, or perhaps by the Semites who mingled with and overcame the
+original inhabitants of the Nile valley.  In all probability, the
+advanced ideas of religious belief and thought were the essential
+outcome of the learning and speculative philosophy of the Egyptians,
+while the old animal worship became the most convenient for the great
+masses of low and degraded beings who spent their lives in building
+tombs for the great.
+
+The religious life of the Egyptians was protected and guarded by an
+elaborate priesthood.  It formed a perfect hierarchy of priest, high
+priest, scribes, keepers of the sacred robes and animals, sculptors,
+embalmers, besides all the attendants upon the services of worship and
+religion.  Not only was this class privileged among all the castes of
+Egypt as representing the highest class of individuals, but it enjoyed
+immunity from taxation and had the privilege of administering the
+products of one-third of the land to carry on the expenses of the
+temple and religious worship.  The ceremonial life of the priests was
+almost perfect.  Scrupulous in the care of their person, they bathed
+twice each day and frequently at night, and every third day shaved the
+entire body.  Their linen was painfully neat, and they lived on plain,
+simple food, as conducive to the service of religion.  They exerted a
+great power not only over the religious life of the Egyptians but, on
+account of the peculiar relation of religion to government, over the
+entire development of Egypt.
+
+The religion of Oriental nations was non-progressive in its nature.  It
+had a tendency to repress freedom of thought and freedom of action.
+Connected as it was with the binding influence of caste, man could not
+free himself from the dictates of religion.  The awful sublimity of
+nature found its counterpart in the terrors of religion; and that
+religion attempted to {175} answer all the questions that might arise
+concerning external nature.  It rested upon the basis of authority
+built through ages of tradition, and through a continuous domineering
+priest-craft.  The human mind struggling within its own narrow bounds
+could not overcome the stultifying and sterilizing influence of such a
+religion.  The lower forms of religion were "of the earth, earthy."
+The higher forms consisted of such abstract conceptions concerning the
+creation of the earth, and the manipulation of all the forces of nature
+and the control of all the powers of man, as to be entirely
+non-progressive.  There could be no independent scientific
+investigation.  There could be no rational development of the mind.
+The religion of the Orient brought gloom to the masses and cut off hope
+forever.  The people became subject to the grinding forces of fate.
+How, then, could there be intellectual development based upon freedom
+of action?  How could there be any higher life of the soul, any moral
+culture, any great advancement in the arts and sciences, or any popular
+expression regarding war and government?
+
+_Social Organization Was Incomplete_.--All social organization tended
+toward the common centre, the king, and there was very little local
+organization except as it was necessary to bring the people under
+control of official rule.  There were apparently very few voluntary
+associations.  Among the nobility, the priests, and ladies of rank, we
+find frequently elaborate costumes of dress, manifold ornaments,
+necklaces, rings, and earrings; but whatever went to the rich seemed to
+be a deprivation of the poor.  Indeed, when we consider that it cost
+only a few shillings at most to rear a child to the age of twenty-one
+years in Egypt, we can imagine how meagre and stinted that life must
+have been.  The poorer classes of people dressed in a very simple
+style, wearing a single linen shirt and over it a woollen mantle; while
+among the very poor much less was worn.
+
+However, it seems that there was time for some of the population to
+engage in sports such as laying snares for birds, {176} angling for
+fish, popular hunts, wrestling, playing checkers, chess, and ball, and
+it appears that many of these people were gifted in these sports.  Just
+what classes of people engaged in this leisure is difficult to
+determine.  Especially in the case of Egypt, most of the people were
+condemned to hard and toilsome labor.  Probably the nobility and people
+of wealth were the only classes who had time for sports.  The great
+temples and palaces were built with solid masonry of stone and brick,
+but the dwelling-houses were constructed in a light, graceful style,
+surrounded with long galleries and terraces common at this period of
+development in Oriental civilization.  The gardening was symmetrical
+and accurate, the walks led in well-defined lines and were carefully
+conventional.  The rooms of the houses, too, were well arranged and
+tastefully decorated, and members of the household distributed in its
+generous apartments, each individual finding his special place for
+position and service.
+
+For the comparatively small number of prosperous and influential
+people, life was refined and luxurious so far as the inventions and
+conveniences for comfort would permit.  They had well-constructed and
+well-appointed houses, and, judging from the relics discovered in tombs
+and from the records and inscriptions, people wore richly decorated
+clothing and lovely jewels.  They had numerous feasts with music and
+dancing and servants to wait upon them in every phase of life.  It is
+related, too, that excursions were common in summer on the great
+rivers.  But even though there was a life of ease among the wealthy,
+they were without many comforts known to modern times.  They had cotton
+and woollen fabrics for clothing, but no silk.  They had dentists and
+doctors in those days, and teeth were filled with gold as in modern
+times.  Their articles of food consisted of meat and vegetables, but
+there were no hens and no eggs.  They used the camel in Mesopotamia and
+walked mostly in Egypt, or went by boat on the river.  However, when we
+consider the change of ancient Babylon to Nineveh, and the Egyptian
+civilization of old Thebes to that {177} which developed later, there
+is evidence of progress.  The religious life lost a good many of its
+crudities, abolished human sacrifice, and developed a refined mysticism
+which was more elevating than the crude nature-worship.
+
+The rule of caste which settled down over the community in this early
+period relegated every individual to his particular place.  From this
+place there could be no escape.  The common laborers moving the great
+blocks of stone to build the mighty pyramids of the valley of the Nile
+could be nothing but common laborers.  And their sons and their
+daughters for generation after generation must keep the same sphere of
+life.  And though the warriors fared much better, they, too, were
+confined to their own group.  The shepherd class must remain a shepherd
+class forever; they could never rise superior to their own
+surroundings.  So, too, in Babylon and India.  There was, indeed, a
+slight variation from the caste system in Egypt and in Babylon, but in
+India it settled down from the earliest times, and the people and their
+customs were crystallized; they were bound by the chain of fate in the
+caste system forever.  We shall see, then, that the relation of the
+population to the soil and the binding influences of early custom
+tended to develop despotism in Oriental civilization.
+
+The result of all this was that there was no freedom or liberty of the
+individual anywhere.  With caste and despotism and degradation men
+moved forward in political and religious life as on a plane which
+inclined so slightly that, except as we look over its surface through
+the passing centuries, little change can be observed.  The king was a
+god; the government possessed supernatural power; its authority was not
+to be questioned.  The rule of the army was final.  The cruelty of
+kings and the oppression of government were customary, and thus crushed
+and oppressed, the ordinary individual had no opportunity to arise and
+walk in the dignity of his manhood.  The government, if traced to its
+source at all, was of divine origin, and though those who ruled might
+stop to consider for an instant their own despotic actions, and in
+special cases yield {178} in clemency to their subjects, from the
+subject's standpoint there could be nothing but to yield to the
+despotism of kings and the unrelenting rule of government.
+
+We shall find, then, that with all of the efforts put forth the greater
+part was wasted.  Millions of people were born, lived, and died,
+leaving scarcely a mark of their existence.  No wonder that, as the
+great kings of Egypt saw the wasting elements of time, the waste of
+labor in its dreary rounds, having employed the millions in building
+the mighty temples dedicated to the worship of the gods; or having
+built great canals and aqueducts to develop irrigation that greater
+food supply might be assured, thus observing the majesty of their
+condition in relation to other human beings, they should have employed
+these millions of serfs in building their own tombs and monuments to
+remain the only lasting vestige of the civilization long since passed
+away.  Everywhere in the Oriental civilization, then, are lack of
+freedom and the appearance of despotism.  Everywhere is evidence of
+waste of individual life.  No deep conception can be found in either
+the philosophy or the practice of the Egyptians or the Babylonians of
+the real object of human life.  And yet the few meagre products of art
+and of learning handed down to European civilization from these
+Oriental countries must have had a vast influence in laying the
+foundations of modern civilized life.
+
+_Economic Influences_.--In the first place, the warm climate of these
+countries required but little clothing; for a few cents a year a person
+could be clothed sufficiently to protect himself from the climate and
+to observe the rules of modesty so far as they existed in those times.
+In the second place, in hot climates less food is required than in
+cold.  In cold countries people need a large quantity of heavy, oily
+foods, while in hot climates they need a lighter food and, indeed, less
+of it.  Thus we have in these fertile valleys of the Orient the
+conditions which supply sustenance for millions at a very small amount
+of exertion or labor.  Now, it is a well-established fact that cheap
+food among classes of people who have not developed {179} a high state
+of civilization favors a rapid increase of population.  The records
+show in Babylon and Egypt, as well as in Palestine, that the population
+multiplied at a very rapid rate.  And this principle is enhanced by the
+fact that in tropical climates, where less pressure of want and cold is
+brought to bear, the conditions for successful propagation of the human
+race are present.  And this is one reason why the earliest
+civilizations have always been found in tropical climates, and it was
+not until man had more vigor of constitution and higher development of
+physical and mental powers that he could undertake the mastery of
+himself and nature under less favorable circumstances.
+
+The result was that human life became cheap.  The great mass of men
+became so abundant as to press upon the food supply to its utmost
+limit.  And they who had the control of this food supply controlled the
+bodies and souls of the great poverty-stricken mass who toiled for
+daily bread.  Here we find the picture of abject slavery of the masses.
+The rulers, through the government, strengthened by the priests, who
+held over the masses of the lower people in superstitious awe the
+tenets of their faith, forced them into subjection.  There was no value
+placed upon a human life; why, then, should there be upon the masses of
+individuals?
+
+We shall find, too, as the result of all this, that the civilization
+became more or less stationary.  True, there must have been a slow
+development of religious ideas, a slow development of art, a slow
+development of government, and yet when the type was once set there was
+but little change from century to century in the relation of human
+beings to one another, and their relation to the products of nature.
+When we consider the accomplishments of these people we must not forget
+the length of time it took to produce them.  Reckon back from the
+present time 6,000 years, and then consider what has been accomplished
+in America in the last century.  Think back 2,000 years, and see what
+had been accomplished in Rome from the year of the founding of the
+imperial city until the Caesars lived {180} in their mighty palaces, a
+period of seven and a half centuries.  Observe, too, what was
+accomplished in Greece from the time of Homer until the time of
+Aristotle, a period of about six and a half centuries; then observe the
+length of time it took to develop the Egyptian civilization, and we
+shall see its slow progress.  It is also to be observed that the
+Egyptian civilization had reached its culmination when Greece began,
+and had begun its slow decline.  After considering this we shall
+understand that the civilization of Egypt finally became stationary,
+conventionalized, non-progressive; that it was only a question of time
+when other nations should rule the land of the Pharaohs, and that sands
+should drift where once were populous cities, covering the relics of
+this ancient civilization far beneath the surface.
+
+The progress in industrial arts and the use of implements was, of
+necessity, very slow.  Where the laboring man was considered of little
+value, treated as a mere physical machine, to be fed and used for
+mechanical purposes alone, it mattered little with what tools he
+worked.  In the building of the pyramids we find no mighty engines for
+the movement of the great stones, we find no evidence of mechanical
+genius to provide labor-saving machines.  The inclined plane and
+rollers, the simplest of all contrivances, were about the only
+inventions.  Also, in the buildings of Babylon, the tools with which
+men worked must of necessity have been very poor.  It is remarkable to
+what extent modern invention depends upon the elevation of the standard
+of life of labor, and how man through intelligence continually makes
+certain contrivances for the perfection of human industry.  However, if
+we consider the ornaments used to adorn the person, or for the service
+of the rich, or the elaborate clothing of the wealthy, we shall find
+quite a high state of development in these lines, showing the greatest
+contrast between the condition of the laboring multitudes on the one
+hand and the luxurious few on the other.  Along this line of the rapid
+development of ornaments we find evidence of luxury and ease, and, in
+the slow development of {181} industrial arts, the sacrifice of labor.
+And all of the advancement in the mighty works of art and industry was
+made at the sacrifice of human labor.
+
+To sum this up, we find, then, that the influence of despotic
+government, of the binding power of caste, of the prevalence of custom,
+of the influence of priestcraft, the retarding power of a
+non-progressive religion, concentration of intelligence in a privileged
+class that seeks its own ease, the slow development of industrial
+implements, and the rapid development of ornaments, brought decay.  We
+see in all of this a retarding of improvement, a stagnation of
+organizing effort, and the crystallization of ancient civilization
+about old forms, to be handed down from generation to generation
+without progress.
+
+_Records, Writing, and Paper_.--At an early period papyrus, a paper
+made of a reed that grows along the Nile valley, was among the first
+inventions.  It was the earliest artificial writing material discovered
+by any nation of which we have a record; and we are likely to remember
+it from its two names, _biblos_ and _papyrus_, for from these come two
+of our most common words, bible and paper.  Frequently, however,
+leather, pottery, tiles, and stone, and even wooden tablets, were used
+as substitutes for the papyrus.  In the early period the Egyptians used
+the hieroglyphic form of writing, which consisted of rude pictures of
+objects which had a peculiar significance.  Finally the hieratic
+simplified this form by symbolizing and conventionalizing to a large
+extent the hieroglyphic characters.  Later came the demotic, which was
+a further departure from the old concrete form of representation, and
+had the advantage of being more readily written than either of the
+others.[1]  These characters were used to inscribe the deeds of kings
+on monuments and tablets, and when in 1798 the key to the Egyptian
+writing was obtained through means of the Rosetta stone, the
+opportunity for a large addition to the history of Egypt was made.
+Strange as it may seem, these ancient people had written romances and
+fairy tales; one especially to be mentioned {182} is the common
+_Cinderella and the Glass Slipper_, written more than thirteen
+centuries B.C.  But in addition to these were published documents,
+private letters, fables, epics, and autobiographies, and treatises on
+astronomy, medicine, history, and scientific subjects.
+
+The Babylonians and Assyrians developed the cuneiform method of
+writing.  They had no paper, but made their inscriptions on clay
+tablets and cylinders.  These were set away in rooms called libraries.
+The discovery of the great library of Ashur-bani-pal, of Nineveh,
+revealed the highest perfection of this ancient method of recording
+events.
+
+The art of Egypt was manifested in the dressing of precious stones, the
+weaving of fine fabrics, and fine work in gold ornaments.  Sculpture
+and painting were practically unknown as arts, although the use of
+colors was practised to a considerable extent.  Artistic energy was
+worked out in the making of the tombs of kings, the obelisks, the
+monuments, the sphinxes, and the pyramids.  It was a conception of the
+massive in artistic expression.  In Babylon and Nineveh, especially the
+latter, the work of sculpture in carving the celebrated winged bulls
+gives evidence of the attempt to picture power and strength rather than
+beauty.  Doubtless the Babylonians developed artistic taste in the
+manufacture of jewelry out of precious stones and gold.
+
+_The Beginnings of Science Were Strong in Egypt, Weak in Babylon_.--The
+greatest expression of the Egyptian learning was found in science.  The
+work in astronomy began at a very early date from a practical
+standpoint.  The rising of the Nile occurred at a certain time
+annually, coinciding with the time of the rise of the Dog-star, which
+led these people to imagine that they stood in the relation of effect
+and cause, and from these simple data began the study of astronomy.
+The Egyptians, by the study of the movement of the stars, were enabled
+to determine the length of the sidereal year, which they divided into
+twelve months, of thirty days each, adding five days to complete the
+year.  This is the calendar which was {183} introduced from Egypt into
+the Roman Empire by Julius Caesar.  It was revised by Pope Gregory XIII
+in 1582, and has since been the universal system for the Western
+civilized world.  Having reached their limit of fact in regard to the
+movement of the heavenly bodies, their imagination related the stars to
+human conduct, and astrology became an essential outcome.  It was easy
+to believe that the heavenly bodies, which, apparently, had such great
+influence in the rise of the river and in the movement of the tides,
+would have either a good influence or a baneful influence, not only
+over the vegetable world but upon human life and human destiny as well.
+Hence, astrology, in Egypt as in Babylonia, became one of the important
+arts.
+
+From the measurement of the Nile and the calculation of the lands,
+which must be redistributed after each annual overflow, came the system
+of concrete measurement which later developed into the science of
+geometry.  Proceeding from the simple measurement of land, step by step
+were developed the universal abstract problems of geometry, and the
+foundation for this great branch of mathematics was laid.  The use of
+arithmetic in furnishing numerical expressions in the solution of
+geometrical and arithmetical problems became common.
+
+The Egyptians had considerable knowledge of many drugs and medicines,
+and the physicians of Egypt had a great reputation among the ancients;
+for every doctor was a specialist and pursued his subject and his
+practice to the utmost limit of fact and theory.  But the physician
+must treat cases according to customs already established in the past.
+There was but little opportunity for the advancement of his art.  Yet
+it became very much systematized and conventionalized.  The study of
+anatomy developed also the art of embalming, one of the most
+distinctive features of Egyptian civilization.  This art was carried on
+by the regular physicians, who made use of resins, oils, bitumens, and
+various gums.  It was customary to embalm the bodies of wealthy persons
+by filling them with resinous substances and wrapping them closely in
+linen {184} bandages.  The poorer classes were cured very much as beef
+is cured before drying, and then wrapped in coarse garments preparatory
+to burial.  The number of individuals who were thus disposed of after
+death is estimated at not less than 420,000,000 between 2000 B.C. and
+700 A.D.
+
+_The Contribution to Civilization_.--The building of the great empires
+on the Tigris and Euphrates had a tendency to collect the products of
+civilization so far as they existed, and to distribute them over a
+large area.  Thus, the industries that began in early Sumer and Akkad,
+coming from farther east, were passed on to Egypt and Phoenicia and
+were further distributed over the world.  Especially is this true in
+the work of metals, the manufacture of glass, and the development of
+the alphabet, which probably originated in Babylon and was improved by
+the Phoenicians, and, through them as traders, had a wide dispersion.
+Perhaps one ought to consider that the study of the stars and the
+heavenly bodies, although it led no farther than astrology and the
+development of magic, was at least a beginning, although in a crude
+way, of an inquiry into nature.
+
+In Egypt, however, we find that there was more or less scientific study
+and invention and development of reflective thinking.  Moreover, the
+advancement in the arts of life, especially industrial, had great
+influence over the Greeks, whose early philosophers were students of
+the Egyptian system.  Also, the contact of the Hebrews and Phoenicians
+with Egypt gave a strong coloring to their civilization.  Especially is
+this true of the Hebrews, who dwelt so long in the shadow of the
+Egyptian civilization.  The Hebrews, after their captivity in Babylon,
+contributed the Bible, with its sacred literature, to the world, which
+with its influence through the legal-ethicalism, or moral code, its
+monotheistic doctrines, and its attempted development of a commonwealth
+based on justice, had a lasting influence on civilization.  But in the
+life of the Hebrew people in Palestine its influence on surrounding
+nations was not so great as in the later times when the Jews were
+scattered over the {185} world.  The Bible has been a tremendous
+civilizer of the world.  Hebrewism became a universal state of mind,
+which influenced all nations that came in contact with it.
+
+But what did this civilization leave to the world?  The influence of
+Egypt on Greece and Greek philosophy must indeed have been great, for
+the greatest of the Greeks looked upon the Egyptian philosophy as the
+expression of the highest wisdom.  Nor can we hesitate in claiming that
+the influence of the Egyptians upon the Hebrews was considerable.
+There is a similarity in many respects between the Egyptian and the
+Hebrew code of learning; but the art and the architecture, the learning
+and the philosophy, had their influence likewise on all surrounding
+nations as soon as Egypt was opened up to communication with other
+parts of the world.  A careful study of the Greek philosophy brings
+clearly before us the influence of the Egyptian learning.  Thus Thales,
+the first of the philosophers to break away from the Grecian religion
+and mythology to inquire into the natural cause of the universe, was a
+student of Egyptian life and philosophy.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What are the evidences of civilization discovered in
+Tut-Ankh-Amen's tomb?
+
+2.  Give an outline of the chief characteristics of Egyptian
+civilization?
+
+3.  What caused the decline of Egyptian civilization?
+
+4.  What did Oriental civilization contribute to the subsequent welfare
+of the world?
+
+5.  The influence of climate on industry in Egypt and Babylon.
+
+6.  Why did the Egyptian religion fail to improve the lot of the common
+man?
+
+7.  Retarding influence of the caste system in India and Egypt.
+
+
+
+[1] See Chapter VII.
+
+
+
+
+{186}
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION IN AMERICA
+
+_America Was Peopled from the Old World_.--The origin of the people of
+America has been the subject of perennial controversy.  Gradually,
+however, as the studies of the human race and their migrations have
+increased, it is pretty well established that the one stream of
+migration came from Asia across a land connection along the Aleutian
+Islands, which extended to Alaska.  At an early period, probably from
+15,000 to 20,000 years age, people of the Mongoloid type crossed into
+America and gradually passed southward, some along the coast line,
+others through the interior of Alaska and thence south.  This stream of
+migration continued down through Mexico, Central America, South
+America, and even to Patagonia.  It also had a reflex movement eastward
+toward the great plains and the Mississippi valley.  There is a
+reasonable conjecture, however, that another stream of migration passed
+from Europe at a time when the British Islands were joined to the
+mainland, and the great ice cap made a solid bridge to Iceland,
+Greenland, and possibly to Labrador.  It would have been possible for
+these people to have come during the third glacial period, at the close
+of the Old Stone Age, or soon after in the Neolithic period.  The
+traditions of the people on the west coast all state their geographical
+origin in the northwest.  The traditions of the Indians of the Atlantic
+coast trace their origins to the northeast.
+
+The people of the west coast are mostly of the round-headed type
+(brachycephalic), while those of the east coast have been of the
+long-headed type (dolichocephalic).  The two types have mingled in
+their migration southward until we have the long heads and the round or
+broad heads extending the whole {187} length of the two continents.
+Intermingled with these are those of the middle derivative type, or
+mesocephalic.  From these sources there have developed on the soil of
+America, the so-called American Indians of numerous tribes, each with
+its own language and with specialized physical and mental types.  While
+the color of the skin has various shades, the coarse, straight black
+hair and brown eyes are almost general features of the whole Indian
+race.
+
+At different centres in both North and South America, tribes have
+become more or less settled and developed permanent phases of early
+civilization, strongly marked by the later Neolithic cultures.  In some
+exceptional cases, the uses of copper, bronze, and gold are to be
+noted.  Perhaps the most important centres are those of the Incas in
+Peru, the Mayas, Aztecs, and Terra-humares of Mexico, the
+cliff-dwellers and Pueblos of southwestern United States, the
+mound-builders of the Mississippi valley, and the Iroquois nation of
+northeastern United States and Canada.  At the time of the coming of
+the Europeans to America, the Indian population in general was nomadic,
+in the hunter-fisher stage of progress; but many of the tribes had
+tentatively engaged in agriculture, cultivating maize, squashes, and in
+some cases fruits.  Probably the larger supply of food was from
+animals, birds, fish, and shell-fish, edible roots and grains, such as
+the wild rice, and fruits from the native trees in the temperate and
+tropical countries.  The social organization was based upon the family
+and the tribe, and, in a few instances, a federation of tribes like
+that of the Iroquois nation.
+
+_The Incas of Peru_.--When the Spaniards under Pizarro undertook the
+conquest of the Peruvians, they found the Inca civilization at its
+highest state of development.  However, subsequent investigations
+discovered other and older seats of civilization of a race in some ways
+more highly developed than those with whom they came in contact.  Among
+the evidences of this ancient civilization were great temples built of
+stone, used as public buildings for the administration of religious
+{188} rights [Transcriber's note: rites?], private buildings of
+substantial order, and paved roads with numerous bridges.  There were
+likewise ruins of edifices apparently unfinished, and traditions of an
+ascendent race which had passed away before the development of the
+Incas of Pizarro's time.  In the massive architecture of their
+buildings there was an attempt to use sculpture on an elaborate scale.
+They showed some skill in the arts and industries, such as ornamental
+work in gold, copper, and tin, and the construction of pottery on a
+large scale.  They had learned to weave and spin, and their clothing
+showed some advancement in artistic design.
+
+In agriculture they raised corn and other grains, and developed a state
+of pastoral life, although the llama was the only domesticated animal
+of service.  Great aqueducts were built and fertilizers were used to
+increase the productive value of the soil.  The dry climate of this
+territory necessitated the use of water by irrigation, and the limited
+amount of tillable soil had forced them to use fertilizers to get the
+largest possible return per acre.
+
+The Peruvians, or Incas, were called the children of the sun.  They had
+a sacred feeling for the heavenly bodies, and worshipped the sun as the
+creator and ruler of the universe.  They had made some progress in
+astronomy, by a characterization of the sun and moon and chief planets,
+mostly for a religious purpose.  However, they had used a calendar to
+represent the months, the year, and the changing seasons.  Here, as
+elsewhere in primitive civilization, religion becomes an important
+factor in social control.  The priest comes in as the interpreter and
+controller of mysteries, and hence an important member of the
+community.  Religious sacrifices among the Peruvians were commonly of
+an immaculate nature, being mostly of fruits and flowers.  This
+relieved them of the terrors of human sacrifices so prevalent in early
+beginnings of civilization where religion became the dominant factor of
+life.  Hence their religious life was more moderate than that of many
+nations where religious control was more powerful.  Yet in governmental
+{189} affairs and in social life, here as in other places, religion was
+made the means of enslaving the masses of the people.
+
+The government of the Incas was despotic.  It was developed through the
+old family and tribal life to a status of hereditary aristocracy.
+Individuals of the oldest families became permanent in government, and
+these were aided and supported by the priestly order.  Caste prevailed
+to a large extent, making a great difference between the situation of
+the nobility and the peasants and slaves.  Individuals born into a
+certain group must live and die within that group.  Hence the people
+were essentially peaceable, quiet, and not actively progressive.  But
+we find that the social life, in spite of the prominence of the priest
+and the nobility, was not necessarily burdensome.  Docile and passive
+in nature, they were ready to accept what appeared to them a
+well-ordered fate.  If food, clothing, and shelter be furnished, and
+other desires remain undeveloped, and life made easy, what occasion was
+there for them to be moved by nobler aspirations?  Without higher
+ideals, awakened ambition, and the multiplication of new desires, there
+was no hope of progress.  The people seemed to possess considerable
+nobility of character, and were happy, peaceful, and well disposed
+toward one another, even though non-progressive conditions gave
+evidence that they had probably reached the terminal bud of progress of
+their branch of the human race.
+
+As to what would have been the outcome of this civilization had not the
+ruthless hand of the Spaniard destroyed it, is a matter of conjecture.
+How interesting it would have been if these people could have remained
+unmolested for 400 years as an example of progress or retardation of a
+race.  Students then could, through observation, have learned a great
+lesson concerning the development of the human race.  Is it possible
+when a branch of the human race has only so much potential power based
+upon hereditary development, upon attitude toward life, and upon
+influence of environmental conditions, that after working out its
+normal existence it grows old and decays and dies, just as even the
+sturdy oak has its normal life {190} and decay?  At any rate, it seems
+that the history of the human race repeats itself over and over again
+with thousands of examples of this kind.  When races become highly
+specialized along certain lines and are unadaptable along other lines,
+changes in climate, soil, food supply, or conflict with other races
+cause them to perish.
+
+If we admit this to be the universal fate of tribes and races, there is
+one condition in which the normal life of the race can be prolonged,
+and that is by contact with other races which bring in new elements,
+and make new accommodations, not only through biological heredity, but
+through social heredity which causes a new lease of life to the tribe.
+Of course the deteriorating effects of a race of less culture would
+have a tendency to shorten the spiritual if not the physical life of
+the race.  Whatever conjecture we may have as to the past and the
+probable future of such a race, it is evident that the Peruvians had
+made a strong and vigorous attempt at civilization.  Their limited
+environment and simple life were not conducive to progressive ideas,
+and gave little inducement for inventive genius to lead the race
+forward.  But even as we find them, the sum-total of their civilization
+compares very favorably with the sum-total of the civilization of the
+Spaniards, who engaged to complete their destruction.  Different were
+these Spaniards in culture and learning, it is true, but their great
+difference is in the fact that the Spaniards had the tools and
+equipment for war and perhaps a higher state of military organization
+than the peace-loving Peruvians.
+
+_Aztec Civilization in Mexico_.--When Cortez in 1525 began his conquest
+of Mexico, he found a strong political organization under the Emperor
+Montezuma, who had through conquest, diplomacy, and assumption of power
+united all of the tribes in and around Mexico City in a strong
+federation.  These people were made up of many different tribes.  At
+this period they did not show marked development in any particular
+line, except that of social organization.  The people that occupied
+this great empire ruled by Montezuma, with the seat of power {191} at
+Mexico City, were called Aztecs.  The empire extended over all of lower
+Mexico and Yucatan.  As rapidly as possible Montezuma brought adjacent
+tribes into subjection, and at the time of the Spanish conquest he
+exercised lordship over a wide country.  So far as can be ascertained,
+arts and industries practised by most of these tribes were handed down
+from extinct races that had a greater inventive genius and a higher
+state of progress.  The conquering tribes absorbed and used the arts of
+the conquered, as the Greeks did those of the conquered Aegeans.
+
+The practice of agriculture, of the industrial arts, such as clothing,
+pottery, and implements of use and ornaments for adornment, showed
+advancement in industrial life.  They built large temples and erected
+great buildings for the worship of their gods.  There was something in
+their worship bordering on sun-worship, although not as distinctive as
+the sun-worship of the Peruvians.  They were highly developed in the
+use of gold and copper, and produced a good quality of pottery.  They
+had learned the art of decorating the pottery, and their temples also
+were done in colors and in bas-relief.  They had developed a language
+of merit and had a hieroglyphic expression of the same.  They had a
+distinct mythology, comprising myths of the sun and of the origin of
+various tribes, the origin of the earth and of man.  They had developed
+the idea of charity, and had a system of caring for the poor, with
+hospitals for the sick.  Notwithstanding this altruistic expression,
+they offered human sacrifices of maidens to their most terrible god.
+
+As before stated, there were many tribes, consequently many languages,
+although some of them were near enough alike that members of different
+tribes could be readily understood.  Also the characteristic traits
+varied in different tribes.  It is not known whence they came, although
+their tradition points to the origin of the northwest.  Undoubtedly,
+each tribe had a myth of its own origin, but, generally speaking, they
+all came from the northwest.  Without doubt, at the time of the coming
+of the Spaniards, the tribes were non-progressive except in {192}
+government.  The coming of the Spaniards was a rude shock to their
+civilization, and with a disintegration of the empire, the spirit of
+thrift and endeavor was quenched.  They became, as it were, slaves to a
+people with so-called higher civilization, who at least had the tools
+with which to conquer if they had not higher qualities of human
+character than those of the conquered.
+
+_The Earliest Centres of Civilization in Mexico_.--Prior to the
+formation of the empire of the Aztecs, conquered by the Spaniards,
+there existed in Mexico centres of development of much greater
+antiquity.  The more important among these were Yucatan and Mitla.  A
+large number of the ruins of these ancient villages have been
+discovered and recorded.  The groups of people who developed these
+contemporary civilizations were generally known as Toltecs.  The Maya
+race, the important branch of the Toltecs, which had its highest
+development in Yucatan, was supposed to have come from a territory
+northeast of Mexico City, and traces of its migrations are discovered
+leading south and east into Yucatan.  It is not known at what period
+these developments began, but probably their beginnings might have been
+traced back to 15,000 years, although the oldest known tablet found
+gives a record of 202 years B.C.  Other information places their coming
+much later, at about 387 A.D.
+
+All through Central America and southern Mexico ruins of these ancient
+villages have been discovered.  While the civilizations of all were
+contemporaneous, different centres show different lines of development.
+There is nothing certain concerning the origin of the Toltecs, and they
+seemed to have practically disappeared so far as independent tribal
+life existed after their conquest by the Aztecs, although the products
+of their civilization were used by many other tribes that were living
+under the Aztec rule, and, indeed, traces of their civilization exist
+to-day in the living races of southern and central Mexico.  Tradition
+states that the Toltecs reached their highest state of power between
+the seventh and the twelfth {193} centuries, but progress in the
+interpretation of their hieroglyphics gives us but few permanent
+records.  The development of their art was along the line of heavy
+buildings with bas-reliefs and walls covered with inscriptions
+recording history and religious symbols.  One bas-relief represents the
+human head, with the facial angle shown at forty-five degrees.  It was
+carved in stone of the hardest composition and was left unpainted.
+
+Ethnologists have tried repeatedly and in vain to show there was a
+resemblance of this American life to the Egyptian civilization.  In
+art, architecture, and industry, in worship and the elements of
+knowledge, there may be some resemblance to Egyptian models, but there
+is no direct evidence sufficient to connect these art products with
+those of Egypt or to assume that they must have come from the same
+centre.  The construction of pyramids and terraces on a large scale
+does remind us of the tendency of the Oriental type of civilization.
+In all of their art, however, there was a symmetrical or conventional
+system which demonstrated that the indigenous development must have
+been from a common centre.  Out of the fifty-two cities that have been
+explored which exhibit the habitations of the Toltec civilization, many
+exhibit ruins of art and architecture worthy of study.
+
+In the construction of articles for use and ornament, copper and gold
+constituted the chief materials, and there was also a great deal of
+pottery.  The art of weaving was practised, and the soil cultivated to
+a considerable extent.  The family life was well developed, though
+polygamy appears to have been practised as a universal custom.  The
+form of government was the developed family of the patriarchal type,
+and, where union of tribes had taken place, an absolute monarchy
+prevailed.  War and conquest here, as in all other places where contact
+of tribes appeared, led to slavery.  The higher classes had a large
+number of slaves, probably taken as prisoners of war.  This indicates a
+degree of social progress in which enemies were preserved for slavery
+rather than exterminated in war.  Their laws and regulations indicate a
+high sense of {194} justice in establishing the relationship of
+individuals within the tribe or nation.  These people were still in the
+later Neolithic Age, but with signs of departure from this degree of
+civilization in the larger use of the metals.  There were some
+indications that bronze might have been used in making ornaments.
+Perhaps they should be classified in the later Neolithic Age of the
+upper status of barbarism.  Recent excavations in Central America,
+Yucatan, and more recently in the valley near Mexico City, have brought
+to light many new discoveries.  Representations of early and later
+cultures show a gradual progress in the use of the arts, some of the
+oldest of which show a great resemblance to the early Mongolian culture
+of Asia.
+
+_The Pueblo Indians of the Southwest_.--In northern Mexico and Arizona
+there are remains of ancient buildings which seem to indicate that at
+one time a civilization existed here that has long since become
+extinct.  Long before the arrival of the Spaniards, irrigation was
+practised in this dry territory.  Indeed, in the Salt River valley of
+Arizona, old irrigation ditches were discovered on the lines of which
+now flow the waters that irrigate the modern orchards and vineyards.
+The discoveries in recent years in the southwest territory indicate
+that this ancient civilization had been destroyed by the warlike tribes
+that were ever ready to take possession of centres of culture and
+possess or destroy the accumulation of wealth of the people who toiled.
+If one could fill in the missing links of history with his imagination,
+it would be easy to conjecture that the descendants of these people
+fled to the mountains, and became the Cliff-Dwellers of the Southwest.
+These people built their homes high on the cliffs, in caves or on
+projecting prominences.  Here they constructed great communal
+dwellings, where they could defend themselves against all enemies.
+They were obliged to procure their food and water from the valley, and
+to range over the surrounding _mesas_ in the hunt.  Gradually they
+stole down out of the cliffs to live in the valleys and built large
+communal houses, many of which now are in existence in this territory.
+
+{195}
+
+These people have several centres of civilization which are similar in
+general, but differ in many particulars.  They are classed as Pueblo
+Indians.  Among these centres are the Hopi Indians, the Zuñian, Taoan,
+Shoshonean, and many others.[1]  The pre-history of these widely
+extended groups of Indians is not known, but in all probability they
+have been crowded into this southwest arid region by warlike tribes,
+and for the shelter and protection of the whole tribe have built large
+houses of stone or adobe.  The idea of protection seems to have been
+the dominant one in building the cliff houses and the adobe houses of
+the plain.  The latter were entered by means of ladders placed upon the
+wall, so that they could ascend from one story to another.  The first
+story had no doors or windows, but could be entered by means of a
+trap-door.
+
+The Pueblos were, as a rule, people of low stature, but of an
+intelligent and pleasing appearance.  They dressed in cotton goods or
+garments woven from the fibre of the yucca plant, or from coarse bark,
+and later, under Spanish rule, from specially prepared wool.  Their
+feet were protected by sandals made from the yucca, or moccasins from
+deer or rabbit skins.  Leggings coming above the knee were formed by
+wrapping long strips of buckskin around the leg.  The women and men
+dressed very much alike.  The women banged their hair to the eyebrows,
+allowing it to hang loosely behind, although in some instances maidens
+dressed their hair with two large whirls above the ears.  The Zuñi
+Indians practised this custom after the coming of the Spaniards.
+
+The Pueblos were well organized into clans, and descent in the female
+line was recognized.  The clans were divided usually into the north,
+south, east, and west clans by way of designation, showing that the
+communal idea had been established with recognition of government by
+locality.  Here, as elsewhere among the American aborigines, the clans
+were named after the animals chosen as their totem, but there were in
+addition {196} to these ordinary clans, the Sun clan, the Live Oak, the
+Turquoise, or others named from objects of nature.  Each group of clans
+was governed by a priest chief, who had authority in all religious
+matters and, consequently, through religious influences, had large
+control in affairs pertaining to household government, and to social
+and political life in general.  The duties and powers of these chiefs
+were carefully defined.  The communal houses in which the people lived
+were divided into apartments for different clans and families.  In some
+instances there was a common dining-hall for the members of the tribe.
+The men usually resided outside of the communal house, but came to the
+common dining-hall for their meals.
+
+There were many secret societies among these people which seemed to
+mingle religious and political sentiments.  The members of these
+societies dwelt to a large extent in the Estufa, or Kiva, a large
+half-subterranean club-house where they could meet in secret.  In every
+large tribe there were four to seven of these secret orders, and they
+were recognized as representing the various organizations.  These "cult
+societies," so called by Mr. Powell, had charge of the mythical rites,
+the spirit lore, the mysteries, and the medicines of the part of the
+tribe which they represented.  They conducted the ceremonies at all
+festivals and celebrations.  It is difficult to determine the exact
+nature of their religion.  It was a worship full of superstition,
+recognizing totemism and direct connection with the spirits of nature.
+Their religion was of a joyous nature, and always was associated with
+their games and feasts.  The games were usually given in the
+celebration of some great event, or for some economic purpose, and were
+accompanied with dancing, music, pantomime, and symbolism.  Perhaps of
+all of the North American Indians, the Pueblos showed the greatest
+fondness for music and had made some advancement in the arts of poetry
+and song.  The noted snake dance, the green-corn dance, and the cachina
+all had at foundation an economic purpose.  They were done ostensibly
+to gain the favor of the gods of nature.
+
+{197}
+
+When discovered by the Spaniards, the Pueblos had made good beginnings
+in agriculture and the industrial arts, were living in a state of peace
+and apparently contented, there seeming to be little war between the
+tribes.  Their political organization in connection with the secret
+societies and their shamanistic religion gave them a good development
+of social order.  After nearly 400 years of Spanish and American rule,
+they appear to have retained many of their original traits and
+characteristics, and cherish their ancient customs.  Apparently the
+Spanish and the American civilization is merely a gloss over their
+ancient life which they seek every opportunity to express.  They are
+to-day practically non-assimilative and live to a large extent their
+own life in their own way, although they have adopted a few of the
+American customs.  While quite a large number of these villages are now
+to be seen very much in their primitive style of architecture and life,
+more than 3,000 architectural ruins in the Southwest, chiefly in
+Arizona and New Mexico, have been discovered.  Many of them are
+partially obscured in the drifting sands, but they show attempts at
+different periods by different people to build homes.  The devastation
+of flood and famine and the destruction of warlike tribes retarded
+their progress and caused their extinction.  The Pueblo Indians were in
+the middle status of barbarism when the Spaniards arrived, and there
+they would have remained forever or become extinct had not the Spanish
+and American civilizations overtaken them.  Even now self-determined
+progress seems not to possess them.  However, through education the
+younger generations are being slowly assimilated into American life.
+But it appears that many generations will pass before their tribal life
+is entirely absorbed into a common democracy.
+
+_The Mound-Builders of the Mississippi Valley_.--At the coming of the
+Europeans this ancient people had nearly all disappeared.  Only a few
+descendants in the southern part of the great valley of the Mississippi
+represented living traces of the Mound-Builders.  They had left in
+their burial mounds {198} and monuments many relics of a high type of
+the Neolithic civilization which they possessed.  As to their origin,
+history has no direct evidence.  However, they undoubtedly were part of
+that great stream of early European migration to America which
+gradually spread down the Ohio valley and the upper Mississippi.  At
+what time they flourished is not known, although their civilization was
+prehistoric when compared with that of the Algonquins, Athabascans, and
+Iroquois tribes that were in existence at the time of the coming of the
+Europeans.  Although the tradition of these Indians traces them to the
+Southwest, and that they became extinct by being driven out by more
+savage and more warlike people, whence they came and whither they went
+are both alike open to conjecture.
+
+Their civilization was not very different from that of many other
+tribes of North American Indians.  Their chief characteristic consisted
+in the building of extensive earth mounds as symbolical of their
+religious and tribal life.  They also built immense enclosures for the
+purpose of fortification.  Undoubtedly on the large mounds were
+originally built public houses or dwellings or temples for worship or
+burial.  Those in the form of a truncated pyramid were used for the
+purposes of building sites for temples and dwellings, and those having
+circular bases and a conical shape were used as burial places.
+
+Besides these two kinds was another, called effigy mounds, which
+represented the form of some animal or bird, which undoubtedly was the
+totem of the tribe.  These latter mounds were seldom more than three or
+four feet high, but were of great extent.  They indicated the unity of
+the gens, either by representing it through the totem or a mythical
+ancestry.  Other mounds of less importance were used in religious
+worship, namely, for the location of the altar to be used for
+sacrificial purposes.  All were used to some extent as burial mounds.
+Large numbers of their implements made of quartz, chert, bone, and
+slate for the household and for the hunt have been found.  They used
+copper to some extent, which was obtained in a free or native state and
+hammered into implements and ornaments.
+
+{199}
+
+Undoubtedly, the centre of the distribution of copper was the Lake
+Superior region, which showed that there was a diffusion of cultures
+from this centre at this early period.  They made some progress in
+agriculture, cultivating maize and tobacco.  Apparently their commerce
+with surrounding tribes was great, which no doubt gave them a variety
+of means of life.  The pottery, judging from specimens that have been
+preserved, was inferior to that of the Mexicans or the Arizona Indians,
+but, nevertheless, in the lower Mississippi fine collections of pottery
+showing beautiful lines and a large number of designs were found.  It
+fills one with wonder that a tribe of such power should have begun the
+arts of civilization and developed a powerful organization, and then
+have been so suddenly destroyed--why or how is not known.  In all
+probability it is the old story of a sedentary group being destroyed by
+the more hardy, savage, and warlike conquerors.
+
+_Other Types of Indian Life_.--While the great centres of culture were
+found in Peru, Central America, Mexico, southwest United States, and
+the Mississippi valley, there were other cultures of a less pronounced
+nature worthy of mention.  On the Pacific coast, in the region around
+Santa Barbara, are the relics of a very ancient tribe of Indians who
+had developed some skill in the making of pottery and exhibit other
+forms of industrial life.  Recently an ancient skeleton has been
+discovered which seems to indicate a life of great antiquity.
+Nevertheless, it is a lower state of civilization than those of the
+larger centres already mentioned.  Yet it is worthy of note that there
+was here started a people who had adopted village habits and attained a
+considerable degree of progress.  Probably they were contemporary with
+other people of the most ancient civilizations of America.
+
+So far as the advancement of government is concerned, the Iroquois
+Indians of Canada and New York showed considerable advancement.  As
+represented by Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, who made a careful study of the
+Iroquois, their tribal divisions and their federation of tribes show an
+advancement along {200} governmental lines extending beyond the mere
+family or tribal life.  Their social order showed civil progress, and
+their industrial arts, in agriculture especially, were notable.
+
+_Why Did the Civilization of America Fail?_--There is a popular theory
+that the normal advancement of the Indian races of America was arrested
+or destroyed by the coming of the Europeans.  Undoubtedly the contact
+of the higher civilization with the latter had much to do with the
+hastening of the decay of the former.  The civilizations were so widely
+apart that it was not easy for the primitive or retarded race to adopt
+the civilization of the more advanced.  But when it is assumed that if
+the Europeans had never come to the American continent, native tribes
+and races would eventually, of their own initiative, develop a high
+state of civilization, such an assumption is not well founded, because
+at the time of the coming of the Europeans there was no great show of
+progress.  It seems as if no branch of the race could go forward very
+far without being destroyed by more warlike tribes.  Or, if let alone,
+they seemed to develop a stationary civilization, reaching their limit,
+beyond which they could not go.  As the races of Europe by
+specialization along certain lines became inadaptable to new conditions
+and passed away to give place to others, so it appears that this was
+characteristic of the civilization of America.  Evidently the
+prehistoric Peruvians, Mexicans, Pueblos, and Mound-Builders had
+elements of civilization greater than the living warring Indian tribes
+which came in contact with the early European settlers in America.
+
+It may not be wise to enter a plea that all tribes and races have their
+infancy, youth, age, and decay, with extinction as their final lot, but
+it has been repeated so often in the history of the human race that one
+may assume it to be almost, if not quite, universal.  The momentum of
+racial power gained by biological heredity and social achievement,
+reaches its limit when it can no longer adapt itself to new conditions,
+with the final end and inevitable result of extinction.
+
+The Nordic race, with all of its vigor and persistency, has {201} had a
+long and continuous life on account of its roving disposition and its
+perpetual contact with new conditions of its own choice.  It has always
+had power to overcome, and its vigor has kept it exploiting and
+inventing and borrowing of others the elements of civilization, which
+have continually forced it forward.  When it, too, reaches a state when
+it cannot adapt itself to new conditions, perhaps it will give way to
+some other branch of the human race, which, gathering new strength or
+new vigor from sources not available to the Nordic, will be able to
+overpower it; but the development of science and art with the power
+over nature, is greater in this race than in any other, and the
+maladies which destroy racial life are less marked than in other races.
+It would seem, then, that it still has great power of continuance and
+through science can adapt itself to nature and live on.
+
+But what would the American Indian have contributed to civilization?
+Would modern civilization have been as far advanced as now, had the
+Europeans found no human life at all on the American continent?  True,
+the Europeans learned many things of the Indians regarding cultivation
+of maize and tobacco, and thus increased their food supply, but would
+they not have learned this by their own investigations, had there been
+no Indians to teach?  The arts of pottery have been more highly
+developed by the Etruscans, the Aegeans, and the Greeks than by the
+American Indians.  The Europeans had long since passed the Stone Age
+and entered the Iron Age, which they brought to the American Indians.
+But the studies of ethnology have been greatly enlarged by the fact of
+these peculiar and wonderful people, who exhibited so many traits of
+nobility of character in life.  Perhaps it would not be liberal to say
+the world would have been just as well off had they never existed.  At
+any rate, we are glad of the opportunity to study what their life was
+and what it was worth to them, and also its influence on the life and
+character of the Europeans.
+
+The most marked phases of this civilization are found in the
+development of basketry and pottery, and the exquisite work {202} in
+stone implements.  Every conceivable shape of the arrow-head, the
+spear, the stone axe and hammer, the grinding board for grains, the
+bow-and-arrow, is evidence of the skill in handiwork of these primitive
+peoples.  Also, the skill in curing and tanning hides for clothing, and
+the methods of hunting and trapping game are evidences of great skill.
+Perhaps, also, there is something in the primitive music of these
+people which not only is worthy of study but has added something to the
+music culture of more advanced peoples.  At least, if pressed to learn
+the real character of man, we must go to primitive peoples and
+primitive life and customs.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What contributions did the American Indians make to European
+civilization?
+
+2.  What are the chief physical and mental traits of the Indian?
+
+3.  What is the result of education of the Indian?
+
+4.  How many Indians are there in the United States?  (_a_) Where are
+they located?  (_b_) How many children in school?  Where?
+
+5.  If the Europeans made a better use of the territory than did the
+Indians, had the Europeans the right to dispossess them?  Did they use
+the right means to gain possession?
+
+6.  Study an Indian tribe of your own selection regarding customs,
+habits, government, religion, art, etc.
+
+
+
+[1] Recent discoveries in Nevada and Utah indicate a wide territorial
+extension of the Pueblo type.
+
+
+
+
+{205}
+
+_PART IV_
+
+WESTERN CIVILIZATION
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE OLD GREEK LIFE
+
+_The Old Greek Life Was the Starting Point of Western
+Civilization_.--Civilization is a continuous movement--hence there is a
+gradual transition from the Oriental civilization to the Western.  The
+former finally merges into the latter.  Although the line of
+demarcation is not clearly drawn, some striking differences are
+apparent when the two are placed in juxtaposition.  Perhaps the most
+evident contrast is observed in the gradual freedom of the mind from
+the influences of tradition and religious superstition.  Connected with
+this, also, is the struggle for freedom from despotism in government.
+It has been observed how the ancient civilizations were characterized
+by the despotism of priests and kings.  It was the early privilege of
+European life to gradually break away from this form of human
+degradation and establish individual rights and individual development.
+Kings and princes, indeed, ruled in the Western world, but they learned
+to do so with a fuller recognition of the rights of the governed.
+There came to be recognized, also, free discussion as the right of
+people in the processes of government.  It is admitted that the
+despotic governments of the Old World existed for the few and neglected
+the many.  While despotism was not wanting in European civilization,
+the struggle to be free from it was the ruling spirit of the age.  The
+history of Europe centres around this struggle to be free from
+despotism and traditional learning, and to develop freedom of thought
+and action.
+
+Among Oriental people the idea of progress was wanting in their
+philosophy.  True, they had some notion of changes that take place in
+the conditions of political and social life, and in individual
+accomplishments, yet there was nothing hopeful in their presentation of
+the theory of life or in their practices {206} of religion; and the few
+philosophers who recognized changes that were taking place saw not in
+them a persistent progress and growth.  Their eyes were turned toward
+the past.  Their thoughts centred on traditions and things that were
+fixed.  Life was reduced to a dull, monotonous round by the great
+masses of the people.  If at any time a ray of light penetrated the
+gloom, it was turned to illuminate the accumulated philosophies of the
+past.  On the other hand, in European civilization we find the idea of
+progress becoming more and more predominant.  The early Greeks and
+Romans were bound to a certain extent by the authority of tradition on
+one side and the fixity of purpose on the other.  At times there was
+little that was hopeful in their philosophy, for they, too, recognized
+the decline in the affairs of men.  But through trial and error, new
+discoveries of truth were made which persisted until the revival of
+learning in the Middle Ages, at the time of the formation of new
+nations, when the ideas of progress became fully recognized in the
+minds of the thoughtful, and subsequently in the full triumph of
+Western civilization came the recognition of the possibility of
+continuous progress.
+
+Another great distinction in the development of European civilization
+was the recognition of humanity.  In ancient times humanitarian spirit
+appeared not in the heart of man nor in the philosophy of government.
+Even the old tribal government was for the few.  The national
+government was for selected citizens only.  Specific gods, a special
+religion, the privilege of rights and duties were available to a few,
+while all others were deprived of them.  This invoked a selfishness in
+practical life and developed a selfish system even among the leaders of
+ancient culture.  The broad principle of the rights of an individual
+because he was human was not taken into serious consideration even
+among the more thoughtful.  If he was friendly to the recognized god he
+was permitted to exist.  If he was an enemy, he was to be crushed.  On
+the other hand, the triumph of Western civilization is the recognition
+of the value of a human being and his right to engage in all human
+associations {207} for which he is fitted.  While the Greeks came into
+contact with the older civilizations of Egypt and Asia, and were
+influenced by their thought and custom, they brought a vigorous new
+life which gradually dominated and mastered the Oriental influences.
+They had sufficient vigor and independence to break with tradition,
+wherever it seemed necessary to accomplish their purpose of life.
+
+_The Aegean Culture Preceded the Coming of the Greeks_.--Spreading over
+the islands of the Aegean Sea was a pre-Greek civilization known as
+Minoan.  Its highest centre of development was in the Island of Crete,
+whose principal city was Cnossos.  Whence these people came and what
+their ethnological classification are still unsettled.[1]  They had a
+number of centres of development, which varied somewhat in type of
+culture.  They were a dark-haired people, who probably came from Africa
+or Asia Minor, settling in Crete about 5,000 years B.C.  It is thought
+by some that the Etruscans of Italy were of Aegean origin.  Prior to
+the Minoans there existed a Neolithic culture throughout the islands of
+Greece.
+
+In the great city of Cnossos, which was sacked and burned about the
+fourteenth century B.C., were found ruins which show a culture of
+relatively high degree.  By the excavations in Crete at this point a
+stratum of earth twenty feet thick was discovered, in which were found
+evidences of all grades of civilization, from the Neolithic implements
+to the highest Minoan culture.  Palaces with frescoes and carvings,
+ornaments formed of metal and skilfully wrought vases with significant
+colorings, all evinced a civilization worthy of intensive study.  These
+people had developed commerce and trade with Egypt, and their boats
+passed along the shores of the Mediterranean, carrying their
+civilization to Italy, northern Africa, and everywhere among the
+islands of Greece, as well as on the mainland.  The cause of the
+decline of their civilization is {208} not known, unless it could be
+attributed to the Greek pirates who invaded their territory, and
+possibly, like all nations that decline, they were beset by internal
+maladies which marked their future destiny.  Possibly, high
+specialization along certain lines of life rendered them unadaptable to
+new conditions, and they passed away because of this lack.
+
+_The Greeks Were of Aryan Stock_.--Many thousand years ago there
+appeared along the shores of the Baltic, at the beginning of the
+Neolithic period of culture, a group of people who seem to have come
+from central Asia.  It is thought by some that these were at least the
+forerunners of the great Nordic race.  Whatever conjectures there may
+be as to their origin, it is known that about 2,000 years before
+Christ, wandering tribes extended from the Baltic region far eastward
+to the Caspian Sea, to the north of Persia, down to the borderland of
+India.  These people were of Caucasian features, with fair hair and
+blue eyes--a type of the Nordic race.  They were known as the Aryan
+branch of the Caucasian race.  Whether this was their primitive abode,
+or whether their ancestors had come at a much earlier time from a
+central home in northern Africa, which is considered by ethnologists as
+the centre from which developed the Caucasian race, is not known.
+
+They were not a highly cultured people, but were living a nomadic life,
+engaged in hunting, fishing, piratical exploits, and carrying on
+agriculture intermittently.  They had also become acquainted with the
+use of metals, having passed during this period from the Neolithic into
+the Bronze Age.  About the year 1500 B.C. they had become acquainted
+with iron, and about the same time had come into possession of the
+horse, probably through their contact with central Asia.
+
+The social life of these people was very simple.  While they
+undoubtedly met and mingled with many tribes, they had a language
+sufficiently common for ordinary intercourse.  They had no writing or
+means of records at all, but depended upon the recital of deeds of
+warriors and nations and tribes.  Wherever the Aryan people have been
+found, whether in Greece, {209} Italy, Germany, along the Danube,
+central Asia, or India, they have been noted for their epics, sagas,
+and vedas, which told the tales of historic deeds and exploits of the
+tribal or national life.  It is thought that this was the reason they
+developed such a strong and beautiful language.
+
+They came in contact with Semitic civilization in northern Persia, with
+the primitive tribes in Italy, with the Dravidian peoples of India, and
+represented the vigorous fighting power of the Scythians, Medes, and
+Persians.  They or their kindred later moved up the Danube into Spain
+and France, with branches into Germany and Russia, and others finally
+into the British Islands.  It was a branch of these people that came
+into the Grecian peninsula and overthrew and supplanted the Aegean
+civilization--where they were known as the Greeks.
+
+_The Coming of the Greeks_.--It is not known when they came down
+through Asia Minor.  Not earlier than 2000 B.C. nor later than 1500
+B.C. the invasion began.  In successive waves came the Phrygians,
+Aeolians, the Ionians, and the Dorians--different divisions of the same
+race.  Soon they spread over the mainland of Greece and all the
+surrounding islands, and established their trading cities along the
+borders of the Mediterranean Sea.  These people, though uncultured,
+seemed to absorb culture wherever they went.  They learned the methods
+of the civilization that had been established in the Orient wherever
+they came in contact with other peoples, and also in the Aegean
+country.  In fact, though they conquered and occupied the Aegean
+country, they took on the best of the Minoan civilization.[2]  As
+marauders, pirates, and conquerors, they were masterful, but they came
+in conflict with the ideas developed among the Semitic people of Asia
+and the Hamitic of Egypt.  Undoubtedly, this conquest of the Minoan
+civilization furnished the origin of many of the tales or folklore that
+afterward were woven into the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ by {210} Homer.
+It is not known how early in Greek life these songs originated, but it
+is a known fact that in the eighth century the Greeks were in
+possession of their epics, and at this period not only had conquered
+the Minoan civilization but had absorbed it so far as they had use for
+it.
+
+They came into this territory in the form of the old tribal government,
+with their primitive social customs, and as they settled in different
+parts of the territory in tribes, they developed independent
+communities of a primitive sort.  They had what was known in modern
+historical literature as the village community, which was always found
+in the primitive life of the Aryans.  Their mode of life tended to
+develop individualism, and when the group life was established, it
+became independent and was lacking in co-operation--that is, it became
+a self-sufficient social order.  Later in the development of the Greek
+life the individual, so far as political organization goes, was
+absorbed in the larger state, after it had developed from the old Greek
+family life.  These primitive Greeks soon had a well-developed
+language.  They began systematic agriculture, became skilled in the
+industrial arts, domesticated animals, and had a pure home life with
+religious sentiments of a high order.  Wherever they went they carried
+with them the characteristics of nation-building and progressive life.
+They mastered the earth and its contents by living it down with force
+and vigor.
+
+The Greek peninsula was favorably situated for development.  Protected
+on the north by a mountain range from the rigors of a northern climate
+and from the predatory tribes, with a range of mountains through the
+centre, with its short spurs cutting the entire country into valleys,
+in which were developed independent community states, circumstances
+were favorable to local self-government of the several tribes.  This
+independent social life was of great importance in the development of
+Greek thought.  In the north the grains and cereals were grown, and in
+the south the citrus and the orange.  This wide range from a temperate
+to a semi-tropical climate {211} furnished a variety of fruits and
+diversity of life which gave great opportunity for development.  The
+variety of scenery caused by mountain and valley and proximity to the
+sea, the thousand islands washed by the Aegean Sea, brought a new life
+which tended to impress the sensitive mind of the Greek and to develop
+his imagination and to advance culture in art.
+
+_Character of the Primitive Greeks_.--The magnificent development of
+the Greeks in art, literature, philosophy, and learning, together with
+the fortunate circumstance of having powerful writers, gives us rather
+an exaggerated notion of the Greeks, if we attempt to apply a lofty
+manner and a magnificent culture to the Homeric period.  They had a
+good deal of piratical boldness, and, after the formation of their
+small states, gave examples of spurts of courage such as that at
+Marathon and Thermopylae.  Yet these evidences were rare exceptions
+rather than the rule, for even the Spartan, trained on a military
+basis, seldom evinced any great degree of bravery.  Perhaps the gloomy
+forebodings of the future, characteristic of the Greeks, made them fear
+death, and consequently caused them to lack in courage.  However, this
+is a disputed point.  Pages of the earlier records are full of the
+sanction of deception of enemies, friends, and strangers.  Evidently,
+there was a low moral sense regarding truth.  While the Greek might be
+loyal to his family and possibly to his tribe, there are many examples
+of disloyalty to one another, and, in the later development, a
+disloyalty of one state toward another.  Excessive egoism seems to have
+prevailed, and this principle was extended to the family and local
+government group.  Each group appeared to look out for its own
+interests, irrespective of the welfare of others.  How much a united
+Greece might have done to have continued the splendors and the service
+of a magnificent civilization is open to conjecture.
+
+The Greeks were not sympathetic with children nor with the aged.  Far
+from being anxious to preserve the life of the aged, their greatest
+trouble was in disposing of them.  The honor and rights of women were
+not observed.  In war women {212} were the property of their captors.
+Yet the home life of the Greeks seems to have been in its purity and
+loyalty an advance on the Oriental home life.  In their treatment of
+servants and slaves, in the care of the aged and helpless, the Greeks
+were cold and without compassion.  While the poets, historians, and
+philosophers have been portraying with such efficiency the character of
+the higher classes; while they have presented such a beautiful exterior
+of the old Greek life; the Greeks, in common with other primitive
+peoples, were not lacking in coarseness, injustice, and cruelty in
+their internal life.  Here, as elsewhere in the beginnings of
+civilization, only the best of the real and the ideal of life was
+represented, while the lower classes were suffering a degraded life.
+
+The family was closely organized in Greece.  Monogamic marriage and the
+exclusive home life prevailed at an early time.  The patriarchal
+family, in which the oldest male member was chief and ruler, was the
+unit of society.  Within this group were the house families, formed
+whenever a separate marriage took place and a separate altar was
+erected.  The house religion was one of the characteristic features of
+Greek life.  Each family had its own household gods, its own worship,
+its private shrine.  This tended to unify the family and promote a
+sacred family life.  A special form of ancestral worship, from the
+early Aryan house-spirit worship, prevailed to a certain extent.  The
+worship of the family expanded with the expansion of social life.  Thus
+the gens, and the tribe, and the city when founded, had each its
+separate worship.  Religion formed a strong cement to bind the
+different social units of a tribe together.  The worship of the Greeks
+was associated with the common meal and the pouring of libations to the
+gods.
+
+As religion became more general, it united to make a more common social
+practice, and in the later period of Greek life was made the basis of
+the games and general social gatherings.  Religion brought the Greeks
+together in a social way, and finally led to the mutual advantage of
+members of society.  {213} Later, mutual advantage superseded religion
+in its practice.  The Greeks, at an early period, attempted to explain
+the origin of the earth and unknown phenomena by referring it to the
+supernatural powers.  Every island had its myth, every phenomenon its
+god, and every mountain was the residence of some deity.  They sought
+to find out the causes of the creation of the universe, and developed a
+theogony.  There was the origin of the Greeks to be accounted for, and
+then the origin of the earth, and the relation of man to the deities.
+Everything must be explained, but as the imagination was especially
+strong, it was easier to create a god as a first cause than to
+ascertain the development of the earth by scientific study.
+
+_Influence of Old Greek Life_.--In all of the traditions and writings
+descriptive of the old Greek social life, with the exception of the
+_Works and Days_ of Hesiod, the aristocratic class appears uppermost.
+Hesiod "pictures a hopeless and miserable existence, in which care and
+the despair of better things tended to make men hard and selfish and to
+blot out those fairer features which cannot be denied to the courts and
+palaces of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_."  It appears that the foundation
+of aristocracy--living in comparative luxury, in devotion to art and
+the culture of life--was early laid by the side of the foundation of
+poverty and wretchedness of the great mass of the people.  While, then,
+the Greeks derived from their ancestry the beautiful pictures of heroic
+Greece, they inherited the evils of imperfect social conditions.  As we
+pass to the historical period of Greece, these different phases of life
+appear and reappear in changeable forms.  If to the nobleman life was
+full of inspiration; if poetry, religion, art, and politics gave him
+lofty thoughts and noble aspirations; to the peasant and the slave,
+life was full of misery and degradation.  If one picture is to be drawn
+in glowing colors, let not the other be omitted.
+
+The freedom from great centralized government, the development of the
+individual life, the influences of the early ideas of art and life, and
+the religious conceptions, were of great importance in shaping the
+Greek philosophy and the Greek {214} national character.  They had a
+tendency to develop men who could think and act.  It is not surprising,
+therefore, that the first real historical period was characterized by
+struggles of citizens within the town for supremacy.  Fierce quarrels
+between the upper and the lower classes prevailed everywhere, and
+resulted in developing an intense hatred of the former for the latter.
+This hatred and selfishness became the uppermost causes of action in
+the development of Greek social polity.  Strife led to compromise, and
+this in turn to the recognition of the rights and privileges of
+different classes.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  The Aegean culture.
+
+2.  The relation of Greek to Egyptian culture.
+
+3.  What were the great Greek masterpieces of (_a_) Literature, (_b_)
+Sculpture, (_c_) Architecture, (_d_) Art, (_e_) Philosophy?
+
+4.  Compare Greek democracy with American democracy.
+
+5.  What historical significance have Thermopylae, Marathon,
+Alexandria, Crete, and Delphi?
+
+
+
+[1] Sergi, in his _Mediterranean Race_, says that they came from N. E.
+Africa.  Beginning about 5000 years B.C., they gradually infiltrated
+the whole Mediterranean region.  This is becoming the general belief
+among ethnologists, archaeologists, and historians.
+
+[2] Recent studies indicate that some of the Cretan inscriptions are
+prototypes of the Greece-Phoenician alphabet.  The Phoenicians
+evidently derived the original characters of their alphabet from a
+number of sources.  The Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet about
+800-1000 B.C.
+
+
+
+
+{215}
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+GREEK PHILOSOPHY
+
+_The Transition from Theology to Inquiry_.--The Greek theology prepared
+the way for the Ionian philosophy.  The religious opinions led directly
+up to the philosophy of the early inquirers.  The Greeks passed slowly
+from accepting everything with a blind faith to the rational inquiry
+into the development of nature.  The beginnings of knowing the
+scientific causes were very small, and sometimes ridiculous, yet they
+were of immense importance.  To take a single step from the "age of
+credulity" toward the "age of reason" was of great importance to Greek
+progress.  To cease to accept on faith the statements that the world
+was created by the gods, and ordered by the gods, and that all
+mysteries were in their hands, and to endeavor to find out by
+observation of natural phenomena something of the elements of nature,
+was to gradually break from the mythology of the past as explanatory of
+the creation.  The first feeble attempt at this was to seek in a crude
+way the material structure and source of the universe.
+
+_Explanation of the Universe by Observation and Inquiry_.--The Greek
+mind had settled down to the fact that there was absolute knowledge of
+truth, and that cosmogony had established the method of creation; that
+theogony had accounted for the creation of gods, heroes, and men, and
+that theology had foretold their relations.  A blind faith had accepted
+what the imagination had pictured.  But as geographical study began to
+increase, doubts arose as to the preconceived constitution of the
+earth.  As travel increased and it was found that none of the terrible
+creatures that tradition had created inhabited the islands of the sea
+or coasts of the mainland, earth lost its terrors and disbelief in the
+system of established {216} knowledge prevailed.  Free inquiry was
+slowly substituted for blind credulity.
+
+This freedom of inquiry had great influence on the intellectual
+development of man.  It was the discovery of truth through the relation
+of cause and effect, which he might observe by opening his eyes and
+using his reason.  The development of theories of the universe through
+tradition and the imagination gave exercise to the emotions and
+beliefs; but change from faith in the fixity of the past to the future
+by observation led to intellectual development.  The exercise of faith
+and the imagination even in unproductive ways prepared the way for
+broader service of investigation.  But these standing alone could
+permit nothing more than a childish conception of the universe.  They
+could not discover the reign of law.  They could not advance the
+observing and reflecting powers of man; they could not develop the
+stronger qualities of his intellect.  Individual action would be
+continually stultified by the process of accepting through credulity
+the trite sayings of the ancients.  The attempt to find out how things
+were made was an acknowledgment of the powers of the individual mind.
+It was a recognition that man has a mind to use, and that there is
+truth around him to be discovered.  This was no small beginning in
+intellectual development.
+
+_The Ionian Philosophy Turned the Mind Toward Nature_.--Greek
+philosophy began in the seventh century before Christ.  The first
+philosopher of note was Thales, born at Miletus, in Asia Minor, about
+640 B.C.  Thales sought to establish the idea that water is the first
+principle and cause of the universe.  He held that water is filled with
+life and soul, the essential element in the foundation of all nature.
+Thales had great learning for his time, being well versed in geometry,
+arithmetic, and astronomy.  He travelled in Egypt and the Orient, and
+became acquainted with ancient lore.  It is said that being impressed
+with the importance of water in Egypt, where the Nile is the source of
+all life, he was led to assert the importance of water in animate
+nature.  In his attempts to break away from the {217} old cosmogony, he
+still exhibits traces of the old superstitions, for he regarded the sun
+and stars as living beings, who received their warmth and life from the
+ocean, in which they bathed at the time of setting.  He held that the
+whole world was full of soul, manifested in individual daemons, or
+spirits.  Puerile as his philosophy appears in comparison with the
+later development of Greek philosophy, it created violent antagonism
+with mythical theology and led the way to further investigation and
+speculation.
+
+Anaximander, born at Miletus 611 B.C., an astronomer and geographer,
+following Thales chronologically, wrote a book on "Nature," the first
+written on the subject in the philosophy of Greece.  He held that all
+things arose from the "infinite," a primordial chaos in which was an
+internal energy.  From a universal mixture things arose by separation,
+the parts once formed remaining unchanged.  The earth was cylindrical
+in shape, suspended in the air in the centre of the universe, and the
+stars and planets revolved around it, each fastened in a crystalline
+ring; the moon and sun revolved in the same manner, only at a farther
+distance.  The generation of the universe was by the action of
+contraries, by heat and cold, the moist and the dry.  From the moisture
+all things were originally generated by heat.  Animals and men came
+from fishes by a process of evolution.  There is evidence in his
+philosophy of a belief in the development of the universe by the action
+of heat and cold on matter.  It is also evident that the principles of
+biology and the theory of evolution are hinted at by this philosopher.
+Also, he was the first to observe the obliquity of the ecliptic; he
+taught that the moon received its light from the sun and that the earth
+is round.
+
+Anaximenes, born at Miletus 588 B.C., asserted that air was the first
+principle of the universe; indeed, he held that on it "the very earth
+floats like a broad leaf."  He held that air was infinite in extent;
+that it touched all things, and was the source of life of all.  The
+human soul was nothing but air, since life consists in inhaling and
+exhaling, and when this is no longer {218} continued death ensues.
+Warmth and cold arose from rarefaction and condensation, and probably
+the origin of the sun and planets was caused by the rarefaction of air;
+but when air underwent great condensation, snow, water, and hail
+appeared, and, indeed, with sufficient condensation, the earth itself
+was formed.  It was only a step further to suppose that the infinite
+air was the source of life, the god of the universe.
+
+Somewhat later Diogenes of Apollonia asserted that all things
+originated from one essence, and that air was the soul of the world,
+eternal and endowed with consciousness.  This was an attempt to explain
+the development of the universe by a conscious power.  It led to the
+suggestion of psychology, as the mind of man was conscious air.  "But
+that which has knowledge is what men call air; it is it that regulates
+all and governs all, and hence it is the use of air to pervade all, and
+to dispose all, and to be in all, for there is nothing that has not
+part in it."
+
+Other philosophers of this school reasoned or speculated upon the
+probable first causes in the creation.  In a similar manner Heraclitus
+asserted that fire was the first principle, and states as the
+fundamental maxim of his philosophy that "all is convertible into fire,
+and fire into all."  There was so much confusion in his doctrines as to
+give him the name of "The Obscure."  "The moral system of Heraclitus
+was based on the physical.  He held that heat developed morality,
+moisture immorality.  He accounted for the wickedness of the drunkard
+by his having a moist soul, and inferred that a warm, dry soul was
+noblest and best."
+
+Anaxagoras taught the mechanical processes of the universe, and
+advanced many theories of the origin of animal life and of material
+objects.  Anaxagoras was a man of wealth, who devoted all of his time
+and means to philosophy.  He recognized two principles, one material
+and the other spiritual, but failed to connect the two, and in
+determining causes he came into open conflict with the religion of the
+times, and asserted that the "divine miracles" were nothing more than
+natural {219} causes.  He was condemned for his atheism and thrown into
+prison, but, escaping, he was obliged to end his days in exile.
+
+Another notable example of the early Greek philosophy is found in
+Pythagoras, who asserted that number was the first principle.  He and
+his followers found that the "whole heaven was a harmony of number."
+The Pythagoreans taught that all comes from one, but that the odd
+number is finite, the even infinite; that ten was a perfect number.
+They sought for a criterion of truth in the relation of numbers.
+Nothing could exist or be formed without harmony, and this harmony
+depended upon number, that is, upon the union of contrary elements.
+The musical octave was their best example to illustrate their meaning.
+The union of the atoms in modern chemistry illustrates in full the
+principle of number after which they were striving.  It emphasized the
+importance of measurements in investigation.  Much more might be said
+about the elaborate system of the Pythagoreans; but the main principle
+herein stated must suffice.
+
+_The Weakness of Ionian Philosophy_.--Viewed from the modern standpoint
+of scientific research, the early philosophers of Greece appear puerile
+and insignificant.  They directed their thoughts largely toward nature,
+but instead of systematic observation and comparison they used the
+speculative and hypothetical methods to ascertain truth.  They had
+turned from the credulity of ancient tradition to simple faith in the
+mind to determine the nature and cause of the universe.  But this was
+followed by a scepticism as to the sense perception, a scepticism which
+could only be overcome by a larger observation of facts.  Simple as it
+appears, this process was an essential transition from the theology of
+the Greeks to the perfected philosophy built upon reason.  The attitude
+of the mind was of great value, and the attention directed to external
+nature was sure to turn again to man, and the supernatural.  While
+there is a mixture of the physical, metaphysical, and mystical, the
+final lesson to be learned is the recognition of reality of nature as
+external to mind.
+
+{220}
+
+_The Eleatic Philosophers_.--About 500 B.C., and nearly contemporary
+with the Pythagoreans, flourished the Eleatic philosophers, among whom
+Xenophanes, Parmenides, Zeno, and Melissus were the principal leaders.
+They speculated about the nature of the mind, or soul, and departed
+from the speculations respecting the origin of the earth.  The nature
+of the infinite and the philosophy of being suggested by the Ionian
+philosophers were themes that occupied the attention of this new
+school.  Parmenides believed in the knowledge of an absolute being, and
+affirmed the unity of thought and being.  He won the distinction of
+being the first logical philosopher among the Greeks, and was called
+the father of idealism.
+
+Zeno is said to have been the most remarkable of this school.  He held
+that if there was a distinction between _being_ and _not being_, only
+_being_ existed.  This led him to the final assumption that the laws of
+nature are unchangeable and God remains permanent.  His method of
+reasoning was to reduce the opposite to absurdity.
+
+Upon the whole, the Eleatic philosophy is one relating to knowledge and
+being, which considered thought primarily as dependent upon being.  It
+holds closely to monism, that is, that nature and mind are of the same
+substance; yet there is a slight distinction, for there is really a
+dualism expressed in knowledge and being.  Many other philosophers
+followed, who discoursed upon nature, mind, and being, but they arrived
+at no definite conclusions.  The central idea in the early philosophy
+up to this time was to account for the existence and substance of
+nature.  It gave little consideration to man in himself, and said
+little of the supernatural.  Everything was speculative in nature,
+hypothetical in proposition, and deductive in argument.  The Greek
+mind, departing from its dependence upon mythology, began boldly to
+assert its ability to find out nature, but ended in a scepticism as to
+its power to ascertain certainty.  There was a final determination as
+to the distinction of reality as external to mind, and this represents
+the best product of the early philosophers.
+
+{221}
+
+_The Sophists_.--Following the Eleatics was a group of philosophers
+whose principle characteristic was scepticism.  Man, not nature, was
+the central idea in their philosophy, and they changed the point of
+view from objective to subjective contemplation.  They accomplished
+very little in their speculation except to shift the entire attitude of
+philosophy from external nature to man.  They were interested in the
+culture of the individual, yet, in their psychological treatment of
+man, they relied entirely upon sense perception.  In the consideration
+of man's ethical nature they were individualistic, considering private
+right and private judgment the standards of truth.  They led the way to
+greater speculation in this subject and to a higher philosophy.
+
+_Socrates the First Moral Philosopher (b. 469 B.C.)_.--Following the
+sophists in the progressive development of philosophy, Socrates turned
+his attention almost exclusively to human nature.  He questioned all
+things, political, ethical, and theological, and insisted upon the
+moral worth of the individual man.  While he cast aside the nature
+studies of the early philosophy and repudiated the pseudo-wisdom of the
+sophists, he was not without his own interpretation of nature.  He was
+interested in questions pertaining to the order of nature and the wise
+adaptation of means to an end.  Nature is animated by a soul, yet it is
+considered as a wise contrivance for man's benefit rather than a
+living, self-determining organism.  In the subordination of all nature
+to the good, Socrates lays the foundation of natural theology.
+
+But the ethical philosophy of Socrates is more prominent and positive.
+He asserted that scientific knowledge is the sole condition to virtue;
+that vice is ignorance.  Hence virtue will always follow knowledge
+because they are a unity.  His ethical principles are founded on
+utility, the good of which he speaks is useful, and is the end of
+individual acts and aims.  Wisdom is the foundation of all virtues;
+indeed, every virtue is wisdom.
+
+Socrates made much of friendship and love, and thought temperance to be
+the fundamental virtue.  Without {222} temperance, men were not useful
+to themselves or to others, and temperance meant the complete mastery
+of self.  Friendship and love were cardinal points in the doctrine of
+ethical life.  The proper conduct of life, justice in the treatment of
+man by his fellow-man, and the observance of the duties of citizenship,
+were part of the ethical philosophy of Socrates.
+
+Beauty is only another name for goodness, but it is only a harmony or
+adaptation of means to an end.  The Socratic method of ascertaining
+truth by the art of suggestive questioning was a logical mode of
+procedure.  The meeting of individuals in conversation was a method of
+arriving at the truth of ethical conduct and ethical relations.  It was
+made up of induction and definition.  No doubt the spirit of his
+teaching was sceptical in the extreme.  While having a deeper sense of
+the reality of life than others, he realized that he did not know much.
+He criticized freely the prevailing beliefs, customs, and religious
+practice.  For this he was accused of impiety, and forced to drink the
+hemlock.  With an irony in manner and thought, Socrates introduced the
+problem of self-knowledge; he hastened the study of man and reason; he
+instituted the doctrine of true manhood as an essential part in the
+philosophy of life.  Conscience was enthroned, and the moral life of
+man began with Socrates.
+
+_Platonic Philosophy Develops the Ideal_.--Plato was the pupil of
+Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle.  These three represent the
+culmination of Greek philosophy.  In its fundamental principles the
+Platonic philosophy represents the highest flight of the mind in its
+conception of being and of the nature of mind and matter, entertained
+by the philosophers.  The doctrine of Plato consisted of three primary
+principles: matter, ideas, and God.  While matter is co-eternal with
+God, he created all animate and inanimate things from matter.  Plato
+maintained that there was a unity in design.  And as God was an
+independent and individual creator of the world, who fashioned the
+universe, and is father to all creatures, there was unity in God.
+Plato advanced the doctrine of reminiscences, {223} in which he
+accounted for what had otherwise been termed innate ideas.  Plato also
+taught, to a certain extent, the transmigration of souls.  He was
+evidently influenced in many ways by the Indian philosophy; but the
+special doctrine of Plato made ideas the most permanent of all things.
+Visible things are only fleeting shadows, which soon pass away; only
+ideas remain.  The universal concept, or notion, is the only real
+thing.  Thus the perfect globe is the concept held in the mind; the
+marble, ball, or sphere of material is only an imperfect representation
+of the same.  The horse is a type to which all individual horses tend
+to conform; they pass away, but the type remains.  His work was purely
+deductive.  His major premise was accepted on faith rather than
+determined by his reason.  Yet in philosophical speculations the
+immortality of the soul, future rewards and punishments, the unity of
+the creation and the unity of the creator, and an all-wise ruler of the
+universe, were among the most important points of doctrine.
+
+_Aristotle the Master Mind of the Greeks_.--While Aristotle and Plato
+sought to prove the same things, and agreed with each other on many
+principles of philosophy, the method employed by the former was exactly
+the reverse of that of the latter.  Plato founded his doctrine on the
+unity of all being, and observed the particular only through the
+universal.  For proof he relied on the intuitive and the synthetic.
+Aristotle, on the contrary, found it necessary to consider the
+particular in order that the universal might be established.  He
+therefore gathered facts, analyzed material, and discoursed upon the
+results.  He was patient and persistent in his investigations, and not
+only gave the world a great lesson by his example, but he obtained
+better results than any other philosopher of antiquity.  It is
+generally conceded that he showed the greatest strength of intellect,
+the deepest insight, the greatest breadth of speculative thought, and
+the clearest judgment of all philosophers, either ancient or modern.
+
+Perhaps his doctrine of the necessity of a final cause, or sufficient
+reason, which gives a rational explanation of individual {224} things,
+is Aristotle's greatest contribution to pure philosophy.  The doctrine
+of empiricism has been ascribed to Aristotle, but he fully recognized
+the universal, and thought it connected with the individual, and not
+separated from it, as represented by Plato.  The universal is
+self-determining in its individualization, and is, therefore, a process
+of identification rather than of differentiation.  The attention which
+Aristotle gave to fact as opposed to theory, to investigation as
+opposed to speculation, and to final cause, led men from a condition of
+necessity to that of freedom, and taught philosophers to substantiate
+their theories by reason and by fact.  There is no better illustration
+of his painstaking investigation than his writing 250 constitutional
+histories as the foundation of his work on "Politics."  In this
+masterly work will be found an exposition of political theories and
+practice worthy the attention of all modern political philosophers.
+The service given by Aristotle to the learning of the Middle Ages, and,
+in fact, to modern philosophy, was very great.
+
+Aristotle was of a more practical turn of mind than Plato.  While he
+introduced the formal syllogism in logic, he also introduced the
+inductive method.  Perhaps Aristotle represented the wisest and most
+learned of the Greeks, because he advanced beyond the speculative
+philosophy to a point where he attempted to substantiate theory by
+facts, and thus laid the foundation for comparative study.
+
+_Other Schools_.--The Epicureans taught a philosophy based upon
+pleasure-seeking--or, as it may be stated, making happiness the highest
+aim of life.  They said that to seek happiness was to seek the highest
+good.  This philosophy in its pure state had no evil ethical tendency,
+but under the bad influences of remote followers of Epicurus it led to
+the degeneration of ethical practice.  "Beware of excesses," says
+Epicurus, "for they will lead to unhappiness."  Beware of folly and
+sin, for they lead to wretchedness.  Nothing could have been better
+than this, until people began to follow sensuality as the immediate
+return of efforts to secure happiness.  Then it led to {225}
+corruption, and was one of the causes of the downfall of Greek as well
+as the Roman civilization.
+
+The Stoics were a group of philosophers who placed great emphasis upon
+ethics in comparison with logic and physics.  They looked on the world
+from the pessimistic side and made themselves happy by becoming
+martyrs.  They taught that suffering, the endurance of pain without
+complaint, was the highest virtue.  To them logic was the science of
+thought and of expression, physics was the science of nature, and
+ethics the science of the good.  All ideas originated from sensation,
+and perception was the only criterion of truth.  "We know only what we
+perceive (by sense); only those ideas contain certain knowledge for us
+which are ideas of real objects."  The soul of man was corporeal and
+material, hence physics and metaphysics were almost identical.  There
+is much incoherency in their philosophy; it abounds in paradoxes.  For
+instance, it recognizes sense as the criterion and source of knowledge,
+and asserts that reason is universal and knowable.  Yet it asserts that
+there is no rational element in sense that is universal.  It confuses
+individual human nature and universal nature, though its final result
+was to unite both in one concept.  The result of their entire
+philosophy was to create confusion, although they had much influence on
+the practical life.
+
+The Sceptics doubted all knowledge obtained by the senses.  There was
+no criterion of truth in the intellect, consequently no knowledge.  If
+truth existed it was in conduct, and thus the judgment must be
+suspended.  They held that there was nothing that could be determined
+of specific nature, nothing that could be of certainty.  Eventually the
+whole Greek philosophy went out in scepticism.  The three schools, the
+sceptic, the Epicurean, and the stoic, though widely differing in many
+ways, agreed upon one thing, in basing their philosophy on
+subjectivity, on mind rather than on objective nature.
+
+_Results Obtained in Greek Philosophy_.--The philosophical conclusions
+aimed at by the Greeks related to the origin and destiny of the world.
+The world is an emanation from God, {226} and in due time it will
+return to Him.  It may be considered as a part of the substance of God,
+or it may be considered as something objective proceeding from him.
+The visible world around us becomes thus but an expression of the God
+mind.  But as it came forth a thing of beauty, so it will return again
+to Him after its mission is fulfilled.  On the existence and attributes
+of God the Greeks dwelt with great force.  There is established first a
+unity of God, and this unity is the first cause in the creation.  To
+what extent this unity is independent and separate in existence from
+nature, is left in great doubt.  It was held that God is present
+everywhere in nature, though His being is not limited by time or space.
+Much of the philosophy bordered upon, if it did not openly avow, a
+belief in pantheism.  The highest conception recognizes design in
+creation, which would give an individual existence to the Creator.  Yet
+the most acute mind did not depart from the assumption of the idea of
+an all-pervading being of God extending throughout the universe,
+mingling with nature and to a certain extent inseparable from it.  In
+their highest conception the most favored of the Greeks were not free
+from pantheistic notions.
+
+The nature of the soul occupied much of the attention of the Greeks.
+They began by giving material characteristics to the mind.  They soon
+separated it in concept from material nature and placed it as a part of
+God himself, who existed apart from material form.  The soul has a past
+life, a present, and a future, as a final outcome of philosophical
+speculations.  The attributes of the soul were confused with the
+attributes of the Supreme Being.  These conceptions of the Divine Being
+and of the soul border on the Hindu philosophy.
+
+Perhaps the subject which caused the most discussion was the attempt to
+determine a criterion of truth.  Soon after the time when they broke
+away from the ancient religious faith, the thinkers of Greece began to
+doubt the ability of the mind to ascertain absolute truth.  This arose
+out of the imperfections of knowledge obtained through the senses.
+Sense perception {227} was held in much doubt.  The world is full of
+delusions.  Man thinks he sees when he does not.  The rainbow is but an
+illusion when we attempt to analyze it.  The eye deceives, the ear
+hears what does not exist; even touch and taste frequently deceive us.
+What, then, can be relied upon as accurate in determining knowledge?
+To this the Greek mind answers, "Nothing"; it reaches no definite
+conclusion, and this is the cardinal weakness of the philosophy.
+Indeed, the great weakness of the entire age of philosophy was want of
+data.  It was a time of intense activity of the mind, but the lack of
+data led to much worthless speculation.  The systematic method of
+scientific observation had not yet been discovered.
+
+But how could this philosophical speculation affect civilization?  It
+determined the views of life entertained by the Greeks, and human
+progress depended upon this.  The progress of the world depends upon
+the attitude of the human mind toward nature, toward man and his life.
+The study of philosophy developed the mental capacity of man, gave him
+power to cope with nature, and enhanced his possibility of right
+living.  More than this, it taught man to rely upon himself in
+explaining the origin and growth of the universe and the development of
+human life.  Though these points were gained only by the few and soon
+lost sight of by all, yet they were revived in after years, and placed
+man upon the right basis for improvement.
+
+The quickening impulse of philosophy had its influence on art and
+language.  The language of the Greeks stands as their most powerful
+creation.  The development of philosophy enlarged the scope of language
+and increased its already rich vocabulary.  Art was a representation of
+nature.  The predominance given to man in life, the study of heroes and
+gods, gave ideal creations and led to the expression of beauty.
+Philosophy, literature, language, and art, including architecture,
+represent the products of Greek civilization, and as such have been the
+lasting heritage of the nations that have followed.  The philosophy and
+practice of social life and government {228} received a high
+development in Greece.  They will be treated in a separate chapter.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What was the importance of Socrates' teaching?  Why was he put to
+death?
+
+2.  What has been the influence of Plato's teaching on modern life?
+
+3.  Why is Aristotle considered the greatest of the Greeks?
+
+4.  What was the influence of the library at Alexandria?
+
+5.  What caused the decline in Greek philosophy?
+
+6.  What was the influence on civilization of the Greek attitudes of
+mind toward nature?
+
+7.  Compare the use of Greek philosophy with modern science as to their
+value in education.
+
+
+
+
+{229}
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE GREEK SOCIAL POLITY
+
+_The Struggle for Greek Equality and Liberty_.--The greater part of the
+activity of Western nations has been a struggle for social equality and
+for political and religious liberty.  These phases of European social
+life are clearly discerned in the development of the Greek states.  The
+Greeks were recognized as having the highest intellectual culture and
+the largest mental endowments of all the ancients, characteristics
+which gave them great prestige in the development of political life and
+social philosophy.  The problem of how communities of people should
+live together, their relations to one another, and their rights,
+privileges, and duties, early concerned the philosophers of Greece; but
+more potent than all the philosophies that have been uttered, than all
+of the theories concerning man's social relation, is the vivid
+portrayal of the actual struggle of men to live together in community
+life, pictured in the course of Grecian history.
+
+In the presentation of this life, writers have differed much in many
+ways.  Some have eulogized the Greeks as a liberty-loving people, who
+sought to grant rights and duties to every one on an altruistic basis;
+others have pictured them as entirely egoistic, with a morality of a
+narrow nature, and with no sublime conception of the relation of the
+rights of humanity as such.  Without entering into a discussion of the
+various views entertained by philosophers concerning the
+characteristics of the Greeks, it may be said that, with all their
+noble characteristics, the ideal pictures which are presented to us by
+the poet, the philosopher, and the historian are too frequently of the
+few, while the great mass of the people remained in a state of
+ignorance, superstition, and slavery.  With a due recognition of the
+existence of the germs of democracy, {230} we find that Greece, after
+all, was in spirit an aristocracy.  There was an aristocracy of birth,
+of wealth, of learning, and of hereditary power.  While we must
+recognize the greatness of the Greek life in comparison with that of
+Oriental nations, it must still be evident to us that the best phases
+of this life and the magnificent features of Greek learning have been
+emphasized much by writers, while the wretched and debasing conditions
+of the people of Greece have seldom been recounted.
+
+_The Greek Government an Expanded Family_.--The original family was
+ruled by the father, who acted as king, priest, and lawgiver.  As long
+as life lasted he had supreme control over all members of his family,
+whether they were so by birth or adoption.  All that they owned, all of
+the products of their hands, all the wealth of the family, belonged to
+him; even their lives were at his disposal.
+
+As the family becomes stronger and is known as a gens, it represents a
+close, compact organization, looking after its own interests, and with
+definite customs concerning its own government.  As the gentes are
+multiplied they form tribes, and the oldest male member of the tribal
+group acts as its leader and king, while the heads of the various
+gentes thus united become his counsellors and advisers in later
+development, and the senate after democratic government organization
+takes place.  As time passes the head of this family is called a king
+or chief, and rules on the ground that he has descended from the gods,
+is under the divine protection, and represents the oldest aristocratic
+family in the tribe.
+
+In the beginning this tribal chief holds unlimited sway over all of his
+subjects.  But to maintain his power well he must be a soldier who is
+able to command the forces in war; he must be able to lead in the
+councils with the chiefs and, when occasion requires, discuss matters
+with the people.  Gradually passing from the ancient hereditary power,
+he reaches a stage when it becomes a custom to consult with all the
+chiefs of the tribe in the management of the affairs.  The earliest
+picture of Greek government represents a king who is equal in birth
+with {231} other heads of the gentes, presiding over a group of elders
+deliberating upon the affairs of the state.  The influence of the
+nobles over whom he presided must have been great.  It appears that the
+king or chief must convince his associates in council before any
+decision could be considered a success.
+
+The second phase of Greek government represents this same king as
+appearing in the assembly of all the people and presenting for their
+consideration the affairs of the state.  It is evident from this that,
+although he was a hereditary monarch, deriving his power from
+aristocratic lineage traced even to the gods themselves, he was
+responsible to the people for his government, and this principle
+extends all the way through the development of Greek social and
+political life.
+
+The right to free discussion of affairs in open council, the right to
+object to methods of procedure, were cardinal principles in Greek
+politics; but while the great mass of people were not taken into
+account in the affairs of the government, there was an equality among
+all those called citizens which had much to do with the establishment
+of the civil polity of all nations.  The whole Greek political life,
+then, represents the slow evolution from aristocratic government of
+hereditary chiefs toward a complete democracy, which unfortunately it
+failed to reach before the decline of the Greek state.
+
+As before related, the Greeks had established a large number of
+independent communities which developed into small states.  These small
+states were mostly isolated from one another, hence they developed an
+independent social and political existence.  This was of great
+consequence in the establishing of the character of the Greek
+government.  In the first place, the kings, chiefs, and rulers were
+brought closely in contact with the people.  Everybody knew them,
+understood the character of the men, realizing that they had passions
+and prejudices similar to other men, and that, notwithstanding they
+were elevated to positions of power, they nevertheless were human
+beings like the people themselves.  This led to a democratic feeling.
+
+{232}
+
+Again, the development of these separate small states led to great
+diversity of government.  All kinds of government were exercised in
+Greece, from the democracy to the hereditary monarchy.  Many of these
+governments passed in their history through all stages of government to
+be conceived of--the monarchy, absolute and constitutional, the
+aristocracy, the oligarchy, the tyranny, the democracy, and the polity.
+All phases of politics had their representation in the development of
+the Greek life.
+
+In a far larger way the development of these isolated communities made
+local self-government the primary basis of the state.  When the Greek
+had developed his own small state he had done his duty so far as
+government was concerned.  He might be on friendly terms with the
+neighboring states, especially as they might use the same language as
+his own and belonged to the same race, but he could in no way be
+responsible for the success or the failure of men outside of his
+community.  This was many times a detriment to the development of the
+Greek race, as the time arrived when it should stand as a unit against
+the encroachments of foreign nations.  No unity of national life found
+expression in the repulsion of the Persians, no unity in the
+Peloponnesian war, no unity in the defense against the Romans; indeed,
+the Macedonians found a divided people, which made conquering easy.
+
+There was another phase of this Greek life worthy of notice: the fact
+that it developed extreme selfishness and egoism respecting government.
+We shall find in this development, in spite of the pretensions for the
+interests of the many, that government existed for the few;
+notwithstanding the professions of an enlarged social life, we shall
+find a narrowness almost beyond belief in the treatment of Greeks by
+one another in the social life.  It is true that the recognition of
+citizenship was much wider than in the Orient, and that the individual
+life of man received more marked attention than in any ancient
+despotism; yet, after all, when we recognize the multitudes of slaves,
+who were considered not worthy to take part in {233} government
+affairs, the numbers of the freedmen and non-citizens, and realize that
+the few who had power or privilege of government looked with disdain
+upon all others, it gives us no great enthusiasm for Greek democracy
+when compared with the modern conception of that term.
+
+As Mr. Freeman says in his _Federal Government_, the citizen "looked
+down upon the vulgar herd of slaves, the freedmen and unqualified
+residents, as his own plebeian fathers had been looked down upon by the
+old Eupatrides in the days of Cleisthenes and Solon."  Whatever phase
+of this Greek society we discuss, we must not forget that there was a
+large class excluded from rights of government, and that the few sought
+always to maintain their own rights and privileges supported by the
+many, and the pretensions of an enlarged privilege of citizenship had
+little effect in changing the actual conditions of the aristocratic
+government.
+
+_The Athenian Government a Type of Grecian Democracy_.--Indeed, it was
+the only completed government in Greece.  The civilization of Athens
+shows the character of the Greek race in its richest and most beautiful
+development.  Here art, learning, culture, and government reached their
+highest development.  It was a small territory that surrounded the city
+of Athens, containing a little over 850 English square miles, possibly
+less, as some authorities say.  The soil was poor, but the climate was
+superb.  It was impossible for the Athenian to support a high
+civilization from the soil of Attica, hence trade sprang up and Athens
+grew wealthy on account of its great maritime commerce.
+
+The population of all Attica in the most flourishing times was about
+500,000 people, 150,000 of whom were slaves, 45,000 settlers, or
+unqualified people, while the free citizens did not exceed 90,000--so
+that the equality so much spoken of in Grecian democracies belonged to
+only 90,000 out of 500,000, leaving 410,000 disfranchised.  The
+district was thickly populous for Greece, and the stock of the Athenian
+had little mixture of foreign blood in it.  The city itself was formed
+of {234} villages or cantons, united into one central government.
+These appear to be survivals of the old village communities united
+under the title of city-state.  It was the perfection of this
+city-state that occupied the chief thought of the Athenian political
+philosophers.
+
+The ancient kingship of Athens passed, on deposition of the last of the
+Medoutidae, about 712 B.C., into the hands of the nobles.  This was the
+first step in the passage from monarchy toward democracy; it was the
+beginning of the foundation of the republican constitution.  In 682
+B.C. the government passed into the hands of nine archons, chosen from
+all the rest of the nobles.  It was a movement on the part of the
+nobles to obtain a partition of the government, while the common people
+were not improved at all by the process.  The kings, indeed, in the
+ancient time made a better government for the people than did the
+nobles.  The people at this period were in great trouble.  The nobles
+had loaned money to their wretched neighbors and, as the law was very
+strict, the creditor might take possession of the property and even of
+the person of the debtor, making of him a slave.
+
+In this way the small proprietors had become serfs, and the masters
+took from them five-sixths of the products of the soil, and would, no
+doubt, have taken their lands had these not been inalienable.
+Sometimes the debtors were sold into foreign countries as slaves, and
+at other times their children were taken as slaves according to the
+law.  On account of the oppression of the poor by the nobility, there
+sprang up a hatred between these two classes.
+
+A few changes were made by the laws of Draco and others, but nothing
+gave decided relief to the people.  The nine archons, representing the
+power of the state, managed nearly all of its affairs, and retained
+likewise their seats in the council of nobles.  The old national
+council formed by the aristocratic members of the community still
+retained its hold, and the council of archons, though it divided the
+country into administrative districts and sought to secure more
+specific {235} management of the several districts, failed to keep down
+internal disorders or to satisfy the people.  The people were formed
+into three classes: the wealthy nobility, or land-owners of the plain,
+the peasants of the mountains districts, and the people of the coast
+country, the so-called middle classes.  The hatred of the nobility by
+the peasants of the mountains was intense.  The nobles demanded their
+complete suppression and subordination to the rule of their own class.
+The people of the coast would have been contented with moderate
+concessions from the nobility, which would give them a part in the
+government and leave them unmolested.
+
+_Constitution of Solon Seeks a Remedy_.--Such was the condition of
+affairs when Solon proposed his reforms.  He sought to remove the
+burdens of the people, first, by remitting all fines which had been
+imposed; second, by preventing the people from offering their persons
+as security against debt; and third, by depreciating the coin so as to
+make payment of debt easy.  He replaced the Pheidonian talent by that
+of the Euboic coinage, thus increasing the debt-paying capacity of
+money twenty-seven per cent, or, in other words, reduced the debt about
+that amount.  It was further provided that all debts could be paid in
+three annual instalments, thus allowing poor farmers with mortgages
+upon their farms an opportunity to pay their debts.  There was also
+granted an amnesty to all persons who had been condemned to payment of
+money penalties.  By further measures the exclusive privileges of the
+old nobility were broken down, and a new government established on the
+basis of wealth.  People were divided into classes according to their
+property, and their privileges in government, as well as their taxes,
+were based upon these classes.
+
+Revising the old council of 401, Solon established a council (Boule) of
+400, 100 from each district.  These were probably elected at first, but
+later were chosen by lot.  The duties of this council were to prepare
+all business for passage in the popular assembly.  No business could
+come before the assembly of the people except by decree of the council,
+and in nearly {236} every case the council could decide what measures
+should be brought before the assembly.  While in some instances the law
+made it obligatory for certain cases to be brought before the assembly,
+there were some measures which could be disposed of by the council
+without reference to the assembly.
+
+The administration of justice was distributed among the nine archons,
+each one of whom administered some particular department.  The archon
+as judge could dispose of matters or refer them to an arbitrator for
+decision.  In every case the dissatisfied party had a right to appeal
+to the court made up of a collective body of 6,000 citizens, called the
+Heliaea.  This body was annually chosen from the whole body of
+citizens, and acted as jurors and judges.  In civil matters the
+services of the Heliaea were slight.  They consisted in holding open
+court on certain matters appealed to them from the archons.  In
+criminal matters the Heliaea frequently acted immediately as a sole
+tribunal, whose decision was final.
+
+It is one of the remarkable things in the Greek polity that the supreme
+court or court of appeals should be elected from the common people,
+while in other courts judges should hold their offices on account of
+position.  Solon also recognized what is known as the Council of the
+Areopagus.  The functions of this body had formerly belonged to the old
+council included in the Draconian code.  The Council of the Areopagus
+was formed from the ex-archons who had held the office without blame.
+It became a sort of supreme advisory council, watching over the whole
+collective administration.  It took account of the behavior of the
+magistrates in office and of the proceedings of the public assembly,
+and could interpose in other cases when, in its judgment, it thought it
+necessary.  It could advise as to the proper conducting of affairs and
+criticise the process of administration.  It could also administer
+private discipline and call citizens to account for their individual
+acts.  In this respect it somewhat resembled the Ephors of Sparta.
+
+{237}
+
+The popular assembly would meet and consider the questions put before
+it by the council, voting yes or no, but the subject was not open for
+discussion.  However, it was possible for the assembly to bring other
+subjects up for discussion and, through motion, refer them to the
+consideration of the council.  It was also possible to attach to the
+proposition of the council a motion, called in modern terms "a rider,"
+and thus enlarge upon the work of the council; but it was so arranged
+that the preponderance of all the offices went to the nobility and that
+the council be made up of this class, and hence there was no danger
+that the government would fall into the hands of the people.  Solon
+claimed to have put into the hands of the people all the power that
+they deserved, and to have established numerous checks on government
+which made it possible for each group of people to be well represented.
+
+Thus the council limited the power of the assembly, the Areopagus
+supervised the council, while the courts of the people had the final
+decision in cases of appeal.  As is well known, Solon could not carry
+out his own reforms, but was forced to leave the country.  Had he been
+of a different nature and at once seized the government, or appealed to
+the people, as did his successor, Pisistratus, he might have made his
+measures of reform more effective.  As it was, he was obliged to leave
+their execution to others.
+
+_Cleisthenes Continues the Reforms of Solon_.--Some years later (509
+B.C.) Cleisthenes instituted other reforms, increasing the council to
+500, the members of which might be drawn from the first three classes
+rather than the first, limiting the archonship to the first class, and
+breaking up the four ancient tribes formed from the nobility.  He
+formed ten new tribes of religious and political unions, thus intending
+to break down the influence of the nobility.  Although the popular
+assembly was composed of all citizens of the four classes, the
+functions of this body in the early period were very meagre.  It gave
+them the privilege of voting on the principal affairs of the nation
+when the council desired them to assume the responsibility.  The {238}
+time for holding it was in the beginning indefinite, it being only
+occasionally convened, but in later times there were ten[1] assemblies
+in each year, when business was regularly placed before it.  Meetings
+were held in the market-place at first; later a special building was
+erected for this purpose.  Sometimes, however, special assemblies were
+held elsewhere.
+
+The assembly was convoked by the prytanes, while the right of convoking
+extraordinary assemblies fell to the lot of the strategi.  There were
+various means for the compulsion of the attendance of the crowd.  There
+was a fine for non-attendance, and police kept out people who ought not
+to appear.  Each assembly opened with religious service.  Usually
+sucking pigs were sacrificed, which were carried around to purify the
+place, and their blood was sprinkled over the floor.  This ceremony was
+followed by the offering of incense.  This having been done, the
+president stated the question to be considered and summoned the people
+to vote.
+
+As the assembly developed in the advanced stage of Athenian life, every
+member in good standing had a right to speak.  The old men were called
+upon first and then the younger men.  This discussion was generally
+upon open questions, and not upon resolutions prepared by the council,
+though amendments to these resolutions were sometimes allowed.  No
+speaker could be interrupted except by the presiding officer, and no
+member could speak more than once.  As each speaker arose, he mounted
+the rostrum and placed a wreath of myrtle upon his head, which
+signified that he was performing a duty to the state.  The Greeks
+appear to have developed considerable parliamentary usage and to have
+practised a system of voting similar to our ballot reform.  Each
+individual entered an enclosure and voted by means of pebbles.
+Subsequently the functions of the assembly grew quite large.  The
+demagogues found it to their interests to extend its powers.  They
+tried to establish the principle in Athens that the people were the
+rulers of everything by right.
+
+{239}
+
+The powers of the assembly were generally divided into four groups, the
+first including the confirmation of appointments, the accusation of
+offenders against the state, the confiscation of goods, and claims to
+succession of property.  The second group considered petitions of the
+people, the third acted upon motions for the remission of sentences,
+and the fourth had charge of dealings with foreign states and religious
+matters in general.
+
+It is observed that the Athenians represented the highest class of the
+Greeks and that government received its highest development among them.
+But the only real political liberty in Greece may be summed up in the
+principle of hearing both sides of a question and of obtaining a
+decision on the merits of the case presented.  Far different is this
+from the old methods of despotic rule, under which kings were looked
+upon as authority in themselves, whose will must be carried out without
+question.  The democracy of Athens, too, was the first instance of the
+substitution of law for force.
+
+It is true that in the beginning all of the Greek communities rested
+upon a military basis.  Their foundations were laid in military
+exploits, and they maintained their position by the force of arms for a
+long period.  But this is true of nearly all states and nations when
+they make their first attempt at permanent civilization.  But after
+they were once established they sought to rule their subjects by the
+introduction of well-regulated laws and not by the force of arms.  The
+military discipline, no doubt, was the best foundation for a state of
+primitive people, but as this passed away the newer life was regulated
+best by law and civil power.  Under this the military became
+subordinate.
+
+To Greece must be given the credit of founding the city, and, indeed,
+this is one of the chief characteristics of the Greek people.  They
+established the city-state, or polis.  It represented a full and
+complete sovereignty in itself.  When they had accomplished this idea
+of sovereignty the political organization had reached its highest aim.
+
+{240}
+
+_Athenian Democracy Failed in Obtaining Its Best and Highest
+Development_.--It is a disappointment to the reader that Athens, when
+in the height of power, when the possibilities for extending and
+promoting the best interests of humanity in social capacity were
+greatest, should end in decline and failure.  In the first place,
+extreme democracy in that early period was more open than now to
+excessive dangers.  It was in danger of control by mobs, who were
+ignorant of their own real interests and the interests of popular
+government; it was in danger of falling into the hands of tyrants, who
+would rule for their own private interests; it was in danger of falling
+into the hands of a few, which frequently happened.  And this democracy
+in the ancient time was a rule of class--class subordination was the
+essence of its constitution.  There was no universal rule by the
+majority.  The franchise was an exclusive privilege extended to a
+minority, hence it differed little from aristocracy, being a government
+of class with a rather wider extension.
+
+The ancient democracies were pure in form, in which the people governed
+immediately.  For every citizen had a right to appear in the assembly
+and vote, and he could sit in the assembly, which acted as an open
+court.  Indeed, the elective officers of the democracy were not
+considered as representatives of the people.  They were the state and
+not subject to impeachment, though they should break over all law.
+After they returned among the citizens and were no longer the state
+they could be tried for their misdemeanors in office.
+
+Now, a state of this nature and form must of necessity be small, and as
+government expanded and its functions increased, the representative
+principle should have been introduced as a mainstay to the public
+system.  The individual in the ancient democracy lived for the state,
+being subordinate to its existence as the highest form of life.  We
+find this entirely different from the modern democracy, in which
+slavery and class subordination are both excluded, as opposed to its
+theory and antagonistic to its very being.  Its citizenship is wide,
+extending to its native population, and its suffrage is universal to
+all who qualify as citizens.  The citizens, too, in {241} modern
+democracies, live for themselves, and believe that the state is made by
+them for themselves.
+
+The decline of the Athenian democracy was hastened, also, by the
+Peloponnesian war, caused first by the domineering attitude of Athens,
+which posed as an empire, and the jealousy of Sparta.  This struggle
+between Athens and Sparta amounted almost to civil war.  And although
+it brought Sparta to the front as the most powerful state in all
+Greece, she was unable to advance the higher civilization, but really
+exercised a depressing influence upon it.  It might be mentioned
+briefly, too, that the overthrow of Athens somewhat later, and the
+establishment of the 400 as rulers, soon led to political
+disintegration.  It was the beginning of the founding of Athenian
+clubs, or political factions, which attempted to control the elections
+by fear or force.  These, by their power, forced the decrees of the
+assembly to suit themselves, and thus gave the death-blow to liberty.
+There was the reaction from this to the establishment of 5,000 citizens
+as a controlling body, and restricting the constitution, which
+attempted to unite all classes into one body and approximated the
+modern democracy, or that which is represented in the "polity" of
+Aristotle.
+
+After the domination of Sparta, Lysander and the thirty tyrants rose to
+oppress the citizens, and deposed a previous council of ten made for
+the ruling of the city.  But once more after this domination democracy
+was restored, and under the Theban and Macedonian supremacies the old
+spirit of "equality of equals" was once more established.  But Athens
+could no longer maintain her ancient position; her warlike ambitions
+had passed away, her national intelligence had declined; the dangers of
+the populace, too, threatened her at every turn, and the selfishness of
+the nobility in respect to the other classes, as well as the
+selfishness of the Spartan state outside, soon led to her downfall.  At
+first, too, all the officers were not paid, it being considered a
+misdemeanor to take pay for office; but finally regular salaries were
+paid, and this forced the leaders to establish free theatres for the
+people.
+
+And finally, it may be said, that the power for good or evil {242} in
+the democracy lacking in permanent foundations is so great that it can
+never lead on to perfect success.  It will prosper to-day and decline
+to-morrow.  So the attempt of the Athenians to found a democracy led
+not to permanent success; nevertheless, it gave to the world for the
+first time the principles of government founded upon equality and
+justice, and these principles have remained unchanged in the practice
+of the more perfect republics of modern times.
+
+_The Spartan State Differs from All Others_.--If we turn our attention
+to Sparta we shall find an entirely different state--a state which may
+be represented by calling it an aristocratic republic.  Not only was it
+founded on a military basis, but its very existence was perpetuated by
+military form.  The Dorian conquest brought these people in from the
+north to settle in the Peloponnesus, and by degrees they obtained a
+foothold and conquered their surrounding neighbors.  Having established
+themselves on a small portion of the land, the Dorians, or Spartans,
+possessed themselves of superior military skill in order to obtain the
+overlordship of the surrounding territory.  Soon they had control of
+nearly all of the Peloponnesus.  Although Argos was at first the ruling
+city of the conquerors, Sparta soon obtained the supremacy, and the
+Spartan state became noted as the great military state of the Greeks.
+
+The population of Sparta was composed of the Dorians, or citizens, who
+were the conquerors, and the independent subjects, who had been
+conquered but who had no part in the government, and the serfs or
+helots, who were the lower class of the conquered ones.  The total
+population is estimated at about 380,000 to 400,000, while the serfs
+numbered at least 175,000 to 224,000.  These serfs were always a cause
+of fear and anxiety to the conquerors, and they were watched over by
+night and day by spies who kept them from rising.  The helots were
+employed in peace as well as in war, and in all occupations where
+excessive toil was needed.  The middle class (Perioeci) were subjects
+dependent upon the citizens.  They had no share in the Spartan state
+except to obey its {243} administration.  They were obliged to accept
+the obligations of military service, to pay taxes and dues when
+required.  Their occupations were largely the promotion of agriculture
+and the various trades and industries.  Their proportion to the
+citizens was about thirty to nine, or, as is commonly given, there was
+one citizen to four of the middle class and twelve of the helots,
+making the ratio of citizens to the entire population about
+one-seventeenth, or every seventeenth man was a citizen.
+
+Attempts were made to divide the lands of the rich among the poor, and
+this redistribution of lands occurred from time to time.  There were
+other semblances of pure democracy of communistic nature.  It was a
+pure military state, and all were treated as soldiers.  There was a
+common table, or "mess," for a group, called the social union.  There
+all the men were obliged to assemble at meal-time, the women remaining
+at home.  The male children were taken at the age of seven years and
+trained as soldiers.  These were then in charge of the state, and the
+home was relieved of its responsibility concerning them.
+
+The state also adopted many sumptuary laws regulating what should be
+eaten and what should be used, and what not.  All male persons were
+subjected to severe physical training, for Sparta, in her education,
+always dwelt upon physical development and military training.  The
+development of language and literature, art and sculpture, was not
+observed here as it was in Athens.  The ideal of aristocracy was the
+rule of the nobler elements of the nation and the subordination of the
+mass.  This was supposed to be the best that could be done for the
+state and hence the best for the people.  There was no opportunity for
+subjects to rise to citizenship--nor, indeed, was this true in Athens,
+except by the gradual widening force of legal privilege.  Individual
+life in Sparta was completely subordinate to the state life, and here
+the citizen existed more fully for the state than in Athens in her
+worst days.
+
+Finally abuses grew.  It was the old story of the few rich {244}
+dominating and oppressing the many poor.  The minority had grown
+insolent and overbearing, and attempted to rule a hopeless and
+discontented majority.  The reforms of Lycurgus led to some
+improvements, by the institution of new divisions of citizens and
+territory and the division of the land, not only among citizens but the
+half-citizens and dependents.  Nevertheless, it appears that in spite
+of these attempted reforms, in spite of the establishment of the
+council, the public assembly, and the judicial process, Sparta still
+remained an arbitrary military power.  Yet the government continued to
+expand in form and function until it had obtained a complex existence.
+But there was a non-progressive element in it all.  The denial of
+rights of marriage between citizens and other groups limited the
+increase of the number of citizens, and while powers were gradually
+extended to those outside of the pale of citizenship, they were given
+so niggardly, and in such a manner, as to fail to establish the great
+principle of civil government on the basis of a free democracy.
+
+The military régime was non-progressive in its nature.  It could lead
+to conquest of enemies, but could not lead to the perpetuation of the
+rights and privileges of citizens; it could lead to domination of
+others, but could not bring about the subordination of universal
+citizenship to law and order, nor permit the expansion and growth of
+individual life under benevolent institutions of government.
+
+So the Greek government, the democracy with all of its great promises
+and glorious prospects, declined certainly from the height which was
+great in contrast to the Oriental despotisms.  It declined at a time
+when, as we look back from the present, it ought apparently to have
+gone on to the completion of the modern representative government.
+Probably, had the Greeks adopted the representative principle and
+enlarged their citizenship, their government would have been more
+lasting.  It is quite evident, also, that had they adopted the
+principle of federation and, instead of allowing the operation of
+government to cease when one small state had been perfected, united
+{245} these small states into a great nation throbbing with patriotism
+for the entire country, Greece might have withstood the warlike shocks
+of foreign nations.  But, thus unprepared alike to resist internal
+dissension and foreign oppression, the Greek states, notwithstanding
+all of their valuable contributions to government and society, were
+forced to yield their position of establishing a permanent government
+for the people.
+
+Some attempts were made to unify and organize Greek national life, not
+entirely without good results.  The first instance of this arose out of
+temple worship, where members of different states met about a common
+shrine erected to a special deity.  This led to temporary organization
+and mutual aid.  Important among these centres was the shrine of Apollo
+at Delphi.  This assemblage was governed by a council of general
+representation.  Important customs were established, such as the
+keeping of roads in repair which led to the shrine, and providing that
+pilgrims should have safe conduct and be free from tolls and taxes on
+their way to and from the shrine.  The members of the league were sworn
+not to destroy a city member or to cut off running water from the city.
+This latter rule was the foundation of the law of riparian rights--one
+of the oldest and most continuous in Western civilization.  The
+inspiration for the great national Olympic Games came from these early
+assemblages about shrines.[2]
+
+Also the Aetolian and Achaean leagues, which occurred in the later
+development of Greece, after the Macedonian conquest, were serious
+attempts for federal unity.  Although they were meritorious and
+partially successful, they came too late to make a unified nation of
+Greece.  In form and purpose these federal leagues are suggestive of
+the early federation of the colonies of America.
+
+_Greek Colonization Spreads Knowledge_.--The colonies of Greece,
+established on the different islands and along the shores of the
+Mediterranean, were among the important {246} civilizers of this early
+period.  Its colonies were established for the purpose of relieving the
+population of congested districts, on the one hand, and for the purpose
+of increasing trade, on the other.  They were always independent in
+government of the mother country, but were in sympathy with her in
+language, in customs, and in laws and religion.  As the ships plied
+their trade between the central government and these distant colonies,
+they carried with them the fundamentals of civilization--the language,
+the laws, the customs, the art, the architecture, the philosophy and
+thought of the Greeks.
+
+There was a tendency, then, to spread abroad over a large territory the
+Grecian philosophy and life.  More potent, indeed, than war is the
+civilizing influence of maritime trade.  It brings with it exchange of
+ideas, inspiration, and new life; it enables the planting of new
+countries with the best products.  No better evidence of this can be
+seen than in the planting of modern English colonies, which has spread
+the civilization of England around the world.  This was begun by the
+Greeks in that early period, and in the dissemination of knowledge it
+represents a wide influence.
+
+_The Conquests of Alexander_.--Another means of the dissemination of
+Greek thought, philosophy, and learning was the Alexandrian conquest
+and domination.  The ambitious Alexander, extending the plan of Philip
+of Macedon, who attempted to conquer the Greeks and the surrounding
+countries, desired to master the whole known world.  And so into Egypt
+and Asia Minor, into Central Asia, and even to the banks of the Ganges,
+he carried his conquests, and with them the products of Greek learning
+and literature.  And most potent of all these influences was the
+founding of Alexandria in Egypt, which he hoped to make the central
+city of the world.  Into this place flowed the products of learning,
+not only of Greece but of the Orient, and developed a mighty city with
+its schools and libraries, with its philosophy and doctrines and
+strange religious influences.  And for many years the learning of the
+world centred about Alexandria, forming a great rival to Athens, which,
+{247} though never losing its prominence in certain lines of culture,
+was dominated by the greater Alexandria.
+
+_The Age of Pericles_.--In considering all phases of life the splendors
+of Greece culminated in a period of 50 years immediately following the
+close of the Persian wars.  This period is known as the Age of
+Pericles.  Although the rule of Pericles was about thirty years
+(466-429), his influence extended long after.  The important part
+Athens performed in the Persian wars gave her the political ascendancy
+in Greece and enabled her to assume the beginning of the states; in
+fact, enabled her to establish an empire.  Pericles rebuilt Athens
+after the destructive work of the Persians.  The public buildings, the
+Parthenon and the Acropolis, were among the noted structures of the
+world.  A symmetrical city was planned on a magnificent scale hitherto
+unknown.  Pericles gathered about him architects, sculptors, poets,
+dramatists, teachers, and philosophers.
+
+The age represents a galaxy of great men: Aeschylus, Sophocles,
+Euripides, Herodotus, Socrates, Thucydides, Phidias, Ictinus, and
+others.  Greek government reached its culmination and society had its
+fullest life in this age.  The glory of the period extended on through
+the Peloponnesian war, and after the Macedonian conquest it gradually
+waned and the splendor gradually passed from Athens to Alexandria.
+
+_Contributions of Greece to Civilization_.--It is difficult to
+enumerate all of the influences of Greece on modern civilization.
+First of all, we might mention the language of Greece, which became so
+powerful in the development of the Roman literature and Roman
+civilization and, in the later Renaissance, a powerful engine of
+progress.  Associated with the language is the literature of the
+Greeks.  The epic poems of Homer, the later lyrics, the drama, the
+history, and the polemic, all had their highest types presented in the
+Greek literature.  Latin and modern German, English and French owe to
+these great originators a debt of gratitude for every form of modern
+literature.  The architecture of Greece was broad enough to lay the
+foundation of the future, and so we find, even in our {248} modern
+life, the Grecian elements combined in all of our great buildings.
+
+Painting and frescoing were well established in principle, though not
+carried to a high state until the mediaeval period; but in sculpture
+nothing yet has exceeded the perfection of the Greek art.  It stands a
+monument of the love of the beauty of the human form and the power to
+represent it in marble.
+
+The Greek philosophy finds its best results not only in developing the
+human mind to a high state but in giving to us the freedom of thought
+which belongs by right to every individual.  An attempt to find out
+things as they are, to rest all philosophy upon observation, and to
+determine by the human reason the real essence of truth, is of such
+stupendous magnitude in the development of the human mind that it has
+entered into the philosophy of every educational system presented since
+by any people or any individual.  The philosophers of modern times,
+while they may not adopt the principles of the ancient philosophy,
+still recognize their power, their forms of thought, and their
+activities, and their great influence on the intellectual development
+of the world.
+
+Last, but not least, are the great lessons recounted of the foundations
+of civil liberty.  Incomplete as the ancient democracies were, they
+pointed to the world the great lessons of the duties of man to man and
+the relations of mankind in social life.  When we consider the
+greatness of the social function and the prominence of social
+organization in modern life, we shall see how essential it is that,
+though the development of the individual may be the highest aim of
+civilization, the social organization must be established upon a right
+basis to promote individual interests.  Freedom, liberty,
+righteousness, justice, free discussion, all these were given to us by
+the Greeks, and more--the forms of government, the assembly, the
+senate, the judiciary, the constitutional government, although in their
+imperfect forms, are represented in the Greek government.  These
+represent the chief contributions of the Greeks to civilization.
+
+{249}
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What were the achievements of the Age of Pericles?
+
+2.  Which are more important to civilization, Greek ideals or Greek
+practice?
+
+3.  The ownership of land in Greece.
+
+4.  The characteristics of the city-state of Athens.
+
+5.  Alexandria as an educational centre.
+
+6.  Why did the Greeks fail to make a strong central nation?
+
+7.  The causes of the decline of Greek civilization.
+
+8.  Give a summary of the most important contributions of Greece to
+modern civilization.
+
+
+
+[1] Some authorities state forty assemblies were held each year.
+
+[2] The Confederation of Delos, the Athenian Empire, and the
+Peloponnesian League were attempts to federalize Greece.  They were
+successful only in part.
+
+
+
+
+{250}
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+ROMAN CIVILIZATION
+
+_The Romans Differed in Nature from the Greeks_.--Instead of being of a
+philosophic, speculative nature, the Romans were a practical, even a
+stoical, people of great achievement.  They turned their ideas always
+toward the concrete, and when they desired to use the abstract they
+borrowed the principles and theories established by other nations.
+They were poor theorizers, both in philosophy and in religion, but were
+intensely interested in that which they could turn to immediate and
+practical benefit.  They were great borrowers of the products of other
+people's imagination.  In the very early period they borrowed the gods
+of the Greeks and somewhat of their forms of religion!
+
+Later they borrowed forms of art from other nations and developed them
+to suit their own, and, still later, they used the literary language of
+the Greeks to enrich their own.  This method of borrowing the best
+products of others and putting them to practical service led to immense
+consequences in the development of civilization.  The Romans lacked not
+in originality, for practical application leads to original creation,
+but their best efforts in civilization were wrought out from this
+practical standpoint.  Thus, in the improvement of agriculture, in the
+perfection of the art of war, in the development of law and of
+government, their work was masterly in the extreme; and to this extent
+it was worked out rather than thought out.  Indeed, their whole
+civilization was evolved from the practical standpoint.
+
+_The Social Structure of Early Rome and That of Early Greece_.--Rome
+started, like Greece, with the early patriarchal kings, who ruled over
+the expanded family, but with this difference, that these kings, from
+the earliest historical records, were {251} elected by the people.
+Nevertheless there is no evidence that the democratic spirit was
+greater in early Rome than in early Greece, except in form.  In the
+early period all Italy was filled with tribes, mostly of Aryan descent,
+and in the regal period the small territory of Latium was filled with
+independent city communities; but all these cities were federated on a
+religious basis and met at Alba Longa as a centre, where they conducted
+their worship and duly instituted certain regulations concerning the
+government of all.  Later, after the decline of Alba Longa, the seat of
+this federal government was removed to Rome, which was another of the
+federated cities.  Subsequently this territory was invaded by the
+Sabines, who settled at Rome, and, as an independent community, allied
+themselves with the Romans.
+
+And, finally, the invasion of the Etruscans gave the last of three
+separate communities, which were federated into one state and laid the
+foundation of the imperial city.  But if some leader founded Rome in
+the early period, it is quite natural that he should be called Romulus,
+after the name of Rome.  Considering the nature of the Romans and the
+tendency to the old ancestral worship among them, it does not seem
+strange that they should deify this founder and worship him.
+Subsequently, we find that this priestly monarchy was changed to a
+military monarchy, in which everything was based upon property and
+military service.  Whatever may be the stories of early Rome, so much
+may be mentioned as historical fact.
+
+The foundation was laid in three great tribes, composed of the ancient
+families, or patricians, who formed the body of the league.  Those who
+settled at Rome at an early period became the aristocracy; they were
+members of the tribes of immemorial foundation.  At first the old
+tribal exclusiveness prevailed, and people who came later into Rome
+were treated as unequal to those who long had a right to the soil.
+This led to a division among the people based on hereditary right,
+which lasted in its effect as long as Rome endured.  It became the
+{252} custom to call those persons belonging to the first families
+patricians, and all who were not patricians plebeians, representing
+that class who did not belong to the first families.  The plebeians
+were composed of foreigners, who had only commercial rights, of the
+clients who attached themselves to these ancient families, but who
+gradually passed into the plebeian rank, and of land-holders,
+craftsmen, and laborers.  The plebeians were free inhabitants, without
+political rights.  As there was no great opportunity for the patricians
+to increase in number, the plebeians, in the regal period, soon grew to
+outnumber them.  They were increased by those conquered ones who were
+permitted to come to Rome and dwell.  Also the tradesmen and immigrants
+who dwelt at Rome increased rapidly, for they could have the protection
+of the Roman state without having the responsibility of Roman soldiers.
+It was of great significance in the development of the Roman government
+that these two great classes existed.
+
+_Civil Organization of Rome_.--The organization of the government of
+early Rome rested in a peculiar sense upon the family group.  The first
+tribes that settled in the territory were governed upon a family basis,
+and their land was held by family holdings.  No other nation appears to
+have perpetuated such a power of the family in the affairs of the
+state.  The father, as the head of the family, had absolute power over
+all; the son never became of age so far as the rights of property are
+considered as long as the father lived.  The father was priest, king,
+and legislator for all in the family group.  Parental authority was
+arbitrary, and when the head of the family passed away the oldest male
+member of the family took his place, and ruled as his father had ruled.
+
+A group of these families constituted a clan, and a group of clans made
+a tribe, and three tribes, according to the formula for the formation
+of Rome, made a state.  Whether this formal process was carried out
+exactly remains to be proved, but the families related to one another
+by ties of blood were united in distinct groups, which were again
+reorganized into larger {253} groups, and the formula at the time of
+the organization of the state was that there were 30 cantons formed by
+300 clans, and these clans averaged about 10 families each.  This is
+based upon the number of representatives which afterward formed the
+senate, and upon the number of soldiers furnished by the various
+families.  The state became then an enlarged family, with a king at the
+head, whose prerogatives were somewhat limited by his position.  There
+were also a popular assembly, consisting of all the freeholders of the
+state, and the senate, formed by the heads of all the most influential
+families, for the government of Rome.  These ancient hereditary forms
+of government extended with various changes in the progress of Rome.
+
+_The Struggle for Liberty_.--The members of the Roman senate were
+chosen from the noble families of Rome, and were elected for life,
+which made the senate of Rome a perpetual body.  Having no legal
+declaration of legislative, judicial, executive, or administrative
+authority, it was, nevertheless, the most powerful body of its kind
+ever in existence.  Representing the power of intellect, and having
+within its ranks men of the foremost character and ability of the city,
+this aristocracy overpowered and ruled the affairs of Rome until the
+close of the republic, and afterward became a service to the imperial
+government of the Caesars.
+
+From a very early period in the history of the Roman nation the people
+struggled for their rights and privileges against this aristocracy of
+wealth and hereditary power.  At the expulsion of the kings, in 500
+B.C., the senate lived on, as did the old popular assembly of the
+people, the former gaining strength, the latter becoming weakened.
+Realizing what they had lost in political power, having lost their
+farms by borrowing money of the rich patricians, and suffered
+imprisonment and distress on that account, the plebeians, resolved to
+endure no longer, marched out upon the hill, Mons Sacer, and demanded
+redress by way of tribunes and other officers.
+
+This was the beginning of an earnest struggle for 50 years {254} for
+mere protection, to be followed by a struggle of 150 years for equality
+of power and rights.  The result of this was that a compromise was made
+with the senate, which allowed the people to have tribunes chosen from
+the plebeians, and a law was passed giving them the right of protection
+against the oppression of any official, and subsequently the right of
+intercession against any administrative or judicial act, except in the
+case when a dictator was appointed.  This gave the plebeians some
+representation in the government of Rome.  They worked at first for
+protection, and also for the privilege of intermarriage among the
+patricians.  After this they began to struggle for equal rights and
+privileges.
+
+A few years after the revolt in 486 B.C. Spurius Cassius brought
+forward the first agrarian law.  The lands of the original Roman
+territory belonged at first to the great families, and were divided and
+subdivided among the various family groups.  But a large part of the
+land obtained by conquest of the Italians became the public domain, the
+property of the entire people of Rome.  It became necessary for these
+lands to be leased by the Roman patricians, and as these same Roman
+patricians were members of the senate, they became careless about
+collecting rent of themselves, and so the lands were occupied year
+after year, and, indeed, century after century, by the Roman families,
+who were led to claim them as their own without rental.  Cassius
+proposed to divide a part of these lands among the needy plebeians and
+the Latins as well, and to lease the rest for the profit of the public
+treasury.  The patricians fought against Cassius because he was to take
+away their lands, and the plebeians were discontented with him because
+he had favored the Latins.  The result was that at the close of his
+office he was sentenced and executed for the mere attempt to do justice
+to humanity.
+
+The tribunes of the people finally gained more power, and a resolution
+was introduced in the senate providing that a body of ten men should be
+selected to reduce the laws of the state to a written code.  In 451
+B.C. the ten men were chosen {255} from the patricians, who formed ten
+tables of laws, had them engraved on copper plates, and placed them
+where everybody could read them.  The following year ten men were again
+appointed, three of whom were plebeians, who added two more tables; the
+whole body became known as the Laws of the Twelve Tables.  It was a
+great step in advance when the laws of a community could be thus
+published.  Soon after this the laws of Valerius and Horatius made the
+acts of the assembly of the tribunes of equal force with those of the
+assembly of the centuries, and established that every magistrate,
+including the dictator, was obliged in the future to allow appeals from
+his decision.  They also recognized the inviolability of the tribunes
+of the people and of the aediles who represented them.  But in order to
+circumvent the plebeians, two quaestors were appointed in charge of the
+military treasury.
+
+Indeed, at every step forward which the people made for equality and
+justice, the senate, representing the aristocracy, passed laws to
+circumvent the plebeians.  In 445 B.C. the tribune Canuleius introduced
+a law legalizing marriage between the patricians and plebeians.  The
+children were to inherit the rank of their father.  This tribune
+further attempted to pass a law allowing consuls to be chosen from the
+plebeians.  To this a fierce opposition sprang up, and a compromise
+measure was adopted which allowed military tribunes to be elected from
+the plebeians, who had consular power.  But again the senate sought to
+circumvent the plebeians, and created the new patrician office of
+censor, to take the census, make lists of citizens and taxes, appoint
+senators, prepare the publication of the budget, manage the state
+property, farm out the taxes, and superintend public buildings; also he
+might supervise the public morality.
+
+With the year 587 B.C. came the invasion of the Gauls from the north
+and the famous battle of the Allia, in which the Romans suffered defeat
+and were forced to the right bank of the Tiber, leaving the city of
+Rome defenseless.  Abandoned by the citizens, the city was taken,
+plundered, and burned by {256} the Gauls.  Senators were slaughtered,
+though the capitol was not taken.  Finally, surprised and overcome by a
+contingent of the Roman army, the enemy was forced to retire and the
+inhabitants again returned.  But no sooner had they returned than the
+peaceful struggle of the plebeians against the patricians began again.
+
+First, there were the poor, indebted plebeians, who sought the reform
+of the laws relating to debtor and creditor and desired a share in the
+public lands.  Second, the whole body of the plebeians were engaged in
+an attempt to open the consulate to their ranks.  In 367 B.C. the
+Licinian laws were passed, which gave relief to the debtors by
+deducting the interest already accrued from the principal, and allowing
+the rest to be paid in three annual instalments; and a second law
+forbade that any one should possess more than 500 jugera of the public
+lands.  This was to prevent the wealthy patricians from holding lands
+in large tracts and keeping them from the plebeians.  This law also
+abolished the military tribuneship and insisted that one at least of
+the two consuls should be chosen from the plebeians--giving a
+possibility of two.  The patricians, in order to counteract undue
+influence in this respect, established the praetorship, the praetor
+having jurisdiction and vicegerence of the consuls during their absence.
+
+There also sprang up about this time the new nobility (_optimates_),
+composed of the plebeians and patricians who had held office for a long
+time, and representing the aristocracy of the community.  From this
+time on all the Roman citizens tended to go into two classes, the
+_optimates_ and, exclusive of these, the great Roman populace.  In the
+former all the wealth and power were combined; in the latter the
+poverty, wretchedness, and dependence.  Various other changes in the
+constitution succeeded, until the great wars of the Samnites and those
+of the Carthaginians directed the attention of the people to foreign
+conquest.  After the close of these great wars and the firm
+establishment of the universal power of Rome abroad, there sprang up a
+great civil war, induced largely by the disturbance {257} of the
+Gracchi, who sought to carry out the will of the people in regard to
+popular democracy and the division of the public lands.
+
+Thus, step by step, the plebeians, by a peaceful civil struggle, had
+obtained the consulship, and, indeed, the right to all other civil
+offices.  They had obtained a right to sit in the senate, had obtained
+the declaration of social equality, had settled the great land
+question; and yet the will of the people never prevailed.  The great
+Roman senate, made up of the aristocracy of Rome, an aristocracy of
+both plebeians and patricians, ruled with unyielding sway, and the
+common people never obtained full possession of their rights and
+privileges.  Civil strife continued; the gulf between the rich and the
+poor, the nobility and the proletariat representing a few rich
+political manipulators, on the one side, and the half-fed, half-mad
+populace, on the other, grew wider and wider, finally ending in civil
+war.  In the midst of the strife the republic passed away, and only the
+coming of the imperial power of the Caesars perpetuated Roman
+institutions.
+
+_Rome Becomes a Dominant City_.--In all of this struggle at home and
+abroad, foreign conquest led to the establishment of Rome as the
+central city.  The constitution of Rome was the typical constitution
+for all provincial cities, and from this one centre all provinces were
+ruled.  No example heretofore had existed of the centralization of
+government similar to this.  The overlordship of the Persians was only
+for the purpose of collecting tribute; there was little attempt to
+carry abroad the Persian institutions or to amalgamate the conquered
+provinces in one great homogeneous nation.
+
+The empire of Athens was but a temporary hegemony over tributary
+states.  But the Roman government conquered and absorbed.  Wherever
+went the Roman arms, there the Roman laws and the Roman government
+followed; there followed the Roman language, architecture, art,
+institutions, and civilization.  Great highways passed from the Eternal
+City to all parts of the territory, binding together the separate
+elements of {258} national life, and levelling down the barriers
+between all nations.  Every colony planted by Rome in the new provinces
+was a type of the old Roman life, and the provincial government
+everywhere became the type of this central city.  Here was reached a
+state in the development of government which no nation had hitherto
+attained--the dominant city and the rule of a mighty empire from
+central authority.
+
+_The Development of Government_.--The remarkable development of Rome in
+government from the old hereditary nobility, in which priest-kings
+ruled the people, to a military king who was leader, subsequently into
+a republic which stood the test for several centuries of a fierce
+struggle for the rights of the people, finally into an imperial
+government to last for 450 years, represents the growth of one of the
+most remarkable governments in the world's history.  The fundamental
+idea in government was the ruling of an entire state from the central
+city, and out of this idea grew imperialism as a later development,
+vesting all authority in a single monarch.  The governments of
+conquered provinces were gradually made over into the Roman system.
+The Roman municipal government was found in all the cities of the
+provinces, and the provincial government became an integral part of the
+Roman system.  The provinces were under the supervision of imperial
+officers appointed by the emperor.  Thus the tendency was to bind the
+whole government into one unified system, with its power and authority
+at Rome.  So long as this central authority remained and had its full
+sway there was little danger of the decline of Roman power, but when
+disintegration began in the central government the whole structure was
+doomed.
+
+One of the remarkable characteristics of the Roman government was a
+system of checks of one part by every other part.  Thus, in the
+republic, the consuls were checked by the senate, the senate by the
+consular power, the various assemblies, such as the Curiata, Tributa,
+and Centuriata, each having its own particular powers, were checks upon
+each other and upon other departments of the government.  The whole
+system of {259} magistrates was subject to the same checks or limits in
+authority.  And while impeachment was not introduced, each officer, at
+the close of his term, was accountable for his actions while in office.
+But under imperialism the tendency was to break down the power of each
+separate form of government and to absorb it in the imperial power.
+Thus Augustus soon attributed to himself the power of the chief
+magistrates and obtained a dominating power in the senate until the
+functions of government were all centralized in the emperor.  While
+this made a strong government, in many phases it was open to great
+dangers, and in due time it failed, as a result of the corruption that
+clustered around the despotism of a single ruler unchecked by
+constitutional power.
+
+_The Development of Law Is the Most Remarkable Phase of the Roman
+Civilization_.--Perhaps the most lasting effect of the Roman
+civilization is observed in the contribution of law to the nations
+which arose at the time of the decline of the imperial sway.  From the
+time of the posting of the Twelve Tables in a public place, where they
+could be read by all the citizens of Rome, there was a steady growth of
+the Roman law.  The decrees of the senate, as well as the influence of
+judicial decisions, gradually developed a system of jurisprudence.
+There sprang up, also, interpreters of the law, who had much influence
+in shaping its course.  Also, in the early period of the republic, the
+acts of the popular assemblies became laws.  This was before the senate
+became the supreme lawmaking body of the state.
+
+During the imperial period the emperor acted somewhat through the
+senate, but the latter body was more or less under his control, for he
+frequently dictated its actions.  Having assumed the powers of a
+magistrate, he could issue an edict; as a judge he could give decrees
+and issue commands to his own officials, all of which tended to
+increase the body of Roman law.  In the selection of jurists for the
+interpretation of the law the emperor also had great control over its
+character.  The great accomplishment of the lawmaking methods of {260}
+the Romans was, in the first place, to allow laws to be made by popular
+assemblies and the senate, according to the needs of a developing
+social organization.  This having once been established, the foundation
+of lawmaking was laid for all nations to follow.  The Roman law soon
+passed into a complex system of jurisprudence which has formed a large
+element in the structure, principles, and practice of all modern legal
+systems.  The character of the law in itself was superior and masterly,
+and its universality was accomplished through the universal rule of the
+empire.
+
+The later emperors performed a great service to the world by collecting
+and codifying Roman laws.  The Theodosian code (Theodosius II, 408-450
+A.D.) was a very important one on account of the influence it exercised
+over the various Teutonic systems of law practised by the different
+barbarian tribes that came within the borders of the Roman Empire.  The
+jurists who gave the law a great development had by the close of the
+fourth century placed on record all the principal legal acts of the
+empire.  They had collected and edited all the sources of law and made
+extensive commentaries of great importance upon them, but it remained
+for Theodosius to arrange the digests of these jurists and to codify
+the later imperial decrees.  But the Theodosian code went but a little
+way in the process of digesting the laws.
+
+The Justinian code, however, gave a complete codification of the law in
+four distinct parts, known as (1) "the Pandects, or digest of the
+scientific law literature; (2) the Codex, or summary of imperial
+legislation; (3) the Institutes, a general review or text-book, founded
+upon the digest and code, an introductory restatement of the law; and
+(4) the Novels, or new imperial legislation issued after the
+codification, to fill the gaps and cure the inconsistencies discovered
+in the course of the work of codification and manifest in its published
+results."[1]  Thus the whole body of the civil law was incorporated.
+
+Here, then, is seen the progress of the Roman law from the {261}
+semireligious rules governing the patricians in the early patriarchal
+period, whose practice was generally a form of arbitration, to the
+formal writing of the Twelve Tables, the development of the great body
+of the law through interpretation, the decrees of magistrates, acts of
+legislative assemblies, and finally the codification of the laws under
+the later emperors.  This accumulation of legal enactments and
+precedents formed the basis of legislation under the declining empire
+and in the new nationalities.  It also occupied an important place in
+the curriculum of the university.
+
+_Influence of the Greek Life on Rome_.--The principal influence of the
+Greeks on Roman civilization was found first in the early religion and
+its development in the Latin race at Rome.  The religion of the Romans
+was polytheistic, but far different from that of the Greeks.  The
+deification of nature was not so analytic, and their deities were not
+so human as those of the Greek religion.  There was no poetry in the
+Roman religion; it all had a practical tendency.  Their gods were for
+use, and, while they were honored and worshipped, they were clothed
+with few fancies.  The Romans seldom speculated on the origin of the
+gods and very little as to their personal character, and failed to
+develop an independent theogony.  They were behind the Greeks in their
+mental effort in this respect, and hence we find all the early religion
+was influenced by the ideas of the Latins, the Etruscans, and the
+Greeks, the last largely through the colonies which were established in
+Italy.  Archaeology points conclusively to the fact of early Greek
+influence.
+
+In later development the conquest of the Greeks brought to Rome the
+religion, art, paintings, and philosophy of the conquered.  The Romans
+were shrewd and acute in the appreciation of all which they had found
+that was good in the Greeks.  From the time of this contact there was a
+constant and continued adoption of Grecian models in Rome.  The first
+Roman writers, Fabius Pictor and Quintus Ennius, both wrote in Greek.
+All the early Roman writers considered Greek the {262} finished style.
+The influence of the Greek language was felt at Rome on the first
+acquaintance of the Italians with it, through trade and commerce and
+through the introduction of Greek forms of religion.
+
+The early influence of language was less than the influence of art.
+While the Phoenicians and Etruscans furnished some of the models, they
+were usually unproductive and barren types, and not to be compared with
+those furnished by Greece.  The young Romans who devoted themselves to
+the state and its service were from the fifth century B.C. well versed
+in the Greek language.  No education was considered complete in the
+latter days of the republic, and under the imperial power, until it had
+been finished at Athens or Alexandria.  The effect on literature,
+particularly poetry and the drama, was great in the first period of
+Roman literature, and even Horace, the most original of all Latin
+poets, began his career by writing Greek verse, and no doubt his
+beautiful style was acquired by his ardent study of the Greek language.
+The plays of Plautus and Terence deal also with the products of Athens,
+and, indeed, every Roman comedy was to a certain extent a copy, either
+in form or spirit, of the Greek.  In tragedy, the spirit of Euripides,
+the master, came into Rome.
+
+The influence of the Greek philosophy was more marked than that of
+language.  Its first contact with Rome was antagonistic.  The
+philosophers and rhetoricians, because of the disturbance they created,
+were expelled from Rome in the second century.  As early as 161 A.D.
+those who pursued the study of philosophy always read and disputed in
+Greek.  Many Greek schools of philosophy of an elementary nature were
+established temporarily at Rome, while the large number of students of
+philosophy went to Athens, and those of rhetoric to Rhodes, for the
+completion of their education.  The philosophy of Greece that came into
+Rome was something of a degenerate Epicureanism, fragments of a
+broken-down system, which created an unwholesome atmosphere.
+
+The only science which Rome developed was that of {263} jurisprudence,
+and the scientific writings of the Greeks had comparatively little
+influence upon Roman culture.  Mr. Duruy, in speaking of the influence
+of the Greeks on Rome, particularly in the days of its decline, says:
+"In conclusion, we find in certain sciences, for which Rome cared
+nothing, great splendor, but in art and poetry no mighty inspiration;
+in eloquence, vain chatter of words and images (the rhetoricians),
+habits but no faith; in philosophy, the materialism which came from the
+school of Aristotle, the doubt born of Plato, the atheism of Theodorus,
+the sensualism of Epicurus vainly combated by the moral protests of
+Zeno; and lastly, in the public life, the enfeeblement or the total
+loss of all of those virtues which make the man and the citizen; such
+were the Greeks at the time.  And now we say, with Cato, Polybius,
+Livy, Pliny, Justinian, and Plutarch, that all this passed into the
+Eternal City.  The conquest of Greece by Rome was followed by the
+conquest of Rome by Greece.  _Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit_."
+
+_Latin Literature and Language_.--The importance of the Latin language
+and literature in the later history of the Romans and throughout the
+Middle Ages is a matter of common knowledge.  The language of the Latin
+tribes congregating at Rome finally predominated over all Italy and
+followed the Roman arms through all the provinces.  It became to a
+great extent the language of the common people and subsequently the
+literary language of the empire.  It became finally the great vehicle
+of thought in all civil and ecclesiastical proceedings in the Middle
+Ages and at the beginning of the modern era.  As such it has performed
+a great service to the world.  Cato wrote in Latin, and so did the
+annalists of the early period of Latin literature.  Livy became a
+master of his own language, and Cicero presents the improved and
+elevated speech.  The study of these masterpieces, full of thought and
+beauty of expression, has had a mighty influence in the education of
+the youth of modern times.  It must be conceded, however, that in Rome
+the productions of the great masters were not as universally {264}
+known or as widely celebrated as one would suppose.  But, like all
+great works of art, they have lived on to bear their influence through
+succeeding ages.
+
+_Development of Roman Art_.--The elements of art and architecture were
+largely borrowed from the Greeks.  We find, however, a distinctive
+style of architecture called Roman, which varies from that of the
+Greek, although the influence of Greek form is seen not only in the
+decorations but in the massive structure of the buildings.  Without
+doubt, in architecture the Romans perfected the arch as their chief
+characteristic and contribution to art progress.  But this in itself
+was a great step in advance and laid the foundation of a new style.  As
+might be expected from the Romans, it became a great economic advantage
+in building.  In artistic decoration they made but little advancement
+until the time of the Greek influence.
+
+_Decline of the Roman Empire_.--The evolution of the Roman nation from
+a few federated tribes with archaic forms of government to a fully
+developed republic with a complex system of government, and the passage
+of the republic into an imperialism, magnificent and powerful in its
+sway, are subjects worthy of our most profound contemplation; and the
+gradual decline and decay of this great superstructure is a subject of
+great interest and wonder.  In the contemplation of the progress of
+human civilization, it is indeed a mournful subject.  It seems to be
+the common lot of man to build and destroy in order to build again.
+But the Roman government declined on account of causes which were
+apparent to every one.  It was an impossibility to build up such a
+great system without its accompanying evils, and it was impossible for
+such a system to remain when such glaring evils were allowed to
+continue.
+
+If it should be asked what caused the decline of this great
+civilization, it may be said that the causes were many.  In the first
+place, the laws of labor were despised and capital was consumed without
+any adequate return.  There was consequently nothing left of an
+economic nature to withstand the rude {265} shocks of pestilence and
+war.  The few home industries, when Rome ceased to obtain support from
+the plunder of war, were not sufficient to supply the needs of a great
+nation.  The industrial condition of Rome had become deplorable.  In
+all the large cities there were a few wealthy and luxurious families, a
+small number of foreigners and freedmen who were superintending a large
+number of slaves, and a large number of free citizens who were too
+proud to work and yet willing to be fed by the government.  The
+industrial conditions of the rural districts and small cities were no
+better.
+
+There were a few non-residents who cultivated the soil by means of
+slaves, or by _coloni_, or serfs who were bound to the soil.  These
+classes were recruited from the conquered provinces.  Farming had
+fallen into disrepute.  The small farmers, through the introduction of
+slavery, were crowded from their holdings and were compelled to join
+the great unfed populace of the city.  Taxation fell heavily and
+unjustly upon the people.  The method of raising taxes by farming them
+out was a pernicious system that led to gross abuse.  All enterprise
+and all investments were discouraged.  There was no inducement for men
+to enter business, as labor had been dishonored and industry crippled.
+The great body of Roman people were divided into two classes, those who
+formed the lower classes of laborers and those who had concentrated the
+wealth of the country in their own hands and held the power of the
+nation in their own control.  The mainstay of the nation had fallen
+with the disappearance of the sterling middle class.  The lower classes
+were reduced to a mob by the unjust and unsympathetic treatment
+received at the hands of the governing class.
+
+In the civil administration there was a division of citizens into two
+classes: those who had influence in the local affairs of their towns or
+neighborhood, and those who were simply interested in the central
+organization.  During the days of the republic these people were
+closely related, because all citizens were forced to come to Rome in
+order to have a voice in the political interests of the government.
+But during the empire {266} there came about a change, and the citizens
+of a distant province were interested only in the management of their
+own local affairs and lost their interest in the general government, so
+that when the central government weakened there was a tendency for the
+local interests to destroy the central.
+
+After the close of Constantine's reign very great evils threatened the
+Roman administration.  First of these was the barbarians; second, the
+populace; and third, the soldiers.  The barbarians continually made
+inroads upon the territory, broke down the governmental system, and
+established their own, not so much for the sake of destruction and
+plunder, as is usually supposed, but to seek the betterment of their
+condition as immigrants into a new territory.  That they were in some
+instances detrimental to the Roman institutions is true, but in others
+they gave new life to the declining empire.  The populace was a rude,
+clamorous mass of people, seeking to satisfy their hunger in the
+easiest possible way.  These were fed by the politicians for the sake
+of their influence.  The soldiery of Rome had changed.  Formerly made
+up of patriots who marched out to defend their own country or to
+conquer surrounding provinces in the name of the Eternal City, the
+ranks were filled with mercenary soldiers taken from the barbarians,
+who had little interest in the perpetuation of the Roman institutions.
+They had finally obtained so much power that they set up an emperor, or
+dethroned him, at their will.
+
+And finally it may be said that of all these internal maladies and
+external dangers, the decline in moral worth of the Roman nation is the
+most appalling.  Influenced by a broken-down philosophy, degenerated in
+morals, corrupt in family and social life, the whole system decayed,
+and could not withstand the shock of external influence.
+
+_Summary of Roman Civilization_.--The Roman contribution, then, to
+civilization is largely embraced in the development of a system of
+government with forms and functions which have been perpetuated to this
+day; the development of a system of law which has found its place in
+all modern legal {267} codes; a beautiful and rich language and
+literature; a few elements of art and architecture; the development of
+agriculture on a systematic basis; the tendency to unify separate races
+in one national life; the practice of the art of war on a humane basis,
+and the development of the municipal system of government which has had
+its influence on every town of modern life.  These are among the chief
+contributions of the Roman system to the progress of humanity.
+
+While it is common to talk of the fall of the Roman Empire, Rome is
+greater to-day in the perpetuity of her institutions than during the
+glorious days of the republic or of the magnificent rule of the
+Caesars.  Rome also left a questionable inheritance to the posterity of
+nations.  The idea of imperialism revived in the empire of Charlemagne,
+and later in the Holy Roman Empire, and, cropping out again and again
+in the monarchies of new nations, has not become extinct to this day.
+The recent World War gave a great shock to the idea of czarism.  The
+imperial crowns of the Hohenzollerns, the Hapsburgs, the Romanoffs, and
+the royal crowns of minor nations fell from the heads of great rulers,
+because the Emperor of Germany overworked the idea of czarism after the
+type of imperial Rome.  But the idea is not dead.  In shattered Europe,
+the authority and infallibility of the state divorced from the
+participation of the people, though put in question, is yet a
+smouldering power to be reckoned with.  It is difficult to erase Rome's
+impress upon the world.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  How were the Greeks and Romans related racially?
+
+2.  Difference between the Greek and the Roman attitude toward life.
+
+3.  What were the land reforms of the Gracchi?
+
+4.  What advancement did the Romans make in architecture?
+
+5.  What were the internal causes of the decline of Rome?
+
+6.  Why did the Celts and the Germans invade Rome?
+
+7.  Enumerate the permanent contributions of Rome to subsequent
+civilization.
+
+
+
+[1] Hadley, _Introduction to Roman Law_.
+
+
+
+
+{268}
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION
+
+_Important Factors in the Foundation of Western Civilization_.--When
+the European world entered the period of the Middle Ages, there were a
+few factors more important than others that influenced civilization.[1]
+(1) The Oriental cultures, not inspiring as a whole, left by-products
+from Mesopotamia, Palestine, and Egypt.  These were widely spread
+through the influence of world wars and world empires.  (2) The Greek
+cultures in the form of art, architecture, philosophy, and literature,
+and newer forms of political and social organization were widely
+diffused.  (3) The Romans had established agriculture, universal
+centralized government and citizenship, and developed a magnificent
+body of law; moreover, they had formed a standing army which was used
+in the support of monarchy, added some new features to architecture and
+industrial structures, and developed the Latin language, which was to
+be the carrier of thought for many centuries.  (4) The Christian
+religion with a new philosophy of life was to penetrate and modify all
+society, all thought, government, law, art, and, in fact, all phases of
+human conduct.  (5) The barbarian invasion carried with it the Teutonic
+idea of individual liberty and established a new practice of human
+relationships.  It was vigor of life against tradition and convention.
+With these contributions, the European world was to start out with the
+venture of mediaeval civilization, after the decline of the Roman
+Empire.
+
+_The Social Contacts of the Christian Religion_.--Of the factors
+enumerated above, none was more powerful than the teaching of the
+Christians.  For it came in direct contrast and opposition to
+established opinions and old systems.  It was also constructive, for it
+furnished a definite plan of social order different from all existing
+ones, which it opposed.  The {269} religions of the Orient centred
+society around the temple.  Among all the Semitic races, Babylonian,
+Assyrian, and Hebrew, temple worship was an expression of religious and
+national unity.  National gods, national worship, and a priesthood were
+the rule.  Egypt was similar in many respects, and the Greeks used the
+temple worship in a limited degree, though no less real in its
+influences.
+
+The Romans, though they had national gods, yet during the empire had
+liberalized the right of nations to worship whom they pleased, provided
+nothing was done to militate against the Roman government, which was
+committed to the worship of certain gods, in which the worship of the
+emperor became a more or less distinctive feature.  The Christian
+teaching recognized no national gods, no national religion, but a world
+god who was a father of all men.  Furthermore, it recognized that all
+men, of whatsoever race and country, were brethren.  So this doctrine
+of love crossed boundaries of all nations and races, penetrated systems
+of religion and philosophy, and established the idea of international
+and universal brotherhood.
+
+_Social Conditions at the Beginning of the Christian Era_.--The
+philosophy of the Greeks and Romans had reached a state of degeneracy
+at the time of the coming of Christ.  Thought had become weak and
+illogical.  Trusting to the influence of the senses, which were at
+first believed to be infallible, scepticism of the worst nature
+influenced all classes of the people.  Epicureanism, not very bad in
+the beginning, had come to a stage of decrepitude.  To seek immediate
+pleasure regardless of consequences was far different from avoiding
+extravagance and intemperance, in order to make a higher happiness.
+Licentiousness, debauchery, the demoralized condition of the home and
+family ties, made all society corrupt.  Stoicism had been taken up by
+the Romans; it agreed with their nature, and, coupled with
+Epicureanism, led to the extinction of faith.  There was no clear
+vision of life; no hope, no high and worthy aspirations, no inspiration
+for a noble life.
+
+{270}
+
+The character of worship of the Romans of their various gods led to a
+non-religious attitude of mind.  Religion, like everything else, had
+become a commercial matter, to be used temporarily for the benefit of
+all parties who indulged.  While each separate nationality had its own
+shrine in the temple, and while the emperor was deified, all worship
+was carried on in a selfish manner.  There was no reverence, no devout
+attitude of worship, and consequently no real benefit derived from the
+religious life.  The Roman merchant went to the temple to offer
+petitions for the safety of his ship on the seas, laden with
+merchandise.  After its safe entrance, the affair troubled him no more;
+his religious emotion was satisfied.  Moral degeneration could be the
+only outcome of following a broken-down philosophy and an empty
+religion.  Men had no faith in one another, and consequently felt no
+obligation to moral actions.  Dishonesty in all business transactions
+was the rule.  Injustice in the administration of the law was worked by
+the influence of factions and cliques.  The Roman world was politically
+corrupt.  Men were struggling for office regardless of the effect of
+their methods on the social welfare.  The marriage relation became
+indefinite and unholy.  The home life lost its hallowed influence as a
+support to general, social, and political life.
+
+The result of a superficial religion, an empty philosophy, and a low
+grade of morality, was to drive men to scepticism, to a doubt in all
+things, or to a stoic indifference to all things, or perhaps in a
+minority of cases to a search for light.  To nearly all there was
+nothing in the world to give permanent satisfaction to the sensual
+nature, or nothing to call out the higher qualities of the soul.  Men
+turned with loathing from their own revels and immoral practices and
+recognized nothing worthy of their thoughts in life.  Those who held to
+a moral plane at all found no inspiration in living, had no enthusiasm
+for anything or any person.  It were as well that man did not exist;
+that there was no earth, no starry firmament, no heaven, no hell, no
+present, no future.  The few who sought for the {271} light did so from
+their inner consciousness or through reflection.  Desiring a better
+life, they advocated higher aspirations of the soul and an elevated,
+moral life, and sought consolation in the wisdom of the sages.  Their
+life bordered on the monastic.
+
+_The Contact of Christianity with Social Life_.--The most striking
+contrast to be observed in comparing the state of the world with
+Christianity is the novelty of its teachings.  No doctrine like the
+fatherhood of God had hitherto been taught in the European world.
+Plato reached, in his philosophy, a conception of a universal creator
+and father of all, but his doctrine was influenced by dualism.  There
+was no conception of the fatherly care which Christians supposed God to
+exercise over all of his creatures.  It also taught the brotherhood of
+man, that all people of every nation are brethren, with a common
+father, a doctrine that had never been forcibly advanced before.  The
+Jehovah of the Jews watched over their especial affairs and was
+considered in no sense the God of the Gentiles.  For how could Jehovah
+favor Jews and also their enemies at the same time?  So, too, for the
+Greek and the barbarian, the Roman and the Teuton, the jurisdiction of
+deities was limited by national boundaries, or, in case of family
+worship, by the tribe, for the household god belonged only to a limited
+number of worshippers.  A common brotherhood of all men on a basis of
+religious equality of right and privilege was decidedly new.
+
+Christianity taught of the nature and punishment of sin.  This, too,
+was unknown to the degenerate days of the Roman life.  To sin against
+the Creator and Father was new in their conception, and to consider
+such as worthy of punishment was also beyond their philosophy.
+Christianity clearly pointed out what sin is, and asserted boldly that
+there is a just retribution to all lawbreakers.  It taught of
+righteousness and justice, and that acts were to be performed because
+they were right.  Individuals were to be treated justly by their
+fellows, regardless of birth or position.  And finally, making marriage
+a {272} divine institution, Christianity introduced a pure moral code
+in the home.
+
+While a few philosophers, following after Plato, conjectured respecting
+the immortality of the soul, Christianity was the first religious
+system to teach eternal life as a fundamental doctrine.  Coupled with
+this was the doctrine of the future judgment, at which man should give
+an account of his actions on this side of the grave.  This was a new
+doctrine to the people of the world.
+
+The Christians introduced a new phase of social life by making their
+practice agree with their profession.  It had been the fault of the
+moral sentiments of the ancient sages that they were never carried out
+in practice.  Many fine precepts respecting right conduct had been
+uttered, but these were not realized by the great mass of humanity, and
+were put in practice by very few people.  They had seldom been
+vitalized by humanizing use.  Hence Christianity appeared in strong
+relief in the presence of the artificial system with which it came in
+contact.  It had a faith and genuineness which were vigorous and
+refreshing.
+
+The Christians practised true benevolence, which was a great point in
+these latter days of selfishness and indifference.  They systematically
+looked after their own poor and cared for the stranger at the gates.
+Later the church built hospitals and refuges and prepared for the care
+of all the oppressed.  Thousands who were careworn, oppressed, or
+disgusted with the ways of the world turned instinctively to
+Christianity for relief, and were not disappointed.  The Greeks and the
+Romans had never practised systematic charity until taught by the
+Christians.  The Romans gave away large sums for political reasons, to
+appease the populace, but with no spirit of charity.
+
+But one of the most important of the teachings of the early church was
+to dignify labor.  There was a new dignity lent to service.  Prior to
+the dominion of the church, labor had become degrading, for slavery had
+supplanted free labor to such an extent that all labor appeared
+dishonorable.  Another {273} potent cause of the demoralization of
+labor was the entrance of a large amount of products from the conquered
+nations.  The introduction of these supplies, won by conquest,
+paralyzed home industries and developed a spirit of pauperism.  The
+actions of the nobility intensified the evils.  They spent their time
+in politics, and purchased the favor of the populace for the right of
+manipulating the wealth and power of the community.  The Christians
+taught that labor was honorable, and they labored with their own hands,
+built monasteries, developed agriculture, and in many other ways taught
+that it is noble to labor.
+
+_Christianity Influenced the Legislation of the Times_.--At first
+Christians were a weak and despised group of individuals.  Later they
+obtained sufficient force to become partners with the empire and in a
+measure dictate some of the laws of the community.  The most
+significant of these were to abolish the inhuman treatment of
+criminals, who were considered not so well as the beasts of the field.
+Organized Christianity secured human treatment of prisoners while they
+were in confinement, and the abolition of punishment by crucifixion.
+Gladiatorial shows were suppressed, and laws permitting the freer
+manumission of slaves were passed.  The exposure of children, common to
+both Greeks and Romans, was finally forbidden by law.  The laws of
+marriage were modified so that the sanctity of the home was secured;
+and, finally, a law was passed securing Sunday as a day of rest to be
+observed by the whole nation.  This all came about gradually as the
+church came into power.  This early influence of the Christian religion
+on the legislation of the Roman government presaged a time when, in the
+decline of the empire, the church would exercise the greatest power of
+any organization, political or religious, in western Europe.
+
+_Christians Come Into Conflict with Civil Authority_.--It was
+impossible that a movement so antagonistic to the usual condition of
+affairs as Christianity should not come into conflict with the civil
+authority.  Its insignificant beginning, although {274} it excited the
+hatred and the contempt of the jealous and the discontented, gave no
+promise of a formidable power sufficient to contend with the imperial
+authority.  But as it gained power it excited the alarm of rulers, as
+they beheld it opposing cherished institutions.  Nearly all of the
+persecutions came about through the attitude of the church toward the
+temporal rulers.  The Roman religion was a part of the civil system,
+and he who would not subscribe to it was in opposition to the state.
+
+The Christians would not worship the emperor, nor indeed would they, in
+common with other nations, set up an image or shrine in the temple at
+Rome and worship according to the privilege granted.  They recognized
+One higher in power than the emperor.  The Romans in their practical
+view of life could not discriminate between spiritual and temporal
+affairs, and a recognition of a higher spiritual being as giving
+authority was in their sight the acknowledgment of allegiance to a
+foreign power.  The fact that the Christians met in secret excited the
+suspicions of many, and it became customary to accuse them on account
+of any mishap or evil that came upon the people.  Thus it happened at
+the burning of Rome that the Christians were accused of setting it on
+fire, and many suffered persecution on account of these suspicions.
+
+Christians also despised civic virtues, or made light of their
+importance.  In this they were greatly mistaken in their practical
+service, for they could have wielded more power had they given more
+attention to civic life.  Like many good people of modern times, they
+observed the corruption of government, and held themselves aloof from
+it rather than to enter in and attempt to make it better.  The result
+of this indifference of the Christians was to make the Romans believe
+that they were antagonistic to the best interests of the community.
+
+The persecution of the Christians continued at intervals with greater
+or less intensity for more than two centuries; the Christians were
+early persecuted by the Jews, later by the Romans.  In the first
+century they were persecuted under Nero and Domitian, through personal
+spite or selfish interests.  After {275} this their persecution was
+political; there was a desire to suppress a religion that was held to
+be contrary to law.  The persecution under Hadrian arose on account of
+the supposition that the Christians were the cause of plagues and
+troubles on account of their impiety.  Among later emperors it became
+customary to attribute to them any unusual occurrence or strange
+phenomenon which was destructive of life or property.
+
+Organized Christianity grew so strong that it came in direct contact
+with the empire, and the latter had need of real apprehension, for the
+conflict brought about by the divergence of belief suddenly
+precipitated a great struggle within the empire.  The strong and
+growing power of the Christians was observed everywhere.  It was no
+insignificant opponent, and it attacked the imperial system at all
+points.
+
+Finally Constantine, who was a wise ruler as well as an astute
+politician, saw that it would be good policy to recognize the church as
+an important body in the empire and to turn this growing social force
+to his own account.  From this time on the church may be said to have
+become a part of the imperial system, which greatly influenced its
+subsequent history.  While in a measure it brought an element of
+strength into the social and political world, it rapidly undermined the
+system of government, and was a potent force in the decline of the
+empire by rendering obsolete many phases of the Roman government.
+
+_The Wealth of the Church Accumulates_.--As Rome declined and new
+governments arose, the church grew rapidly in the accumulation of
+wealth, particularly in church edifices and lands.  It is always a sign
+of growing power when large ownership of property is obtained.  The
+favors of Constantine, the gifts of Pepin and Charlemagne, and the
+large number of private gifts of property brought the church into the
+Middle Ages with large feudal possessions.  This gave it prestige and
+power, which it could not otherwise have held, and hastened the
+development of a system of government which was powerful in many ways.
+
+{276}
+
+_Development of the Hierarchy_.--The clergy finally assumed powers of
+control of the church separate from the laity.  Consequently there was
+a gradual decline in the power of lay members to have a voice in the
+affairs of the church.  While the early church appeared as a simple
+democratic association, the organization had developed into a formal
+system or hierarchy, which extended from pope to simple lay members.
+The power of control falling into the hands of high officials, there
+soon became a distinction between the ordinary membership and the
+machinery of government.  Moreover, the clergy were exempt from
+taxation and any control or discipline similar to that imposed on
+ordinary lay members.
+
+These conditions soon led to the exercise of undue authority of the
+hierarchy over the lay membership.  This dominating principle became
+dogmatic, until the members of the church became slaves to an arbitrary
+government.  The only saving quality in this was the fact that the
+members of the clergy were chosen from the laity, which kept up the
+connection between the higher and lower members of the church.  The
+separation of the governors from the governed proceeded slowly but
+surely until the higher officers were appointed from the central
+authority of the church, and all, even to the clergy, were directly
+under the imperial control of the papacy.  Moreover, the clergy assumed
+legal powers and attempted to regulate the conduct of the laymen.
+There finally grew up a great body of canon law, according to which the
+clergy ruled the entire church and, to a certain extent, civil life.
+
+But the church, under the canon law, must add a penalty to its
+enforcement and must assume the punishment of offenders within its own
+jurisdiction.  This led to the assumption that all crime is sin, and as
+its particular function was to punish sin, the church claimed
+jurisdiction over all sinners and the right to apprehend and sentence
+criminals; but the actual punishment of the more grievous offenses was
+usually given over to the civil authority.
+
+{277}
+
+_Attempt to Dominate the Temporal Powers_.--Having developed a strong
+hierarchy which completely dominated the laity, from which it had
+separated, having amassed wealth and gained power, and having invaded
+the temporal power in the apprehension and punishment of crime, the
+church was prepared to go a step farther and set its authority above
+kings and princes in the management of all temporal affairs.  In this
+it almost succeeded, for its power of excommunication was so great as
+to make the civil authorities tremble and bow down before it.  The
+struggle of church and empire in the Middle Ages, and, indeed, into the
+so-called modern era, represents one of the important phases of
+history.  The idea of a world empire had long dominated the minds of
+the people, who looked to the Roman imperialism as the final solution
+of all government.  But as this gradually declined and was replaced by
+the Christian church, the idea of a world religion finally became
+prevalent.  Hence the ideas of a world religion and a world empire were
+joined in the Holy Roman Empire, begun by Charlemagne and established
+by Otto the Great.  In this combination the church assumed first place
+as representing the eternal God, as the head of all things temporal and
+spiritual.
+
+In this respect the church easily overreached itself in the employment
+of force to carry out its plans.  Assuming to control by love, it had
+entered the lists to contend with force and intrigue, and it became
+subject to all forms of degradation arising from political corruption.
+In this respect its high object became degraded to the mere attempt to
+dominate.  The greed for power and force was very great, and this again
+and again led the church into error and lessened its influence in the
+actual regeneration of man and society.
+
+_Dogmatism_.--The progress of the imperial power of the church finally
+settled into the condition of absolute authority over the thoughts and
+minds of the people.  The church assumed to be absolutely correct in
+its theory of authority, and assumed to be infallible in regard to
+matters of right and wrong.  It went farther, and prescribed what men
+should {278} believe, and insisted that they should accept that dictum
+without question, on the authority of the church.  This monopoly of
+religious belief assumed by the church had a tendency to stifle free
+inquiry and to retard progress.  It more than once led to
+irregularities of practice on the part of the church in order to
+maintain its position, and on the part of the members to avoid the
+harsh treatment of the church.  Religious progress, except in
+government-building, was not rapid, spirituality declined, and the
+fervent zeal for the right and for justice passed into fanaticism for
+purity.
+
+This caused the church to fail to utilize the means of progress.  It
+might have advanced its own interest more rapidly by encouraging free
+inquiry and developing a struggle for the truth.  By exercising
+liberality it could have ingratiated itself into the government of all
+nations as a helpful adviser, and thus have conserved morality and
+justice; but by its illiberality it retarded the progress of the mind
+and the development of spirituality.  While it lowered the conception
+of religion, on the one hand, it lowered the estimate of knowledge, on
+the other, and in all suppressed truth through dogmatic belief.  This
+course not only affected the character and quality of the clergy, and
+created discontent in the laymen, but finally lessened respect for the
+church, and consequently for the gospel, in the minds of men.
+
+_The Church Becomes the Conservator of Knowledge_.--Very early in the
+days of the decline of the Roman Empire, when the inroads of the
+barbarian had destroyed reverence for knowledge, and, indeed, when
+within the tottering empire all philosophy and learning had fallen into
+contempt, the church possessed the learning of the times.  Through its
+monasteries and its schools all the learning of the period was found.
+It sought in a measure to preserve, by copying, the manuscripts of many
+of the ancient and those of later times.  Thus the church preserved the
+knowledge which otherwise must have passed away through Roman
+degeneration and barbarian influences.
+
+{279}
+
+_Service of Christianity_.[2]--The service of Christianity to European
+civilization consists chiefly in: (1) the respect paid to woman; (2)
+the establishment of the home and the enthronement of the home
+relation; (3) the advancement of the idea of humanity; (4) the
+development of morality; (5) the conservation of spiritual power; (6)
+the conservation of knowledge during the Dark Ages; (7) the development
+of faith; (8) the introduction of a new social order founded on
+brotherhood, which manifested itself in many ways in the development of
+community life.
+
+If the church fell into evil habits it was on account of the conditions
+under which it existed.  Its struggle with Oriental despotism, as well
+as with Oriental mysticism, a degenerate philosophy, corrupt social and
+political conditions, could not leave it unscathed.  If evil at times,
+it was better than the temporal government.  If its rulers were
+dogmatic, arbitrary, and inconsistent, they were better, nevertheless,
+than the ruling temporal princes.  The church represented the only
+light there was in the Dark Ages.  It was far superior in morality and
+justice to all other institutions.  If it assumed too much power it
+must be remembered that it came naturally to this assumption by
+attending specifically to its apparent duty in exercising the power
+that the civil authority failed to exercise.  The development of faith
+in itself is a great factor in civilization.  It must not be ignored,
+although it is in great danger of passing into dogmatism.  A world
+burdened with dogmatism is a dead world; a world without faith is a
+corrupt world leading on to death.
+
+The Christian religion taught the value of the individual, but also
+taught of the Kingdom of God, which involved a community spirit--the
+universal citizenship of the Romans prepared the way, and the
+individual liberty of the Germans strengthened it.  Whenever the church
+adhered to the teachings of the four gospels, it made for liberty of
+thought, freedom of life, progress in knowledge and in the arts of
+right living.  {280} Whenever it ceased to follow these and put
+institutionalism first, it retarded progress, in learning, science, and
+philosophy, and likewise in justice and righteousness.
+
+To the church organization as an institution are due the preservation,
+perpetuation, and propagation of the teachings of Jesus, which
+otherwise might have been lost or passed into legend.  All the way
+through the development of the Christian doctrine in Europe, under the
+direction of the church there are two conflicting forces--the rule by
+dogma and the freedom of individual belief.  The former comes from the
+Greeks and Latins, the latter from the Nordic idea of personal liberty.
+Both have been essential to the development of the Christian religion
+and the political life alike.  The dominant force in the religious
+dogma of the church was necessary to a people untutored in spiritual
+development.  Its error was to insist that the individual had no right
+to personal belief.  Yet the former established rules of faith and
+prevented the dissipation of the treasured teachings of Jesus.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  In what ways was the Christian religion antagonistic to other
+religions?
+
+2.  What new elements did it add to human progress?
+
+3.  How did the fall of Rome contribute to the power of the church?
+
+4.  What particular service did the church contribute to social order
+during the decline of the Roman Empire?
+
+5.  How did the church conserve learning and at the same time suppress
+freedom of thought?
+
+6.  How do you discriminate between Christianity as a religious culture
+and the church as an institution?
+
+
+
+[1] Adams, _Civilization During the Middle Ages_.
+
+[2] Adams, _Civilization During the Middle Ages_, chap. I.
+
+
+
+
+{281}
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+TEUTONIC INFLUENCE ON CIVILIZATION
+
+_The Coming of the Barbarians_.--The picture usually presented by the
+historical story-tellers of the barbarian hordes that invaded the Roman
+Empire is that of bold pirates, plunderers of civilization, and
+destroyers of property.  No doubt, as compared with the Roman system of
+warfare and plunder, their conduct was somewhat irregular.  They were
+wandering groups or tribes, who lived rudely, seeking new territory for
+exploitation after the manner of their lives.  They were largely a
+pastoral people with cattle as the chief source of industry with
+intermittent agriculture.  Doubtless, they were attracted by the
+splendor of Rome, its wealth and its luxury, but primarily they were
+seeking a chance to live.  It was the old luring food quest, which is
+the foundation of most migrations, that was the impelling force of
+their invasion.  In accordance with their methods of life, the northern
+territory was over-crowded, and tribe pressed upon tribe in the
+struggle for existence.  Moreover, the pressure of the Asiatic
+populations drove one tribe upon another and forced those of northern
+Europe south and east.
+
+All of the invaders, except the Huns who settled in Pannonia, were of
+the Aryan branch of the Caucasian race.  They were nearly all of the
+Nordic branch of the Aryan stock and were similar in racial
+characteristics and social life to the Greeks, who conquered the
+ancient Aegean races of Greece, and to those others who conquered the
+primitive inhabitants of Italy prior to the founding of the Roman
+nation.  The Celts were of Aryan stock but not of Nordic race.  They
+appeared at an early time along the Danube, moved westward into France,
+Spain, and Britain, and took side excursions into Italy, the most
+notable of which was the invasion of Rome {282} 390 B.C.  Wherever the
+Nordic people have gone, they have brought vigor of life and achieved
+much after they had acquired the tools of civilization.  If they were
+pirates of property, they also were appropriators of the civilization
+of other nations, into which they projected the vigor of their own life.
+
+_Importance of Teutonic Influence_.--Various estimates have been made
+as to the actual influence of the Teutonic races in shaping the
+civilization of western Europe.  Mr. Guizot insists that this influence
+is entirely overestimated, and also, to a certain extent,
+misrepresented: that much has been done in their name which does not
+rightfully belong to them.  He freely admits that the idea of law came
+from the Romans, morality from the Christian church, and the principle
+of liberty from the Germans.  Yet he fails to emphasize the result of
+the union of liberty with the law, with morality, and with the church.
+It is just this leaven of liberty introduced into the various elements
+of civilization that gave it a new life and brought about progress, the
+primary element of civilization.
+
+France, in the early period of European history, had an immense
+prestige in the advancement of civilization.  There was a large
+population in a compact territory, with a closely organized government,
+both civil and ecclesiastical, and a large use of the Roman products of
+language, government, law, and other institutions.  Consequently,
+France took the lead in progress, and Mr. Guizot is quite right in
+assuming that every element of progress passed through France to give
+it form, before it became recognized.  Yet, in the later development of
+political liberty, law, and education, the Teutonic element becomes
+more prominent, until it would seem that the native and acquired
+qualities of the Teutonic life have the stronger representation in
+modern civilization.  In stating this, due acknowledgment must be made
+to the Roman influence through law and government.  But the spirit of
+progress is Teutonic, although the form, in many instances, may be
+Roman.  It must be observed, too, that the foundation of local
+government in Germany, England, and the United States was of Teutonic
+{283} origin; that the road from imperialism to democracy is lined with
+Teutonic institutions and lighted with Teutonic liberty, and that the
+whole system of individual rights and popular government has been
+influenced by the attitude of the Teutonic spirit toward government and
+law.
+
+_Teutonic Liberty_.--All writers recognize that the Germanic tribes
+contributed the quality of personal liberty to the civilization of the
+West.  The Roman writers, in setting forth their own institutions, have
+left a fair record of the customs and habits of the so-called
+barbarians.  Titus said of them: "Their bodies are, indeed, great, but
+their souls are greater."  Caesar had a remarkable method of eulogizing
+his own generalship by praising the valor and strength of the
+vanquished foes.  "Liberty," wrote Lucanus, "is the German's
+birthright."  And Florus, speaking of liberty, said: "It is a privilege
+which nature has granted to the Germans, and which the Greeks, with all
+of their arts, knew not how to obtain."  At a later period Montesquieu
+was led to exclaim: "Liberty, that lovely thing, was discovered in the
+wild forests of Germany."  While Hume, viewing the results of this
+discovery, said: "If our part of the world maintains sentiments of
+liberty, honor, equity, and valor superior to the rest of mankind, it
+owes these advantages to the seeds implanted by the generous
+barbarians."
+
+More forcible than all these expressions of sentiment are the results
+of the study of modern historians of the laws and customs of the early
+Teutons, and the tracing of these laws in the later civilization.  This
+shows facts of the vitalizing process of the Teutonic element.  The
+various nations to-day which speak the Teutonic languages, of which the
+English is the most important, are carrying the burden of civilization.
+These, rather than those overcome by a preponderance of Roman
+influences, are forwarding the progress of the world.
+
+_Tribal Life_.--Referring to the period of Germanic history prior to
+the influence of the Romans on the customs, laws, and institutions of
+the people, which transformed them from {284} wandering tribes into
+settled nationalities, it is easy to observe, even at this time, the
+Teutonic character.  The tribes had come in contact with Roman
+civilization, and many of them were already being influenced by the
+contact.  Their social life and habits were becoming somewhat fixed,
+and the elements of feudalism were already prominent as the foundation
+of the great institution of the Middle Ages.  This period also embraces
+the time when the tribes were about to take on the influence of the
+Christian religion, and when there was a constant mingling of the
+Christian spirit with the spirit of heathenism.  In fact, the subject
+should cover all that is known of the Germanic tribes prior to the
+Roman contact and after it, down to the full entrance of the Middle
+Ages and the rise of new nationalities.  In this period we shall miss
+the full interest of the society of the Middle Ages after the feudal
+system had transformed Europe or, rather, after Europe had entered into
+a great period of transformation from the indefinite, broken-down
+tribal life into the new life of modern nations.
+
+Tribal society has its limitations and types distinctive from every
+other.  The very name "tribe" suggests to us something different from
+the conditions of a modern nation.  Caesar and Tacitus were accustomed
+to speak of the Germanic tribes as _nationes_, although with no such
+fulness of meaning as we attach to our modern nations.  The Germanic,
+like the Grecian, tribe is founded upon two cardinal principles, and is
+a natural and not an artificial assemblage of people.  These two
+principles are religion and kinship, or consanguinity.  In addition to
+this there is a growth of the tribe by adoption, largely through the
+means of matrimony and the desire for protection.
+
+These principles in the formation of the tribe are universal with the
+Aryan people, and, probably, with all other races.  There is a
+clustering of the relatives around the eldest parent, who becomes the
+natural leader of the tribe and who has great power over the members of
+the expanded family.  There is no state, there are no citizens,
+consequently the social life must be far different from that which we
+are accustomed to see.  At {285} the time of our first knowledge of the
+Germans, the family had departed a step from the conditions which bound
+the old families of Greece and Rome into such compact and firmly
+organized bodies.  There was a tendency toward individualism, freedom,
+and the private ownership of land.  All of these points, and more, must
+be taken into consideration, as we take a brief survey of the
+characteristics of the early Teutonic society.  What has been said in
+reference to the tribe, points at once to the fact that there must have
+been different ranks of society, according to the manner in which a
+person became a member of the tribe.
+
+_Classes of Society_.--The classes of people were the freemen of noble
+blood, or the nobility, the common freemen, the freedmen, or half-free,
+and the slaves.
+
+The class of the nobility was based largely upon ancient lineage, some
+of whom could trace their ancestry to such a distance that they made
+tenable the claim that they were descended from the gods.  The position
+of a noble was so important in the community that he found no
+difficulty in making good his claim to pure blood and a title of
+reverence, but this in no way gave him any especial political
+privilege.  It assured a consideration which put him in the way of
+winning offices of preferment by his wealth and influence, but he must
+submit to the decision of the people for his power rather than depend
+upon the virtues of his ancestry.  This is why, in a later period, the
+formation of the new kingship left out the idea of nobility and placed
+the right of government upon personal service.  The second class
+represented the rank and file of the German freemen, the long-haired
+and free-necked men, who had never felt the yoke of bondage.  Those
+were the churls of society, but upon them fell the burden of service
+and the power of leadership.  Out of this rank came the honest yeomen
+of England.
+
+The third class represented those who held lands of the freemen as
+serfs, and in the later period of feudal society they became attached
+to the soil and were bought with the land and {286} sold with the land,
+though not slaves in the common acceptation of the term.  The fourth
+class were those who were reduced to the personal service of others.
+They were either captives taken in war or those who had lost their
+freedom by gambling.  This body was not large in the early society,
+although it tended to increase as society developed.
+
+It will be seen at once that in the primitive life of a people like the
+one we are studying, there is a mingling of the political, religious,
+and social elements of society.  There are no careful lines of
+distinction to be drawn as in present society, and more than
+this--there was a tendency to consolidate and simplify all of the forms
+of political and social life.  There was a simplicity of forms and a
+lack of conventional usage, with a complexity of functions.
+
+_The Home and the Home Life_.--The family of the Germans, like the
+family of all other Aryan races, was the social, political, and
+religious unit of the larger organization.  As compared with the
+Oriental nations, the family was monogamic and noted for purity and
+virtue.  Add to this the idea of reverence for women that characterized
+the early German people, and we may infer that the home life, though of
+a somewhat rude nature, was genuine, and that the home circle was not
+without a salutary influence in those times of wandering and war.  The
+mother, as we may well surmise, was the ruler of the home, had the care
+of the household, deliberated with the husband in the affairs of the
+tribe, and even took her place by his side in the field of battle when
+it seemed necessary.  In truth, if we may believe the chroniclers,
+woman was supposed to be the equal of man.
+
+But returning to the tribal life, we find that the houses were of the
+rudest kind, made of undressed lumber or logs, with a hole in the roof
+for the smoke to pass out, with but one door and sometimes no window.
+There were no cities among the Germans until they were taught by
+contact with Rome to build them.  The villages were, as a rule, an
+irregular collection of houses, more or less scattered, as is customary
+where land is {287} plentiful and of no particular value.  There were
+no regularly laid out streets, the villagers being a group of kinsmen
+of the same tribe, grouped together for convenience.  Around the
+village was constructed a ditch and a hedge as a rampart for
+protection.  This was called a "tun" (German _Zoun_), from which word
+we derive our name "town."  The house generally had but one room, which
+was used for all purposes.
+
+There was another class of houses, belonging to the nobility and the
+chiefs, called halls.  They consisted of one long room, which sometimes
+had transepts or alcoves for the women, partitioned off by curtains
+from the main hall.  This large room was the place where the lord and
+his companions were accustomed to sit at the great feasts after their
+return from a successful expedition.  This is the "beer hall" that we
+read so much about in song, epic, and legend.  Here the beer and the
+mead were passed; here arose the songs and the mirth of the warriors.
+On the walls of the hall might be seen the rude arms of the warrior,
+the shield and the spear, or decorations composed of the heads and the
+skins of wild beasts--all of which bring us to the early type of the
+hall of the great baron of the feudal age.
+
+Until the age of chivalry, women were not present at these rude feasts.
+The religious life of the early Germans was tribal rather than personal
+or of the simple family.  There were certain times at which members of
+the same tribe were wont to assemble and sacrifice to the gods.  There
+was a common meeting-place from year to year.  As it has been related,
+this had a tendency to cement the tribe together and enhance political
+unity.  This custom must have had its influence on social order and
+must have, in a measure, arrested the tendency of the people to an
+unsocial and selfish life.
+
+_Political Assemblies_.--The political assemblies, where all of the
+freemen met to discuss the affairs of the community, must have been
+powerful factors in the establishment of social customs and usage.  The
+kinsmen or fellow tribesmen were grouped in villages, and each village
+maintained its privilege {288} of self-government, and consequently the
+freemen met in the village assembly to consider the affairs of the
+community.  We find combined in the political representation the ideas
+of tribal unity and individuality, or at least family independence.  As
+the tribes federated, there was a tendency to make the assemblies more
+general, and thus the family exclusiveness tended to give way in favor
+of the development of the individual as a member of the tribal state.
+It was a slow transition from an ethnic to a democratic type of society.
+
+This association created a feeling of common interest akin to
+patriotism.  Mr. Freeman has given us a graphic representation of the
+survival of the early assembly in the Swiss cantons.[1]  In the forest
+cantons the freemen met in the open field on stated occasions to enact
+the laws and transact the duties of legislators and judges.  But
+although there was a tendency to sectional and clannish relations in
+society, this became much improved by the communal associations for
+political and economic life.  But society, as such, could not advance
+very far when the larger part of the occupation of the freemen was that
+of war.  The youth were educated in the field, and the warriors spent
+much of their time fighting with neighboring tribes.
+
+The entire social structure, resting as it did upon kinship, found its
+changes in developing economic, political, and religious life.
+Especially is this seen in the pursuit of the common industries.  As
+soon as the tribes obtained permanent seats and had given themselves
+mostly to agriculture, the state of society became more settled, and
+new customs were gradually introduced.  At the same time society became
+better organized, and each man had his proper place, not only in the
+social scale but also in the industrial and political life of the tribe.
+
+_General Social Customs_.--In the summer-time the clothing was very
+light.  The men came frequently to the Roman camp clad in a short
+jacket and a mantle; the more wealthy ones {289} wore a woollen or
+linen undergarment.  But in the cold weather sheepskins and the pelts
+of wild animals, as well as hose for the legs and shoes made of leather
+for the feet, were worn.  The mantle was fastened with a buckle, or
+with a thorn and a belt.  In the belt were carried shears and knives
+for daily use.  The women were not as a general thing dressed
+differently from the men.  After the contact with the Romans the
+methods of dress changed, and there was a greater difference in the
+garments worn by men and women.
+
+Marriage was a prominent social institution among the tribes, as it
+always is where the monogamic family prevails.  There were doubtless
+traces of the old custom, common to most races, of wife capture, a
+custom which long continued as a mere fiction to some extent among the
+peasantry of certain localities in Germany.  In this survival the bride
+makes feint to escape, and is chased and captured by the bridegroom.
+Some modern authorities have tried to show that there is a survival of
+this old custom of courtship, whereby the advances are supposed to be
+made by the men.  The engagement to be married meant a great deal more
+in those days than at present.  It was more than half of the marriage
+ceremony.  Just as among the Hebrews, the engagement was the real
+marriage contract, and the latter ceremony only a form, so among the
+Germans the same custom prevailed.  After engagement, until marriage
+they were called the Bräut and Bräutigam, but when wedded they ceased
+to be thus entitled.  The betrothal contained the essential bonds of
+matrimony, and was far more important before the law than the later
+ceremony.  In modern usage the opposite custom prevails.
+
+The woman was always under wardship; her father was her natural
+guardian and made the marriage contract or the engagement.  When a
+woman married, she brought with her a dower, furnished by her parents.
+This consisted of all house furnishings, clothes, and jewelry, and a
+more substantial dower in lands, money, or live stock.  On the morning
+of the day after marriage the husband gave to the wife the
+"Morgengabe," {290} which thereafter was her own property.  It was the
+wedding-present of the groom.  This is but a survival of the time when
+marriage among the Germans meant a simple purchase of a wife.  It is
+said that "ein Weib zu kaufen" (to buy a wife) was the common term for
+getting engaged, and that this phrase was so used as late as the
+eleventh century.  The wardship was called the _mundium_, and when the
+maid left her father's house for another home, her _mundium_ was
+transferred from her father to her husband.  This dower began, indeed,
+with the engagement, and the price of the _mundium_ was paid over to
+the guardian at the time of the contract.  From this time suit for
+breach of promise could be brought.  These are the primitive customs of
+the marriage ceremony, but they were changed from time to time.
+Through the influence of Christianity, the woman finally attained
+prominence in the matter of choosing a husband, and learned, much to
+her satisfaction, to make her own contracts in matrimony.
+
+_The Economic Life_.--The economic life was of the most meagre kind in
+the earlier stages of society.  We find that Tacitus, writing 150 years
+after Caesar, shows that there had been some changes in the people.  In
+the time of Caesar, the tribes were just making their transition from
+the pastoral-nomadic to the pastoral-agricultural state, and by the
+time of Tacitus this transition was so general that most of the tribes
+had settled to a more or less permanent agricultural life.  It must be
+observed that the development of the tribes was not symmetrical, and
+that which reads very pleasantly on paper represents a very confused
+state of society.  However much the tribes practised agriculture, they
+had but little peace, for warfare continued to be one of their chief
+occupations.  It was in the battle that a youth received his chief
+education, and in the chase that he occupied much of his spare time.
+
+But the ground was tilled, and barley, wheat, oats, and rye were
+raised.  Flax was cultivated, and the good housewife did the spinning
+and weaving--all that was done--for the household.  Greens, or herbage,
+were also cultivated, but {291} fruit-trees seldom were cultivated.
+With the products of the soil, of the chase, and of the herds, the
+Teutons lived well.  They had bread and meat, milk, butter and cheese,
+beer and mead, as well as fish and wild game.  The superintending of
+the fields frequently fell to the lot of the hausfrau, and the labor
+was done by serfs.  The tending of the fields, the pursuit of wild
+animals or the catching of fish, the care of the cattle or herds, and
+the making of butter and cheese, the building of houses, the bringing
+of salt from the sea, the making of garments, and the construction of
+weapons of war and utensils of convenience--these represent the chief
+industries of the people.  Later, the beginnings of commerce sprang up
+between the separate tribes, and gradually extended to other
+nationalities.
+
+_Contributions to Law_.--The principle of the trial by jury, which was
+developed in the English common law, was undoubtedly of Teutonic
+origin.  That a man should be tried by his peers for any misdemeanor
+was considered to be a natural right.  The idea of personal liberty
+made a personal law, which gradually gave way to civil law, although
+the personal element was never entirely obliterated.  The Teutonic
+tribes had no written law, yet they had a distinct legal system.  The
+comparison of this legal system with the Roman or with our modern
+system brings to light the individual character of the early Germanic
+laws.  The Teuton claimed rights on account of his own personality and
+his relation to a family, not because he was a member of a state.
+
+When the Teutons came in contact with the Romans they mingled their
+principles of law with those of the latter, and thus made law more
+formal.  Nearly all of the tribes, after this contact, had their laws
+codified and written in Latin, by Roman scholars, chiefly of the
+clergy, who incorporated not only many elements of Roman law but also
+more or less of the elements of Christian usage.  Those tribes which
+had been the longer time in contact with the Romans had a greater body
+of laws, more systematized and of more Roman {292} characteristics.
+Finally, as modern nationality arose, the laws were codified, combining
+the Roman and the Teutonic practice.
+
+The forms of judicial procedure remained much the same on account of
+the character of Teutonic social organization.  The personal element
+was so strong in the Teutonic system as to yield a wide influence in
+the development of judicial affairs.  The trial by combat and the early
+ordeals, the latter having been instituted largely through the church
+discipline, and the idea of local courts based upon a trial of peers,
+had much to do with shaping the course of judicial practice.  The time
+came, however, when nearly every barbarian judicial process was
+modified by the influence of the Roman law, until the predominance of
+the state, in judicial usage, was recognized in place of the personal
+element which so long prevailed in the early Teutonic customs.
+
+But in the evolution of the judicial systems of the various countries
+the Teutonic element of individual liberty and individual offenses
+never lost its influences.  These simple elements of life indicate the
+origin of popular government, individual and social liberty, and the
+foundation of local self-government.  Wherever the generous barbarians
+have gone they have carried the torch of liberty.  In Italy, Greece,
+England, Germany, Spain, and the northern nations, wherever the lurid
+flames of revolt against arbitrary and conventional government have
+burst forth, it can be traced to the Teutonic spirit of freedom.  This
+was the greatest contribution of the Teutonic people to civilization.[2]
+
+{293}
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  The vital elements of modern civilization contributed by the
+Germans.
+
+2.  Teutonic influence on Roman civilization.
+
+3.  Compare the social order of the Teutons with that of the early
+Greeks.
+
+4.  Causes of the invasion of Rome by the Teutonic tribes.
+
+5.  What were the racial relations of Romans, Greeks, Germans, Celts,
+and English?
+
+6.  Modern contributions to civilization by Germany.
+
+
+
+[1] See Chapter XXI.
+
+[2] The modern Prussian military state was a departure from the main
+trend of Teutonic life.  It represented a combination of later
+feudalism and the Roman imperialism.  It was a perversion of normal
+development, a fungous growth upon institutions of freedom and justice.
+
+
+
+
+{294}
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+FEUDAL SOCIETY
+
+_Feudalism a Transition of Social Order_.--Feudalism represents a
+change from the ancient form of imperialism to the newer forms of
+European government.  It arose out of the ruins of the Roman system as
+an essential form of social order.  It appears to be the only system
+fitted to bring order out of the chaotic conditions of society, but by
+the very nature of affairs it could not long continue as an established
+system.  It is rather surprising, indeed, that it became so universal,
+for every territory in Europe was subjected to its control in a greater
+or less degree.  Frequently those who were forced to adopt its form
+condemned its principle, and those who sought to maintain the doctrine
+of Roman imperialism were subjected to its sway.  The church itself,
+seeking to maintain its autocracy, came into direct contact with feudal
+theory and opposed it bitterly.  The people who submitted to the yoke
+of personal bondage which it entailed hated the system.  Yet the whole
+European world passed under feudalism.  But notwithstanding its
+universality, feudalism could offer nothing permanent, for in the
+development of social order it was forced to yield to monarchy,
+although it made a lasting influence on social life and political and
+economic usage.
+
+_There Are Two Elementary Sources of Feudalism_.--The spirit of
+feudalism arises out of the early form of Teutonic social life.  It
+sprang from the personal obligation of the comitatus, which was
+composed of a military leader and his followers or companions.  The
+self-constituted assembly elected the leader who was most noted for
+courage and prowess in battle.  To him was consigned the task of
+leading in battle the host, which was composed of all the freemen in
+arms.  Usually {295} these chiefs were chosen for a single campaign,
+but it not infrequently happened that their leadership was continuous,
+with all the force of hereditary selection.
+
+Another phase of the comitatus is represented by the leader's setting
+forth in time of peace with his companions to engage in fighting,
+exploiting, and plunder on his own account.  The courageous young men
+of the tribe, thirsting for adventure in arms, gathered about their
+leader, whom they sought to excel in valor.  He who was bravest and
+strongest in battle was considered most honorable.  The principal
+feature to be noted is the personal allegiance of the companions to
+their leader, for they were bound to him with the closest ties.  For
+the service which they rendered, the leader gave them sustenance and
+also reward for personal valor.  They sat at his table and became his
+companions, and thus continually increased his power in the community.
+
+This custom represents the germ of the feudal system.  The leader
+became the lord, the companions his vassals.  When the lord became a
+tribal chief or king, the royal vassals became the king's thegns, or
+represented the nobility of the realm.  The whole system was based upon
+service and personal allegiance.  As conquest of territory was made,
+the land was parcelled out among the followers, who received it from
+the leader as allodial grants and, later, as feudal grants.  The
+allodial grant resembled the title in fee simple, the feudal grant was
+made on condition of future service.
+
+The Roman element of feudalism finds its representation in clientage.
+This was a well-known institution at the time of the contact of the
+Romans with their invaders.  The client was attached to the lord, on
+whom he depended for support and for representation in the community.
+Two of the well-known feudal aids, namely, the ransom of the lord from
+captivity and the gift of dowry money on the marriage of his eldest
+daughter, are similar to the services rendered by the Roman client to
+his lord.
+
+The personal tie of clientage resembled the personal {296} allegiance
+in the comitatus, with the difference that the client stood at a great
+distance from the patron, while in the comitatus the companions were
+nearly equal to their chief.  The Roman influence tended finally to
+make the wide difference which existed between the lord and vassal in
+feudal relations.  Other forms of Roman usage, such as the institution
+of the _coloni_, or half-slaves of the soil, and the custom of granting
+land for use without actual ownership, seem to have influenced the
+development of feudalism.  Without doubt the Roman institutions here
+gave form and system to feudalism, as they did in other forms of
+government.
+
+_The Feudal System in Its Developed State Based on Land-Holding_.--In
+the early period in France, where feudalism received its most perfect
+development, several methods of granting land were in vogue.  First,
+the lands in the immediate possession of the conquered were retained by
+them on condition that they pay tribute to the conquerors; the wealthy
+Romans were allowed to hold all or part of their large estates.
+Second, many lands were granted in fee simple to the followers of the
+chiefs.  Third was the beneficiary grant, most common to feudal tenure
+in its developed state.  By this method land was granted as a reward
+for services past or prospective.  The last method to be named is that
+of commendation, by which the small holder of land needing protection
+gave his land to a powerful lord, who in turn regranted it to the
+original owner on condition that the latter became his vassal.  Thus
+the lands conquered by a chief or lord were parcelled out to his
+principal supporters, who in turn regranted them to those under them,
+so that all society was formed in a gradation of classes based on the
+ownership of land.  Each lord had his vassal, every vassal his lord.
+Each man swore allegiance to the one next above him, and this one to
+his superior, until the king was reached, who himself was but a
+powerful feudal lord.
+
+As the other forms and functions of state life developed, feudalism
+became the ruling principle, from which many strove in vain to free
+themselves.  There were in France, in the time {297} of Hugh Capet,
+according to Kitchen, "about a million of souls living on and taking
+their names from about 70,000 separate fiefs or properties; of these
+about 3,000 carried titles with them.  Of these again, no less than a
+hundred were sovereign states, greater or smaller, whose lords could
+coin money, levy taxes, make laws, and administer their own
+justice."[1]  Thus the effect of feudal tenure was to arrange society
+into these small, compact social groups, each of which must really
+retain its power by force of arms.  The method gave color to monarchy,
+which later became universal.
+
+_Other Elements of Feudalism_.--Prominent among the characteristics of
+feudalism was the existence of a close personal bond between the
+grantor and the receiver of an estate.  The receiver did homage to the
+grantor in the form of oath, and also took the oath of fealty.  In the
+former he knelt before the lord and promised to become his man on
+account of the land which he held, and to be faithful to him in defense
+of life and limb against all people.  The oath of fealty was only a
+stronger oath of the same tenor, in which the vassal, standing before
+the lord, appealed to God as a witness.  These two oaths, at first
+entirely separate, became merged into one, which passed by the name of
+the oath of fealty.  When the lord desired to raise an army he had only
+to call his leading vassals, and they in turn called those under them.
+When he needed help to harvest his grain the vassals were called upon
+for service.
+
+Besides the service rendered, there were feudal aids to be paid on
+certain occasions.  The chief of these were the ransom of the lord when
+captured, the amount paid when the eldest son was knighted, and the
+dowry on the marriage of the eldest daughter.  There were lesser feudal
+taxes called reliefs.  Of these the more important were the payment of
+a tax by the heir of a deceased vassal upon succession to property,
+one-half year's profit paid when a ward became of age, and the right to
+escheated lands of the vassal.  The lord also had the right to land
+forfeited on account of certain heinous crimes.  {298} Wardship
+entitled the lord to the use of lands during the minority of the ward.
+The lord also had a right to choose a husband for the female ward at
+the age of fourteen; if she refused to accept the one chosen, the lord
+had the use of her services and property until she was twenty-one.
+Then he could dispose of her lands as he chose and refuse consent for
+her to marry.  These aids and reliefs made a system of slavery for
+serfs and vassals.
+
+_The Rights of Sovereignty_.--The feudal lord had the right of
+sovereignty over all of his own vassal domain.  Not only did he have
+military sovereignty on account of allegiance of vassals, but political
+sovereignty also, as he ruled the assemblies in his own way.  He had
+legal jurisdiction, for all the courts were conducted by him or else
+under his jurisdiction, and this brought his own territory completely
+under his control as proprietor, and subordinated everything to his
+will.  In this is found the spirit of modern absolute monarchy.
+
+_The Classification of Feudal Society_.--In France, according to Duruy,
+under the perfection of feudalism, the people were grouped in the
+following classes: First, there was a group of Gallic or Frankish
+freemen, who were obliged to give military service to the king and give
+aids when called upon.  Second, the vassals, who rendered service to
+those from whom they held their lands.  Third, the royal vassals, from
+whom the king usually chose his dukes and counts to lead the army or to
+rule over provinces and cities.  Fourth, the _liti_, who, like the
+Roman _coloni_, were bound to the soil, which they cultivated as
+farmers, and for which they paid a small rent.  Finally, there were the
+ordinary slaves.  The character of the _liti_, or _glebe_, serfs varied
+according to the degree of liberty with which they were privileged.
+They might have emancipation by charter or by the grant of the king or
+the church, but they were never free.  The feudal custom was binding on
+all, and no one escaped from its control.  Even the clergy became
+feudal, there being lords and vassals within the church.  Yet the
+ministry, in their preaching, recognized the opportunity of {299}
+advancement, for they claimed that even a serf might become a bishop,
+although there was no great probability of this.
+
+_Progress of Feudalism_.--The development of feudalism was slow in all
+countries, and it varied in character in accordance with the condition
+of the country.  In England the Normans in the eleventh century found
+feudalism in an elementary state, and gave formality to the system.  In
+Germany feudalism was less homogeneous than in France.  It lacked the
+symmetrical finish of the Roman institutions, although it was
+introduced from French soil through overlordship and proceeded from the
+sovereign to the serf, rather than springing from the serf to the
+sovereign.  It varied somewhat in characteristics from French
+feudalism, although the essentials of the system were not wanting.  In
+the Scandinavian provinces the Teutonic element was too strong, and in
+Spain and Italy the Romanic, to develop in these countries perfect
+feudalism.  But in France there was a regular, progressive development.
+The formative period began in Caesar's time and ended with the ninth
+century.
+
+This was followed by the period of complete domination and full power,
+extending to the end of the thirteenth century, at the close of which
+offices and benefices were in the hands of the great vassals of Charles
+the Bald.  Then followed a period of transformation of feudalism, which
+extended to the close of the sixteenth century.  Finally came the
+period of the decay of feudalism, beginning with the seventeenth
+century and extending to the present time.  There are found now, both
+in Europe and America, laws and usages which are vestiges of the
+ancient forms of feudalism, which the formal organization of the state
+has failed to eradicate.
+
+The autocratic practice of the feudal lord survived in the new monarch,
+and, except in the few cases of constitutional limitation, became
+imperialistic.  The Prussian state, built upon a military basis,
+exercised the rights of feudal conquest over neighboring states.  After
+the war with Austria, Prussia exercised an overlordship over part of
+the smaller German {300} states, with a show of constitutional liberty.
+After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the German Empire was formed,
+still with a show of constitutional liberty, but with the feudal idea
+of overlordship dominant.  Having feudalized the other states of
+Germany, Prussia sought to extend the feudal idea to the whole world,
+but was checked by the World War of 1914.
+
+_State of Society Under Feudalism_.--In searching for the effects of
+feudalism on human progress, the family deserves our first
+consideration.  The wife of the feudal lord and her equal associates
+were placed on a higher plane.  The family in no wise represented the
+ancient patriarchal family nor the modern family.  The head of the
+family stood alone, independent of every form of government.  He was
+absolute proprietor of himself and of all positions under him.  He was
+neither magistrate, priest, nor king, nor subordinate to any system
+except as he permitted.  His position developed arbitrary power and
+made him proud and aristocratic.  With a few members of his family, he
+lived in his castle, far removed from serfs and vassals.  He spent his
+life alternately in feats of arms or in systematic idleness.  Away from
+home much of the time, fighting to defend his castle or obtain new
+territory, or engaging in hunting, while the wife and mother cared for
+the home, he developed strength and power.
+
+It was in the feudal family that woman obtained her position of honor
+and power in the home.  It was this position that developed the
+chivalry of the Middle Ages.  The improvement of domestic manners and
+the preponderance of home society among the few produced the moral
+qualities of the home.  Coupled with this was the idea of nobility on
+one side, and the idea of inheritance on the other, which had a
+tendency to unify the family under one defender and to perpetuate the
+right and title to property of future generations.  It was that benign
+spirit which comes from the household in more modern life, giving
+strength and permanence to character.
+
+While there was a relation of common interest between the {301}
+villagers clustered around the feudal castle, the union was not
+sufficient to make a compact organization.  Their rights were not
+common, as there was a recognized superiority on one hand and a
+recognized inferiority on the other.  This grew into a common hatred of
+the lower classes for the upper, which has been a thousand times
+detrimental to human progress.  The little group of people had their
+own church, their own society.  Those who had a fellow-feeling for them
+had much influence directly, but not in bridging over the chasm between
+them and the feudal lord.  Feudalism gave every man a place, but
+developed the inequalities of humanity to such an extent that it could
+not be lasting as a system.  Society became irregular, in which extreme
+aristocracy was divorced from extreme democracy.  Relief came slowly,
+through the development of monarchy and the citizenship of the modern
+state.  It was a rude attempt to find the secret of social
+organization.  The spirit of revolt of the oppressed lived on
+suppressed by a galling tyranny.
+
+To maintain his position as proprietor of the soil and ruler over a
+class of people treated as serfs required careful diplomacy on the part
+of the lord, or else intolerant despotism.  He usually chose the
+latter, and sought to secure his power by force of arms.  He cared
+little for the wants or needs of his people.  He did not associate with
+them on terms of equality, and only came in contact with them as a
+master meets a servant.  Consulting his own selfish interest, he made
+his rule despotic, and all opposition was suppressed with a high hand.
+The only check upon this despotism was the warlike attitude of other
+similar despotic lords, who always sought to advance their own
+interests by the force of arms.  Feudalism in form of government was
+the antithesis of imperialism, yet in effect something the same.  It
+substituted a horde of petty despots for one and it developed a petty
+local tyranny in the place of a general despotism.
+
+_Lack of Central Authority in Feudal Society_.--So many feudal lords,
+each master of his own domain, contending with one {302} another for
+the mastery, each resting his course on the hereditary gift of his
+ancestors, or, more probably, on his force of armed men and the
+strength of his castle, made it impossible that there should be any
+recognized authority in government, or any legal determination of the
+rights of the ruler and his subjects.  Feudal law was the law of force;
+feudal justice the right of might.  Among all of these feudal lords
+there was not one to force by will all others into submission, and thus
+create a central authority.  There was no permanent legislative body,
+no permanent judicial machinery, no standing army, no uniform and
+regular system of taxation.  There could be no guaranty to permanent
+political power under such circumstances.
+
+There was little progress in social order under the rule of feudalism.
+Although we recognize that it was an essential form of government
+necessary to control the excesses of individualism; although we realize
+that a monarchy was impossible until it was created by an evolutionary
+process, that a republic could not exist under the irregularity of
+political forces, yet it must be maintained that social progress did
+not exist under the feudal régime.  There was no unity of social
+action, no co-operation of classes in government.  The line between the
+governed and the governing, though clearly marked at times, was an
+irregular, wavering line.  Outside of the family life--which was
+limited in scope--and of the power of the church--which failed to unify
+society--there was no vital social growth.
+
+_Individual Development in the Dominant Group_.--Feudalism established
+a strong individualism among leaders, a strong personality based on
+sterling intellectual qualities.  It is evident that this excessive
+individual development became very prominent in the later evolution of
+social order, and is recognized as a gain in social advancement.
+Individual culture is essential to social advancement.  To develop
+strong, independent, self-reliant individuals might tend to produce
+anarchy rather than social order, yet it must eventually lead to the
+latter; and so it proved in the case of feudalism, for its very {303}
+chaotic state brought about, as a necessity, social order.  But it came
+about through survival of the fittest, in conquest and defense.  Nor
+did the most worthy always succeed, but rather those who had the
+greatest power in ruthless conquest.  Unity came about through the
+unbridled exercise of the predatory spirit, accompanied by power to
+take and to hold.
+
+This chaotic state of individualistic people was the means of bringing
+about an improvement in intellectual development.  The strong
+individual character with position and leisure becomes strong
+intellectually in planning defense and in meditating upon the
+philosophy of life.  The notes of song and of literature came from the
+feudal times.  The determination of the mind to intellectual pursuits
+appeared in the feudal régime, and individual culture and independent
+intellectual life, though of the few and at the expense of the
+majority, were among the important contributions to civilization.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What was the basis of feudal society?
+
+2.  What elements of feudalism were Roman and what Teutonic?
+
+3.  What service did feudalism render civilization?
+
+4.  Show that feudalism was transition from empire to modern
+nationality.
+
+5.  How did feudal lords obtain titles to their land?  Give examples.
+
+6.  What survivals of feudalism may be observed in modern governments?
+
+7.  When King John of England wrote after his signature "King of
+_England_," what was its significance?
+
+8.  How did feudalism determine the character of monarchy in modern
+nations?
+
+
+
+[1] _History of France_.
+
+
+
+
+{304}
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+ARABIAN CONQUEST AND CULTURE
+
+The dissemination of knowledge, customs, habits, and laws from common
+centres of culture has been greatly augmented by population movements
+or migrations, by great empires established, by wars of conquest, and
+systems of intercommunication and transportation.  The Babylonian,
+Assyrian, Persian, Alexandrian, and Roman empires are striking examples
+of the diffusion of knowledge and the spread of ideas over different
+geographical boundaries and through tribal and national organizations;
+and, indeed, the contact of the barbarian hordes with improved systems
+of culture was but a process of interchange and intermingling of
+qualities of strength and vigor with the conventionalized forms of
+human society.
+
+One of the most remarkable movements was that of the rise and expansion
+of the Arabian Empire, which was centred about religious ideals of
+Mohammed and the Koran.  Having accepted the idea of one God universal,
+which had been so strongly emphasized by the Hebrews, and having
+accepted in part the doctrine of the teachings of Jesus regarding the
+brotherhood of man, Mohammed was able through the mysticism of his
+teaching, in the Koran, to excite his followers to a wild fanaticism.
+Nor did his successors hesitate to use force, for most of their
+conquests were accomplished by the power of the sword.  At any rate,
+nation after nation was forced to bow to Mohammedanism and the Koran,
+in a spectacular whirlwind of conquest such as the world had not
+previously known.
+
+It is remarkable that after the decline of the old Semitic
+civilization, as exhibited in the Babylonian and Assyrian empires, the
+practical extinction of the Phoenicians, the conquest of Jerusalem, and
+the spread of the Jews over the whole world, there should have risen a
+new Semitic movement to disrupt {305} and disorganize the world.  It is
+interesting to note in this connection, also, that wherever the Arabs
+went they came in contact with learned Jews of high mentality, who
+co-operated with them in advancing learning.
+
+_The Rise and Expansion of the Arabian Empire_.--Mohammedanism, which
+arose in the beginning of the seventh century, spread rapidly over the
+East and through northern Africa, and extended into Spain.  All Arabia
+was converted to the Koran, and Persia and Egypt soon after came under
+its influence.  In the period 623-640, Syria was conquered by the
+Mohammedans, upper Asia in 707, and Spain in 711.  They established a
+great caliphate, extending from beyond the Euphrates through Egypt and
+northern Africa to the Pyrenees in Spain.  They burned the great
+library at Alexandria, founded by Ptolemy, destroying the manuscripts
+and books in a relentless zeal to blot out all vestiges of Christian
+learning.  In their passage westward they mingled with the Moors of
+northern Africa, whom they had subdued after various struggles, the
+last one ending in 709.  In this year they crossed the Strait of
+Gibraltar and encountered the barbarians of the north.
+
+The Visigothic monarchy was in a ruined condition.  Frequent internal
+quarrels had led to the dismemberment of the government and the decay
+of all fortifications, hence there was little organized resistance to
+the incoming of the Arabs.  All Spain, except in the far north in the
+mountains of the Asturias, was quickly reduced to the sway of the
+Arabs.  They crossed the Pyrenees, and the broad territory of Gaul
+opened before them, awaiting their conquest.  But on the plains between
+Tours and Poitiers they met Charles Martel with a strong army, who
+turned the tide of invasion back upon itself and set the limits of
+Mohammedan dominion in Europe.
+
+In the tenth century the great Arabian Empire began to disintegrate.
+One after another of the great caliphates declined.  The caliphate of
+Bagdad, which had existed so long in Oriental splendor, was first
+dismembered by the loss of Africa.  The fatimate caliphate of northern
+Africa next lost its power, {306} and the caliphate of Cordova, in
+Spain, brilliant in its ascendancy, followed the course of the other
+two.  The Arabian conquest of Spain left the country in a state of
+tolerable freedom, but Cordova, like the others, was doomed to be
+destroyed by anarchy and confusion.  All the principal cities became in
+the early part of the eleventh century independent principalities.
+
+Thus the Mohammedan conquest, which built an extensive Arabian Empire,
+ruling first in Asia, then Africa, and finally Europe, spreading abroad
+with sudden and irresistible expansion, suddenly declined through
+internal dissensions and decay, having lasted but a few centuries.  The
+peculiar tribal nature of the Arabian social order had not developed a
+strong central organization, nor permitted the practice of organized
+political effort on a large scale, so that the sudden transition from
+the small tribe, with its peculiar government, to that of the
+organization and management of a great empire was sufficient to cause
+the disintegration and downfall of the empire.  So far as political
+power was concerned, the passion for conquest was the great impelling
+motive of the Mohammedans.
+
+_The Religious Zeal of the Arab-Moors_.--The central idea of the
+Mohammedan conquest seems to have been a sort of religious zeal or
+fanaticism.  The whole history of their conquest shows a continual
+strife to propagate their religious doctrine.  The Arabians were a
+sober people, of vivid imagination and excessive idealism, with
+religious natures of a lofty and peculiar character.  Their religious
+life in itself was awe-inspiring.  Originally dwelling on the plains of
+Arabia, where nature manifested itself in strong characteristics,
+living in one sense a narrow life, the imagination had its full play,
+and the mystery of life had centred in a sort of wisdom and lore, which
+had accumulated through long generations of reflection.  There always
+dwelt in the minds of this branch of the Semitic people a conception of
+the unity of God, and when the revelation of God came to them through
+Mohammed, when they realized "Allah is Allah, and Mohammed is his
+prophet," they were swept entirely away by this religious conception.
+When once {307} this idea took firm hold upon the Arabian mind, it
+remained there a permanent part of life.  Under military organization
+the conquest was rapidly extended over surrounding disintegrated
+tribes, and the strong unity of government built on the basis of
+religious zeal.
+
+So strong was this religious zeal that it dominated their entire life.
+It turned a reflective and imaginative people, who had sought out the
+hidden mysteries of life by the acuteness of their own perception, to
+base their entire operations upon faith.  Faith dominated the reason to
+such an extent that the deep and permanent foundations of progress
+could not be laid, and the vast opportunities granted to them by
+position and conquest gradually declined for the lack of vital
+principles of social order.
+
+Not only had the Arabians laid the foundations of culture and learning
+through their own evolution, but they had borrowed much from other
+Oriental countries.  Their contact with learning of the Far East, of
+Palestine, of Egypt, of the Greeks, and of the Italians, had given them
+an opportunity to absorb most of the elements of ancient culture.
+Having borrowed these products, they were able to combine them and use
+them in building an empire of learning in Spain.  If their own subtle
+genius was not wanting in the combination of the knowledge of the
+ancients, and in its use in building up a system, neither lacked they
+in original conception, and on the early foundation they built up a
+superstructure of original knowledge.  They advanced learning in
+various forms, and furnished means for the advancement of civilization
+in the west.
+
+_The Foundations of Science and Art_.--In the old caliphates of Bagdad
+and Damascus there had developed great interest in learning.  The
+foundation of this knowledge, as has been related, was derived from the
+Greeks and the Orientals.  It is true that the Koran, which had been
+accepted by them as gospel and law, had aroused and inspired the
+Arabian mind to greater desires for knowledge.  Their knowledge,
+however, could not be set by the limitations of the Koran, and the
+desire {308} for achievement in learning was so great that scarcely a
+century had passed after the burning of the libraries of Alexandria
+before all branches of knowledge were eagerly cultivated by the
+Arabians.  They ran a rapid course from the predominance of physical
+strength and courage, through blind adherence to faith, to the position
+of superior learning.  The time soon came when the scholar was as much
+revered as the warrior.
+
+In every conquered country the first duty of the conquerors was to
+build a mosque in which Allah might be worshipped and his prophet
+honored.  Attached to this mosque was a school, where people were first
+taught to read and write and study the Koran.  From this initial point
+they enlarged the study of science, literature, and art, which they
+pursued with great eagerness.  Through the appreciation of these things
+they collected the treasures of art and learning wherever they could be
+found, and, dwelling upon these, they obtained the results of the
+culture of other nations and other generations.  From imitation they
+passed to the field of creation, and advances were made in the
+contributions to the sum of human knowledge.  In Spain schools were
+founded, great universities established, and libraries built which laid
+the permanent foundation of knowledge and art and enabled the
+Arab-Moors to advance in science, art, invention, and discovery.
+
+_The Beginnings of Chemistry and Medicine_.--In chemistry the careful
+study of the elements of substances and the agents in composition was
+pursued by the Arab-Moors in Spain, but it must be remembered that the
+chemistry of their day is now known as alchemy.  Chemistry then was in
+its formative period and not a science as viewed in the modern sense.
+Yet when we consider that the science of modern chemistry is but a
+little over a century old, we find the achievements of the Arabians in
+their own time, as compared with the changes which took place in the
+following seven centuries, to be worthy of note.
+
+In the eleventh century a philosopher named Geber knew the chemical
+affinities of quicksilver, tin, lead, copper, iron, {309} gold, and
+silver, and to each one was given a name of the planet which was
+supposed to have special influence over it.  Thus silver was named for
+the moon, gold for the sun, copper for Venus, tin for Jupiter, iron for
+Vulcan, quicksilver for Mercury, and lead for Saturn.  The influences
+of the elements were supposed to be similar to the influence of the
+heavenly bodies over men.  This same chemist was acquainted with
+oxidizing and calcining processes, and knew methods of obtaining soda
+and potash salts, and the properties of saltpetre.  Also nitric acid
+was obtained from the nitrate of potassium.  These and other similar
+examples represent something of the achievements of the Arabians in
+chemical knowledge.  Still, their lack of knowledge is shown in their
+continued search for the philosopher's stone and the attempt to create
+the precious metals.
+
+The art of medicine was practised to a large extent in the Orient, and
+this knowledge was transferred to Spain.  The entire knowledge of these
+early physicians, however, was limited to the superficial diagnosis of
+cases and to a knowledge of medicinal plants.  By the very law of their
+religion, anatomy was forbidden to them, and, indeed, the Arabians had
+a superstitious horror of dissection.  By ignorance of anatomy their
+practice of surgery was very imperfect.  But their physicians,
+nevertheless, became renowned throughout the world by their use of
+medicines and by their wonderful cures.  They plainly led the world in
+the art of healing.  It is true their superstition and their astrology
+constantly interfered with their better judgment in many things, but
+notwithstanding these drawbacks they were enabled to develop great
+interest in the study of medicine and to accomplish a great work in the
+advancement of the science.  In _Al Makkari_ it is stated "that disease
+could be more effectively checked by diet than by medicine, and that
+when medicine became necessary, simples were far preferable to compound
+medicaments, and when these latter were required, as few drugs as
+possible ought to enter into their composition."  This exhibits the
+thoughtful reflection that was {310} given to the administration of
+drugs in this early period, and might prove a lesson to many a modern
+physician.
+
+Toward the close of their career, the Arabian doctors began the
+practice of dissecting and the closer study of anatomy and physiology,
+which added much to the power of the science.  Yet they still believed
+in the "elixir of life," and tried to work miracle cures, which in many
+respects may have been successful.  It is a question whether they went
+any farther into the practice of miracle cures than the quacks and
+charlatans and faith doctors of modern times have gone.  The influence
+of their study of medicine was seen in the great universities, and
+especially in the foundation of the University at Salerno at a later
+time, which was largely under the Arabian influence.
+
+_Metaphysics and Exact Science_.--It would seem that the Arab-Moors
+were well calculated to develop psychological science.  Their minds
+seemed to be in a special measure metaphysical.  They laid the
+foundation of their metaphysical speculations on the philosophy of the
+Greeks, particularly that of Aristotle, but later they attempted to
+develop originality, although they succeeded in doing little more, as a
+rule, than borrowing from others.  In the early period of Arabian
+development the Koran stood in the way of any advancement in
+philosophy.  It was only at intervals that philosophy could gain any
+advancement.  Indeed, the philosophers were driven away from their
+homes, but they carried with them many followers into a larger field.
+The long list of philosophers who, after the manner of the Greeks, each
+attempted to develop his own separate system, might be mentioned,
+showing the zeal with which they carried on inquiry into metaphysical
+science.  As may be supposed, they added little to the sum of human
+knowledge, but developed a degree of culture by their philosophical
+speculations.
+
+But it is in the exact sciences that the Arabs seem to have met with
+the greatest success.  The Arabic numerals, probably brought from India
+to Bagdad, led to a new and larger use of arithmetic.  The decimal
+system and the art of figures were {311} introduced into Spain in the
+ninth century, and gave great advancement in learning.  But, strange to
+relate, these numerals, though used so early by the Arabs in Spain,
+were not common in Germany until the fifteenth century.  The importance
+of their use cannot be overestimated, for by means of them the Arabians
+easily led the world in astronomy, mechanics, and mathematics.
+
+The science of algebra is generally attributed to the Arabians.  Its
+name is derived from gabara, to bind parts together, and yet the origin
+of this science is not certain.  It is thought that the Arabs derived
+their knowledge from the Greeks, but in all probability algebra had its
+first origin among the philosophers of India.
+
+The Arabians used geometry, although they added little to its
+advancement.  Geometry had reached at this period an advanced stage of
+progress in the problems of Euclid.  It was to the honor of the
+Arabians that they were the first of any of the Western peoples to
+translate Euclid and use it, for it was not until the sixteenth century
+that it was freely translated into the modern languages.
+
+But in trigonometry the Arabians, by the introduction of the use of the
+sine, or half-chord, of the double arc in the place of the arc itself,
+made great advancement, especially in the calculations of surveying and
+astronomy.  In the universities and colleges of Spain under Arabian
+dominion we find, then, that students had an opportunity of mastering
+nearly all of the useful elementary mathematics.  Great attention was
+paid to the study of astronomy.  Here, as before, they used the Greek
+knowledge, but they advanced the study of the science greatly by the
+introduction of instruments, such as those for measuring time by the
+movement of the pendulum and the measurement of the heavenly bodies by
+the astrolabe.
+
+Likewise they employed the word "azimuth" and many other terms which
+show a more definite knowledge of the relation of the heavenly bodies.
+They were enabled, also, to {312} measure approximately a degree of
+latitude.  They knew that the earth was of spheroid form.  But we find
+astrology accompanying all this knowledge of astronomy.  While the
+exact knowledge of the heavenly bodies had been developed to a certain
+degree, the science of star influence, or astrology, was cultivated to
+a still greater extent.  Thus they sought to show the control of mind
+forces on earth, and, indeed, of all natural forces by the heavenly
+bodies.  This placed mystical lore in the front rank of their
+philosophical speculations.
+
+_Geography and History_.--In the study of the earth the Arabians showed
+themselves to be practical and accurate geographers.  They applied
+their mathematical and astronomical knowledge to the study of the
+earth, and thus gave an impulse to exploration.  While their theories
+of the origin of the earth were crude and untenable, their practical
+writings on the subject derived from real knowledge, and the practical
+instruction in schools by the use of globes and maps, were of immense
+practical value.
+
+Their history was made up chiefly of the histories of cities and the
+lives of prominent men.  There was no national history of the rise and
+development of the Arabian kingdom, for historical writing and study
+were in an undeveloped state.
+
+_Discoveries, Inventions, and Achievements_.--It cannot be successfully
+claimed that the Arabians exhibited very much originality in the
+advancement of the civilized arts, yet they had the ability to take
+what they found elsewhere developed by other scholars, improve upon it,
+and apply it to the practical affairs of life.  Thus, although the
+Chinese discovered gunpowder over 3,000 years ago, it remained for the
+Arabs to bring it into use in the siege of Mecca in the year 690, and
+introduce it into Spain some years later.  The Persians called it
+Chinese salt, the Arabians Indian snow, indicating that it might have
+originated in different countries.  The Arab-Moors used it in their
+wars with the Christians as early as the middle of the thirteenth
+century.  They excelled also in making paper from flax, or cotton,
+which was probably an imitation {313} of the paper made by the Chinese
+from silk.  We find also that the Arabs had learned to print from
+movable type, and the introduction of paper made the printing-press
+possible.  Linen paper made from old clothes was said to be in use as
+early as 1106.
+
+Without doubt the Arab-Moors introduced into Spain the use of the
+magnet in connection with the mariner's compass.  But owing to the fact
+that it was not needed in the short voyages along the coast of the
+Mediterranean, it did not come into a large use until the great voyages
+on the ocean, in the beginning of the fourteenth century.  Yet the
+invention of the mariner's compass, so frequently attributed to Flavio
+Giorgio, may be as well attributed to the Arab-Moors.
+
+Knives and swords of superior make, leather, silk, and glass, as well
+as large collections of delicate jewelry, show marked advancement in
+Arabian industrial art and mechanical skill.
+
+One of the achievements of the Arab-Moors in Spain was the introduction
+of agriculture, and its advancement to an important position among the
+industries by means of irrigation.  The great, fertile valleys of Spain
+were thus, through agricultural skill, made "to blossom as the rose."
+Seeds were imported from different parts of the world, and much
+attention was given to the culture of all plants which could be readily
+raised in this country.  Rice and cotton and sugar-cane were cultivated
+through the process of irrigation.  Thus Spain was indebted to the
+Arab-Moors not only for the introduction of industrial arts and skilled
+mechanics, but the establishment of agriculture on a firm foundation.
+
+_Language and Literature_.--The language of the Arabians is said to be
+peculiarly rich in synonyms.  For instance, it is said there are 1,000
+expressions for the word "camel," and the same number for the word
+"sword," while there are 4,000 for the word "misfortune."  Very few
+remnants of the Arabic remain in the modern European languages.  Quite
+a number of words in the Spanish language, fewer in English and in
+{314} other modern languages, are the only remnants of the use of this
+highly developed Arabian speech.  It represents the southern branch of
+the Semitic language, and is closely related to the Hebrew and the
+Aramaic.  The unity and compactness of the language are very much in
+evidence.  Coming little in contact with other languages, it remained
+somewhat exclusive, and retained its original form.
+
+When it came into Spain the Arabic language reigned almost supreme, on
+account of the special domination of Arabic influences.  Far in the
+north of Spain, however, among the Christians who had adopted the Low
+Latin, was the formation of the Spanish language.  The hatred of the
+Spaniards for the Arabs led these people to refuse to use the language
+of the conquerors.  Nevertheless, the Arabic had some influence in the
+formation of the Spanish language.  The isolated geographic terms, and
+especial names of things, as well as idioms of speech, show still that
+the Arabian influence may be traced in the Spanish language.
+
+In literature the Arabians had a marked development.  The Arabian
+poetry, though light in its character, became prominent.  There were
+among these Arabians in Spain ardent and ready writers, with fertile
+fancy and lively perception, who recited their songs to eager
+listeners.  The poet became a universal teacher.  He went about from
+place to place singing his songs, and the troubadours of the south of
+France received in later years much of their impulse indirectly from
+the Arabic poets.  While the poetry was not of a high order, it was
+wide-reaching in its influence, and extended in later days to Italy,
+Sicily, and southern France, and had a quickening influence in the
+development of the light songs of the troubadours.  The influence of
+this lighter literature through Italy, Sicily, and southern France on
+the literature of Europe and of England in later periods is well marked
+by the historians.  In the great schools rhetoric and grammar were also
+taught to a considerable extent.  In the universities these formed one
+of the great branches of special culture.  We find, then, on the
+linguistic {315} side that the Arabians accomplished a great deal in
+the advancement of the language and literature of Europe.
+
+_Art and Architecture_.--Perhaps the Arabians in Spain are known more
+by their architecture than any other phase of their culture.  Not that
+there was anything especially original in it, except in the combination
+which they made of the architecture of other nations.  In the building
+of their great mosques, like that of Cordova and of the Alhambra, they
+perpetuated the magnificence and splendor of the East.  Even the actual
+materials with which they constructed these magnificent buildings were
+obtained from Greece and the Orient, and placed in their positions in a
+new combination.  The great original feature of the Mooresque
+architecture is found in the famous horseshoe arch, which was used so
+extensively in their mosques and palaces.  It represented the Roman
+arch, slightly bent into the form of a horseshoe.  Yet from
+architectural strength it must be considered that the real support
+resting on the pillar was merely the half-circle of the Roman arch,
+while the horseshoe was a continuation for ornamental purposes.
+
+The Arab-Moors were forbidden the use of sculpture, which they never
+practised, and hence the artistic features were limited to
+architectural and art decorations.  Many of the interior decorations of
+the walls of these great buildings show advanced skill.  Upon the
+whole, their buildings are remarkable mainly in the perpetuation of
+Oriental architecture rather than in the development of any originality
+except in skill of decoration and combination.
+
+_The Government of the Arab-Moors Was Peculiarly Centralized_.--The
+caliph was at the head as an absolute monarch.  He appointed viceroys
+in the different provinces for their control.  The only thing that
+limited the actual power of the caliph was the fact that he was a
+theocratic governor.  Otherwise he was supreme in power.  There was no
+constitutional government, and, indeed, but little precedent in law.
+The government depended somewhat upon the whims and caprices {316} of a
+single individual.  It was said that in the beginning the caliph was
+elected by the people, but in a later period the office became
+hereditary.  It is true the caliph, who was called the "vicar of God,"
+or "the shadow of God," had his various ministers appointed from the
+wise men to carry out his will.  Yet, such was the power of the people
+what when in Spain they were displeased with the rulings of the judges,
+they would pelt the officers or storm the palace, thus in a way
+limiting the power of these absolute rulers.
+
+The government, however, was in a precarious condition.  There could be
+nothing permanent under such a régime, for permanency of government is
+necessary to the advancement of civilization.  The government was
+non-progressive.  It allowed no freedom of the people and gave no
+incentive to advancement, and it was a detriment many times to the
+progressive spirit.  Closely connected with a religion which in itself
+was non-progressive, we find limitations set upon the advancement of
+the civilization of the Arab-Moors in Spain.
+
+_Arabian Civilization Soon Reached Its Limits_.--One views with wonder
+and astonishment the brilliant achievements of the Arabian
+civilization, extending from the Tagus to the Indus.  But brilliant as
+it was, one is impressed at every turn with the instability of the
+civilization and with its peculiar limitations.  It reached its
+culmination long before the Christian conquest.  What the Arabians have
+given to the European world was formulated rapidly and given quickly,
+and the results were left to be used by a more slowly developing
+people, who rested their civilization upon a permanent basis.  Much
+stress has been laid by Mr. Draper and others upon the great
+civilization of the Arabians, comparing it favorably with the
+civilization of Christian Europe.  But it must be remembered that the
+Arab-Moors, especially in Spain, had come so directly in contact with
+Oriental nations that they were enabled to borrow and utilize for a
+time the elements of civilization advanced by these more mature
+peoples.  However, built as it was upon borrowed materials, the
+structure once completed, {317} there was no opportunity for growth or
+original development.  It reached its culmination, and would have
+progressed no further in Spain, even had not the Christians under
+Ferdinand and Isabella conquered the Arab-Moors and eventually overcome
+and destroyed their civilization.  In this conquest, in which the two
+leading faiths of the Western world were fighting for supremacy,
+doubtless the Christian world could not fully appreciate what the
+Arab-Moors accomplished, nor estimate their value to the economic
+system of Spain.
+
+Subsequent facts of history show that, the Christian religion once
+having a dominant power in Spain, the church became less liberal in its
+views and its rule than that exhibited by the government of the
+Arab-Moors.  Admitting that the spirit of liberty had burst forth in
+old Asturias, a seat of Nordic culture, it soon became obscure in the
+arbitrary domination of monarchy, and of the church through the
+instrumentality of Torquemada and the Inquisition.  Nevertheless, the
+civilization of the Arab-Moors cannot be pictured as an ideal one,
+because it was lacking in the fundamentals of continuous progress.
+Knowledge had not yet become widely disseminated, nor truth free enough
+to arouse vigorous qualities of life which make for permanency in
+civilization.  With all of its borrowed art and learning and its
+adaptation to new conditions, still the civilization was sufficiently
+non-progressive to be unsuited to carry the burden of the development
+of the human race.  Nevertheless, in the contemplation of human
+progress, the Arab-Moors of Spain are deserving of attention because of
+their universities and their studies, which influenced other parts of
+mediaeval Europe at a time when they were breaking away from scholastic
+philosophy and assuming a scientific attitude of mind.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What contributions to art and architecture did the Arab-Moors make
+in Spain?
+
+2.  The nature of their government.
+
+{318}
+
+3.  How did their religion differ from the Christian religion in
+principle and in practice?
+
+4.  The educational contribution of the universities of the Arab-Moors.
+
+5.  What contributions to science and learning came from the Arabian
+civilization?
+
+6.  Why and by whom were the Arab-Moors driven from Spain?  What were
+the economic and political results?
+
+7.  What was the influence of the Arabs on European civilization?
+
+
+
+
+{319}
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+THE CRUSADES STIR THE EUROPEAN MIND
+
+_What Brought About the Crusades_.--We have learned from the former
+chapters that the Arabs had spread their empire from the Euphrates to
+the Strait of Gibraltar, and that the Christian and Mohammedan
+religions had compassed and absorbed the entire religious life over
+this whole territory.  As Christianity had become the great reforming
+religion of the western part of Europe, so Mohammedanism had become the
+reforming religion of Asia.  The latter was more exacting in its
+demands and more absolute in its sway than the former, spreading its
+doctrines mainly by force, while the former sought more to extend its
+doctrine by a leavening process.  Nevertheless, when the two came in
+contact, a fierce struggle for supremacy ensued.  The meteorlike rise
+of Mohammedanism had created consternation and alarm in the Christian
+world as early as the eighth century.  There sprang up not only fear of
+Islamism, but a hatred of its followers.
+
+After the Arabian Empire had become fully established, there arose to
+the northeast of Bagdad, the Moslem capital, a number of Turkish tribes
+that were among the more recent converts to Mohammedanism.  Apparently
+they took the Mohammedan religion as embodied in the Koran literally
+and fanatically, and, considering nothing beyond these, sought to
+propagate the doctrine through conquest by sword.  They are frequently
+known as Seljuks.  It is to the credit of the Arabs, whether in
+Mesopotamia, Africa, or Spain, that their minds reached beyond the
+Koran into the wider ranges of knowledge, a fact which tempered their
+fanatical zeal, but the Seljuk Turks swept forward with their armies
+until they conquered the Byzantine Empire of the East, the last branch
+of the great Roman Empire.  They had also conquered Jerusalem and {320}
+taken possession of the holy sepulchre, to which pilgrimages of
+Christians were made annually, and aroused the righteous indignation of
+the Christians of the Western world.  The ostensible purpose of the
+crusades was to free Palestine, the oppressed Christians, and the holy
+sepulchre from the domination of the Turks.
+
+It must be remembered that the period of the Middle Ages was
+represented by fancies and theories and an evanescent idealism which
+controlled the movements of the people to a large extent.  Born of
+religious sentiment, there dwelt in the minds of Christian people a
+reverence for the land of the birth of Christ, to which pilgrims passed
+every year to show their adoration for the Saviour and patriotism for
+the land of his birth.  These pilgrims were interfered with by the
+Mohammedans and especially by the Seljuk Turks.
+
+The Turks in their blind zeal for Mohammedanism could see nothing in
+the Christian belief worthy of respect or even civil treatment.  The
+persecution of Christians awakened the sympathy of all Europe and
+filled the minds of people with resentment against the occupation of
+Jerusalem by the Turks.  This is one of the earliest indications of the
+development of religious toleration, which heralded the development of
+a feeling that people should worship whom they pleased unmolested,
+though it was like a voice crying in the wilderness, for many centuries
+passed before religious toleration could be acknowledged.
+
+There were other considerations which made occasion for the crusades.
+Gregory VII preached a crusade to protect Constantinople and unify the
+church under one head.  But trouble with Henry IV of Germany caused him
+to abandon the enterprise.  There still dwelt in the minds of the
+people an ideal monarchy, as represented by the Roman Empire.  It was
+considered the type of all good government, the one expression of the
+unity of all people.  Many dreamed of the return of this empire to its
+full temporal sway.  It was a species of idealism which lived on
+through the Middle Ages long after the {321} Western Empire had passed
+into virtual decay.  In connection with this idea of a universal empire
+controlling the whole world was the idea of a universal religion which
+should unite all religious bodies under one common organization.  The
+centre of this organization was to be the papal authority at Rome.
+
+There dwelt then in the minds of all ecclesiastics this common desire
+for the unity of all religious people in one body regardless of
+national boundaries.  And it must be said that these two ideas had much
+to do with giving Europe unity of thought and sentiment.  Disintegrated
+as it was, deflected and disturbed by a hundred forces, thoughts of a
+common religion and of universal empire nevertheless had much to do to
+harmonize and unify the people of Europe.  Hence, it was when Urban II,
+who had inherited all of the great religious improvements instituted by
+Gregory VII, preached a crusade to protect Constantinople, on the one
+hand, and to deliver Jerusalem, on the other, and made enthusiastic
+inflammatory speeches, that Europe awoke like an electric flash.  Peter
+the Hermit, on the occasion of the first crusade, was employed to
+travel throughout Europe to arouse enthusiasm in the minds of the
+people.
+
+The crusades so suddenly inaugurated extended over a period of nearly
+two hundred years, in which all Europe was in a restless condition.
+The feudal life which had settled down and crystallized all forms of
+human society throughout Europe had failed to give that variety and
+excitement which it entertained in former days.  Thousands of knights
+in every nation were longing for the battle-field.  Many who thought
+life at home not worth living, and other thousands of people seeking
+opportunities for change, sought diversion abroad.  All Europe was
+ready to exclaim "God wills it!" and "On to Jerusalem!" to defend the
+Holy City against the Turk.
+
+_Specific Causes of the Crusades_.--If we examine more specifically
+into the real causes of the crusades we shall find, as Mr. Guizot has
+said, that there were two causes, the one moral, the other social.  The
+moral cause is represented in the {322} desire to relieve suffering
+humanity and fight against the injustice of the Turks.  Both the
+Mohammedan and the Christian, the two most modern of all great
+religions, were placed upon a moral basis.  Morality was one of the
+chief phases of both religions; yet they had different conceptions of
+morality, and no toleration for each other.  Although prior to the
+Turkish invasion the Mohammedans, through policy, had tolerated the
+visitations of the Christians, the two classes of believers had never
+gained much respect for each other, and after the Turkish invasion the
+enmity between them became intense.  It was the struggle of these two
+systems of moral order that was the great occasion and one of the
+causes of the crusades.
+
+The social cause, however, was that already referred to--the desire of
+individuals for a change from the monotony which had settled down over
+Europe under the feudal régime.  It was the mind of man, the enthusiasm
+of the individual, over-leaping the narrow bounds of his surroundings,
+and looking for fields of exploitation and new opportunities for
+action.  The social cause represents, then, the spontaneous outburst of
+long-pent-up desires, a return to the freedom of earlier years, when
+wandering and plundering were among the chief occupations of the
+Teutonic tribes.  To state the causes more specifically, perhaps it may
+be said that the ambition of temporal and spiritual princes and the
+feudal aristocracy for power, the general poverty of the community on
+account of overpopulation leading the multitudes to seek relief through
+change, and a distinct passion for pilgrimages were influential in
+precipitating this movement.
+
+_Unification of Ideals and the Breaking of Feudalism_.--It is to be
+observed that the herald of the crusades thrilled all Europe, and that,
+on the basis of ideals of empire and church, there were a common
+sentiment or feeling and a common ground for action.  All Europe soon
+placed itself on a common plane in the interest of a common cause.  At
+first it would seem that this universal movement would have tended to
+{323} develop a unity of Western nations.  To the extent of breaking
+down formal custom, destroying the sterner aspects of feudalism, and
+levelling the barriers of classes, it was a unifier of European thought
+and life.
+
+But a more careful consideration reveals the fact that although all
+groups and classes of people ranged themselves on one side of the great
+and common cause, the effect was not merely to break down feudalism
+but, in addition, to build up nationality.  There was a tendency toward
+national unity.  The crusades in the latter part of the period became
+national affairs, rather than universal or European affairs, even
+though the old spirit of feudalism, whereby each individual followed by
+his own group of retainers sought his own power and prestige, still
+remained.  The expansion of this spirit to larger groups invoked the
+national spirit and national life.  While, in the beginning, the papacy
+and the church were all-powerful in their controlling influence on the
+crusades, in the later period we find different nationalities,
+especially England, France, and Germany, struggling for predominance,
+the French nation being more strongly represented than any other.
+
+Among the important results of the crusades, then, were the breaking
+down of feudalism and the building up of national life.  The causes of
+this result are evident.  Many of the nobility were slain in battle or
+perished through famine and suffering, or else had taken up their abode
+under the new government that had been established at Jerusalem.  This
+left a larger sway to those who were at home in the management of the
+affairs of the territory.  Moreover, in the later period, the stronger
+national lines had been developed, which caused the subordination of
+the weaker feudal lords to the more powerful.  Many, too, of the strong
+feudal lords had lost their wealth, as well as their position, in
+carrying on the expenses of the crusades.  There was, consequently, the
+beginning of the remaking of all Europe upon a national basis.  First,
+the enlarged ideas of life broke the bounds of feudalism; second, the
+failure to unite the nations in the common sentiment of a Western {324}
+Empire had left the political forces to cluster around new
+nationalities which sprang up in different sections of Europe.
+
+_The Development of Monarchy_.--The result of this centralization was
+to develop monarchy, an institution which became universal in the
+process of the development of government in Europe.  It became the
+essential form of government and the type of national unity.  Through
+no other known process of the time could the chaotic state of the
+feudal régime be reduced to a system.  Constitutional liberty could not
+have survived under these conditions.  The monarchy was not only a
+permanent form of government, but it was possessed of great
+flexibility, and could adapt itself to almost any conditions of the
+social life.  While it may, primarily, have rested on force and the
+predominance of power of certain individuals, in a secondary sense it
+represented not only the unity of the race from which it had gained
+great strength, but also the moral power of the tribe, as the
+expression of their will and sentiments of justice and righteousness.
+It is true that it drew a sharp line between the governing and the
+governed; it made the one all-powerful and the other all-subordinate;
+yet in many instances the one man represented the collective will of
+the people, and through him and his administration centred the wisdom
+of a nation.
+
+Among the Teutonic peoples, too, there was something more than
+sentiment in this form of government.  It was an old custom that the
+barbarian monarch was elected by the people and represented them; and
+whether he came through hereditary rank, from choice of nobles, or from
+the election of the people, this idea of monarchy was never lost sight
+of in Europe in the earliest stages of existence, and it was perverted
+to a great extent only by the Louis's of France and the Stuarts of
+England, in the modern era.  Monarchy, then, as an institution, was
+advanced by the crusades; for a national life was developed and
+centralization took place, the king expressed the unity of it all, and
+so everywhere throughout Europe it became the universal type.
+
+{325}
+
+_The Crusades Quickened Intellectual Development_.--The intense
+activity of Europe in a common cause could not do otherwise than
+stimulate intellectual life.  In a measure, it was an emancipation of
+mind, the establishment of large and liberal ideas.  This freedom of
+the mind arose, not so much from any product of thought contributed by
+the Orientals to the Christians, although in truth the former were in
+many ways far more cultured than the latter, but rather from the
+development which comes from observation and travel.  A habit of
+observing the manners and customs, the government, the laws, the life
+of different nations, and the action and reaction of the different
+elements of human life, tended to develop intellectual activity.  Both
+Greek and Mohammedan had their influence on the minds of those with
+whom they came in contact, and Christians returned to their former
+homes possessed of new information and new ideas, and quickened with
+new impulses.
+
+The crusades also furnished material for poetic imagination and for
+literary products.  It was the development of the old saga hero under
+new conditions, those of Christianity and humanity, and this led to
+greater and more profound sentiments concerning life.  The crusades
+also took men out from their narrow surroundings and the belief that
+the Christian religion, supported by the monasteries, or cloisters,
+embodied all that was worth living in this life and a preparation for a
+passage into a newer, happier future life beyond.  Humanity, according
+to the doctrine of the church, had not been worth the attention of the
+thoughtful.  Life, as life, was not worth living.  But the mingling of
+humanity on a broader basis and under new circumstances quickened the
+thoughts and sentiments of man in favor of his fellows.  It gave an
+enlarged view of the life of man as a human creature.  There was a
+thought engendered, feeble though it was at first, that the life on
+earth was really important and that it could be enlarged and broadened
+in many ways, and hence it was worth saving here for its own sake.  The
+culmination of this idea appeared in the period of the Renaissance, a
+century later.
+
+{326}
+
+_The Commercial Effects of the Crusades_.--A new opportunity for trade
+was offered, luxuries were imported from the East in exchange for money
+or for minerals and fish of the West.  Cotton, wine, dyestuffs,
+glassware, grain, spice, fruits, silk, and jewelry, as well as weapons
+and horses, came pouring in from the Orient to enlarge and enrich the
+life of the Europeans.  For, with all the noble spirit manifested in
+government and in social life, western Europe was semibarbaric in the
+meagreness of the articles of material wealth there represented.  The
+Italian cities, seizing the opportunity of the contact of the West with
+the East, developed a surprising trade with the Oriental cities and
+with the northwest of Europe, and thus enhanced their power.[1]  From
+this impulse of trade that carried on commerce with the Orient largely
+through the Italian cities, there sprang up a group of Hanse towns in
+the north of Europe.  From a financial standpoint we find that money
+was brought into use and became from this time on a necessity.
+Money-lending became a business, and those who had treasure instead of
+keeping it lying idle and unfruitful were now able to develop wealth,
+not only for the borrower but also for the lender.  This tended to
+increase the rapid movement of wealth and to stimulate productive
+industry and trade in every direction.
+
+_General Influence of the Crusades on Civilization_.--We see, then,
+that it mattered little whether Jerusalem was taken by the Turks or the
+Christians, or whether thousands of Christians lost their lives in a
+great and holy cause, or whether the Mohammedans triumphed or were
+defeated at Jerusalem--the great result of the crusades was one of
+education of the people of Europe.  The boundaries of life were
+enlarged, the power of thought increased, the opportunities for doing
+and living multiplied.  It was the breaking away from the narrow shell
+of its own existence to the newly discovered life of the Orient that
+gave Europe its first impulse toward a larger life.  And to this extent
+the crusades may be said to have been a {327} great civilizer.  Many
+regard them as merely accidental phenomena difficult to explain, and
+yet, by tracing the various unobserved influences at work in their
+preparation, we shall see it was merely one phase of a great
+transitional movement in the progress of human life, just as we have
+seen that the feudal system was transitional between one form of
+government and another.  The influence of the crusades on civilization
+was immense in giving it an impulse forward.
+
+Under the general intellectual awakening, commercial enterprise was
+quickened, industry developed, and new ideas of government and art
+obtained.  The boundaries of Christian influences were extended and new
+nationalities were strengthened.  Feudalism was undermined by means of
+the consolidation of fiefs, the association of lord and vassal, the
+introduction of a new military system, the transfer of estates, and the
+promotion of the study and use of Roman jurisprudence.  Ecclesiasticism
+was greatly strengthened at Rome, through the power of the pope and the
+authority of his legates, the development of monastic orders, by the
+introduction of force and the use of the engine of excommunication.
+But something was gained for the common people, for serfs could be
+readily emancipated and there was a freer movement among all people.
+Ideas of equality began to be disseminated, which had their effect on
+the relation of affairs.  Upon the whole it may be stated in conclusion
+that the emancipation of the mind had begun.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Show how the crusades helped to break down feudalism and prepare
+for monarchy.
+
+2.  What intellectual benefit were the crusades to Europe?
+
+3.  Were there humanitarian and democratic elements of progress in the
+crusades?
+
+4.  What was the effect of the crusades on the power of the church?
+
+5.  What was the general influence of the crusades on civilization?
+
+6.  How did the crusades stimulate commerce?
+
+
+
+[1] See Chapter XXI.
+
+
+
+
+{328}
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+ATTEMPTS AT POPULAR GOVERNMENT
+
+_The Cost of Popular Government_.--The early forms of government were
+for the most part based upon hereditary authority or upon force.  The
+theories of government first advanced seldom had reference to the rule
+of the popular will.  The practice of civil affairs, enforcing theories
+of hereditary government or the rule of force, interfered with the
+rights of self-government of the people.  Hence every attempt to assume
+popular government was a struggle against old systems and old ideas.
+Freedom has been purchased by money or blood.  Men point with interest
+to the early assemblies of the Teutonic people to show the germs of
+democratic government, afterward to be overshadowed by imperialism, but
+a careful consideration would show that even this early stage of pure
+democracy was only a developed state from the earlier hereditary
+nobility.  The Goddess of Liberty is ideally a creature of beautiful
+form, but really her face is scarred and worn, her figure gnarled and
+warped with time, and her garments besprinkled with blood.  The
+selfishness of man, the struggle for survival, and the momentum of
+governmental machinery, have prevented the exercise of justice and of
+political equality.
+
+The liberty that has been gained is an expensive luxury.  It has cost
+those who have tried to gain it the treasures of accumulated wealth and
+the flower of youth.  When it has once been gained, the social forces
+have rendered the popular will non-expressive of the best government.
+Popular government, although ideally correct, is difficult to
+approximate, and frequently when obtained in name is far from real
+attainment.  After long oppression and subservience to monarchy or
+aristocracy, when the people, suddenly gaining power through great
+expense of treasure and blood, assume self-government, they find to
+their distress that they are incapable of it when {329} struggling
+against unfavorable conditions.  The result is a mismanaged government
+and an extra expense to the people.  There has been through many
+centuries a continual struggle for popular government.  The end of each
+conflict has seen something gained, yet the final solution of the
+problem has not been reached.  Nevertheless, imperfect as government by
+the people may be, it is, in the long run, the safest and best, and it
+undoubtedly will triumph in the end.  The democratic government of
+great nations is the most difficult of all forms to maintain, and it is
+only through the increased wisdom of the people that its final success
+may be achieved.  The great problem now confronting it arises from
+purely economic considerations.
+
+_The Feudal Lord and the Towns_.--Feudalism made its stronghold in
+country life.  The baronial castle was built away from cities and
+towns--in a locality favorable for defense.  This increased the
+importance of country life to a great extent, and placed the feudal
+lord in command of large tracts of territory.  Many of the cities and
+towns were for a time accorded the municipal privileges that had been
+granted them under Roman rule; but in time these wore away, and the
+towns, with a few exceptions, became included in large feudal tracts,
+and were held, with other territory, as feudatories.  In Italy, where
+feudalism was less powerful, the greater barons were obliged to build
+their castles in the towns, or, indeed, to unite with the towns in
+government.  But in France and Germany, and even to a certain extent in
+England, the feudal lord kept aloof from the town.
+
+There was, consequently, no sympathy existing between the feudal lord
+and the people of the cities.  It was his privilege to collect feudal
+dues and aids from the cities, and beyond this he cared nothing for
+their welfare.  It became his duty and privilege to hold the baronial
+court in the towns at intervals and to regulate their internal affairs,
+but he did this through a subordinate, and troubled himself little
+about any regulation or administration except to further his own ends.
+
+{330}
+
+_The Rise of Free Cities_.--Many of the towns were practically run by
+the surviving machinery of the old Roman municipal system, while many
+were practically without government except the overlordship of the
+feudal chief by his representative officer.  The Romans had established
+a complete system of municipal government in all their provinces.  Each
+town or city of any importance had a complete municipal machinery
+copied after the government of the imperial city.  When the Roman
+system began to decay, the central government failed first, and the
+towns found themselves severed from any central imperial government,
+yet in possession of machinery for local self-government.  When the
+barbarians invaded the Roman territory, and, avoiding the towns,
+settled in the country, the towns fell into the habit of managing their
+own affairs as far as feudal régime would permit.
+
+It appears, therefore, that the first attempts at local self-government
+were made in the cities and towns.  In fact, liberty of government was
+preserved in the towns, through the old Roman municipal life, which
+lived on, and, being shorn of the imperial idea, took on the spirit of
+Roman republicanism.  It was thus that the principles of Roman
+municipal government were kept through the Middle Ages and became
+useful in the modern period, not only in developing independent
+nationality but in perpetuating the rights of a people to govern
+themselves.
+
+The people of the towns organized themselves into municipal guilds to
+withstand the encroachments of the barons on their rights and
+privileges.  This gave a continued coherence to the city population,
+which it would not otherwise have had or perpetuated.  In thus
+perpetuating the idea of self-government, this cohesive organization,
+infused with a common sentiment of defense, made it possible to wrest
+liberty from the feudal baron.  When he desired to obtain money or
+supplies in order to carry on a war, or to meet other expenditures, he
+found it convenient to levy on the cities for this purpose.  His
+exactions, coming frequently and irregularly, aroused the {331}
+citizens to opposition.  A bloody struggle ensued, which usually ended
+in compromise and the purchase of liberty by the citizens by the
+payment of an annual tax to the feudal lord for permission to govern
+themselves in regard to all internal affairs.  It was thus that many of
+the cities gained their independence of feudal authority, and that
+some, in the rise of national life, gained their independence as
+separate states, such, for instance, as Hamburg, Venice, Lübeck, and
+Bremen.
+
+_The Struggle for Independence_.--In this struggle for independent life
+the cities first strove for just treatment.  In many instances this was
+accorded the citizens, and their friendly relations with the feudal
+lord continued.  When monarchy arose through the overpowering influence
+of some feudal lord, the city remained in subjection to the king, but
+in most instances the free burgesses of the towns were accorded due
+representation in the public assembly wherever one existed.  Many
+cities, failing to get justice, struggled with more or less success for
+independence.  The result of the whole contest was to develop the right
+of self-government and finally to preserve the principle of
+representation.  It was under these conditions that the theory of
+"taxation without representation is tyranny" was developed.  A
+practical outcome of this struggle for freedom has been the converse of
+this principle--namely, that representation without taxation is
+impossible.  Taxation, therefore, is the badge of liberty--of a liberty
+obtained through blood and treasure.
+
+_The Affranchisement of Cities Developed Municipal Organization_.--The
+effect of the affranchisement of cities was to develop an internal
+organization, usually on the representative plan.  There was not, as a
+rule, a pure democracy, for the influences of the Roman system and the
+feudal surroundings, rapidly tending toward monarchy, rendered it
+impossible that the citizens of the so-called free cities should have
+the privileges of a pure democracy, hence the representative plan
+prevailed.  There was not sufficient unity of purpose, nor common
+sentiment of the ideal government, sufficient to maintain {332}
+permanently the principles and practice of popular government.  Yet
+there was a popular assembly, in which the voice of the people was
+manifested in the election of magistrates, the voting of taxes, and the
+declaration of war.  In the mediaeval period, however, the municipal
+government was, in its real character, a business corporation, and the
+business affairs of the town were uppermost after defense against
+external forces was secured, hence it occurred that the wealthy
+merchants and the nobles who dwelt within the town became the most
+influential citizens in the management of municipal affairs.
+
+There sprang up, as an essential outcome of these conditions, an
+aristocracy within the city.  In many instances this aristocracy was
+reduced to an oligarchy, and the town was controlled by a few men; and
+in extreme cases the control fell into the hands of a tyrant, who for a
+time dominated the affairs of the town.  Whatever the form of the
+municipal government, the liberties of the people were little more than
+a mere name, recognized as a right not to be denied.  Having obtained
+their independence of foreign powers, the towns fell victims to
+internal tyranny, yet they were the means of preserving to the world
+the principles of local self-government, even though they were not
+permitted to enjoy to a great extent the privileges of exercising them.
+It remained for more favorable circumstances to make this possible.
+
+_The Italian Cities_.--The first cities to become prominent after the
+perpetuation of the Roman system by the introduction of barbarian blood
+were those of northern Italy.  These cities were less influenced by the
+barbarian invasion than others, on account of, first, their substantial
+city organization; second, the comparatively small number of invaders
+that surrounded them; and, third, the opportunity for trade presented
+by the crusades, which they eagerly seized.  Their power was increased
+because, as stated above, the feudal nobility, unable to maintain their
+position in the country, were forced to live in the cities.  The
+Italian cities were, therefore, less interfered with by barbarian and
+feudal influences, and continued to {333} develop strength.  The
+opportunity for immense trade and commerce opened up through the
+crusades made them wealthy.  Another potent cause of the rapid
+advancement of the Italian cities was their early contact with the
+Greeks and the Saracens, for they imbibed the culture of these peoples,
+which stimulated their own culture and learning.  Also, the invasions
+of the Saracens on the south and of the Hungarians on the north caused
+them to strengthen their fortifications.  They enclosed their towns
+with walls, and thus made opportunity for the formation of small,
+independent states within the walls.
+
+Comparatively little is known of the practice of popular government,
+although most of these cities were in the beginning republican and had
+popular elections.  In the twelfth century freedom was granted, in most
+instances, to the peasantry.  There were a parliament, a republican
+constitution, and a secret council (_credenza_) that assisted the
+consuls.  There was also a great council called a senate, consisting of
+about a hundred representatives of the people.  The chief duty of the
+senate was to discuss important public measures and refer them to the
+parliament for their approval.  In this respect it resembled the Greek
+senate (_boule_).  The secret council superintended the public works
+and administered the public finance.  These forms of government were
+not in universal use, but are as nearly typical as can be found, as the
+cities varied much in governmental practice.  It is easy to see that
+the framework of the government is Roman, while the spirit of the
+institutions, especially in the earlier part of their history, is
+affected by Teutonic influence.  There was a large number of these free
+towns in Italy from the close of the twelfth to the beginning of the
+fourteenth century.  At the close of this period, the republican phase
+of their government declined, and each was ruled by a succession of
+tyrants, or despots (_podestas_).
+
+In vain did the people attempt to regain their former privileges; they
+succeeded only in introducing a new kind of despotism in the captains
+of the people.  The cities had fallen {334} into the control of the
+wealthy families, and it mattered not what was the form of government,
+despotism prevailed.  In many of the cities the excessive power of the
+despots made their reign a prolonged terror.  As long as enlightened
+absolutism prevailed, government was administered by upright rulers and
+judges in the interests of the people; but when the power fell into the
+hands of unscrupulous men, the privileges and rights of the people were
+lost.  It is said that absolutism, descending from father to son, never
+improves in the descent; in the case of some of the Italian cities it
+produced monsters.  As the historian says: "The last Visconti, the last
+La Scalas, the last Sforzas, the last Farnesi, the last
+Medici--magnificent promoters of the humanities as their ancestors had
+been--were the worst specimens of the human race."  The situation of
+government was partially relieved by the introduction at a later period
+of the trade guilds.  All the industrial elements were organized into
+guilds, each one of which had its representation in the government.
+This was of service to the people, but nothing could erase the blot of
+despotism.
+
+The despots were of different classes, according to the method by which
+they obtained power.  First, there were nobles, who were
+representatives of the emperor, and governed parts of Lombardy while it
+was under the federated government, a position which enabled them to
+obtain power as captains of the people.  Again, there were some who
+held feudal rights over towns and by this means became rulers or
+captains.  There were others who, having been raised to office by the
+popular vote, had in turn used the office as a means to enslave the
+people and defeat the popular will.  The popes, also, appointed their
+nephews and friends to office and by this means obtained supremacy.
+Merchant princes, who had become wealthy, used their money to obtain
+and hold power.  Finally, there were the famous _condottieri_, who
+captured towns and made them principalities.  Into the hands of such
+classes as these the rights and privileges of the people were
+continually falling, and the result was disastrous to free government.
+
+{335}
+
+_Government of Venice_.--Florence and Venice represent the two typical
+towns of the group of Italian cities.  Wealthy, populous, and
+aggressive, they represent the greatest power, the highest intellectual
+development, becoming cities of culture and learning.  In 1494 the
+inhabitants of Florence numbered 90,000, of whom only 3,200 were
+burghers, or full citizens, while Venice had 100,000 inhabitants and
+only 5,000 burghers.  This shows what a low state popular government
+had reached--only one inhabitant in twenty was allowed the rights of
+citizens.
+
+Venice was established on the islands and morasses of the Adriatic
+Coast by a few remnants of the Beneti, who sought refuge upon them from
+the ravages of the Huns.  These people were early engaged in fishing,
+and later began a coast trade which, in time, enlarged into an
+extensive commerce.  In early times it had a municipal constitution,
+and the little villages had their own assemblies, discussed their own
+affairs, and elected their own magistrates.  Occasionally the
+representatives of the several tribal villages met to discuss the
+affairs of the whole city.  This led to a central government, which, in
+697 A.D., elected a doge for life.  The doges possessed most of the
+attributes of kings, became despotic and arbitrary, and finally ruled
+with absolute sway, so that the destinies of the republic were
+subjected to the rule of one man.  Aristocracy established itself, and
+the first families struggled for supremacy.
+
+Venice was the oldest republic of modern times, and continued the
+longest.  "It was older by 700 years than the Lombard republics, and it
+survived them for three centuries.  It witnessed the fall of the Roman
+Empire; it saw Italy occupied by Odoacer, by Charlemagne, and by
+Napoleon."  Its material prosperity was very great, and great buildings
+remain to this day as monuments of an art and architecture the
+foundations of which were mostly laid before the despots were at the
+height of their power.
+
+_Government of Florence_.--There was a resemblance between Florence and
+Athens.  Indeed, the former has been called the {336} Athens of the
+West, for in it the old Greek idea was first revived; in it the love
+for the artistic survived.  Both cities were devoted to the
+accumulating of wealth, and both were interested in the struggles over
+freedom and general politics.  Situated in the valley of the Arno,
+under the shadow of the Apennines, Florence lacked the charm of Venice,
+situated on the sea.  It was early conquered by Sulla and made into a
+military city of the Romans, and by a truce the Roman government and
+the Roman spirit prevailed in the city.  It was destroyed by the Goths
+and rebuilt by the Franks, but still retained the Roman spirit.  It was
+then a city of considerable importance, surrounded by a wall six miles
+in circumference, having seventy towers.
+
+After it was rebuilt, the city was governed by a senate, but finally
+the first families predominated.  Then there arose, in 1215, the great
+struggle between the papal and the imperial parties, the Ghibellines
+and the Guelphs--internal dissensions which were not quieted until
+these two opposing factions were driven out and a popular government
+established, with twelve _seignors_, or rulers, as the chief officers.
+Soon after this the art guilds obtained considerable power.  They
+elected _priors_ of trades every two months.  At first there were seven
+guilds that held control in Florence; they were the lawyers, who were
+excluded from all offices, the physicians, the bankers, the mercers,
+the woollen-drapers, the dealers in foreign cloths, and the dealers in
+pelts from the north.  Subsequently, men following the baser
+arts--butchers, retailers of cloth, blacksmiths, bakers, shoemakers,
+builders--were admitted to the circle of arts, until there were
+twenty-one.
+
+After having a general representative council, it was finally (1266)
+determined that each of the seven greater arts should have a council of
+its own.  The next step in government was the appointment of a
+_gonfalconier_ of justice by the companies of arts that had especial
+command of citizens.  But soon a struggle began between the commons and
+the nobility, in which for a long time the former were successful.
+Under the {337} leadership of Giano della Bella they enacted ordinances
+of justice destroying the power of the nobles, making them ineligible
+to the office of _prior_, and fining each noble 13,000 pounds for any
+offense against the law.  The testimony of two credible persons was
+sufficient to convict a person if their testimony agreed; hence it
+became easy to convict persons of noble blood.  Yet the commons were in
+the end obliged to succumb to the power of the nobility and
+aristocracy, and the light of popular government went out.
+
+_The Lombard League_.--The Lombard cities of the north of Italy were
+established subsequent to the invasion of the Lombards, chiefly through
+the peculiar settlement of the Lombard dukes over different territories
+in a loose confederation.  But the Lombards found cities already
+existing, and became the feudal proprietors of these and the territory.
+There were many attempts to unite these cities into a strong
+confederation, but owing to the nature of the feudal system and the
+general independence and selfishness of each separate city, they proved
+futile.  We find here the same desire for local self-government that
+existed in the Greek cities, the indulgence of which was highly
+detrimental to their interests in time of invasion or pressure from
+external power.  There were selfishness and rivalry between all these
+cities, not only in the attempt to outdo each other in political power,
+but by reason of commercial jealousy.  "Venice first, Christians next,
+and Italy afterward" was the celebrated maxim of Venice.
+
+To the distressing causes which kept the towns apart, the strife
+between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines increased the trouble.  Nor had
+the pope any desire to see a strong, unified government so near him.
+In those days popes were usually not honored in their own country, and,
+moreover, had enough to do to control their refractory subjects to the
+north of the Alps.  Unity was impossible among cities so blindly and
+selfishly opposed to one another, and it was, besides, especially
+prevented by jealous sovereigns from without, who wished rather to see
+these cities acting independently and separately {338} than
+effectively, in a strong, united government.  Under these circumstances
+it was impossible there should be a strong and unified government; yet,
+could they have been properly utilized, all the materials were at hand
+for developing a national life which would have withstood the shock of
+opposing nationalities through centuries.  The attempt to make a great
+confederation, a representative republic, failed, however, and with it
+failed the real hopes of republicanism in Italy.
+
+_The Rise of Popular Assemblies in France_.--In the early history of
+France, while feudalism yet prevailed, it became customary for the
+provinces to have their popular assemblies.  These assemblies usually
+were composed of all classes of the people, and probably had their
+origin in the calls made by feudal lords to unite all those persons
+within their feudatories who might have something to say respecting the
+administration of the government and the law.  In them the three
+estates were assembled--the clergy, the nobility, and the commons.
+Many of these old provincial assemblies continued for a long time, for
+instance, in Brittany and Languedoc, where they remained until the
+period of the revolution.
+
+It appears that every one of these provinces had its own provincial
+assembly, and a few of these assemblies survived until modern times, so
+that we know somewhat of their nature.  Although their powers were very
+much curtailed on the rise of monarchy, especially in the time of the
+Louis's, yet the provinces in which they continued had advantages over
+those provinces which had lost the provincial assemblies.  They had
+purchased of the crown the privilege of collecting all taxes demanded
+by the central government, and they retained the right to tax
+themselves for the expenses of their local administration and to carry
+on improvements, such as roads and water-courses, without any
+administration of the central government.  Notwithstanding much
+restriction upon their power within their own domain, they moved with a
+certain freedom which other provinces did not possess.
+
+_Rural Communes Arose in France_.--Although feudalism had prevailed
+over the entire country, there was a continual growth {339} of local
+self-government at the time when feudalism was gradually passing into
+monarchial power.  It was to the interest of the kings to favor
+somewhat the development of local self-government, especially the
+development of the cities while the struggle for dominion over
+feudalism was going on; but when the kings had once obtained power they
+found themselves confronted with the uprising spirit of local
+government.  The struggle between king and people went on for some
+centuries, until the time when everything ran to monarchy and all the
+rights of the people were wrested from them; indeed, the perfection of
+the centralized government of the French monarch left no opportunity
+for the voice of the people to be heard.
+
+The rural communes existed by rights obtained from feudal lords who had
+granted them charters and given them self-government over a certain
+territory.  These charters allowed the inhabitants of a commune to
+regulate citizenship and the administration of property, and to define
+feudal rights and duties.  Their organ of government was a general
+assembly of all the inhabitants, which either regulated the affairs of
+a commune directly or else delegated especial functions to communal
+officers who had power to execute laws already passed or to convoke the
+general assembly of the people on new affairs.  The collection of taxes
+for both the central and the local government, the management of the
+property of the commune, and the direction of the police system
+represented the chief powers of the commune.  The exercise of these
+privileges led into insistence upon the right of every man, whether
+peasant, freeman, or noble, to be tried by his peers.
+
+_The Municipalities of France_.--As elsewhere related, the barbarians
+found the cities and towns of France well advanced in their own
+municipal system.  This system they modified but little, only giving
+somewhat of the spirit of political freedom.  In the struggle waged
+later against the feudal nobility these towns gradually obtained their
+rights, by purchase or agreement, and became self-governing.  In this
+struggle we find the Christian church, represented by the bishop,
+always arraying itself on the side of the commons against the nobility,
+{340} and thus establishing democracy.  Among the municipal privileges
+which were wrested from the nobility was included the right to make all
+laws that might concern the people; to raise their own taxes, both
+local and for the central government; to administer justice in their
+own way, and to manage their own police system.  The relations of the
+municipality to the central government or the feudal lord forced them
+to pay a certain tribute, which gave them a legal right to manage
+themselves.
+
+Their pathway was not always smooth, however, but, on the contrary,
+full of contention and struggle against overbearing lords who sought to
+usurp authority.  Their internal management generally consisted of two
+assemblies--one a general assembly of citizens, in which they were all
+well represented, the other an assembly of notables.  The former
+elected the magistrates, and performed all legislative actions; the
+latter acted as a sort of advisory council to assist the magistrates.
+Sometimes the cities had but one assembly of citizens, which merely
+elected magistrates and exercised supervision over them.  The
+magistracy generally consisted of aldermen, presided over by a mayor,
+and acted as a general executive council for the city.
+
+Municipal freedom gradually declined through adverse circumstances.
+Within the city limits tyranny, aristocracy, or oligarchy sometimes
+prevailed, wresting from the people the rights which they had purchased
+or fought for.  Without was the pressure of the feudal lord, which
+gradually passed into the general fight of the king for royal
+supremacy.  The king, it is true, found the towns very strong allies in
+his struggle against the nobility.  They too had commenced a struggle
+against the feudal lords, and there was a common bond of sympathy
+between them.  But when the feudal lords were once mastered, the king
+must turn his attention to reducing the liberties of the people, and
+gradually, through the influence of monarchy and centralization of
+government, the rights and privileges of the people of the towns of
+France passed away.
+
+{341}
+
+_The States-General Was the First Central Organization_.--It ought to
+be mentioned here that after the monarchy was moderately well
+established, Philip the Fair (1285-1314) called the representatives of
+the nation together.  He called in the burghers of the towns, the
+nobility, and the clergy and formed a parliament for the discussion of
+the affairs of the realm.  It appeared that the constitutional
+development which began so early in England was about to obtain in
+France.  But it was not to be realized, for in the three centuries that
+followed--namely, the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth--the
+monarchs of France managed to keep this body barely in existence,
+without giving it any real power.  When the king was secure upon his
+throne and imperialism had received its full power, the nobility, the
+clergy, and the commons were no longer needed to support the throne of
+France, and, consequently, the will of the people was not consulted.
+It is true that each estate of nobility, clergy, and commons met
+separately from time to time and made out its own particular grievances
+to the king, but the representative power of the people passed away and
+was not revived again until, on the eve of the revolution, Louis XVI,
+shaken with terror, once more called together the three estates in the
+last representative body held before the political deluge burst upon
+the French nation.
+
+_Failure of Attempts at Popular Government in Spain_.--There are signs
+of popular representation in Spain at a very early date, through the
+independent towns.  This representation was never universal or regular.
+Many of the early towns had charter rights which they claimed as
+ancient privileges granted by the Roman government.  These cities were
+represented for a time in the popular assembly, or Cortes, but under
+the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella the Cortes were seldom called, and
+when they were, it was for the advantage of the sovereign rather than
+of the people.  Many attempts were made in Spain, from time to time, to
+fan into flame this enthusiasm for popular representation, but the
+predominance of monarchy and the dogmatic centralized power of the
+church tended to {342} repress all real liberty.  Even in these later
+days sudden bursts of enthusiasm for constitutional liberty and
+constitutional privilege are heard from the southern peninsula; but the
+transition into monarchy was so sudden that the rights of the people
+were forever curtailed.  The frequent outbursts for liberty and popular
+government came from the centres where persisted the ideas of freedom
+planted by the northern barbarians.
+
+_Democracy in the Swiss Cantons_.--It is the boast of some of the rural
+districts of Switzerland, that they never submitted to the feudal
+régime, that they have never worn the yoke of bondage, and, indeed,
+that they were never conquered.  It is probable that several of the
+rural communes of Switzerland have never known anything other than a
+free peasantry.  They have continually practised the pure democracy
+exemplified by the entire body of citizens meeting in the open field to
+make the laws and to elect their officers.  Although it is true that in
+these rural communities of Switzerland freedom has been a continuous
+quantity, yet during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries Switzerland,
+as a whole, was dominated by feudalism.  This feudalism differed
+somewhat from the French feudalism, for it represented a sort of
+overlordship of absentee feudal chiefs, which, leaving the people more
+to themselves, made vassalage less irksome.
+
+At the beginning of the fourteenth century, in the year 1309, the
+cantons, Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden, lying near Lake Lucerne, gained,
+through the emperor, Henry VII, the recognition of their independence
+in all things except allegiance to the empire.  Each of these small
+states had its own government, varying somewhat from that of its
+neighbors.  Yet the rural cantons evinced a strong spirit of pure
+democracy, for they had already, about half a century previous, formed
+themselves into a league which proved the germ of confederacy, which
+perpetuated republican institutions in the Middle Ages.  The spirit of
+freedom prevailing throughout diverse communities brought the remainder
+of the Swiss cantons into the confederation.
+
+{343}
+
+The first liberties possessed by the various cantons were indigenous to
+the soil.  From time immemorial they had clung to the ancient right of
+self-government, and had developed in their midst a local system which
+feudalism never succeeded in eradicating.  It mattered not how diverse
+their systems of local government, they had a common cause against
+feudal domination, and this brought them into a close union in the
+attempt to throw off such domination.  It is one of the remarkable
+phenomena of political history, that proud, aristocratic cities with
+monarchial tendencies could be united with humble and rude communes
+which held expressly to pure democracy.  It is but another illustration
+of the truth that a particular form of government is not necessary to
+the development of liberty, but it is the spirit, bravery,
+independence, and unity of the people that make democracy possible.
+Another important truth, also, is illustrated here--that Italian,
+German, and French people who respect each other's liberty and have a
+common cause may dwell together on a basis of unity and mutual support.
+
+Switzerland stands, then, for the perpetuation of the early local
+liberties of the people.  It has always been the synonym of freedom and
+the haven of refuge for the politically oppressed of all nations, and
+its freedom has always had a tendency to advance civilization, not only
+within the boundaries of the Swiss government, but throughout all
+Europe.  Progressive ideas of religion and education have ever
+accompanied liberty in political affairs.  The long struggle with the
+feudal lords and the monarchs of European governments, and with the
+Emperor of Germany, united the Swiss people on a basis of common
+interests and developed a spirit of independence.  At the same time, it
+had a tendency to warp their judgments respecting the religious rights
+and liberties of a people, and more than once the Swiss have shown how
+narrow in conception of government a republic can be.  Yet, upon the
+whole, it must be conceded that the watch-fires of liberty have never
+been extinguished in Switzerland, and that the light they {344} have
+shed has illumined many dark places in Europe and America.
+
+_The Ascendancy of Monarchy_.--Outside of Switzerland the faint
+beginning of popular representation was gradually overcome by the
+ascendancy of monarchy.  Feudalism, after its decline, was rapidly
+followed by the development of monarchy throughout Europe.  The
+centralization of power became a universal principle, uniting in one
+individual the government of an entire nation.  It was an expression of
+unity, and was essential to the redemption of Europe from the chaotic
+state in which it had been left by declining feudalism.
+
+Monarchy is not necessarily the rule of a single individual.  It may be
+merely the proclamation of the will of the people through one man, the
+expression of the voice of the people from a single point.  Of all
+forms of government a monarchy is best adapted to a nation or people
+needing a strong central government able to act with precision and
+power.  As illustrative of this, it is a noteworthy fact that the old
+Lombard league of confederated states could get along very well until
+threatened with foreign invasion; then they needed a king.  The Roman
+republic, with consuls and senate, moved on very well in times of
+peace, but in times of war it was necessary to have a dictator, whose
+voice should have the authority of law.  The President of the United
+States is commander-in-chief of the army, which position in time of war
+gives him a power almost resembling imperialism.  Could Greece have
+presented against her invaders a strong monarchy which could unite all
+her heroes in one common command, her enemies would not so easily have
+prevailed against her.
+
+Monarchy, then, in the development of European life seemed merely a
+stage of progress not unlike that of feudalism itself--a stage of
+progressive government; and it was only when it was carried to a
+ridiculous extreme in France and in England--in France under the
+Louis's and in England under the Stuarts--that it finally appeared
+detrimental to the highest interests of the people.  On the other hand,
+the weak {345} republicanism of the Middle Ages had not sufficient
+unity or sufficient aggressiveness to maintain itself, and gave way to
+what was then a form of government better adapted to conditions and
+surroundings.  But the fires of liberty, having been once lighted, were
+to burst forth again in a later period and burn with sufficient heat to
+purify the governments of the world.
+
+_Beginning of Constitutional Liberty in England_.--When the Normans
+entered England, feudalism was in its infancy and wanted yet the form
+of the Roman system.  The kings of the English people soon became the
+kings of England, and the feudal system spread over the entire island.
+But this feudalism was already in the grasp of monarchy which prevailed
+much more easily in England than in France.  There came a time in
+England, as elsewhere, when the people, seeking their liberties, were
+to be united with the king to suppress the feudal nobility, and there
+sprang up at this time some elements of popular representative
+government, most plainly visible in the parliament of Simon de Montfort
+(1265) and the "perfect parliament" of 1295, the first under the reign
+of Henry III, and the second under Edward I.  In one or two instances
+prior to this, county representation was summoned in parliament in
+order to facilitate the method of assessing and collecting taxes, but
+these two parliaments marked the real beginnings of constitutional
+liberty in England, so far as local representation is concerned.
+
+Prior to this, in 1215, the nobles and the commons, working together,
+had wrested the concession of the great _Magna Charta_ from King John,
+and thus had established a precedent of the right of each class of
+individuals to have its share in the government of the realm; under its
+declaration king, nobility, and commons, each a check upon the other,
+each struggling for power, and all developing through the succeeding
+generations the liberty of the people under the constitution.  This
+long, slow process of development, reminding one somewhat of the
+struggle of the plebeians of Rome against the patricians, {346} finally
+made the lower house of parliament, which represents the people of the
+realm, the most prominent factor in the government of the English
+people--and at last, without a cataclysm like the French Revolution,
+established liberty of speech, popular representation, and religious
+liberty.
+
+We find, then, that in England and in other parts of Europe a
+liberalizing tendency set in after monarchy had been established and
+become predominant, which limited the actions of kings and declared for
+the liberties of the people.  Imperialism in monarchy was limited by
+the constitution of the people.  England laid the foundations of
+democracy in recognizing the rights of representation of all classes.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What phases of popular government are to be noted in the Italian
+cities?
+
+2.  What is the relation of "enlightened absolutism" to social progress?
+
+3.  The characteristics of mediaeval guilds.
+
+4.  Why were the guilds discontinued?
+
+5.  The rise and decline of popular assemblies and rural communes of
+France.
+
+6.  The nature of the government of the Swiss cantons.
+
+7.  The transition from feudalism to monarchy.
+
+8.  In what ways was the idea of popular government perpetuated in
+Europe?
+
+
+
+
+{347}
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+THE INTELLECTUAL AWAKENING OF EUROPE
+
+_Social Evolution Is Dependent Upon Variation_.--The process by which
+ideas are born and propagated in human society is strangely analogous
+to the methods of biological evolution.  The laws of survival, of
+adaptation, of variation and mutation prevail, and the evidence of
+conspicuous waste is ever present.  The grinding and shifting of human
+nature under social law is similar to the grinding and shifting of
+physical nature under organic law.  When we consider the length of time
+it takes physical nature to accomplish the ultimate of fixed values,
+seventy millions of years or more to produce an oak-tree, millions of
+years to produce a horse or a man, we should not be impatient with the
+slow processes of human society nor the waste of energy in the process.
+For human society arises out of the confusion of ideas and progresses
+according to the law of survival.
+
+New ideas must be accepted, diffused, used, and adapted to new
+conditions.  It would seem that Europe had sufficient knowledge of life
+contributed by the Orient, by Greek, Roman, and barbarian to go
+forward; but first must come a period of readjustment of old truth to
+new environment and the discovery of new truth.  For several centuries,
+in the Dark Ages, the intellectual life of man lay dormant.  Then must
+come a quickening of the spirit before the world could advance.
+However, in considering human progress, the day of small things must
+"not be despised."  For in the days of confusion and low tide of
+regression there are being established new modes of life and thought
+which through right adaptation will flow on into the full tide of
+progress.  Revivals come which gather up and utilize the scattered and
+confused ideas of life, adapting and utilizing them by setting new
+standards and imparting new impulses of progress.
+
+{348}
+
+_The Revival of Progress Throughout Europe_.--Human society, as a world
+of ideas, is a continuous quantity, and therefore it is difficult to
+mark off any definite period of time to show social causation.  Roughly
+speaking, the period from the beginning of the eighth century to the
+close of the fifteenth is a period of intellectual ferment, the climax
+of which extended from the eleventh to the close of the fifteenth
+century.  It was in this period that the forces were gathering in
+preparation for the achievements of the modern era of progress.  There
+was one general movement, an awakening along the whole line of human
+endeavor in the process of transition from the old world to the new.
+It was a revival of art, language, literature, philosophy, theology,
+politics, law, trade, commerce, and the additions of invention and
+discovery.  It was the period of establishing schools and laying the
+foundation of universities.  In this there was a more or less
+continuous progress of the freedom of the mind, which permitted
+reflective thought, which subsequently led on to the religious
+reformation that permitted freedom of belief, and the French
+Revolution, which permitted freedom of political action.  It was the
+rediscovery of the human mind, a quickening of intellectual liberty, a
+desire of alert minds for something new.  It was a call for humanity to
+move forward.
+
+_The Revival of Learning a Central Idea of Progress_.--As previously
+stated, the church had taken to itself by force of circumstances the
+power in the Western world relinquished by the fallen Roman Empire.  In
+fighting the battles against unbelief, ignorance, and political
+corruption, it had become a powerful hierarchy.  As the conservator of
+learning, it eventually began to settle the limits of knowledge and
+belief on its own interpretation and to force this upon the world.  It
+saved the elements of knowledge from the destruction of the barbarians,
+but in turn sought to lock up within its own precincts of belief the
+thoughts of the ages, presuming to do the thinking for the world.  It
+became dogmatic, arbitrary, conservative, and conventional.  Moreover,
+this had become the {349} attitude of all inert Europe.  The several
+movements that sought to overcome this stifling condition of the mind
+are called the "revival of learning."
+
+A more specific use of the term renaissance, or revival of learning,
+refers especially to the restoration of the intellectual continuity of
+Europe, or the rebirth of the human mind.  It is generally applied to
+what is known as humanism, or the revival of classical learning.
+Important as this phase of general progress is, it can be considered
+only as a part of the great revival of progress.  Humanism, or the
+revival of classical learning, having its origin and first great
+impulse in Italy, it has become customary to use humanism and the
+Italian renaissance interchangeably, yet without careful consideration;
+for although the Italian renaissance is made up largely of humanism, it
+had such wide-reaching consequences on the progress of all Europe as
+not to be limited by the single influence of the revival of the
+classical learning.
+
+_Influence of Charlemagne_.--Clovis founded the Frankish kingdom, which
+included the territory now occupied by France and the Netherlands.
+Subsequently this kingdom was enlarged under the rule of Charles
+Martel, who turned back the Moslem invasion at Poitiers in 732, and
+became ruler of Europe north of the Alps.  His son Pepin enlarged and
+strengthened the kingdom, so that when his successor Charlemagne came
+into power in 768 he found himself in control of a vast inland empire.
+He conquered Rome and all north Italy and assumed the title of Roman
+emperor.  The movement of Charlemagne was a slight and even a doubtful
+beginning of the revival.  Possibly his reform was a faint flickering
+of the watch-fires of intellectual and civil activity, but they went
+out and darkness obscured the horizon until the breaking of the morn of
+liberty.  Yet in the darkness of the ages that followed new forces were
+forming unobserved by the contemporary historian--forces which should
+give a new awakening to the mind of all Europe.
+
+Charlemagne re-established the unity of government which {350} had been
+lost in the decline of the old Roman government; he enlarged the
+boundary of the empire, established an extensive system of
+administration, and promoted law and order.  He did more than this: he
+promoted religion by favoring the church in the advancement of its work
+throughout the realm.  But unfortunately, in the attempt to break down
+feudalism, he increased it by giving large donations to the church, and
+so helped to develop ecclesiastical feudalism, and laid the foundation
+of subsequent evils.  He was a strong warrior, a great king, and a
+master of civil government.
+
+Charlemagne believed in education, and insisted that the clergy should
+be educated, and he established schools for the education of his
+subjects.  He promoted learning among his civil officers by
+establishing a school all the graduates of which were to receive civil
+appointments.  It was the beginning of the civil service method in
+Europe.  Charlemagne was desirous, too, of promoting learning of all
+kinds, and gathered together the scattered fragments of the German
+language, and tried to advance the educational interests of his
+subjects in every direction.  But the attempts to make learning
+possible, apparently, passed for naught in later days when the iron
+rule of Charlemagne had passed away, and the weaker monarchs who came
+after him were unable to sustain his system.  Darkness again spread
+over Europe, to be dispelled finally by other agencies.
+
+_The Attitude of the Church Was Retrogressive_.--The attitude of the
+Christian church toward learning in the Middle Ages was entirely
+arbitrary.  It had become thoroughly institutionalized and was not in
+sympathy with the changes that were taking place outside of its own
+policy.  It assumed an attitude of hostility to everything that tended
+toward the development of free and independent thought outside the
+dictates of the authorities of the church.  It found itself, therefore,
+in an attitude of bitter opposition to the revival of learning which
+had spread through Europe.  It was unfortunate that the church appeared
+so diametrically opposed to freedom of {351} thought and independent
+activity of mind.  Even in England, when the new learning was first
+introduced, although Henry VIII favored it, the church in its blind
+policy opposed it, and when the renaissance in Germany had passed
+continuously into the Reformation, Luther opposed the new learning with
+as much vigor as did the papalists themselves.
+
+But from the fact of the church's assuming this attitude toward the new
+learning, it must not be inferred that there was no learning within the
+church, for there were scholars in theology, logic, and law, astute and
+learned.  Yet the church assumed that it had a sort of proprietorship
+or monopoly of learning, and that only what it might see fit to
+designate was to receive attention, and then only in the church's own
+way; all other knowledge was to be opposed.  The ecclesiastical
+discussions gave evidence of intense mental activity within the church,
+but, having little knowledge of the outside world to invigorate it or
+to give it something tangible upon which to operate, the mind passed
+into speculative fields that were productive of little permanent
+culture.  Dwelling only upon a few fundamental conceptions at first, it
+soon tired itself out with its own weary round.
+
+The church recognized in all secular advocates of literature and
+learning its own enemies, and consequently began to expunge from the
+literary world as far as possible the remains of the declining Roman
+and Greek culture.  It became hostile to Greek and Latin literature and
+art and sought to repress them.  In the rise of new languages and
+literature in new nationalities every attempt was made by the church to
+destroy the effects of the pagan life.  The poems and sagas treating of
+the religion and mythologies of these young, rising nationalities were
+destroyed.  The monuments of the first beginnings of literature, the
+products of a period so hard to compass by the historian, were served
+in the same way as were the Greek and Latin masterpieces.
+
+The church said, if men will persist in study, let them ponder the
+precepts of the gospels as interpreted by the church.  {352} For those
+who inquired about the problems of life, the churchmen pointed to the
+creeds and the dogmas of the church, which had settled all things.  If
+men were too persistent in inquiring about the nature of this world,
+they were told that it is of little importance, only a prelude to the
+world to come; that they should spend their time in preparation for the
+future.  Even as great a man as Gregory of Tours said: "Let us shun the
+lying fables of the poets and forego the wisdom of the sages at enmity
+with God, lest we incur the condemnation of endless death by the
+sentence of our Lord."  Saint Augustine deplored the waste of time
+spent in reading Virgil, while Alcuin regretted that in his boyhood he
+had preferred Virgil to the legends of the saints.  With the monks such
+considerations gave excuse for laziness and disregard of rhetoric.
+
+But in this movement of hostility to the new learning, the church went
+too far, and soon found the entire ecclesiastical system face to face
+with a gross ignorance, which must be eradicated or the superstructure
+would fall.  As Latin was the only vehicle of thought in those days, it
+became a necessity that the priests should study Virgil and the other
+Latin authors, consequently the churches passed from their opposition
+to pagan authors to a careful utilization of them, until the whole
+papal court fell under the influence of the revival of learning, and
+popes and prelates became zealous in the promotion and, indeed, in the
+display of learning.  When the son of Lorenzo the Magnificent became
+Pope Leo X, the splendor of the ducal court of Florence passed to the
+papal throne, and no one was more zealous in the patronage of learning
+than he.  He encouraged learning and art of every kind, and built a
+magnificent library.  It was merely the transferrence of the pomp of
+the secular court to the papacy.
+
+Such was the attitude of the church toward the new learning--first, a
+bitter opposition; second, a forced toleration; and third, the
+absorption of its best products.  Yet in all this the spirit of the
+church was not for the freedom of mind nor independence of thought.  It
+could not recognize this freedom nor {353} the freedom of religious
+belief until it had been humiliated by the spirit of the Reformation.
+
+_Scholastic Philosophy Marks a Step in Progress_.--There arose in the
+ninth century a speculative philosophy which sought to harmonize the
+doctrine of the church with the philosophy of Neo-Platonism and the
+logic of Aristotle.  The scholastic philosophy may be said to have had
+its origin with John Scotus Erigena, who has been called "the morning
+star of scholasticism."  He was the first bold thinker to assert the
+supremacy of reason and openly to rebel against the dogma of the
+church.  In laying the foundation of his doctrine, he starts with a
+philosophical explanation of the universe.  His writings and
+translations were forerunners of mysticism and set forth a peculiar
+pantheistic conception.  His doctrine appears to ignore the pretentious
+authority of the church of his time and to refer to the earlier church
+for authority.  In so doing he incorporated the doctrine of emanation
+advanced by the Neo-Platonists, which held that out of God, the supreme
+unity, evolve the particular forms of goodness, and that eventually all
+things will return to God.  In like manner, in the creation of the
+universe the species comes from the genera by a process of unfolding.
+
+The complete development and extension of scholastic philosophy did not
+come until the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.  The term
+"scholastics" was first applied to those who taught in the cloister
+schools founded by Charlemagne.  It was at a later period applied to
+the teachers of the seven liberal arts--grammar, rhetoric, and
+dialectic, in the _Trivium,_ and arithmetic, geometry, music, and
+astronomy, in the _Quadrivium_.  Finally it was applied to all persons
+who occupied themselves with science or philosophy.  Scholastic
+philosophy in its completed state represents an attempt to harmonize
+the doctrines of the church with Aristotelian philosophy.
+
+There were three especial doctrines developed in the scholastic
+philosophy, called respectively nominalism, realism, and conceptualism.
+The first asserted that there are no generic {354} types, and
+consequently no abstract concepts.  The formula used to express the
+vital point in nominalism is "_Universalia post rem_."  Its advocates
+asserted that universals are but names.  Roscellinus was the most
+important advocate of this doctrine.  In the fourteenth century William
+of Occam revived the subject of nominalism, and this had much to do
+with the downfall of scholasticism, for its inductive method suggested
+the acquiring of knowledge through observation.
+
+Realism was a revival of the Platonic doctrine that ideas are the only
+real things.  The formula for it was "_Universalia ante rem_."  By it
+the general name preceded that of the species.  Universal concepts
+represent the real; all else is merely illustrative of the real.  The
+only real sphere is the one held in the mind, mathematically correct in
+every way.  Balls and globes and other actual things are but the
+illustrations of the genus.  Perhaps Anselm was the strongest advocate
+of this method of reasoning.
+
+It remained for Abelard to unite these two theories of philosophical
+reasoning into one, called conceptualism.  He held that universals are
+not ideals, but that they exist in the things themselves.  The formula
+given was "_Universalia in re_." This was a step in advance, and laid
+something of a foundation for the philosophy of classification in
+modern science.
+
+The scholastic philosophers did much to sharpen reason and to develop
+the mind, but they failed for want of data.  Indeed, this has been the
+common failure of man, for in the height of civilization men speculate
+without sufficient knowledge.  Even in the beginning of scientific
+thought, for lack of facts, men spent much of their time in
+speculation.  The scholastic philosophers were led to consider many
+unimportant questions which could not be well settled.  They asked the
+church authorities why the sacramental wine and bread turned into blood
+and flesh, and what was the necessity of the atonement?  And in
+considering the nature of pure being they asked: "How many angels can
+dance at once on the point of a needle?" and "In moving from point to
+point, do angels pass through {355} intervening space?"  They asked
+seriously whether "angels had stomachs," and "if a starving ass were
+placed exactly midway between two stacks of hay would he ever move?"
+But it must not be inferred that these people were as ridiculous as
+they appear, for each question had its serious side.  Having no
+assistance from science, they fell single-handed upon dogmatism; yet
+many times they busied themselves with unprofitable discussions, and
+some of them became the advocates of numerous doctrines and dogmas
+which had a tendency to confuse knowledge, although in defense of which
+wits were sharpened.
+
+Lord Bacon, in a remarkable passage, has characterized the scholastic
+philosophers as follows:
+
+"This kind of degenerate learning did chiefly reign among the
+schoolmen, who--having sharp and strong wits and abundance of leisure
+and small variety of reading, but their wits being shut up in the cells
+of a few authors (chiefly Aristotle, their dictator) as their persons
+were shut up in the cells of monasteries and colleges, and having
+little history, either of nature or of time--did, out of no great
+quantity of matter and infinite agitation of wit, spin out unto us
+those laborious webs of learning which are extant in their books.  For
+the wit and mind of man, if it work upon matter which is the
+contemplation of the creatures of God, worketh according to the stuff
+and is limited thereby; but if it work upon itself, as the spider
+worketh its web, then it is endless, and brings forth indeed cobwebs of
+learning, admirable for the fineness of thread and work, but of no
+substance or profit."[1]
+
+Scholasticism, as the first phase of the revival of learning, though
+overshadowed by tradition and mediaeval dogmatism, showed great
+earnestness of purpose in ascertaining the truth by working "the wit
+and mind of man"; but it worked not "according to the stuff," and,
+having little to feed upon, it produced only speculations of truth and
+indications of future possibilities.  There were many bright men among
+the scholastic {356} philosophers, especially in the thirteenth
+century, who left their impress upon the age; yet scholasticism itself
+was affected by dogmatism and short-sightedness, and failed to utilize
+the means at its hand for the improvement of learning.  It exercised a
+tyranny over all mental endeavor, for the reason that it was obliged in
+all of its efforts to carry through all of its reasoning the heavy
+weight of dogmatic theology.  Whatever else it attempted, it could not
+shake itself free from this incubus of learning, through a great system
+of organized knowledge, which hung upon the thoughts and lives of men
+and attempted to explain all things in every conceivable way.
+
+But to show that independent thinking was a crime one has only to refer
+to the results of the knowledge of Roger Bacon, who advanced his own
+methods of observation and criticism.  Had the scholastics been able to
+accept what he clearly pointed out to them, namely, that reason can
+advance only by finding, through observation, new material upon which
+to work, science might have been active a full century in advance of
+what it was.  He laid the foundation of experimental science, and
+pointed out the only way in which the revival of learning could be made
+permanent, but his voice was unheeded by those around him, and it
+remained for the philosophers of succeeding generations to estimate his
+real worth.
+
+_Cathedral and Monastic Schools_.--There were two groups of schools
+under the management of the church, known as the cathedral and monastic
+schools.  The first represented the schools that had developed in the
+cathedrals for the sons of lay members of the church; the second, those
+in the monasteries that were devoted largely to the education of the
+ministry.  To understand fully the position of these schools it is
+necessary to go back a little and refer to the educational forces of
+Europe.  For a long period after Alexandria had become established as a
+great centre of learning, Athens was really the centre of education in
+the East, and this city held her sway in educational affairs down to
+the second century.  The influence of the traditions of great teachers
+and the encouragement and {357} endowments given by emperors kept up a
+school at Athens, to which flocked the youth of the land who desired a
+superior education.
+
+Finally, when the great Roman Empire joined to itself the Greek
+culture, there sprang up what was known as the Greek and Roman schools,
+or Graeco-Roman schools, although Rome was not without its centre of
+education at the famous Athenaeum.  In these Graeco-Roman schools were
+taught grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic, music, arithmetic, geometry,
+and astronomy.  The grammar of that day frequently included language,
+criticism, history, literature, metre; the dialectic considered logic,
+metaphysics, and ethics; while rhetoric contemplated the fitting of the
+youth for public life and for the law.
+
+But these schools, though dealing in real knowledge for a time,
+gradually declined, chiefly on account of the declining moral powers of
+the empire and the relaxation of intellectual activity, people thinking
+more of ease and luxury and the power of wealth than of actual
+accomplishment.  The internal disorganization, unjust taxation, and
+unjust rule of the empire had also a tendency to undermine education.
+The coming of the barbarians, with their honest, illiterate natures,
+had its influence, likewise, in overthrowing the few schools that
+remained.
+
+The rise of Christianity, which supposed that all pagan literature and
+pagan knowledge were of the devil, and hence to be suppressed, opposed
+secular teaching, and tended to dethrone these schools.  Constantine's
+effort to unite the church and state tended for a while to perpetuate
+secular institutions.  But the pagan schools passed away; the
+philosophy of the age had run its course until it had become a hollow
+assumption, a desert of words, a weary round of speculation without
+vitality of expression; and the activity of the sophists in these later
+times narrowed all literary courses until they dwindled into mere
+matters of form.  Perhaps, owing to its force, power, and dignity, the
+Roman law retained a vital {358} position in the educational
+curriculum.  The school at Athens was suppressed in 529 by Justinian,
+because, as it had been claimed, it was tainted with Oriental
+philosophy and allied with Egyptian magic, and hence could not develop
+ethical standards.
+
+It is easy to observe how the ideas of Christian learning came into
+direct competition with the arrogant self-assumption and the hollowness
+of the selfish teachings of the old Graeco-Roman schools.  The
+Christian doctrine, advocating the development of the individual life,
+intimate relations with God, the widening of social functions, with its
+teachings of humility, and humanity, could not tolerate the instruction
+given in these schools.  Moreover, the Christian doctrine of education
+consisted, on the one hand, in preparing for the future life, and on
+the other, in the preparation of Christian ministers to teach this
+future life.  As might be expected, when narrowed to this limit,
+Christian education had its dwarfing influence.  If salvation were an
+important thing and salvation were to be obtained only by the denial of
+the life of this world, then there would be no object in perpetuating
+learning, no attempt to cultivate the mind, no tendency to develop the
+whole man on account of his moral and intellectual worth.  The use of
+secular books was everywhere discouraged.  As a result the instruction
+of the religious schools was of a very meagre nature.
+
+Within the monasteries devotional exercises and the study of the
+Scriptures represented the chief intellectual development of the monks.
+The Western monks required a daily service and a systematic training,
+but the practice of the Eastern monks was not educational in its nature
+at all.  After a while persons who were not studying for religious vows
+were admitted to the schools that they might understand the Bible and
+the services of the church.  They were taught to write, that they might
+copy the manuscripts of the church fathers, the sacred books, and the
+psalter; they were taught arithmetic, that they might be able to
+calculate the return of Easter and the other festivals; they were
+taught music, that they might {359} be able to chant well.  But the
+education in any line was in itself superficial and narrow.
+
+The Benedictine order was exceptional in the establishment of better
+schools and in promoting better educational influences.  Their
+curriculum consisted of the Old and New Testaments, the exposition of
+the Scriptures by learned theologians, and the discourses, or
+conversations, of Cassianus; yet, as a rule, the monks cared little for
+knowledge as such, not even for theological knowledge.  The
+monasteries, however, constituted the great clerical societies, where
+many prepared for secular pursuits.  The monasteries of Ireland
+furnished many learned scholars to England, Scotland, and Germany, as
+well as to Ireland; yet it was only a monastic education which they
+exported.
+
+Finally it became customary to found schools within the monasteries,
+and this was the beginning of the church schools of the Middle Ages.
+Formal and meagre as the instruction of these schools was, it
+represents a beginning in church education.  But in the seventh and
+eighth centuries they again declined, and learning retrograded very
+much; literature was forgotten; the monks and friars boasted of their
+ignorance.  The reforms of Charlemagne restored somewhat the
+educational status of the new empire, and not only developed the church
+schools and cathedral schools but also founded some secular schools.
+The cathedral schools became in many instances centres of learning
+apart from monasticism.  The textbooks, however, of the Middle Ages
+were chiefly those of Boethius, Isidor, and Capella, and were of the
+most meagre content and character.  That of Capella, as an
+illustration, was merely an allegory, which showed the seven liberal
+arts in a peculiar representation.  The logic taught in the schools was
+that given by Alcuin; the arithmetic was limited to the reckoning of
+holidays and festivals; astronomy was limited to a knowledge of the
+names and courses of the stars; geometry was composed of the first four
+books of Euclid, and supplemented with a large amount of geography.
+
+{360}
+
+But all this learning was valued merely as a support to the church and
+the church authorities, and for little else.  Yet there had been
+schools of importance founded at Paris, Bologna, and Padua, and at
+other places which, although they were not the historical foundations
+of the universities, no doubt became the means, the traditional means,
+of the establishment of universities at these places.  Also, many of
+the scholars, such as Theodore of Tarsus, Adalbert, Bede, and Alcuin,
+who studied Latin and Greek and also became learned in other subjects,
+were not without their influence.
+
+_The Rise of Universities_.[2]--An important phase of this period of
+mediaeval development was the rise of universities.  Many causes led to
+their establishment.  In the eleventh century the development of
+independent municipal power brought the noble and the burgher upon the
+same level, and developed a common sentiment for education.  The
+activity of the crusades, already referred to, developed a thirst for
+knowledge.  There was also a gradual growth of traditional learning, an
+accumulation of knowledge of a certain kind, which needed
+classification, arrangement, and development.  By degrees the schools
+of Arabia, which had been prominent in their development, not only of
+Oriental learning but of original investigation, had given a quickening
+impulse to learning throughout southern Europe.  The great division of
+the church between the governed and governing had led to the
+development of a strong lay feeling as opposed to monasticism or
+ecclesiasticism.  Perhaps the growth of local representative government
+had something to do with this.
+
+But the time came when great institutions were chartered at these
+centres of learning.  Students flocked to Bologna, where law was
+taught; to Salerno, where medicine was the chief subject; and to Paris,
+where philosophy and theology predominated.  At first these schools
+were open to all, without special rules.  Subsequently they were
+organized, and finally were chartered.  In those days students elected
+their own {361} instructors and built up their own organization.  The
+schools were usually called _universitas magistrorum et scholarium_.
+They were merely assemblages of students and instructors, a sort of
+scholastic guild or combination of teachers and scholars, formed first
+for the protection of their members, and later allowed by pope and
+emperor the privilege of teaching, and finally given the power by these
+same authorities to grant degrees.  The result of these schools was the
+widening of the influence of education.
+
+The universities proposed to teach what was found in a new and revived
+literature and to adopt a new method of presenting truth.  Yet, with
+all these widening foundations, there was a tendency to be bound by
+traditional learning.  The scholastic philosophy itself invaded the
+universities and had its influence in breaking down the scientific
+spirit.  Not only was this true of the universities of the continent,
+but of those of England as well.  The German universities, however,
+were less affected by this tendency of scholasticism.  Founded at a
+later period, when the Renaissance was about to be merged into the
+Reformation, there was a wider foundation of knowledge, a more earnest
+zeal in its pursuit, and also a tendency for the freedom and activity
+of the mind which was not observed elsewhere.
+
+The universities may be said to mark an era in the development of
+intellectual life.  They became centres where scholars congregated,
+centres for the collection of knowledge; and when the humanistic idea
+fully prevailed, in many instances they encouraged the revival of
+classical literature and the study of those things pertaining to human
+life.  The universities entertained and practised free discussion of
+all subjects, which made an important landmark of progress.  They
+encouraged people to give a reason for philosophy and faith, and
+prepared the way for scientific investigation and experiment.
+
+_Failure to Grasp Scientific Methods_.--Perhaps the greatest wonder in
+all this accumulation of knowledge, quickening of the mind, philosophy,
+and speculation, is that men of so much {362} learning failed to grasp
+scientific methods.  Could they but have turned their attention to
+systematic methods of investigation based upon facts logically stated,
+the vast intellectual energy of the Middle Ages might have been turned
+to more permanent account.  It is idle, however, to deplore their
+ignorance of these conditions or to ridicule their want of learning.
+When we consider the ignorance that overshadowed the land, the breaking
+down of the old established systems of Greece and Rome, the struggle of
+the church, which grew naturally into its power and made conservatism
+an essential part of its life; indeed, when we consider that the whole
+medieval system was so impregnated with dogmatism and guided by
+tradition, it is a marvel that so many men of intellect and power
+raised their voices in the defense of truth, and that so much
+advancement was made in the earnest desire for truth.
+
+_Inventions and Discoveries_.--The quickening influence of discovery
+was of great moment in giving enlarged views of life.  The widening of
+the geographical horizon tended to take men out of their narrow
+boundaries and their limited conceptions of the world, into a larger
+sphere of mental activity, and to teach them that there was much beyond
+their narrow conceptions to be learned.  The use of gunpowder changed
+the method of warfare and revolutionized the financial system of
+nations.  The perfection of the mariner's compass reformed navigation
+and made great sea voyages possible; the introduction of printing
+increased the dissemination of knowledge; the building of great
+cathedrals had a tendency to develop architecture, and the contact with
+Oriental learning developed art.  These phases tended to assist the
+mind in the attempt to free itself from bondage.
+
+_The Extension of Commerce Hastened Progress_.--But more especially
+were men's ideas enlarged and their needs supplied by the widening
+reach of commerce.  Through its exchanges it distributed the
+food-supply, and thus not only preserved thousands from want but
+furnished leisure for others to study.  It had a tendency to distribute
+the luxuries of manufactured {363} articles, and to quicken the
+activity of the mind by giving exchange of ideas.  Little by little the
+mariners, plying their trade, pushed farther and farther into unknown
+seas, and at last brought the products of every clime in exchange for
+those of Europe.
+
+The manner in which commerce developed the cities of Italy and of the
+north has already been referred to.  Through this development the
+foundations of local government were laid.  The manner in which it
+broke down the feudal system after receiving the quickening impulse of
+the crusades has also been dealt with.  In addition to its influence in
+these changes, it brought about an increased circulation of
+money--which also struck at the root of feudalism, in destroying the
+mediaeval manor and serfdom, for men could buy their freedom from
+serfdom with money--which also made taxation possible; and the
+possibility of taxation had a vast deal to do with the building up of
+new nations and stimulating national life.  Moreover, as a distributer
+of habits and customs, commerce developed uniformity of political and
+social life and made for national solidarity.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What is meant by Renaissance, Revival of Learning, Revival of
+Progress and Humanism, as applied to the mediaeval period?
+
+2.  The causes of the Revival of Progress.
+
+3.  The direct influence of humanism.
+
+4.  The attitude of the church toward freedom of thought.
+
+5.  The scholastic philosophy, its merits and its defects.
+
+6.  What did the following persons stand for in human progress: Dante,
+Savonarola, Charlemagne, John Scotus Erigena, Thomas Aquinas, Abelard,
+William of Occam, Roger Bacon?
+
+7.  Rise of universities.  How did they differ from modern universities?
+
+
+
+[1] _Advancement of Learning_, iv, 5.
+
+[2] See Chapter XXIX.
+
+
+
+
+{364}
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+HUMANISM AND THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING
+
+Perhaps the most important branch of the revival of learning is that
+which is called humanism, or the revival of the study of the
+masterpieces of Greek and Latin literature.  The promoters of this
+movement are called humanists, because they held that the study of the
+classics, or _litterae humaniores_, is the best humanizing agent.  It
+has already been shown how scholasticism developed as one of the
+important phases of the renaissance, and how, close upon its track, the
+universities rose as powerful aids to the revival of learning, and that
+the cathedral and monastic schools were the traditional forerunners of
+the great universities.
+
+Primarily, then, were taught in the universities scholastic philosophy,
+theology, the Roman and the canon law, with slight attention to Greek
+and Hebrew, the real value of the treasures of antiquity being unknown
+to the Western world.  The Arabic or Saracen schools of Spain had taken
+high rank in learning, and through their efforts the scientific works
+of Aristotle were presented to the mediaeval world.  There were many
+men of importance, such as Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, who were
+leaders in universities and who lent their influence to the development
+of learning in Europe.  The translation of the scientific works of
+Aristotle into Latin at the beginning of the thirteenth century by
+Thomas Aquinas had its influence.  But, after all, scholasticism had
+settled down to speculative ideas within the universities and without,
+and little attention was paid to the old classical authors.
+
+_The Discovery of Manuscripts_.--The real return to the study of Greek
+literature and art finally came through the fortunate discoveries of
+ancient sculpture and ancient manuscripts on the occasion of the
+turning of the mind of Europe {365} toward the Eastern learning.  The
+fall of the Eastern Empire accelerated the transfer of learning and
+culture to the West.  The discovery and use of old manuscripts brought
+a survival of classical literature and of the learning of antiquity.
+The bringing of this literature to light gave food for thought and
+means of study, and turned the mind from its weary round of speculative
+philosophy to a large body of literature containing the views of the
+ancients respecting the progress and development of man.  As has been
+heretofore shown, the Greeks, seeking to explain things by the human
+reason, although not advanced far in experimental science, had
+accomplished much by way of logical thought based upon actual facts.
+They had turned from credulity to inquiry.
+
+_Who Were the Humanists?_--Dante was not a humanist, but he may be said
+to have been the forerunner of the Italian humanists, for he furnished
+inspiration to Petrarch, the so-called founder of humanism.  His
+magnificent creation of _The Divine Comedy_, his service in the
+foundation of the Italian language, and his presentation of the
+religious influence of the church in a liberal manner made him a great
+factor in the humanizing of Europe.  Dante was neither modern nor
+ancient.  He stood at the parting of the ways controlling the learning
+of the past and looking toward the open door of the future, and
+directed thought everywhere to the Latin.  His masterpiece was well
+received through all Italy, and gave an impulse to learning in many
+ways.
+
+Petrarch was the natural successor of Dante.  The latter immortalized
+the past; the former invoked the spirit of the future.  He showed great
+enthusiasm in the discovery of old manuscripts, and brought into power
+more fully the Latin language.  He also attempted to introduce Greek
+into the Western world, but in this he was only partially successful.
+But in his wide search for manuscripts, monasteries and cathedrals were
+ransacked and the literary treasures which the monks had copied and
+preserved through centuries, the products of the classical writers of
+the early times, were brought to {366} light.  Petrarch was an
+enthusiast, even a sentimentalist.  But he was bold in his expression
+of the full and free play of the intellect, in his denunciation of
+formalism and slavery to tradition.  The whole outcome of his life,
+too, was a tendency toward moral and aesthetic aggrandizement.
+Inconsistent in many things, his life may be summed up as a bold
+remonstrance against the binding influences of tradition and an
+enthusiasm for something new.
+
+"We are, therefore," says Symonds,[1] "justified in hailing Petrarch as
+the Columbus of a new spiritual hemisphere, the discoverer of modern
+culture.  That he knew no Greek, that his Latin verse was lifeless and
+his prose style far from pure, that his contributions to history and
+ethics have been superseded, and that his epistles are now read only by
+antiquaries, cannot impair his claim to this title.  From him the
+inspiration needed to quicken curiosity and stimulate zeal for
+knowledge proceeded.  But for his intervention in the fourteenth
+century it is possible that the revival of learning, and all that it
+implies, might have been delayed until too late."
+
+His influence was especially felt by those who followed him, and his
+enthusiasm made him a successful promoter of the new learning.
+
+But it remained for Boccaccio, who was of a more practical turn of mind
+than Petrarch, to systematize the classical knowledge of antiquity.  If
+Petrarch was an enthusiastic collector, Boccaccio was a practical
+worker.  With the aid of Petrarch, he was the first to introduce a
+professor of Greek language and literature into Italy, and through this
+influence he secured a partial translation of Homer.  Boccaccio began
+at an early age to read the classical authors and to repent the years
+he had spent in the study of law and in commercial pursuits.  It was
+Petrarch's example, more than anything else, which caused Boccaccio to
+turn his attention to literature.  By persistence and vigor in study,
+he was enabled to accomplish much by his own hand in the translation of
+the authors, and in middle life {367} he began a persistent and
+successful study of Greek.  His contributions to learning were great,
+and his turn toward naturalism was of immense value in the foundation
+of modern literature.  He infused a new spirit in the common literature
+of the times.  He turned away from asceticism, and frankly and openly
+sought to justify the pleasures of life.  Although his teaching may not
+be of the most wholesome kind, it was far-reaching in its influence in
+turning the mind toward the importance and desirability of the things
+of this life.  Stories of "beautiful gardens and sunny skies, fair
+women and luxurious lovers" may not have been the most healthful diet
+for universal consumption; they introduced a new element into the
+literature of the period and turned the thoughts of men from the
+speculative to the natural.
+
+A long line of Italian writers followed these three great master
+spirits and continued to develop the desire for classical literature.
+For such power and force did these men have that they turned the whole
+tide of thought toward the masterpieces of the Greeks and Romans.
+
+_Relation of Humanism to Language and Literature_.--When the zeal for
+the classical learning declined somewhat, there sprang up in Italy a
+group of Italian poets who were the founders of an Italian literature.
+They received their impulse from the classical learning, and, turning
+their attention to the affairs which surrounded them, developed a new
+literature.  The inspiration which humanism had given to scholars of
+the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries had a tendency to develop a
+literary spirit among all classes of students.  The products of the
+Italian literature, however, brought out through the inspiration of
+humanistic studies, were not great masterpieces.  While the number and
+variety were considerable, the quality was inferior when the
+intellectual power of the times is considered.  The great force of
+Italian intellect had been directed toward classical manuscripts, and
+hence failed to develop a literature that had real originality.
+
+Perhaps among the few great Italian writers of these times {368} may be
+mentioned Guicciardini and Machiavelli.  The former wrote a history of
+Italy, and the latter is rendered immortal by his _Prince_.
+Guicciardini was a native of Florence, who had an important position in
+the service of Leo X.  As professor of jurisprudence, ambassador to
+Spain, and subsequently minister of Leo X, governor of Modena,
+lieutenant-general of the pope in the campaign against the French,
+president of the Romagna and governor of Bologna, he had abundant
+opportunity for the study of the political conditions of Italy.  He is
+memorable for his admirable history of Italy, as a talented Florentine
+and as a member of the Medicean party.
+
+Machiavelli, in his _Prince_, desired to picture the type of rulers
+needed to meet the demands of Italy at the time he wrote.  It is a
+picture of imperialism and, indeed, of despotism.  The prince or ruler
+was in no way obliged to consider the feelings and rights of
+individuals.  Machiavelli said it was not necessary that a prince
+should be moral, humane, religious, or just; indeed, that if he had
+these qualities and displayed them they would harm him, but if he were
+new to his place in the principality he might seem to have them.  It
+would be as useful to him to keep the path of rectitude when this was
+not too inconvenient as to know how to deviate from it when
+circumstances dictate.  In other words, a prudent prince cannot and
+ought not really to keep his word except when he can do it without
+injury to himself.
+
+Among other Italian writers may be mentioned Boiardo, on account of his
+_Orlando Innamorato_, and Ariosto, who wrote _Orlando Furioso_.  Upon
+the whole, the writings of the period were not worthy of its
+intellectual development, although Torquato Tasso, in his _Jerusalem
+Delivered_, presents the first crusade as Homer presented the Trojan
+War.  The small amount of really worthy literature of this age has been
+attributed to the lack of moral worth.
+
+_Art and Architecture_.--Perhaps the renaissance art exceeded that
+which it replaced in beauty, variety, and naturalness, as well as in
+exuberance.  There was an attempt to make {369} all things beautiful,
+and no attempt to follow the spirit of asceticism in degrading the
+human body, but rather to try to delineate every feature as noble in
+itself.  The movement, life, and grace of the human form, the beauty of
+landscape, all were enjoyed and presented by the artists of the
+renaissance.  The beauty of this life is magnified, and the artists
+represented in joyous mood the best qualities that are important in the
+world.  They turned the attention from asceticism to the importance of
+the present life.
+
+Perhaps the Italians reached the highest point of development in
+painting, for the Madonnas of Italy have given her celebrity in art
+through all succeeding generations.  Cimabue was the first to paint the
+Madonna as a beautiful woman.  Giotto followed next, and a multitude of
+succeeding Madonnas have given Italy renown.  Raphael excelled all
+others in the representation of the Madonna, and was not only the
+greatest painter of all Italy, but a master artist of all ages.
+
+Architecture, however, appears to be the first branch of art that
+defied the arbitrary power of tradition.  It could break away more
+readily than any other form of art, because of the great variety which
+existed in different parts of the Roman Empire--the Byzantine in the
+south of Italy, the Gothic in the north, and Romanesque in Rome and the
+provinces.  There was no conventional law for architectural style,
+hence innovations could be made with very little opposition.  In the
+search for classical remains, a large number of buildings had already
+become known, and many more were uncovered as the searching continued.
+These gave types of architecture which had great influence in building
+the renaissance art.  The changes, beginning with Brunelleschi, were
+continued until nearly all buildings were completely Romanized.  Then
+came Michael Angelo, who excelled in both architecture and sculpture at
+Rome, and Palladio, who worked at Venice and Verona.  In the larger
+buildings the Basilica of Rome became the model, or at least the
+principles of its construction became the prevailing element in
+architectural design.
+
+{370}
+
+Florence became the centre of art and letters in the Italian
+renaissance.[2]  Though resembling Athens in many respects, and bearing
+the same relations to surrounding cities that Athens did to cities in
+the classic times, her scholars were more modern than those of Greece
+or Rome, and, indeed, more modern than the scholars who followed after
+the Florentines, two centuries later.  It was an important city, on the
+Arno, surrounded by hills, a city of flowers, interesting to-day to the
+modern scholar and student of history.  Surrounded by walls, having
+magnificent gates, with all the modern improvements of paved streets,
+of sewers, gardens, and spacious parks, it represented in this early
+period the ideal city life.  Even to-day the traveller finds the
+Palazzo Vecchio, or ancient official residence of the city fathers, and
+very near this the Loggia dei Lanzi, now filled with the works of
+precious art, and the Palazzo del Podesta, now used as a national
+museum, the great cathedral, planned in 1294 by Arnolfo, ready for
+consecration in 1498, and not yet completed, and many other remarkable
+relics of this wonderful era.
+
+The typical idea in building the cathedral was to make it so beautiful
+that no other in the world could ever surpass it.  Opposite the main
+door were the gates of Ghiberti, which Michael Angelo, for their great
+beauty, thought worthy to be the gates of paradise.  They close the
+entrance of the temple of Saint John the Baptist, the city's patron
+saint.  More than a hundred other churches, among them the Santa Croce
+and the Santa Maria Novella, the latter the resting-place of the
+Medici, were built in this magnificent city.  The churches were not
+only used for religious worship, but were important for meeting-places
+of the Florentines.  The Arno was crossed by four bridges, of which the
+Ponte Vecchio, built in the middle of the fourteenth century, alone
+remains in its original form.  Upon it rest two rows of houses, each
+three stories high, and over this is the passageway from the Palazzo
+Pitti to the Palazzo Vecchio.  In addition to the public buildings of
+{371} Florence, there were many private residences and palaces of
+magnificence and splendor.
+
+_The Effect of Humanism on Social Manners_.--By the intellectual
+development of Italy, fresh ideas of culture were infused into common
+society.  To be a gentleman meant to be conversant with poetry,
+painting, and art, intelligent in conversation and refined in manners.
+The gentleman must be acquainted with antiquity sufficiently to admire
+the great men of the past and to reverence the saints of the church.
+He must understand archaeology in order to speak intelligently of the
+ancient achievements of the classical people.  But this refinement was
+to a large extent conventional, for there was a lack of genuine moral
+culture throughout the entire renaissance.
+
+These moral defects of Italy in this period have often been the
+occasion of dissertations by philosophers, and there is a question as
+to whether this moral condition was caused by the revival of classical
+learning or the decline of morality in the church.  It ought to be
+considered, without doubt, as an excessive development of certain lines
+of intellectual supremacy without the accustomed moral guide.  The
+church had for years assumed to be the only moral conservator, indeed
+the only one morally responsible for the conduct of the world.  Yet its
+teachings at this time led to no self-developed morality; helped no one
+to walk alone, independent, in the dignity of manhood, for all of its
+instructions were superimposed and not vital.  At last the church fell
+into flagrant discord under the rule of worldly popes, and this gave a
+great blow to Italy through the loss of the one great moral control.
+
+But the renaissance had in its day a wide-spread influence throughout
+Europe, and gave us as its result a vitalizing influence to the whole
+world for centuries to come, although Italy suffered a decline largely
+on account of its lack of the stable moral character of society.  The
+awakening of the mind from lethargy, the turning away from dogmatism to
+broader views of life, enlarged duties, and new surroundings causing
+{372} the most Intense activity of thought, needed some moral stay to
+make the achievements permanent and enduring.
+
+_Relation of Humanism to Science and Philosophy_.--The revival of the
+freedom of thought of the Greeks brought an antagonism to the logic and
+the materialistic views of the times.  It set itself firmly against
+tradition of whatsoever sort.  The body of man had not been considered
+with care until anatomy began to be studied in the period of the
+Italian renaissance.  The visionary notions of the world which the
+people had accepted for a long time began gradually to give way to
+careful consideration of the exact facts.  Patience and loving
+admiration in the study of man and nature yielded immense returns to
+the scholars of Italy.  It changed the attitude of the thoughtful mind
+toward life, and prepared the way for new lines of thought and new
+accomplishments in the world of philosophy and science.  Through the
+scientific discoveries of Galileo and Copernicus and exploration of
+Columbus, brought about largely by the influence of humanistic studies,
+were wrought far-reaching consequences in the thought of the age.  And
+finally the scholars of Italy not only threw off scholasticism but also
+disengaged themselves from the domineering influence of the classical
+studies and laid the foundation of modern freedom of inquiry.
+
+_The Study of the Classics Became Fundamental in Education_.--The
+modern classical education received its first impulse from the Italian
+renaissance.  As before stated, it was customary for the universities
+to teach, with some vigor,[3] physics, medicine, law, and philosophy,
+largely after the manner of the medieval period, though somewhat
+modified and broadened in the process of thought.  But in the fifteenth
+and sixteenth centuries, those who taught the ancient languages and
+literature were much celebrated.  Under the title of rhetoric we find
+progress not only in the study of the Greek and Roman masterpieces, but
+in a large number of subjects which had a tendency to widen the views
+of students and to change {373} the trend of the education in
+universities.  It became customary for the towns and cities to have
+each a public place, an academy, a university, or a hall, for the means
+of studying the humanistic branches.  The professors of the classics
+passed from town to town, giving instruction where the highest pay was
+offered.  The direct influence of the renaissance on the Italian
+education, and, indeed, on the English classical education, introduced
+somewhat later, has continued until this day.
+
+Closely connected with the educational influences of the renaissance
+was the introduction of literary criticism.  There was a tendency among
+the early humanists to be uncritical, but as intelligence advanced and
+scholarship developed, we find the critical spirit introduced.  Form,
+substance, and character of art and letters were carefully examined.
+This was the essential outcome of the previous sharp criticism of
+dogmatic theology and philosophy.
+
+_General Influence of Humanism_.--The development of new intellectual
+ideals was the most important result of this phase of the renaissance.
+Nor did this extend in any particular direction.  A better thought came
+to be held of God and man's relation to him.  Instead of being an
+arbitrary, domineering creature, he had become in the minds of the
+people rational and law-loving; instead of being vindictive and fickle,
+as he was wont to be pictured, he had been endowed with benevolence
+toward his creatures.  The result of all this was that religion itself
+became more spiritual and the conscience more operative.  There was
+less of formality and conventionality in religion and more of real,
+devout feeling and consciousness of worthy motive in life, but the
+church must have more strenuous lessons before spiritual freedom could
+be fulfilled.
+
+Life, too, came to be viewed as something more than merely a temporary
+expedient, a thing to be viewed as a necessary evil.  It had come to be
+regarded as a noble expression worthy of the thought and the best
+attention of every individual.  This world, too, was meant to be of use
+and to make people happy.  It was to be enjoyed and used as best it
+might be.  {374} The old guild classes finally broke down, and where
+formerly men thought in groups, a strong individuality developed and
+man became an independent, thinking being in himself, bound by neither
+religion nor philosophy.  He was larger than either philosophy or
+religion made him.  He was a being of capacity and strength, and
+enabled to take the best of this life in order to enhance the delight
+of living.  There came, also, with this a large belief in the law and
+order of the universe.  Old beliefs had become obsolete because the
+people could no longer depend on them.  And when these dogmatic
+formulas ceased to give satisfaction to the human mind, it sought for
+order in the universe and the laws which controlled it, and the
+intellectual world then entered the field of research for truth--the
+field of experiment.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  How did the Revival of Learning prepare the way for modern science?
+
+2.  What contributions to progress were made by Petrarch, Boccaccio,
+Michael Angelo, Justinian, Galileo, Copernicus, Columbus?
+
+3.  The nature of Machiavelli's political philosophy.
+
+4.  Compare Gothic, Romanesque, and Arabian architecture.
+
+5.  The status of morals during the period of the intellectual
+development of Europe.
+
+6.  The great weakness of the philosophy of this period.
+
+7.  What was the state of organized society and what was the "common
+man" doing?
+
+
+
+[1] _Revival of Learning_.
+
+[2] See Chapter XXI.
+
+[3] See preceding chapter.
+
+
+
+
+{375}
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+THE REFORMATION
+
+_The Character of the Reformation_.--The Reformation, or Protestant
+Revolution, as it is sometimes called, was a movement of such extended
+relations as to be difficult to define.  In general, it was the
+liberalizing movement of the revival of learning applied to the church.
+As the church had attempted to be all things to all men, the movement
+was necessarily far-reaching in its results, affecting not only the
+religious but the social, educational, and political affairs of Europe.
+In its religious aspect it shows an attempt to reform the church.  This
+failing, the revolution followed, resulting in the independence of
+certain parts of the church, which were then organized under separate
+constitutions and governments.  Then followed a partial reform within
+the Catholic Church.  The whole movement may be characterized as a
+revolt against papal authority and ecclesiastical usurpation of power.
+It was an assertion of independence of the mind respecting religious
+beliefs and a cry for a consistent life of righteousness and purity.
+
+The church had assumed an attitude which made either a speedy
+reformation or else a revolution necessary.  The "reforming councils"
+of Pisa, Constance, and Basel failed to adopt adequate reform measures.
+The result of these councils was merely to confirm the absolutism of
+papal authority.  At the same time there were a very large number of
+adherents to the church who were anxiously seeking a reform in church
+government, as well as a reform in the conduct of the papacy, the
+clergy, and the lay membership.  The papal party succeeded in
+suppressing all attempts of this nature, the voice of the people being
+silenced by a denial of constitutional government; nor was assurance
+given that the intrigues of the papacy, and of the church in general,
+would be removed.
+
+{376}
+
+The people had lost faith in the assumptions of infallibility of the
+papacy.  The great schism in the church, in which three popes, each
+claiming to be the rightful successor of Saint Peter, each one having
+the "keys," each one calling the others impostors, and seeking by all
+possible means to dethrone them, was a great shock to the claims of
+infallible authority.  For many years, to maintain their position as a
+ruling power, the popes had engaged in political squabbles with the
+princes of Europe.  While the popes at times were victorious, the
+result of their course was to cause a feeling of contempt for their
+conduct, as well as of fear of their power.
+
+The quarrel of Henry IV and Gregory VII, of Innocent III and John of
+England, of Boniface and Philip the Fair, the Babylonian captivity, and
+many lesser difficulties, had placed the papacy in a disreputable
+light.  Distrust, fear, and contempt for the infallible assumptions
+were growing.  The papacy had been turned into a political engine to
+maintain the temporal possessions of the church and to increase its
+temporal power.  The selfishness of the ruling prince became uppermost
+in all papal affairs, which was so different from the teachings of the
+Christ who founded his kingdom on love that the contrast became
+observable, and even painful, to many devout people.  Added to this,
+the corruption of the members of religious orders, who had departed
+from their vows of chastity, was so evident to the people with whom
+they came in daily contact as to bring shame and disgrace upon the
+cause of religion.  Consequently, from these and other irregularities
+there developed a strong belief that the church needed reforming from
+the lowest to the highest offices.
+
+_Signs of the Rising Storm_.--For several centuries before the
+religious revolution broke out there were signs of its coming.  In the
+first place, the rise of the laical spirit was to be observed,
+especially after the establishment of local self-government in the free
+cities.  The desire for representative government had extended to the
+lay members of the church.  There was a growing feeling that the
+clergy, headed by the papacy, had {377} no right to usurp all the
+governing power of the church.  Many bold laymen asserted that the lay
+members of the church should have a voice in its government, but every
+such plea was silenced, every aspiration for democratic government
+suppressed, by a jealous papacy.
+
+There arose a number of religious sects which opposed the subordination
+to dogma, and returned to the teachings of the Bible for authority.
+Prominent among these were the Albigenses, who became the victims of
+the cruel crusade instigated by the pope and led by Simon de Montfort.
+They were a peaceable, religious people who dwelt far and wide in the
+south of France, who refused to obey implicitly the harsh and arbitrary
+mandates of the pope.
+
+The Waldenses were another society, composed of the followers of Peter
+Waldo, known at first as the "Poor Man of Lyons," believing in a return
+to the Scriptures, which they persistently read.  Like the Albigenses,
+they were zealous for purity of life, and bitterly opposed to the
+usurpation and profligacy of the clergy.  They, too, suffered bitter
+persecution, which indicated to many that a day of retribution was
+coming.  There were also praying societies, formed in the church to
+read the Scriptures and to promote a holy life.  All these had their
+influence in preparing for a general reformation.
+
+The revival of learning had specific influences in bringing about the
+Reformation.  The two movements were blended in one in several
+countries, but the revival of learning in Germany was overtaken by the
+Reformation.  The former sought freedom of the mind respecting
+philosophy and learning, the latter sought liberty of conscience
+respecting religious belief.  The revival of learning broke down
+scholasticism, and thus freed the mind from dogmatic philosophy.
+Seeking for the truth, the works of the church fathers were brought
+forth and read, and the texts of the Old and the New Testament were
+also used, as a criterion of authority.  They showed to what extent the
+papacy had gone in its assumption of power, and making more prominent
+the fact that the church, particularly {378} the clergy, had departed
+from a life of purity.  The result of the quickening thought of the
+revival was to develop independent characteristics of mind, placing it
+in the attitude of revolt against ecclesiastical dogmatism.
+
+_Attempts at Reform Within the Church_.--Many attempts were made,
+chiefly on the part of individuals, to work a reform of abuses within
+the church.  Many devout men, scholars engaged in theological research
+and living lives of purity, sought by precept and example to bring
+about better spiritual and moral conditions.  Others sought to bring
+about changes in ecclesiastical government, not only in the "reforming
+councils" but through efforts at the papal court and in the strong
+bishoprics.  Had the church listened to these cries of the laity and
+zealously availed itself of the many opportunities presented, possibly
+the religious revolution would not have come.  Although it is difficult
+to say what would have been the result had the church listened to the
+voice of reform, yet it is certain that the revolution would at least
+have taken a different course, and the position of the church before
+the world would have been greatly changed.
+
+Powerful individual reformers exercised great influence in bringing on
+the religious revolution.  The voices of John Wyclif, John Huss, John
+Tauler, and John Wessel, like the voice of John the Baptist, cried out
+for repentance and a return to God.  These reformers desired among
+other things a change in the constitutional government of the church.
+They sought a representation of the laity and the re-establishment of
+the authority of the general councils.  Through influence such as
+theirs the revolution was precipitated.  Others in a different way,
+like Savonarola, hastened the coming of the revolution by preaching
+liberty of thought and attacking the abuses of the church and its
+methods of government.
+
+Wyclif in England advocated a simple form of church worship, rebelled
+against the arbitrary power of popes and priests, preached against
+transubstantiation, and advocated the practice of morality.  He was
+greatly influenced by William of {379} Occam, who asserted that the
+pope, or even a general council, might err in declaring the truth, and
+that the hierarchy might be given up if the good of the church demanded
+it.  Wyclif, in England, started a movement for freedom and purity
+which never died out.  His translation of the Bible was the most
+valuable of all his work.  Though he preceded the religious revolution
+by nearly two centuries, his influence was of such great importance
+that his enemies, who failed to burn him at the stake in life, ordered
+his grave to be desecrated.
+
+At first Wyclif had the support of the king and of the university, as
+well as the protection of the Prince of Wales.  But when, in 1381, he
+lectured at Oxford against transubstantiation, he lost the royal
+protection, and by a senate of twelve doctors was forbidden longer to
+lecture at the university, although he continued preaching until his
+death.  As his opinions agreed very nearly with those of Calvin and
+Luther, he has been called "the morning star of the Reformation."  The
+Council of Constance, before burning John Huss and Jerome of Prague at
+the stake, condemned the doctrines of Wyclif in forty-five articles,
+declared him a heretic, and ordered his body to be removed from
+consecrated ground and thrown upon a dunghill.  Thirteen years later
+Clement VIII, hyena-like, ordered his bones to be burned and the ashes
+thrown into the Swift.  Thus his short-sighted enemies thought to stay
+the tide of a great reformation.
+
+John Huss, a Bohemian reformer, followed closely after the doctrine of
+Wyclif, although he disagreed with him in his opposition to
+transubstantiation.  He preached for constitutional reform of the
+church, reformative administration, and morality.  He urged a return to
+the Bible as a criterion for belief and a guide to action.  Finally he
+was summoned to the Council of Constance to answer for his heresy, and
+guaranteed safe-conduct by the Emperor Sigismund, who presided; but,
+notwithstanding this promise, the council declared him a heretic and
+burned him at the stake with Jerome of Prague.  This was one of the
+results of the so-called reforming Council of {380} Constance--its
+reform consisted in silencing the opponents of papal authority and
+corruption.
+
+John Tauler belonged to a group of people called mystic philosophers,
+who, though remaining within the church, opposed dogmatism and
+formalism and advocated spiritual religion.  Their doctrine was to
+leave formality and return to God.  Many other societies, calling
+themselves "Friends of God," sprang up in the Netherlands and in the
+south and west of Germany.  John Tauler was the most prominent of all
+their preachers.  He held that man is justified by faith alone, and
+Luther, who republished Tauler's book on German theology,[1] asserted
+that it had more influence over him than any other books, except the
+Bible and the works of Saint Augustine.
+
+Savonarola, a most powerful orator and great scholar of Italy, lifted
+his voice in favor of reform in the church administration and in favor
+of the correction of abuses.  He transcended the teachings of the
+schools of philosophy, departed from the dogma of the church, and
+preached in the name of God and His Son.  He was shocked at the signs
+of immorality which he saw in common society.  As a preacher of
+righteousness, he prophesied a judgment speedily to come unless men
+turned from the error of their ways.  But in the ways of the world he
+paid for his boldness and his enthusiasm, for the pope excommunicated
+him, and his enemies created distrust of him in the hearts of the
+people.  He was put in prison, afterward brought to trial and condemned
+to death, and finally hanged and burned and his ashes thrown into the
+Arno--all because the pope hoped to stay the tide of religious and
+social reform.
+
+_Immediate Causes of the Reformation_.--Mr. Bryce, in his _Holy Roman
+Empire_,[2] says:
+
+"There is perhaps no event in history which has been represented in so
+great a variety of lights as the Reformation.  {381} It has been called
+a revolt of the laity against the clergy, or of the Teutonic races
+against the Italians, or of the kingdoms of Europe against the
+universal monarchy of the popes.  Some have seen in it only a burst of
+long-repressed anger at the luxury of the prelates and the manifold
+abuses of the ecclesiastical system; others a renewal of the youth of
+the church by a return to primitive forms of doctrine.  All these,
+indeed, to some extent it was; but it was also something more profound,
+and fraught with mightier consequences than any of them.  It was in its
+essence the assertion of the principle of individuality--that is to
+say, of true spiritual freedom."
+
+The primary nature of the Reformation was, first, a return to primitive
+belief and purity of worship.  This was accompanied by a protest
+against the vices and the abuses of the church and of formalism in
+practice.  It was also an open revolt against the authority of the
+church, authority not only in constitution and administration but in
+spiritual affairs.  According to Bryce, "true spiritual freedom" was
+the prime motive in the religious revolution.  And Guizot, in his
+chapter on the Reformation, clusters all statements around a single
+idea, the idea that it was freedom of the mind in religious belief and
+practice which was the chief purpose of the Reformation.[3]  But the
+immediate causes of the precipitation of the Reformation may be stated
+as follows:
+
+_First_.--The great and continued attack on the unreasonableness of the
+Roman Catholic Church, caused by the great mental awakening which had
+taken place everywhere in Europe, the persistent and shameless
+profligacy of the clergy and the various monastic orders and sects, the
+dissolute and rapacious character of many of the popes, and the
+imperial attitude of the entire papacy.
+
+_Second_.--We may consider as another cause the influence of the art of
+printing, which scattered the Bible over the land, so that it could be
+read by a large number of people, who were thus incited to independent
+belief.
+
+{382}
+
+_Finally_.--It may be said that the sale of indulgences, and
+particularly the pretensions of many of the agents of the pope as to
+their power to release from the bondage of sin, created intense disgust
+and hatred of the church, and caused the outbreak of the Reformation.[4]
+
+_Luther Was the Hero of the Reformation in Germany_.--He was not the
+cause of the Reformation, only its most powerful and efficient agency,
+for the Reformation would have taken place in time had Luther never
+appeared.  Somebody would have led the phalanx, and, indeed, Luther,
+led steadily on in his thought and researches, became a reformer and
+revolutionist almost before he was aware.
+
+He began (1517) by preaching against the sale of indulgences.  He
+claimed that works had been made a substitute for faith, while man is
+justified by faith alone.  His attack on indulgences brought him in
+direct conflict with one Tetzel, who stirred up the jealousy of other
+monks, who reported Luther to Pope Leo X.[5]  Luther, in a letter to
+the pope, proclaimed his innocence, saying that he is misrepresented
+and called heretic "and a thousand ignominious names; these things
+shock and amaze me; one thing only sustains me--the sense of my
+innocence."  He had pinned his ninety-five theses on the door of the
+church at Wittenberg.  In writing to the pope he claimed that these
+were set forth for their own local interest at the university, and that
+he knows not why they "should go forth into all the earth."  Then he
+says: "But what shall I do?  Recall them I cannot, and yet I see their
+notoriety bringeth upon me great odium."
+
+But Luther, in spite of the censure of the pope and his friends, was
+still an ardent adherent to the papal power and the authority of the
+church.  He says to the pope: "Save or slay, kill or recall, approve or
+disapprove, as it shall please you, I will acknowledge you even as the
+voice of Christ {383} presiding and speaking in you."  In writing to
+Spalatine, he says that he may err in disputation, but that he is never
+to be a heretic, that he wishes to decide no doctrine, "only I am not
+willing to be the slave of the opinions of men."
+
+Luther persisted in his course of criticism.  To Staupitz he wrote: "I
+see that attempts are made at Rome that the kingdom of truth, _i.e._,
+of Christ, be no longer the kingdom of truth."  After the pope had
+issued his first brief condemning him, Luther exclaimed: "It is
+incredible that a thing so monstrous should come from the chief
+pontiff, especially Leo X.  If in truth it be come forth from the Roman
+court, then I will show them their most licentious temerity and their
+ungodly ignorance."  These were bold words from a man who did not wish
+to become a reformer, a revolutionist, or a heretic.
+
+Now the pope regarded this whole affair as a quarrel of monks, and
+allowed Luther to give his side of the story.  He was induced to send a
+certain cardinal legate, Cajetan, to Augsburg to bring this heretic
+into submission, but the legate failed to bring Luther into subjection.
+Luther then appealed to the pope, and when the pope issued a bull
+approving of the sale of indulgences, Luther appealed to the council.
+
+Thus far Luther had only protested against the perversion of the rules
+of the church and of the papal doctrine, but there followed the public
+disputations with Doctor John Eck, the vice-chancellor of the
+University of Ingolstadt, in which the great subject under discussion
+was the primacy of the pope.  Luther held that the pope was not
+infallible that he might err in matters of doctrine, and that the
+general council, which represented the universal church, should decide
+the case.  Now Luther had already asserted that certain doctrines of
+Huss were true, but the Council of Constance had condemned these and
+burned Huss at the stake.  Luther was compelled by his shrewd opponent
+to acknowledge that a council also might err, and he had then to
+maintain his position that the pope and the council both might err and
+to commit himself to the proposition that there is no absolute
+authority on the {384} face of the earth to interpret the will of God.
+But now Luther was forced to go yet a step farther.  When the papal
+bull condemning him and excommunicating him was issued, he took the
+bull and burned it in the presence of a concourse of people, and then
+wrote his address to the German nobles.  He thus set at defiance the
+whole church government and authority.  He had become an open
+revolutionist.
+
+The Catholic Church, to defend itself from the position it had taken
+against Luther, reasoned in this way: "Where there is difference of
+opinion, there is doubt; where there is doubt, there is no certainty;
+where there is no certainty, there is no knowledge.  Therefore, if
+Luther is right, that there is room for difference of opinion about
+divine revelation, then we have no knowledge of that revelation."  In
+this way did the Roman Church attempt to suppress all freedom of
+religious belief.
+
+For the opposition which Luther made, he was summoned to appear before
+the Diet of Augsburg, which condemned him as a heretic.  Had it not
+been that Charles V, who presided, had promised him a safe-conduct to
+and from the diet, Luther would have suffered the same fate as John
+Huss.  Indeed, it is said that Charles V, when near his death,
+regretted that he had not burned Luther at the stake.  It shows how
+little the emperor knew of the real spiritual scope of the Reformation,
+that he hoped to stay its tide by the burning of one man.
+
+The safe-conduct of Luther by Charles V was decided on account of the
+existing state of European politics.  The policy followed by the
+emperor at the diet was not based upon the arguments which Luther so
+powerfully presented before the diet, but upon a preconceived policy.
+Had the Emperor of Germany been only King of Spain in seeking to keep
+the pretentious power of the pope within bounds he might have gained a
+great advantage by uniting with Luther in the Reformation.  But as
+emperor he needed the support of the pope, on account of the danger of
+invasion of Italy by Francis I of France.  He finally concluded it
+would be best to declare Luther a heretic, but he was impotent to
+enforce {385} punishment by death.  In this way he would set himself
+directly in opposition to the Reformation and save his crown.
+Apparently Charles cared less for the Reformation than he did for his
+own political preservation.[6]
+
+From this time on the Reformation in Germany became wholly political.
+Its advantages and disadvantages hung largely upon the political
+intrigues and manipulations of the European powers.  It furnished the
+means of an economic revolt, which Luther, having little sympathy with
+the common people in their political and social bondage, was called to
+suppress from the castle of Wartburg.
+
+The Reformation spread rapidly over Germany until the time of the
+organization of the Jesuits, in 1542, when fully two-thirds of all
+Germany had revolted from papal authority and had become Protestant.
+After the organization of the Jesuits, the Reformation declined, on
+account of the zeal of that organization and the dissensions which
+arose among the Protestants.
+
+_Zwingli Was the Hero of the Reformation in Switzerland_.--The
+Reformation which was begun by Zwingli at first took on a social and a
+political aspect and, being soon taken up by the state, resulted in a
+decision by the Council of Zurich that no preacher could advance any
+arguments not found in the Old or New Testament.  This position, with
+some variations, was maintained through the entire Reformation.  The
+moral and religious condition of the people of Switzerland was at a
+very low ebb, and the course of the Reformation was to preach against
+abuses.  Zwingli drew his knowledge and faith from the Bible, holding
+that for authority one ought to return to it or to the primitive
+church.  He advocated the abolition of image-worship, and, in addition,
+the abolition of enforced celibacy, nunneries, and the celebration of
+the mass.  He held, too, that there ought to be a return to local
+church government, and {386} that all of the cloisters should be
+converted into schools.  He objected to so many days being devoted to
+the festivals of the saints, because it lessened the productive power
+of the people.  The whole tenor of his preaching was that the Bible
+should be used as the basis of doctrine, and that there is no mediation
+except through Jesus Christ.  As to the doctrine of the sacrament, he
+believed that the bread and wine are merely symbols, thus approximating
+the belief as established by the Protestants of the present day.  On
+the other hand, Luther persistently held to the doctrine of
+transubstantiation, though the organized Protestant churches held to
+"consubstantiation."
+
+The Reformation in Switzerland tended to develop more strongly an
+independent political existence, to make for freedom and righteousness,
+to work practical reforms in the abuses of both church and state, and
+to promote a deeper spiritual religion among the people.
+
+_Calvin Establishes the Genevan System_.--John Calvin was driven out of
+France on account of his preaching.  He went to Geneva and there
+perfected a unique system of religious organization.  Perhaps it is the
+most complete system of applied theology developed by any of the
+reformers.  While it did not strongly unite the church and the state on
+the same foundation of government, it placed them in such a close unity
+that the religious power would be felt in every department of state
+life.  The Genevan system was well received in France, became the
+foundation of the reform party there, and subsequently extended its
+influence to Scotland, and, finally, to England.  It became the
+foundation of Presbyterianism throughout the world.  While Calvinism
+was severe and arbitrary in its doctrine, on account of its system of
+administration, it greatly advanced civil liberty and gave a strong
+impulse toward democracy.  It was the central force in the Commonwealth
+of England, and upheld the representative system of government, which
+led to the establishment of constitutional liberty.
+
+_The Reformation in England Differed from the German_.--The work of
+John Wyclif and his followers was so remote from {387} the period of
+the Reformation as to have very little immediate influence.  Yet, in a
+general way, the influence of the teachings of Wyclif continued
+throughout the Reformation.  The religious change came about slowly in
+England and was modified by political affairs.  People gradually became
+liberal on the subject of religion, and began to exercise independent
+thought as to church government.  Yet, outwardly, at the beginning of
+the sixteenth century, the followers of John Wyclif made no impression
+upon religious affairs.  The new learning, advocated by such men as
+Erasmus, Colet, and More, was gaining ground rapidly in England.  Its
+quickening influence was observed everywhere.  It was confined to no
+particular field, but touched all departments, religious, social,
+political.  It invaded the territory of art, of education, of
+literature.  Henry VIII favored the new learning and gave it great
+impulse by his patronage.  But the new learning in England was
+antagonistic to the Reformation of Luther.  The circumstances were
+different, and Luther attacked the attitude of the English reformers,
+who desired a slow change in church administration and a gradual
+purification of the ecclesiastical atmosphere.  The difference of
+opinion called out a fierce attack by Henry VIII on Luther, which gave
+the king the title of "Defender of the Faith."
+
+The real beginning of the Reformation in England was a revolt from the
+papacy by the English king for political reasons.  England established
+a national church, with the king at its head, and made changes in the
+church government and reformed abuses.  The national, or Anglican,
+Church once formed, the struggle began, on the one hand, between it and
+the Catholic Church, and on the other, at a later date, against
+Puritanism.  The Anglican Church was not fully established until the
+reign of Elizabeth.
+
+The real spirit of the Reformation in England is best exhibited in the
+rise of Puritanism, which received its impulse largely from the
+Calvinistic branch of the Reformation.  The whole course of the
+Reformation outside of the influence of the new learning, or humanism,
+was of a political nature.  The {388} revolt from Rome was prompted by
+political motives; the Puritan movement was accompanied with political
+democracy.  The result was to give great impetus to constitutional
+liberty, stimulate intellectual activity, and to declare for freedom of
+conscience in religious matters.  Yet it was a long way from complete
+religious toleration and the full establishment of the rights and
+liberties of the people.
+
+_Many Phases of Reformation in Other Countries_.--The Reformation in
+Spain was crushed by the power of the church, which used the weapon of
+the Inquisition so effectively.  In Italy the papal power prevailed
+almost exclusively.  In the Netherlands we find almost complete
+conversion to Protestantism, and in the other northern countries we
+find Protestantism prevailing to a great extent.  Indeed, we shall find
+between the north and the south an irregular line dividing
+Protestantism from Catholicism, in the north the former predominating,
+in the south the latter.  In France a long, severe struggle between
+Catholicism and Protestantism took place.  It was combined with the
+struggle of political factions, and led to bitter, hard oppression.  In
+fact, the Reformation varied in different countries according to the
+political, social, and intellectual state of each.  Interesting as the
+history of these countries is, it is not necessary to follow it to
+determine the spirit and results of the Reformation.
+
+_Results of the Reformation Were Far-Reaching_.--The results of the
+Reformation interest us in this discussion far more than its historical
+progress.  In the first place, we shall find, as the primary result,
+that the northern nations were separated from the power of Rome and the
+great ecclesiastical power that the papacy possessed was broken.  It
+could no longer maintain its position of supremacy throughout the
+world.  Although it still was powerful, especially in Italy and
+Austria, it could no longer rest its assumption on absolute authority,
+but must demonstrate that power by intrigue and political prowess in
+order to cope with the nations of Europe.  In the second place, there
+was a development of political liberty.  The nations had freed {389}
+themselves from the domination and imperial power of the church, and
+were left alone to carry on their own affairs and develop their
+national freedom.  But there was something more in the development of
+the Reformation than those things which made for religious liberty.  To
+the desire of freedom of the mind in religious belief the desire for
+freedom in political life had joined itself, and we shall find that the
+Reformation everywhere stirred up a desire for political liberty.  The
+fires of freedom, thus lighted, never went out, but slowly burned on
+until they burst out in the great conflagration of the French
+Revolution.  Political liberty, then, was engendered and developed in
+the hearts of men and nations.
+
+Again, the foundation of religious toleration was laid by the
+Reformation, although it was not yet secured, for it must be maintained
+that even Luther was as persistent and dogmatic in his own position, as
+intolerant of the beliefs of other people, as was the papal authority
+itself.  Convinced that he was right, he recognized no one's right to
+differ from his opinion, even though he himself had revolted from the
+authority of the church.  He showed his bigotry and lack of tolerance
+in his treatment of Zwingli, of Calvin, and of Erasmus.  Most of the
+early reformers, indeed, were intolerant of the opinions of others; the
+development of religious toleration has been a very slow process, not
+only in Europe but in America.  The many and various phases of the
+Reformation nevertheless made as a whole for religious toleration.
+
+When in the Reformation in Germany it was decided at the religious
+peace of Augsburg that Catholics and Protestants should have the same
+privileges, only one division of Protestants was recognized, and that
+was the Lutheran division.  Calvinists were entirely excluded.  It was
+not until the peace of Westphalia in 1648, which closed the great
+struggle known as the Thirty Years' War, that all denominations were
+recognized upon the same basis.  The struggle for religious toleration
+in England is a history in itself, and it was not until the last
+century that it might be said that toleration really existed {390} in
+the United Kingdom, for during two centuries or more there was a state
+religion supported by revenues raised by taxing the people, although
+other churches were tolerated.
+
+Another great result of the Reformation was the advancement of
+intellectual progress.  All progress rests primarily upon freedom of
+the mind, and whatever enhances that freedom has a tendency to promote
+intellectual progress.  The advancement of language and letters, of
+philosophy and science, and of all forms of knowledge, became rapid on
+account of this intense activity of the mind.  The revival of learning
+received a new impulse in the development of man's spiritual nature--an
+impulse which was felt throughout the entire world.  In this respect
+the Reformation was far-reaching in its consequences.  The church no
+longer assumed the sole power to think for the people.
+
+Again, it may be said that the Reformation improved man's material
+progress.  The development of the independent individual life brought
+about strength of character, industry, and will force, which, in turn,
+built up material affairs and made great improvements in the economic
+conditions of man.  Everywhere that Protestantism prevailed there was a
+rapid increase of wealth and better economic conditions.  Trade and
+commerce improved rapidly, and the industrial life went through a
+process of revolution.  Freedom upon a rational basis always brings
+about this vital prosperity, while despotism suppresses the desires of
+man for a better economic life.  So we shall find that intellectual and
+material progress followed everywhere in the course of the Reformation,
+while those states and nations over which the papal authority retained
+its strongest hold began to decline in intellectual power and material
+welfare.  Such was the force of the Reformation to renovate and
+rejuvenate all which it touched.  It made possible the slow evolution
+of the independence of the common man and established the dignity of
+labor.
+
+Finally, let it be said that the Reformation caused a
+counter-reformation within the Catholic Church.  For many years {391}
+there was an earnest reform going on within the Romanist Church.
+Abuses were corrected, vices eradicated, the religious tone of church
+administration improved, and the general character of church polity
+changed in very many ways.  But once having reformed itself, the church
+became more arbitrary than before.  In the Council of Trent, in clearly
+defining its position, it declared its infallibility and absolute
+authority, thus relapsing into the old imperial régime.  But the
+Reformation, after all, was the salvation of the Roman Church, for
+through it that church was enabled to correct a sufficient number of
+abuses to regain its power and re-establish confidence in itself among
+the people.
+
+The Reformation, like the Renaissance, has been going on ever since it
+started, and we may say to-day that, so far as most of the results are
+concerned, we are yet in the midst of both.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Needed reforms in the church and why they failed.
+
+2.  Enumerate the causes that led to the Reformation prior to Luther.
+
+3.  Compare the main characteristics in the Reformation in the
+following countries: Germany, England, Switzerland, and France.
+
+4.  What were the characteristics of the Genevan system instituted by
+John Calvin?
+
+5.  The results of the Reformation on intellectual development,
+political freedom, scientific thought, and, in general, on human
+progress.
+
+6.  The effect of the Reformation on the character and policy of the
+Romanist Church (Catholic).
+
+7.  What was the nature of the quarrels of Henry IV and Gregory VII, of
+Innocent III and John of England, of Boniface and Philip the Fair?
+
+
+
+[1] _Theologia Germania_, generally accredited to Tauler, but written
+by one of his followers.
+
+[2] _The Holy Roman Empire_, p. 327.
+
+[3] _History of Civilization_, vol. I, pp. 255-257.
+
+[4] Recent writers emphasize the economic and national causes, which
+should be added to this list.
+
+[5] Luther sent his ninety-five theses to Archbishop Albert of Mainz.
+
+[6] Luther had many friends In the diet.  Also he was in his own
+country before a German national assembly.  Huss was in a foreign
+country before a church assembly.
+
+
+
+
+{392}
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+CONSTITUTIONAL LIBERTY AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
+
+_Progress in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries_.--It is not easy
+to mark in brief space the steps of progress in the complex activities
+of the great movements of society of the first centuries of the period
+of modern history.  It is not possible to relate the details of the
+great historical movements, with their many phases of life moving on
+toward great achievements.  Only a few of the salient and vital
+features may be presented, but these will be sufficient to show the
+resultant general achievements coming from the interaction of a
+multitude of forces of an expanding civilization.  The great
+determiners of this period are found in the national life of England,
+France, Germany, and America.  Out of many complex movements and causes
+the dominant factor is the struggle of monarchy and democracy.  The
+revival of learning, the Protestant revolution, and the attempts at
+popular government heralded the coming of political liberty and the
+recognition of the rights of man.  The whole complex is a vivid example
+of the processes of social evolution through the interaction of groups,
+each moving about a central idea.  Again and again when freedom of mind
+and liberty of action seem to be successful, they have been obscured by
+new social maladies or retarded by adverse environmental conditions.
+
+_The Struggle of Monarchy with Democracy_.--In a previous chapter, in
+which were recounted the early attempts at popular representation, it
+was shown that in nearly every instance the rise of popular power was
+suppressed by the rapid and universal growth of monarchy.  Having
+obtained power by combining with the people in their struggle against
+the nobility, monarchy finally denied the people the right to {393}
+participate in the government.  It was recognized nearly everywhere in
+Europe as the dominant type of government through which all nations
+must pass.  Through it the will of the people was to find expression,
+or, to use a more exact statement, monarchy proposed to express the
+will of the people without asking their permission.
+
+The intellectual revival which spread over Europe tended to free the
+mind from the binding power of tradition, prestige, and dogmatism, and
+to give it freedom in religious belief.  But while these great
+movements were taking place, monarchy was being established in Europe,
+and wherever monarchy was established without proper checks of
+constitutional government, it became powerful and arbitrary to such a
+degree as to force the people into a mighty cry for political liberty.
+In France royalty ran rapidly into imperialism; in Spain it became
+oppressive; but in England there was a decided check upon its absolute
+assumptions by way of slowly developing constitutional liberty.
+
+_Struggle for Constitutional Liberty in England_.--For a long period
+monarchy had to struggle fiercely with the feudal nobility of England,
+but finally came off conqueror, and then assumed such arbitrary powers
+as appeared necessary for the government of the realm of England.  It
+was inevitable, however, that in a people whose minds had been
+emancipated from absolute spiritual power and given freedom of thought,
+a conflict would eventually occur with monarchy which had suppressed
+municipal liberty, feudal nobility, and popular representation.  Pure
+monarchy sought at all times the suppression of political liberty.
+Hence, in England, there began a struggle against the assumptions of
+absolute monarchy and in favor of the liberty of the people.
+
+There grew up in England under the Tudors an advocacy of the inherited
+rights of kings.  There was a systematic development of arbitrary power
+until monarchy in England declared itself superior to all laws and to
+all constitutional rights and duties.  In another place it has been
+told how the English {394} Reformation was carried on by the kings as a
+political institution, how the authority of Rome was overthrown and the
+kings of England seized the opportunity to enhance their power and
+advance their own interests.  When the people realized that they had
+exchanged an arbitrary power in Rome for an arbitrary power in England,
+centred in the king, they cried out again at this latter tyranny, and
+sought for religious reform against the authority of the church.
+
+This movement was accompanied by a desire for political reform, also.
+Indeed, all civil and religious authority centred in one person, the
+king, and a reform of religious administration could not take place
+without a reform of the political.  The activity of English commerce
+and the wide-spread influence of the revival of learning, which
+developed a new and independent literary culture, made life intense and
+progress rapid.  When this spirit of political liberty sought
+expression in England, it found it in the ancient privileges and rights
+of the English people, to which they sought to return.  It was
+unfortunate that the desires for political liberty on the continent
+found no such means to which they could attach their ideas of a liberal
+government.  In England we find these old rights and privileges a ready
+support for the principles of constitutional liberty.  There were many
+precedents and examples of liberty which might be recalled for the
+purpose of quickening the zeal of the people--many, indeed, had been
+continued in local communities.
+
+Nor were the English government and law wanting in the principles of
+liberty which had been handed down from former generations.  Moreover,
+it became necessary, as a practical measure, for the kings of England,
+if they desired to maintain their position, to call a parliament of the
+people for the sake of their co-operation and help in the support of
+the government.  It is seen, therefore, that in England the spirit of
+constitutional liberty, though perhaps suppressed at times, never
+perished, though the assumption of royal power was very great, and when
+the party which was seeking to carry forward {395} religious reform
+joined itself to the party seeking political liberty, there was aroused
+a force in England which would be sure to prove a check on royalty and
+insure the rights and privileges of a free people.
+
+Though the sentiment for religious reform was general throughout
+England, this principle was viewed in many different ways by different
+parties.  Thus the pure-monarchy party saw many evils in the laws of
+England and in the administration of affairs, and sought reform, but
+without yielding anything of the high conception of the absolute power
+of the king.  They believed that the ancient laws and precedents of
+England were a check upon monarchy sufficient to reform all abuses of
+power that might arise.  They acknowledged the divine right of kings
+and thought that royalty possessed a superior power, but they held that
+it was obliged, for its own preservation and the proper government of
+the realm, to confine its activity within certain limits.  Two other
+parties, the one political and the other religious, went hand in hand,
+both for revolution.  The former denied the absolute sovereignty of the
+king and sought a great change in the form, the spirit, and the
+structure of government.  They held that the ultimate power of control
+should rest in the House of Commons as the representative of the
+people.  The latter party sought the same process within the church.
+They held that it should be controlled by assemblages of the people,
+maintained that decentralization should take place and the constitution
+of the church be changed as well as its form of administration.  It is
+easy to see that the leaders of either of these parties were also
+leaders of the other.  A fourth party sought to repudiate the
+constitution, as radically wrong, and to build up an entirely new
+political system.  It disregarded the past life of England and
+repudiated all precedents, desiring to build up a new government
+founded upon abstract theories of right and justice.
+
+The course of history under these four parties is plain.  Each one,
+struggling for power, tried to manage the government {396} upon its
+particular theory, and signally failed.  The struggle in the House of
+Commons, had it not finally brought about such great consequences,
+would be disgusting and discouraging in the extreme.  The struggle in
+England for liberty of conscience and for government of the people
+through Parliament went on through turmoil and disgrace for two
+centuries.  It was king against the people, Catholic against
+Protestant, and, within the latter group, Anglican, Presbyterian, and
+independent, each against one another.  All sorts of unjust and inhuman
+practices were indulged in.  It would seem that the spirit of Magna
+Charta and of the Christian religion was constantly outraged.
+
+When Henry VIII, in 1521, wrote his attack on Luther embodied in the
+_Assertion of the Seven Sacraments_, Pope Leo X gave him the title of
+"Defender of the Faith."  Subsequently, when he appealed to the pope to
+help him settle his marital difficulties, the pope refused to support
+him, and finally excommunicated him for divorcing his wife Catherine.
+This led to a break with Rome, and the Supremacy Act, which made the
+king protector and only supreme head of the church and clergy of
+England.  This inaugurated the long struggle between Catholic and
+Protestant, with varying fortunes to each side.  The Tudor period
+closed with the death of Elizabeth, in 1603, with a fairly
+well-established conformity to the Anglican Church; but Puritanism was
+growing slowly but surely, which meant a final disruption.  From this
+time on there was confusion of political and religious affairs for
+another century.
+
+In 1621 Parliament rebuked King James I for his high-handed proceedings
+with protestation: "That the liberties, franchises, privileges, and
+jurisdictions of Parliament are the ancient and undoubted birthright
+and inheritance of the subjects of England, and that the arduous and
+urgent affairs of the king, state, and defense of the realm ... are
+proper subjects and matters of council and debate in Parliament."  The
+king tore the page containing the resolution from the journal of
+Parliament; but this did not retard the struggle for the {397}
+recognition of ancient rights.  The strife went on throughout the reign
+of the Stuarts, until Charles I lost his head and the nation was
+plunged into a great civil war.
+
+There finally appeared on the scene of action a man of destiny.
+Cromwell, seizing the opportunity, turned everything toward democracy,
+and ruled republicans, Puritans, and royalists with such an iron hand
+that his painful democracy came to a sudden close through reaction
+under the rule of his successor.  The Stuarts again came into power,
+and, believing in the divine right of kings--a principle which seems to
+have been imbibed from the imperialism of France--sought to bring
+everything into subordination to royalty.  The people, weary of the
+irregular government caused by the attempts of the different parties to
+rule, and tired of the abuses and irregularities of the administration,
+welcomed the restoration of royalty as an advantage to the realm.  But
+the Stuarts sought not only to rule with high hand, regardless of the
+wants, desires, and will of the people, but also to bring back the
+absolute authority of the papacy.  By their arbitrary, high-handed
+proceedings, they brought the English government to a crisis which was
+ended only by the coming of William of Orange to rule upon the throne
+with constitutional right; for the people seized their opportunity to
+demand a guaranty of the rights of freemen which would thoroughly
+establish the principle of constitutional liberty in England.
+
+But the declaration of Parliament at the accession of William and Mary,
+which subsequently was enacted as a famous Bill of Rights, showed a
+great permanent gain in constitutional liberty.  It centred the power
+in Parliament, whose authority was in the Commons.  It was true the
+arbitrary power of kings came to the front during the rule of the four
+Georges, but it was without avail, and reform measures followed their
+reign.  Constitutional government had won.  It is true that the
+revolution failed to establish religious toleration, but it led the way
+with rapid strides.
+
+In the progress of civil liberty and freedom of conscience in {398}
+England, the literature of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries had
+a powerful influence.  In the world of ideas, freedom of thought found
+expression through the great writers.  While few attacked the evils of
+government, they were not wanting in setting forth high ideals of life,
+liberty, and justice.  Such men as John Milton, John Locke, John
+Bunyan, and Shakespeare turned the thinking world toward better things
+in government and life.
+
+Thus England had a check on the growth of monarchy, while freedom of
+investigation led to an inquiry about the rights of the people; hence,
+the seeds of popular liberty were growing at the time monarchy was
+making its greatest assumption.  The people never yielded, in theory at
+least, their ancient rights to the absolute control of royalty.
+Kingship in England was developed through service, and while the
+English were strong for monarchy because it expressed a unity of the
+nation, they expected the king to consider the rights of the people,
+which gave rise to a complex movement in England, making for religious
+and political liberty, in which all classes were engaged in some degree
+at different times.
+
+In France, however, it was different.  At first the feudal nobility
+ruled with absolute sway.  It continued in power long enough to direct
+the thoughts of the people toward it and to establish itself as a
+complete system.  It had little opposition in the height of its power.
+When monarchy arose it, too, had the field all to itself.  People
+recognized this as the only legitimate form of government.  Again, when
+monarchy failed, people rushed enthusiastically to democracy, and in
+their wild enthusiasm made of it a government of terror.  How different
+were the results.  In England there was a slow evolution of
+constitutional government in which the rights of the people, the king,
+the nobility, and the clergy were respected, and each class fell into
+its proper place in the government.  In France, each separate power
+made its attempt to govern, and failed.  Its history points to a truth,
+namely, that no kind of government is safe without a system of checks.
+
+{399}
+
+_The Place of France in Modern Civilization_.--Guizot tries to show
+that in the seventeenth century France led the civilization of the
+world; that while Louis XIV was carrying absolute government to its
+greatest height, philosophy, art, and letters flourished; that France,
+by furnishing unique and completed systems, has led the European world
+in civilization.  To a great extent this is true, for France had better
+opportunities to develop an advanced civilization than any other
+European nation.  It must be remembered that France, at an early
+period, was completely Romanized, and never lost the force and example
+of the Roman civilization; and, also, that in the invasion of the
+Norman, the northern spirit gave France vigor, while its crude forms
+were overcome by the more cultured forms of French life.
+
+While other nations were still in turmoil France developed a distinct
+and separate nationality.  At an early period she cast off the power of
+Rome and maintained a separate ecclesiastical system which tended to
+develop an independent spirit and further increase nationality.  Her
+population was far greater than that of any other nation, and her
+wealth and national resources were vastly superior to those of others.
+These elements gave France great prestige and great power, and fitted
+her to lead in civil progress.  They permitted her to develop a high
+state of civilization.  If the genius of the French people gave them
+adaptability in communicating their culture to others, it certainly was
+of service to Europe.  Yet the service of France must not be too highly
+estimated.  If, working in the dark, other nations, not so far advanced
+as France on account of material causes, were laying a foundation of
+the elements of civilization, which were to be of vast importance in
+the development of the race, it would appear that as great credit
+should be given them as to the French manners, genius, and culture
+which gave so little permanent benefit to the world.  Guizot wisely
+refrains from elaborating the vices of the French monarchy, and fails
+to point out the failure of the French system of government.
+
+{400}
+
+_The Divine Right of Kings_.--From the advent of the Capetian dynasty
+of French kings royalty continually increased its power until it
+culminated under Louis XIV.  The court, the clergy, and, in fact, the
+greater number of the preachers of France, advocated the divine origin
+and right of kings.  If God be above all and over all, his temporal
+rulers as well as his spiritual rulers receive their power from him;
+hence the king receives his right to rule from God.  Who, then, has the
+right to oppose the king?  Upon this theory the court preachers adored
+him and in some instances deified him.  People sought to touch the hem
+of his garment, or receive from his divine majesty even a touch of the
+hand, that they might be healed of their infirmities.  In literature
+Louis was praised and deified.  The "Grand Monarch" was lauded and
+worshipped by the courtiers and nobles who circled around him.  He
+maintained an extravagant court and an elaborate etiquette, so
+extravagant that it depleted the rural districts of money, and drew the
+most powerful families to revolve around the king.
+
+The extravagant life paralyzed the energies of kings and ministers, who
+built a government for the advantage of the governing and not the
+governed.  "I am the state!" said the Grand Monarch.  Although showing
+in many ways an enlightened absolutism, his rule plunged French royalty
+into despotism.  Louis XV held strongly to absolutism, but lacked the
+power to render it attractive and magnificent.  Louis XVI attempted to
+stem the rising tide, but it was too late.  The evils were too deeply
+seated; they could not be changed by any temporary expedient.  French
+royalty reached a logical outcome from all power to no power.  Louis
+XIV had built a strong, compact administration under the direction of
+able men, but it was wanting in liberty, it was wanting in justice, and
+it is only a matter of time when these deficiencies in a nation lead to
+destruction.
+
+_The Power of the Nobility_.--The French nobility had been mastered by
+the king, but to keep them subservient, to make them circle around
+royalty and chant its praises, they were {401} given a large extension
+of rights and privileges.  They were exempt from the responsibilities
+for crime; they occupied all of the important places in church and
+state; they were exempt from taxation; many who dwelt at the court with
+the king lived off the government; many were pensioned by the
+government, their chief recommendation apparently being idleness and
+worthlessness.  There was a great gulf between the peasantry and the
+nobility.  The latter had control of all the game of the forests and
+the fish in the rivers; one-sixth of all the grain grown in the realm
+went to the nobility, as did also one-sixth of all the land sold, and
+all confiscated property fell to them.  The peasants had no rights
+which the nobility were bound to respect.  The nobility, with all of
+the emoluments of office, owned, with the clergy, two-thirds of all the
+land.  Yet this unproductive class numbered only about 83,000 families.
+
+_The Misery of the People_.--If the nobility despised the lower classes
+and ignored their rights, they in turn were hated intensely by those
+whom they sought to degrade.  The third estate in France was divided
+into the bourgeoisie and the peasantry and small artisans.  The former
+gradually deteriorated in character and tended toward the condition of
+the lowest classes.  By the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, a large
+number of the bourgeoisie, or middle class, was driven from France.
+This deprived France of the class that would have stood by the nation
+when it needed support, and would have stood for moderate
+constitutional government against the radical democrats like
+Robespierre and Marat.
+
+The lowest class, composed of small peasant farmers, laborers, and
+artisans, were improved a little under the reign of Louis XIV, but this
+made them feel more keenly the degradation in succeeding years, from
+which there was no relief.  The condition of the people indicated that
+a revolution was on its way.  In the evolution of European society the
+common man was crowded down toward the condition of serfdom.  The
+extravagances and luxuries of life, the power of kings, bishops, and
+nobles bore like a burden of heavy weight upon his {402} shoulders.  He
+was the common fodder that fed civilization, and because of this more
+than anything else, artificial systems of society were always running
+for a fall, for the time must come when the burdens destroy the
+foundation and the superstructure comes tumbling down.
+
+_The Church_.--The church earned an important position in France soon
+after the conquest by the Romans; seizing opportunities, it came into
+power by right of service.  It brought the softening influences of
+religion; it established government where there was no government; it
+furnished a home for the vanquished and the oppressed; it preserved
+learning from the barbarians; it conquered and controlled the warlike
+spirit of the Germans; it provided the hungry with food, and by
+teaching agriculture added to the economic wealth of the community; and
+finally, it became learned, and thus brought order out of chaos.
+Surely the church earned its great position, and reaped its reward.
+Taine says:
+
+"Its popes for two hundred years were the dictators of Europe.  It
+organized crusades, dethroned monarchs, and distributed kingdoms.  Its
+bishops and abbots became here sovereign princes and there veritable
+founders of dynasties.  It held in its grasp a third of the territory,
+one-half the revenue, and two-thirds of the capital of Europe."
+
+The church was especially strong in France.  It was closely allied to
+the state, and opposed everything that opposed the state.  When the
+king became the state, the church upheld the king.  The church of
+France, prior to the revolution, was rich and aristocratic.  In 1789
+its property was valued at 4,000,000,000 francs, and its income at
+200,000,000 francs; to obtain a correct estimate according to our
+modern measure of value, these amounts should be doubled.  In some
+territories the clergy owned one-half the soil, in others
+three-fourths, and in one, at least, fourteen-seventeenths of the land.
+The Abbey of St.-Germain-des-Prés possessed 900,000 acres.  Yet within
+the church were found both the wealthy and the poverty-stricken.  In
+one community was a bishop rolling in luxury {403} and ease, in another
+a wretched, half-starved country curate trying to carry the gospel to
+half-starved people.  Such extremes were shocking commentaries upon a
+church founded on democracy.
+
+The church persecuted the literary men who expressed freedom of thought
+and opinion.  It ignored facts and the people distrusted it.  The
+religious reformation in France became identified with political
+factions, which brought the church into a prominent place in the
+government and made it take an important place in the revolution.  It
+had succeeded in suppressing all who sought liberty, either political
+or religious, and because of its prominence in affairs, it was the
+first institution to feel the storm of the revolution.  The church in
+France was attacked fully forty years before the king and the nobility
+were arraigned by the enraged populace.
+
+_Influence of the Philosophers_.--There appeared in France in the reign
+of Louis XV what was known as "the new literature," in contrast with
+the classic literature of the previous reign.  The king and the church
+combined fought this new literature, because it had a tendency to
+endanger absolutism.  It was made by such brilliant men as Helvetius,
+Montesquieu, Voltaire, Condillac, and Rousseau.  Perhaps the writings
+of these men had more to do with the precipitation of the revolution
+than the arbitrary assumptions of royalty, the wretchedness of the
+people, the supercilious abuses of the nobility, and the corruption of
+the church.
+
+Without presenting the various philosophies of these writers, it may be
+said that they attacked the systems of government, religion, and
+philosophy prevailing in France, and each succeeding writer more boldly
+proclaimed the evils of the day.  Condillac finally convinced the
+people that they owed their evil conditions to the institutions of
+church and state under which they lived, and showed that, if they
+desired a change, all it was necessary to do was to sweep those
+institutions away.  Other philosophers speculated on the best means of
+improving the government.  Presenting ideal forms of {404} government
+and advocating principles not altogether certain in practice, they made
+it seem, through these speculative theories, that a perfect government
+is possible.
+
+Of the great writers of France prior to the revolution who had a
+tremendous power in hastening the downfall of the royal régime, three
+stand out more prominently than others, namely, Voltaire, Montesquieu,
+and Rousseau.  Voltaire, keen critic and satirist, attacked the evils
+of society, the maladministration of courts and government, the
+dogmatism of the church, and aided and defended the victims of the
+system.  He was a student of Shakespeare, Locke, and Newton, and of
+English government.  He was highly critical but not constructive.
+Montesquieu, more philosophical, in his _Spirit of the Laws_ pointed
+out the cause of evils, expounded the nature of governments, and upheld
+English liberty as worthy the consideration of France.  Rousseau,
+although he attacked civilization, depicting its miseries and
+inconsistencies, was more constructive, for in his _Social Contract_ he
+advocated universal suffrage and government by the people through the
+principles of natural rights and mutual aid.  These writers aroused a
+spirit of liberty among the thoughtful which could not do otherwise
+than prove destructive to existing institutions.
+
+_The Failure of Government_.--It soon became evident to all that a
+failure of the government from a practical standpoint was certain.  The
+burdens of unequal taxation could no longer be borne; the treasury was
+empty; there was no means of raising revenue to support the government
+as it was run; there was no one who could manage the finances of the
+nation; the administration of justice had fallen into disrepute; even
+if there had been an earnest desire to help the various classes of
+people in distress, there were no opportunities to do so.  Louis XVI,
+in his weakness, called the States-General for counsel and advice.  It
+was the first time the people had been called in council for more than
+200 years; monarchy had said it could run the government without the
+people, and now, on the verge of destruction, called upon the people to
+save it from the {405} wreck.  The well-intended king invoked a storm;
+his predecessors had sown the wind, he reaped the whirlwind.
+
+_France on the Eve of the Revolution_.--The causes of the revolution
+were dependent, in part, upon the peculiarity of the character of the
+French people, for in no other way can the sudden outburst or the
+course of the revolution be accounted for.  Yet a glimpse at the
+condition of France before the storm burst will cause one to wonder,
+not that it came, but that it was so long delayed.
+
+A careful examination of the facts removes all mystery respecting the
+greatest political phenomenon of all history, and makes of it an
+essential outcome of previous conditions.  The French people were
+grossly ignorant of government.  The long period of misrule had
+distorted every form of legitimate government.  One school of political
+philosophers gave their attention to pointing out the evils of the
+system; another to presenting bright pictures of ideal systems of
+government which had never been put in practice.  The people found no
+difficulty in realizing the abuses of government, for they were intense
+sufferers from them, and, having no expression in the management of
+affairs, they readily adopted ideal theories for the improvement of
+social conditions.  Moreover, there was no national unity, no coherence
+of classes such as in former days brought strength to the government.
+Monarchy was divided against itself; the lay nobility had no loyalty,
+but were disintegrated by internal feuds; the people were divided into
+opposing classes; the clergy were rent asunder.
+
+Monarchy, though harsh, arbitrary, and unjust, did not have sufficient
+coercive force to give a strong rule.  The church had lost its moral
+influence--indeed, morality was lacking within its organization.  It
+could persecute heretics and burn books which it declared to be
+obnoxious to its doctrines, but it could not work a moral reform, much
+less stem the tide that was carrying away its ancient prerogatives.
+The nobility had no power in the government, and the dissension between
+the crown, the nobility, and the church was continuous and {406}
+destructive of all authority.  Continuous and disreputable quarrels,
+profligacy, extravagance, and idleness characterized each group.
+
+Worst of all was the condition of the peasantry.  The commons of
+France, numbering twenty-five millions of people, had, let it be said
+in their favor, no part in the iniquitous and oppressive government.
+They were never given a thought by the rulers except as a means of
+revenue.  There had grown up another, a middle class, especially in
+towns, who had grown wealthy by honest toil, and were living in ease
+and luxury, possessed of some degree of culture.  They disliked the
+nobles, on the one hand, and the peasants, on the other; hated and
+opposed the nobility and ignored the common people.  This class did not
+represent the sterling middle class of England or of modern life, but
+were the product of feudalism.
+
+The condition of the rural peasantry is almost beyond description.
+Suffering from rack-rents, excessive taxation, and the abuses of the
+nobility, they presented a squalor and wretchedness worse than that of
+the lowest vassals of the feudal regime.  In the large cities collected
+the dangerous classes who hated the rich.  Ignorant, superstitious,
+half-starved, they were ready at a moment's notice to attack the
+wealthy and to destroy property.
+
+The economic and financial conditions of the nation were deplorable,
+for the yield of wealth decreased under the poorly organized state.
+The laborers received such wages as left them at the verge of
+starvation and prepared them for open revolution.  The revenues
+reserved for the support of the government were insufficient for the
+common needs, and an empty treasury was the result.  The extravagance
+of king, court, and nobility had led to excessive expenditures and
+gross waste.  There were no able ministers to manage the affairs of the
+realm on an economic basis.  Add to these evils lack of faith, raillery
+at decency and virtue, and the poisonous effects of a weak and
+irresponsible philosophy, and there are represented sufficient evils to
+make a revolution whenever there is sufficient vigor to start it.
+
+{407}
+
+_The Revolution_.--The revolution comes with all of its horrors.  The
+church is humbled and crushed, the government razed to the ground,
+monarchy is beheaded, and the flower of nobility cut off.  The wild mob
+at first seeks only to destroy; later it seeks to build a new structure
+on the ruins.  The weak monarch, attempting to stem the tide, is swept
+away by its force.  He summons the States-General, and the commons
+declare themselves the national assembly.  Stupendous events follow in
+rapid succession--the revolt in Paris, the insubordination of the army,
+the commune of Paris, and the storming of the Bastile.  The legislative
+assembly brings about the constitutional assembly, and laws are enacted
+for the relief of the people.
+
+Intoxicated with increasing liberty, the populace goes mad, and the
+legislators pass weak and harmful laws.  The law-making and
+constitutional bodies cannot make laws fast enough to regulate the
+affairs of the state.  Lawlessness and violence increase until the
+"reign of terror" appears with all its indescribable horrors.  The rest
+is plain.  Having levelled all government to the ground, having
+destroyed all authority, having shown themselves incapable of
+self-government, the French people are ready for Napoleon.  Under his
+command and pretense they march forth to liberate humanity from
+oppression in other nations, but in reality to a world conquest.
+
+_Results of the Revolution_.--The French Revolution was by far the most
+stupendous event of modern history.  It settled forever in the Western
+world the relation of man to government.  It taught that absolutism of
+any class, if unchecked, must lead sooner or later to the destruction
+of all authority.  It taught that men, to be capable of
+self-government, must be educated in its principles through a long
+period, yet proclaimed to the Western world the freedom of man, and
+asserted his right to participate in government.  While France
+temporarily failed to bring about this participation, it awoke the cry
+for independence, equality, and fraternity around the world.
+
+The results of the revolution became the common property {408} of all
+nations, and a universal sentiment arising from it pervaded every
+country, shaping its destiny.  The severe blow given to absolutism and
+exclusive privilege in church and state settled forever the theory of
+the divine right of kings and prelates to govern.  The revolution
+asserted that the precedent in religious and political affairs must
+yield to the necessities of the people; that there is no fixed
+principle in government except the right of man to govern himself.
+
+The establishment of the theory of the natural right of man to
+participate in government had great influence on succeeding legislation
+and modified the policy of surrounding nations.  The social-contract
+theory was little understood and gave an incorrect notion of the nature
+of government.  In its historical creation, government was a growth,
+continually suiting itself to the changing needs of a people.  Its
+practice rested upon convenience and precedent, but the real test for
+participation in government was capability.  But the French Revolution
+startled the monarchs of Europe with the assumption of the natural
+right of people to self-government.  Possibly it is incorrect when
+carried to extremes, for the doctrine of natural right must be merged
+into the practice of social rights, duties, and privileges.  But it was
+a check on despotism.
+
+The revolution had an influence on economic life also.  It was only a
+step from freedom of intellectual opinion to freedom of religious
+belief, and only a step from religious freedom to political liberty.
+Carried to its legitimate outcome, the growing sentiment of freedom
+asserted industrial liberty and economic equality.  Its influence in
+the emancipation of labor was far-reaching.  Many of the theories
+advanced in the French Revolution were impracticable; sentiments
+engendered were untrue, which in the long run would lead to injustice.
+Many of its promises remain unfulfilled, yet its lessons are still
+before us, its influence for good or evil continues unabated.
+
+{409}
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  The progress in constitutional government was made in England
+during the Commonwealth.
+
+2.  Changes in the social and economic condition of England from 1603
+to 1760.
+
+3.  When did the Industrial Revolution begin?  What were its causes?
+What its results?
+
+4.  The rise of British commerce.
+
+5.  Effect of commerce on English economic and social life.
+
+6.  Of what use to England were her American colonies?
+
+7.  The effect of the American Revolution on the French Revolution.
+
+8.  The effect of the French Revolution on American liberty.
+
+
+
+
+{413}
+
+_PART V_
+
+MODERN PROGRESS
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+PROGRESS OF POLITICAL LIBERTY
+
+_Political Liberty in the Eighteenth Century_.--Looking backward from
+the standpoint of the close of the eighteenth century and following the
+chain of events in the previous century, the real achievement in social
+order is highly disappointing.  The French Revolution, which had
+levelled the monarchy, the church, and the nobility, and brought the
+proletariat in power for a brief season and lifted the hopes of the
+people toward a government of equality, was hurrying on from the
+directorate to the consulate to the empire, and finally returning to
+the old monarchy somewhat worn and dilapidated, indeed, but sufficient
+in power to smother the hopes of the people for the time being.
+Numerous French writers, advocating anarchy, communism, and socialism,
+set up ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity which were not to be
+realized as the immediate result of the revolution.  Babeuf,
+Saint-Simon, Cabet, and Louis Blanc set forth new ideals of government,
+which were diametrically opposed to the practices of the French
+government in preceding centuries.  Though some of their ideals were
+lofty, the writers were critical and destructive rather than
+constructive.
+
+England, after the coming of William and Mary and the passing of the
+Bill of Rights in 1689, witnessed very little progress in political
+rights and liberty until the reform measures of the nineteenth century.
+On the continent, Prussia had risen to a tremendous power as a military
+state and developed an autocratic government with some pretenses to
+political liberty.  But the dominant force of Prussia working on the
+basis of the ancient feudalism was finally to crush out the liberties
+of the German people and establish autocratic government.  {414} The
+Holy Roman Empire, which had continued so long under the union of
+Austria and Italy, backed by the papacy, had reached its height of
+arbitrary power, and was destroyed by the Napoleonic wars.  In the
+whole period there were political struggles and intrigues within the
+various states, and political struggles and intrigues and wars between
+the nations.  It was a period of the expression of national selfishness
+which sought enlarged territory and the control of commerce and trade.
+Taken as a whole, there is little that is inspiring in the movement of
+nations in this period.  Indeed, it is highly disappointing when we
+consider the materials at their hand for political advancement.
+
+The political game at home played by cliques and factions and
+politicians struggling for power frequently led to disgraces abroad,
+such as the war against the American colonies and the extension of
+power and domination in India.  There is scarcely a war, if any, in
+this whole period that should not have been settled without difficulty,
+provided nations were honest with each other and could exercise, if not
+reason, common sense.  The early great movements, such as the revival
+of learning and progress centring in Italy and extending to other
+nations, the religious revolution which brought freedom of belief, the
+revolution of England and the Commonwealth, the French Revolution with
+its projections of new ideals of liberty on the horizon of political
+life, promised better things.  Also, during this period the development
+of literature and the arts and sciences should have been an enlightened
+aid to political liberty.
+
+Nevertheless, the higher ideals of life and liberty which were set
+forth during these lucid intervals of the warring nations of the world
+were never lost.  The seeds of liberty, once having been sown, were to
+spring up in future years and develop through a normal growth.
+
+_The Progress of Popular Government Found Outside of the Great
+Nations_.--The rise of democracy in Switzerland and the Netherlands and
+its development in America, although {415} moving indirectly and by
+reaction, had a lasting influence on the powerful nations like Germany,
+England, France, and Austria.  In these smaller countries the warfare
+against tyranny, despotism, and ignorance was waged with success.
+Great gain was made in the overthrow of the accumulated power of
+traditional usage and the political monopoly of groups of people who
+had seized and held the power.  Through trial and error, success and
+failure, these people, not noted for their brilliant warfare but for
+their love of peace, succeeded in establishing within their boundaries
+a clear definition of human rights and recognizing the right of the
+people to have a better government.
+
+_Reform Measures in England_.--The famous Bill of Rights of 1689 in
+England has always been intact in theory.  It laid the foundation for
+popular government in which privileges and rights of the people were
+guaranteed.  It may have been a good expedient to have declared that no
+papist should sit upon the throne of England, thus declaring for
+Protestantism, but it was far from an expression of religious
+toleration.  The prestige of the House of Lords, an old and
+well-established aristocratic body, built upon ancient privilege and
+the power of the monarchy which too frequently acknowledged
+constitutional rights and then proceeded to trample upon them, made the
+progress in popular government very slow.
+
+One great gain had been made when the nation agreed to fight its
+political battles in Parliament and at elections.  The freedom of the
+press and the freedom of speech gradually became established facts.
+Among the more noted acts for the benefit of popular government was the
+Reform Bill of 1832, which enlarged the elective franchise.  This was
+bitterly opposed by the Lords, but the persistency of the Commons won
+the day and the king signed the bill.  Again in 1867 the second Reform
+Bill enlarged the franchise, and more modern acts of Parliament have
+given greater liberties to the English people.
+
+England opposed independent local government of Scotland and Ireland
+and of her colonies.  Ireland had been oppressed {416} by the malady of
+English landlordism, which had always been a bone of contention in the
+way of any amicable adjustment of the relations between England and
+Ireland.  Throughout the whole century had waged this struggle.
+England at times had sought through a series of acts to relieve the
+country, but the conservative element in Parliament had usually
+thwarted any rational system like that proposed by Mr. Gladstone.  On
+the other hand, the Irish people themselves desired absolute freedom
+and independence and were restive under any form of restraint.
+
+Nothing short of entire independence from the English nation or the
+establishment of home rule on some practical basis could insure peace
+and contentment in Ireland.  Nor in the past could one be assured at
+any time that Ireland would have been contented for any length of time
+had she been given or acquired what she asked for.  Being forced to
+support a large population on an infertile soil where landlordism
+dominated was a cause of a continual source of discontent, and the lack
+of practice of the Irish people in the art of local government always
+gave rise to doubts in the minds of her friends as to whether she could
+succeed as an independent nation or not.  But the final triumph of
+Ireland in establishing a free state with the nominal control of the
+British Empire shows that Ireland has power to govern herself under
+fair treatment.
+
+What a great gain it would have been if many years ago England had
+yielded to the desire of Ireland for an independent constitutional
+government similar to that of Canada!  Tremendous changes have taken
+place in recent years in the liberalizing movement in England.  The
+state church still exists, but religious toleration is complete.  Women
+have been allowed the right to vote and are taking deep interest in
+political affairs, three women already having seats in Parliament.  The
+labor movement, which has always been strong and independent in
+England, by the exercise of its right at the polls finally gained
+control of the government and, for the first time {417} in the history
+of England, a leading labor-union man and a socialist became premier of
+England.
+
+_The Final Triumph of the French Republic_.--On account of ignorance of
+the true theories of government, as well as on account of lack of
+practical exercise in administration, for several decades the
+government which the French people established after the destruction of
+the monarchy of Louis XVI failed.  The democracy of the French
+Revolution was iconoclastic, not creative.  It could tear down, but
+could not rebuild.  There were required an increased intelligence and
+the slow process of thought, a meditation upon the principles for which
+the people had fought and bled, and an enlarged view of the principles
+of government, before a republic could be established in France.
+Napoleon, catching the spirit of the times, gratified his ambition by
+obtaining the mastery of national affairs and leading the French people
+against foreign nations under the pretext of overthrowing despotism in
+Europe.  In so doing he established absolutism once more in France.  He
+became the imperial monarch of the old type, with the exceptions that
+intelligence took the place of bigotry and the welfare of the people
+took the place of the laudation of kings.  But in attempting to become
+the dictator of all Europe, he caused other nations to combine against
+him, and finally he closed his great career with a Waterloo.
+
+The monarchy, on its restoration, became constitutional; the government
+was composed of two chambers--the peers, nominated by the king, and the
+lower house, elected by the people.  A system of responsible ministers
+was established, and of judges, who were not removable.  Much had been
+gained in religious and civil liberty and the freedom of the press.
+But monarchy began to grow again, urged by the middle class of France,
+until in July, 1830, another revolution broke out on account of
+election troubles.  The charter was violated in the prohibition of the
+publication of newspapers and pamphlets, and the elective system
+arbitrarily changed so as to restrict the suffrage to the landowners.
+The reaction {418} from this was to gain something more for democratic
+government.  In the meantime there had been a growth of socialism, the
+direct product of the revolution.
+
+The king finally abdicated in favor of his grandson, and then a
+provisional government was established, and finally a republic, the
+second republic of France.  Louis Napoleon, who became president of the
+republic under the constitution, gradually absorbed all powers to
+himself and proclaimed himself emperor.  After the close of the
+Franco-German War, in 1871, France became a republic for the third
+time.  A constitution was formed, under which the legislative power was
+exercised by two chambers--the Chamber of Deputies, elected by direct
+vote and manhood suffrage for four years, and the Senate, consisting of
+300 senators, 75 of whom were elected for life by the national
+assembly, the rest for nine years, by electoral colleges.  These latter
+were composed of deputies, councils of the departments, and delegates
+of communes.  The executive power was vested in a president, who was
+assisted by a responsible ministry.  Republicanism was at last secured
+to France.  Many changes have taken place in the application of the
+constitution to popular government since then, and much progress has
+been made in the practice of free government.  The whole composition of
+the government reminds one of constitutional monarchy, with the
+exception that the monarch is chosen by the people for a short period
+of time.
+
+_Democracy in America_.--The progress of democracy in America has been
+rapid.  The first colonists were oppressed by the authority of European
+nations and bound by unyielding precedent.  While the principle of
+local self-government obtained to a large extent in many of them, they
+partook more of aristocracies, or of governments based on class
+legislation, than of pure democracies.  When independence from foreign
+countries was won by the united efforts of all the colonies, the real
+struggle for universal liberty began.  A government was founded, so far
+as it was possible, on the principles of the Declaration of
+Independence, which asserted "that all men {419} are created equal;
+that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable
+rights"; and that "for securing these rights, governments are
+instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of
+the governed."  The creation of a federal constitution and the
+formation of a perfect union guaranteed these rights to every citizen.
+
+Yet in the various states forming a part of the Union, and, indeed, in
+the national government itself, it took a long time to approximate, in
+practice, the liberty and justice which were set forth in the
+Declaration of Independence and the Constitution.  Still, in the past
+century, the people have become more and more closely connected with
+the state, and a "government of the people, for the people, and by the
+people" is a certainty.  The laws which have been made under the
+Constitution increase in specific declarations of the rights of the
+people.  Justice is more nearly meted out to all classes at present
+than in any decade for a century.  The political powers of citizens
+have constantly enlarged.  The elective franchise has been extended to
+all citizens of both sexes.  The requirements as to naturalization of
+foreigners are exceedingly lenient, and thus free government is offered
+to all people.
+
+Of necessity the central government has been strengthened on account of
+the enlargement of territory and the great extension of national
+governmental powers.  It has been necessary that the central forces
+which bind the separate parts of the nation together in a common union
+should be strengthened.  The result has been a decline in the
+importance and power of the state governments.  On the other hand, the
+large increase of population in the great cities has tended to enhance
+the power and importance of local government.  The government of a
+single large city now becomes more difficult and of greater vital
+importance to the people than that of a state.
+
+The enlarged territory and increased population, and the enormous
+amount of legislative machinery, have tended to extend to its utmost
+limit the principle of representative government.  Congress represents
+the people of the whole nation, {420} but committees represent Congress
+and subcommittees represent committees.  There is a constant tendency
+to delegate powers to others.  Pure democracy has no place in the great
+American republic, except as it is seen in the local government unit.
+Here the people always have a part in the caucus, in the primary or the
+town meeting, in the election of local officers and representatives for
+higher offices, in the opportunity to exercise their will and raise
+their voice in the affairs of the nation.  To some extent the supposed
+greater importance of the national government has led the people to
+underestimate the opportunities granted them for exercising their
+influence as citizens within the precinct in which they live.  But
+there is to-day a tendency to estimate justly the importance of local
+government as the source of all reforms and the means of the
+preservation of civil liberty.
+
+It has been pointed out frequently by the enemies of democracy that the
+practice of the people in self-government has not always been of the
+highest type.  In many instances this criticism is true, for experience
+is always a dear teacher.  The principles of democracy have come to
+people through conviction and determination, but the practices of
+self-government come through rough experiences, sometimes marked by a
+long series of blunders.  The cost of a republican form of government
+to the people has frequently been very expensive on account of their
+ignorance, their apathy, and their unwillingness to take upon
+themselves the responsibilities of government.  Consider, for instance,
+the thousands of laws that are made and placed upon the statute-books
+which have been of no value, possibly of detriment, to the
+community--laws made through the impulse of half-informed, ill-prepared
+legislators.  Consider also the constitutions, constitutional
+amendments, and other important acts upon which the people express
+their opinion.
+
+The smallness of the vote of a people who are jealous of their own
+rights and privileges is frequently surprising.  Notice, too, how
+frequently popular power has voted against its {421} own rights and
+interests.  See the clumsy manner by which people have voted away their
+birthrights or, failing to vote at all, have enslaved themselves to
+political or financial monopoly.  Observe, too, the expenses of the
+management of democratic governments, the waste on account of imperfect
+administration, and the failure of the laws to operate.
+
+Consideration of these points brings us to the conclusion that the
+perfection of democracy or republican government has not been reached,
+and that while liberty may be an expensive affair, it is so on account
+of the negligence of the people in qualifying for self-government.  If
+a democratic form of government is to prevail, if popular government is
+to succeed, if the freedom of the people is to be guaranteed, there
+must be persistent effort on the part of the people to prepare
+themselves for their own government; a willingness to sacrifice for
+liberty, for liberty will endure only so long as people are willing to
+pay the price it costs.  They must govern themselves, or government
+will pass from them to others.  Eternal vigilance is the price of good
+government.
+
+_Modern Political Reforms_.--Political reform has been proceeding
+recently in many particular ways.  Perhaps the most noticeable in
+America is that of civil service reform.  Strong partisanship has been
+a ruling factor in American politics, often to the detriment of the
+financial and political interests of the country.  Jealous of their
+prerogative, the people have insisted that changes in government shall
+occur often, and that the ruling party shall have the privilege of
+appointing the officers of the government.  This has made it the almost
+universal practice for the incoming party to remove the officers of the
+old administration and replace them with its own appointments.  To such
+an extent has this prevailed that it has come to be known as the
+"spoils system."
+
+But there is now a general tendency for the principles of civil service
+to prevail in all parts of the national government, and a growing
+feeling that they should be instituted in the various states and
+municipalities of the Union.  The {422} federal government has made
+rapid progress in this line in recent years, and it is to be hoped that
+before long the large proportion of appointive offices will be put upon
+a merit basis and the persons who are best qualified to fill these
+places retained from administration to administration.  Attempts are
+being made in nearly all of our cities for business efficiency in
+government, though there is much room for improvement.
+
+The government of the United States is especially weak in
+administration, and is far behind many of the governments of the Old
+World in this respect.  With a thoroughly established civil service
+system, the effectiveness of the administration would be increased
+fully fifty per cent.  Under the present party system the waste is
+enormous, and as the people must ultimately pay for this waste, the
+burden thrown upon them is great.  In the first place, the partisan
+system necessarily introduces large numbers of inexperienced,
+inefficient officers who must spend some years in actual practice
+before they are really fitted for the positions which they occupy.  In
+the second place, the time spent by congressmen and other high
+officials in attention to applicants for office and in urging of
+appointments, prevents them from improving their best opportunity for
+real service to the people.
+
+The practice of civil service reform is being rapidly adopted in the
+nations of the world which have undertaken the practice of
+self-government, and in those nations where monarchy or imperialism
+still prevails, persons in high authority feel more and more impelled
+to appoint efficient officers to carry out the plans of administrative
+government.  It is likely that the time will soon come when all offices
+requiring peculiar skill or especial training will be filled on the
+basis of efficiency, determined by competitive examination or other
+tests of ability.
+
+Another important reform, which has already been begun in the United
+States, and which, in its latest movement, originated in Australia, is
+ballot reform.  There has been everywhere in democratic government a
+tendency for fraud to increase on election days.  The manipulation of
+the votes of {423} individuals through improper methods has been the
+cause of fraud and a means of thwarting the will of the people.  It is
+well that the various states and cities have observed this and set
+themselves to the task of making laws to guard properly the ballot-box
+and give free, untrammelled expression to the will of the people.
+Though nearly all the states in the Union have adopted some system of
+balloting (based largely upon the Australian system), many of them are
+far from perfection in their systems.  Yet the progress in this line is
+encouraging when the gains in recent years are observed.
+
+Since the decline of the old feudal times, in which our modern tax
+system had its origin, there has been a constant improvement in the
+system of taxation.  Yet this has been very slow and apparently has
+been carried on in a bungling way.  The tendency has been to tax every
+form of property that could be observed or described.  And so our own
+nation, like many others, has gone on, step by step, adding one tax
+after another, without carefully considering the fundamental principles
+of taxation or the burdens laid upon particular classes.  To-day we
+have a complex system, full of irregularities and imperfections.  Our
+taxes are poorly and unjustly assessed, and the burdens fall heavily
+upon some, while others have an opportunity of escaping.  We have just
+entered an era of careful study of our tax systems, and the various
+reports from the different states and the writings of economists are
+arousing great interest on these points.  When once the imperfections
+are clearly understood and defined, there may be some hope of a remedy
+of present abuses.  To be more specific, it may be said that the
+assessments of the property in counties of the same state vary between
+seventeen and sixty per cent of the market valuation.  Sometimes this
+discrepancy is between the assessments of adjacent counties, and so
+great is the variation that seldom two counties have the same standard
+for assessing valuation.
+
+The personal-property tax shows greater irregularity than this,
+especially in our large cities.  The tax on imports, though {424}
+apparently meeting the approval of a majority of the American people,
+makes, upon the whole, a rather expensive system of taxation, and it is
+questionable whether sufficient revenue can be raised from this source
+properly to support the government without seriously interfering with
+our foreign commerce.  The internal revenue has many unsatisfactory
+phases.  The income tax has been added to an imperfect system of
+taxation, instead of being substituted for the antiquated
+personal-property tax.  Taxes on franchises, corporations, and
+inheritances are among those more recently introduced in attempts to
+reform the tax system.
+
+The various attempts to obtain sufficient revenue to support the
+government or to reform an unjust and unequal tax have led to double
+taxation, and hence have laid the burden upon persons holding a
+specific class of property.  There are to-day no less than five methods
+in which double taxation occurs in the present system of taxation of
+corporations.  The taxation of mortgages, because it may be shifted to
+the borrower, is virtually a double tax.  The great question of the
+incidence of taxation, or the determination upon whom the tax
+ultimately falls, has not received sufficient care in the consideration
+of improved systems of taxation.  Until it has, and until statesmen use
+more care in tax legislation and the regulation of the system, and
+officers are more conscientious in carrying it out, we need not hope
+for any rapid movement in tax reform.  The tendency here, as in all
+other reforms, especially where needed, is for some person to suggest a
+certain political nostrum--like the single tax--for the immediate and
+complete reform of the system and the entire renovation and
+purification of society.  But scientific knowledge, clear insight, and
+wisdom are especially necessary for any improvement, and even then
+improvement will come through a long period of practice, more or less
+painful on account of the shifting of methods of procedure.
+
+The most appalling example of the results of modern government is to be
+found in the municipal management of our {425} large cities.  It has
+become proverbial that the American cities are the worst ruled of any
+in the world.  In European countries the evils of city government were
+discovered many years ago, and in most of the nations there have been
+begun and carried out wisely considered reforms, until many of the
+cities of the Old World present examples of tolerably correct municipal
+government.
+
+In America there is now a general awakening in every city, but to such
+an extent have people, by their indifference or their wickedness, sold
+their birthrights to politicians and demagogues and the power of
+wealth, that it seems almost impossible to work any speedy radical
+reform.  Yet many changes are being instituted in our best cities, and
+the persistent effort to manage the city as a business corporation
+rather than as a political engine is producing many good results.  The
+large and growing urban population has thrown the burden of government
+upon the city--a burden which it was entirely unprepared for--and there
+have sprung up sudden evils which are difficult to eradicate.  Only
+persistent effort, loyalty, sacrifice, and service, all combined with
+wisdom, can finally accomplish the reforms needed in cities.  There is
+a tendency everywhere for people to get closer to the government, and
+to become more and more a part of it.[1]  Our representative system has
+enabled us to delegate authority to such an extent that people have
+felt themselves irresponsible for all government, except one day in the
+year, when they vote at the polls; we need, instead, a determination to
+govern 365 days in the year, and nothing short of this perpetual
+interest of the people will secure to them the rights of
+self-government.  Even then it is necessary that every citizen shall
+vote at every election.
+
+_Republicanism in Other Countries_.--The remarkable spread of forms of
+republican government in the different nations of the world within the
+present century has been unprecedented.  {426} Every independent nation
+in South America to-day has a republican form of government.  The
+Republic of Mexico has made some progress in the government of the
+people, and the dependencies of Great Britain all over the world have
+made rapid progress in local self-government.  In Australia, New
+Zealand, and Canada, we find many of the most advanced principles and
+practices of free government.
+
+It is true that many of these nations calling themselves republics have
+not yet guaranteed the rights and privileges of a people to any greater
+extent than they would have done had they been only constitutional
+monarchies; for it must be maintained at all times that it depends more
+upon the characteristics of the people--upon their intelligence, their
+social conditions and classes, their ideas of government, and their
+character--what the nature of their government shall be, than upon the
+mere form of government, whether that be aristocracy, monarchy, or
+democracy.
+
+Many of the evils which have been attributed to monarchy ought more
+truly to have been attributed to the vital conditions of society.
+Vital social and political conditions are far more important to the
+welfare of the people than any mere form of government.  Among the
+remarkable expressions of liberal government in modern times has been
+the development of the Philippine Islands under the protecting care of
+the United States, the establishment of republicanism in Porto Rico and
+Hawaii, now parts of the territory of the United States, and the
+development of an independent and democratic government in Cuba through
+the assistance of the United States.  These expressions of an extended
+democracy have had far-reaching consequences on the democratic idealism
+of the world.
+
+_Influence of Democracy on Monarchy_.--But the evidences of the
+progress of popular government are not all to be observed in republics.
+It would be difficult to estimate the influence of the rise of popular
+government in some countries upon the monarchial institutions of
+others.  This can never be {427} properly determined, because we know
+not what would have taken place in these monarchies had republicanism
+never prevailed anywhere.  When republicanism arose in France and
+America, monarchy was alarmed everywhere; and again, when the
+revolutionary wave swept over Europe in 1848, monarchy trembled.
+Wherever, indeed, the waves of democracy have swept onward they have
+found monarchy raising breakwaters against them.  Yet with all this
+opposition there has been a liberalizing tendency in these same
+monarchial governments.  Monarchy has been less absolute and less
+despotic; the people have had more constitutional rights granted them,
+greater privileges to enjoy; and monarchies have been more careful as
+to their acts, believing that the people hold in their hands the means
+of retribution.  The reforming influence of democratic ideas has been
+universal and uninterrupted.
+
+The World War has been iconoclastic in breaking up old forms of
+government and has given freedom to the democratic spirit and in many
+cases has developed practical democracy.  Along with this, forces of
+radicalism have come to the front as an expression of long-pent
+feelings of injustice, now for the first time given opportunity to
+assert and express themselves.  The ideal of democracy historically
+prevalent in Europe has been the rule of the "lower classes" at the
+expense of the "upper classes."  This theory has been enhanced by the
+spread of Marxian socialism, which advocates the dominance and rule of
+the wage-earning class.  The most serious attempt to put this idea in
+practice occurred in Russia with disastrous results.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Why did the French Revolution fail to establish liberty?
+
+2.  What were the lasting effects of the English Commonwealth?
+
+3.  What were the causes of liberal government in the Netherlands?
+
+4.  The reform acts in 1832 and in 1867 in England.
+
+5.  The chief causes of trouble between England and Ireland.
+
+6.  The growth of democracy in the United States.
+
+{428}
+
+7.  Enumerate the most important modern political reforms.  What are
+some needed political reforms?
+
+8.  England's influence on American law and government.
+
+9.  Investigate the population in your community to determine the
+extent of human equality.
+
+10.  City government under the municipal manager plan; also commission
+plan.
+
+
+
+[1] Consider the commission form of city government and the municipal
+manager plan.
+
+
+
+
+{429}
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS
+
+_Industries Radiate from the Land as a Centre_.--In primitive
+civilizations industry was more or less incidental to life.  The food
+quest, protection of the body from storm and sun by improvised
+habitation and the use of skins, furs, bark, and rushes for clothing,
+together with the idea of human association for the perpetuation of the
+species, are the fundamental notions regarding life.  Under such
+conditions industry was fitful and uncertain.  Hunting for vegetable
+products and for animals to sustain life, the protection of the life of
+individuals from the elements and, incidentally, from the predatory
+activities of human beings, were the objectives of primitive man.
+
+As the land is the primary source of all economic life, systematic
+industry has always begun in its control and cultivation.  Not until
+man settled more or less permanently with the idea of getting his
+sustenance from the soil did industrial activities become prominent.
+In the development of civilization one must recognize the ever-present
+fact that the method of treatment of the land is a determining factor
+in its fundamental characteristics, for it must needs be always that
+the products that we utilize come from the action of man on nature and
+its reaction on him.  While the land is the primary source of wealth,
+and its cultivation a primal industry, it does not include the whole
+category of industrial enterprises, for tools must be made, art
+developed, implements provided, and machinery constructed.  Likewise,
+clothing and ornaments were manufactured, and habitations constructed,
+and eventually transportation begun to carry people and goods from one
+place to another.  These all together make an enlarged group of
+activities, all radiating from the soil as a common centre.
+
+{430}
+
+We have already referred to the cultivation of the valleys of the
+Euphrates and the Nile by systems of irrigation and the tilling of the
+soil in the valleys of Greece in the crude and semibarbarous methods
+introduced by the barbarians from the north.  We have referred to the
+fact that the Romans were the first to develop systematic agriculture,
+and even the Teutonic people, the invaders of Rome, were rude
+cultivators of the soil.
+
+Social organization is dependent to a large extent upon the method of
+attachment to the soil--whether people wander over a large area in the
+hunter-fisher and the nomadic stages, or whether they become attached
+to the soil permanently.  Thus, the village community developed a
+united, neighborly community, built on the basis of mutual aid.  The
+feudal system was built upon predatory tribal warfare, where possession
+was determined by might to have and to hold.  In the mediaeval period
+the manorial system of landholding developed, whereby the lord and his
+retainers claimed the land by their right of occupation and the power
+to hold, whether this came through conquest, force of arms, or
+agreement.
+
+This manorial system prevailed to a large extent in England, France,
+and parts of Germany.  These early methods of landholding were brought
+about by people attempting to make their social adjustments, primarily
+in relation to survival, and subsequently in relation to the justice
+among individuals within the group, or in relation to the reactions
+between the groups themselves.  After the breaking down of the Roman
+Empire, the well-established systems of landholding in the empire and
+the older nations of the Orient in the Middle Ages developed into the
+feudal system, which forced all society into groups or classes, from
+the lord to the serf.  Subsequently there sprang up the individual
+system of landholding, which again readjusted the relation of society
+to the land system and changed the social structure.
+
+_The Early Mediaeval Methods of Industry_.--Outside of the tilling of
+the soil, the early industries were centred in the home, which gave
+rise to the well-known house system of {431} culture.  "Housework" has
+primary relation to goods which are created for the needs of the
+household.  Much of the early manufacturing industry was carried on
+within the household.  Gradually this has disappeared to a large extent
+through the multiplication of industries outside the home, power
+manufacture, and the organization of labor and capital.
+
+In many instances house culture preceded that of systematic
+agriculture.  The natural order was the house culture rising out of the
+pursuits of fishing, hunting, and tending flocks and herds, and the
+incidental hoe culture which represented the first tilling of the soil
+about the tent or hut.  The Indians of North America are good examples
+of the development of the house culture in the making of garments from
+the skins of animals or from weeds and rushes, the weaving of baskets,
+the making of pottery and of boats, and the tanning of hides.  During
+all this period, agriculture was of slow growth, it being the
+incidental and tentative process of life, while the house culture
+represented the permanent industry.
+
+Industries varied in different tribes, one being skilled in
+basket-making, another in stone implements for warfare and domestic
+use, another in pottery, another in boats, and still another in certain
+kinds of clothing--especially the ornaments made from precious stones
+or bone.  This made it possible to spread the culture of one group to
+other groups, and later there developed the wandering peddler who went
+from tribe to tribe trading and swapping goods.  This is somewhat
+analogous to the first wage-work system of England, where the
+individual went from house to house to perform services for which he
+received pay in goods, or, as we say, in kind.  Subsequently the
+wage-earner had his own shop, where raw material was sent to him for
+finishing.
+
+All through Europe these customs prevailed and, indeed, in some parts
+of America exist to the present day.  We see survivals of these customs
+which formerly were permanent, in the people who go from house to house
+performing certain types of work or bringing certain kinds of goods for
+sale, and, {432} indeed, in the small shop of modern times where goods
+are repaired or manufactured.  They represent customs which now are
+irregular, but which formerly were permanent methods.  It was a simple
+system, requiring no capital, no undertaker or manager, no middleman.
+Gradually these customs were replaced by many varied methods, such as
+the establishment of the laborer in his individual shop, who at first
+only made the raw material, which people brought him, into the finished
+product; later he was required to provide his own raw material, taking
+orders for certain classes of goods.
+
+After the handcraft system was well established, there was a division
+between the manufacturer of goods and those who produced the raw
+material, a marked distinction in the division of labor.  The expansion
+of systems of industry developed the towns and town life, and as the
+manor had been self-sufficient in the manufacture of goods, so now the
+town becomes the unit of production, and independent town economy
+springs up.  Later we find the towns beginning to trade with each
+other, and with this expanded industry the division of labor came about
+and the separation of laborers into classes.  First, the merchant and
+the manufacturer were united.  It was common for the manufacturer of
+goods to have his shop in his own home and, after he had made the
+goods, to put them on the shelf until called for by customers.  Later
+he had systems of distribution and trade with people in the immediate
+locality.  Soon weavers, spinners, bricklayers, packers, tanners, and
+other classes became distinctive.  It was some time before
+manufacturers and traders, however, became separate groups, and a
+longer time before the manufacturer was separated from the merchant,
+because the manufacturer must market his own goods.  Industries by
+degrees thus became specialized, and trades became clearly defined in
+their scope.  This led, of course, to a distinct division of
+occupation, and later to a division of labor within the occupation.
+The introduction of money after the development of town economy brought
+about the wage system, whereby people were paid in money rather than
+{433} kind.  This was a great step forward in facilitating trade and
+industry.
+
+One of the earliest methods of developing organized industrial society
+was through the various guilds of the Middle Ages.  They represented
+the organization of the industries of a given town, with the purpose of
+establishing a monopoly in trade of certain kinds of goods, and
+secondarily to develop fraternal organization, association, and
+co-operation among groups of people engaged in the same industry.
+Perhaps it should be mentioned that the first in order of development
+of the guilds was known as the "guild-merchant," which was an
+organization of all of the inhabitants of the town engaged in trading
+or selling.  This was a town monopoly of certain forms of industry
+controlled by the members of that industry.  It partook of the nature
+of monopoly of trade, and had a vast deal to do with the social
+organization of the town.  Its power was exercised in the place of more
+systematic political town government.  However, after the political
+town government became more thoroughly established, the guild-merchant
+declined, but following the decline of the guild-merchant, the craft
+guild developed, which was an organization of all of the manufacturers
+and traders in a given craft.  This seemed to herald the coming of the
+trade-union after the industrial machinery of society had made a number
+of changes.  English industrial society became finally completely
+dominated, as did societies in countries on the Continent, by the craft
+guilds.
+
+All the payments in the handcraft system were at first in kind.  When
+the laborer had finished his piece of goods, his pay consisted in
+taking a certain part of what he had created in the day or the week.
+Also, when he worked by the day he received his pay in kind.  This
+system prevailed until money became sufficiently plentiful to enable
+the payment of wages for piecework and by the day.  The payment in
+kind, of course, was a very clumsy and wasteful method of carrying on
+industry.  Many methods of payment in kind prevailed for centuries,
+even down to recent times in America.  Before the great {434}
+flour-mills were developed, the farmer took his wheat to the mill, out
+of which the miller took a certain percentage for toll in payment for
+grinding.  The farmer took the remainder home with him in the form of
+flour.  So, too, we have in agriculture the working of land on shares,
+a certain percentage of the crops going to the owner and the remainder
+to the tiller of the soil.  Fruit is frequently picked on shares, which
+is nothing more than payment for services in kind.
+
+_The Beginnings of Trade_.--While these simple changes were slowly
+taking place in the towns and villages of Europe, there were larger
+movements of trade being developed, not only between local towns, but
+between the towns of one country and those of another, which led later
+to international trade and commerce.  Formerly trade had become of
+world importance in the early Byzantine trade with the Orient and
+Phoenicia.  After the crusades, the trade of the Italian cities with
+the Orient and northwest Europe was of tremendous importance.[1] In
+connection with this, the establishment of the Hanseatic League, of
+which Hamburg was a centre, developed trade between the east and the
+west and the south.  These three great mediaeval trade movements
+represent powerful agencies in the development of Europe.  They carried
+with them an exchange of goods and an exchange of ideas as well.  This
+interchange stimulated thought and industrial activity throughout
+Europe.
+
+_Expansion of Trade and Transportation_.--The great discoveries in the
+fifteenth and sixteenth centuries had a vast deal to do with the
+expansion of trade.  The discovery of America, the establishment of
+routes to the Philippines around South America and to India around
+South Africa opened up wide vistas, not only for exploration but for
+the exchange of goods.  Also, this brought about national trade, and
+with it national competition.  From this time on the struggle for the
+supremacy of the sea was as important as the struggle of the various
+nations for extended territory.  Portugal, the {435} Netherlands,
+England, and Spain were competing especially for the trade routes of
+the world.  France and England were drawn into sharp competition
+because of the expansion of English trade and commerce.  Portugal
+became a great emporium for the distribution of Oriental goods after
+she became a maritime power, with a commercial supremacy in India and
+China.  Subsequently she declined and was forced to unite with Spain,
+and even after she obtained her freedom, in the seventeenth century,
+her war with the Netherlands caused her to lose commercial supremacy.
+
+The rise of the Dutch put the Netherlands to the front and Antwerp and
+Amsterdam became the centres of trade for the Orient.  Dutch trade
+continued to lead the world until the formation of the English East and
+West India companies, which, with their powerful monopoly on trade,
+brought England to the front.  Under the monopolies of these great
+companies and other private monopolies, England forged ahead in trade
+and commerce.  But the private monopolies became so powerful that
+Cromwell, by the celebrated Navigation Acts of 1651, made a gigantic
+trade monopoly of the English nation.  The development of agricultural
+products and manufactures in England, together with her immense
+carrying trade, made her mistress of the seas.  The results of this
+trade development were to bring the products of every clime in exchange
+for the manufactured goods of Europe, and to bring about a change of
+ideas which stimulated thought and life, not only in material lines but
+along educational and spiritual lines as well.
+
+_Invention and Discoveries_.--One of the most remarkable eras of
+progress in the whole range of modern civilization appeared at the
+close of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth,
+especially in England.  The expanded trade and commerce of England had
+made such a demand for economic goods that it stimulated invention of
+new processes of production.  The spinning of yarn became an important
+industry.  It was a slow process, and could not supply the {436}
+weavers so that they could keep their looms in operation.  Moreover,
+Kay introduced what is known as the drop-box and flying shuttle in
+1738, which favored weaving to the detriment of spinning, making the
+trouble worse.
+
+In the extremity of trade the Royal Society offered a prize to any
+person who would invent a machine to spin a number of threads at the
+same time.  As a result of this demand, James Hargreaves in 1764
+invented the spinning-jenny, which was followed by Arkwright's
+invention of spinning by rollers, which was patented in 1769.
+Combining Arkwright's and Hargreaves's inventions, Crompton in 1779
+invented the spinning-"mule."  This quickened the process of spinning
+and greatly increased the production of the weavers.  But one necessity
+satisfied leads to another in invention, and Cartwright's powerloom,
+which was introduced in 1784, came into general use at the beginning of
+the nineteenth century.
+
+During this period America had become a producer of cotton, and Eli
+Whitney's cotton-gin, invented in 1792, which separated the seeds from
+the cotton fibre in the boll, greatly stimulated the production of
+cotton in the United States.  In the meanwhile the steam-engine, which
+had been perfected in 1769, was applied to power manufacture in 1785 by
+James Watt.  This was the final stroke that completed the power
+manufacture of cotton and woollen goods.
+
+Other changes were brought about by the new method of smelting ore by
+means of coal, charcoal having been hitherto used for the process, and
+the invention of the blast-furnace in 1760 by Roebuck, which brought
+the larger use of metals into the manufactures of the world.  To aid in
+the carrying trade, the building of canals between the large
+manufacturing towns in England to the ocean, and the building of
+highways over England, facilitated transportation and otherwise
+quickened industry.  Thus we have in a period of less than forty years
+the most remarkable and unprecedented change in industry, which has
+never been exceeded in importance even by the introduction of the
+gasoline-engine and electrical power.
+
+{437}
+
+_The Change of Handcraft to Power Manufacture_.--Prior to the
+development of the mechanical contrivances for spinning and weaving and
+the application of steam-power to manufacturing, nearly everything in
+Europe was made by hand.  All clothing, carpets, draperies, tools,
+implements, furniture--everything was hand-made.  In this process no
+large capital was needed, no great factories, no great assemblage of
+laborers, no great organization of industry.  The work was done in
+homes and small shops by individual enterprise, mainly, or in
+combinations of laborers and masters.  Power manufacture and the
+inventions named above changed the whole structure of industrial
+society.
+
+_The Industrial Revolution_.--The period from 1760 to about 1830 is
+generally given as that of the industrial revolution, because this
+period is marked by tremendous changes in the industrial order.  It
+might be well to remark, however, that if the industrial revolution
+began about 1760, it has really never ended, for new inventions and new
+discoveries have continually come--a larger use of steam-power, the
+introduction of transportation by railroads and steamship-lines, the
+modern processes of agriculture, the large use of electricity, with
+many inventions, have constantly increased power manufacture and drawn
+the line more clearly between the laborers on one side and the
+capitalists or managers on the other.
+
+In the first place, because the home and the small shop could not
+contain the necessary machinery, large factories equipped with great
+power-machines became necessary, and into the factories flocked the
+laborers, who formerly were independent handcraft manufacturers or
+merchants.  It was necessary to have people to organize this labor and
+to oversee its work--that is, "bosses" were necessary.  Under these
+circumstances the capitalistic managers were using labor with as little
+consideration or, indeed, less than they used raw material in the
+manufacture of goods.  The laborers must seek employment in the great
+factories.  The managers forced them down to the lowest rate of wage,
+caused them to live in {438} ill-ventilated factories in danger of life
+and health from the machinery, and to work long hours.  They employed
+women and children, who suffered untold miseries.  The production of
+goods demanded more and more coal, and women went into the coal-mines
+and worked fourteen to sixteen hours a day.
+
+Society was not ready for the great and sudden change and could not
+easily adjust itself to new conditions.  Capital was necessary, and
+must have its reward.  Factories were necessary to give the laborers a
+chance to labor.  Labor was necessary, but it did not seem necessary to
+give any consideration to the justice of the laborer nor to his
+suffering.  The wage system and the capitalistic system
+developed--systems that the socialists have been fighting against for
+more than a century.  Labor, pressed down and suffering, arose in its
+own defense and organized.  It was successively denied the right to
+assemble, to organize, to strike, but in each separate case the law
+prevailed in its favor.
+
+All through the development of European history the ordinary laborer
+never received full consideration regarding his value and his rights.
+It is true at times that he was happy and contented without
+improvement, but upon the whole the history of Europe has been the
+history of kings, queens, princes, and nobility, and wars for national
+aggrandizement, increased territory, or the gratification of the whims
+of the dominant classes.  The laborer has endured the toil, fought the
+battles, and paid the taxes.  Here we find the introduction of
+machinery, which in the long run will make the world more prosperous,
+happier, and advance it in civilization, yet the poor laborer must be
+the burden-bearer.
+
+Gradually, however, partly by his own demands, partly by the growing
+humanity of capitalistic employers, and partly because of the interest
+of outside philanthropic statesmen, labor has been protected by laws.
+In the first place, all trades are organized, and nearly all
+organizations are co-operating sympathetically with one another.  Labor
+has been able thus to demand things and to obtain them, not only by the
+persistency {439} of demand, but by the force of the strike which
+compels people to yield.  To-day the laborer has eight hours a day of
+work in a factory well ventilated and well lighted, protected from
+danger and accident, insured by law, better wages than he has ever had,
+better opportunities for life and the pursuit of happiness, better fed,
+better clothed, and better housed than ever before in the history of
+the world.
+
+Yet the whole problem is far from being settled, because it is not easy
+to define the rights, privileges, and duties of organized labor.  Some
+things we know, and one is that the right to strike does not carry with
+it the right to destroy, or the right to organize the right to oppress
+others.  But let us make the lesson universal and apply the same to
+capitalistic organizations and the employers' associations.  And while
+we make the latter responsible for their deeds, let us make the
+organization of the former also responsible, and let the larger
+community called the state determine justice between groups and insure
+freedom and protection to all.
+
+_Modern Industrial Development_.--It was stated above that the
+industrial revolution is still going on.  One need only to glance at
+the transformation caused by the introduction of railway transportation
+and steam navigation in the nineteenth century, to the uses of the
+telegraph, the telephone, the gasoline-engine, and later the radio and
+the airplane, to see that the introduction of these great factors in
+civilization must continue to make changes in the social order.  They
+have brought about quantity transportation, rapidity of manufacture,
+and rapidity of trade, and stimulated the activities of life
+everywhere.  This stimulation, which has brought more things for
+material improvement, has caused people to want paved streets, electric
+lights, and modern buildings, which have added to the cost of living
+through increased taxation.  The whole movement has been characterized
+by the accumulated stress of life, which demands greater activity, more
+goods consumed, new desires awakened, and greater efforts to satisfy
+them.  The quickening process goes on unabated.
+
+{440}
+
+In order to carry out these great enterprises, the industrial
+organization is complex in the extreme and tremendous in its magnitude.
+Great corporations capitalized by millions, great masses of laborers
+assembled which are organized from the highest to the lowest in the
+great industrial army, represent the spectacular display.  And to be
+mentioned above all is the great steam-press that sends the daily paper
+to every home and the great public-school system that puts the book in
+every hand.
+
+_Scientific Agriculture_.--It has often been repeated that man's wealth
+comes originally from the soil, and that therefore the condition of
+agriculture is an index of the opportunity offered for progress.  What
+has been done in recent years, especially in England and America, in
+the development of a higher grade stock, so different from the old
+scrub stock of the Colonial period; in the introduction of new grains,
+new fertilizers, improved soils, and the adaptability of the crop to
+the soil in accordance with the nature of both; the development of new
+fruits and flowers by scientific culture--all have brought to the door
+of man an increased food-supply of great variety and of improved
+quality.  This is conducive to the health and longevity of the race, as
+well as to the happiness and comfort of everybody.  Moreover, the
+introduction of agricultural machinery has changed the slow, plodding
+life of the farmer to that of the master of the steam-tractor,
+thresher, and automobile, changed the demand from a slow, inactive mind
+to the keenest, most alert, best-educated man of the nation, who must
+study the highest arts of production, the greatest economy, and the
+best methods of marketing.  Truly, the industrial revolution applies
+not to factories alone.
+
+_The Building of the City_.--The modern industrial development has
+forced upon the landscape the great city.  No one particularly wanted
+it.  No one called it into being--it just came at the behest of the
+conditions of rapid transportation, necessity of centralization of
+factories where cheap distribution could be had, not only for the raw
+material but for the {441} finished product, and where labor could be
+furnished with little trouble--all of these things have developed a
+city into which rush the great products of raw material, and out of
+which pour the millions of manufactured articles and machinery; into
+which pours the great food-supply to keep the laborers from starving.
+Into the city flows much of the best blood of the country, which seeks
+opportunity for achievement.  The great city is inevitable so long as
+great society insists on gigantic production and as great consumption,
+but the city idea is overwrought beyond its natural condition.  If some
+power could equalize the transportation question, so that a factory
+might be built in a smaller town, where raw material could be furnished
+as cheaply as in the large city, and the distribution of goods be as
+convenient, there is no reason why the population might not be more
+evenly distributed, to its own great improvement.
+
+_Industry and Civilization_.--But what does this mean so far as human
+progress is concerned?  We have increased the material production of
+wealth and added to the material comfort of the inhabitants of the
+world.  We have extended the area of wealth to the dark places of the
+world, giving means of improvement and enlightenment.  We have
+quickened the intellect of man until all he needs to do is to direct
+the machinery of his own invention.  Steam, electricity, and
+water-power have worked for him.  It has given people leisure to study,
+investigate, and develop scientific discoveries for the improvement of
+the race, protecting them from danger and disease and adding to their
+comfort.  It has given opportunity for the development of the higher
+spiritual power in art, music, architecture, religion, and science.
+
+Industrial progress is something more than the means of heaping up
+wealth.  It has to do with the well-being of humanity.  It is true we
+have not yet been able to carry out our ideals in this matter, but
+slowly and surely industrial liberty and justice are following in the
+wake of the freedom of the mind to think, the freedom of religious
+belief, and the {442} political freedom of self-government.  We are
+to-day in the fourth great period of modern development, the
+development of justice in industrial relations.
+
+Moreover, all of this quickening of industry has brought people
+together from all over the world.  London is nearer New York than was
+Philadelphia in revolutionary times.  Not only has it brought people
+closer together in industry, but in thought and sympathy.  There have
+been developed a world ethics, a world trade, and a world interchange
+of science and improved ideas of life.  It has given an increased
+opportunity for material comforts and an increased opportunity for the
+achievement of the ordinary man who seeks to develop all the capacities
+and powers granted him by nature.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Show that land is the foundation of all industry.
+
+2.  Compare condition of laborers now with conditions before the
+industrial revolution.
+
+3.  Are great organizations of business necessary to progress?
+
+4.  Do railroads create wealth?
+
+5.  Does the introduction of machinery benefit the wage-earner?
+
+6.  How does rapid ocean-steamship transportation help the United
+States?
+
+7.  If England should decline in wealth and commerce, would the United
+States be benefited thereby?
+
+8.  How does the use of electricity benefit industry?
+
+9.  To what extent do you think the government should control or manage
+industry?
+
+10.  Is Industrial Democracy possible?
+
+11.  Cutting and hammering two processes of primitive civilization.
+What mechanical inventions take the place of the stone hammer and the
+stone knife?
+
+
+
+[1] See Chapter XXI.
+
+
+
+
+{443}
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+SOCIAL EVOLUTION
+
+_The Evolutionary Processes of Society_.--Social activity is primarily
+group activity.  Consequently the kind and nature of the group, the
+methods which brought its members together, its organization and
+purpose, indicate the type of civilization and the possibility of
+achievement.  As group activity means mutual aid of members, and
+involves processes of co-operation in achievement, the type of society
+is symbolic of the status of progress.  The function of the group is to
+establish social order of its members, protect them from external foes,
+as well as internal maladies, and to bring into existence a new force
+by which greater achievement is possible than when individuals are
+working separately.
+
+_The Social Individual_.--While society is made of physio-psychic
+individuals, as a matter of fact the social individual is made by
+interactions and reactions arising from human association.  Society on
+one hand and the social individual on the other are both developed at
+the same time through the process of living together in co-operation
+and mutual aid.  Society once created, no matter how imperfect, begins
+its work for the good of all its members.  It begins to provide against
+cold and hunger and to protect from wild animals and wild men.  It
+becomes a feeling, thinking, willing group seeking the best for all.
+It is in the fully developed society that the social process appears of
+providing a water-supply, sanitation through sewer systems,
+preventative medicine and health measures, public education, means of
+establishing its members in rights, duties, and privileges, and
+protecting them in the pursuit of industry.
+
+_The Ethnic Society_.--Just at what period society became well
+established is not known, but there are indications that some forms of
+primitive family life and social activities were {444} in existence
+among the men of the Old Stone Age, and certainly in the Neolithic
+period.  After races had reached a stage of permanent historical
+records, or had even handed down traditions from generation to
+generation, there are evidences of family life and tribal or national
+achievements.  Though there are evidences of religious group activities
+prior to formal tribal life, it may be stated in general that the first
+permanent organization was on a family or ethnic basis.  Blood
+relationship was the central idea of cohesion, which was early aided by
+religious superstition and belief.  Following this idea, all of the
+ancient monarchies and empires were based on the ethnic group or race.
+All of this indicates that society was based on natural law, and from
+that were gradually evolved the general and political elements which
+foreshadowed the enlarged functions of the more complex society of
+modern times.
+
+_The Territorial Group_.--Before the early tribal groups had settled
+down to permanent habitations, they had developed many social
+activities, but when they became permanently settled they passed from
+the ethnic to the demographic form of social order--that is, they
+developed a territorial group that performed all of its functions
+within a given boundary which they called their own.  From this time on
+population increased and occupied territory expanded, and the group
+became self-sufficient and independent in character.  Then it could
+co-operate with other groups and differentiate functions within.
+Industrial, religious, and political groups, sacred orders, and
+voluntary associations became prominent, all under the protection of
+the general social order.
+
+_The National Group Founded on Race Expansion_.--Through conquest,
+amalgamation, and assimilation, various independent groups were united
+in national life.  All of the interior forces united in the
+perpetuation of the nation, which became strong and domineering in its
+attitude toward others.  This led to warfare, conquest, or plunder, the
+union of the conquered with the conquerors, and imperialism came into
+being.  Growth of wealth and population led to the demand for more
+territory {445} and the continuation of strife and warfare.  The rise
+and fall of nations, the formation and dissolving of empires under the
+constant shadow of war continued through the ages.  While some progress
+was made, it was in the face of conspicuous waste of life and energy,
+and the process of national protection of humanity has been of doubtful
+utility.  Yet the development of hereditary leadership, the dominance
+of privileged classes, and the formation of traditions, laws, and forms
+of government went on unabated, during which the division of industrial
+and social functions within, causing numerous classes to continually
+differentiate, took place.
+
+_The Functions of New Groups_.--In all social groupings the function
+always precedes the form or structure of the social order.  Society
+follows the method of organic evolution in growing by differentiation.
+New organs or parts are formed, which in time become strengthened and
+developed.  The organs or parts become more closely articulated with
+each other and with the whole social body, and finally over all is the
+great society, which defends, shields, protects, and fights for all.
+The individual may report for life service in many departments, through
+which his relation to great society must be manifested.  He no longer
+can go alone in his relation to the whole mass.  He may co-operate in a
+general way, it is true, with all, but must have a particularly active
+co-operation in the smaller groups on which his life service and life
+sustenance depend.  The multiplication of functions leads to increased
+division of service and to increased co-operation.  In the industrial
+life the division of labor and formation of special groups are more
+clearly manifested.
+
+_Great Society and the Social Order_.--This is manifested chiefly in
+the modern state and the powerful expression of public opinion.  No
+matter how traditional, autocratic, and arbitrary the centralized
+government becomes, there is continually arising modifying power from
+local conditions.  There are things that the czar or the king does not
+do if he wishes to continue in permanent authority.  From the masses of
+the {446} people there arises opposition to arbitrary power, through
+expressed discontent, public opinion, or revolution.  The whole social
+field of Europe has been a seething turmoil of action and reaction, of
+autocracy and the demand for human rights.  Thirst for national
+aggrandizement and power and the lust of the privileged classes have
+been modified by the distressing cry of the suffering people.  What a
+slow process is social evolution and what a long struggle has been
+waged for human rights!
+
+_Great Society Protects Voluntary Organizations_.--Freedom of assembly,
+debate, and organization is one of the important traits of social
+organization.  With the ideal of democracy comes also freedom of speech
+and the press.  Voluntary organizations for the good of the members or
+for a distinctive agency for general good may be made and receive
+protection in society at large through law, the courts, and public
+opinion; but the right to organize does not carry with it the right to
+destroy, and all such organizations must conform to the general good as
+expressed in the laws of the land.  Sometimes organizations interested
+in their own institutions have been detrimental to the general good.
+Even though they have law and public opinion with them, in their zeal
+for propaganda they have overstepped the rules of progress.  But such
+conditions cannot last; progress will cause them to change their
+attitude or they meet a social death.
+
+_The Widening Service of the Church_.--The importance of the religious
+life in the progress of humanity is acknowledged by all careful
+scholars.  Sometimes, it is true, this religious belief has been
+detrimental to the highest interests of social welfare.  Religion
+itself is necessarily conservative, and when overcome by superstition,
+tradition, and dogmatism, it may stifle the intellect and retard
+progress.  The history of the world records many instances of this.
+
+The modern religious life, however, has taken upon it, as a part of its
+legitimate function, the ethical relations of mankind.  Ethics has been
+prominent in the doctrine and service of the church.  When the church
+turned its attention to the {447} future life, with undue neglect of
+the present, it became non-progressive and worked against the best
+interests of social progress.  When it based its operation entirely
+upon faith, at the expense of reason and judgment, it tended to enslave
+the intellect and to rob mankind of much of its best service.  But when
+it turned its attention to sweetening and purifying the present,
+holding to the future by faith, that man might have a larger and better
+life, it opened the way for social progress.  Its motto has been, in
+recent years, the salvation of this life that the future may be
+assured.  Its aim is to seize the best that this life furnishes and to
+utilize it for the elevation of man, individually and socially.  Its
+endeavor is to save this life as the best and holiest reality yet
+offered to man.  Faith properly exercised leads to invention,
+discovery, social activity, and general culture.  It gives an impulse
+not only to religious life, but to all forms of social activity.  But
+it must work with the full sanction of intelligence and allow a
+continual widening activity of reason and judgment.
+
+The church has shown a determination to take hold of all classes of
+human society and all means of reform and regeneration.  It has evinced
+a tendency to seize all the products of culture, all the improvements
+of science, all the revelations of truth, and turn them to account in
+the upbuilding of mankind on earth, in perfecting character and
+relieving mankind, in developing the individual and improving social
+conditions.  The church has thus entered the educational world, the
+missionary field, the substratum of society, the political life, and
+the field of social order, everywhere becoming a true servant of the
+people.
+
+_Growth of Religious Toleration_.--There is no greater evidence of the
+progress of human society than the growth of religious toleration.  In
+the first hundred years of the Reformation, religious toleration was
+practically unknown.  Indeed, the last fifty years has seen a more
+rapid growth in this respect than in the previous three hundred.
+Luther and his followers could not tolerate Calvinists any more than
+they could {448} Catholics, and Calvinists, on the other hand, could
+tolerate no other religious opinion.
+
+The slow evolution of religious toleration in England is one of the
+most remarkable things in history.  Henry VIII, "Defender of the
+Faith," was opposed to religious liberty.  Queen Mary persecuted all
+except Catholics.  Elizabeth completed the establishment of the
+Anglican Church, though, forced by political reasons, she gave more or
+less toleration to all parties.  But Cromwell advocated unrelenting
+Puritanism by legislation and by the sword.  James I, though a
+Protestant wedded to imperialism in government, permitted oppression.
+The Bill of Rights, which secured to the English people the privileges
+of constitutional government, insisted that no person who should
+profess the "popish" religion or marry a "papist" should be qualified
+to wear the crown of England.
+
+At the close of the sixteenth century it was a common principle of
+belief that any person who adhered to heterodox opinions in religion
+should be burned alive or otherwise put to death.  Each church adhered
+to this sentiment, though, it is true, many persons believed
+differently, and at the close of the seventeenth century Bossuet, the
+great French ecclesiastic, maintained with close argument that the
+right of the civil magistrate to punish religious errors was a point on
+which nearly all churches agreed, and asserted that only two bodies of
+Christians, the Socinians and the Anabaptists, denied it.
+
+In 1673 all persons holding office under the government of England were
+compelled to take the oath of supremacy and of allegiance, to declare
+against transubstantiation, and to take the sacrament according to the
+ritual of the established church.  In 1689 the Toleration Act was
+passed, exempting dissenters from the Church of England from the
+penalties of non-attendance on the service of the established church.
+This was followed by a bill abolishing episcopacy in Scotland.  In 1703
+severe laws were passed in Ireland against those who professed the
+Roman Catholic religion.  The Test Act was not repealed until 1828,
+when the oath was taken "on the true {449} faith of a Christian," which
+was substituted for the sacrament test.
+
+From this time on Protestant dissenters might hold office.  In the year
+following, the Catholic Relief Act extended toleration to the
+Catholics, permitting them to hold any offices except those of regent,
+lord chancellor of England or Ireland, and of viceroy of Ireland.  In
+1858, by act of Parliament, Jews were for the first time admitted to
+that body.  In 1868 the Irish church was disestablished and disendowed,
+and a portion of its funds devoted to education.  But it was not until
+1871 that persons could lecture in the universities of Oxford and
+Cambridge without taking the sacrament of the established church and
+adhering to its principles.
+
+The growth of toleration in America has been evinced in the struggle of
+the different denominations for power.  The church and the state,
+though more or less closely connected in the colonies of America, have
+been entirely separated under the Constitution, and therefore the
+struggle for liberal views has been between the different denominations
+themselves.  In Europe and in America one of the few great events of
+the century has been the entire separation of church and state.  It has
+gone so far in America that most of the states have ceased to aid any
+private or denominational institutions.
+
+There is a tendency, also, not to support Indian schools carried on by
+religious denominations, or else to have them under the especial
+control of the United States government.  There has been, too, a
+liberalizing tendency among the different denominations themselves.  In
+some rural districts, and among ignorant classes, bigotry and
+intolerance, of course, break out occasionally, but upon the whole
+there is a closer union of the various denominations upon a
+co-operative basis of redeeming men from error, and a growing tendency
+to tolerate differing beliefs.
+
+_Altruism and Democracy_.--The law of evolution that involves the
+survival of the fittest of organic life when applied to humanity was
+modified by social action.  But as man must {450} always figure as an
+individual and his development is caused by intrinsic and extrinsic
+stimuli, he has never been free from the exercise of the individual
+struggle for existence, no matter how highly society is developed nor
+to what extent group activity prevails.  The same law continues in
+relation to the survival of the group along with other groups, and as
+individual self-interest, the normal function of the individual, may
+pass into selfishness, so group interest may pass into group
+selfishness, and the dominant idea of the group may be its own
+survival.  This develops institutionalism, which has been evidenced in
+every changing phase of social organization.
+
+Along with this have grown altruistic principles based on the law of
+love, which in its essentials is antagonistic to the law of the
+survival of the fittest.  It has been developed from two sources--one
+which originally was founded on race morality, that is, the protection
+of individuals for the good of the order, and the other that of
+sympathy with suffering of the weak and unprotected.  In the progress
+of modern society the application of Christian principles to life has
+kept pace with the application of democratic principles in establishing
+the rights of man.
+
+Gradually the duty of society to protect and care for the weak has
+become generally recognized.  This idea has been entirely
+overemphasized in many cases, on the misapplication of the theory that
+one individual is as good as another and entitled to equality of
+treatment by all.  At least it is possible for the normal progress of
+society to be retarded if the strong become weakened by excessive care
+of the weak.  The law of love must be so exercised that it will not
+increase weakness on the part of those being helped, nor lessen the
+opportunities of the strong to survive and manifest their strength.
+The history of the English Poor Law is an account of the systematic
+care of pauperism to the extent that paupers were multiplied so that
+those who were bearing the burden of taxation for their support found
+it easier and, indeed, sometimes necessary to join the pauper ranks in
+order to live at all.
+
+{451}
+
+Many are alarmed to-day at the multiplication of the number of insane,
+weak-minded, imbeciles, and paupers who must be supported by the
+taxation of the people and helped in a thousand ways by the altruism of
+individuals and groups.  Unless along with this excessive altruistic
+care, scientific principles of breeding, of prevention, and of care can
+be introduced, the dependent, defective, and delinquent classes of the
+world will eventually become a burden to civilization.  Society cannot
+shirk its duty to care for these groups, but it would be a misfortune
+if they reach a status where they can demand support and protection of
+society.  It is a question whether we have not already approached in a
+measure this condition.  Fortunately there is enough knowledge in the
+world of science regarding man and society to prevent any such
+catastrophe, if it could only be applied.
+
+Hence, since one of the great ideals of life is to develop a perfect
+society built upon rational principles, the study of social pathology
+has become important.  The care of the weak and the broken-down classes
+of humanity has something more than altruism as a foundation.  Upon it
+rest the preservation of the individual and the perpetuation of a
+healthy social organism.  The care of the insane, of imbeciles, of
+criminals, and of paupers is exercised more nearly on a scientific
+basis each succeeding year.  Prevention and reform are the fundamental
+ideas in connection with the management of these classes.  Altruism may
+be an initial motive power, prompting people to care for the needy and
+the suffering, but necessity for the preservation of society is more
+powerful in its final influences.
+
+To care for paupers without increasing pauperism is a great question,
+and is rapidly putting all charity upon a scientific basis.  To care
+for imbeciles without increasing imbecility, and to care for criminals
+on the basis of the prevention and decrease of crime, are among the
+most vital questions of modern social life.  As the conditions of human
+misery become more clearly revealed to humanity, and their evil effects
+on the social system become more apparent, greater efforts will be
+{452} put forward--greater than ever before--in the care of dependents,
+defectives, and delinquents.  Not only must the pathology of the
+individual be studied, for the preservation of his physical system, but
+the pathology of human society must receive scientific investigation in
+order to perpetuate the social organism.
+
+_Modern Society a Machine of Great Complexity_.--While the family
+remains as the most persistent primary unit of social organization out
+of which differentiated the great social functions of to-day, it now
+expresses but a very small part of the social complex.  It is true it
+is still a conserving, co-operating, propagating group of individuals,
+in which appear many of the elemental functions of society.  While it
+represents a group based on blood relationship, as in the old dominant
+family drawn together by psychical influences and preserved on account
+of the protection of the different members of the group and the various
+complex relations between them, still within its precincts are found
+the elementary practices of economic life, the rights of property, and
+the beginnings of education and religion.  Outside of this family
+nucleus there have been influences of common nationality and common
+ancestry or race, which are natural foundations of an expanded society.
+
+Along with this are the secondary influences, the memories and
+associations of a common birthplace or a common territorial community,
+and by local habitation of village, town, city, or country.  But the
+differentiation of industrial functions or activities has been most
+potent in developing social complexity.  The multiplication of
+activities, the choice of occupation, and the division of labor have
+multiplied the economic groups by the thousand.  Following this,
+natural voluntary social groups spring up on every hand.
+
+Again, partly by choice and partly by environment, we find society
+drawn together in other groups, more or less influenced by those just
+enumerated.  From the earliest forms of social existence we find men
+are grouped together on the basis of wealth.  The interests of the rich
+are common, as are also the {453} interests of the poor and those of
+the well-to-do.  Nor is it alone a matter of interest, but in part of
+choice, that these groupings occur.  This community of interests brings
+about social coherence.
+
+Again, the trades, professions, and occupations of men draw them
+together in associated groups.  It is not infrequent that men engaged
+in the same profession are thrown together in daily contact, have the
+same interests, sentiments, and thought, and form in this way a group
+which stands almost aloof from other groups in social life; tradesmen
+dealing in a certain line of goods are thrown together in the same way.
+But the lines in these groupings must not be too firmly drawn, for
+groups formed on the basis of friendship may cover a field partaking in
+part of all these different groups.  Again, we shall find that the
+school lays the foundation of early associations, and continues to have
+an influence in creating social aggregates.  Fraternal societies and
+political parties in the same way form associated groups.
+
+The church at large forms a great organizing centre, the influence of
+which in political and social life enlarges every day.  The church body
+arranges itself in different groups on the basis of the different sects
+and denominations, and within the individual church organization there
+are small groups or societies, which again segregate religious social
+life.  But over and above all these various social groups and classes
+is the state, binding and making all cohere in a common unity.
+
+The tendency of this social life is to differentiate into more and more
+groups, positive in character, which renders our social existence
+complex and difficult to analyze.  The social groups overlap one
+another, and are interdependent in all their relations.  In one way the
+individual becomes more and more self-constituted and independent in
+his activity; in another way he is dependent on all his fellows for
+room or opportunity for action.
+
+This complexity of social life renders it difficult to estimate the
+real progress of society; yet, taking any one of these {454} individual
+groups, it will be found to be improving continually.  School life and
+school associations show a marked improvement; family life,
+notwithstanding the various evidences of the divorce courts, shows
+likewise an improved state as intelligence increases; the social life
+of the church becomes larger and broader.  The spread of literature and
+learning, the increase of education, renders each social group more
+self-sustaining and brings about a higher life, with a better code of
+morals.  Even political groups have their reactions, in which,
+notwithstanding the great room for improvement, they stand for morality
+and justice.  The relations of man to man are becoming better
+understood every day.  His fickleness and selfishness are more readily
+observed in recent than in former times, and as a result the evils of
+the present are magnified, because they are better understood; in
+reality, social conditions are improving, and the fact that social
+conditions are understood and evils clearly observed promises a great
+improvement for the future.
+
+_Interrelation of Different Parts of Society_.--The various social
+aggregates are closely interrelated and mutually dependent upon one
+another.  The state itself, though expressing the unity of society, is
+a highly complex organization, consisting of forms of local and central
+government.  These parts, having independent functions, are
+co-ordinated to the general whole.  Voluntary organizations have their
+specific relation to the state, which fosters and protects them on an
+independent basis.  The school, likewise, has its relation to the
+social life, having an independent function, yet touching all parts of
+the social life.
+
+We find the closest interdependence of individuals in the economic
+life.  Each man performs a certain service which he exchanges for the
+services of others.  The wealth which he creates with his own hand,
+limited in kind, must be exchanged for all the other commodities which
+he would have.  More than this, all people are ranged in economic
+groups, each group dependent upon all the others--the farmers dependent
+upon {455} the manufacturers of implements and goods, upon bankers,
+lawyers, ministers, and teachers; the manufacturers dependent upon the
+farmers and all the other classes; and so with every class.
+
+This interdependent relation renders it impossible to improve one group
+without improving the others, or to work a great detriment to one group
+without injuring the others.  If civilization is to be perpetuated and
+improved, the banker must be interested in the welfare of the farmer,
+the farmer in the welfare of the banker, both in the prosperity of
+manufacturers, and all in the welfare of the common laborer.  The
+tendency for this mutual interest to increase is evinced in all human
+social relations, and speaks well for the future of civilization.
+
+_The Progress of the Race Based on Social
+Opportunities_.--Anthropologists tell us that no great change in the
+physical capacity of man has taken place for many centuries.  The
+maximum brain capacity has probably not exceeded that of the Crô-Magnon
+race in the Paleolithic period of European culture.  Undoubtedly,
+however, there has been some change in the quality of the brain,
+increasing its storage batteries of power and through education the
+utilization of that power.  We would scarcely expect, however, with all
+of our education and scientific development, to increase the stature of
+man or to enlarge his brain.  Much is being done, however, in getting
+the effective service of the brain not only through natural selective
+processes, but through education.  The improvement of human society has
+been brought about largely by training and the increased knowledge
+which it has brought to us through invention and discovery, and their
+application to the practical and theoretical arts.
+
+All these would have been buried had it not been for the protection of
+co-operative society and the increased power derived therefrom.  Even
+though we exercise the selective power of humanity under the direction
+of our best intelligence, the individual must find his future
+opportunity in the better {456} conditions furnished by society.
+Granted that individual and racial powers are essential through
+hereditary development, progress can only be obtained by the expression
+of these powers through social activity.  For it is only through social
+co-operation that a new power is brought into existence, namely,
+achievement by mutual aid.  This assertion does not ignore the fact
+that the mutations of progress arise from the brain centres of
+geniuses, and that by following up these mutations by social action
+they may become productive and furnish opportunity for progress.
+
+_The Central Idea of Modern Civilization_.--The object of life is not
+to build a perfect social mechanism.  It is only a means to a greater
+end, namely, that the individual shall have opportunity to develop and
+exercise the powers which nature has given him.  This involves an
+opportunity for the expression of his whole nature, physical and
+mental, for the satisfaction of his normal desires for home, happiness,
+prosperity, and achievement.  It involves, too, the question of
+individual rights, privileges, and duties.
+
+The history of man reveals to us somewhat of his progress.  There is
+ever before us the journey which he has taken in reaching his present
+status.  The road has been very long, very rough, very crooked.  What
+he has accomplished has been at fearful expense.  Thousands have
+perished, millions have been swept away, that a single idea for the
+elevation and culture of the race might remain.  Deplore it as we may,
+the end could be reached only thus.  The suffering of humanity is
+gradually lessening, and destruction and waste being stayed, yet we
+must recognize, in looking to the future, that all means of improvement
+will be retarded by the imperfection of human life and human conditions.
+
+The central principle, however, the great nucleus of civilization,
+becomes more clearly defined, in turn revealing that man's happiness on
+earth, based upon duty and service, is the end of progress.  If the
+achievements of science, the vast accumulations of wealth, the
+perfection of social organization, {457} the increased power of
+individual life--if all these do not yield better social conditions, if
+they do not give to humanity at large greater contentment, greater
+happiness, a larger number of things to know and enjoy, they must fail
+in their service.  But they will not fail.  Man is now a larger
+creature in every way than ever before.  He has better religion; a
+greater God in the heavens, ruling with beneficence and wisdom; a
+larger number of means for improvement everywhere; and the desire and
+determination to master these things and turn them to his own benefit.
+The pursuit of truth reveals man to himself and God to him.  The
+promotion of justice and righteousness makes his social life more
+complete and happy.  The investigations of science and the advances of
+invention and discovery increase his material resources, furnishing him
+means with which to work; and with increasing intelligence he will
+understand more clearly his destiny--the highest culture of mind and
+body and the keenest enjoyment of the soul.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What were the chief causes of aggregation of people?
+
+2.  Are there evidences of groups without the beginning of social
+organization?
+
+3.  What is the relation of the individual to society?
+
+4.  The basis of national groups.
+
+5.  Factors in the progress of the human race.
+
+6.  Growth of religious toleration in the world.
+
+7.  Name ten "American institutions" that should be perpetuated.
+
+8.  Race and democracy.
+
+9.  What per cent of the voters of your town take a vital interest in
+government?
+
+10.  The growth of democratic ideas in Europe.  In Asia.
+
+11.  Study the welfare organizations in your town, comparing objects
+and results.
+
+12.  The trend of population from country to city and its influence on
+social organization.
+
+13.  Explain why people follow the fashions.
+
+
+
+
+{458}
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF SCIENCE
+
+_Science Is an Attitude of Mind Toward Life_.--As usually defined,
+science represents a classified body of knowledge logically arranged
+with the purpose of arriving at definite principles or truths by
+processes of investigation and comparison.  But the largest part of
+science is found in its method of approaching the truth as compared
+with religion, philosophy, or disconnected knowledge obtained by casual
+observation.  In many ways it is in strong contrast with speculative
+philosophy and with dogmatic theology, both of which lack sufficient
+data for scientific development.  The former has a tendency to
+interpret what is assumed to have already been established.  With the
+latter the laboratory of investigation of truth has been closed.  The
+laboratory of science is always open.
+
+While scientists work with hypotheses, use the imagination, and even
+become dogmatic in their assertions, the degree of certainty is always
+tested in the laboratory.  If a truth is discovered to-day, it must be
+verified in the laboratory or shown to be incorrect or only a partial
+truth.  Science has been built up on the basis of the inquiry into
+nature's processes.  It is all the time inquiring: "What do we find
+under the microscope, through the telescope, in the chemical and
+physical reactions, in the examination of the earth and its products,
+in the observation of the functions of animals and plants, or in the
+structure of the brain of man and the laws of his mental functioning?"
+If it establishes an hypothesis as a means of procedure, it must be
+determined true or abandoned.  If the imagination ventures to be
+far-seeing, observation, experimentation, and the discovery of fact
+must all come to its support before it can be called scientific.
+
+_Scientific Methods_.--We have already referred to the turning of the
+minds of the Greeks from the power of the gods to {459} a look into
+nature's processes.  We have seen how they lacked a scientific method
+and also scientific data sufficient to verify their assumptions.  We
+have observed how, while they took a great step forward, their
+conclusions were lost in the Dark Ages and in the early mediaeval
+period, and how they were brought to light in the later medieval period
+and helped to form the scholastic philosophy and to stimulate free
+inquiry, and how the weakness of all systems was manifested in all
+these periods of human life by failure to use the simple process of
+observing the facts of nature, getting them and classifying them so as
+to demonstrate truth.  It will not be possible to recount in this
+chapter a full description of the development of science and scientific
+thought.  Not more can be done than to mention the turning-points in
+its development and expansion.
+
+Though other influences of minor importance might be mentioned, it is
+well to note that Roger Bacon (1214-1294) stands out prominently as the
+first philosopher of the mediaeval period who turned his attitude of
+mind earnestly toward nature.  It is true that he was not free from the
+taint of dogmatic theology and scholastic philosophy which were so
+strongly prevailing at the time, but he advocated the discovery of
+truth by observation and experiment, which was a bold assumption at
+that time.  He established as one of his main principles that
+experimental science "investigates the secrets of nature by its own
+competency and out of its own qualities, irrespective of any connection
+with the other sciences."  Thus he did not universalize his method as
+applicable to all sciences.
+
+Doubtless Roger Bacon received his inspiration from the Greek and
+Arabian scientists with whom he was familiar.  It is interesting that,
+following the lines of observation and discovery in a very primitive
+way, he let his imagination run on into the future, predicting many
+things that have happened already.  Thus he says: "Machines for
+navigation are possible without rowers, like great ships suited to
+river or ocean, going with greater velocity than if they were full of
+rowers; likewise {460} wagons may be moved _cum impetu inaestimabili_,
+as we deem the chariots of antiquity to have been.  And there may be
+flying-machines, so made that a man may sit in the middle of the
+machine and direct it by some device; and again, machines for raising
+great weights."[1]
+
+In continuity with the ideas of Roger Bacon, Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
+gave a classification of human learning and laid the real foundation on
+which the superstructure of science has been built.  Between the two
+lives much had been done by Copernicus, who taught that the earth was
+not the centre of the universe, and that it revolved on its axis from
+west to east.  This gave the traditions of fourteen centuries a severe
+jolt, and laid the foundation for the development of the heliocentric
+system of astronomy.  Bacon's classification of all knowledge showed
+the relationship of the branches to a comprehensive whole.  His
+fundamental theory was that nature was controlled and modified by man.
+He recognized the influence of natural philosophy, but insisted that
+the "history mechanical" was a strong support to it.
+
+His usefulness seems to have been in the presentation of a wide range
+of knowledge distinctly connected, the demonstration of the utility of
+knowledge, and the suggestion of unsolved problems which should be
+investigated by observation and experiment.  Without giving his
+complete classification of human learning, it may be well to state his
+most interesting classification of physical science to show the middle
+ground which he occupied between mediaeval thought and our modern
+conception of science.  This classification is as follows:
+
+  1.  Celestial phenomena.
+  2.  Atmosphere.
+  3.  Globe.
+  4.  Substance of earth, air, fire, and water.
+  5.  Genera, species, etc.[2]
+
+{461}
+
+Descartes, following Bacon, had much to do with the establishment of
+method, although he laid more stress upon deduction than upon
+induction.  With Bacon he believed that there was need of a better
+method of finding out the truth than that of logic.  He was strong in
+his refusal to recognize anything as true that he did not understand,
+and had no faith in the mere assumption of truth, insisting upon
+absolute proof derived through an intelligent order.  Perhaps, too, his
+idea was to establish universal mathematics, for he recognized
+measurements and lines everywhere in the universe, and recognized the
+universality of all natural phenomena, laying great stress on the
+solution of problems by measurement.  He was a fore runner of Newton
+and many other scientists, and as such represents an epoch-making
+period in scientific development.
+
+The trend of thought by a few leaders having been directed to the
+observation of nature and the experimentation with natural phenomena,
+the way was open for the shifting of the centre of thought of the
+entire world.  It only remained now for each scientist to work out in
+his own way his own experiments.  The differentiation of knowledge
+brought about many phases of thought and built up separate divisions of
+science.  While each one has had an evolution of its own, all together
+they have worked out a larger progress of the whole.  Thus Gilbert
+(1540-1603) carried on practical experiments and observations with the
+lodestone, or magnet, and thus made a faint beginning of the study of
+electrical phenomena which in recent years has played such an important
+part in the progress of the world.  Harvey (1578-1657) by his careful
+study of the blood determined its circulation through the heart by
+means of the arterial and venous systems.  This was an important step
+in leading to anatomical studies and set the world far ahead of the
+medical studies of the Arabians.
+
+Galileo (1564-1642), in his study of the heavenly bodies and the
+universe, carried out the suggestion of Copernicus a century before of
+the revolution of the earth on its axis, to {462} take the place of the
+old theory that the sun revolved around the earth.  Indeed, this was
+such a disturbing factor among churchmen, theologians, and
+pseudo-philosophers that Galileo was forced to recant his statements.
+In 1632 he published at Florence his _Dialogue on the Ptolemaic and
+Copernican Systems of the World_.  For this he was cited to Rome, his
+book ordered to be burned, and he was sentenced to be imprisoned, to
+make a recantation of his errors, and by way of penance to recite the
+seven penitential psalms once a week.
+
+It seems very strange that a man who could make a telescope to study
+the heavenly bodies and carry on experiments with such skill that he
+has been called the founder of experimental science could be forced to
+recant the things which he was convinced by experiment and observation
+to be true.  However, it must be remembered that the mediaeval doctrine
+of authority had taken possession of the minds of the world of thinkers
+to such an extent that to oppose it openly seemed not only sacrilege
+but the tearing down of the walls of faith and destroying the permanent
+structure of society.  Moreover, the minds of all thinkers were trying
+to hold on to the old while they developed the new, and not one could
+think of destroying the faith of the church.  But the church did not so
+view this, and took every opportunity to suppress everything new as
+being destructive of the church.
+
+No one could contemplate the tremendous changes that might have been
+made in the history of the world if the church could have abandoned its
+theological dogmas far enough to welcome all new truth that was
+discovered in God's workshop.  To us in the twentieth century who have
+such freedom of expressing both truth and untruth, it is difficult to
+realize to what extent the authorities of the Middle Ages tried to seal
+the fountains of truth.  Picture a man kneeling before the authorities
+at Rome and stating: "With a sincere heart and unfeigned faith I
+abjure, curse, and detest the said errors and heresies.  I swear that
+for the future I will never say nor assert anything verbally or in
+writing which may give rise to a {463} similar suspicion against
+me."[3]  Thus he was compelled to recant and deny his theory that the
+earth moves around the sun.
+
+_Measurement in Scientific Research_.--All scientific research involves
+the recounting of recurring phenomena within a given time and within a
+given space.  In order, therefore, to carry on systematic research,
+methods of measuring are necessary.  We can thus see how mathematics,
+although developed largely through the study of astronomy, has been
+necessary to all investigation.  Ticho Brahe and Kepler may be said to
+have accentuated the phase of accurate measurement in investigation.
+They specialized in chemistry and astronomy, all measurements being
+applied to the heavenly bodies.  Their main service was found in
+accurate records of data.  Kepler maintained "that every planet moved
+in an ellipse of which the sun occupied one focus."  He also held "that
+the square of the periodic time of any planet is proportional to the
+cube of its mean distance from the sun," and "that the area swept by
+the radius vector from the planet to the sun is proportional to the
+time."[4]  He was much aided in his measurements by the use of a system
+of logarithms invented by John Napier (1614).  Many measurements were
+established regarding heat, pressure of air, and the relation of solids
+and liquids.
+
+Isaac Newton, by connecting up a single phenomenon of a body falling a
+distance of a few feet on the earth with all similar phenomena, through
+the law of gravitation discovered the unity of the universe.  Though
+Newton carried on important investigations in astronomy, studied the
+refraction of light through optic glasses, was president of the Royal
+Society, his chief contribution to the sciences was the tying together
+of the sun, the planets, and the moons of the solar system by the
+attraction of gravitation.  Newton was able to carry along with his
+scientific investigations a profound reverence for Christianity.  That
+he was not attacked shows that there had {464} been considerable
+progress made in toleration of new ideas.  With all of his greatness of
+vision, he had the humbleness of a true scientist.  A short time before
+his death he said: "I know not what I may appear to the world; but to
+myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the seashore, and
+diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble, or a
+prettier shell, than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all
+undiscovered before me."
+
+_Science Develops from Centres_.--Bodies of truth in the world are all
+related one to another.  Hence, when a scientist investigates and
+experiments along a particular line, he must come in contact more or
+less with other lines.  And while there is a great differentiation in
+the discovery of knowledge by investigation, no single truth can ever
+be established without more or less relation to all other truths.
+Likewise, scientists, although working from different centres, are each
+contributing in his own way to the establishment of universal truth.
+Even in the sixteenth century scientists began to co-operate and
+interchange views, and as soon as their works were published, each fed
+upon the others as he needed in advancing his own particular branch of
+knowledge.
+
+It is said that Bacon in his _New Atlantis_ gave such a magnificent
+dream of an opportunity for the development of science and learning
+that it was the means of forming the Royal Society in England.  That
+association was the means of disseminating scientific truth and
+encouraging investigation and publication of results.  It was a
+tremendous advancement of the cause of science, and has been a type for
+the formation of hundreds of other organizations for the promotion of
+scientific truth.
+
+_Science and Democracy_.--While seeking to extend knowledge to all
+classes of people, science paves the way for recognition of equal
+rights and privileges.  Science is working all the time to be free from
+the slavery of nature, and the result of its operations is to cause
+mankind to be free from the slavery of man.  Therefore, liberty and
+science go hand in hand in {465} their development.  It is interesting
+to note in this connection that so many scientists have come from
+groups forming the ordinary occupations of life rather than, as we
+might expect, from the privileged classes who have had leisure and
+opportunity for development.  Thus, "Pasteur was the son of a tanner,
+Priestley of a cloth-maker, Dalton of a weaver, Lambert of a tailor,
+Kant of a saddler, Watt of a ship-builder, Smith of a farmer, and John
+Ray was, like Faraday, the son of a blacksmith.  Joule was a brewer.
+Davy, Scheele, Dumas, Balard, Liebig, Wöhler, and a number of other
+distinguished chemists were apothecaries' apprentices."[5]
+
+Science also is a great leveller because all scientists are bowing down
+to the same truth discovered by experimentation or observation, and,
+moreover, scientists are at work in the laboratories and cannot be
+dogmatic for any length of time.  But scientists arise from all classes
+of people, so far as religious or political belief is concerned.  Many
+of the foremost scientists have been distributed among the Roman
+Catholics, Anglicans, Calvinists, Quakers, Unitarians, and Agnostics.
+The only test act that science knows is that of the recognition of
+truth.
+
+Benjamin Franklin was a printer whose scientific investigations were
+closely intermingled with the problems of human rights.  His
+experiments in science were subordinate to the experiments of human
+society.  His great contribution to science was the identification of
+lightning and the spark from a Leyden jar.  For the identification and
+control of lightning he received a medal from the Royal Society.  The
+discussion of liberty and the part he took in the independence of the
+colonies of America represent his greatest contribution to the world.
+To us he is important, for he embodied in one mind the expression of
+scientific and political truth, showing that science makes for
+democracy and democracy for science.  In each case it is the choice of
+the liberalized mind.
+
+_The Study of the Biological and Physical Sciences_.--The last century
+is marked by scientific development along several {466} rather distinct
+lines as follows: the study of the earth, or geology; animal and
+vegetable life, or biology; atomic analysis, or chemistry;
+biochemistry; physics, especially that part relating to electricity and
+radioactivity; and more recently it might be stated that investigations
+are carried on in psychology and sociology, while mathematics and
+astronomy have made progress.
+
+The main generalized point of research, if it could be so stated, is
+the discovery of law and order.  This has been demonstrated in the
+development of chemistry under the atomic theory; physics in the
+molecular theory; the law of electrons in electricity, and the
+evolutionary theory in the study of biology.  Great advance has been
+made in the medical sciences, including the knowledge of the nature and
+prevention of disease.  Though a great many new discoveries and, out of
+new discoveries, new inventions have appeared along specific lines and
+various sciences have advanced with accuracy and precision, perhaps the
+evolutionary theory has changed the thought of the world more than any
+other.  It has connected man with the rest of the universe and made him
+a definite part of it.
+
+_The Evolutionary Theory_.--The geography of the earth as presented by
+Lyell, the theory of population of Malthus, and the _Origin of the
+Species_ and the _Descent of Man_ by Darwin changed the preconceived
+notions of the creation of man.  Slowly and without ostentation science
+everywhere had been forcing all nature into unity controlled by
+universal laws.  Traditional belief was not prepared for the bold
+statement of Darwin that man was part of the slow development of animal
+life through the ages.
+
+For 2,000 years or more the philosophic world had been wedded to the
+idea of a special creation of man entirely independent of the creation
+of the rest of the universe.  All conceptions of God, man, and his
+destiny rested upon the recognition of a separate creation.  To deny
+this meant a reconstruction of much of the religious philosophy of the
+world.  Persons {467} were needlessly alarmed and began to attack the
+doctrine on the assumption that anything interfering with the
+long-recognized interpretation of the relation of man to creation was
+wrong and was instituted for the purpose of tearing down the ancient
+landmarks.
+
+Darwin accepted in general the Lamarckian doctrine that each succeeding
+generation would have new characters added to it by the modification of
+environmental factors and by the use and disuse of organs and
+functions.  Thus gradually under such selection the species would be
+improved.  But Darwin emphasized selection through hereditary traits.
+
+Subsequently, Weismann and others reinterpreted Darwin's theory and
+strengthened its main propositions, abandoning the Lamarckian theory of
+use and disuse.  Mendel, De Vries, and other biologists have added to
+the Darwinian theory by careful investigations into the heredity of
+plants and animals, but because Darwin was the first to give clear
+expression to the theory of evolution, "Darwinism" is used to express
+the general theory.
+
+Cosmic evolution, or the development of the universe, has been
+generally acknowledged by the acceptance of the results of the studies
+of geology, astronomy, and physics.  History of plant and animal life
+is permanently written in the rocks, and their evolutionary process so
+completely demonstrated in the laboratory that few dare to question it.
+
+Modern controversy hinges upon the assumption that man as an animal is
+not subjected to the natural laws of other animals and of plants, but
+that he had a special creation.  The maintenance of this belief has led
+to many crude and unscientific notions of the origin of man and the
+meaning of evolution.
+
+Evolution is very simple in its general traits, but very complex in its
+details.  It is a theory of process and not a theory of creation.  It
+is continuous, progressive change, brought about by natural forces and
+in accordance with natural laws.  The evolutionist studies these
+changes and records the results obtained thereby.  The scientist thus
+discovers new truths, {468} establishes the relation of one truth to
+another, enlarges the boundary of knowledge, extends the horizon of the
+unknown, and leaves the mystery of the beginning of life unsolved.  His
+laboratory is always open to retest and clarify his work and to add new
+knowledge as fast as it is acquired.
+
+Evolution as a working theory for science has correlated truths,
+unified methods, and furnished a key to modern thought.  As a
+co-operative science it has had a stimulating influence on all lines of
+research, not only in scientific study of physical nature, but also in
+the study of man, for there are natural laws as well as man-made laws
+to be observed in the development of human society.
+
+Some evolutionary scientists will be dogmatic at times, but they return
+to their laboratories and proceed to reinterpret what they have
+assumed, so that their dogmatism is of short duration.  Theological
+dogmatists are not so fortunate, because of persistence of religious
+tradition which has not yet been put fully to the laboratory test.
+Some of them are continuously and hopelessly dogmatic.  They still
+adhere to belief founded on the emotions which they refuse to put to
+scientific test.  Science makes no attempt to undermine religion, but
+is unconsciously laying a broader foundation on which religion may
+stand.  Theologians who are beginning to realize this are forced to
+re-examine the Bible and reinterpret it according to the knowledge and
+enlightenment of the time.  Thus science becomes a force to advance
+Christianity, not to destroy it.
+
+On the other hand, science becomes less dogmatic as it applies its own
+methods to religion and humanity and recognizes that there is a great
+world of spiritual truth which cannot be determined by experiments in
+the physical laboratory.  It can be estimated only in the laboratory of
+human action.  Faith, love, virtue, and spiritual vision cannot be
+explained by physical and chemical reactions.  If in the past science
+has rightly pursued its course of investigation regardless of spiritual
+truth, the future is full of promise that religion and human reactions
+and science will eventually work together in the pursuit of {469} truth
+in God's great workshop.  The unity of truth will be thus realized.
+The area of knowledge will be enlarged while the horizon of the unknown
+will be extended.  The mystery of life still remains unsolved.
+
+Galton followed along in the study of the development of race and
+culture, and brought in a new study of human life.  Pasteur and Lister
+worked out their great factors of preventive medicine and health.
+Madame Curie developed the radioactivity as a great contribution to the
+evolution of science.  All of this represents the slow evolution of
+science, each new discovery quickening the thought of the age in which
+it occurred, changing the attitude of the mind toward nature and life,
+and contributing to human comfort and human welfare.  But the greatest
+accomplishment always in the development of science is its effect on
+the mental processes of humanity, stimulating thought and changing the
+attitude of mind toward life.
+
+_Science and War_.--It is a travesty on human progress, a social
+paradox, that war and science go hand in hand.  On one side are all of
+the machines of destruction, the battleships, bombing-planes, huge
+guns, high explosives, and poisonous gases, products of scientific
+experiment and inventive genius, and on the other ambulances,
+hospitals, medical and surgical care, with the uses of all medical
+discoveries.  The one seeks destruction, the other seeks to allay
+suffering; one force destroys life, the other saves it.  And yet they
+march forth under the same flag to conquer the enemy.  It is like the
+conquest of the American Indians by the Spaniards, in which the warrior
+bore in one hand a banner of the cross of Christ and in the other the
+drawn sword.
+
+War has achieved much in forcing people into national unity, in giving
+freedom to the oppressed and protecting otherwise helpless people, but
+in the light of our ideals of peace it has never been more than a cruel
+necessity, and, more frequently, a grim, horrible monster.  Chemistry
+and physics and their discoveries underlying the vast material
+prosperity of moderns have contributed much to the mechanical and {470}
+industrial arts and increased the welfare and happiness of mankind.
+But when war is let loose, these same beneficent sciences are worked
+day and night for the rapid destruction of man.  All the wealth built
+up in the passing years is destroyed along with the lives of millions
+of people.
+
+Out of the gloom of the picture proceeds one ray of beneficent light,
+that of the service rendered by the discoveries of medical science and
+surgical art.  The discoveries arising from the study of anatomy,
+physiology, bacteriology, and neurology, with the use of anaesthetics
+and antiseptics in connection with surgery, have made war less horrible
+and suffering more endurable.  Scientists like Pasteur, Lister, Koch,
+Morton, and many others brought forth from their laboratories the
+results of their study for the alleviation of suffering.
+
+Yet it seems almost incredible that with all of the horrid experiences
+of war, an enterprise that no one desires, and which the great majority
+of the world deplore, should so long continue.  Nothing but the
+discovery and rise of a serum that will destroy the germs of national
+selfishness and avarice will prevent war.  Possibly it stimulates
+activity in invention, discovery, trade and commerce, but of what avail
+is it if the cycle returns again from peace to war and these products
+of increased activity are turned to the destruction of civilization?
+Does not the world need a baptism of common sense?  Some gain is being
+made in the changing attitude of mind toward the warrior in favor of
+the great scientists of the world.  But nothing will be assured until
+the hero-worship of the soldier gives way to the respect for the
+scholar, and ideals of truth and right become mightier than the sword.
+
+_Scientific Progress Is Cumulative_.--One discovery leads to another,
+one invention to others.  It is a law of science.  Science benefits the
+common man more than does politics or religion.  It is through science
+that he has means of use and enjoyment of nature's progress.  It is
+true this is on the side of materialistic culture, and it does not
+provide all that is needed for the completed life.  Even though the
+scientific {471} experiments and discoveries are fundamentally more
+essential, the common man cannot get along without social order,
+politics, or religion.
+
+Perhaps we can get the largest expression of the value of science to
+man through a consideration of the inventions and discoveries which he
+may use in every-day life.[6]  Prior to the nineteenth century we have
+to record the following important inventions: alphabetic writing,
+Arabic numbers, mariner's compass, printing, the telescope, the
+barometer and thermometer, and the steam-engine.  In the nineteenth
+century we have to record: railroads, steam navigation, the telegraph,
+the telephone, friction matches, gas lighting, electrical lighting,
+photography, the phonograph, electrical transmission of power, Röntgen
+rays, spectrum analysis, anaesthetics, antiseptic surgery, the
+airplane, gasoline-engine, transmission of news by radio, and
+transportation by automobile.  Also we shall find in the nineteenth
+century thirteen important theoretical discoveries as compared with
+seven in all previous centuries.
+
+It is interesting to note what may have taken place also in the last
+generation.  A man who was born in the middle of the last century might
+reflect on a good many things that have taken place.  Scientifically he
+has lived to see the development of electricity from a mere academic
+pursuit to a tremendous force of civilization.  Chemistry, although
+supposed to have been a completed science, was scarcely begun.  Herbert
+Spencer's _Synthetic Philosophy_ and Darwin's _Origin of the Species_
+had not yet been published.  Huxley and Tyndall, the great experimental
+scientists, had not published their great works.  Transportation with a
+few slow steam-propelled vessels crossing the ocean preceded the era of
+the great floating palaces.  The era of railroad-building had only just
+started in America.  Horseless carriages propelled by gas or
+electricity were in a state of conjecture.  Politically in America the
+Civil War had not been fought or the Constitution really completed.
+
+The great wealth and stupendous business organization of {472} to-day
+were unknown in 1850.  In Europe there was no German Empire, only a
+German Federation.  The Hapsburgs were still holding forth in Austria
+and the Hohenzollerns in Prussia and the Romanoffs in Russia.  The
+monarchial power of the old régime was the rule of the day.  These are
+institutions of the past.  Civilization in America, although it had
+invaded the Mississippi valley, had not spread over the great Western
+plains nor to the Pacific coast.  Tremendous changes in art and
+industries, in inventions and discoveries have been going on in this
+generation.  The flying-machine, the radio, the automobile, the
+dirigible balloon, and, more than all, the tremendous business
+organization of the factories and industries of the age have given us
+altogether a complete revolution.
+
+_Research Foundations_.--All modern universities carry on through
+instructors and advanced students many departments of scientific
+research.  The lines of research extend through a wide range of
+subjects--Chemistry, Biology, Physics, Anatomy, Physiology, Medicine,
+Geology, Agriculture, History, Sociology, and other departments of
+learning.  These investigations have led to the discovery of new
+knowledge and the extension of learning to mankind.  Outside of
+colleges and universities there have been established many foundations
+of research and many industrial laboratories.
+
+Prominent among those in the United States are The Carnegie Corporation
+and The Rockefeller Foundation, which are devoting hundreds of millions
+of dollars to the service of research, for the purpose of advancing
+science and directly benefiting humankind.  The results play an
+important part in the protection and daily welfare of mankind.  The
+Mellon Institute contributes much to the solution of problems of
+applied chemistry.[7] It is interesting to note how the investigation
+carried on by these and other foundations is contributing directly to
+human welfare by mastering disease.  The elimination of the hookworm
+disease, the fight to control malaria, the {473} mastery of yellow
+fever, the promotion of public health, and the study of medicine, the
+courageous attack on tuberculosis, and the suppression of typhoid
+fever, all are for the benefit of the public.  The war on disease and
+the promotion of public health by preventive measures have lowered the
+death-rate and lengthened the period of life.
+
+_The Trend of Scientific Investigations_.--While research is carried on
+in many lines, with many different objectives, it may be stated that
+intense study is devoted to the nature of matter and the direct
+connection of it with elemental forces.  The theories of the molecule
+and the atom are still working hypotheses, but the investigator has
+gone further and disintegrated the atom, showing it to be a complex of
+corpuscles or particles.  Scientists talk of electrons and protons as
+the two elemental forces and of the mechanics of the atom.  In
+chemistry, investigation follows the problems of applied chemistry,
+while organic chemistry or biochemistry opens continually new fields of
+research.  It appears that biology and chemistry are becoming more
+closely allied as researches continue and likewise physics and
+chemistry.  In the field of surgery the X-ray is in daily use, and
+radium and radioactivity may yet be great aids to medicine.  In medical
+investigation much is dependent upon the discoveries in neurology.
+This also will throw light upon the studies in psychology, for the
+relation of nerve functions to mind functions may be more clearly
+defined.
+
+Explorations of the earth and of the heavens continually add new
+knowledge of the extent and creation of the universe.  The study of
+anthropology and archaeology throw new light upon the origin and early
+history of man.  Experimental study of animals, food, soils, and crops
+adds increased means of sustenance for the race.  Recent investigations
+of scientific education, along with psychology, are throwing much light
+on mental conditions and progress.  And more recently serious inquiry
+into social life through the study of the social sciences is revealing
+the great problems of life.  All of knowledge, all of science, and all
+of human invention which add to material {474} comforts will be of no
+avail unless men can learn to live together harmoniously and justly.
+But the truths discovered in each department of investigation are all
+closely related.  Truly there is but one science with many divisions,
+one universe with many parts, and though man is a small particle of the
+great cosmos, it is his life and welfare that are at the centres of all
+achievements.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  In what ways has science contributed to the growth of democracy?
+
+2.  How has the study of science changed the attitude of the mind
+toward life?
+
+3. How is every-day life of the ordinary man affected by science?
+
+4.  Is science antagonistic to true Christianity?
+
+5.  What is the good influence of science on religious belief and
+practice?
+
+6.  What are the great discoveries of the last twenty-five years in
+Astronomy?  Chemistry?  Physics?  Biology?  Medicine?  Electricity?
+
+7.  What recent inventions are dependent upon science?
+
+8.  Relation between investigation in the laboratory and the modern
+automobile.
+
+9.  How does scientific knowledge tend to banish fear?
+
+10.  Give a brief history of the development of the automobile.  The
+flying-machine.
+
+11.  Would a law forbidding the teaching of science in schools advance
+the cause of Christianity?
+
+
+
+[1] Taylor, _The Mediaeval Mind_, vol. II, p. 508.
+
+[2] Libby, _History of Science_, p. 63.
+
+[3] Copernicus's view was not published until thirty-six years after
+its discovery.  A copy of his book was brought to him at his death-bed,
+but he refused to look at it.
+
+[4] Libby, p. 91.
+
+[5] Libby, _History of Science_, p. 280.
+
+[6] Libby, _Introduction to the History of Science_.
+
+[7] The newly created department at Johns Hopkins University for the
+study of international relations may assist in the abolition of war.
+
+
+
+
+{475}
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+UNIVERSAL EDUCATION AND DEMOCRACY
+
+_Universal Public Education Is a Modern Institution_.--The Greeks
+valued education and encouraged it, but only those could avail
+themselves of its privileges who were able to pay for it.  The training
+by the mother in the home was followed by a private tutor.  This system
+conformed to the idea of leadership and was valuable in the
+establishment of an educated class.  However, at the festivals and the
+theatres there were opportunities for the masses to learn much of
+oratory, music, and civic virtues.  The education of Athens conformed
+to the class basis of society.  Sparta as an exception trained all
+citizens for the service of state, making them subordinate to its
+welfare.  The state took charge of children at the age of seven, put
+them in barracks, and subjected them to the most severe discipline.
+But there was no free education, no free development of the ordinary
+mind.  It was in the nature of civic slavery for the preservation of
+the state in conflict with other states.
+
+During the Middle Ages Charlemagne established the only public schools
+for civic training, the first being established at Paris, although he
+planned to extend them throughout the empire.  The collapse of his
+great empire made the schools merely a tradition.  But they were a
+faint sign of the needs of a strong empire and an enlightened
+community.  The educational institutions of the Middle Ages were
+monasteries, and cathedral schools for the purpose of training men for
+the service of the church and for the propagating of religious
+doctrine.  They were all institutional in nature and far from the idea
+of public instruction for the enlightenment of the people.
+
+_The Mediaeval University Permitted Some Freedom of Choice_.--There was
+exhibited in some of them especially a desire to discover the truth
+through traditional knowledge.  They were {476} composed of groups of
+students and masters who met for free discussion, which led to the
+verification of established traditions.  But this was a step forward,
+and scholars arose who departed from dogma into new fields of learning.
+While the universities of the Middle Ages were a step in advance, full
+freedom of the mind had not yet manifested itself, nor had the idea of
+universal education appeared.  Opportunity came to a comparatively
+small number; moreover, nearly all scientific and educational
+improvement came from impulses outside of the centres of tradition.
+
+_The English and German Universities_.--The English universities,
+particularly Oxford and Cambridge, gave a broader culture in
+mathematics, philosophy, and literature, which was conducive to
+liberality in thought, but even they represented the education of a
+selected class.  The German universities, especially in the nineteenth
+century, emphasized the practical or applied side of education.  By
+establishing laboratories, they were prepared to apply all truths
+discovered, and by experimentation carry forward learning, especially
+in the chemical and other physical sciences.  The spirit of research
+was strongly invoked for new scientific discoveries.  While England was
+developing a few noted secondary schools, like Harrow and Eton, Germany
+was providing universal real _schule_, and _gymnasia_, as preparatory
+for university study and for the general education of the masses.  As a
+final outcome the Prussian system was developed, which had great
+influence on education in the United States in the latter part of the
+nineteenth century.
+
+_Early Education in the United States_.--The first colleges and
+universities in the United States were patterned after the English
+universities and the academies and high schools of England.  These
+schools were of a selected class to prepare for the ministry, law,
+statesmanship, and letters.  The growth of the American university was
+rapid, because it continually broadened its curriculum.  From the study
+of philosophy, classical languages, mathematics, literature, it
+successively {477} embraced modern languages, physical sciences,
+natural science, history, and economics, psychology, law, medicine,
+engineering, and commerce.
+
+In the present-day universities there is a wide differentiation of
+subjects.  The subjects have been multiplied to meet the demand of
+scientific development and also to fit students for the ever-increasing
+number of occupations which the modern complex society demands.  The
+result of all this expansion is democratic.  The college class is no
+longer an exclusive selection.  The plane of educational selection
+continually lowers until the college draws its students from all
+classes and prepares them for all occupations.  In the traditional
+college certain classes were selected to prepare for positions of
+learning.  There was developed a small educated class.  In the modern
+way there is no distinctive educated class.  University education has
+become democratic.
+
+_The Common, or Public, Schools_.--In the Colonial and early national
+period of the United States, education was given by a method of tutors,
+or by a select pay school taught by a regularly employed teacher under
+private contract.  Finally the sympathy for those who were not able to
+pay caused the establishing of "common schools."  This was the real
+beginning of universal education, for the practice expanded and the
+idea finally prevailed of providing schools by taxation "common" to
+all, and free to all who wish to attend.  Later, for civic purposes,
+primary education has become compulsory in most states.  Following the
+development of the primary grades, a complete system of secondary
+schools has been provided.  Beyond these are the state schools of
+higher education, universities, agricultural and mechanical schools,
+normal schools and industrial schools, so that a highway of learning is
+provided for the child, leading from the kindergarten through
+successive stages to the university.
+
+_Knowledge, Intelligence, and Training Necessary in a
+Democracy_.--Washington, after experimenting with the new nation for
+eight years, having had opportunity to observe the defects {478} and
+virtues of the republic, said in his Farewell Address: "Promote, then,
+as an object of primary importance institutions for the general
+diffusion of knowledge.  In proportion as the structure of a government
+gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion
+should be enlightened."[1]  Again and again have the leaders of the
+nation who have had at heart the present welfare and future destiny of
+their country urged public education as a necessity.
+
+And right well have the people responded to these sentiments.  They
+have poured out their hard-earned money in taxation to provide adequate
+education for the youth of the land.  James Bryce, after studying in
+detail American institutions, declared that "the chief business of
+America is education."  This observation was made nearly forty years
+ago.  If it was true then, how much more evident is it now with
+wonderful advance of higher education in colleges and universities, and
+in the magnificent system of secondary education that has been built up
+in the interval.  The swarming of students in high school and college
+is evidence that they appreciate the opportunities furnished by the
+millions of wealth, largely in the form of taxes, given for the support
+of schools.
+
+_Education Has Been Universalized_.--Having made education universal,
+educators are devoting their energies to fit the education to the needs
+of the student and to assist the student in choosing the course of
+instruction which will best fit him for his chosen life-work.  The
+victory has been won to give every boy and girl an educational chance.
+To give him what he actually needs and see that he uses it for a
+definite purpose is the present problem of the educator.  This means a
+careful inquiry into mental capacity and mental traits, into
+temperament, taste, ambition, and choice of vocation.  It means further
+provision of the special education that will best prepare him for his
+chosen work, and, indeed, it means sympathetic co-operation of the
+teacher and student in determining the course to be pursued.
+
+{479}
+
+_Research an Educational Process_.--Increased knowledge comes from
+observation or systematic investigation in the laboratory.  Every child
+has by nature the primary element of research, a curiosity to know
+things.  Too often this is suppressed by conventional education instead
+of continued into systematic investigation.  One of the great defects
+of the public school is the failure to keep alive, on the part of the
+student, the desire to know things.  Undue emphasis on instruction, a
+mere imparting of knowledge, causes the student to shift the
+responsibility of his education upon the teacher, who, after all, can
+do no more than help the student to select the line of study, and
+direct him in methods of acquiring.  Together teacher and student can
+select the trail, and the teacher, because he has been over it, can
+direct the student over its rough ways, saving him time and energy.
+
+Perhaps the greatest weakness in popular government to-day is
+indifference of citizens to civic affairs.  This leads to a shifting of
+responsibility of public affairs frequently to those least competent to
+conduct them.  Perhaps a training in individual responsibility in the
+schools and more vital instruction in citizenship would prepare the
+coming generation to make democracy efficient and safe to the world.
+The results of research are of great practical benefit to the so-called
+common man in the ordinary pursuits of life.  The scientist in the
+laboratory, spending days and nights in research, finally discovers a
+new process which becomes a life-saver or a time-saver to general
+mankind.  Yet the people usually accept this as a matter of fact as
+something that just happened.  They forget the man in the laboratory
+and exploit the results of his labor for their own personal gain.
+
+How often the human mind is in error, and unobserving, not to see that
+the discovery of truth and its adaptation to ordinary life is one of
+the fundamental causes of the progress of the race.  Man has advanced
+in proportion as he has become possessed of the secrets of nature and
+has adapted them to his service.  The number of ways he touches nature
+and forces {480} her to yield her treasures, adapting them to his use,
+determines the possibility of progress.
+
+The so-called "common man," the universal type of our democracy, is
+worthy of our admiration.  He has his life of toil and his round of
+duties alternating with pleasure, bearing the burdens of life
+cheerfully, with human touch with his fellows; amid sorrow and joy,
+duty and pleasure, storm and sunshine, he lives a normal existence and
+passes on the torch of life to others.  But the man who shuts himself
+in his laboratory, lives like a monk, losing for a time the human
+touch, spends long days of toil and "nights devoid of ease" until he
+discovers a truth or makes an invention that makes millions glad, is
+entitled to our highest reverence.  The ordinary man and the
+investigator are complementary factors of progress and both essential
+to democracy.
+
+_The Diffusion of Knowledge Necessary to Democracy_.--Always in
+progress is a deflecting tendency, separating the educated class from
+the uneducated.  This is not on account of the aristocracy of learning,
+but because of group activity, the educated man following a pursuit
+different from the man of practical affairs.  Hence the effort to
+broadcast knowledge through lectures, university extension, and the
+radio is essential to the progress of the whole community.  One phase
+of enlightenment is much neglected, that of making clear that the
+object of the scholar and the object of the man of practical affairs
+should be the same--that of establishing higher ideals of life and
+providing means for approximating these ideals.  It frequently occurs
+that the individual who has centred his life on the accumulation of
+wealth ignores the educator and has a contempt for the impractical
+scholar, as he terms him.  Not infrequently state legislatures, when
+considering appropriations for education, have shown more interest in
+hogs and cattle than in the welfare of children.
+
+It would be well if the psychology of the common mind would change so
+as to grasp the importance of education and scientific investigation to
+every-day life.  Does it occur to the {481} man who seats himself in
+his car to whisk away across the country in the pursuit of ordinary
+business, to pause to inquire who discovered gasoline or who invented
+the gasoline-engine?  Does he realize that some patient investigator in
+the laboratory has made it possible for even a child to thus utilize
+the forces of nature and thus shorten time and ignore space?  Whence
+comes the improvement of live-stock in this country?  Compare the
+cattle of early New England with those on modern farms.  Was the little
+scrubby stock of our forefathers replaced by large, sleek, well-bred
+cattle through accident?  No, it was by the discovery of investigators
+and its practical adaptation by breeders.  Compare the vineyards and
+the orchards of the early history of the nation, the grains and the
+grasses, or the fruits and the flowers with those of present
+cultivation.  What else but investigation, discovery, and adaptation
+wrought the change?
+
+My common neighbor, when your child's poor body is racked with pain and
+likely to die, and the skilled surgeon places the child on the
+operating-table, administers the anaesthetic to make him insensible to
+pain, and with knowledge gained by investigation operates with such
+skill as to save the child's life and restore him to health, are you
+not ready to say that scientific investigation is a blessing to all
+mankind?  Whence comes this power to restore health?  Is it a
+dispensation from heaven?  Yes, a dispensation brought about through
+the patient toil and sacrifice of those zealous for the discovery of
+truth.  What of the knowledge that leads to the mastery of the
+yellow-fever bacillus, of the typhoid germ, to the fight against
+tuberculosis and other enemies of mankind?  Again, it is the man in the
+laboratory who is the first great cause that makes it possible for
+humanity to protect itself from disease.
+
+Could our methods of transportation by steamship, railroad, or air, our
+great manufacturing processes, our vast machinery, or our scientific
+agriculture exist without scientific research?  Nothing touches
+ordinary life with such potent force as the results of the
+investigation in the laboratory.  Clearly it is {482} understood by the
+thoughtful that education in all of its phases is a democratic process,
+and a democratic need, for its results are for everybody.  Knowledge is
+thus humanized, and the educated and the non-educated must co-operate
+to keep the human touch.
+
+Educational Progress.--One of the landmarks of the present century of
+progress will be the perfecting of educational systems.  Education is
+no longer for the exclusive few, developing an aristocracy of learning
+for the elevation of a single class; it has become universal.  The
+large number of universities throughout the world, well endowed and
+well equipped, the multitudes of secondary schools, and the
+universality of the primary schools, now render it possible for every
+individual to become intelligent and enlightened.
+
+But these conditions are comparatively recent, so that millions of
+individuals to-day, even in the midst of great educational systems,
+remain entirely unlettered.  Nevertheless, the persistent effort on the
+part of people everywhere to have good schools, with the best methods
+of instruction, certainly must have its effect in bringing the masses
+of unlearned into the realm of letters.  The practical tendency of
+modern education, by which discipline and culture may be given while at
+the same time preparing the student for the active duties of life,
+makes education more necessary for all persons and classes.  The great
+changes that have taken place in methods of instruction and in the
+materials of scientific investigation, and the tendency to develop the
+man as well as to furnish him with information, evince the masterly
+progress of educational systems, and demonstrate their great worth.
+
+_The Importance of State Education_.--So necessary has education become
+to the perpetuation of free government that the states of the world
+have deemed it advisable to provide on their own account a sufficient
+means of education.  Perpetuation of liberty can be secured only on the
+basis of intellectual progress.  From the time of the foundation of the
+universities of Europe, kings and princes and state authorities have
+{483} encouraged and developed education, but it remained for America
+to begin a complete and universal free-school system.  In the United
+States educators persistently urge upon the people the necessity of
+popular education and intelligence as the only means of securing to the
+people the benefits of a free government, and other statesmen from time
+to time have insisted upon the same principle.  The private
+institutions of America did a vast work for the education of the youth,
+but proved entirely inadequate to meet the immediate demands of
+universal education, and the public-school system sprang up as a
+necessary means of preparation for citizenship.  It found its earliest,
+largest, and best scope in the North and West, and has more recently
+been established in the South, and now is universal.
+
+The grant by the United States government at the time of the formation
+of the Ohio territory of lands for the support of universities led to
+the provision in the act of formation of each state and territory in
+the Union for the establishment of a university.  Each state, since the
+admission of Ohio, has provided for a state university, and the Act of
+1862, which granted lands to each state in the Union for the
+establishment of agricultural and mechanical colleges, has also given a
+great impulse to state education.  In the organizing acts of some of
+the newer states these two grants have been joined in one for the
+upbuilding of a university combining the ideas of the two kinds of
+schools.  The support insured to these state institutions promises
+their perpetuity.  The amount of work which they have done for the
+education of the masses in higher learning has been prodigious, and
+they stand to-day as the greatest and most perfect monument of the
+culture and learning of the Western states.
+
+The tremendous growth of state education has increased the burden of
+taxation to the extent that the question has arisen as to whether there
+is not a limit to the amount people are willing to pay for public
+education.  If it can be shown that they receive a direct benefit in
+the education of their children there {484} will be no limit within
+their means to the support of both secondary schools and universities.
+But there must be evidence that the expenditure is economically and
+wisely administered.
+
+The princely endowments of magnificent universities like the Leland
+Stanford Junior University, the University of Chicago, Johns Hopkins
+University, Harvard, Yale, and others, have not interfered with the
+growth and development of state education, for it rests upon the
+permanent foundation of a popular demand for institutions supported by
+the contributions of the whole people for the benefit of the state at
+large.  State institutions based upon permanent foundations have been
+zealous in obtaining the best quality of instruction, and the result is
+that a youth in the rural districts may receive as good undergraduate
+instruction as he can obtain in one of the older and more wealthy
+private institutions, and at very little expense.
+
+_The Printing-Press and Its Products_.--Perhaps of all of the
+inventions that occurred prior to the eighteenth century, printing has
+the most power in modern civilization.  No other one has so continued
+to expand its achievements.  Becoming a necessary adjunct of modern
+education, it continually extends its influence in the direct aid of
+every other art, industry, or other form of human achievement.  The
+dissemination of knowledge through books, periodicals, and the
+newspaper press has made it possible to keep alive the spirit of
+learning among the people and to assure that degree of intelligence
+necessary for a self-governed people.
+
+The freedom of the press is one of the cardinal principles of progress,
+for it brings into fulness the fundamental fact of freedom of
+discussion advocated by the early Greeks, which was the line of
+demarcation between despotism and dogmatism and the freedom of the mind
+and will.  In common with all human institutions, its power has
+sometimes been abused.  But its defect cannot be remedied by repression
+or by force, but by the elevation of the thought, judgment,
+intelligence, and good-will of a people by an education which causes
+them to {485} demand better things.  The press in recent years has been
+too susceptible to commercial dominance--a power, by the way, which has
+seriously affected all of our institutions.  Here, as in all other
+phases of progress, wealth should be a means rather than an end of
+civilization.
+
+_Public Opinion_.--Universal education in school and out, freedom of
+discussion, freedom of thought and will to do are necessary to social
+progress.  Public opinion is an expression of the combined judgments of
+many minds working in conscious or unconscious co-operation.  Laws,
+government, standards of right action, and the type of social order are
+dependent upon it.  The attempt to form a League of Nations or a Court
+of International Justice depends upon the support of an intelligent
+public opinion.  War cannot be ended by force of arms, for that makes
+more war, but by the force of mutually acquired opinion of all nations
+based on good-will.  Every year in the United States there are examples
+of the failure of the attempt to enforce laws which are not well
+supported by public opinion.  Such laws are made effective by a gradual
+education of those for whom they are made to the standard expressed in
+the laws, or they become obsolete.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Show from observations in your own neighborhood the influence of
+education on social progress.
+
+2.  Imperfections of public schools and the difficulties confronting
+educators.
+
+3.  Should all children in the United States be compelled to attend the
+public schools?
+
+4.  What part do newspapers and periodicals play in education?
+
+5.  Relation of education to public opinion.
+
+6.  Should people who cannot read and write be permitted to vote?
+
+7.  Study athletics in your school and town to determine their
+educational value.
+
+8.  Show by investigation the educational value of motion-pictures and
+their misuse.
+
+9.  In what ways may social inequality be diminished?
+
+10.  Would a law compelling the reading of the Bible in public schools
+make people more religious?
+
+
+
+[1] Richardson, _Messages and Papers of the Presidents_, I, 220.
+
+
+
+
+{486}
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+WORLD ECONOMICS AND POLITICS
+
+_Commerce and Communication_.--The nations of the world have been drawn
+together in thought and involuntary co-operation by the stimulating
+power of trade.  The exchange of goods always leads to the exchange of
+ideas.  By commerce each nation may profit by the products of all
+others, and thus all may enjoy the material comforts of the world.  At
+times some countries are deficient in the food-supply, but there has
+been in recent years a sufficient world supply for all, when properly
+distributed through commerce.  Some countries produce goods that cannot
+be produced by others, but by exchange all may receive the benefits of
+everything discovered, produced, or manufactured.
+
+Rapid and complete transportation facilities are necessary to
+accomplish this.  Both trade and transportation are dependent upon
+rapid communication, hence the telegraph, the cable, and the wireless
+have become prime necessities.  The more voluminous reports of trade
+relations found in printed documents, papers, and books, though they
+represent a slower method of communication, are essential to world
+trade, but the results of trade are found in the unity of thought, the
+development of a world mind, and growing similarity of customs, habits,
+usages, and ideals.  Slowly there is developing a world attitude toward
+life.
+
+_Exchange of Ideas Modifies Political Organization_.--The desire for
+liberty of action is universal among all people who have been assembled
+in mass under co-operation.  The arbitrary control by the
+self-constituted authority of kings and governments without the consent
+of the governed is opposed by all human associations, whether tribal,
+territorial, or national.  Since the world settled down to the idea of
+monarchy as a necessary form of government, men have been trying to
+{487} substitute other forms of government.  The spread of democratic
+ideas has been slowly winning the world to new methods of government.
+The American Revolution was the most epoch-making event of modern
+times.  While the French Revolution was about to burst forth, the
+example of the American colonies was fuel to the flames.
+
+In turn, after the United States had won their freedom and were well on
+their way in developing a republican government, the influence of the
+radical democracy was seen in the laws and constitutions of the states,
+particularly in the first half of the nineteenth century.  The
+Spanish-American War led to the development of democracy, not only in
+Cuba and Porto Rico but in the Philippine Islands.  But the planting of
+democracy in the Philippines had a world influence, manifested
+especially in southeastern Asia, China, Japan, and India.
+
+_Spread of Political Ideas_.--The socialism of Karl Marx has been one
+of the most universal and powerful appeals to humanity for industrial
+freedom.  His economic system is characterized by the enormous emphasis
+placed upon labor as a factor in production.  Starting from the
+hypothesis that all wealth is created by labor, and limiting all labor
+to the wage-earner, there is no other conclusion, if the premise be
+admitted, than that the product of industry belongs to labor
+exclusively.  His theories gained more or less credence in Germany and
+to a less extent in other countries, but they were never fully tested
+until the Russian revolution in connection with the Great War.  After
+the downfall of Czarism, leaders of the revolution attacked and
+overthrew capitalism, and instituted the Soviet government.  The
+proletariat came to the top, while the capitalists, nobility, and
+middle classes went to the bottom.  This was brought about by sudden
+revolution through rapid and wild propaganda.
+
+Strenuous efforts to propagate the Soviet doctrine and the war against
+capitalism in other countries have taken place, without working a
+revolution similar to that in Russia.  But the International is slowly
+developing a world idea among {488} laborers, with the ultimate end of
+destroying the capitalistic system and making it possible for organized
+wage-earners to rule the world.  It is not possible here to discuss the
+Marxian doctrine of socialism nor to recount what its practical
+application did to Russia.  Suffice it to say that the doctrine has a
+fatal fallacy in supposing that wage-earners are the only class of
+laborers necessary to rational economic production.
+
+_The World War Breaks Down the Barriers of Thought_.--The Great War
+brought to light many things that had been at least partially hidden to
+ordinary thinking people.  It revealed the national selfishness which
+was manifested in the struggle for the control of trade, the extension
+of territory, and the possession of the natural resources of the world.
+This selfishness was even more clearly revealed when, in the Treaty of
+Versailles and the formation of the League of Nations, each nation was
+unwilling to make necessary sacrifice for the purpose of establishing
+universal peace.  They all appeared to feel the need of some
+international agreement which should be permanent and each favored it,
+could it first get what it wanted.  Such was the power of tradition
+regarding the sanctity of national life and the sacredness of national
+territory and, moreover, of national prerogatives!
+
+Nevertheless, the interchange of ideas connecting with the gruelling of
+war caused change of ideas about government and developed, if not an
+international mind, new modes of national thinking.  The war brought
+new visions of peace, and developed to a certain extent a recognition
+of the rights of nations and an interest in one another's welfare.
+There was an advance in the theory at least of international justice.
+Also the world was shocked with the terror of war as well as its
+futility and terrible waste.  While national selfishness was not
+eradicated, it was in a measure subdued, and a feeling of co-operation
+started which eventually will result in unity of feeling, thought, and
+action.  The war brought into being a sentiment among the national
+peoples that they will not in the future be forced into war without
+their consent.
+
+{489}
+
+_Attempt to Form a League for Permanent Peace_.--Led by the United
+States, a League of Nations was proposed which should settle all
+disputes arising between nations without going to war.  The United
+States having suggested the plan and having helped to form the League,
+finally refused to become a party to it, owing in part to the tradition
+of exclusiveness from European politics--a tradition that has existed
+since the foundation of the nation.  Yet the United States was
+suggesting a plan that it had long believed in, and a policy which it
+had exercised for a hundred years with most nations.  It took a
+prominent part in the first peace conference called by the Czar of
+Russia in 1899.  The attempt to establish a permanent International
+Tribunal ended in forming a permanent Court of Arbitration, which was
+nothing more than an intelligence office with a body of arbitrators
+composed of not more than four men from each nation, from whom nations
+that had chosen to arbitrate a dispute might choose arbitrators.  The
+conference adjourned with the understanding that another would be
+called within a few years.
+
+The Boxer trouble in China and the war between Japan and Russia delayed
+the meeting.  Through the initiation of Theodore Roosevelt, of the
+United States, a second Hague Conference met in 1907.  Largely through
+the influence of Elihu Root a permanent court was established, with the
+exception that a plan for electing delegates could not be agreed upon.
+It was agreed to hold another conference in 1915 to finish the work.
+Thus it is seen that the League of Nations advocated by President
+Wilson was born of ideas already fructifying on American soil.
+McKinley, Roosevelt, John Hay, Elihu Root, Joseph H. Choate, James
+Brown Scott, and other statesmen had favored an International Tribunal.
+
+The League of Nations provided in its constitution among other things
+for a World Court of Nations.  In the first draft of the constitution
+of the League no mention was made of a World Court.  But through a
+cablegram of Elihu Root to Colonel E. M. House, the latter was able to
+place articles 13 {490} and 14, which provided that the League should
+take measures for forming a Court of International Justice.
+Subsequently the court was formed by the League, but national
+selfishness came to the front and crippled the court.  Article 34
+originally read: "Between states which are members of the League of
+Nations, the court shall have jurisdiction, and this without any
+convention giving it jurisdiction to hear and determine cases of legal
+nature."  It was changed to read; "The jurisdiction of the court
+comprises all cases which the parties refer to it and all matters
+specially provided for in treaties and conventions in force."
+
+It is to be observed that in the original statement, either party to a
+dispute could bring a case into court without the consent of the other,
+thus making it a real court of justice, and in the modified law both
+parties must agree to bring the case in court, thus making it a mere
+tribunal of arbitration.  The great powers--England, France, Italy, and
+Japan--were opposed to the original draft, evidently being unwilling to
+trust their disputes to a court, while the smaller nations favored the
+court as provided in the original resolution.  However, it was provided
+that such nations who desired could sign an agreement to submit all
+cases of dispute to the court with all others who similarly signed.
+Nearly all of the smaller nations have so signed, and President Harding
+urged the United States, though not a member of the League, to sign.
+
+The judges of the court, eleven in all, are nominated by the old
+Arbitration Court of the Hague Tribunal, and elected by the League of
+Nations, the Council and Assembly voting separately.  Only one judge
+may be chosen from a nation, and of course every nation may not have a
+judge.  In cases where a dispute involves a nation which has no member
+in the court, an extra judge may be appointed.  The first court was
+chosen from the following nations: Great Britain, France, Italy, United
+States, Cuba, Switzerland, Netherlands, Denmark, Japan, and Brazil.  So
+the Court of International Justice is functioning in an incomplete way,
+born of the spirit of {491} America, and the United States, though not
+a member of the League of Nations, has a member in the court sitting in
+judgment on the disputes of the nations of the world.  So likewise the
+League of Nations, which the United States would not join, is
+functioning in an incomplete way.
+
+_International Agreement and Progress_.--But who shall say that the
+spirit of international justice has not grown more rapidly than appears
+from the workings of the machinery that carries it out?  Beneath the
+selfish interests of nations is the international consciousness that
+some way must be devised and held to for the settlement of disputes
+without war; that justice between nations may be established similar to
+that practised within the boundaries of a single nation.
+
+No progress comes out of war itself, though it may force other lines of
+conduct.  Progress comes from other sources than war.  Besides, it
+brings its burdens of crime, cripples, and paupers, and its discontent
+and distrust.  It may hasten production and stimulate invention of
+destruction, but it is not constructive and always it develops an army
+of plunderers who prey upon the suffering and toil of others.  These
+home pirates are more destructive of civilization than poison gases or
+high explosives.
+
+_The Mutual Aid of Nations_.--In a previous chapter it was shown that
+mutual aid of individuals was the beginning of society.  It now is
+evident that the mutual aid of nations is their salvation.  As the
+establishment of justice between individuals through their reactions
+does not destroy their freedom nor their personalities, so the
+establishment of justice among nations does not destroy their autonomy
+nor infringe upon their rights.  It merely insists that brutal national
+selfishness shall give way to a friendly co-operation in the interest
+and welfare of all nations.  "A nation, like an individual, will become
+greater as it cherishes a high ideal and does service and helpful acts
+to its neighbors, whether great or small, and as it co-operates with
+them in working toward a common end."[1] {492} Truly "righteousness
+exalteth a nation," and it will become strong and noble as it seeks to
+develop justice among all nations and to exercise toward them fair
+dealing and friendly relations that make for peace.
+
+_Reorganization of International Law_.--The public opinion of the
+nations of the world is the only durable support of international law.
+The law represents a body of principles, usages, and rules of action
+regarding the rights of nations in peace and in war.  As a rule nations
+have a wholesome respect for international law, because they do not
+wish to incur the unfriendliness and possible hatred of their fellow
+nations nor the contempt and criticism of the world.  This fear of open
+censure has in a measure led to the baneful secret treaties, such an
+important factor in European diplomacy, whose results have been
+suspicion, distrust, and war.  Germany is the only modern nation that
+felt strong enough to defy world opinion, the laws of nations, and to
+assume an entirely independent attitude.  But not for long.  This
+attitude ended in a disastrous war, in which she lost the friendship
+and respect of the world--lost treasure and trade, lives and property.
+
+It is unfortunate that modern international law is built upon the basis
+of war rather than upon the basis of peace.  In this respect there has
+not been much advance since the time of Grotius, the father of modern
+international law.  However, there has been a remarkable advance among
+most nations in settling their difficulties by arbitration.  This has
+been accompanied by a strong desire to avoid war when possible, and a
+longing for its entire abandonment.  Slowly but surely public opinion
+realizes not only the desire but the necessity of abandoning great
+armaments and preparation for war.
+
+But the nations cannot go to a peace basis without concerted action.
+This will be brought about by growth in national righteousness and a
+modification of crude patriotism and national selfishness.  It is now
+time to codify and revise international law on a peace basis, and new
+measures adopted in accordance to the progress nations have made in
+recent {493} years toward permanent peace.  Such a move would lead to a
+better understanding and furnish a ready guide to the Court of
+International Justice and all other means whereby nations seek to
+establish justice among themselves.
+
+_The Outlook for a World State_.--If it be understood that a world
+state means the abandonment of all national governments and their
+absorption in a world government, then it may be asserted truly that
+such is an impossibility within the range of the vision of man.  Nor
+would it be desirable.  If by world state is meant a political league
+which unites all in a co-operative group for fair dealing in regard to
+trade, commerce, territory, and the command of national resources, and
+in addition a world court to decide disputes between nations, such a
+state is possible and desirable.
+
+Great society is a community of groups, each with its own life to live,
+its own independence to maintain, and its own service to perform.  To
+absorb these groups would be to disorganize society and leave the
+individual helpless before the mass.  For it is only within group
+activity that the individual can function.  So with nations, whose life
+and organization must be maintained or the individual would be left
+helpless before the world.  But nations need each other and should
+co-operate for mutual advantage.  They are drawn closer each year in
+finance, in trade and commerce, in principles of government and in
+life.  A serious injury to one is an injury to all.  The future
+progress of the world will not be assured until they cease their
+squabbles over territory, trade, and the natural resources of the
+world--not until they abandon corroding selfishness, jealousy, and
+suspicion, and covenant with each other openly to keep the peace.
+
+To accomplish this, as Mr. Walter Hines Page said: "Was there ever a
+greater need than there is now for first-class minds unselfishly
+working on world problems?  The ablest ruling minds are engaged on
+domestic tasks.  There is no world-girdling intelligence at work on
+government.  The present order must change.  It holds the Old World
+still.  It keeps all {494} parts of the world apart, in spite of the
+friendly cohesive forces of trade and travel.  It keeps back
+self-government of men."  These evils cannot be overcome by law, by
+formula, by resolution or rule of thumb, but rather by long, patient
+study, research, and work of many master-minds in co-operative
+leadership, who will create a sound international public opinion.  The
+international mind needs entire regeneration, not dominance of the
+powers.
+
+The recent war was but a stupendous breaking with the past.  It
+furnished opportunity for human society to move forward in a new
+adjustment on a larger and broader plan of life.  Whether it will or
+not depends upon the use made of the opportunity.  The smashing process
+was stupendous, horrible in its moment.  Whether society will adapt
+itself to the new conditions remains to be seen.  Peace, a highly
+desirable objective, is not the only consideration.  There are even
+more important phases of human adjustment.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What were the results of the first (1899) and the second (1907)
+Hague Conference?
+
+2.  What is meant by "freedom of the seas"?
+
+3.  Should a commission of nations attempt to equalize the ownership
+and distribution of the natural products and raw materials, such as
+oil, coal, copper, etc.?
+
+4.  How did the World War make opportunity for democracy?
+
+5.  Believing that war should be abolished, how may it be done?
+
+6.  What are the dangers of extreme radicalism regarding government and
+social order?
+
+7.  The status of the League of Nations and the Court of International
+Justice.
+
+8.  National selfishness and the League of Nations.
+
+9.  The consolidation or co-operation of churches in your town.
+
+10.  The union of social agencies to improve social welfare.
+
+11.  Freedom of the press; freedom of speech.
+
+12.  Public opinion.
+
+
+
+[1] Cosmos, _The Basis of Durable Peace_.
+
+
+
+
+{495}
+
+CHAPTER XXXII
+
+THE TREND OF CIVILIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+_The Economic Outlook_.--The natural resources of forest, mines, and
+agriculture are gradually being depleted.  The rapidity of movement in
+the economic world, the creation of wealth by vast machinery, and the
+organization of labor and industry are drawing more and more from the
+wealth stored by nature in her treasure-houses.  There is a strong
+agitation for the conservation of these resources, but little has been
+accomplished.  The great business organizations are exploiting the
+resources, for the making of the finished products, not with the prime
+motive of adding to the material comforts and welfare of mankind, but
+to make colossal fortunes under private control.  While the progress of
+man is marked by mastery of nature, it should also be marked by
+co-operation with nature on a continued utility basis.  Exploitation of
+natural resources leads to conspicuous waste which may lead to want and
+future deterioration.
+
+The development of scientific agriculture largely through the influence
+of the Agricultural Department at Washington and the numerous
+agricultural colleges and experiment stations has done something to
+preserve and increase the productivity of the soil.  Scientific study
+and practical experiment have given improved quality of seed, a better
+grade of stock, and better quality of fruits and vegetables.  They have
+also given improved methods of cultivation and adaptability of crops to
+the land, and thus have increased the yield per acre.  The increased
+use of selected fertilizers has worked to the same end.  The use of a
+large variety of labor-saving machines has conduced to increase the
+amount of the product.  But all of this improvement is small,
+considering the amount that needs to be done.  The population is
+increasing rapidly from {496} the native stock and by immigration.
+There is need for wise conservation in the use of land to prevent
+economic waste and to provide for future generations.  The greedy
+consumers, with increasing desire for more and better things, urge,
+indirectly to be sure, for larger production and greater variety of
+finished products.
+
+_The Economics of Labor_.--In complex society there are many divisions
+or groups of laborers--laborers of body and laborers of mind.  Every
+one who is performing a legitimate service, which is sought for and
+remunerative to the laborer and serviceable to the public, is a
+laborer.  At the base of all industry and social activity are the
+industrial wage-earners, who by their toil work the mines, the
+factories, the great steel and iron industries, the railroads, the
+electric-power plants and other industries.  Since the beginning of the
+industrial revolution in the latter part of the eighteenth century,
+labor has been working its way out of slavery into freedom.
+
+As a result laborers have better wages, better conditions of life, more
+of material comforts, and a higher degree of intelligence than ever
+before.  Yet there is much improvement needed.  While the hours of
+labor have been reduced in general to eight per day, the irregularity
+of employment leads to unrest and frequently to great distress.  There
+is a growing tendency to make laborers partners in the process of
+production.  This does not mean that they shall take over the direction
+of industry, but co-operate with the managers regarding output, quality
+of goods, income, and wages, so as to give a solidarity to productive
+processes and eliminate waste of time, material, and loss by strikes.
+
+The domestic peace in industry is as important as the world peace of
+nations in the economy of the world's progress.  A direct interest of
+the wage-earner in the management of production and in the general
+income would have a tendency to equalize incomes and prevent laborers
+from believing that the product of industry as well as its management
+should be under their direct control.  Public opinion usually favors
+the {497} laborer and, while it advocates the freedom and dignity of
+labor, does not favor the right of labor to exploit industry nor
+concede the right to destroy.  But it believes that labor organizations
+should be put on the same basis as productive corporations, with equal
+degree of rights, privileges, duties, and responsibilities.
+
+_Public and Corporate Industries_.--The independent system of organized
+industry so long dominant in America, known by the socialists as
+capitalistic production, has become so thoroughly established that
+there is no great tendency to communistic production and distribution.
+There is, however, a strong tendency to limit the power of exploitation
+and to control larger industries in the interest of the public.
+Especially is this true in regard to what are known as public
+utilities, such as transportation, lighting, telephone, and telegraph
+companies, and, in fact, all companies that provide necessaries common
+to the public, that must be carried on as monopolies.  Public opinion
+demands that such corporations, conducting their operations as special
+privileges granted by the people, shall be amenable to the public so
+far as conduct and income are concerned.  They must be public service
+companies and not public exploitation companies.
+
+The great productive industries are supposed to conduct their business
+on a competitive basis, which will determine price and income.  As a
+matter of fact, this is done only in a general way, and the incomes are
+frequently out of proportion to the power of the consuming public to
+purchase.  Great industries have the power to determine the income
+which they think they ought to have, and, not receiving it, may cease
+to carry on their industry and may invest their capital in non-taxable
+securities.  While under our present system there is no way of
+preventing this, it would be a great boon to the public, and a new
+factor in progress, if they were willing to be content with a smaller
+margin of profit and a slower accumulation of wealth.  At least some
+change must take place or the people of small incomes will be obliged
+to give up many {498} of the comforts of life of which our boasted
+civilization is proud, and gradually be reduced to the most sparing
+economy, if not to poverty.  The same principle might be applied to the
+great institutions of trade.
+
+_The Political Outlook_.--In our earlier history the struggle for
+liberty of action was the vital phase of our democracy.  To-day the
+struggle is to make our ideal democracy practical.  In theory ours is a
+self-governed people; in practice this is not wholly true.  We have the
+power and the opportunity for self-government, but we are not
+practising it as we might.  There is a real danger that the people will
+fail to assume the responsibility of self-government, until the affairs
+of government are handed over to an official class of exploiters.
+
+For instance, the free ballot is the vital factor in our government,
+but there are many evidences that it is not fully exercised for the
+political welfare of the country.  It frequently occurs that men are
+sent to Congress on a small percentage of voters.  Other elective
+offices meet the same fate.  Certainly, more interest must be taken in
+selecting the right kind of men to rule over them or the people will
+barter away their liberties by indifference.  Officials should be
+brought to realize that they are to serve the public and it is largely
+a missionary job they are seeking rather than an opportunity to exploit
+the office for personal gain.
+
+The expansive process of political society makes a larger number of
+officers necessary.  The people are demanding the right to do more
+things by themselves, which leads to increased expenses in the cost of
+administration, great bonded indebtedness, and higher taxation.  It
+will be necessary to curb expansion and reduce overhead charges upon
+the government.  This may call for the reorganization of the machinery
+of government on the basis of efficiency.  At least it must be shown to
+the people that they have a full return for the money paid by taxation.
+It is possible only by study, care, civic responsibility, and interest
+in government affairs, as well as by increased intelligence, that our
+democratic idealism may be put {499} into practice.  Laboratory methods
+in self-government are a prime necessity.
+
+_The Equalization of Opportunity_.--Popular education is the greatest
+democratic factor in existence.  It is the one great institution which
+recognizes that equal opportunities should be granted to everybody.
+Yet it has its limits in establishing equal opportunities in the
+accepted meaning of the term.  There is a false idea of equality which
+asserts that one man is as good as another before he has proved himself
+to be so.  True equality means justice to all.  It does not guarantee
+that equality of power, of intellect, of wealth, and social standing
+shall obtain.  It seeks to harmonize individual development with social
+development, and to insure the individual the right to achieve
+according to his capacity and industry.  "The right to life, liberty,
+and the pursuit of happiness" is a household word, but the right to
+_pursue_ does not insure success.
+
+The excessive altruism of the times has led to the protecting care of
+all classes.  In its extreme processes it has made the weak more
+helpless.  What is needed is the cultivation of individual
+responsibility.  Society is so great, so well organized, and does so
+much that there is a tendency of the individual to shift his
+responsibility to it.  Society is composed of individuals, and its
+quality will be determined by the character and quality of the
+individual working especially for himself and generally for the good of
+all.  A little more of the law of the survival of the fittest would
+temper our altruism to more effective service.  The world is full of
+voluntary altruistic and social betterment societies, making drives for
+funds.  They should re-examine their motives and processes and
+carefully estimate what they are really accomplishing.  Is the
+institution they are supporting merely serving itself, or has it a
+working power and a margin of profit in actual service?
+
+_The Influence of Scientific Thought on Progress_.--The effect of
+scientific discovery on material welfare has been referred to
+elsewhere.  It remains to determine how scientific thought changes the
+attitude of the mind toward life.  The laboratory {500} method
+continually tests everything, and what he finds to be true the
+scientist believes.  He gradually ignores tradition and adheres to
+those things that are shown to be true by experimentation or recorded
+observation.  It is true that he uses hypotheses and works the
+imagination.  But his whole tendency is to depart from the realm of
+instinct and emotions and lay a foundation for reflective thinking.
+The scientific attitude of mind influences all philosophy and all
+religion.  "Let us examine the facts in the case" is the attitude of
+scientific thought.
+
+The study of anthropology and sociology has, on the one hand,
+discovered the natural history of man and, on the other, shown his
+normal social relations.  Both of these studies have co-operated with
+biology to show that man has come out of the past through a process of
+evolution; that all that he is individually and socially has been
+attained through long ages of development.  Even science, philosophy,
+and religion, as well as all forms of society, have had a slow, painful
+evolution.  This fact causes people to re-examine their traditional
+belief to see how far it corresponds to new knowledge.  It has helped
+men to realize on their philosophy of life and to test it out in the
+light of new truth and experience.  This has led the church to a
+broader conception of the truth and to a more direct devotion to
+service.  It is becoming an agency for visualizing truth rather than an
+institution of dogmatic belief.  The religious traditionalists yield
+slowly to the new religious liberalism.  But the influence of
+scientific thought has caused the church to realize on the investment
+which it has been preaching these many centuries.
+
+_The Relation of Material Comfort to Spiritual Progress_.--The material
+comforts which have been multiplying in recent centuries do not insure
+the highest spiritual activity.  The nations that have achieved have
+been forced into activity by distressing conditions.  In following the
+history of any nation along any line of achievement, it will be noticed
+that in its darkest, most uncomfortable days, when progress seemed
+least {501} in evidence, forces were in action which prepared for great
+advancement.  It has been so in literature, in science, in liberty, in
+social order; it is so in the sum-total of the world's achievements.
+
+Granting that the increase of material comforts, in fact, of wealth, is
+a great achievement of the age, the whole story is not told until the
+use of the wealth is determined.  If it leads to luxurious living,
+immorality, injustice, and loss of sense of duty, as in some of the
+ancient nations, it will prove the downfall of Western civilization.
+If the leisure and strength it offers are utilized in raising the
+standard of living, of establishing higher ideals, and creating a will
+to approximate them, then they will prove a blessing and an impulse to
+progress.  Likewise, the freedom of the mind and freedom in
+governmental action furnish great opportunities for progress, but the
+final result will be determined by use of such opportunities in the
+creation of a higher type of mind characterized by a well-balanced
+social attitude.
+
+_The Balance of Social Forces_.--There are two sources of the origin of
+social life, one arising out of the attitude of the individual toward
+society, and the other arising out of the attitude of society toward
+the individual.  These two attitudes seem, at first view, paradoxical
+in many instances, for both individual and society must survive.  But
+in the long run they are not antagonistic, for the good of one must be
+the good of the other.  The perfect balancing of the two forces would
+make a perfect society.  The modern social problem is to determine how
+much choice shall be left to individual initiative and how much shall
+be undertaken by the group.
+
+In recent years the people have been doing more and more for themselves
+through group action.  The result has been a multiplication of laws,
+many of them useless; the creation of a vast administrative force
+increasing overhead charges, community control or operation of
+industries, and the vast amount of public, especially municipal,
+improvements.  All of these have been of advantage to the people in
+common, but have {502} greatly increased taxation until it is felt to
+be a burden.  Were it not for the great war debts that hang heavily on
+the world, probably the increased taxation for legitimate expenses
+would not have been seriously felt.  But it seems certain that a halt
+in excessive public expenditures will be called until a social
+stock-taking ensues.  At any rate, people will demand that useless
+expenditures shall cease and that an ample return for the increased
+taxation shall be shown in a margin of profit for social betterment.  A
+balance between social enterprise and individual effort must be secured.
+
+_Restlessness Versus Happiness_.--Happiness is an active principle
+arising from the satisfaction of individual desires.  It does not
+consist in the possession of an abundance of material things.  It may
+consist in the harmony of desires with the means of satisfying them.
+Perhaps the "right to achieve" and the successful process of
+achievement are the essential factors in true happiness.  Realizing how
+wealth will furnish opportunities for achievement, and how it will
+furnish the luxuries of life as well as furnish an outlet for restless
+activity, great energy is spent in acquiring it.  Indeed, the attitude
+of mind has been centred so strongly on the possession of the dollar
+that this seems to be the end of pursuit rather than a means to higher
+states of life.  It is this wrong attitude of life that brings about so
+much restlessness and so little real happiness.  Only the utilization
+of material wealth to develop a higher spiritual life of man and
+society will insure continuous progress.
+
+The vast accumulations of material wealth in the United States and the
+wonderful provisions for material comfort are apt to obscure the vision
+of real progress.  Great as are the possible blessings of material
+progress, it is possible that eventually they may prove a menace.
+Other great civilizations have fallen because they stressed the
+importance of the material life and lost sight of the great adventure
+of the spirit.  Will the spiritual wealth rise superior, strong, and
+dominant to overcome the downward drag of material prosperity and {503}
+thus be able to support the burdens of material civilization that must
+be borne?
+
+_Summary of Progress_.--If one were to review the previous pages from
+the beginnings of human society to the present time, he would observe
+that mind is the ruling force of all human endeavor.  Its freedom of
+action, its inventive power, and its will to achieve underlie every
+material and social product of civilization.  Its evolution through
+action and reaction, from primitive instincts and emotions to the
+dominance of rational planning and reflective thinking, marks the trail
+of man's ascendancy over nature and the establishing of ideals of
+social order.  Has man individual traits, physical and mental,
+sufficiently strong to stand the strain of a highly complex social
+order?  It will depend upon the strength of his moral character, mental
+traits, and physical resistance, and whether justice among men shall
+prevail, manifested in humane and sound social action.  Future progress
+will depend upon a clearness of vision, a unity of thought, the
+standardization of the objectives of social achievement, and, moreover,
+an elevation of human conduct.  Truly, "without vision the people
+perish."
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What measures are being taken to conserve the natural resources?
+
+2.  What plan would you suggest for settling the labor problem so as to
+avoid strikes?
+
+3.  How shall we determine what people shall do in group activity and
+what shall be left to private initiative?
+
+4.  How may our ideals of democracy be put to effective practice?
+
+5.  To what extent does future progress of the race depend upon science?
+
+6.  Is there any limit to the amount of money that may be wisely
+expended for education?
+
+7.  Public measures for the promotion of health.
+
+8.  What is meant by the statement that "Without vision the people
+perish"?
+
+9.  Equalization of opportunity.
+
+
+
+
+{504}
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+
+Abbott, Frank Frost:  History and Description of Roman Political
+                      Institutions.
+
+Adams, George Burton:  Civilization During the Middle Ages.
+
+Amicis, Edmondo de:  Spain and the Spaniards.
+
+Aristotle's Politics:  Translation by Welldon.
+
+Arnold, Matthew:  Civilization in the United States.
+
+Bakewell, Chas. M.:  Source Book of Ancient Philosophy.
+
+Blackmar, F. W., and Gillin, J. L.:  Outlines of Sociology.
+
+Blummer, Hugo:  Home Life of the Ancient Greeks.
+
+Boak, A. E. R.:  Roman History.
+
+Boas, Franz:  The Mind of Primitive Man.
+
+Botsford, George Willis:  Ancient History for Beginners.
+                          Hellenic History.
+                          The Story of Rome.
+
+Bowman, Isaiah:  The New World.
+
+Breasted, J. H.:  Ancient Times: A History of the Early World.
+
+Brinton, Daniel G.:  The American Races.
+
+Bryce, James:  The American Commonwealth.
+               The Holy Roman Empire.
+               The Relations of the Advanced and the Backward
+                   Nations of the World.
+               Modern Democracies.
+
+Buckle, Henry Thomas:  History of Civilization in England.
+
+Burckhart, Jacob:  Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy.
+
+Burt, B. C.:  A Brief History of Greek Philosophy.
+
+Bury, J. B.:  The Idea of Progress.
+
+Carlyle, Thomas:  History of the French Revolution.
+
+Carpenter, Edward:  Civilization, Its Causes and Cure.
+
+Carter, Howard, and Mace, A. C.:  The Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen.
+
+Carver, Thos. N.:  Sociology and Social Progress.
+
+Chapin, F. Stuart:  Introduction to Social Evolution.
+
+Cheney, Edward P.:  An Introduction to the Industrial and Social
+                        History of England.
+
+Church, R. W.:  The Beginnings of the Middle Ages.
+
+{505}
+
+Commons, John R.:  Industrial Democracy.
+                   Trade Unionism and Labor Problems.
+
+Conklin, Grant:  The Direction of Human Evolution.
+
+Cooley, Charles H.:  Social Organization.
+
+Coppee, Henry:  History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arabs.
+
+Cox, G. W.:  The Crusades.
+
+Croiset, Maurice:  Hellenic Civilization.
+                       (Translated by Paul B. Thomas.)
+
+Deniker, J.:  The Races of Men.
+
+Dewey, John:  Human Nature and Conduct.
+
+Draper, John W.:  History of the Intellectual Development of Europe.
+
+Duncan, Robert K.:  The Chemistry of Commerce.
+                    The New Knowledge.
+
+Duruy, Victor:  History of France.
+                History of the Middle Ages.
+                History of Rome.
+
+Edman, Erwin:  Human Traits.
+
+Elliot, G. F. Scott:  Prehistoric Man and His Story.
+
+Ely, Richard T.:  Evolution of Industrial Society.
+
+Emerton, Ephraim:  Introduction to the Middle Ages.
+                   Mediaeval Europe.
+
+Fisher, George P.:  History of the Christian Church.
+
+Fowler, Ward:  The City State of the Greeks and Romans.
+
+Gardiner, Samuel R.:  The Puritan Revolution.
+
+Gibbon, Edward:  Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
+
+Goldenweiser, Alexander A.:  Early Civilization.
+
+Gordon, Childe:  The Dawn of European Civilization.
+
+Green, John Richard:  A Short History of the English People.
+
+Green, William Chase:  The Achievement of Greece.
+
+Guizot, F.:  History of Civilization.
+
+Hadley, James:  Introduction to Roman Law.
+
+Hayes, Carlton J. H.:  A Brief History of the Great War.
+                       A Political and Social History of Modern Europe.
+
+Henderson, Ernest F.:  History of Germany in the Middle Ages.
+
+Hobson, J. A.:  The Problems of the New World.
+
+Hodgkin, Thomas:  Italy and Her Invaders.
+
+Holm, Adolph:  History of Greece.
+
+Hudson, J. W.:  The College and New America.
+
+{506}
+
+Ihne, W. H.:  Early Rome.
+
+Inge, W. R.:  The Idea of Progress.
+
+Irving, Washington:  The Conquest of Granada.
+
+James, E. O.:  An Introduction to Anthropology.
+
+Kelsey, Carl:  The Physical Basis of Society.
+
+Keynes, J. M.:  The Economic Consequences of the Peace.
+
+King, L. W.:  A History of Babylon.
+              A History of Sumer and Akkad.
+
+Kirkup, Thomas:  The History of Socialism.
+
+Kitchen, G. W.:  History of France.
+
+Kroeber, A. L.:  Anthropology.
+
+Lawrence, I. J.:  The Society of Nations.
+
+Libby, Walter:  An Introduction to the History of Science.
+
+Lipton, Walter:  Drift and Mastery.
+                 Liberty and the News.
+
+Lowell, A. Lawrence:  Public Opinion and Popular Government.
+
+Lowie, Robert H.:  Culture and Ethnology.
+                   Primitive Society.
+
+Mahaffy, J. P.:  The Story of Alexander's Empire.
+
+Mason, Otis Tufton:  The Origins of Inventions.
+
+Mason, Wm. A.:  The History of the Art of Writing.
+
+May, Thos. E.:  Democracy in Europe.
+
+McCarthy, Justin:  The Epoch of Reform.
+
+McGiffert, Arthur C.:  The Rise of Modern Religious Ideas.
+
+Meyers, J. L.:  The Dawn of History.
+
+Mills, John:  Within the Atom.
+
+Monroe, Dana Carlton:  The Middle Ages.
+
+Monroe, Paul:  History of Education.
+
+Morris, Charles:  Civilization: An Historical Review of Its Elements.
+
+Morris, William O'Connor:  The French Revolution and the First Empire.
+
+Murray, Gilbert:  Ancient Greece.
+
+O'Leary, De Lacy:  Arabic Thought and Its Place in History.
+
+Osborn, Henry Fairfield:  Men of the Old Stone Age.
+
+Peet, Stephen:  The Cliff Dwellers.
+
+Plato's Republic:  Translation by Jowett.
+
+Powell, I. W.:  The Pueblo Indians.
+
+Preston and Dodge:  The Private Life of the Romans.
+
+Ragozin, Z. A.:  The Story of Chaldea.
+
+Rawlinson, George:  Ancient Monarchies.
+                    The Story of Egypt.
+
+{507}
+
+Robinson, James Harvey:  The Mind in the Making.
+
+Sayre, Francis B.:  Experiments in International Administration.
+
+Scott, J. B. (editor):  President Wilson's Foreign Policy: Messages,
+                            Addresses, and Papers.
+
+Sedgwick, W. J., and Tyler, H. W.:  A Short History of Science.
+
+Seebohm, Frederick:  The Era of the Protestant Revolt.
+
+Semple, Ellen C.:  Influences of Geographic Environment.
+
+Sloane, W. M.:  The Powers and Aims of Western Democracy.
+
+Slosson, Edwin E.:  Creative Chemistry.
+
+Smith, J. Russell:  The World and Its Food Resources.
+
+Smith, Walter R.:  Educational Sociology.
+
+Spinden, H. J.:  Ancient Civilization of Mexico.
+
+Stubbs, William:  The Early Plantagenets.
+
+Symonds, John Addington:  The Renaissance in Italy.
+
+Taylor, Edward B.:  Researches Into the Early History of Mankind.
+                    The Development of Civilization.
+
+Thwing, Charles F. and Carrie F.:  The Family.
+
+Todd, Arthur James:  Theories of Social Progress.
+
+Turner, F. J.:  The Rise of the New West.
+
+Tyler, John M.:  The New Stone Age of Northern Europe.
+
+Van Hook, La Rue:  Greek Life and Thought.
+
+Walker, Francis A.:  The Making of a Nation.
+
+Wallas, Graham:  Great Society.
+                 Principles of Western Civilization.
+
+Weber, Alfred, and R. B. Perry:  History of Philosophy.
+
+Weigall, Arthur:  The Story of the Pharaohs.
+
+White, Andrew D.:  The French Revolution and the First Empire.
+
+Whitney, Wm. Dwight:  The Life and Growth of Language.
+
+Wilder, H. H.:  Man's Prehistoric Past.
+
+Wissler, Clark:  The American Indian.
+                 Man and Culture.
+
+
+
+
+{508}
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Abelard, 354.
+
+Aegean culture, 207.
+
+Ages of culture, stone, bronze, 36.
+
+Agriculture, beginning of, 93; modern, 440.
+
+Akkadians, religion of, 155, 156.
+
+Alexander, conquests of, 246.
+
+Allia, battle of the, 387.
+
+Altruism and democracy, 449-462.
+
+America, peopling of, 185.
+
+American Indians, culture of, 200; contributions to civilization, 201.
+
+Anaxagoras, 218.
+
+Anaximander, 217.
+
+Anaximenes, 217.
+
+Ancient society, Morgan, 4, 49,
+
+Animals, domestication of, 92.
+
+Anselm, 354.
+
+Antiquity of man shown by race development, 69.
+
+Arabian empire, 305; science and art, 307.
+
+Arab-Moors in Spain, 305; cultures, 308-315; science and art, 307-310;
+discoveries, 312; language and literature, 313; architecture, 315;
+achievement, 316; decline, 317.
+
+Arab-Moors, religious zeal of, 308.
+
+Aristotle, 223.
+
+Arkwright, Richard, spinning by rollers, 436.
+
+Art, development of, 37; as a language of aesthetic ideas, 130;
+representative, 131; and architecture, 368.
+
+Aryans, coming of the, 167.
+
+Athens, Government of, 233; character of democracy, 240; decline of,
+241.
+
+Aztecs, culture of, 190.
+
+
+Babylon, 146.
+
+Bacon, Francis, 355, 460.
+
+Bacon, Roger, 459.
+
+Barbarians, 281.
+
+Beautiful, the love of, develops slowly, 135-136; a permanent social
+force, 137.
+
+Bill of Rights, 397, 413.
+
+Boccaccio, 366.
+
+Books, 128.
+
+Bow and arrow, 87.
+
+Brahe, Ticho, 463.
+
+Bryce, James, 380.
+
+Bunyan, John, 398.
+
+Burial mounds, 76.
+
+
+Cabrillo, 116.
+
+Calvin, John, and the Genevan system, 386.
+
+Canuleius, 255.
+
+Cassius, Spurius, agrarian laws, 254.
+
+Catholic Church, the, 384.
+
+Catlin, North American Indians, 134.
+
+Caves, 71.
+
+Chaldea, early civilization of, 153-156.
+
+Charlemagne, 349.
+
+Chemistry, 308.
+
+China, 166.
+
+Christian influence on Roman legislation, 273.
+
+Christian religion, social contacts of, 268.
+
+Christianity and the social life, 271; service of, 279; opposes pagan
+literature, 357; competition with Graeco-Roman schools, 357.
+
+Christians come into conflict with civil authority, 273.
+
+Church, the wealth of, 275; development of hierarchy, 270; control of
+temporal power, 277; service of, 278; retrogressive attitude, 350; in
+France, 402; widening influences of, 446; organizing centre, 453.
+
+Cities, rise of free, 330-332; modern, 440.
+
+Civilization, material evidences of, 4; fundamentals of, 10-14;
+possibilities of, 15; can be estimated, 16; modern, 456.
+
+Cleisthenes, reforms of, 237.
+
+Cliff Dwellers, 194.
+
+Clothing, manufacture of, 97.
+
+Cnossos, 207.
+
+Colonization, Greek, 246; Phoenician, 161.
+
+Commerce and communication, 486.
+
+Commerce, hastens progress, 362.
+
+Common schools, 477.
+
+Constitutional liberty in England, 393.
+
+Copernicus, 461.
+
+Crete, island of, 207.
+
+Crô-Magnon, earliest ancestral type, 28; cultures of, 72.
+
+Crompton, Samuel, spinning "mule," 436.
+
+Crusades, causes of, 319, 320, 321; results of, 322-323; effect on
+monarchy, 324; intellectual development, 325; impulse to commerce, 326;
+social effect, 327.
+
+Cultures, evidence of primitive, 28; mental development and, 32; early
+European, 32.
+
+Curie, Madame, 469.
+
+Custom, 112, 288, 295.
+
+
+Dance, the, as dramatic expression, 133; economic, religious, and
+social functions of, 134.
+
+Darius I, founded Persian Empire, 168.
+
+Darwin, Charles, 467.
+
+Democracy, 342, 392, 449.
+
+Democracy in America, 418; characteristics of, 419-421; modern
+political reforms of, 421-425.
+
+Descartes, René, 461.
+
+Diogenes, 218.
+
+Discovery and invention, 362.
+
+Duruy, Victor, 363.
+
+
+Economic life, 170-180, 290, 429.
+
+Economic outlook, 495.
+
+Education and democracy, 477-482.
+
+Education, universal, 475, 478; in the United States, 476.
+
+Educational progress, 482.
+
+Egypt, 145, 146; centre of civilization, 157-160; compared with
+Babylon, 162; pyramids, 160; religion, 172; economic life, 178;
+science, 182.
+
+England, beginnings of constitutional liberty in, 345.
+
+Environment, physical, determines the character of civilization, 141;
+quality of soil, 144; climate and progress, 146; social order, 149.
+
+Equalization of opportunities, 499.
+
+Euphrates valley, seat of early civilization, 152.
+
+Evidences of man's antiquity, 69; localities of, 71-78; knowledge of,
+develops reflective thinking, 77.
+
+Evolution, 467-469.
+
+
+Family, the early, 109-112; Greek and Roman, 212-213; German, 286.
+
+Feudalism, nature of, 294-299; sources of, 294, based on land tenure,
+296; social classification under, 298; conditions of society under,
+300; individual development under, 302; influence on world progress,
+303.
+
+Fire and its economy, 88.
+
+Florence, 336.
+
+Food supply, determines progress, 83-85; increased by discovery and
+invention, 86.
+
+France, free cities of, 330; rise of popular assemblies, 338; rural
+communes, 338; place in modern civilization, 399; philosophers of, 403;
+return to monarchy, 417; character of constitutional monarchy, 418.
+
+France, in modern civilization, 399; philosophers of, 403.
+
+Franklin, Benjamin, 465.
+
+Freedom of the press, 484.
+
+Freeman, E. A., 233.
+
+French republic, triumph of, 417.
+
+French Revolution, 405-407; results of, 407.
+
+
+Galileo, 461.
+
+Gabon, Francis, 469.
+
+Geography, 312.
+
+Germans, social life of, 283; classes of society, 285; home life, 286;
+political organization, 287; social customs, 288; contribution to law,
+291; judicial system, 292.
+
+Gilbert, William, 461.
+
+Glacial epoch, 62.
+
+Greece, 148, 205, 210.
+
+Greece and Rome compared, 250.
+
+Greek equality and liberty, 229.
+
+Greek federation, 245.
+
+Greek government, an expanded family, 229; diversity of, 231; admits
+free discussion, 231; local self-government, 232; independent community
+life, 231; group selfishness, 232; city state, 239.
+
+Greek influence on Rome, 261.
+
+Greek life, early, 205; influence of, 213.
+
+Greek philosophy, observation and inquiry, 215; Ionian philosophy, 216;
+weakness of, 219; Eleatic philosophy, 220; Sophists, 221; Epicureans,
+224; influence of, 225.
+
+Greek social life, 241, 243.
+
+Greeks, origin of, 209; early social life of, 208; character of
+primitive, 209; family life of, 212; religion of, 212.
+
+Guizot, 399.
+
+
+Hargreaves, James, invents the spinning jenny, 436.
+
+Harvey, William, 461.
+
+Hebrew influence, 164.
+
+Henry VIII and the papacy, 387; defender of the faith, 396.
+
+Heraclitus, 218.
+
+Hierarchy, development of, 276.
+
+History, 312.
+
+Holy Roman Empire, 414.
+
+Human chronology, 59.
+
+Humanism, 349, 364, 366; relation of language and literature to, 367;
+effect on social manners, 371; relation to science and philosophy, 372;
+advances the study of the classics, 373; general influence on life, 373.
+
+Huss, John, 378, 379.
+
+Huxley, Thomas H., 471.
+
+
+Ice ages, the, 62, 64.
+
+Incas, culture of, 187.
+
+India, 148, 166.
+
+Individual culture and social order, 150.
+
+Industrial development, 429-433, 439; revolution, 437.
+
+Industries, radiate from land as a centre, 429; early mediaeval, 430;
+public, 497; corporate, 497.
+
+Industry and civilization, 441.
+
+International law, reorganization of, 492.
+
+Invention, 86, 362, 436.
+
+Iroquois, social organization of, 198.
+
+Italian art and architecture, 368.
+
+Italian cities, 332; popular government of, 333.
+
+
+Jesuits, the, 385.
+
+Justinian Code, 260.
+
+
+Kepler, 463.
+
+Knowledge, diffusion of, 480.
+
+Koch, 470.
+
+Koran, the, 304, 310.
+
+
+Labor, social economics of, 496.
+
+Lake dwellings, 78.
+
+Lamarck, J. P., 467.
+
+Land, use of, determines social life, 145.
+
+Language, origin of, 121; a social function, 123; development of,
+126-129; an instrument of culture, 129.
+
+Latin language and literature, 261.
+
+League for permanent peace, 489-492
+
+Licinian laws, 256.
+
+Lister, 469, 470.
+
+Locke, John, 398.
+
+Lombard League, 337.
+
+Louis XIV, the divine right of kings, 400.
+
+Luther, Martin, and the German Reformation, 382-385.
+
+Lycurgus, reforms of, 244.
+
+Lysander, 241.
+
+
+Magdalenian cultures, 72.
+
+Man, origin of, 57; primitive home of, 66, antiquity of, 73-70; and
+nature, 141; not a slave to environment, 149.
+
+Manorial system, 430.
+
+Manuscripts, discovery of, 364.
+
+Marxian socialism in Russia, 427.
+
+Maya race, 192.
+
+Medicine, 308.
+
+Medontidae, 234.
+
+Men of genius, 33.
+
+Mesopotamia, 154.
+
+Metals, discovery and use of, 100.
+
+Metaphysics, 310.
+
+Mexico, 146.
+
+Michael Angelo, 370.
+
+Milton, John, 398.
+
+Minoan civilization, 207.
+
+Monarchy, a stage of progress in Europe, 344.
+
+Monarchy versus democracy, 392.
+
+Mongolian race, 167.
+
+Montesquieu, 404.
+
+Morgan, Lewis H., beginning of civilization, 4; classification of
+social development, 49.
+
+Morton, William, T. G., 470.
+
+Mound builders, 197.
+
+Music, as language, 131; as a socializing factor, 133, 137.
+
+Mutual aid, 120; of nations, 491.
+
+
+Napier, John, 463.
+
+Napoleon Bonaparte, 417.
+
+Nationality and race, 444.
+
+Nature, aspects of, determine types of social life, 147.
+
+Neanderthal man, 29, 65.
+
+Newton, Sir Isaac, 463.
+
+Nile, valley, seat of early civilization, 152.
+
+Nobility, the French, 400.
+
+
+Occam, William of, 379.
+
+Oriental civilization, character of, 170; war for conquest and plunder,
+171; religious belief, 171-174; social condition, 175; social
+organization, 176-178; economic life, 178-180; writing, 181; science,
+182; contribution to world progress, 184.
+
+
+Parliament, rebukes King James I, 396; declaration of, 397.
+
+Pasteur, Louis, 469, 470.
+
+Peloponnesian War, 241.
+
+People, the condition of, in France, 401.
+
+Pericles, age of, 247.
+
+Petrarch, 365, 366.
+
+Philosophy, Ionian, 216; Eleatic, 220; sophist, 221; stoic, 225;
+sceptic, 225; influence of Greek on civilization, 226, 228.
+
+Phoenicians, the, become great navigators, 161; colonization by, 161.
+
+Physical needs, efforts to satisfy, 82-85.
+
+Picture writing, 126.
+
+Pithecanthropus erectus, 29.
+
+Plato, 222.
+
+Political ideas, spread of, 486-488.
+
+Political liberty in XVIII century. [Transcriber's note: no page number
+in source]
+
+Polygenesis, monogenesis, 66.
+
+Popular government, expense of, 328, 414.
+
+Power manufacture, 437.
+
+Pre-historic human types, 63, 65, 66.
+
+Pre-historic man, types of, 28,
+
+Pre-historic time, 60-61.
+
+Primitive man, social life of, 31, 32; brain capacity of, 29.
+
+Progress and individual development, 23; and race development, 22;
+influence of heredity on, 24; influence of environment on, 25; race
+interactions and, 26; early cultural evidence of, 32; mutations in, 33;
+data of, 34; increased by the implements used, 35; revival of,
+throughout Europe, 348; and revival of learning, 372-373.
+
+Progress, evidence of, 456.
+
+Public opinion, 485.
+
+Pueblo Indians, culture of, 194; social life, 195; secret societies,
+196.
+
+Pythagoras, 219.
+
+
+Race and language, 124.
+
+Races, cause of decline, 201, 202.
+
+Racial characters, 70.
+
+Recounting human progress, methods of 37-52; economic development,
+39-40.
+
+Reform measures in England, 415.
+
+Reformation, the, character of, 375; events leading to, 376-380; causes
+of, 380-382; far-reaching results of, 388-391.
+
+Religion and social order, 113-116.
+
+Religious toleration, growth of, 447.
+
+Renaissance, the, 349, 370.
+
+Republicanism, spread of, 425.
+
+Research, foundations of, 472; educational process of, 479.
+
+Revival of learning, 364.
+
+River and glacial drift, 74.
+
+Roebuck, John, the blast furnace, 436.
+
+Roman civil organization, 258.
+
+Roman empire, and its decline, 264.
+
+Roman government, 258; law, 259; imperialism, 267.
+
+Roman social life, 264.
+
+Rome a dominant city, 257; development of government, 258.
+
+Rome, political organization, 252; struggle for liberty, 243; social
+conditions, 255; invasion of the Gauls, 255; Agrarian laws, 254, 256;
+plebeians and patricians, 256; optimates, 256; influence on world
+civilization, 266.
+
+Rousseau, 404.
+
+
+Savonarola, 380.
+
+Scholastic philosophy, 353.
+
+Schools, cathedral and monastic, 356; Graeco-Roman, 357.
+
+Science, in Egypt, 182; in Spain, 306; nature of, 307, 458; and
+democracy, 464, 465.
+
+Scientific classification, 460; men, 465; progress, 470; investigation,
+trend of, 473.
+
+Scientific methods, 459.
+
+Scientific research, 463.
+
+Semites, 160.
+
+Shakespeare, 398.
+
+Shell mounds, 73.
+
+Shelters, primitive, 99.
+
+Social conditions at the beginning of the Christian era, 269.
+
+Social contacts of the Christian religion, 268.
+
+Social development, 13, 23, 49, 104, 114, 347, 443.
+
+Social evolution, depends on variation, 347; character of, 443.
+
+Social forces, balance of, 501.
+
+Social groups, interrelation of, 454.
+
+Social life, 31, 133, 145, 147, 171, 178-180, 208, 241, 243, 247, 255,
+258, 283, 285, 289, 298, 300, 327, 371.
+
+Social life of primitive man, 31, 32; development of social order,
+41-45; intellectual character of, 47; religious and moral condition of,
+46, 47; character of, 108; moral status of, 117.
+
+Social opportunities, 455.
+
+Social order, 8, 41, 122, 149, 150, 176-178, 193, 196, 444, 445.
+
+Social organization, 145, 176-178, 210, 250-252, 432, 433, 444.
+
+Social unrest, 502.
+
+Society, 5, 175, 205, 255, 256, 268-273, 285, 301, 316, 443, 445, 446,
+450, 451, 452.
+
+Society, complexity of modern, 452.
+
+Socrates, 221.
+
+Solon, constitution of, 235.
+
+Spain, attempts at popular government in, 341.
+
+Sparta, domination of, 241; character of Spartan state, 242.
+
+Spencer, Herbert, 471.
+
+Spiritual progress and material comfort, 500.
+
+State education, 482.
+
+States-general, 341.
+
+Struggle for existence develops the individual and the race, 106.
+
+Summary of progress, 503.
+
+Switzerland, democracy in cantons, 342.
+
+Symonds, J. A., 366.
+
+
+Teutonic liberty, 281; influence of, 282, 291, 292; laws, 291.
+
+Theodosian Code, 260.
+
+Toltecs, 192.
+
+Towns, in the Middle Ages, 329.
+
+Trade,434.
+
+Trade and its social Influence, 104.
+
+Transportation, 102.
+
+Tylor, E. B., Primitive Culture, 114.
+
+Tyndall, John, 471.
+
+
+Unity of the human race, 66.
+
+Universities, mediaeval, 475; English, 476; German, 476; American, 476;
+endowed, 484.
+
+Universities, rise of, 360; nature of, 361; failure in scientific
+methods, 361.
+
+
+Venice, 335.
+
+Village community, 44.
+
+Village sites, 77.
+
+Voltaire, 404.
+
+
+Waldenses, 378.
+
+Warfare and social progress, 119.
+
+Watt, James, power manufacture, 436.
+
+Weissman, A., 467.
+
+Western civilisation, important factors in its foundation, 268.
+
+Whitney, Ely, the cotton gin, 436.
+
+Wissler, Clark, culture areas, 26; trade, 104.
+
+World state, 493.
+
+World war, breaks the barriers of thought, 488.
+
+World War, iconoclastic effects of, 427.
+
+Writing, 181.
+
+Wyclif, John, and the English reformation, 378, 386.
+
+
+Zeno, 220.
+
+Zenophanes, 220.
+
+Zwingli and the reformation in Switzerland, 385.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+In the Table of Contents, the "PART III" division precedes Chapter VII,
+but in the body of the book it precedes Chapter VIII.
+
+Page numbers in this book are enclosed in curly braces.  For its Index,
+a page number has been placed only at the start of that section.  In
+the HTML version of this book, page numbers are placed in the left
+margin.
+
+Footnote numbers are enclosed in square brackets.  Each chapter's
+footnotes have been renumbered sequentially and moved to the end of
+that chapter.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's History of Human Society, by Frank W. Blackmar
+
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of Human Society, by Frank W. Blackmar
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History of Human Society
+
+Author: Frank W. Blackmar
+
+Release Date: December 6, 2009 [EBook #30610]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF HUMAN SOCIETY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Al Haines
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="transnote">
+[Transcriber's note: Extensive research found no evidence
+that the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<H1 ALIGN="center">
+HISTORY OF
+<BR>
+HUMAN SOCIETY
+</H1>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+BY
+</H3>
+
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+FRANK W. BLACKMAR
+</H2>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H5 ALIGN="center">
+PROFESSOR OF SOCIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS
+</H5>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+<BR>
+NEW YORK &mdash;&mdash; CHICAGO &mdash;&mdash; BOSTON
+<BR>
+ATLANTA &mdash;&mdash; SAN FRANCISCO
+</H3>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<H5 ALIGN="center">
+Copyright, 1926, by
+<BR>
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+<BR><BR>
+Printed in the United States of America
+</H5>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pv"></A>v}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+PREFACE
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+This book tells what we know of man, how he first lived, how he worked
+with other men, what kinds of houses he built, what tools he made, and
+how he formed a government under which to live.  So we learn of the
+activities of men in the past and what they have passed on to us.  In
+this way we may become acquainted with the different stages in the
+process which we call civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The present trend of specialization in study and research has brought
+about widely differentiated courses of study in schools and a large
+number of books devoted to special subjects.  Each course of study and
+each book must necessarily represent but a fragment of the subject.
+This method of intensified study is to be commended; indeed, it is
+essential to the development of scientific truth.  Those persons who
+can read only a limited number of books and those students who can take
+only a limited number of courses of study need books which present a
+connected survey of the movement of social progress as a whole, and
+which blaze a trail through the accumulation of learning, and give an
+adequate perspective of human achievement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is hoped, then, that this book will form the basis of a course of
+reading or study that will give the picture in small compass of this
+most fascinating subject.  If it serves its purpose well, it will be
+the introduction to more special study in particular fields or periods.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+That the story of this book may be always related more closely with the
+knowledge and experience of the individual reader, questions and
+problems have been added at the conclusion of each chapter, which may
+be used as subjects for
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pvi"></A>vi}</SPAN>
+discussion or topics for themes. For those
+who wish to pursue some particular phase of the subject a brief list of
+books has been selected which may profitably be read more intensively.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+F. W. B.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pvii"></A>vii}</SPAN>
+
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+CONTENTS
+</H2>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+<I>PART I</I>
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CIVILIZATION AND PROGRESS
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">CHAPTER</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">PAGE</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+I.  <A HREF="#chap01">WHAT IS CIVILIZATION?</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+3
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The human trail.  Civilization may be defined.  The material evidences
+of civilization are all around us.  Primitive man faced an unknown
+world.  Civilization is expressed in a variety of ways.  Modern
+civilization includes some fundamentals.  Progress an essential
+characteristic of civilization.  Diversity is necessary to progress.
+What is the goal of civilized man? Possibilities of civilization.
+Civilization can be estimated.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+II.  <A HREF="#chap02">THE ESSENTIALS OF PROGRESS</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+18
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+How mankind goes forward on the trail.  Change is not necessarily
+progress.  Progress expresses itself in a variety of ideals and aims.
+Progress of the part and progress of the whole.  Social progress
+involves individual development.  Progress is enhanced by the
+interaction of groups and races.  The study of uncultured races of
+to-day.  The study of prehistoric types.  Progress is indicated by
+early cultures.  Industrial and social life of primitive man.  Cultures
+indicate the mental development of the race.  Men of genius cause
+mutations which permit progress.  The data of progress.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+III.  <A HREF="#chap03">METHODS OF RECOUNTING HUMAN PROGRESS</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+  35
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+Difficulty of measuring progress.  Progress may be measured by the
+implements used.  The development of art.  Progress is estimated by
+economic stages.  Progress is through the food-supply.  Progress
+estimated by the different forms of social order.  Development of
+family life.  The growth of political life.  Religion important in
+civilization.  Progress through moral evolution.  Intellectual
+development of man.  Change from savagery to barbarism.  Civilization
+includes all kinds of human progress.  Table showing methods of
+recounting human progress.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+<I>PART II</I>
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+FIRST STEPS OF PROGRESS
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+IV.  <A HREF="#chap04">PREHISTORIC MAN</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+57
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The origin of man has not yet been determined.  Methods of recounting
+prehistoric time: (1) geologic method, (2) paleontology, (3) anatomy,
+(4) cultures.  Prehistoric types of the human race.  The unity of the
+human race.  The primitive home of man may be determined in a general
+way.  The antiquity of man is shown in racial differentiation.  The
+evidences of man's ancient life in different localities: (1) caves, (2)
+shell mounds, (3) river and glacial drifts, (4) burial-mounds, (5)
+battle-fields and village sites, (6) lake-dwellings.  Knowledge of
+man's antiquity influences reflective thinking.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pviii"></A>viii}</SPAN>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+V.  <A HREF="#chap05">THE ECONOMIC FACTORS OF PROGRESS</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+82
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The efforts of man to satisfy physical needs.  The attempt to satisfy
+hunger and protect from cold.  The methods of procuring food in
+primitive times.  The variety of food was constantly increased.  The
+food-supply was increased by inventions.  The discovery and use of
+fire.  Cooking added to the economy of the food-supply.  The
+domestication of animals.  The beginnings of agriculture were very
+meagre.  The manufacture of clothing.  Primitive shelters and houses.
+Discovery and use of metals.  Transportation as a means of economic
+development.  Trade, or exchange of goods.  The struggle for existence
+develops the individual and the race.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+VI.  <A HREF="#chap06">PRIMITIVE SOCIAL LIFE</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+  108
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The character of primitive social life.  The family is the most
+persistent of social origins.  Kinship is a strong factor in social
+organization.  The earliest form of social order.  The reign of custom.
+The Greek and Roman family was strongly organized.  In primitive
+society religion occupied a prominent place.  Spirit worship.  Moral
+conditions.  Warfare and social progress.  Mutual aid developed slowly.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+<I>PART III</I>
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+SEATS OF EARLY CIVILIZATION
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+VII.  <A HREF="#chap07">LANGUAGE AND ART AS A MEANS OF CULTURE AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+  121
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The origin of language has been a subject of controversy.  Language is
+an important social function.  Written language followed speech in
+order of development.  Phonetic writing was a step in advance of the
+ideograph.  The use of manuscripts and books made permanent records.
+Language is an instrument of culture.  Art as a language of aesthetic
+ideas.  Music is a form of language.  The dance as a means of dramatic
+expression.  The fine arts follow the development of language.  The
+love of the beautiful slowly develops.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+VIII.  <A HREF="#chap08">THE INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL NATURE ON HUMAN PROGRESS</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+  141
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+Man is a part of universal nature.  Favorable location is necessary for
+permanent civilization.  The nature of the soil an essential condition
+of progress.  The use of land the foundation of social order.  Climate
+has much to do with the possibilities of progress.  The general aspects
+of nature determine the type of civilization.  Physical nature
+influences social order.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+IX.  <A HREF="#chap09">CIVILIZATION OF THE ORIENT</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+152
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The first nations with historical records in Asia and Africa.
+Civilization in Mesopotamia.  Influences coming from the Far East.
+Egypt becomes a centre of civilization.  The coming of the Semites.
+The Phoenicians became the great navigators.  A comparison of the
+Egyptian and Babylonian empires.  The Hebrews made a permanent
+contribution to world civilization.  The civilization of India and
+China.  The coming of the Aryans.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+X.  <A HREF="#chap10">THE ORIENTAL TYPE OF CIVILIZATION</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+170
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The governments of the early Oriental civilizations.  War existed for
+conquest and plunder.  Religious belief was an important factor in
+despotic
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pix"></A>ix}</SPAN>
+government.  Social organization was incomplete.
+Economic influences.  Records, writing, and paper.  The beginnings of
+science were strong in Egypt, weak in Babylon.  The contribution to
+civilization.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XI.  <A HREF="#chap11">BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION IN AMERICA</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+  186
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+America was peopled from the Old World.  The Incas of Peru.  Aztec
+civilization in Mexico.  The earliest centres of civilization in
+Mexico.  The Pueblo Indians of the Southwest.  The Mound-Builders of
+the Mississippi Valley.  Other types of Indian life.  Why did the
+civilization of America fail?
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+<I>PART IV</I>
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+WESTERN CIVILIZATION
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XII.  <A HREF="#chap12">THE OLD GREEK LIFE</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+205
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The old Greek life was the starting-point of Western civilization.  The
+Aegean culture preceded the coming of the Greeks.  The Greeks were of
+Aryan stock.  The coming of the Greeks.  Character of the primitive
+Greeks.  Influence of old Greek life.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XIII.  <A HREF="#chap13">GREEK PHILOSOPHY</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+215
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The transition from theology to inquiry.  Explanation of the universe
+by observation and inquiry.  The Ionian philosophy turned the mind
+toward nature.  The weakness of Ionian philosophy.  The Eleatic
+philosophers.  The Sophists.  Socrates the first moral philosopher (b.
+469 B. C.).  Platonic philosophy develops the ideal.  Aristotle the
+master mind of the Greeks.  Other schools.  Results obtained in Greek
+philosophy.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XIV.  <A HREF="#chap14">THE GREEK SOCIAL POLITY</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+229
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The struggle for Greek equality and liberty.  The Greek government an
+expanded family.  Athenian government a type of Grecian democracy.
+Constitution of Solon seeks a remedy.  Cleisthenes continues the
+reforms of Solon.  Athenian democracy failed in obtaining its best and
+highest development.  The Spartan state differs from all others.  Greek
+colonization spreads knowledge.  The conquests of Alexander.
+Contributions of Greece to civilization.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XV.  <A HREF="#chap15">ROMAN CIVILIZATION</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+250
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The Romans differed in nature from the Greeks.  The social structure of
+early Rome and that of early Greece.  Civil organization of Rome.  The
+struggle for liberty.  The development of government.  The development
+of law is the most remarkable phase of the Roman civilization.
+Influence of the Greek life on Rome.  Latin literature and language.
+Development of Roman art.  Decline of the Roman Empire.  Summary of
+Roman civilization.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XVI.  <A HREF="#chap16">THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+ 268
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+Important factors in the foundation of Western civilization.  The
+social contacts of the Christian religion.  Social conditions at the
+beginning of the Christian era.  The contact of Christianity with
+social life.  Christianity influenced the legislation of the times.
+Christians come into conflict with civil authority.  The wealth of the
+church accumulates.  Development of the hierarchy.  Attempt to dominate
+the temporal powers.  Dogmatism.  The church becomes the conservator of
+knowledge.  Service of Christianity.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Px"></A>x}</SPAN>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XVII.  <A HREF="#chap17">TEUTONIC INFLUENCE ON CIVILIZATION</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+  281
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The coming of the barbarians.  Importance of Teutonic influence.
+Teutonic liberty.  Tribal life.  Classes of society.  The home and the
+home life.  Political assemblies.  General social customs.  The
+economic life.  Contributions to law.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XVIII.  <A HREF="#chap18">FEUDAL SOCIETY</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+294
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+Feudalism a transition of social order.  There are two elementary
+sources of feudalism.  The feudal system in its developed state based
+on land-holding.  Other elements of feudalism.  The rights of
+sovereignty.  The classification of feudal society.  Progress of
+feudalism.  State of society under feudalism.  Lack of central
+authority in feudal society.  Individual development in the dominant
+group.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XIX.  <A HREF="#chap19">ARABIAN CONQUEST AND CULTURE</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+ 304
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The rise and expansion of the Arabian Empire.  The religious zeal of
+the Arab-Moors.  The foundations of science and art.  The beginnings of
+chemistry and medicine.  Metaphysics and exact science.  Geography and
+history.  Discoveries, inventions, and achievements.  Language and
+literature.  Art and architecture.  The government of the Arab-Moors
+was peculiarly centralized.  Arabian civilization soon reached its
+limits.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XX.  <A HREF="#chap20">THE CRUSADES STIR THE EUROPEAN MIND</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+319
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+What brought about the crusades.  Specific causes of the crusades.
+Unification of ideals and the breaking of feudalism.  The development
+of monarchy.  The crusades quickened intellectual development.  The
+commercial effects of the crusades.  General influence of the crusades
+on civilization.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XXI.  <A HREF="#chap21">ATTEMPTS AT POPULAR GOVERNMENT</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+ 328
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The cost of popular government.  The feudal lord and the towns.  The
+rise of free cities.  The struggle for independence.  The
+affranchisement of cities developed municipal organization.  The
+Italian cities.  Government of Venice.  Government of Florence.  The
+Lombard League.  The rise of popular assemblies in France.  Rural
+communes arose in France.  The municipalities of France.  The
+States-General was the first central organization.  Failure of attempts
+at popular government in Spain.  Democracy in the Swiss cantons.  The
+ascendancy of monarchy.  Beginning of constitutional liberty in England.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XXII.  <A HREF="#chap22">THE INTELLECTUAL AWAKENING OF EUROPE</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+ 347
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+Social evolution is dependent upon variation.  The revival of progress
+throughout Europe.  The revival of learning a central idea of progress.
+Influence of Charlemagne.  The attitude of the church was
+retrogressive.  Scholastic philosophy marks a step in progress.
+Cathedral and monastic schools.  The rise of universities.  Failure to
+grasp scientific methods.  Inventions and discoveries.  The extension
+of commerce hastened progress.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XXIII.  <A HREF="#chap23">HUMANISM AND THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+ 364
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The discovery of manuscripts.  Who were the humanists?  Relation of
+humanism to language and literature.  Art and architecture.  The effect
+of humanism on social manners.  Relation of humanism to science and
+philosophy.  The study of the classics became fundamental in education.
+General influence of humanism.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pxi"></A>xi}</SPAN>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XXIV.  <A HREF="#chap24">THE REFORMATION</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+375
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The character of the Reformation.  Signs of the rising storm.  Attempts
+at reform within the church.  Immediate causes of the Reformation.
+Luther was the hero of the Reformation in Germany.  Zwingli was the
+hero of the Reformation in Switzerland.  Calvin establishes the Genevan
+system.  The Reformation in England differed from the German.  Many
+phases of reformation in other countries.  Results of the Reformation
+were far-reaching.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XXV.  <A HREF="#chap25">CONSTITUTIONAL LIBERTY AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+392
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+Progress of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.  The struggle of
+monarchy with democracy.  Struggle for constitutional liberty in
+England.  The place of France in modern civilization.  The divine right
+of kings.  The power of the nobility.  The misery of the people.  The
+church.  Influence of the philosophers.  The failure of government.
+France on the eve of the revolution.  The revolution.  Results of the
+revolution.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+<I>PART V</I>
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+MODERN PROGRESS
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XXVI.  <A HREF="#chap26">PROGRESS OF POLITICAL LIBERTY</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+  413
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+Political liberty in the eighteenth century.  The progress of popular
+government found outside of great nations.  Reform measures in England.
+The final triumph of the French republic.  Democracy in America.
+Modern political reforms.  Republicanism in other countries.  Influence
+of democracy on monarchy.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XXVII.  <A HREF="#chap27">INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+ 429
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+Industries radiate from the land as a centre.  The early medieval
+methods of industry.  The beginnings of trade.  Expansion of trade and
+transportation.  Invention and discoveries.  The change from handcraft
+to power manufacture.  The industrial revolution.  Modern industrial
+development.  Scientific agriculture.  The building of the city.
+Industry and civilization.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XXVIII.  <A HREF="#chap28">SOCIAL EVOLUTION</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+  443
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The evolutionary processes of society.  The social individual.  The
+ethnic form of society.  The territorial group.  The national group
+founded on race expansion.  The functions of new groups.  Great society
+and the social order.  Great society protects voluntary organizations.
+The widening influence of the church.  Growth of religious toleration.
+Altruism and democracy.  Modern society a machine of great complexity.
+Interrelation of different parts of society.  The progress of the race
+based on social opportunities.  The central idea of modern civilization.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XXIX.  <A HREF="#chap29">THE EVOLUTION OF SCIENCE</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+458
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+Science is an attitude of mind toward life.  Scientific methods.
+Measurement in scientific research.  Science develops from centres.
+Science and democracy.  The study of the biological and physical
+sciences.  The evolutionary theory.  Science and war.  Scientific
+progress is cumulative.  The trend of scientific investigation.
+Research foundations.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="Pxii"></A>xii}</SPAN>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XXX.  <A HREF="#chap30">UNIVERSAL EDUCATION AND DEMOCRACY</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+475
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+Universal public education is a modern institution.  The mediaeval
+university permitted some freedom of choice.  The English and German
+universities.  Early education in the United States.  The common, or
+public, schools.  Knowledge, intelligence, and training necessary in a
+democracy.  Education has been universalized.  Research an educational
+process.  The diffusion of knowledge necessary in a democracy.
+Educational progress.  Importance of state education.  The
+printing-press and its products.  Public opinion.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XXXI.  <A HREF="#chap31">WORLD ECONOMICS AND POLITICS</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+ 486
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+Commerce and communication.  Exchange of ideas modifies political
+organization.  Spread of political ideas.  The World War breaks down
+the barriers of thought.  Attempt to form a league for permanent peace.
+International agreement and progress.  The mutual aid of nations.
+Reorganization of international law.  The outlook for a world state.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+XXXII.  <A HREF="#chap32">THE TREND OF CIVILIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+495
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="contents">
+The economic outlook.  Economics of labor.  Public and corporate
+industries.  The political outlook.  Equalization of opportunity.  The
+influence of scientific thought on progress.  The relation of material
+comfort to spiritual progress.  The balance of social forces.
+Restlessness vs. happiness.  Summary of progress.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+<A HREF="#biblio">BIBLIOGRAPHY</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+ 504
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="toc1">
+<A HREF="#index">INDEX</A>
+</P>
+<P CLASS="toc2">
+509
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap01"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P3"></A>3}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+<I>PART I</I>
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CIVILIZATION AND PROGRESS
+</H3>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H1 ALIGN="center">
+HISTORY OF HUMAN SOCIETY
+</H1>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER I
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+WHAT IS CIVILIZATION?
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Human Trail</I>.&mdash;The trail of human life beginning in the mists of
+the past, winding through the ages and stretching away toward an
+unknown future, is a subject of perennial interest and worthy of
+profound thought.  No other great subject so invites the attention of
+the mind of man.  It is a very long trail, rough and unblazed,
+wandering over the continents of the earth.  Those who have travelled
+it came in contact with the mysteries of an unknown world.  They faced
+the terrors of the shifting forms of the earth, of volcanoes,
+earthquakes, floods, storms, and ice fields.  They witnessed the
+extinction of forests and animal groups, and the changing forms of
+lakes, rivers, and mountains, and, indeed, the boundaries of oceans.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is the trail of human events and human endeavor on which man
+developed his physical powers, enlarged his brain capacity, developed
+and enriched his mind, and became efficient through art and industry.
+Through inventions and discovery he turned the forces of nature to his
+use, making them serve his will.  In association with his fellows, man
+learned that mutual aid and co-operation were necessary to the survival
+of the race.  To learn this caused him more trouble than all the
+terrors and mysteries of the natural world around him.  Connected with
+the trail is a long chain of causes and effects, trial and error,
+success and failure, out of which has come the advancement of the race.
+The accumulated results of life on the trail are called <I>civilization</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Civilization May Be Defined</I>.&mdash;To know what civilization is by study
+and observation is better than to rely upon a formal
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P4"></A>4}</SPAN>
+definition.
+For, indeed, the word is used in so many different ways that it admits
+of a loose interpretation.  For instance, it may be used in a narrow
+sense to indicate the character and quality of the civil relations.
+Those tribes or nations having a well-developed social order, with
+government, laws, and other fixed social customs, are said to be
+civilized, while those peoples without these characters are assumed to
+be uncivilized.  It may also be considered in a somewhat different
+sense, when the arts, industries, sciences, and habits of life are
+stimulated&mdash;civilization being determined by the degree in which these
+are developed.  Whichever view is accepted, it involves a contrast of
+present ideals with past ideals, of an undeveloped with a developed
+state of human progress.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But whatever notion we have of civilization, it is difficult to draw a
+fixed line between civilized and uncivilized peoples.  Mr. Lewis H.
+Morgan, in his <I>Ancient Society</I>, asserts that civilization began with
+the phonetic alphabet, and that all human activity prior to this could
+be classified as savagery or barbarism.  But there is a broader
+conception of civilization which recognizes all phases of human
+achievement, from the making of a stone axe to the construction of the
+airplane; from the rude hut to the magnificent palace; from crude moral
+and religious conditions to the more refined conditions of human
+association.  If we consider that civilization involves the whole
+process of human achievement, it must admit of a great variety of
+qualities and degrees of development, hence it appears to be a relative
+term applied to the variation of human life.  Thus, the Japanese are
+highly civilized along special lines of hand work, hand industry, and
+hand art, as well as being superior in some phases of family
+relationships.  So we might say of the Chinese, the East Indians, and
+the American Indians, that they each have well-established customs,
+habits of thought, and standards of life, differing from other nations,
+expressing different types of civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When a member of a primitive tribe invented the bow-and-arrow, or began
+to chip a flint nodule in order to make a stone
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P5"></A>5}</SPAN>
+axe, civilization
+began.  As soon as people began to co-operate with one another in
+obtaining food, building houses, or for protection against wild animals
+and wild men, that is, when they began to treat each other civilly,
+they were becoming civilized.  We may say then in reality that
+civilization has been a continuous process from the first beginning of
+man's conquest of himself and nature to the modern complexities of
+social life with its multitude of products of industry and cultural
+arts.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is very common for one group or race to assume to be highly
+civilized and call the others barbarians or savages.  Thus the Hebrews
+assumed superiority when they called other people Gentiles, and the
+Greeks when they called others barbarians.  Indeed, it is only within
+recent years that we are beginning to recognize that the civilizations
+of China, Japan, and India have qualities worth studying and that they
+may have something worth while in life that the Western civilization
+has not.  Also there has been a tendency to confuse the terms Christian
+and heathen with civilized and uncivilized.  This idea arose in
+England, where, in the early history of Christianity, the people of the
+towns were more cultured than the people of the country.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It happened, too, that the townspeople received Christianity before the
+people of the country, hence heathens were the people who dwelt out on
+the heath, away from town.  This local idea became a world idea when
+all non-Christian peoples were called uncivilized.  It is a fatal error
+for an individual, neighborhood, tribe, or nation to assume superiority
+to the extent that it fails to recognize good qualities in others.  One
+should not look with disdain upon a tribe of American Indians, calling
+them uncivilized because their material life is simple, when in reality
+in point of honor, faithfulness, and courage they excel a large
+proportion of the races assuming a higher civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Material Evidences of Civilization Are All Around Us</I>.&mdash;Behold
+this beautiful valley of the West, with its broad,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P6"></A>6}</SPAN>
+fertile fields,
+yielding rich harvests of corn and wheat, and brightened by varied
+forms of fruit and flower.  Farmhouses and schoolhouses dot the
+landscape, while towns and cities, with their marts of trade and busy
+industries, rise at intervals.  Here are churches, colleges, and
+libraries, indicative of the education of the community; courthouses,
+prisons, and jails, which speak of government, law, order, and
+protection.  Here are homes for the aged and weak, hospitals and
+schools for the defective, almshouses for the indigent, and
+reformatories for the wayward.  Railroads bind together all parts of
+the nation, making exchange possible, and bringing to our doors the
+products of every clime.  The telephone and the radio unite distant
+people with common knowledge, thought, and sentiment.  Factories and
+mills line the streams or cluster in village and city, marking the busy
+industrial life.  These and more mark the visible products of
+civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But civilization is something more than form, it is spirit; and its
+evidence may be more clearly discerned in the co-operation of men in
+political organization and industrial life, by their united action in
+religious worship and charitable service, in social order and
+educational advancement.  Observe, too, the happy homes, with all of
+their sweet and hallowed influences, and the social mingling of the
+people searching for pleasure or profit in their peaceful, harmonious
+association.  Witness the evidences of accumulated knowledge in
+newspapers, periodicals, and books, and the culture of painting,
+poetry, and music.  Behold, too, the achievements of the mind in the
+invention and discovery of the age; steam and electrical appliances
+that cause the whirl of bright machinery, that turn night into day, and
+make thought travel swift as the wings of the wind!  Consider the
+influence of chemistry, biology, and medicine on material welfare, and
+the discoveries of the products of the earth that subserve man's
+purpose!  And the central idea of all this is man, who walks upright in
+the dignity and grace of his own manhood, surrounded by the evidence of
+his own achievements.  His knowledge, his power of thought,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P7"></A>7}</SPAN>
+his
+moral character, and his capacity for living a large life, are
+evidences of the real civilization.  For individual culture is, after
+all, the flower and fruit, the beauty and strength of civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+One hundred years ago neither dwelling, church, nor city greeted the
+eye that gazed over the broad expanse of the unfilled prairies.  Here
+were no accumulations of wealth, no signs of human habitation, except a
+few Indians wandering in groups or assembled in their wigwam villages.
+The evidences of art and industry were meagre, and of accumulated
+knowledge small, because the natives were still the children of nature
+and had gone but a little way in the mastery of physical forces or in
+the accumulation of knowledge.  The relative difference in their
+condition and that of those that followed them is the contrast between
+barbarism and civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Yet how rapid was the change that replaced the latter with the former.
+Behold great commonwealths built in half a century!  What is the secret
+of this great and marvellous change?  It is a transplanted
+civilization, not an indigenous one.  Men came to this fertile valley
+with the spiritual and material products of modern life, the outcome of
+centuries of progress.  They brought the results of man's struggle,
+with himself and with nature, for thousands of years.  This made it
+possible to build a commonwealth in half a century.  The first settlers
+brought with them a knowledge of the industrial arts; the theory and
+practice of social order; individual capacity, and a thirst for
+education.  It was necessary only to set up the machinery already
+created, and civilization went forward.  When they began the life of
+labor, the accumulated wealth of the whole world was to be had in
+exchange for the products of the soil.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Primitive Man Faced an Unknown World</I>.&mdash;But how different is the
+picture of primitive man suddenly brought face to face with an unknown
+world.  With no knowledge of nature or art, with no theory or practice
+of social order, he began to dig and to delve for the preservation of
+life.  Suffering the pangs of hunger, he obtained food; naked, he
+clothed himself;
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P8"></A>8}</SPAN>
+buffeted by storm and wind and scorched by the
+penetrating rays of the sun, he built himself a shelter.  As he
+gradually became skilled in the industrial arts, his knowledge
+increased.  He formed a clearer estimate of how nature might serve him,
+and obtained more implements with which to work
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The social order of the family and the state slowly appeared.  Man
+became a co-operating creature, working with his fellows in the
+satisfaction of material wants and in protecting the rights of
+individuals.  Slow and painful was this process of development, but as
+he worked his capacity enlarged, his power increased, until he mastered
+the forces of nature and turned them to serve him; he accumulated
+knowledge and brought forth culture and learning; he marshalled the
+social forces in orderly process.  Each new mastery of nature or self
+was a power for the future, for civilization is cumulative in its
+nature; it works in a geometrical progression.  An idea once formed,
+others follow; one invention leads to another, and each material form
+of progress furnishes a basis for a more rapid progress and for a
+larger life.  The discovery and use of a new food product increased the
+power of civilization a hundredfold.  One step in social order leads to
+another, and thus is furnished a means of utilizing without waste all
+of the individual and social forces.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Yet how irregular and faltering are the first steps of human progress.
+A step forward, followed by a long period of readjustment of the
+conditions of life; a movement forward here and a retarding force
+there.  Within this irregular movement we discover the true course of
+human progress.  One tribe, on account of peculiar advantages, makes a
+special discovery, which places it in the ascendancy and gives it power
+over others.  It has obtained a favorable location for protection
+against oppressors or a fertile soil, a good hunting ground or a
+superior climate.  It survives all opposing factors for a time, and,
+obtaining some idea of progress, it goes on adding strength unto
+strength, or is crowded from its favorable position by its warlike
+neighbors to perish from the earth, or to live a
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P9"></A>9}</SPAN>
+stationary or even
+a deteriorating life.  A strong tribe, through internal development and
+the domination of other groups, finally becomes a great nation in an
+advanced state of civilization.  It passes through the course of
+infancy, youth, maturity, old age, and death.  But the products of its
+civilization are handed on to other nations.  Another rises and, when
+about to enter an advanced state of progress, perishes on account of
+internal maladies.  It is overshadowed with despotism, oppressed by
+priestcraft, or lacking industrial vitality to such a degree that it is
+forced to surrender the beginnings of civilization to other nations and
+other lives.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The dominance of a group is dependent in part on the natural or
+inherent qualities of mind and body of its members, which give it power
+to achieve by adapting itself to conditions of nature and in mastering
+and utilizing natural resources.  Thus the tribe that makes new devices
+for procuring food or new weapons for defense, or learns how to sow
+seeds and till the soil, adds to its means of survival and progress and
+thus forges ahead of those tribes lacking in these means.  Also the
+social heritage or the inheritance of all of the products of industry
+and arts of life which are passed on from generation to generation, is
+essential to the rapid development of civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Civilization Is Expressed in a Variety of Ways</I>.&mdash;Different ideals and
+the adaptation to different environment cause different types of life.
+The ideals of the Persian, the Greek, the Roman, and the Teuton varied.
+Still greater is the contrast between these and the Chinese and the
+Egyptian ideals.  China boasts of an ancient civilization that had its
+origin long before the faint beginnings of Western nations, and the
+Chinese are firm believers in their own culture and superior
+advancement.  The silent grandeur of the pyramids and temples of the
+Nile valley bespeak a civilization of great maturity, that did much for
+the world in general, but little for the Egyptian people.  Yet these
+types of civilization are far different from that of Western nations.
+Their ideas of culture are in great contrast to our own.  But even the
+Western nations are not uniform in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P10"></A>10}</SPAN>
+ideals of civil life nor in
+their practice of social order.  They are not identical in religious
+life, and their ideals of art and social progress vary.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Moreover, the racial type varies somewhat and with it the national life
+and thought.  Compare England, Germany, France, and Spain as to the
+variability in characteristics of literature and art, in moral ideals,
+in ethical practice, in religious motive, and in social order.  Their
+differences are evident, but they tend to disappear under the influence
+of rapid transit and close intercommunication, which draw all modern
+nations nearer together.  Yet, granting the variability of ideals and
+of practice, there is a general consensus of opinion as to what
+constitutes civilization and what are the elements of progress.  Modern
+writers differ somewhat in opinion as to elements of civilization, but
+these differences are more apparent than real, as all true civilization
+must rest upon a solid foundation of common human traits.  The
+fundamental principles and chief characteristics are quite uniform for
+all nations and for all times, and writers who disagree as to general
+characteristics may not be classified by national boundaries; they
+represent the differences of philosophers.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Modern Civilization Includes Some Fundamentals</I>.&mdash;As applied at
+different periods of the world's progress and as a representation of
+different phases of life, civilization means more to-day than ever
+before; its ideal is higher, its conception broader.  In the modern,
+accepted sense it includes (1) <I>a definite knowledge of man and
+nature</I>.  The classified knowledge of science and philosophy and all
+phases of the history of man socially and individually are important in
+estimating his true progress.  All forms of thought and life are to be
+estimated in considering the full meaning of the term.  It also
+includes (2) <I>progress in art</I>.  While science deals with principles,
+art deals with rules of action.  Science gives classified knowledge,
+while art directs to a practical end.  Art provides definite plans how
+to operate.  If these plans are carried out, the field of practice is
+entered.  In its broadest conception art includes the making
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P11"></A>11}</SPAN>
+and
+the doing, as well as the plan.  The fine arts and the industrial or
+practical arts, in all of their varied interests, are included in art
+as a factor in civilization.  This category should include the highest
+forms of painting, poetry, sculpture, and music, as well as the lowest
+forms of industrial implements.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Civilization includes (3) <I>a well-developed ethical code</I> quite
+universally observed by a community or nation.  The rule of conduct of
+man toward himself and toward his fellows is one of the essential
+points of discrimination between barbarism and civilization.  While
+ethical practice began at a very early period in the progress of man,
+it was a long time before any distinct ethical code became established.
+But the completed civilization does not exist until a high order of
+moral practice obtains; no civilization can long prevail without it.
+Of less importance, but of no less binding force, is (4) the <I>social
+code</I>, which represents the forms and conventionalities of society,
+built, it is true, largely upon the caprices of fashion, and varying
+greatly in different communities, yet more arbitrary, if possible, than
+the moral code.  It considers fitness and consistency in conduct, and
+as such is an important consideration in social usage and social
+progress.  In Europe it has its extreme in the court etiquette; in
+America, in the punctiliousness of the higher social classes of our
+large cities.  But it affects all communities, and its observance may
+be noted in rural districts as well as in the city population.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The mores, or customs, of man began at a very early time and have been
+a persistent ruling power in human conduct.  Through tradition they are
+handed down from generation to generation, to be observed with more or
+less fidelity as a guide to the art of living.  Every community,
+whether primitive or developed, is controlled to a great extent by the
+prevailing custom.  It is common for individuals and families to do as
+their ancestors did.  This habit is frequently carried to such an
+extent that the deeds of the fathers are held sacred from which no one
+dare to depart.  Isolated communities continue year after year to do
+things because they had always done so,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P12"></A>12}</SPAN>
+holding strictly to the
+ruling custom founded on tradition, even when some better way was at
+hand.  A rare example of this human trait is given by Captain Donald
+MacMillan, who recently returned from Arctic Greenland.  He said: "We
+took two ultra-modern developments, motion pictures and radio, direct
+to a people who live and think as their ancestors did two thousand
+years ago."  He was asked: "What did they think?"  He replied: "I do
+not know."  Probably it was a case of wonder without thought.  While
+this is a dominant force which makes for the unity and perpetuity of
+the group, it is only by departure from established tradition that
+progress is made possible.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Civilization involves (5) <I>government and law</I>.  The tribes and nations
+in a state of barbarism lived under the binding influence of custom.
+In this period people were born under <I>status</I>, or condition, not under
+law.  Gradually the old family life expanded into the state, and
+government became more formal.  Law appeared as the expression of the
+will of the people directly or indirectly through their
+representatives.  True, it may have been the arbitrary ruling of a
+king, but he represented the unity of the race and spoke with the
+authority of the nation.  Law found no expression until there was
+formed an organic community capable of having a will respecting the
+control of those who composed it.  It implies a governing body and a
+body governed; it implies an orderly movement of society according to a
+rule of action called law.  While social order is generally obtained
+through law and government, such is the practice in modern life that
+the orderly association of men in trade and commerce and in daily
+contact appears to stand alone and to rise above the control of the
+law.  Indeed, in a true civilization, the civil code, though an
+essential factor, seems to be outclassed by the higher social instincts
+based on the practice of social order.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+(6) <I>Religion</I> must take a large place as a factor in the development
+of civilization.  The character of the religious belief of man is, to a
+certain extent, the true test of his progressive
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P13"></A>13}</SPAN>
+nature.  His
+faith may prove a source of inspiration to reason and progressive life;
+it may prove the opposite, and lead to stagnation and retrogression.
+Upon the whole, it must be insisted that religious belief has subserved
+a large purpose in the economy of human progress.  It has been
+universal to all tribes, for even the lowest have some form of
+religious belief&mdash;at least, a belief in spiritual beings.  Religious
+belief thus became the primary source of abstract ideas, and it has
+always been conducive to social order.  It has, in modern times
+especially, furnished the foundation of morality.  By surrounding
+marriage with ceremonies it has purified the home life, upheld the
+authority of the family, and thus strengthened social order.  It has
+developed the individual by furnishing an ideal before science and
+positive knowledge made it possible.  It strengthened patriotic feeling
+on account of service rendered in supporting local government, and
+subjectively religion improved man by teaching him to obey a superior.
+Again, by its tradition it frequently stifled thought and retarded
+progress.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Among other elements of civilization must be mentioned (7) <I>social
+well-being</I>.  The preceding conditions would be almost certain to
+insure social well-being and prosperity.  Yet it might be possible,
+through lack of harmony of these forces, on account of their improper
+distribution in a community, that the group might lack in general
+social prosperity.  Unless there is general contentment and happiness
+there cannot be said to be an ideal state of civilization.  And this
+social well-being is closely allied to (8) <I>material prosperity</I>, the
+most apparent element to be mentioned in the present analysis.  The
+amount of the accumulation of the wealth of a nation, its distribution
+among the people, and the manner in which it is obtained and expended,
+determine the state of civilization.  This material prosperity makes
+the better phases of civilization possible.  It is essential to modern
+progress, and our civilization should seek to render it possible for
+all classes to earn their bread and to have leisure and opportunity for
+self-culture.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The mastery of the forces of nature is the basis for man's
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P14"></A>14}</SPAN>
+material prosperity.  Touching nature here and there, by discovery,
+invention, and toil, causing her to yield her treasures for his
+service, is the key to all progress.  In this, it is not so much
+conflict with nature as co-operation with her, that yields utility and
+eventually mastery.  The discovery and use of new food products, the
+coal and other minerals of the earth, the forests, the water power and
+electric power, coupled with invention and adaptability to continually
+greater use, are the qualifying opportunity for advancement.  Without
+these the fine theories of the philosopher, exalted religious belief,
+and high ideals of life are of no avail.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+From the foregoing it may be said that civilization in its fulness
+means all of the acquired capabilities of man as evidenced by his
+conduct and the material products arising from his physical and mental
+exertion.  It is evident that at first the structure called
+civilization began to develop very slowly and very feebly; just when it
+began it is difficult to state.  The creation of the first utility, the
+first substantial movement to increase the food supply, the first home
+for protection, the first religious ceremony, or the first organized
+household, represents the beginnings of civilization, and these are the
+landmarks along the trail of man's ascendency.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Progress Is an Essential Characteristic of Civilization</I>.&mdash;The goal is
+never reached, the victory is never finally achieved.  Man must move
+on, ever on.  Intellect must develop, morals improve, liberty increase,
+social order be perfected, and social growth continue.  There must be
+no halting on the road; the nation that hesitates is lost.  Progress in
+general is marked by the development of the individual, on the one
+hand, and that of society, on the other.  In well-ordered society these
+two ideas are balanced; they seek an equilibrium.  Excessive
+individualism leads to anarchy and destruction; excessive socialism
+blights and stagnates individual activity and independence and retards
+progress.  It must be admitted here as elsewhere that the individual
+culture and the individual life are, after all, the highest aims.  But
+how can these be obtained in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P15"></A>15}</SPAN>
+modern life without social progress?
+How can there be freedom of action for the development of the
+individual powers without social expansion?  Truly, the social and the
+individual life are complementary elements of progress.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Diversity Is Necessary to Progress</I>.&mdash;If progress is an essential
+characteristic of modern civilization, it may be said that diversity is
+essential to progress.  There is much said about equality and
+fraternity.  It depends on what is meant by the terms as to whether
+these are good sayings or not.  If equality means uniformity, by it man
+is easily reduced to a state of stagnation.  Diversity of life exists
+everywhere in progressive nature, where plants or animals move forward
+in the scale of existence.  Man is not an exception to the rule,
+notwithstanding his strong will force.  Men differ in strength, in
+moral and intellectual capacity, and in co-operating ability.  Hence
+they must occupy different stations in life.  And the quality and
+quantity of progress are to be estimated in different nations according
+to the diversity of life to be observed among individuals and groups.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>What Is the Goal of Civilized Man?</I>&mdash;And it may be well to ask, as
+civilization is progressive: What is our aim in life from our own
+standpoint?  For what do men strive?  What is the ultimate of life?
+What is the best for which humanity can live?  If it were merely to
+obtain food and clothes and nothing more, the question could be easily
+answered.  If it were merely to train a man to be a monk, that he might
+spend his time in prayer and supplication for a better future life, the
+question would be simple enough.  If to pore over books to find out the
+knowledge of the past and to spend the life in investigation of truth
+were the chief aims, it would be easy to determine the object of life.
+But frequently that which we call success in life is merely a means to
+an end.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+And viewed in the complex activity of society, it is difficult to say
+what is the true end of life; it is difficult to determine the true end
+of civilization.  Some have said it is found in administering the
+"greatest good to the greatest number,"
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P16"></A>16}</SPAN>
+and if we consider in this
+the generations yet unborn, it reveals the actual tendency of modern
+civilization.  If the perfection of the individual is the highest ideal
+of civilization, it stops not with one individual, but includes all.
+And this asserts that social well-being must be included in the final
+aim, for full and free individual development cannot appear without it.
+The enlarged capacity for living correctly, enjoying the best of this
+life righteously, and for associating harmoniously and justly with his
+fellows, is the highest aim of the individual.  Happiness of the
+greatest number through utility is the formula for modern civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Possibilities of Civilization</I>.&mdash;The possibilities of reaching a still
+higher state of civilization are indeed great.  The future is not full
+of foreboding, but bright and happy with promise of individual culture
+and social progress.  If opportunities are but wisely used, the
+twentieth century will witness an advancement beyond our highest
+dreams.  Yet the whole problem hinges on the right use of knowledge.
+If the knowledge of chemistry is to be used to destroy nations and
+races with gases and high explosives, such knowledge turns civilization
+to destruction.  If all of the powers of nature under man's control
+should be turned against him, civilization would be turned back upon
+itself.  Let us have "the will to believe" that we have entered an era
+of vital progress, of social improvement, of political reforms, which
+will lead to the protection of those who need protection and the
+elevation of those who desire it.  The rapid progress in art and
+architecture, in invention and industry, the building of libraries and
+the diffusion of knowledge, the improvement of our educational system,
+all being entered upon, will force the world forward at a rapid pace,
+and on such a rational basis that the delight of living will be greatly
+enhanced for all classes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Civilization Can Be Estimated</I>.&mdash;This brief presentation of the
+meaning of civilization reveals the fact that civilization can be
+recounted; that it is a question of fact and philosophy that can be
+measured.  It is the story of human progress and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P17"></A>17}</SPAN>
+the causes which
+made it.  It presents the generalizations of all that is valuable in
+the life of the race.  It is the epitome of the history of humanity in
+its onward sweep.  In its critical sense it cannot be called history,
+for it neglects details for general statements.  Nor is it the
+philosophy of history, for it covers a broader field.  It is not
+speculation, for it deals with fact.  It is the philosophy of man's
+life as to the results of his activity.  It shows alike the unfolding
+of the individual and of society, and it represents these in every
+phase embraced in the word "progress."  To recount this progress and to
+measure civilization is the purpose of the following pages, so far as
+it may be done in the limited space assigned.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  Are people of civilized races happier now than are the uncivilized
+races?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  Would the American Indians in time have developed a high state of
+civilization?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  Why do we not find a high state of civilization among the African
+negroes?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  What are the material evidences of civilization in the neighborhood
+in which you live?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  Does increased knowledge alone insure an advanced civilization?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  Choose an important public building in your neighborhood and trace
+the sources of architecture of the different parts.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap02"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P18"></A>18}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER II
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+THE ESSENTIALS OF PROGRESS
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>How Mankind Goes Forward on the Trail</I>.&mdash;Although civilization cannot
+exist without it, progress is something different from the sum-total of
+the products of civilization.  It may be said to be the process through
+which civilization is obtained, or, perhaps more fittingly, it is the
+log of the course that marks civilization.  There can be no conception
+of progress without ideals, which are standards set up toward which
+humanity travels.  And as humanity never rises above its ideals, the
+possibilities of progress are limited by them.  If ideals are high,
+there are possibilities of a high state of culture; if they are low,
+the possibilities are lessened, and, indeed, frequently are barren of
+results.  But having established ideals as beacon lights for humanity
+to follow, the final test is whether there is sufficient knowledge,
+sufficient ability, and sufficient will-power to approximate them.  In
+other words, shall humanity complete the trail of life, go on higher
+and higher grounds where are set the standards or goals to be reached;
+or will humanity rest easily and contentedly on a low level with no
+attempt to reach a higher level, or, indeed, will humanity, failing in
+desires for betterment, initiative, and will-power, drift to lower
+levels?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Groups, either tribes, races, or nations, may advance along given lines
+and be stationary or even retarded along other lines of development.
+If the accumulation of wealth is the dominant ideal, it may be so
+strenuously followed as to destroy opportunity for other phases of
+life.  If the flow of energy is all toward a religious belief that
+absorbs the time and energy of people in the building of pyramids,
+mausoleums, cathedrals, and mosques, and taboos the inquiry into nature
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P19"></A>19}</SPAN>
+which might yield a large improvement in the race, religion would
+be developed at the expense of race improvement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Change Is Not Necessarily Progress</I>.&mdash;It is quite common in a popular
+sense for people to identify change with progress, or indeed to accept
+the wonderful changes which take place as causes of progress, when in
+reality they should have taken more care to search out the elements of
+progress of the great moving panorama of changing life.  Changes are
+frequently violent, sudden, tremendous in their immediate effect.  They
+move rapidly and involve many complexes, but progress is a slow-going
+old tortoise that plods along irrespective of storm or sunshine, life
+or death, of the cataclysms of war or the catastrophes of earthquakes
+or volcanoes.  Progress moves slowly along through political and social
+revolutions, gaining a little here and a little there, and registering
+the things that are really worth while out of the ceaseless, changing
+humanity.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Achievement may take place without betterment, but all progress must
+make a record of betterment with achievement.  A man may write a book
+or invent a machine at great labor.  So far as he is concerned it is an
+achievement, but unless it is a good book, a good invention, better
+than others, so that they may be used for the advancement of the race,
+they will not form a betterment.  Many of the changes of life represent
+the results of trial and error.  "There is a way that seemeth right" to
+a nation which may end in destruction.  The evil aroused is sometimes
+greater than the good.  The prosperity of the Roman Empire was
+destroyed because of luxury and corrupt administration.  The German
+Empire developed great powers in government, education, in the arts and
+sciences, but her military purpose nearly destroyed her.  The Spanish
+Empire that once controlled a good part of the American continent
+failed because laborers were driven out of Spain and the wealth gained
+by exploitation was used to support the nobility and royalty in luxury.
+Whether the United States will continue to carry out her high purposes
+will depend upon the right use of her immense wealth and power.
+Likewise the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P20"></A>20}</SPAN>
+radio, the movie, and the automobile are making
+tremendous changes.  Will the opportunities they furnish improve the
+moral and intellectual character of the people&mdash;a necessary condition
+to real progress?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In considering modern progress, too frequently it is estimated by the
+greatness of things, by the stupendous changes, or by the marvellous
+achievements of the age, and we pause and wonder at what has been
+accomplished; but if we think long enough and clearly enough, we may
+get a vision of real progress, and we may find it difficult to
+determine the outcome of it all, so far as the real betterment of the
+race is concerned.  Is the millionaire of to-day any happier,
+necessarily, and any more moral or of a higher religious standard than
+the primitive man or the savage of the plains or forest of to-day?
+True, he has power to achieve in many directions, but is he any happier
+or better?  It may be said that his millions may accomplish great good.
+This is true if they are properly applied.  It is also true that they
+are capable of great harm if improperly used.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As we stand and gaze at the movements of the airplane, or contemplate
+its rapid flight from ocean to ocean and from land to land around the
+world, we are impressed with this great wonder of the age, the great
+achievement of the inventive power of man.  But what of the gain to
+humanity?  If it is possible to transport the mails from New York to
+San Francisco in sixteen hours instead of in five days, is there
+advantage in that except the quickening process of transportation and
+life?  Is it not worth while to inquire what the man at the other end
+of the line is going to do by having his mail four days ahead?  He will
+hurry up somebody else and somebody else will hurry the next one, and
+we only increase the rapidity of motion.  Does it really give us more
+time for leisure, and if so, are we using that leisure time in the
+development of our reflective intellectual powers or our spiritual
+life?  It is easier to see improvement in the case of the radio,
+whereby songs and lectures can be broadcast all over the earth, and the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P21"></A>21}</SPAN>
+community of life and the community of interest are developed
+thereby, and, also, the leisure hours are devoted to a contemplation of
+high ideals, of beautiful music, of noble thoughts.  We do recognize a
+modicum of progress out of the great whirring, rapid changes in
+transportation and creative industry; but let us not be deceived by
+substituting change for progress, or making the two identical.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Thus human progress is something more than achievement, and it is
+something more than the exhibition of tools.  It is determined by the
+use of the tools and involves betterment of the human race.  Hence, all
+the products of social heredity, of language, of science, of religion,
+of art, and of government are progressive in proportion as they are
+successfully used for individual and social betterment.  For if
+government is used to enslave people, or science to destroy them, or
+religion to stifle them, there can be no progress.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Progress Expresses Itself in a Variety of Ideals and Aims</I>.&mdash;Progress
+involves many lines of development.  It may include biological
+development of the human race, the development of man, especially his
+growth of brain power.  It may consider man's adaptation to environment
+under different phases of life.  It may consider the efficiency of
+bodily structure.  In a cultural sense, progress may refer to the
+products of the industrial arts, or to the development of fine arts, or
+the advancement of religious life and belief&mdash;in fact, to the mastery
+of the resources of nature and their service to mankind in whatever
+form they may appear or in whatever phase of life they may be
+expressed.  Progress may also be indicated in the improvement in social
+order and in government, and also the increased opportunity of the
+individual to receive culture through the process of mutual aid.  In
+fact, progress must be sought for in all phases of human activity.
+Whatever phase of progress is considered, its line of demarcation is
+carefully drawn in the process of change from the old to the new, but
+the results of these changes will be the indices of either progress or
+retardation.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P22"></A>22}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>Progress of the Part and Progress of the Whole</I>.&mdash;An individual might
+through hereditary qualities have superior mental traits or physical
+powers.  These also may receive specific development under favorable
+educational environment, but the inertia of the group or the race might
+render ineffective a salutary use of his powers.  A man is sometimes
+elected mayor of a town and devotes his energies to municipal
+betterment.  But he may be surrounded by corrupt politicians and
+promoters of enterprises who hedge his way at every turn.  Also, in a
+similar way, a group or tribe may go forward, and yet the products of
+its endeavor be lost to the world.  Thus a productiveness of the part
+may be exhibited without the progress of the race.  The former moves
+with concrete limitations, the latter in sweeping, cycling changes; but
+the latter cannot exist without the former, because it is from the
+parts that the whole is created, and it is the generalization of the
+accumulated knowledge or activities of the parts that makes it possible
+for the whole to develop.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The evolution of the human race includes the idea of differentiation of
+parts and a generalization that makes the whole of progress.  So it is
+not easy to determine the result of a local activity as progressive
+until its relation to other parts is determined, nor until other
+activities and the whole of life are determined.  Local colorings of
+life may be so provincial in their view-point as to be practically
+valueless in the estimation of the degree and quality of progress.
+Certain towns, especially in rural districts not acquainted with better
+things, boast that they have the best school, the best court-house, the
+best climate&mdash;in fact, everything best.  When they finally awaken from
+their local dream, they discover their own deficiencies.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The great development of art, literature, philosophy, and politics
+among the ancient Greeks was inefficient in raising the great masses of
+the people to a higher plane of living, but the fruits of the lives of
+these superiors were handed on to other groups to utilize, and they are
+not without influence
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P23"></A>23}</SPAN>
+over the whole human group of to-day.  So,
+too, the religious mystic philosophy and literature of India
+represented a high state of mental development, but the products of its
+existence left the races of India in darkness because the mystic
+philosophy was not adaptable to the practical affairs of life.  The
+Indian philosophers may have handed on ideas which caused admiration
+and wonder, but they have had very little influence of a practical
+nature on Western civilization.  So society may make progress in either
+art, religion, or government for a time, and then, for the want of
+adaptation to the conditions imposed by progress, the effects may
+disappear.  Yet not all is lost, for some achievements in the form of
+tools are passed on through social heredity and utilized by other
+races.  In the long run it is the total of the progress of the race,
+the progress of the whole, that is the final test.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Social Progress Involves Individual Development</I>.&mdash;If we trace
+progress backward over the trail which it has followed, there are two
+lines of development more or less clearly defined.  One is the
+improvement of the racial stock through the hereditary traits of
+individuals.  The brain is enlarged, the body developed in character
+and efficiency, and the entire physical system has changed through
+variation in accordance with the laws of heredity.  What we observe is
+development in the individual, which is its primary function.  Progress
+in this line must furnish individuals of a higher type in the
+procession of the generations.  The other line is through social
+heredity, that is the accumulated products of civilization handed down
+from generation to generation.  This gives each succeeding generation a
+new, improved kit of tools, it brings each new generation into a better
+environment and surrounds it with ready-made means to carry on the
+improvement and add something for the use of the next generation.
+Knowledge of the arts and industries, language and books, are thus
+products of social heredity.  Also buildings, machinery, roads,
+educational systems, and school buildings are inherited.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Connected with these two methods of development must
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P24"></A>24}</SPAN>
+be the
+discovery of the use of the human mind evidenced by the beginning of
+reflective thought.  It is said by some writers that we are still
+largely in the age of instincts and emotions and have just recently
+entered the age of reason.  Such positive statements should be
+considered with a wider vision of life, for one cannot conceive of
+civilization at all without the beginning of reflective mental
+processes.  Simple inventions, like the use of fire, the bow-and-arrow,
+or the flint knife, may have come about primarily through the desire to
+accomplish something by subjecting means to an end, but in the
+perfection of the use of these things, which occurred very early in
+primitive life, there must have been reflective thinking in order to
+shape the knife for its purpose, make the bow-and-arrow more effective,
+and utilize fire for cooking, heating, and smelting.  All of these must
+have come primarily through the individual initiative.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Frequent advocates of social achievement would lead one to suppose that
+the tribe in need of some method of cutting should assemble and pass
+the resolution that a flint knife be made, when any one knows it was
+the reflective process of the individual mind which sought adaptation
+to environment or means to accomplish a purpose.  Of course the
+philosopher may read many generalizations into this which may confuse
+one in trying to observe the simple fact, for it is to be deplored that
+much of the philosophy of to-day is a smoke screen which obscures the
+simple truth.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The difference of races in achievement and in culture is traced
+primarily to hereditary traits developed through variation, through
+intrinsic stimuli, or those originating through so-called inborn
+traits.  These traits enable some races to achieve and adapt themselves
+to their environment, and cause others to fail.  Thus, some groups or
+races have perished because of living near a swamp infested with
+malaria-carrying mosquitoes or in countries where the food supply was
+insufficient.  They lacked initiative to move to a more healthful
+region or one more bountiful in food products, or else they
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P25"></A>25}</SPAN>
+lacked
+knowledge and skill to protect themselves against mosquitoes or to
+increase the food supply.  Moreover, they had no power within them to
+seek the better environment or to change the environment for their own
+advancement.  This does not ignore the tremendous influence of
+environment in the production of race culture.  Its influence is
+tremendous, especially because environmental conditions are more under
+the direction of intelligence than is the development of hereditary
+traits.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Some writers have maintained that there is no difference in the
+dynamic, mental, or physical power of races, and that the difference of
+races which we observe to-day is based upon the fact that some have
+been retarded by poor environment, and others have advanced because of
+fortunate environment.  This argument is good as far as it goes, but it
+does not tell the whole story.  It does not show why some races under
+good environment have not succeeded, while others under poor
+environment have succeeded well.  It does not show why some races have
+the wit to change to a better environment or transform the old
+environment.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There seems to be a great persistency of individual traits, of family
+traits, and, in a still larger generalization, of racial traits which
+culture fails to obliterate.  As these differences of traits seem to be
+universal, it appears that the particular combination which gives motor
+power may also be a differentiation.  At least, as all races have had
+the same earth, why, if they are so equal in the beginning, would they
+not achieve?  Had they no inventive power?  Also, when these so-called
+retarded races came in contact with the more advanced races who were
+superior in arts and industries, why did they not borrow, adapt, and
+utilize these productions?  There must have been something vitally
+lacking which neither the qualities of the individual nor the stimulus
+of his surroundings could overcome.  Some have deteriorated, others
+have perished; some have reached a stationary existence, while others
+have advanced.  Through hereditary changes, nature played the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P26"></A>26}</SPAN>
+game
+in her own way with the leading cards in her own hand, and some races
+lost.  Hence so with races, so with individuals.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Progress Is Enhanced by the Interaction of Groups and Races</I>.&mdash;The
+accumulation of civilization and the state of progress may be much
+determined by the interaction of races and groups.  Just as individual
+personality is developed by contact with others, so the actions and
+reactions of tribes and races in contact bring into play the utility of
+discoveries and inventions.  Thus, knowledge of any kind may by
+diffusion become a heritage of all races.  If one tribe should acquire
+the art of making implements by chipping flint in a certain way, other
+tribes with which it comes in contact might borrow the idea and extend
+it, and thus it becomes spread over a wide area.  However, if the
+original discoverer used the chipped flint for skinning animals, the
+one who would borrow the idea might use it to make implements of
+warfare.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Thus, through borrowing, progress may be a co-operative process.  The
+reference to people in any community reveals the fact that there are
+few that lead and many that follow; that there is but one Edison, but
+there are millions that follow Edison.  Even in the educational world
+there are few inventors and many followers.  This is evidence of the
+large power of imitation and adaptation and of the universal habit of
+borrowing.  On the other hand, if one chemical laboratory should
+discover a high explosive which may be used in blasting rock for making
+the foundations for buildings, a nation might borrow the idea and use
+it in warfare for the destruction of man.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Mr. Clark Wissler has shown in his book on <I>Man and Culture</I> that there
+are culture areas originating from culture centres.  From these culture
+centres the bow-and-arrow is used over a wide area.  The domestication
+of the horse, which occurred in central Asia, has spread over the whole
+world.  So stone implements of culture centres have been borrowed and
+exchanged more or less throughout the world.  The theory is that one
+tribe or race invented one thing because of the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P27"></A>27}</SPAN>
+adaptability to
+good environment.  The dominant necessity of a race stimulated man's
+inventive power, while another tribe would invent or discover some
+other new thing for similar reasons.  But once created, not only could
+the products be swapped or traded, but, where this was impossible,
+ideas could be borrowed and adapted through imitation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+However, one should be careful not to make too hasty generalizations
+regarding the similar products in different parts of the world, for
+there is such universality of the traits of the human mind that, with
+similar stages of advancement and similar environments, man's adaptive
+power would cause him to do the same thing in very much the same way.
+Thus, it is possible for two races that have had no contact for a
+hundred thousand years to develop indigenous products of art which are
+very similar.  To illustrate from a point of contact nearer home, it is
+possible for a person living in Wisconsin and one in Massachusetts,
+having the same general environment&mdash;physical, educational, ethnic,
+religious&mdash;and having the same general traits of mind, through
+disconnected lines of differentiation, to write two books very much
+alike or two magazine articles very much alike.  In the question of
+fundamental human traits subject to the same environmental stimuli, in
+a general way we expect similar results.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+With all this differentiation, progress as a whole represents a
+continuous change from primitive conditions to the present complex
+life, even though its line of travel leads it through the byways of
+differentiation.  Just as the development of races has been through the
+process of differentiation from an early parent stock, cultural changes
+have followed the same law of progressive change.  Just as there is a
+unity of the human race, there is a unity of progress that involves all
+mankind.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Study of the Uncultured Races of To-Day</I>.&mdash;It is difficult to
+determine the beginnings of culture and to trace its slow development.
+In accomplishing this, there are two main methods of procedure; the
+first, to find the products or
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P28"></A>28}</SPAN>
+remains of culture left by races
+now extinct, that is, of nations and peoples that have lived and
+flourished and passed away, leaving evidence of what they brought to
+the world; also, by considering what they did with the tools with which
+they worked, and by determining the conditions under which they lived,
+a general idea of their state of progress may be obtained.  The second
+method is to determine the state of culture of living races of to-day
+who have been retarded or whose progress shows a case of arrested
+development and compare their civilization statistically observed with
+that of the prehistoric peoples whose state of progress exhibits in a
+measure similar characteristics to those of the living races.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+With these two methods working together, more light is continually
+being thrown upon man's ancient culture.  To illustrate this, if a
+certain kind of tool or implement is found in the culture areas of the
+extinct Neanderthal race and a similar tool is used by a living
+Australian tribe, it may be conjectured with considerable accuracy that
+the use of this tool was for similar purposes, and the thoughts and
+beliefs that clustered around its use were the same in each tribe.
+Thus may be estimated the degree of progress of the primitive race.  Or
+if an inscription on a cave of an extinct race showed a similarity to
+an inscription used by a living race, it would seem that they had the
+same background for such expression, and that similar instincts,
+emotions, and reflections were directed to a common end.  The recent
+study of anthropologists and archaeologists has brought to light much
+knowledge of primitive man which may be judged on its own evidence and
+own merits.  The verification of these early cultures by the living
+races who have reached a similar degree of progress is of great
+importance.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Study of Prehistoric Types</I>.[<A NAME="chap02fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn1">1</A>]&mdash;The brain capacity of modern man
+has changed little since the time of the Crô-Magnon race, which is the
+earliest ancestral type of present European races and whose existence
+dates back many
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P29"></A>29}</SPAN>
+thousand years.  Possibly the weight of the brain
+has increased during this period because of its development, and
+undoubtedly its power is much greater in modern man than in this
+ancient type.  Prior to that there are some evidences of extinct
+species, such as Pithecanthropus Erectus, the Grimaldi man, the
+Heidelberg man, and the Neanderthal.  Judging from the skeletal remains
+that have been found of these races, there has been a general progress
+of cranial capacity.  It is not necessary here to attempt to determine
+whether this has occurred from hereditary combinations or through
+changing environment.  Undoubtedly both of these factors have been
+potential in increasing the brain power of man, and if we were to go
+farther back by way of analogy, at least, and consider the Anthropoid
+ape, the animal most resembling man, we find a vast contrast in his
+cranial capacity as compared with the lowest of the prehistoric types,
+or, indeed, of the lowest types of the uncultured living races.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Starting with the Anthropoid ape, who has a register of about 350 c.c.,
+the Pithecanthropus about 900 c.c., and Neanderthal types registering
+as high as 1,620 c.c. of brain capacity, the best measures of the
+highest types of modern man show the brain capacity of 1,650 c.c.
+Specimens of the Crô-Magnon skulls show a brain capacity equal to that
+of modern man.  There is a great variation in the brain capacity of the
+Neanderthal race as exhibited in specimens found in different centres
+of culture, ranging all the way from 1,296 c.c. to 1,620 c.c.  Size is
+only one of several traits that determine brain power.  Among others
+are the weight, convolutions, texture, and education.  A small, compact
+brain may have more power than a larger brain relatively lighter.  Also
+much depends upon the centres of development.  The development of the
+frontal area, shown by the full forehead in connection with the
+distance above the ear (auditory meatus), in contrast with the
+development of the anterior lobes is indicative of power.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is interesting to note also that the progress of man as shown in the
+remnants of arts and industry corresponds in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P30"></A>30}</SPAN>
+development to the
+development of brain capacity, showing that the physical power of man
+kept pace with the mental development as exhibited in his mental power
+displayed in the arts and industries.  The discoveries in recent times
+of the skeletons of prehistoric man in Europe, Africa, and America, and
+the increased collection of implements showing cultures are throwing
+new light on the science of man and indicating a continuous development
+from very primitive beginnings.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Progress Is Indicated by the Early Cultures</I>.&mdash;It is convenient to
+divide the early culture of man, based upon his development in art into
+the Paleolithic, or unpolished, and the Neolithic, or polished, Stone
+Ages.[<A NAME="chap02fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn2">2</A>]  The former is again divided into the Eolithic, Lower
+Paleolithic, and the Upper Paleolithic.  In considering these divisions
+of relative time cultures, it must be remembered that the only way we
+have of measuring prehistoric time is through the geological method,
+based upon the Ice Ages and changes in the physical contour of the
+earth.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the strata of the earth, either in the late second inter-glacial
+period or at the beginning of the third, chipped rocks, or eoliths, are
+found used by races of which the Piltdown and Heidelberg species are
+representatives.[<A NAME="chap02fn3text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn3">3</A>]  Originally man used weapons to hammer and to cut
+already prepared by nature.  Sharp-edged flints formed by the crushing
+of rocks in the descent of the glaciers or by upheavals of earth or by
+powerful torrents were picked up as needed for the purpose of cutting.
+Wherever a sharp edge was needed, these natural implements were useful.
+Gradually man learned to carry the best specimens with him.  These he
+improved by chipping the edges, making them more serviceable, or
+chipping the eolith, so as to grasp it more easily.  This represents
+the earliest relic of the beginning of civilization through art.
+Eoliths of this kind are found in Egypt in the hills bordering the Nile
+Valley, in Asia and America, as well as in southern Europe.  Perhaps at
+the same period of development man selected stones suitable for
+crushing bones or for other purposes when hammering
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P31"></A>31}</SPAN>
+was necessary.
+These were gradually fashioned into more serviceable hammers.  In the
+latter part of this period, known as the pre-Chellean, flint implements
+were considerably improved.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the Lower Paleolithic in the pre-Neanderthal period, including what
+is known as the Chellean, new forms of implements are added to the
+earlier beginnings.  Almond-shaped flint implements, followed later by
+long, pointed implements, indicate the future development of the stone
+spear, arrowhead, knife, and axe.  Also smaller articles of use, such
+as borers, scrapers, and ploughs, appeared.  The edges of all
+implements were rough and uneven, and the forms very imperfect.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Industrial and Social Life of Primitive Man</I>.&mdash;In the industry of the
+early Neanderthal races (Acheulean) implements were increased in number
+and variety, being also more perfectly formed, showing the expansive
+art of man.  At this period man was a hunter, having temporary homes in
+caves and shelters, which gradually became more or less permanent, and
+used well-fashioned implements of stone.  At the close of the third
+interglacial period the climate was mild and moist, and mankind found
+the open glades suitable places for assemblages in family groups about
+the open fires; apparently the cooking of food and the making of
+implements and clothing on a small scale were the domestic occupations
+at this time.  Hunting was the chief occupation in procuring food.  The
+bison, the horse, the reindeer, the bear, the beaver, the wild boar had
+taken the place of the rhinoceros, the sabre-tooth tiger, and the
+elephant.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Judging from the stage of life existing at this time, and comparing
+this with that of the lowest living races, we may safely infer that the
+family associations existed at this time, even though the habitations
+in caves and shelters were temporary.[<A NAME="chap02fn4text"></A><A HREF="#chap02fn4">4</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+"Yet, when at length rude huts they first devised,<BR>
+And fires and garments; and in union sweet<BR>
+Man wedded woman, the pure joys indulged<BR>
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P32"></A>32}</SPAN>
+Of chaste connubial love, and children rose,<BR>
+The rough barbarians softened.  The warm hearth<BR>
+Their frames so melted they no more could bear,<BR>
+As erst, th' uncovered skies.  The nuptial bed<BR>
+Broke their wild vigor, and the fond caress<BR>
+Of prattling children from the bosom chased<BR>
+Their stern, ferocious manners."<BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 4em">&mdash;LUCRETIUS, "ON THE NATURE OF THINGS."</SPAN><BR>
+<SPAN STYLE="margin-left: 8em">AFTER OSBORN.</SPAN><BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+Thus the Lower Paleolithic merged into the Upper; with the appearance
+of the Mousterian, Augrignacian, Solutrian, Magdalenian, and Azilian
+cultures followed the most advanced stage of the Neanderthal race
+before its final disappearance.  The list of tools and implements
+indicates a widening scope of civilization.  For war and chase and
+fishing, for industry and domestic life, for art, sculpture, and
+engraving, and for ceremonial use, a great variety of implements of
+stone and bone survived the life of the races.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Spears, daggers, knives, arrowheads, fish-hooks, and harpoons;
+hand-axes, drills, hammers, scrapers, planes, needles, pins, chisels,
+wedges, gravers, etchers, mortars, and pilasters; ceremonial staffs and
+wands&mdash;all are expressions of a fulness of industrial and social life
+not recognized in earlier races.  Indications of religious ceremonies
+represent the changing mind, and the expression of mind in art suggests
+increased mental power.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Cultures Indicate the Mental Development of the Race</I>.&mdash;As the art and
+industry to-day represent the mental processes of man, so did these
+primitive cultures show the inventive skill and adaptive power in the
+beginnings of progress.  Perhaps instinct, emotion, and necessity
+figured more conspicuously in the early period than reflective thought,
+while in modern times we have more design and more planning, both in
+invention and construction.  Also the primitive social order was more
+an unconscious development, and lacked purpose and directing power in
+comparison with present life.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P33"></A>33}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+But there must have been inventors and leaders in primitive times, some
+brains more fertile than others, that made change and progress
+possible.  Who these unknown geniuses were human records do not
+indicate.  In modern times we single out the superiors and call them
+great.  The inventor, the statesman, the warrior, the king, have their
+achievements heralded and recorded in history.  The records of
+achievement of the great barbarous cultures, of the Assyrians, the
+Egyptians, and the Hebrews, centre around some king whose tomb
+preserves the only records, while in reality some man unknown to us was
+the real author of such progress as was made.  The reason is that
+progress was so slow that the changes passed unnoticed, being the
+products of many minds, each adding its increment of change.  Only the
+king or ruler who could control the mass mind and the mass labor could
+make sufficient spectacular demonstration worth recording, and could
+direct others to build a tomb or record inscriptions to perpetuate his
+name.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Men of Genius Cause the Mutations Which Permit Progress</I>.&mdash;The toiling
+multitudes always use the products of some inventive genius.  Some
+individual with specialized mental traits plans something different
+from social usages or industrial life which changes tradition and
+modifies the customs and habits of the mass.  Whether he be statesman,
+inventor, philosopher, scientist, discoverer, or military leader, he
+usually receives credit for the great progressive mutation which he has
+originated.  There can be little progress without these few fertile
+brains, just as there could be little progress unless they were
+supported by the laborers who carry out the plans of the genius.  While
+the "unknown man" is less conspicuous in the progress of the race in
+modern complex society, he is still a factor in all progress.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Data of Progress</I>.&mdash;Evolution is not necessarily progress; neither
+is development progress; yet the factors that enter into evolution and
+development are essential to progress.  The laws of differentiation
+apply to progress as well as to evolution.  In the plant and animal
+life everywhere this law
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P34"></A>34}</SPAN>
+obtains.  In man it is subservient to the
+domination of intelligent direction, yet it is in operation all of the
+time.  Some races are superior in certain lines, other races show
+superiority in other lines.  Likewise, individuals exhibit differences
+in a similar way.  Perhaps the dynamic physical or mental power of the
+individual or the race will not improve in itself, having reached its
+maximum.  There is little hope that the brain of man will ever be
+larger or stronger, but it may become more effective through training
+and increased knowledge.  Hence in the future we must look for
+achievement along co-operative and social lines.  It is to social
+expansion and social perfection that we must look for progress in the
+future.  For here the accumulated power of all may be utilized in
+providing for the welfare of the individual, who, in turn, will by his
+inventive power cause humanity to progress.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The industrial, institutional, humanitarian, and educational machinery
+represents progress in action, but increased knowledge, higher ideals
+of life, broader concepts of truth, liberty of individual action which
+is interested in human life in its entirety, are the real indices of
+progress.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  Why do some races progress and others deteriorate?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  Compare different communities to show to what extent environment
+determines progress.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  Show how the airplane is an evidence of progress.  The radio.  The
+gasoline-engine.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  Discuss the effects of religious belief on progress.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  Is the mental capacity of the average American greater than the
+average of the Greeks at the time of their highest culture?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  What are the evidences that man will not advance in physical and
+mental capacity?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  Show that the improvement of the race will be through social
+activity.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap02fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn2"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn3"></A>
+<A NAME="chap02fn4"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn1text">1</A>] See <A HREF="#chap04">Chapter IV</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn2text">2</A>] See <A HREF="#chap03">Chapter III</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn3text">3</A>] See <A HREF="#chap04">Chapter IV</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap02fn4text">4</A>] See <A HREF="#chap06">Chapter VI</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap03"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P35"></A>35}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER III
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+METHODS OF RECOUNTING HUMAN PROGRESS
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>Difficulty of Measuring Progress</I>.&mdash;In its larger generalization,
+progress may move in a straight line, but it has such a variety of
+expression and so many tributary causes that it is difficult to reduce
+it to any classification.  Owing to the difficulties that attend an
+attempt to recite all of the details of human progress, philosophers
+and historians have approached the subject from various sides, each
+seeking to make, by means of higher generalizations, a clear course of
+reasoning through the labyrinth of materials.  By adopting certain
+methods of marking off periods of existence and pointing out the
+landmarks of civilization, they have been able to estimate more truly
+the development of the race.  Civilization cannot be readily measured
+by time; indeed, the time interval in history is of little value save
+to mark order and continuity.  It has in itself no real significance;
+it is merely an arbitrary division whose importance is greatly
+exaggerated.  But while civilization is a continuous quantity, and
+cannot be readily marked off into periods without destroying its
+movement, it is necessary to make the attempt, especially in the study
+of ancient or prehistoric society; for any method which groups and
+classifies facts in logical order is helpful to the study of human
+progress.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Progress May Be Measured by the Implements Used</I>.&mdash;A very common
+method, based largely upon the researches of archaeologists, is to
+divide human society into four great periods, or ages, marked by the
+progress of man in the use of implements.  The first of these periods
+is called the Stone Age, and embraces the time when man used stone for
+all
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P36"></A>36}</SPAN>
+purposes in the industrial arts so far as they had been
+developed.  For convenience this period has been further divided into
+the age of ancient or unpolished implements and the age of modern or
+polished implements.  The former includes the period when rude
+implements were chipped out of flint or other hard stone, without much
+idea of symmetry and beauty, and with no attempt to perfect or beautify
+them by smoothing and polishing their rough surface.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the second period man learned to fashion more perfectly the
+implements, and in some instances to polish them to a high degree.
+Although the divisions are very general and very imperfect, they map
+out the great prehistoric era of man; but they must be considered as
+irregular, on account of the fact that the Stone Era of man occurred at
+different times in different tribes.  Thus the inhabitants of North
+America were in the Stone Age less than two centuries ago, while some
+of the inhabitants of the South Sea Islands are in the Stone Age during
+the present century.  It is quite remarkable that the use of stone
+implements was universal to all tribes and nations at some period of
+their existence.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+After the long use of stone, man gradually became acquainted with some
+of the metals, and subsequently discovered the method of combining
+copper with tin and other alloys to form bronze, which material, to a
+large extent, added to the implements already in use.  The Bronze Age
+is the most hypothetical of all these divisions, as it does not appear
+to have been as universal as the Stone, on account of the difficulty of
+obtaining metals.  The use of copper by the Indians of the Lake
+Superior region was a very marked epoch in their development, and
+corresponds to the Bronze Age of other nations, although their
+advancement in other particulars appears to be less than that of other
+tribes of European origin which used bronze freely.  Bronze implements
+have been found in great plenty in Scandinavia and Peru, and to a
+limited extent in North America.  They certainly mark a stage of
+progress in advance of that of the inhabitants of the Stone Age.
+Bronze
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P37"></A>37}</SPAN>
+was the chief metal for implements throughout the early
+civilization of Europe.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Following the age of bronze is the Iron Age, in which the advancement
+of man is especially marked.  The bronze implements were at first
+supplemented in their use by those of iron.  But gradually iron
+implements superseded the bronze.  The Iron Age still is with us.
+Possibly it has not yet reached its highest point.  Considering the
+great structures built of iron, and the excessive use of iron in
+machinery, implements, and furniture, it is easy to realize that we are
+yet in this great period.  Though we continue to use stone more than
+the ancients and more bronze for decoration and ornament than they, yet
+both are subordinate to the use of iron.  General as the above
+classification is, it helps in an indefinite way to give us a central
+idea of progress and to mark off, somewhat indefinitely, periods of
+development.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Development of Art</I>.&mdash;Utility was the great purpose underlying the
+foundation of the industrial arts.  The stone axe, or celt, was first
+made for a distinct service, but, in order to perfect its usefulness,
+its lines became more perfect and its surface more highly polished.  So
+we might say for the spear-head, the knife, or the olla.  Artistic
+lines and decorative beauty always followed the purpose of use.  This
+could be applied to all of the products of man's invention to transform
+parts of nature to his use.  On account of the durability of form, the
+attempt to trace the course of civilization by means of the development
+of the fine arts has met with much success.  Though the idea of beauty
+is not essential to the preservation of man or to the making of the
+state, it has exerted a great influence in individual-building and in
+society-building.  In our higher emotional natures aesthetic ideas have
+ruled with imperial sway.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But primitive ideas of beauty appear to us very crude, and even
+repulsive.  The adornment of person with bright though rudely colored
+garments, the free use of paint on the person, and the promiscuous use
+of jewelry, as
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P38"></A>38}</SPAN>
+practised by the primitive peoples, present a great
+contrast to modern usage.  Yet it is easy to trace the changes in
+custom and, moreover, to determine the origin of present customs.  So
+also in representative art, the rude sketch of an elephant or a buffalo
+on ivory or stone and the finished picture by a Raphael are widely
+separated in genius and execution, but there is a logical connection
+between the two found in the slowly evolving human activities.  The
+rude figure of a god moulded roughly from clay and the lifelike model
+by an Angelo have the same relations to man in his different states.
+The same comparison may be made between the low, monotonous moaning of
+the savage and the rapturous music of a Patti, or between the beating
+of the tom-tom and the lofty strains of a Mozart.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Progress Is Estimated by Economic Stages</I>.&mdash;The progress of man is
+more clearly represented by the successive economic stages of his life.
+Thus we have first the <I>primal nomadic</I> period, in which man was a
+wanderer, subsisting on roots and berries, and with no definite social
+organization.  This period, like all primary periods, is largely
+hypothetical.  Having learned to capture game and fish, he entered what
+might be called the <I>fisher-hunter</I> stage, although he was still a
+nomad, and rapidly spread over a large part of the earth's surface,
+wandering from forest to forest and from stream to stream, searching
+for the means of subsistence and clothing.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When man learned to domesticate animals he made a great step forward
+and entered what is known as the <I>pastoral</I> period, in which his chief
+occupation was the care of flocks and herds.  This contributed much to
+his material support and quickened his social and intellectual
+movement.  After a time, when he remained in one place a sufficient
+time to harvest a short crop, he began agriculture in a tentative way,
+while his chief concern was yet with flocks and herds.  He soon became
+permanently settled, and learned more fully the art of agriculture, and
+then entered the permanent <I>agricultural</I> stage.  It was during this
+period that he made the most rapid advances in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P39"></A>39}</SPAN>
+the industrial arts
+and in social order.  This led to more densely populated communities,
+with permanent homes and the necessary development of law and
+government.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As the products of industry increased men began to exchange "the
+relatively superfluous for the relatively necessary," and trade in the
+form of barter became a permanent custom.  This led to the use of money
+and a more extended system of exchange, and man entered the
+<I>commercial</I> era.  This gave him a wider intercourse with surrounding
+tribes and nations, and brought about a greater diversity of ideas.
+The excessive demand for exchangeable goods, the accumulation of
+wealth, and the enlarged capacity for enjoyment centred the activities
+of life in industry, and man entered the <I>industrial</I> stage.  At first
+he employed hand power for manufacturing goods, but soon he changed to
+power manufacture, brought about by discovery and invention.  Water and
+steam were now applied to turn machinery, and the new conditions of
+production changed the whole industrial life.  A revolution in
+industrial society caused an immediate shifting of social life.
+Classes of laborers in the great industrial army became prominent, and
+production was carried on in a gigantic way.  We are still in this
+industrial world, and as electricity comes to the aid of steam we may
+be prepared for even greater changes in the future than we have
+witnessed in the past.[<A NAME="chap03fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn1">1</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In thus presenting the course of civilization by the different periods
+of economic life, we must keep the mind free from conventional ideas.
+For, while the general course of economic progress is well indicated,
+there was a slow blending of each period into the succeeding one.
+There is no formal procedure in the progress of man.  Yet we might
+infer from the way in which some writers present this matter that
+society moved forward in regular order, column after column.  From the
+formal and forcible way in which they have presented the history of
+early society, one might imagine that a certain tribe, having become
+weary of tending cattle and goats, resolved one
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P40"></A>40}</SPAN>
+fine morning to
+change from the pastoral life to agriculture, and that all of the
+tribes on earth immediately concluded to do the same, when, in truth,
+the change was slow and gradual, while the centuries passed away.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is well to consider that in the expanded industrial life of man the
+old was not replaced, but supplemented, by the new, and that after the
+pastoral stage was entered, man continued to hunt and fish, and that
+after formal agriculture was begun the tending of flocks and herds
+continued, and fishing was practised at intervals.  But each succeeding
+occupation became for the time the predominant one, while others were
+relatively subordinate.  Even to-day, while we have been rushing
+forward in recent years at a rapid rate, under the power of steam and
+electricity, agriculture and commerce have made marvellous improvement.
+Though we gain the new, nothing of the old is lost.  The use of flocks
+and herds, as well as fish and game, increases each year, although not
+relatively.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Progress Is Through the Food Supply</I>.&mdash;This is only another view of
+the economic life.  The first period is called the natural subsistence
+period, when man used such food as he found prepared for him by nature.
+It corresponds to the primal nomadic period of the last classification.
+From this state he advanced to the use of fish for food, and then
+entered the third period, when native grains were obtained through a
+limited cultivation of the soil.  After this followed a period in which
+meat and milk were the chief articles of food.  Finally the period of
+extended and permanent agriculture was reached, and farinaceous food by
+cultivation became the main support of life.  The significance of this
+classification is observed in the fact that the amount, variety, and
+quality of the food available determine the possibility of man's
+material and spiritual advancement.  As the food supply lies at the
+foundation of human existence, prosperity is measured to a large extent
+by the food products.  The character of the food affects to a great
+extent the mental and moral capabilities of man; that is, it
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P41"></A>41}</SPAN>
+limits the possibilities of civilization.  Even in modern civilization
+the effect of poor food on intellect, morals, and social order is
+easily observed.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Progress Is Estimated by Different Forms of Social Order</I>.&mdash;It is only
+a more general way of estimating political life, and perhaps a broader
+way, for it includes the entire social development.  By this
+classification man is first represented as wandering in a solitary
+state with the smallest amount of association with his fellows
+necessary to his existence and perpetuation, and with no social
+organization.  This status of man is hypothetical, and gives only a
+starting point for the philosophy of higher development.  No savage
+tribes have yet been discovered in which there was not at least
+association of individuals in groups, although organization might not
+yet have appeared.  It is true that some of the lower tribes, like the
+Fuegians of South America, have very tentative forms of social and
+political association.  They wander in loosely constructed groups,
+which constantly shift in association, being without permanent
+organization.  Yet the purely solitary man is merely conjectural.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is common for writers to make a classification of social groups into
+primary and secondary.[<A NAME="chap03fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn2">2</A>]  The primary social groups are: first, the
+family based upon biological relations, supported by the habit of
+association; second, the play group of children, in which primitive
+characters of social order appear, and a third group is the association
+of adults in a neighborhood meeting.  In the formation of these groups,
+the process of social selection is always in evidence.  Impulse,
+feeling, and emotion play the greater parts in the formation of these
+primitive groups, while choice based on rational selection seldom
+appears.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The secondary groups are those which originate through the
+differentiation of social functions in which the contact of individuals
+is less intimate than in the primary group.  Such voluntary
+associations as a church, labor organization, or
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P42"></A>42}</SPAN>
+scientific
+society may be classified as secondary in time and in importance.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Next above the human horde is represented the forced association of men
+in groups, each group struggling for its own existence.  Within the
+group there was little protection and little social order, although
+there was more or less authority of leadership manifested.  This state
+finally led to the establishment of rudimentary forms of government,
+based upon blood relationship.  These groups enlarged to full national
+life.  This third stage finally passed to the larger idea of
+international usage, and is prospective of a world state.  These four
+stages of human society, so sweeping in their generalization, still
+point to the idea of the slow evolution of social order.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Development of Family Life</I>.&mdash;Starting with the hypothesis that
+man at one time associated in a state of promiscuity, he passed through
+the separate stages of polyandry and polygamy, and finally reached a
+state of monogamy and the pure home life of to-day.  Those who have
+advocated this doctrine have failed to substantiate it clearly so as to
+receive from scholars the recognition of authority.  All these forms of
+family life except the first have been observed among the savage tribes
+of modern life, but there are not sufficient data to prove that the
+human race, in the order of its development, must have passed through
+these four stages.  However, it is true that the modern form of
+marriage and pure home life did not always exist, but are among the
+achievements of modern civilization.  There certainly has been a
+gradual improvement in the relations of the members of the household,
+and notwithstanding the defects of faithlessness and ignorance, the
+modern family is the social unit and the hope of modern social progress.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Growth of Political Life</I>.&mdash;Many have seen in this the only true
+measure of progress, for it is affirmed that advancement in civil life
+is the essential element of civilization.  Its importance in
+determining social order makes it a central factor in all progress.
+The <I>primitive family</I> represents the germ
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P43"></A>43}</SPAN>
+of early political
+foundation.  It was the first organized unit of society, and contained
+all of the rudimentary forms of government.  The executive, the
+judicial, the legislative, and the administrative functions of
+government were all combined in one simple family organization.  The
+head of the family was king, lord, judge, priest, and military
+commander all in one.  As the family expanded it formed the <I>gens</I> or
+<I>clan</I>, with an enlarged family life and more systematic family
+government.  The religious life expanded also, and a common altar and a
+common worship were instituted.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A slight progress toward social order and the tendency to distribute
+the powers of government are to be observed.  Certain property was held
+in common and certain laws regulated the family life.  The family
+groups continued to enlarge by natural increase and by adoption, all
+those coming into the gens submitting to its laws, customs, and social
+usage.  Finally several gentes united into a brotherhood association
+called by the Greeks a <I>phratry</I>, by the Romans a <I>curia</I>.  This
+brotherhood was organized on a common religious basis, with a common
+deity and a central place of worship.  It also was used partially as
+the basis of military organization.  This group represents the first
+unit based upon locality.  From it spring the ward idea and the idea of
+local self-government.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The <I>tribe</I> represented a number of gentes united for religious and
+military purposes.  Although its principal power was military, there
+were a common altar and a common worship for all members of the tribe.
+The chief, or head of the tribe, was the military leader, and usually
+performed an important part in all the affairs of the tribe.  As the
+tribe became the seat of power for military operations, the gens
+remained as the foundation of political government, for it was the
+various heads of the gentes who formed the council of the chief or king
+and later laid the foundation of the senate, wherever instituted.  It
+was common for the tribe in most instances to pass into a village
+community before developing full national life.  There were exceptions
+to this, where tribes have passed directly into
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P44"></A>44}</SPAN>
+well-organized
+groups without the formation of the village or the city.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The <I>village community</I>, next in logical order, represents a group of
+closely related people located on a given territory, with a
+half-communal system of government.  There were the little group of
+houses forming the village proper and representing the different homes
+of the family group.  There were the common pasture-land, the common
+woodland, and the fertile fields for cultivation.  These were all
+owned, except perhaps the house lot, by the entire community, and every
+year the tillable land was parcelled out by the elders of the community
+to the heads of families for tillage.  Usually the tiller of the soil
+had a right to the crop, although among the early Greeks the custom
+seems to be reversed, and the individual owned the land, but was
+compelled to place its proceeds into a common granary.  The village
+community represents the transition from a nomadic to a permanent form
+of government, and was common to all of the Aryan tribes.  The
+federation of the village communities or the expansion of the tribes
+formed the Greek city-state, common to all of the Greek communities.
+It represents the real beginning of civic life among the nations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The old family organization continued to exist, although from this time
+on there was a gradual separation of the functions of government.  The
+executive, legislative, and judicial processes became more clearly
+defined, and special duties were assigned to officers chosen for a
+particular purpose.  Formal law, too, appeared as the expression of the
+will of a definitely organized community.  Government grew more
+systematic, and expanded into a well-organized municipality.  There was
+less separation of the duties of officers than now, but there was a
+constant tendency for government to unfold and for each officer to have
+his specific powers and duties defined.  A deity watched over the city,
+and a common shrine for worship was set up for all members of the
+municipality.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The next attempt to enlarge government was by federation
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P45"></A>45}</SPAN>
+and by
+conquest and domination.[<A NAME="chap03fn3text"></A><A HREF="#chap03fn3">3</A>]  The city of Rome represents, first, a
+federation of tribal city groups, and, finally, the dominant city
+ruling over many other cities and much territory.  From this it was
+only a step to the empire and imperial sway.  Athens in her most
+prosperous period attempted to do the same, but was not entirely
+successful.  After the decline of the Roman power there arose from the
+ruins of the fallen empire the modern nationalities, which used all
+forms of government hitherto known.  They partook of democracy,
+aristocracy, or imperialism, and even attempted, in some instances, to
+combine the principles of all three in one government.  While the
+modern state developed some new characteristics, it included the
+elements of the Greek and Roman governments.  The relations of these
+new states developed a new code of law, based upon international
+relations.  Though treaties were made between the Greeks and the Romans
+in their first international relations, and much earlier between the
+Hebrews and the Phoenicians, international law is of practically modern
+origin.  At present modern nations have an extended and intricate code
+of laws governing their relations.  It is an extension of government
+beyond the boundaries of nationality.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Through commerce, trade, and political intercourse the nations of the
+Western World are drawn more closely together, and men talk of a world
+citizenship.  A wide philanthropy, rapid and cheap transportation, the
+accompanying influences of travel, and a world market for the products
+of the earth, all tend to level the barriers of nationality and to
+develop universal citizenship.  The prophets of our day talk of the
+coming world state, which is not likely to appear so long as the
+barriers of sea and mountain remain; yet each year witnesses a closer
+blending of the commercial, industrial, and political interests of all
+nations.  Thus we see how governments have been evolved and national
+life expanded in accordance
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P46"></A>46}</SPAN>
+with slowly developing civilization.
+Although good government and a high state of civilization are not
+wholly in the relation of cause and effect, they always accompany each
+other, and the progress of man may be readily estimated from the
+standpoint of the development of political institutions and political
+life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Religion Important in Civilization</I>.&mdash;It is not easy to trace the
+development of man by a consideration of the various religious beliefs
+entertained at different periods of his existence.  Yet there is
+unmistakably a line of constant development to be observed in religion,
+and as a rule its progress is an index of the improvement of the race.
+No one can contrast the religion of the ancient nations with the modern
+Christian religion without being impressed with the vast difference in
+conception and in practice existing between them.  In the early period
+of barbarism, and even of savagery, religious belief was an important
+factor in the development of human society.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is no less important to-day, and he who recounts civilization
+without giving it a prominent place has failed to obtain a
+comprehensive view of the philosophy of human development.  From the
+family altar of the Greeks to the state religion; from the rude altar
+of Abraham in the wilderness to the magnificent temple of Solomon at
+Jerusalem; from the harsh and cruel tenets of the Oriental religions to
+the spiritual conception and ethical practice of the Christian
+religion, one observes a marked progress.  We need only go to the crude
+unorganized superstition of the savage or to the church of the Middle
+Ages to learn that the power and influence of religion is great in
+human society building.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Progress Through Moral Evolution</I>.&mdash;The moral development of the
+race, although more difficult to determine than the intellectual, may
+prove an index to the progress of man.  The first formal expression of
+moral practice is the so-called race morality or group morality, based
+upon mutual aid for common defense.  This is found to-day in all
+organized groups, such as the boy gang, the Christian church, the
+political party,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P47"></A>47}</SPAN>
+the social set, the educational institution, and,
+indeed, the state itself; but wherever found it has its source in a
+very primitive group action.  In the primitive struggle for existence
+man had little sympathy for his fellows, the altruistic sentiment being
+very feeble.  But gradually through the influence of the family life
+sympathy widened and deepened in its onward flow until, joining with
+the group morality, it entered the larger world of ethical practice.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This phase of moral culture had its foundation in the sympathy felt by
+the mother for her offspring, a sympathy that gradually extended to the
+immediate members of the household.  As the family expanded into the
+state, human sympathy expanded likewise, until it became national in
+its significance.  Through this process there finally came a world-wide
+philanthropy which recognizes the sufferings of all human beings.  This
+sympathy has been rapidly increased by the culture of the intellect,
+the higher development of the sensibilities, and the refinement of the
+emotions; thus along the track of altruism or ethical development,
+which had its foundation in primitive life, with its ever widening and
+enlarging circles, the advancement of humanity may be traced.  The old
+egoism, the savage warfare for existence, has been constantly tempered
+by altruism, which has been a saving quality in the human race.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Intellectual Development of Man</I>.&mdash;Some philosophers have succeeded in
+recounting human progress by tracing the intellectual development of
+the race.  This is possible, for everything of value that has been
+done, and which has left a record, bears the mark of man's intellect.
+In the early period of his existence, man had sufficient intellect to
+direct his efforts to satisfy the common wants of life.  This exercise
+of the intellectual faculty has accompanied man's every movement, but
+it is best observed in the products of his industry and the practice of
+social order.  By doing and making, the intellect grows, and it is only
+by observing the phenomena of active life that we get a hint or trace
+of the powers and capacities of the mind.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P48"></A>48}</SPAN>
+But after man begins
+the process of reflective thinking, his intellectual activities become
+stronger, and it is much easier to trace his development by considering
+the condition of religion, law, philosophy, literature, sculpture, art,
+and architecture.  These represent the best products of the mind, and
+it is along this intellectual highway that the best results of
+civilization are found.  During the modern period of progressive life
+systematic education has forced the intellectual faculties through a
+more rapid course, giving predominance to intellectual life everywhere.
+The intellectual development of nations or the intellectual development
+of man in general is a theme of never-tiring interest, as it represents
+his noblest achievements.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Man from the very beginning has had a desire for knowledge, to satisfy
+curiosity.  Gradually, however, he had a desire to know in order to
+increase utility, and finally he reaches the highest state of progress
+in desiring to know for the sake of knowing.  Thus he proceeds from
+mere animal curiosity to the idealistic state of discovering "truth for
+truth's sake."  These are qualities not only of the individual in his
+development but of the racial group and, indeed, in a larger way of all
+mankind; intelligence developed in the attempt of man to discover the
+nature of the results of his instinctive, impulsive, or emotional
+actions.  Later he sought causes of these results.  Here we have
+involved increased knowledge as a basis of human action and the use of
+that knowledge through discriminating intelligence.  The intellect thus
+represents the selective and directive process in the use of knowledge.
+Hence, intelligent behavior of the individual or of the group comes
+only after accumulated knowledge based on experience.  The process of
+trial and error thus gives rise to reflective thinking.  It is a
+superior use of the intellect that more than anything else
+distinguishes the adult from the child or modern man from the primitive.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Change from Savagery to Barbarism</I>.&mdash;Perhaps one of the broadest
+classifications of ancient society, based upon general characteristics
+of progress, makes the two general divisions of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P49"></A>49}</SPAN>
+savagery and
+barbarism, and subdivides each of these into three groups.  The lowest
+status of savagery represents man as little above the brute creation,
+subsisting upon roots and berries, and with no knowledge of art or of
+social order.  The second period, called the middle status of savagery,
+represents man using fire, and using fish for food, and having
+corresponding advancement in other ways.  The upper status of savagery
+begins with the use of the bow-and-arrow and extends to the period of
+the manufacture and use of pottery.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+At this point the period of barbarism begins.  Its lower status,
+beginning with the manufacture of pottery, extends to the time of the
+domestication of animals.  The middle status includes not only the
+domestication of animals in the East but the practice of irrigation in
+the West and the building of walls from stone and adobe brick.  The
+upper status is marked by the use of iron and extends to the
+introduction of the phonetic alphabet and literary composition.  At
+this juncture civilization is said to dawn.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+"Commencing," says Mr. Morgan, the author of this classification, in
+his <I>Ancient Society</I>, "with the Australians and the Polynesians,
+following with the American Indian tribes, and concluding with the
+Roman and Grecian, which afford the best exemplification of the six
+great stages of human progress, the sum of their united experiences may
+be supposed to fairly represent that of the human family from the
+middle status of savagery to the end of the ancient civilization."  By
+this classification the Australians would be placed in the middle
+status of savagery, and the early Greeks and Romans in the upper status
+of barbarism, while the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico would be placed in
+the middle status of barbarism.  This is an excellent system for
+estimating the progress of ancient society, for around these initial
+periods may be clustered all of the elements of civilization.  It is of
+especial value in the comparative study of different races and tribes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Civilization Includes All Kinds of Human Progress</I>.&mdash;The above
+representation of the principal methods of recounting
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P50"></A>50}</SPAN>
+civilization
+shows the various phases of human progress.  Although each one is
+helpful in determining the progress of man from a particular point of
+view, none is sufficient to marshal all of the qualities of
+civilization in a completed order.  For the entire field of
+civilization should include all the elements of progress, and this
+great subject must be viewed from every side before it can be fairly
+represented to the mind of the student.  The true nature of
+civilization has been more clearly presented in thus briefly
+enumerating the different methods of estimating human progress.  But we
+must remember that civilization, though continuous, is not uniform.
+The qualities of progress which are strong in one tribe or nation are
+weak in others.  It is the total of the characteristics of man and the
+products of his activity that represents his true progress.  Nations
+have arisen, developed, and passed away; tribes have been swept from
+the face of the earth before a complete development was possible; and
+races have been obliterated by the onward march of civilization.  But
+the best products of all nations have been preserved for the service of
+others.  Ancient Chaldea received help from central Asia; Egypt and
+Judea from Babylon; Greece from Egypt; Rome from Greece; and all Europe
+and America have profited from the culture of Greece and Rome and the
+religion of Judea.  There may be a natural growth, maturity, and decay
+of nations, but civilization moves ever on toward a higher and more
+diversified life.  The products of human endeavor arrange themselves on
+the side of man in his attempt to master himself and nature.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+TABLE SHOWING METHODS OF RECOUNTING HUMAN PROGRESS
+</H4>
+
+<PRE>
+I.  Method of the Kind of Implements Used.
+
+         1.  Paleolithic, or Old Stone, Age.
+         2.  Neolithic, or New Stone, Age.
+         3.  Incidental use of copper, tin, and other metals.
+         4.  The making of pottery.
+         5.  The age of bronze.
+         6.  The iron age.
+</PRE>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P51"></A>51}</SPAN>
+
+<PRE>
+II.  Method by Art Development.
+
+         1.  Primitive drawings in caves and engraving on ivory and
+             wood.
+         2.  The use of color in decoration of objects, especially in
+             decoration of the body.
+         3.  Beginnings of sculpture and carving figures, animals,
+             gods, and men.
+         4.  Pictorial representations--the pictograph.
+         5.  Representative art in landscapes.
+         6.  Perspective drawing.
+         7.  Idealistic art.
+         8.  Industrial arts.
+
+III.  Method of Economic Stages.
+
+         1.  The Nomadic Stage.
+         2.  The Hunter-Fisher Stage.
+         3.  The Pastoral Period.
+         4.  The Agricultural Period.
+         5.  The Commercial Period.
+         6.  The Period of Industrial Organization.
+
+IV.  Progress Estimated by the Food Supply.
+
+         1.  Natural subsistence Period.
+         2.  Fish and shell fish.
+         3.  Cultivation of native grains.
+         4.  Meat and milk.
+         5.  Farinaceous foods by systematic agriculture.
+
+V.  Method of Social Order.
+
+         1.  Solitary state of man (hypothetical).
+         2.  The human horde.
+         3.  Small groups for purposes of association.
+         4.  The secret society.
+         5.  The religious cult.
+         6.  Closely integrated groups for defense.
+         7.  Amalgamated or federated groups.
+         8.  The Race.
+
+VI.  The Family Development.
+
+         1.  State of promiscuity (hypothetical).
+         2.  Polyandry.
+         3.  Polygamy.
+         4.  Patriarchal family with polygamy.
+         5.  The Monogamic family.
+
+VII.  Progress Measured by Political Organization.
+
+         1.  The organized horde about religious ideas.
+</PRE>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P52"></A>52}</SPAN>
+
+<PRE>
+         2.  The completed family organization.
+               <I>a</I>.  Family.
+               <I>b</I>.  Gens.
+               <I>c</I>.  The Phratry.
+               <I>d</I>.  Patriarchal family.
+               <I>e</I>.  Tribe.
+         3.  The Ethnic state.
+         4.  State formed by conflict and amalgamation.
+         5.  International relations.
+         6.  The World State (Idealistic).
+
+VIII.  Religious Development.
+
+         1.  Belief in spiritual beings.
+         2.  Recognition of the spirit of man and other spirits.
+         3.  Animism.
+         4.  Anthropomorphic religion.
+         5.  Spiritual concept of religion.
+         6.  Ethnical religions.
+         7.  Forms of religious worship and religious practice.
+
+IX.  Moral Evolution.
+
+         1.  Race morality (gang morality).
+         2.  Sympathy for fellow beings.
+         3.  Sympathy through blood relationship.
+         4.  Patriotism: love of race and country.
+         5.  World Ethics.
+
+X.  Progress Through Intellectual Development.
+
+         1.  Sensation and reflex action.
+         2.  Instinct and emotion.
+         3.  Impulse and adaptability.
+         4.  Reflective thought.
+         5.  Invention and discovery.
+         6.  Rational direction of human life.
+         7.  Philosophy.
+         8.  Science.
+
+XI.  Progress Through Savagery and Barbarism.
+
+         1.  Lower status of savagery.
+         2.  Middle status of savagery.
+         3.  Upper status of savagery.
+         4.  Lower status of barbarism.
+         5.  Middle status of barbarism.
+         6.  Upper status of barbarism.
+         7.  Civilization (?).
+</PRE>
+
+<BR>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P53"></A>53}</SPAN>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  In what other ways than those named in this chapter may we estimate
+the progress of man?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  Discuss the evidences of man's mental and spiritual progress.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  The relation of wealth to progress.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  The relation of the size of population to the prosperity of a
+nation.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  Enumerate the arguments that the next destructive war will destroy
+civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  In what ways do you think man is better off than he was one hundred
+years ago?  One thousand years ago?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  In what ways did the suffering caused by the Great War indicate an
+increase in world ethics?
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap03fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn2"></A>
+<A NAME="chap03fn3"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn1text">1</A>] See <A HREF="#chap27">Chapter XXVII</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn2text">2</A>] See Cooley, <I>Social Organization</I>, chap. III.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap03fn3text">3</A>] The transition from the ethnic state to the modern civic state was
+through conflict, conquest, and race amalgamation.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap04"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P57"></A>57}</SPAN>
+
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+<I>PART II</I>
+</H2>
+
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+FIRST STEPS OF PROGRESS
+</H2>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER IV
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+PREHISTORIC MAN
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Origin of Man Has not Yet Been Determined</I>.&mdash;Man's origin is still
+shrouded in mystery, notwithstanding the accumulated knowledge of the
+results of scientific investigation in the field and in the laboratory.
+The earliest historical records and relics of the seats of ancient
+civilization all point backward to an earlier period of human life.
+Looking back from the earliest civilizations along the Euphrates and
+the Nile that have recorded the deeds of man so that their evidences
+could be handed down from generation to generation, the earlier
+prehistoric records of man stretch away in the dim past for more than a
+hundred thousand years.  The time that has elapsed from the earliest
+historical records to the present is only a few minutes compared to the
+centuries that preceded it.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Wherever we go in the field of knowledge, we shall find evidences of
+man's great antiquity.  We know at least that he has been on earth a
+long, long period.  As to the method of his appearance, there is no
+absolutely determining evidence.  Yet science has run back into the
+field of conjecture with such strong lines that we may assume with
+practical certainty something of his early life.  He stands at the head
+of the zoological division of the animal kingdom.  The Anthropoid Ape
+is the animal that most nearly resembles man.  It might be said to
+stand next to man in the procession of species.  So far as our
+knowledge can ascertain, it appears that man was developed in the same
+manner as the higher types in the animal and vegetable world, namely,
+by the process of evolution, and by evolution we mean continuous
+progressive change according to law, from external and internal
+stimuli.  The process of evolution is not a process of creation, nor
+does evolution move in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P58"></A>58}</SPAN>
+a straight line, but through the process of
+differentiation.  In no other way can one account for the multitudes of
+the types and races of the human being, except by this process of
+differentiation which is one of the main factors of evolution.
+Accompanying the process of differentiation is that of specialization
+and integration.  When types become highly specialized they fail to
+adapt themselves to new environments, and other types not so highly
+specialized prevail.  So far as the human race is concerned, it seems
+to be evolved according to the law of sympodial development&mdash;that is, a
+certain specialized part of the human race develops certain traits and
+is limited in its adaptability to a specific environment.  Closely
+allied with this are some individuals or groups possessing human traits
+that are less highly specialized, and hence are adaptable to new
+conditions.  Under new conditions the main stem of development perishes
+and the budded branch survives.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+We have abundant pictures of this in prehistoric times, and records
+show that this also has been the common lot of man.  Modern man thus
+could not have been developed from any of the living species of the
+Anthropoid Apes, but he might have had a common origin in the physical,
+chemical, and vital forces that produced the apes.  One line of
+specialization made the ape, another line made man.  Subsequently the
+separation of man into the various races and species came about by the
+survival of some races for a time, and then to be superseded by a
+branch of the same race which differentiated in a period of development
+before high specialization had taken place.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Methods of Recounting Prehistoric Time</I>.[<A NAME="chap04fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn1">1</A>]&mdash;Present time is measured
+in terms of centuries, years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, and
+seconds, but the second is the determining power of mechanical
+measurement, though it is derived mainly by the movement of the earth
+around the sun and the turning of the earth on its axis.  Mechanically
+we have derived the second as the unit.  It is easy for us to think in
+hours or days or weeks, though it may be the seconds tick off unnoticed
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P59"></A>59}</SPAN>
+and the years glide by unnoticed; but it is difficult to think in
+centuries&mdash;more difficult in millions of years.  The little time that
+man has been on earth compared with the creation of the earth makes it
+difficult for us to estimate the time of creation.  The much less time
+in the historical period makes it seem but a flash in the movement of
+the creation.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<HR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+TWENTY-FOUR-HOUR DIAL ILLUSTRATING HUMAN CHRONOLOGY[<A NAME="chap04fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn2">2</A>]
+</H4>
+
+<H5 ALIGN="center">
+Twenty-five thousand years equals one hour
+</H5>
+
+<BR>
+
+<A NAME="img-059"></A>
+<CENTER>
+<IMG CLASS="imgcenter" SRC="images/img-059.jpg" ALT="Twenty-four hour dial" BORDER="2" WIDTH="344" HEIGHT="452">
+<H4 CLASS="h4center" STYLE="width: 344px">
+Twenty-four hour dial
+</H4>
+</CENTER>
+
+<BR>
+
+<PRE STYLE="margin-left: 10%">
+Age of modern man           10,000 years = less than half an hour.
+Age of Crô-Magnon type      25,000 years = one hour.
+Age of Neanderthal type     50,000 years = two hours.
+Age of Piltdown type       150,000 years = six hours.
+Age of Heidelberg type     375,000 years = fifteen hours.
+Age of Pithecanthropus     500,000 years = twenty hours.
+
+Beginning of Christian era   2,000 years = 4.8 minutes.
+Discovery of America           431 years = about 1 minute.
+Declaration of Independence    137 years = about 21 seconds.
+</PRE>
+
+<HR>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+There are four main methods of determining prehistoric
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P60"></A>60}</SPAN>
+time.[<A NAME="chap04fn3text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn3">3</A>]
+One is called the (1) <I>geologic method</I>, which is based upon the fact
+that, in a slowly cooling earth and the action of water and frost, cold
+and heat, storm and glacier and volcanic eruption, the rocks on the
+earth are of different ages.  If they had never been disturbed from
+where they were first laid down, it would be very easy to reckon time
+by geological processes.  If you had a stone column twenty feet high
+built by a machine in ten hours' time, and granting that it worked
+uniformly, it would be easy to see just at what hour of the period a
+layer of stone four feet from the bottom, or ten feet from the top, was
+laid.  If, however, in the building of the wall, it should have toppled
+over several times and had to be rebuilt, it would require considerable
+study to see just at what hour a certain stone was put in the wall.
+Studying the geology of the earth in a large way, it is easy to
+determine what strata of the earth are oldest, and this may be verified
+by a consideration of the process in which these rocks were being made.
+Chemistry and physics are thus brought to the aid of geology.  It is
+easy to determine whether a rock has been fused by a fire or whether it
+has been constructed by the slow action of water and pressure of other
+rocks.  If to-day we should find in an old river bed which had been
+left high and dry on a little mesa or plateau above the present river
+bottom, layers of earth that had been put down by water, and we could
+find how much of each layer was made in a single year, it would be easy
+to estimate the number of years it took to make the whole deposit.
+Also if we could find in the lowest layer certain relics of the human
+race, we could know that the race lived at that time.  If we should
+find relics later on of a different nature, we should be able to
+estimate the progress of civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The second method is of (2) <I>paleontology</I>, which is developed along
+with geology.  In this we have both the vertebrate and invertebrate
+paleontology, which are divisions of the science which treats of
+ancient forms of animal and vegetable life.  There are many other
+divisions of paleontology, some
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P61"></A>61}</SPAN>
+devoting themselves entirely to
+animal life and others to vegetable, as, for instance, paleobotany.  As
+plants and animals have gradually developed from lower to higher forms
+and the earth has been built gradually by formations at different
+periods of existence, by a comparison of the former development with
+the latter, that is, comparison with the earth, or inorganic,
+development to the life, or organic, development, we are enabled to get
+a comparative view of duration.  Thus, if in a layer of earth,
+geological time is established and there should be found bones of an
+animal, the bones of a man, and fossilized forms of ancient plants, it
+would be easy to determine their relative ages.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The third method is that of (3) <I>anatomy</I>, which is a study of the
+comparative size and shape of the bones of man and other animals as a
+method of showing relative periods of existence.  Also, just as the
+structure of the bones of a child, as compared with that of a man,
+would determine their relative ages, so the bones of the species that
+have been preserved through fossilization may show the relative ages of
+different types of animals.  The study of the skeletons of animals,
+including those of man, has led to the science of anthropometry.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The fourth method is to study the procession of man by (4) <I>cultures</I>,
+or the industrial and ornamental implements that have been preserved in
+the river drift, rocks, and caves of the earth from the time that man
+used them until they were discovered.  Just as we have to-day models of
+the improvement of the sewing-machine, the reaper, or the
+flying-machine, each one a little more perfect, so we shall find in the
+relics of prehistoric times this same gradual development&mdash;first a
+stone in its natural state used for cutting, then chipped to make it
+more perfect, and finally beautified in form and perfected by polishing.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Thus we shall find progress from the natural stone boulder used for
+throwing and hammering, the developed product made by chipping and
+polishing the natural boulder, making it more useful and more
+beautiful, and so for all the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P62"></A>62}</SPAN>
+multitude of implements used in the
+hunt and in domestic affairs.  Not only do we have here an illustration
+of continuous progress in invention and use, but also an adaptation of
+new material, for we pass from the use of stone to that of metals,
+probably in the prehistoric period, although the beginnings of the use
+of bronze and iron come mainly within the periods of historical records.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is not possible here to follow the interesting history of the
+glacial movement, but a few words of explanation seem necessary.  The
+Ice Age, or the glacial period, refers to a span of time ranging from
+500,000 years ago, at the beginning of the first glaciation, to the
+close of the post-glacial period, about 25,000 years ago.  During this
+period great ice caps, ranging in the valleys and spreading out on the
+plains over a broad area, proceeded from the north of Europe to the
+south, covering at the extreme stages nearly the entire surface of the
+continent.  This great movement consists of four distinct forward
+movements and their return movements.  There is evidence to show that
+before the south movement of the first great ice cap, a temperate
+climate extended very far toward the pole and gave opportunity for
+vegetation now extinct in that region.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But as the river of ice proceeded south, plants and animals retreated
+before it, some of them changing their nature to endure the excessive
+cold.  Then came a climatic change which melted the ice and gradually
+drove the margin of the glacier farther north.  Immediately under the
+influence of the warm winds the vegetation and animals followed slowly
+at a distance the movement of the glacier.  Then followed a long
+inter-glacial period before the southerly movement of the returning ice
+cap.  This in turn retreated to the north, and thus four separate times
+this great movement, one of the greatest geological phenomena of the
+earth, occurred, leaving an opportunity to study four different glacial
+periods with three warmer interglacial and one warm post-glacial.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This movement gave great opportunity for the study of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P63"></A>63}</SPAN>
+geology,
+paleontology, and the archeology of man.  That is, the story of the
+relationship of the earth to plant, animal, and man was revealed.  The
+regularity of these movements and the amount of material evidence found
+furnish a great opportunity for measuring geological time movements and
+hence the life of plants and animals, including man.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The table on page 64 will contribute to the clearness of this brief
+statement about the glacial periods.
+</P>
+
+<HR>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P64"></A>64}</SPAN>
+
+<PRE>
+THE ICE AGE IN EUROPE[<A NAME="chap04fn5text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn5">5</A>]
+
+Geological time-unit 25,000 years
+
+                            RELA-
+                            TIVE     TOTAL
+                            TIME     TIME      HUMAN         ANIMAL AND
+      GLACIERS       UNIT   YRS.     YRS.      LIFE          PLANT LIFE
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+      Post-Glacial     1    25,000   25,000    Crô-Magnon    Horse, Stag, Rein-
+        Daum                                   Azilian         deer, Musk-Ox,
+        Geschintz                              Magdalenian     Arctic Fox, Pine,
+        Bühl                                   Solutrian       Birch, Oak
+                                               Aurignacian
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+      4th Glacial      1    25,000   50,000    Mousterian    Reindeer, period of
+        Wurm Ice                               Neanderthal     Tundra, Alpine,
+                                                               Steppe, Meadow
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Q   3d Inter-        4   100,000  150,000    Pre-Neander-  Last warm Asiatic
+  U     glacial                                  thal          and African ani-
+  A                                            Piltdown        mals
+  R ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  T   3d Glacial       1    25,000  175,000                  Woolly Mammoth,
+  E     Riss                                                   Rhinoceros,
+  R                                                            Reindeer
+  N ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  A   2d Inter-        8   200,000  375,000    Heidelberg    African and Asiatic
+  R     glacial                                  Race          Animals, Ele-
+  Y     Mindel-Riss                                            phant, Hippo-
+                                                               potamus
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+      2d Glacial       1    25,000  400,000                  Cold weather
+        Mindel                                                 animals
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+      1st Inter-       3    75,000  475,000    Pithecan-     Hippopotamus,
+        glacial                                  thropus       Elephant, Afri-
+                                                 Erectus       can and Asiatic
+                                                               plants
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+      1st Glacial      1    25,000   500,000
+  =============================================================================
+  T
+  E
+  R
+  T
+  I
+  A
+  R
+  Y
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+</PRE>
+
+<HR>
+
+<P>
+<I>Prehistoric Types of the Human Race</I>.&mdash;The earliest record of human
+life yet discovered is the <I>Pithecanthropus Erectus</I> (Trinil), the
+apelike man who walked upright, found in Java by Du Bois, about the
+year 1892.  Enough of the skeletal remains of human beings were found
+at this time to indicate a man of rather crude form and low brain
+capacity (about 885 c.c.), with possible powers of speech but with no
+probably developed language or no assumption of the acquaintance with
+the arts of life.[<A NAME="chap04fn4text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn4">4</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The remains of this man associated with the remains of one other
+skeleton, probably a woman, and with the bones of extinct animals, were
+found in a geological stratum which indicates his age at about 500,000
+years.  Professor McGregor, after a careful anatomical study, has
+reproduced the head and bust of Pithecanthropus, which helps us to
+visualize this primitive species as of rather low cultural type.  The
+low forehead, massive jaw, and receding chin give us a vision of an
+undeveloped species of the human race, in some respects not much above
+the anthropoid apes, yet in other characters distinctly human.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There follows a long interval of human development which is only
+conjectural until the discovery of the bones of the Heidelberg man,
+found at the south of the River Neckar.  These are the first records of
+the human race found in southern Europe.  The type of man is still
+apelike in some respects, but far in advance of the Pithecanthropus in
+structure and general appearance.  The restoration by the Belgian
+artist Mascré
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P65"></A>65}</SPAN>
+under the direction of Professor A. Rotot, of Brussels, is
+indicative of larger brain capacity than the Trinil race.  It had a
+massive jaw, distinctive nose, heavy arched brows, and still the
+receding chin.  Not many cultural remains were found in strata of the
+second interglacial period along with the remains of extinct animals,
+such as the ancient elephant, Etruscan rhinoceros, primitive bison,
+primitive ox, Auvergne bear, and lion.  A fauna and a flora as well as
+a geological structure were found which would indicate that this race
+existed at this place about 375,000 years ago.  From these evidences
+very little may be determined of the Heidelberg man's cultural
+development, but much may be inferred.  Undoubtedly, like the
+Pithecanthropus, he was a man without the tools of civilization, or at
+least had not developed far in this way.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+About 150,000 years ago there appeared in Europe races of mankind that
+left more relics of their civilization.[<A NAME="chap04fn6text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn6">6</A>] These were the
+Neanderthaloid races.  There is no evidence of the connection of these
+races with the Java man or the Heidelberg man.  Here, as elsewhere in
+the evolution of races and species, nature does not work in a straight
+line of descent, but by differentiation and variation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In 1856 the first discovery of a specimen of the Neanderthal man was
+found at the entrance of a small ravine on the right bank of the River
+Dussel, in Rhenish Prussia.  This was the first discovery of the
+Paleolithic man to cause serious reflection on the possibility of a
+prehistoric race in Europe.  Its age is estimated at 50,000 years.
+This was followed by other discoveries of the Mid-Pleistocene period,
+until there were a number of discoveries of similar specimens of the
+Neanderthal race, varying in some respects from each other.  The first
+had a brain capacity of 1230 c.c., while that of the average European
+is about 1500 c.c.  Some of the specimens showed a skull capacity
+larger than the first specimen, but the average is lower than that of
+any living race, unless it be that of the Australians.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P66"></A>66}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Later were discovered human remains of a somewhat higher type, known as
+the Aurignacian, of the Crô-Magnon race.  These are probably ancestors
+of the living races of Europe existing 25,000 to 50,000 years ago.
+They represent the first races to which may be accorded definite
+relationship with the recent races.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Thus we have evidences of the great antiquity of man and a series of
+remains showing continual advancement over a period of nearly 500,000
+years&mdash;the Pithecanthropus, Heidelberg, Piltdown, and Neanderthal,
+though expressing gradations of development in the order named, appear
+to be unrelated in their origin and descent, and are classed as
+separate species long since extinct.  The Crô-Magnon people seem more
+directly related to modern man.  Perhaps in the Neolithic Age they may
+have been the forebears of present races, either through direct or
+indirect lines.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Unity of the Human Race</I>.&mdash;Though there are evidences, as shown
+above, that there were many branches of the human race, or species,
+some of which became extinct without leaving any records of the passing
+on of their cultures to others, there is a pretty generally concerted
+opinion that all branches of the human race are related and have sprung
+from the same ancestors.  There have been differences of opinion
+regarding this view, some holding that there are several centres of
+development in which the precursor of man assumed a human form
+(polygenesis), and others holding that according to the law of
+differentiation and zoological development there must have been at some
+time one origin of the species (monogenesis).  So far as the scientific
+investigation of mankind is concerned, it is rather immaterial which
+theory is accepted.  We know that multitudes of tribes and races differ
+in minor parts of structure, differ in mental capacity, and hence in
+qualities of civilization, and yet in general form, brain structure,
+and mental processes, it is the same human being wherever found.  So we
+may assume that there is a unity of the race.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+If we consider the human race to have sprung from a single
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P67"></A>67}</SPAN>
+pair,
+or even the development of man from a single species, it must have
+taken a long time to have developed the great marks of racial
+differences that now exist.  The question of unity or plurality of race
+origins has been much discussed, and is still somewhat in controversy,
+although the predominance of evidence is much in favor of the descent
+of man from a single species and from a single place.  The elder
+Agassiz held that there were several separate species of the race,
+which accounts for the wide divergence of characteristics and
+conditions.  But it is generally admitted from a zoological standpoint
+that man originated from a single species, although it does not
+necessarily follow that he came from a single pair.  It is the
+diversity or the unity of the race from a single pair which gives rise
+to the greatest controversy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There is a wide diversity of opinion among ethnologists on this
+question.  Agassiz was followed by French writers, among whom were
+Topinard and Hervé, who held firmly to the plurality of centres of
+origin and distribution.  Agassiz thought there were at least nine
+centres in which man appeared, each independent of the others.  Morton
+thought he could point out twenty-two such centres, and Nott and
+Gliddon advanced the idea that there were distinct races of people.
+But Darwin, basing his arguments upon the uniformity of physical
+structure and similarity of mental characteristics, held that man came
+from a single progenitor.  This theory is the most acceptable, and it
+is easily explained, if we admit time enough for the necessary changes
+in the structure and appearance of man.  It is the simplest hypothesis
+that is given, and explains the facts relative to the existence of man
+much more easily than does the theory in reference to diversity of
+origins.  The majority of ethnologists of America and Europe appear to
+favor the idea that man came from a single pair, arose from one place,
+and spread thence over the earth's surface.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Primitive Home of Man May Be Determined in a General Way</I>.&mdash;The
+location of the cradle of the race has not
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P68"></A>68}</SPAN>
+yet been satisfactorily
+established.  The inference drawn from the Bible story of the creation
+places it in or near the valley of the Euphrates River.  Others hold
+that the place was in Europe, and others still in America.  A theory
+has also been advanced that a continent or group of large islands
+called Lemuria, occupying the place where the Indian Ocean now lies,
+and extending from Ceylon to Madagascar, was the locality in which the
+human race originated.  The advocates of this theory hold to it chiefly
+on the ground that it is necessary to account for the peopling of
+Australia and other large islands and continents, and that it is the
+country best fitted by climate and other physical conditions for the
+primitive race.  This submerged continent would enable the races to
+migrate readily to different parts of the world, still going by dry
+land.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There is little more than conjecture upon this subject, and the
+continent called Lemuria is as mythical as the Ethiopia of Ptolemy and
+the Atlantis of Plato.  It is a convenient theory, as it places the
+cradle of the race near the five great rivers, the Tigris, Euphrates,
+Indus, Ganges, and the Nile.  The supposed home also lies in a zone in
+which the animals most resembling man are found, which is an important
+consideration; as, in the development of the earth, animals appeared
+according to the conditions of climate and food supply, so the portion
+of the earth best prepared for man's early life is most likely to be
+his first home.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Although it is impossible to determine the first home of man, either
+from a scientific or an historical standpoint, there are a few
+well-acknowledged theories to be observed: First, as the islands of the
+ocean were not peopled when first discovered by modern navigators, it
+is reasonable to suppose that the primitive home of man was on one of
+the continents.  As man is the highest and last development of organic
+nature, it is advocated, with considerable force of argument, that his
+first home was in a region suitable to the life of the anthropoid apes.
+As none of these, either living or fossil, are found in Australia or
+America, these continents are practically excluded from the probable
+list of places for the early home of man.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P69"></A>69}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+In considering the great changes which have taken place in the earth's
+surface, southern India and southern Africa were large islands at the
+time of man's appearance; hence, there is little probability of either
+of these being the primitive home.  None of the oldest remains of man
+have been found in the high northern latitudes of Europe or America.
+We have then left a strip of country on the southern slope of the great
+mountain chain which begins in western Europe and extends to the
+Himalaya Mountains, in Asia, which appears to be the territory in which
+was situated the early home of man.  The geological relics and the
+distribution of the race both point to the fact that in this belt man's
+life began; but it is not determined whether it was in Europe or in
+Asia, there being adherents to both theories.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Antiquity of Man Is Shown in Racial Differentiation</I>.&mdash;Granted
+that the life of the human race has originated from a common biological
+origin and from a common geographical centre, it has taken a very long
+time for the races to be differentiated into the physical traits they
+possess to-day, as it has taken a long time for man to spread over the
+earth.  The generalized man wandering along the streams and through the
+forests in search of food, seeking for shelter under rocks and in caves
+and trees, was turned aside by the impassable barriers of mountains, or
+the forbidding glacier, the roaring torrent, or the limits of the ocean
+itself, and spread over the accessible parts of the earth's surface
+until he had covered the selected districts on the main portions of the
+globe.  Then came race specialization, where a group remained a long
+time in the same environment and inbred in the same stock, developing
+specialized racial characters.  These changes were very slow, and the
+wide difference to-day between the Asiatic, the African, and the
+European is indicative of the long period of years which brought them
+about.  Certainly, six thousand years would not suffice to make such
+changes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Of course one must realize that just as, in the period of childhood,
+the plastic state of life, changes of structure and appearance are more
+rapid than in the mature man, after
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P70"></A>70}</SPAN>
+traits and characters have
+become more fixed, so by analogy we may assume that this was the way of
+the human race and that in the earlier period changes were more rapid
+than they are to-day.  Thus in the cross-fertilizations and
+amalgamation of races we would expect a slower development than under
+these earlier conditions, yet when we realize the persistence of the
+types of Irish and German, of Italian and Greek, of Japanese and
+Chinese, even though the races become amalgamated, we must infer that
+the racial types were very slow in developing.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+If we consider the variations in the structure and appearance of the
+several tribes and races with which we come in contact in every-day
+life, we are impressed with the amount of time necessary to make these
+changes.  Thus the Anglo-American, whom we sometimes call Caucasian,
+taken as one type of the perfection of physical structure and mental
+habit, with his brown hair, having a slight tendency to curl, his fair
+skin, high, prominent, and broad forehead, his great brain capacity,
+his long head and delicately moulded features, contrasts very strongly
+with the negro, with his black skin, long head, with flat, narrow
+forehead, thick lips, projecting jaw, broad nose, and black and woolly
+hair.  The Chinese, with his yellow skin, flat nose, black, coarse
+hair, and oblique, almond-shaped eyes, and round skull, marks another
+distinct racial type.  Other great races have different
+characteristics, and among our own race we find a further separation
+into two great types, the blonds and the brunettes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+What a long period of time must have elapsed to have changed the racial
+characteristics!  From pictures made three thousand years ago in Egypt
+the differences of racial characteristics were very clearly depicted in
+the hair, the features of the face, and, indeed, the color of the skin.
+If at this period the racial differences were clearly marked, at what
+an early date must they have been wanting!  So, also, the antiquity of
+man is evinced in the fact that the oldest skeletons found show him at
+that early period to be in possession of an average
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P71"></A>71}</SPAN>
+brain capacity
+and a well-developed frame.  If changes in structure have taken place,
+they have gradually appeared only during a long period of years.  Yet,
+when it is considered that man is a migratory creature, who can adapt
+himself to any condition of climate or other environment, and it is
+realized that in the early stage of his existence his time was occupied
+for a long period in hunting and fishing, and that from this practice
+he entered the pastoral life to continue, to a certain extent, his
+wanderings, it is evident that there is sufficient opportunity for the
+development of independent characteristics.  Also the effects of sun
+and storm, of climate and other environments have a great influence in
+the slow changes of the race which have taken place.  The change in
+racial traits is dependent largely upon biological selection, but
+environment and social selection probably had at least indirect
+influence in the evolution of racial characters.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Evidences of Man's Ancient Life in Different Localities</I>.&mdash;The
+sources of the remains of the life of primitive man are (1) Caves, (2)
+Shell Mounds, (3) River and Glacial Drift, (4) Burial Mounds, (5)
+Battlefields and Village Sites, and (6) Lake Dwellings.  It is from
+these sources that most of the evidence of man's early life has come.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Caves</I> (1).&mdash;It has been customary to allude to the cave man as if he
+were a distinct species or group of the human race, when in reality men
+at all times through many thousands of years dwelt in caves according
+to their convenience.  However, there was a period in European life
+when groups of the human race used caves for permanent habitations and
+thus developed certain racial types and habits.  Doubtless these were
+established long enough in permanent seats to develop a specialized
+type which might be known as the cave man, just as racial types have
+been developed in other conditions of habitation and life.  What
+concerns us most here is that the protection which the cave afforded
+this primitive man has been a means of protecting the records of his
+life, and thus added to the evidence of human progress.  Many of these
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P72"></A>72}</SPAN>
+caves were of limestone with rough walls and floor, and in most
+instances rifts in the roof allowed water to percolate and drop to the
+floor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Frequently the water was impregnated with limestone solution, which
+became solidified as each drop left a deposit at the point of
+departure.  This formed rough stalactites, which might be called stone
+icicles, because their formation was similar to the formation of an
+icicle of the water dropping from the roof.  So likewise on the floor
+of the cave where the limestone solution dropped was built up from the
+bottom a covering of limestone with inverted stone icicles called
+stalagmites.  Underneath the latter were found layer after layer of
+relics from the habitation of man, encased in stone to be preserved
+forever or until broken into by some outside pressure.  Of course,
+comparatively few of all the relics around these habitations were
+preserved, because those outside of the stone encasement perished, as
+did undoubtedly large masses of remains around the mouth of the cave.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In these caves of Europe are found the bones of man, flint implements,
+ornaments of bone with carvings, and the necklaces of animals' teeth,
+along with the bones of extinct animals.  In general the evidence shows
+the habits of the life of man and also the kind of animals with which
+he associated whose period of life was determined by other evidence.
+Besides this general evidence, there was a special determination of the
+progress of man, because the relics were in layers extending over a
+long period of years, giving evidence that from time to time implements
+of higher order were used, either showing progress or that different
+races may have occupied the cave at different times and left evidences
+of their industrial, economic, and social life.  In some of the caves
+skulls have been discovered showing a brain case of an average
+capacity, along with others of inferior size.  Probably the greater
+part of this cave life was in the upper part of the Paleolithic Stone
+Age.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In some of these caves at the time of the Magdalenian
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P73"></A>73}</SPAN>
+culture,
+which was a branch of the Crô-Magnon culture, there are to be found
+drawings and paintings of the horse, the cave bear, the mammoth, the
+bison, and many other animals, showing strong beginnings of
+representative art.  Also, in these caves were found bones and stone
+implements of a more highly finished product than those of the earlier
+primitive types of Europe.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Shell Mounds</I> (2).&mdash;Shell mounds of Europe and America furnish
+definite records of man's life.  The shell mounds of greatest historic
+importance are found along the shores of the Baltic in Denmark.  Here
+are remains of a primitive people whose diet seems to be principally
+shell-fish obtained from the shores of the sea.  Around their kitchens
+the shells of mussels, scallops, and oysters were piled in heaps, and
+in these shell mounds, or Kitchenmiddens, as they are called
+(Kjokkenmoddings), are found implements, the bones of birds and
+mammals, as well as the remains of plants.  Also, by digging to the
+bottom of these mounds specimens of pottery are found, showing that the
+civilization belonged largely to the Neolithic period of man.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There are evidences also of the succession of the varieties of trees
+corresponding to the evidences found in the peat bogs, the oak
+following the fir, which in turn gave way to the beech.  These refuse
+heaps are usually in ridgelike mounds, sometimes hundreds of yards in
+length.  The weight of the millions of shells and other refuse
+undoubtedly pressed the shells down into the soft earth and still the
+mound enlarged, the habitation being changed or raised higher, rather
+than to take the trouble to clear away the shells from the habitation.
+The variety of implements and the degrees of culture which they exhibit
+give evidence that men lived a long time in this particular locality.
+Undoubtedly it was the food quest that caused people to assemble here.
+The evidences of the coarse, dark pottery, the stone axes, clubs, and
+arrow-heads, and the bones of dogs show a state of civilization in
+which differentiation of life existed.  Shell mounds are also found
+along the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P74"></A>74}</SPAN>
+Pacific coast, showing the life of Indians from the time
+when they first began to use shell-fish for food.  In these mounds
+implements showing the relative stages of development have been found.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>River and Glacial Drift</I> (3).&mdash;The action of glaciers and glacial
+rivers and lakes has through erosion changed the surface of the soil,
+tearing out some parts of the earth's surface and depositing the soil
+elsewhere.  These river floods carried out bones of man and the
+implements in use, and deposited them, together with the bones of
+animals with which he lived.  Many of these relics have been preserved
+through thousands of years and frequently are brought to light.  The
+geological records are thus very important in throwing light upon the
+antiquity of man.  It is in the different layers or strata of the earth
+caused by these changes that we find the relics of ancient life.  The
+earth thus reveals in its rocks and gravel drift the permanent records
+of man's early life.  Historical geology shows us that the crust of the
+earth has been made by a series of layers, one above the other, and
+that the geologist determining the order of their creation has a means
+of ascertaining their relative age, and thus can measure approximately
+the life of the plants and animals connected with each separate
+layer.[<A NAME="chap04fn7text"></A><A HREF="#chap04fn7">7</A>]  The relative ages of fishes, reptiles, and mammals,
+including man, are thus readily determined.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is necessary to refer to the method of classification adopted by
+geologists, who have divided the time of earth-making into three great
+periods, representing the growth of animal life, determined by the
+remains found in the strata or drift.  These periods mark general
+portions of time.  Below the first is the period of earliest rock
+formation (Archaean), in which there is no life, and which is called
+Azoic for that reason.  There is a short period above this, usually
+reckoned as outside the ancient life, on account of the few forms of
+animals found there; but the first great period (Paleozoic) represents
+non-vertebrate life, as well as the life of fishes and reptiles, and
+includes
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P75"></A>75}</SPAN>
+also the coal measures, which represent a period of heavy
+vegetation.  The middle period (Mesozoic) includes the more completely
+developed lizards and crocodiles, and the appearance of mammals and
+birds.  The animal life of the third period (Cenozoic) resembles
+somewhat the modern species.  This period includes the Tertiary and the
+Quaternary and the recent sub-periods.  Man, the highest being in the
+order of creation, appears in the Quaternary period.  Of the immense
+ages of time represented by the geological periods the life of man
+represents but a small portion, just as the existence of man as
+recorded in history is but a modern period of his great life.  The
+changes, then, which have taken place in the animals and plants and the
+climate in the different geological periods have been instrumental in
+determining the age of man; that is, if in a given stratum human
+remains are found, and the relative age of that stratum is known, it is
+easy to estimate the relative age of man.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Whether man existed prior to the glacial epoch is still in doubt.  Some
+anthropologists hold that he appeared at the latter part of the
+Tertiary, that is, in the Pliocene.  Reasons for assumption exist,
+though there is not sufficient evidence to make it conclusive.  The
+question is still in controversy, and doubtless will be until new
+discoveries bring new evidence.  If there is doubt about the finding of
+human relics in the Tertiary, there is no doubt about the evidence of
+man during the Quaternary, including the whole period of the glacial
+epoch, extending 500,000 years into the past.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The relics of man which are found in the drift and elsewhere are the
+stone implements and the flakes chipped from the flint as he fashioned
+it into an axe, knife, or hatchet.  The implements commonly found are
+arrow-heads, knives, lance-heads, pestles, etc.  Human bones have been
+found imbedded in the rock or the sand.  Articles made of horn, bones
+of animals, especially the reindeer, notched or cut pieces of wood have
+been found.  Also there are evidences of rude drawings on stone, bone,
+or ivory; fragments of charcoal, which give
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P76"></A>76}</SPAN>
+evidence of the use of
+fire in cooking or creating artificial heat, are found, and long bones
+split longitudinally to obtain marrow for food, and, finally, the
+remnants of pottery.  These represent the principal relics found in the
+Stone Age; to these may be added the implements in bronze and iron of
+later periods.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A good example of the use of these relics to determine chronology is
+shown in the peat bogs of Denmark.  At the bottom are found trees of
+pine which grew on the edges of the bog and have fallen in.  Nearer the
+top are found oak and white birch-trees, and in the upper layer are
+found beech-trees closely allied to the species now covering the
+country.  The pines, oaks, and birches are not to be seen in that part
+of the country at present.  Here, then, is evidence of the successive
+replacement of different species of trees.  It is evident that it must
+have taken a long time for one species thus to replace another, but how
+long it is impossible to say.  In some of these bogs is found a
+gradation of implements, unpolished stone at the bottom, polished stone
+above, followed by bronze, and finally iron.  These are associated with
+the different forms of vegetable remains.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In Europe stone implements occur in association with fossil remains of
+the cave lion, the cave hyena, the old elephant and rhinoceros&mdash;all
+extinct species.  Also the bones and horns of the reindeer are
+prominent in these remains, for at that time the reindeer came farther
+south than at present.  In southern France similar implements are
+associated with ivory and bones, with rude markings, and the bones of
+man&mdash;even a complete skeleton being found at one place.  These are all
+found in connection with the bones of the elk, ibex, aurochs, and
+reindeer.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Burial Mounds</I> (4).&mdash;It is difficult to determine at just what period
+human beings began to bury their dead.  Primarily the bodies were
+disposed of the same as any other carrion that might occur&mdash;namely,
+they were left to decay wherever they dropped, or were subject to the
+disposal by wild
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P77"></A>77}</SPAN>
+animals.  After the development of the idea of
+the perpetuation of life in another world, even though it were
+temporary or permanent, thoughts of preparing the body for its journey
+into the unknown land and for its residence thereafter caused people to
+place food and implements and clothing in the grave.  This practice
+probably occurred about the beginning of the Neolithic period of man's
+existence, and has continued on to the present date.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Hence it is that in the graves of primitive man we find deposited the
+articles of daily use at the period in which he lived.  These have been
+preserved many centuries, showing something of the life of the people
+whose remains were deposited in the mounds.  Also in connection with
+this in furtherance of a religious idea were great dolmens and stone
+temples, where undoubtedly the ancients met to worship.  They give some
+evidence at least of the development of the religious and ceremonial
+life among these primitive people and to that extent they are of great
+importance.  It is evidence also, in another way, that the religious
+idea took strong hold of man at an early period of his existence.
+Evidences of man in Britain from the tumuli, or burial mounds, from
+rude stone temples like the famous Stonehenge place his existence on
+the island at a very early date.  Judging from skulls and skeletons
+there were several distinct groups of prehistoric man in Britain,
+varying from the extreme broad skulls to those of excessive length.
+They carry us back to the period of the Early Stone Age.  Relics, too,
+of the implements and mounds show something of the primitive conditions
+of the inhabitants in Britain of which we have any permanent record.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Battlefields and Village Sites</I> (5).&mdash;In the later Neolithic period of
+man the tribes had been fully developed over a great part of the
+earth's surface, and fought for their existence, principally over
+territories having a food supply.  Other reasons for tribal conflict,
+such as real or imagined race differences and the ambition for race
+survival, caused constant warfare.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P78"></A>78}</SPAN>
+Upon these battlefields were
+left the implements of war.  Those of stone, and, it may be said
+secondarily, of iron and bronze, were preserved.  It is not uncommon
+now in almost any part of the United States where the rains fall upon a
+ploughed field over which a battle had been fought, to find exposed a
+large number of arrow-heads and stone axes, all other perishable
+implements having long since decayed.  Or in some instances the wind
+blowing the sand exposes the implements which were long ago deposited
+during a battle.  Also, wherever the Indian villages were located for a
+period of years, the accumulations of utensils and implements occurred
+which were buried by the action of wind or water.  This represents a
+source of evidence of man's early life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Lake Dwellings</I> (6).&mdash;The idea of protection is evidenced everywhere
+in the history of primitive man; protection against the physical
+elements, protection against wild beasts and wilder men.  We find along
+the lakes and bays in both Europe and America the tendency to build the
+dwelling out in the water and approach it from the land with a narrow
+walk which could be taken up when not used, or to approach it by means
+of a rude boat.  In this way the dwellers could defend themselves
+against the onslaughts of tribal enemies.  These dwellings have been
+most numerous along the Swiss lakes, although some are found in
+Scotland, in the northern coast of South America, and elsewhere.  Their
+importance rests in the fact that, like the shell mounds
+(Kitchenmiddens), the refuse from these cabins shows large deposits of
+the implements and utensils that were in use during the period of
+tribal residence.  Here we find not only stone implements, running from
+the crude form of the Unpolished Stone Age to the highly polished, but
+also records of implements of bronze and small implements for domestic
+use of bone and polished stone.  Also there are evidences that
+different tribes or specialized races occupied these dwellings at
+different times, because of the variation of civilization implied by
+the implements in use.  The British Museum has a very large classified
+collection of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P79"></A>79}</SPAN>
+the implements procured from lake dwellings of
+Switzerland.  Other museums also have large collections.  A part of
+them run back into the prehistoric period of man and part extend even
+down to the historic.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Knowledge of Man's Antiquity Influences Reflective Thinking</I>.&mdash;The
+importance of studying the antiquity of man is the light which it
+throws upon the causes of later civilization.  In considering any phase
+of man's development it is necessary to realize he has been a long time
+on earth and that, while the law of the individual life is development,
+that of the human race is slowly evolutionary; hence, while we may look
+for immediate and rapid change, we can only be assured of a very slow
+progressive movement at all periods of man's existence.  The knowledge
+of his antiquity will give us a historical view which is of tremendous
+importance in considering the purpose and probable result of man's life
+on earth.  When we realize that we have evidence of the struggle of man
+for five hundred thousand years to get started as far as we have in
+civilization, and that more changes affecting man's progress may occur
+in a single year now than in a former thousand years, we realize
+something of the background of struggle before our present civilization
+could appear.  We realize, also, that his progress in the arts has been
+very slow and that, while there are many changes in art formation of
+to-day, we still have the evidences of the primitive in every completed
+picture, or plastic form, or structural work.  But the slow progress of
+all this shows, too, that the landmarks of civilization of the past are
+few and far between&mdash;distant mile-posts appearing at intervals of
+thousands of years.  Such a contemplation gives us food for thought and
+should invite patience when we wish in modern times for social
+transformations to become instantaneous, like the flash of the scimitar
+or the burst of an electric light.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The evidence that man has been a long time on earth explodes the
+long-accepted theory of six thousand years as the age of man.  It also
+explodes the theory of instantaneous
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P80"></A>80}</SPAN>
+creation which was expressed
+by some of the mediaeval philosophers.  Indeed, it explodes the theory
+of a special creation of man without connection with the creation of
+other living beings.  No doubt, there was a specialized creation of
+man, otherwise he never would have been greater than the anthropoids
+nor, indeed, than other mammals, but his specialization came about as
+an evolutionary process which gave him a tremendous brain-power whereby
+he was enabled to dominate all the rest of the world.  So far as
+philosophy is concerned as to man's life, purpose, and destiny, the
+influence of the study of anthropology would change the philosopher's
+vision of life to a certain extent.  The recognition that man is "part
+and parcel" of the universe, subject to cosmic law, as well as a
+specialized type, subject to the laws of evolution, and, indeed, that
+he is of a spiritual nature through which he is subjected to spiritual
+law, causes the philosopher to pause somewhat before he determines the
+purpose, the life, or the destiny of man.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+If we are to inquire how man came into the world, when he came, what he
+has been doing, how he developed, and whither the human trail leads, we
+shall encounter many unsolved theories.  Indeed, the facts of his life
+are suggestive of the mystery of being.  If it be suggested that he is
+"part and parcel" of nature and has slowly arisen out of lower forms,
+it should not be a humiliating thought, for his daily life is dependent
+upon the lower elements of nature.  The life of every day is dependent
+upon the dust of the earth.  The food he eats comes from the earth just
+the same as that of the hog, the rabbit, or the fish.  If, upon this
+foundation, he has by slow evolution built a more perfect form,
+developed a brain and a mind which give him the greatest flights of
+philosophy, art, and religion, is it not a thing to excite pride of
+being?  Could there be any greater miracle than evolving nature and
+developing life?  Indeed, is there any greater than the development of
+the individual man from a small germ not visible to the naked eye,
+through the egg, the embryo, infant, youth, to full-grown man?  Why not
+the working of the same law to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P81"></A>81}</SPAN>
+the development of man from the
+beginning.  Does it lessen the dignity of creation if this is done
+according to law?  On the other hand, does it not give credit to the
+greatness and power of the Creator if we recognize his wisdom in making
+the universe, including man, the most important factor, according to a
+universal plan worked out by far-reacting laws?
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  Evidences of the great antiquity of man.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  Physical and mental traits of the anthropoid apes.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  The life and culture of the Neanderthal Race.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  What are the evidences in favor of the descent of man from a single
+progenitor?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  Explain the law of differentiation as applied to plants and animals.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  Compare in general the arts of man in the Old Stone Age with those
+of the New Stone Age.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  What has been the effect of the study of prehistoric man on modern
+thought as shown in the interpretation of History?  Philosophy?
+Religion?
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap04fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn2"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn3"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn4"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn5"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn6"></A>
+<A NAME="chap04fn7"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn1text">1</A>] See Diagram, p. <A HREF="#P59">59</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn2text">2</A>] See Haeckel, Schmidt, Ward, Robinson, Osborn, Todd.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn3text">3</A>] See Osborn, <I>Men of the Old Stone Age</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn4text">4</A>] See <A HREF="#chap02">Chapter II</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn5text">5</A>] After Osborn.  Read from bottom up.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn6text">6</A>] Estimates of Neanderthal vary from 150,000 to 50,000 years ago.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap04fn7text">7</A>] See p. <A HREF="#P64">64</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap05"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P82"></A>82}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER V
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+THE ECONOMIC FACTORS OF PROGRESS
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Efforts of Man to Satisfy Physical Needs</I>.&mdash;All knowledge of
+primitive man, whether derived from the records of cultures he has left
+or assumed from analogy of living tribes of a low order of
+civilization, discovers him wandering along the streams in the valleys
+or by the shores of lakes and oceans, searching for food and
+incidentally seeking protection in caves and trees.  The whole earth
+was his so far as he could appropriate it.  He cared nothing for
+ownership; he only wanted room to search for the food nature had
+provided.  When he failed to find sufficient food as nature left it, he
+starved.  So in his wandering life he adapted himself to nature as he
+found it.  In the different environments he acquired different customs
+and habits of life.  If he came in contact with other tribes, an
+exchange of knowledge and customs took place, and both tribes were
+richer thereby.  However, the universality of the human mind made it
+possible for two detached tribes, under similar environment and similar
+stimuli, to develop the same customs and habits of life, provided they
+had the same degree of development.  Hence, we have independent group
+development and group borrowing.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When nature failed to provide him with sufficient food, he learned to
+force her to yield a larger supply.  When natural objects were
+insufficient for his purposes, he made artificial tools to supplement
+them.  Slowly he became an inventor.  Slowly he mastered the art of
+living.  Thus physical needs were gradually satisfied, and the
+foundation for the superstructure of civilization was laid.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Attempt to Satisfy Hunger and to Protect from Cold</I>.&mdash;To this
+statement must be added the fact that struggle with
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P83"></A>83}</SPAN>
+his fellows
+arose from the attempt to obtain food, and we have practically the
+whole occupation of man in a state of savagery.  At least, the simple
+activities represent the essential forces at the foundation of human
+social life.  The attempt to preserve life either through instinct,
+impulse, emotion, or rational selection is fundamental in all animal
+existence.  The other great factor at the foundation of human effort is
+the desire to perpetuate the species.  This, in fact, is the mere
+projection of the individual life into the next generation, and is
+fundamentally important to the individual and to the race alike.  All
+modern efforts can be traced to these three fundamental activities.
+But in seeking to satisfy the cravings of hunger and to avoid the pain
+of cold, man has developed a varied and active life.  About these two
+centres cluster all the simple forces of human progress.  Indeed,
+invention and discovery and the advancement of the industrial arts
+receive their initial impulses from these economic relations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+We have only to turn our attention to the social life around us to
+observe evidences of the great importance of economic factors.  Even
+now it will be observed that the greater part of economic activities
+proceeds from the effort to procure food, clothing, and shelter, while
+a relatively smaller part is engaged in the pursuit of education,
+culture, and pleasure.  The excellence of educational systems, the
+highest flights of philosophy, the greatest achievement of art, and the
+best inspiration of religion cannot exist without a wholesome economic
+life at the foundation.  It should not be humiliating to man that this
+is so, for in the constitution of things, labor of body and mind, the
+struggle for existence and the accumulations of the products of
+industry yield a large return in themselves in discipline and culture;
+and while we use these economic means to reach higher ideal states,
+they represent the ladder on which man makes the first rounds of his
+ascent.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Methods of Procuring Food in Primitive Times</I>.&mdash;Judging from the
+races and tribes that are more nearly in a state of nature than any
+other, it may be reasonably assumed that
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P84"></A>84}</SPAN>
+in his first stage of
+existence, man subsisted almost wholly upon a vegetable diet, and that
+gradually he gave more and more attention to animal food.  His
+structure and physiology make it possible for him to use both animal
+and vegetable food.  Primarily, with equal satisfaction the procuring
+of food must have been rather an individual than a social function.
+Each individual sought his own breakfast wherever he might find it.  It
+was true then, as now, that people proceeded to the breakfast table in
+an aggregation, and flocked around the centres of food supply; so we
+may assume the picture of man stealing away alone, picking fruits,
+nuts, berries, gathering clams or fish, was no more common than the
+fact of present-day man getting his own breakfast alone.  The main
+difference is that in the former condition individuals obtained the
+food as nature left it, and passed it directly from the bush or tree to
+the mouth, while in modern times thousands of people have been working
+indirectly to make it possible for a man to wait on himself.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Jack London, in his <I>Before Adam</I>, gives a very interesting picture of
+the tribe going out to the carrot field for its breakfast, each
+individual helping himself.  However, such an aggregation around a
+common food supply must eventually lead to co-operative economic
+methods.  But we do find even among modern living tribes of low degree
+of culture the group following the food quest, whether it be to the
+carrot patch, the nut-bearing trees, the sedgy seashore for mussels and
+clams, the lakes for wild rice, or to the forest and plains where
+abound wild game.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+We find it difficult to think otherwise than that the place of man's
+first appearance was one abounding in edible fruits.  This fact arises
+from the study of man's nature and evidences of the location of his
+first appearance, together with the study of climate and vegetation.
+There are a good many suggestions also that man in his primitive
+condition was prepared for a vegetable diet, and indications are that
+later he acquired use of meat as food.  Indeed, the berries and edible
+roots of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P85"></A>85}</SPAN>
+certain regions are in sufficient quantity to sustain
+life throughout a greater part of the year.  The weaker tribes of
+California at the time of the first European invaders, and for many
+centuries previous, found a greater part of their sustenance in edible
+roots extracted from the soil, in nuts, seeds of wild grains, and
+grasses.  It is true they captured a little wild game, and in certain
+seasons many of them made excursions to the ocean or frequented the
+streams for fish or shell-fish, but their chief diet was vegetable.  It
+must be remembered, also, that all of the cultivated fruits to-day
+formerly existed, in one variety or another, in the wild species.  Thus
+the citrous fruits, the date, the banana, breadfruit, papaw, persimmon,
+apple, cherry, plum, pear, all grew in a wild state, providing food for
+man if he were ready to take it as provided.  Rational selection has
+assisted nature in improving the quality of grains and fruits and in
+developing new varieties.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the tropical regions was found the greatest supply of edible fruits.
+Thus the Malays and the Papuans find sufficient food on trees to supply
+their wants.  Many people in some of the groups in the South Sea
+Islands live on cocoanuts.  In South America several species of trees
+are cultivated by the natives for the food they furnish.  The palm
+family contributes much food to the natives, and also furnishes a large
+supply of food to the markets of the world.  The well-known breadfruit
+tree bears during eight successive months in the year, and by burying
+the fruit in the ground it may be preserved for food for the remaining
+four months.  Thus a single plant may be made to provide a continuous
+food supply for the inhabitants of the Moluccas and Philippines.  Many
+other instances of fruits in abundance, such as the nuts from the
+araucarias of South America, and beans from the mesquite of Mexico,
+might be given to show that it is possible for man to subsist without
+the use of animal food.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Variety of Food Was Constantly Increased</I>.&mdash;Undoubtedly, one of
+the chief causes of the wandering of primitive man over the earth, in
+the valleys, along stream, lake, and ocean,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P86"></A>86}</SPAN>
+over the plains and
+through the hills, was the quest for food to preserve life; and even
+after tribes became permanent residents in a certain territory, there
+was a constant shifting from one source of food supply to another
+throughout the seasons.  However, after tribes became more settled, the
+increase of population encroached upon the native food supply, and man
+began to use his invention for the purpose of its increase.  He learned
+how to plant seeds which were ordinarily believed to be sown by the
+gods, and to till the soil and raise fruits and vegetables for his own
+consumption.  This was a period of accidental agriculture, or hoe
+culture, whereby the ground was tilled by women with hoes of stone, or
+bone, or wood.  In the meantime, the increase of animal food became a
+necessity.  Man learned how to snare and trap animals, to fish and to
+gather shell-fish, learning by degrees to use new foods as discovered
+as nature left them.  Life become a veritable struggle for existence as
+the population increased and the lands upon which man dwelt yielded
+insufficient supply of food.  The increased variety of food allowed man
+to adapt himself to the different climates.  Thus in the colder
+climates animal food became desirable to enable him to resist more
+readily the rigors of climate.  It was not necessary, it is supposed,
+to give him physical courage or intellectual development, for there
+appear to be evidences of tribes like the Maoris of New Zealand, who on
+the diet of fish and roots became a most powerful and sagacious people.
+But the change from a vegetable diet to a meat-and-fish diet in the
+early period brought forth renewed energy of body and mind, not only on
+account of the necessary physical exertion but on account of the
+invention of devices for the capture of fish and game.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Food Supply Was Increased by Inventions</I>.&mdash;Probably the first meat
+food supply was in the form of shell-fish which could be gathered near
+the shores of lakes and streams.  Probably small game was secured by
+the use of stones and sticks and by running the animal down until he
+was exhausted or until he hid in a place inaccessible to the pursuer.
+The
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P87"></A>87}</SPAN>
+boomerang, as used by the Australians in killing game, may
+have been an early product of the people of Neolithic Europe.  In the
+latter part of the Paleolithic Age, fish-hooks of bone were used, and
+probably snares invented for small game.  The large game could not be
+secured without the use of the spear and the co-operation of a number
+of hunters.  In all probability this occurred in the New Stone Age.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The invention of the bow-and-arrow was of tremendous importance in
+securing food.  It is not known what led to its invention, although the
+discovery of the flexible power of the shrub, or the small sapling,
+must have occurred to man as he struggled through the brush.  It is
+thought by some that the use of the bow fire-drill, which was for the
+purpose of striking fire by friction, might have displayed driving
+power when the drill wound up in the string of the bow flew from its
+confinement.  However, this is conjectural; but, judging from the
+inventions of known tribes, it is evident that necessity has always
+been the moving power in invention.  The bow-and-arrow was developed in
+certain centres and probably through trade and exchange extended to
+other tribes and groups until it was universally used.  It is
+interesting to note how many thousands of years this must have been the
+chief weapon for destroying animals or crippling game at a distance.
+Even as late as the Norman conquest, the bow-and-arrow was the chief
+means of defense of the Anglo-Saxon yeoman, and for many previous
+centuries in the historic period had been the chief implement in
+warfare and in the chase.  The use of the spear in fishing supplemented
+that of the hook, and is found among all low-cultured tribes of the
+present day.  The American Indian will stand on a rock in the middle of
+a stream, silently, for an hour if necessary, watching for a chance to
+spear a salmon.  These small devices were of tremendous importance in
+increasing the food supply, and the making of them became a permanent
+industry.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Along with the bow and arrow were developed many kinds of spears, axes,
+and hammers, invented chiefly to be used in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P88"></A>88}</SPAN>
+war, but also used for
+economic reasons.  In the preparation of animal food, in the tanning of
+skins, in the making of clothing, another set of stone implements was
+developed.  So, likewise, in the grinding of seeds, the mortar and
+pestle were used, and the small hand-mill or grinder was devised.  The
+sign of the mortar and pestle at the front of drug-stores brings to
+mind the fact that its first use was not for preparing medicines, but
+for grinding grains and seeds.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Discovery and Use of Fire</I>.&mdash;The use of fire was practised in the
+early history of man.  Among the earliest records in caves are found
+evidences of the use of fire.  Charcoal is practically indestructible,
+and, although it may be crushed, the small particles maintain their
+shape in the clays and sands.  In nearly all of the relics of man
+discovered in caves, the evidences of fire are to be found, and no
+living tribe has yet been discovered so low in the scale of life as to
+be without the knowledge of fire and probably its simple uses, although
+a few tribes have been for the time being without fire when first
+discovered.  This might seem to indicate that at a very early period
+man did not know how to create fire artificially, but carried it and
+preserved it in his wanderings.  There are indications that a certain
+individual was custodian of the fire, and later it was carried by the
+priest or <I>cacique</I>.  Here, as in other instances in the development of
+the human race, an economic factor soon assumes a religious
+significance, and fire becomes sacred.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There are many conjectures respecting the discovery of fire.  Probably
+the two real sources are of lightning that struck forest trees and set
+them on fire and the action of volcanoes in throwing out burning lava,
+which ignited combustible material.  Either one or the other, and
+perhaps both, of these methods may have furnished man with fire.
+Others have suggested that the rubbing together of dead limbs of trees
+in the forests after they were moved by the winds, may have created
+fire by friction.  It is possible, also, that the sun's rays may have,
+when concentrated on combustible
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P89"></A>89}</SPAN>
+material, caused spontaneous
+ignition.  The idea has been advanced that some of the forest fires of
+recent times have been ignited in this way.  However, it is evident
+that there are enough natural sources in the creation of fire to enable
+tribes to use it for the purposes of artificial heat, cooking, and
+later, in the age of metals, of smelting ores.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There has always been a mystery connected with the origin and use of
+fire, which has led to many myths.  Thus, the Greeks insisted that
+Prometheus, in order to perform a great service to humanity, stole fire
+from heaven and gave it to man.  For this crime against the authority
+of the gods, he was chained to a rock to suffer the torture of the
+vulture who pecked at his vitals.  Aeschylus has made the most of this
+old legend in his great drama of <I>Prometheus Bound</I>.  Nearly every
+tribe or nation has some tradition regarding the origin of fire.
+Because of its mystery and its economic value, it was early connected
+with religion and made sacred in many instances.  It was thus preserved
+at the altar, never being allowed to become extinct without the fear of
+dire calamity.  Perhaps the economic and religious ideas combined,
+because tribes in travelling from place to place exercised great care
+to preserve it.  The use of fire in worship became almost universal
+among tribes and ancient nations.  Thus the Hebrews and the Aryans,
+including Greeks, Romans, and Persians, as well as the Chinese and
+Japanese, used fire in worship.  Among other tribes it was worshipped
+as a symbol or even as a real deity.  Even in the Christian religion,
+the use of the burning incense may have some psychological connection
+with the idea of purification through fire.  Whether its mysterious
+nature led to its connection with worship, and the superstition
+connected with its continued burning, or whether from economic reasons
+it became a sacred matter, has never been determined.  The custom that
+a fire should never go out upon the altar, and that it should be
+carried in migrations from place to place, would seem to indicate that
+these two motives were closely allied, if not related in cause and
+effect.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P90"></A>90}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Evidently, fire was used for centuries before man invented methods of
+reproducing it.  Simple as the process involved, it was a great
+invention; or it may be stated that many devices were resorted to for
+the creation of artificial fire.  Perhaps the earliest was that of
+rubbing two pieces of dry wood together, producing fire by friction.
+This could be accomplished by persistent friction of two ordinary
+pieces of dry wood, or by drilling a hole in a dry piece of wood with a
+pointed stick until heat was developed and a spark produced to ignite
+pieces of dry bark or grass.  Another way was to make a groove in a
+block of wood and run the end of a stick rapidly back and forth through
+the groove.  An invention called the fire-drill was simply a method of
+twirling rapidly in the hand a wooden drill which was in contact with
+dry wood, or by winding a string of the bow several times around the
+drill and moving the bow back and forth horizontally, giving rapid
+motion to the drill.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As tribes became more advanced, they used two pieces of flint with
+which to strike fire, and after the discovery of iron, the flint and
+iron were used.  How many centuries these simple devices were essential
+to the progress and even to the life of tribes, is not known; but when
+we realize that but a few short years ago our fathers lighted the fire
+with flint and steel, and that before the percussion cap was invented,
+the powder in the musket was ignited by flint and hammer, we see how
+important to civilization were these simple devices of producing fire
+artificially.  So simple an invention as the discovery of the friction
+match saved hours of labor and permitted hours of leisure to be used in
+other ways.  It is one of the vagaries of human progress that a simple
+device remains in use for thousands of years before its clumsy method
+gives way to a new invention only one step in advance of the old.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Cooking Added to the Economy of the Food Supply</I>.&mdash;Primitive man
+doubtless consumed his food raw.  The transition of the custom of
+uncooked food to cooked food must have been gradual.  We only know that
+many of the backward tribes of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P91"></A>91}</SPAN>
+to-day are using primitive methods
+of cooking, and the man of the Stone Ages had methods of cooking the
+meat of animals.  In all probability, the suggestion came as people
+were grouped around the fire for artificial heat, and then, either by
+intention or desire, the experiment of cooking began.  After man had
+learned to make water-tight baskets, a common device of cooking was to
+put water in the basket and, after heating stones on a fire, put them
+in the basket to heat the water and then place the food in the basket
+to be cooked.  This method is carried on by the Indians in some parts
+of Alaska to this day, where they use a water-tight basket for this
+purpose.  Probably this method of cooking food was a later development
+than the roasting of food on coals or in the ashes, or in the use of
+the wooden spit.  Catlin, in his <I>North American Indians</I>, relates that
+certain tribes of Indians dig a hole in the ground and line it with
+hide filled with water, then place hot stones in the water, in which
+they place their fish, game, or meat for cooking.  This is interesting,
+because it carries out a more or less universal idea of adaptation to
+environment.  Probably the plains Indians had no baskets or other
+vessels to use for this purpose, but they are found to have used
+similar methods of cooking grasshoppers.  They dig a hole in the
+ground, build a fire in the hole, and take the fire out and put in the
+grasshoppers.  Thus, they have an exhibition of the first fireless
+cooker.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is thought by some that the need of vessels which would endure the
+heat was the cause of the invention of pottery.  While there seems to
+be little evidence of this, it is easy to conjecture that when water
+was needed to be heated in a basket, a mass of clay would be put on the
+bottom of the basket before it was put over the coals of fire.  After
+the cooking was done, the basket could easily be detached from the
+clay, leaving a hard-baked bowl.  This led to the suggestion of making
+bowls of clay and baking them for common use.  Others suggest that the
+fact of making holes in the ground for cooking purposes gave the
+suggestion that by the use of clay a portable vessel might be made for
+similar purposes.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P92"></A>92}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+The economic value of cooking rests in the fact that a larger utility
+comes from the cooked than from the raw food.  Though the phenomena of
+physical development of tribes and nations cannot be explained by the
+chemical constituents of food, although they are not without a positive
+influence.  Evidently the preparation of food has much to do with man's
+progress, and the art of cooking was a great step in advance.  The
+better utilization of food was a time-saving process&mdash;and, indeed, in
+many instances may have been a life-saving affair.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Domestication of Animals</I>.&mdash;The time and place of the
+domestication of animals are not satisfactorily determined.  We know
+that Paleolithic man had domesticated the dog, and probably for
+centuries this was the only animal domesticated; but it is known that
+low forest tribes have tamed monkeys and parrots for pets, and savage
+tribes frequently have a band of dogs for hunting game or guarding the
+hut.  While it may be supposed that domestication of animals may have
+occurred in the prehistoric period, the use of such animals has been in
+the historic period.  There are many evidences of the domesticated dog
+at the beginning of the Neolithic period.  However, these animals may
+have still been nearly half wild.  It is not until the period of the
+Lake Dwellings of Switzerland that we can discriminate between the wild
+animals and those that have been tamed.  In the Lake Dwelling débris
+are found the bones of the wild bull, or <I>urus</I>, of Europe.  Probably
+this large, long-horned animal was then in a wild state, and had been
+hunted for food.  Alongside of these remains are those of a small,
+short-horned animal, supposed to have been domesticated.  Later, though
+still in the Neolithic period, remains of short-horned tame cattle
+appear in the refuse of the Lake Dwellings.  It is thought by some that
+these two varieties&mdash;the long-horned <I>urus</I> and the short-horned
+domesticated animal brought from the south&mdash;were crossed, which gave
+rise to the origin of the present stock of modern cattle in central
+Europe.  Pigs and sheep were probably domesticated in Asia
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P93"></A>93}</SPAN>
+and
+brought into Europe during the later Neolithic or early Bronze period.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The horse was domesticated in Asia, and Clark Wissler[<A NAME="chap05fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn1">1</A>] shows that to
+be one great centre of cultural distribution for this animal.  It
+spread from Asia into Europe, and from Europe into America.  The llama
+was early domesticated in South America.  The American turkey had its
+native home in Mexico, the hen in Asia.  The dog, though domesticated
+very early in Asia, has gone wherever the human race has migrated, as
+the constant companion of man.  The horse, while domesticated in Asia,
+depends upon the culture of Europe for his large and extended use, and
+has spread over the world.  We find that in the historic period the
+Aryan people everywhere made use of the domesticated goat, horse, and
+dog.  In the northern part of Europe, the reindeer early became of
+great service to the inhabitants for milk, meat, and clothing.  The
+great supply of milk and meat from domesticated animals added
+tremendously to the food supply of the race, and made it possible for
+it to develop in other lines.  Along with the food supply has been the
+use of these animals for increasing the clothing supply through hides,
+furs, skins, and wool.  The domestication of animals laid the
+foundation for great economic advancement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Beginnings of Agriculture Were Very Meagre</I>.&mdash;Man had gathered
+seeds and fruit and berries for many years before he conceived the
+notion of planting seeds and cultivating crops.  It appears to be a
+long time before he knew enough to gather seeds and plant them for a
+harvest.  Having discovered this, it was only necessary to have the
+will and energy to prepare the soil, sow the seed, and harvest a crop
+in order to enter upon agriculture.  But to learn this simple act must
+have required many crude experiments.  In the migrations of mankind
+they adopted a little intermittent agriculture, planting the grains
+while the tribe paused for pasture of flocks and herds, and resting
+long enough for a crop to be harvested.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P94"></A>94}</SPAN>
+They gradually began to
+supplement the work of the pastoral with temporary agriculture, which
+was used as a means of supplementing the food supply.  It was not until
+people settled in permanent habitations and ceased their pastoral
+wanderings that real agriculture became established.  Even then it was
+a crude process, and, like every other economic industry of ancient
+times, its development was excessively slow.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The wandering tribes of North America at the time of the discovery had
+reached the state of raising an occasional crop of corn.  Indeed, some
+tribes were quite constant in limited agriculture.  The sedentary
+Indians of New Mexico, old Mexico, and Peru also cultivated corn and
+other plants, as did those of Central America.  The first tillage of
+the soil was meagre, and the invention of agricultural implements
+proceeded slowly.  At first wandering savages carried a pointed stick
+to dig up the roots and tubers used for food.  The first agriculturists
+used sticks for stirring the soil, which finally became flattened in
+the form of a paddle or rude spade.  The hoe was evolved from the stone
+pick or hatchet.  It is said that the women of the North American
+tribes used a hoe made of an elk's shoulder-blade and a handle of wood.
+In Sweden the earliest records of tillage represent a huge hoe made
+from a stout limb of spruce with the sharpened root.  This was finally
+made heavier, and men dragged it through the soil in the manner of
+ploughing.  Subsequently the plough was made in two pieces, a handle
+having been added.  Finally a pair of cows yoked together were
+compelled to drag the plough.  Probably this is a fair illustration of
+the manner of the evolution of the plough in other countries.  It is
+also typical of the evolution of all modern agricultural implements.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+We need only refer to our own day to see how changes take place.  The
+writer has cut grain with the old-fashioned sickle, the scythe, the
+cradle, and the reaper, and has lived to see the harvester cut and
+thresh the grain in the field.  The Egyptians use until this day wooden
+ploughs of an ancient type formed from limbs of trees, having a share
+pointed with metal.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P95"></A>95}</SPAN>
+The old Spanish colonists used a similar
+plough in California and Mexico as late as the nineteenth century.
+From these ploughs, which merely stirred the soil imperfectly, there
+has been a slow evolution to the complete steel plough and disk of
+modern times.  A glance at the collection of perfected farm machinery
+at any modern agricultural fair reveals what man has accomplished since
+the beginning of the agricultural art.  In forest countries the
+beginning of agriculture was in the open places, or else the natives
+cut and burned the brush and timber, and frequently, after one or two
+crops, moved on to other places.  The early settlers of new territories
+pursue the same method with their first fields, while the turning of
+the prairie sod of the Western plains was frequently preceded by the
+burning of the prairie grass and brush.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The method of attachment to the soil determined economic progress.  Man
+in his early wanderings had no notion of ownership of the land.  All he
+wished was to have room to go wherever the food quest directed him, and
+apparently he had no reflections on the subject.  The matters of fact
+regarding mountain, sea, river, ocean, and glacier which influenced his
+movements were practically no different from the fact of other tribes
+that barred his progress or interfered with his methods of life.  In
+the hunter-fisher stage of existence, human contacts became frequent,
+and led to contention and warfare over customary hunting grounds.  Even
+in the pastoral period the land was occupied by moving upon it, and
+held as long as the tribe could maintain itself against other tribes
+that wished the land for pasture.  Gradually, however, even in
+temporary locations, a more permanent attachment to the soil came
+through clusters of dwellings and villages, and the habit of using
+territory from year to year for pastorage led to a claim of the tribe
+for that territory.  So the idea of possession grew into the idea of
+permanent ownership and the idea of rights to certain parts of the
+territory became continually stronger.  This method of settlement had
+much to do with not only the economic life of people, but in
+determining the nature of their
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P96"></A>96}</SPAN>
+social organizations and
+consequently the efficiency of their social activity.  Evidently, the
+occupation of a certain territory as a dwelling-place was the source of
+the idea of ownership in land.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Nearly all of Europe, at least, came into permanent cultivation through
+the village community.[<A NAME="chap05fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap05fn2">2</A>]  A tribe settled in a given valley and held
+the soil in common.  There was at a central place an irregular
+collection of rude huts, called the village.  Each head of the family
+owned and permanently occupied one of these.  The fertile or tillable
+land was laid out in lots, each family being allowed the use of a lot
+for one or more years, but the whole land was the common property of
+the tribe, and was under the direction of the village elders.  The
+regulation of the affairs of the agricultural community developed
+government, law, and social cohesion.  The social advancement after the
+introduction of permanent agriculture was great in every way.  The
+increased food supply was an untold blessing; the closer association
+necessary for the new kind of life, the building of distinct homes, and
+the necessity of a more general citizenship and a code of public law
+brought forth the social or community idea of progress.  Side by side
+with the village community system there was a separate development of
+individual ownership and tillage, which developed into the manorial
+system.  It is not necessary to discuss this method here except to say
+that this, together with the permanent occupation of the house-lot in
+the village, gave rise to the private ownership of property in land.
+As to how private ownership of personal property began, it is easy to
+suppose that, having made an implement or tool, the person claimed the
+right of perpetual possession or ownership; also, that in the chase the
+captured game belonged to the one who made the capture; the clothing to
+the maker.  In some instances where game was captured by the group,
+each was given a share in proportion to his station in life, or again
+in proportion to the service each performed in the capture.  Yet, in
+this
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P97"></A>97}</SPAN>
+early period possessory right was frequently determined on
+the basis that might makes right.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Manufacture of Clothing</I>.&mdash;The motive of clothing has been that of
+ornament and protection from the pain of cold.  The ornamentation of
+the body was earlier in its appearance in human progress than the
+making of clothing for the protection of the body; and after the latter
+came into use, ornamentation continued, thus making clothing more and
+more artistic.  As to how man protected his body before he began to
+kill wild animals for food, is conjectural.  Probably he dwelt in a
+warm climate, where very little clothing was needed, but, undoubtedly,
+the cave man and, in fact, all of the groups of the race occurring in
+Europe and Asia in the latter part of the Old Stone Age and during the
+New Stone Age used the skins of animals for clothing.  Later, after
+weaving had begun, grasses and fibres taken from plants in a rude way
+were plaited for making clothing.  Subsequently these fibres were
+prepared, twisted into thread, and woven regularly into garments.  The
+main source of supply came from reeds, rushes, wild flax, cotton,
+fibres of the century plant, the inner bark of trees, and other sources
+according to the environment.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Nothing can be more interesting than the progress made in clothing,
+combining as it does the objects of protection from cold, the adornment
+of the person, and the preservation of modesty.  Indians of the forests
+of the tropical regions and on the Pacific coast, when first
+discovered, have been found entirely naked.  These were usually without
+modesty.  That is, they felt no need of clothing on account of the
+presence of others.  There are many evidences to show that the first
+clothing was for ornament and for personal attraction rather than for
+protection.  The painting of the body, the dressing of the hair, the
+wearing of rings in the nose, ears, and lips, the tattooing of the
+body, all are to be associated with the first clothing, which may be
+merely a narrow belt or an ornamental piece of cloth&mdash;all merely for
+show, for adornment and attraction.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P98"></A>98}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+There are relics of ornaments found in caves of early man, and, as
+before mentioned, relics of paints.  The clothing of early man can be
+conjectured by the implements with which he was accustomed to dress the
+skins of animals.  Among living tribes the bark of trees represents the
+lowest form of clothing.  In Brazil there is found what is known as the
+"shirt tree," which provides covering for the body.  When a man wants a
+new garment he pulls the bark from a tree of a suitable size, making a
+complete girdle.  This he soaks and beats until it is soft, and,
+cutting holes for the arms, dons his tailor-made garment.  In some
+countries, particularly India, aprons are made of leaves.  But the
+garment made of the skins of animals is the most universal among living
+savage and barbarous tribes, even after the latter have learned to spin
+and weave fabrics.  The tanning of skins is carried on with a great
+deal of skill, and rich and expensive garments are worn by the
+wealthier members of savage tribes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The making of garments from threads, strings, or fibres was an art
+discovered a little later.  At first rude aprons were woven from long
+strips of bark.  The South Sea Islanders made short gowns of plaited
+rushes, and the New Zealanders wore rude garments from strings made of
+native flax.  These early products were made by the process of working
+the fibres by hand into a string or thread.  The use of a simple
+spindle, composed of a stone like a large button, with a stick run
+through a hole in the centre, facilitated the making of thread and the
+construction of rude looms.  It was but a step from these to the
+spinning-wheels and looms of the Middle Ages.  When the Spaniards
+discovered the Pueblo Indians, they were wearing garments of their own
+weaving from cotton and wood fibres.  Strong cords attached to the
+limbs of trees and to a piece of wood on the ground formed the
+framework of the loom, and the native sat down to weave the garment.
+With slight improvements on this old style, the Navajos continue to
+weave their celebrated blankets.  What an effort it must have cost,
+what a necessity must have crowded man to have compelled him to resort
+to this method of procuring clothing!
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P99"></A>99}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+The artistic taste in dress has always accompanied the development of
+the useful, although dress has always been used more or less for
+ornament, and taste has changed by slow degrees.  The primitive races
+everywhere delighted in bright colors, and in most instances these
+border on the grotesque in arrangement and combination.  But many
+people not far advanced in barbarism have colors artistically arranged
+and dress with considerable skill.  Ornaments change in the progress of
+civilization from coarse, ungainly shells, pieces of wood, or bits of
+metal, to more finely wrought articles of gold and silver.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Primitive Shelters and Houses</I>.&mdash;The shelters of primitive man were
+more or less temporary, for wherever he happened to be in his
+migrations he sought shelter from storm or cold in the way most
+adaptable to his circumstances.  There was in this connection, also,
+the precaution taken to protect against predatory animals and wild men.
+As his stay in a given territory became more permanent, the home or
+shelter gradually grew more permanent.  So far as we can ascertain, man
+has always been known to build some sort of shelter.  As apes build
+their shelters in trees, birds build their nests, and beavers dam water
+to make their homes, it is impossible to suppose that man, with
+superior intelligence, was ever simple enough to continue long without
+some sort of shelter constructed with his own hands.  At first the
+shelter of trees, rocks, and caves served his purpose wherever
+available.  Subsequently, when he had learned to build houses, their
+structure was usually dependent more upon environment than upon his
+inventive genius.  Whether he built a platform house or nest in a tree,
+or provided a temporary brush shelter, or bark hut, or stone or adobe
+building, depended a good deal upon the material at hand and the
+necessity of protection.  The main thing was to protect against cold or
+storm, wild animals, and, eventually, wild men.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The progress in architecture among the nations of ancient civilization
+was quite rapid.  Massive structures were built for capacity and
+strength, which the natives soon learned to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P100"></A>100}</SPAN>
+decorate within and
+without.  The buildings were made of large blocks of hewn stone, fitted
+together mechanically by the means of cement, which made secure
+foundations for ages.  When in the course of time the arch was
+discovered, it alone became a power to advance the progress of
+architecture.  We have seen pass before our eyes a sudden transition in
+dwelling houses.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The first inhabitants of some parts of the Western prairies dwelt in
+tents.  These were next exchanged for the "dugout," and this for a rude
+hut.  Subsequently the rude hut was made into a barn or pig-pen, and a
+respectable farmhouse was built; and finally this, too, has been
+replaced by a house of modern style and conveniences.  If we could
+consider this change to have extended over thousands of years, from the
+first shelter of man to the finished modern building, it would be a
+picture of the progress of man in the art of building.  In this slow
+process man struggled without means and with crude notions of life in
+every form.  The aim, first, was for protection, then comfort and
+durability, and finally for beauty.  The artistic in building has kept
+pace with other forms of civilization evinced in other ways.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+One of the most interesting exhibits of house-building for protection
+is found in the cliff dwellings, whose ruins are to be seen in Arizona
+and New Mexico.  Tradition and other evidences point to the conclusion
+that certain tribes had developed a state of civilization as high as a
+middle period of barbarism, on the plains, where they had made a
+beginning of systematic agriculture, and that they were afterward
+driven out by wilder tribes and withdrew, seeking the cliffs for
+protection.  There they built under the projecting cliffs the large
+communal houses, where they dwelt for a long period of time.
+Subsequently their descendants went into the valleys and developed the
+Pueblo villages, with their large communal houses of <I>adobe</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Discovery and Use of Metals</I>.&mdash;It is not known just when the human
+race first discovered and used any one of the metals
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P101"></A>101}</SPAN>
+now known to
+commerce and industry, but it can be assumed that their discovery
+occurred at a very early period and their use followed quickly.
+Reasoning back from the nature and condition of the wild tribes of
+to-day, who are curiously attracted by bright colors, whether in metals
+or beads or clothing, and realizing how universally they used the
+minerals and plants for coloring, it would be safe to assume that the
+satisfaction of the curiosity of primitive man led to the discovery of
+bright metals at a very early time.  Pieces of copper, gold, and iron
+would easily have been found in a free state in metal-bearing soil, and
+treasured as articles of value.  Copper undoubtedly was used by the
+American Indians, and probably by the inhabitants of Europe during the
+Neolithic Age&mdash;it being found in a native state in sufficient
+quantities to be hammered into implements.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Thus copper has been found in large pieces in its native state, not
+only in Europe but in Mexico and other parts of North America,
+particularly in the Lake Superior region; but as the soft hematite iron
+was found in larger quantities in a free state, it would seem that the
+use of iron in a small degree must have occurred at about the same
+time, or perhaps a little later.  The process of smelting must have
+been suggested by the action of fire built on or near ore beds, where a
+crude process of accidental smelting took place.  Combined with tin
+ore, the copper was made into bronze in Peru and Mexico at the time of
+the discovery.  In Europe there are abundant remains to show the early
+use of metals.  Probably copper and tin were in use before iron,
+although iron may have been discovered first.  There are numerous tin
+mines in Asia and copper mines in Cyprus.  At first, metals were
+probably worked while cold through hammering, the softest metals
+doubtless being used before others.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is difficult to tell how smelting was discovered, although the
+making and use of bronze implements is an indication of the first
+process of smelting ores and combining metals.  When tin was first
+discovered is not known, but we know that bronze
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P102"></A>102}</SPAN>
+implements made
+from an alloy of copper, tin, and usually other metals were used by the
+Greeks and other Aryan peoples in the early historic period, about six
+thousand years ago.  In Egypt and Babylon many of the inscriptions make
+mention of the use of iron as well as bronze, although the extended use
+of the former must have come about some time after the latter.  At
+first all war instruments were stone and wood and later bronze, which
+were largely replaced by iron at a still later period.  The making of
+spears, swords, pikes, battle-axes, and other implements of war had
+much to do with the development of ingenious work in metals.  The final
+perfection of metal work could only be attained by the manufacture of
+finely treated steel.  Probably the tempering of steel began at the
+time iron came prominently into use.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Other metals, such as silver, quicksilver, gold, and lead, came into
+common use in the early stages of civilization, all of which added
+greatly to the arts and industries.  Nearly all of the metals were used
+for money at various times.  The aids to trade and commerce which these
+metals gave on account of their universal use and constant measure of
+value cannot be overestimated.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Transportation as a Means of Economic Development</I>.&mdash;Early methods of
+carrying goods from one place to another were on the backs of human
+beings.  Many devices were made for economy of service and strength in
+carrying.  Bands over the shoulders and over the head were devised for
+the purpose of securing the pack on the back.  An Indian woman of the
+Southwest would carry a large basket, or <I>keiho</I>, on her back, secured
+by a band around her head for the support of the load.  A Pueblo woman
+will carry a large bowl filled with water or other material, on the top
+of her head, balancing it by walking erect.  Indeed, in more recent
+times washerwomen in Europe, and of the colored race in America, carry
+baskets of clothes and pails of water on their heads.  The whole
+process of the development of transportation came about through
+invention to be relieved from this bodily service.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P103"></A>103}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+As the dog was the first animal domesticated, he was early used to help
+in transportation by harnessing him to a rude sled, or drag, by means
+of which he pulled articles from one place to another.  The Eskimos
+have used dogs and the sled to a greater extent than any other race.
+The use of the camel, the llama, the horse, and the ass for packing
+became very common after their domestication.  Huge packs were strapped
+upon the backs of these animals, and goods thus transported from one
+place to another.  To such an extent was the camel used, even in the
+historic period, for transportation in the Orient that he has been
+called the "ship of the desert."  The plains Indians had a method of
+attaching two poles, one at each side of an Indian pony, which extended
+backward, dragging on the ground.  Upon these poles was built a little
+platform, on which goods were deposited and thus transported from one
+camp to another.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It must have been a long time before water transportation performed any
+considerable economic service.  It is thought by some that primitive
+man conceived the idea of the use of water for transportation through
+his experience of floating logs, or drifts, or his own process of
+swimming and floating.  Jack London pictures two primitives playing on
+the logs near the shore of a stream.  Subsequently the logs cast loose,
+and the primitives were floated away from the shore.  They learned by
+putting their hands in the water and paddling that they could make the
+logs move in the direction which they wished to go.  Perhaps this
+explanation is as good as any, inasmuch as the beginnings of modern
+transportation still dwell in the mist of the past.  However, in
+support of the log theory is the fact that modern races use primitive
+boats made of long reeds tied together, forming a loglike structure.
+The <I>balsa</I> of the Indians of the north coasts of South America is a
+very good representation of this kind of boat.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Evidently, the first canoes were made by hollowing logs and sharpening
+the ends at bow and stern.  This form of boat-making has been carried
+to a high degree of skill by the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P104"></A>104}</SPAN>
+Indians of the northwest coast
+of America and by the natives of the Hawaiian Islands.  The birch-bark
+canoe, made for lighter work and overland transportation, is more
+suggestive of the light reed boat than of the log canoe.  Also, the
+boats made of a framework covered with the skins of animals were
+prominent at certain periods of the development of races who lived on
+animal food.  But later the development of boats with frames covered
+with strips of board and coated with pitch became the great vehicle of
+commerce through hundreds of years.  It certainly is a long journey
+from the floating log to the modern floating passenger palace, freight
+leviathan, or armed dreadnought, but the journey was accomplished by
+thousands of steps, some short and some long, through thousands of
+years of progress.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Trade, or Exchange of Goods</I>.&mdash;In Mr. Clark Wissler's book on <I>Man and
+Culture</I>, he has shown quite conclusively that there are certain
+culture areas whereby certain inventions, discoveries, or customs have
+originated and spread over a given territory.  This recognition of a
+centre of origin of custom or invention is in accordance with the whole
+process of social development.  For instance, in a given area occupied
+by modern civilized people, there are a very few who invent or
+originate things, and others follow through imitation or suggestion.
+So it was with the discoveries and inventions of primitive man.  For
+example, we know that in Oklahoma and Arkansas, as well as in other
+places in the United States, certain stone quarries or mines are found
+that produce a certain kind of flint or chert used in making
+arrow-heads or spearheads and axes.  Tribes that developed these traded
+with other tribes that did not have them, so that from these centres
+implements were scattered all over the West.  A person may pick up on a
+single village site or battle-ground different implements coming from a
+dozen or more different quarries or centres and made by different
+tribes hundreds of miles apart in residence.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This diffusion of knowledge and things of material
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P105"></A>105}</SPAN>
+workmanship,
+or of methods of life, is through a system of borrowing, trading, or
+swapping&mdash;or perhaps sometimes through conquest and robbery; but as
+soon as an article of any kind could be made which could be subjected
+to general use of different tribes in different localities, it began to
+travel from a centre and to be used over a wide area.  Certain tribes
+became special workers in specialized lines.  Thus some were
+bead-makers, others expert tanners of hides, others makers of bows and
+arrows of peculiar quality, and others makers of stone implements.  The
+incidental swapping of goods by tribes finally led to a systematic
+method of a travelling trader who brought goods from one tribe to
+another, exchanging as he went.  This early trade had an effect in more
+rapid extension of culture, because in that case one tribe could have
+the invention, discovery, and art of all tribes.  In connection with
+this is to be noted the slow change of custom regarding religious
+belief and ceremony or tribal consciousness.  The pride of family and
+race development, the assumption of superiority leading to race
+aversion, interfered with intelligence and the spread of ideas and
+customs; but most economic processes that were not bound up with
+religious ceremonies or tribal customs were easily exchanged and
+readily accepted between the tribes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Exchange of goods and transportation went hand in hand in their
+development, very slowly and surely.  After trade had become pretty
+well established, it became necessary to have a medium of exchange.
+Some well-known article whose value was very well recognized among the
+people who were trading became the standard for fixing prices in
+exchange.  Thus, in early Anglo-Saxon times the cow was the unit of the
+measure of value.  Sometimes a shell, as a <I>cowrie</I> of India or the
+wampum of the American Indian, was used for this purpose.  Wheat has
+been at one time in America, and tobacco in another, a measure of
+exchange because of the scarcity of money.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Gradually, as the discovery and use of precious metals became common
+and desirable because of their brightness
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P106"></A>106}</SPAN>
+and service in
+implement and ornament, they became the medium of exchange.  Thus,
+copper and gold, iron and bronze have been used as metallic means of
+exchange&mdash;that is, as money.  So from the beginning of trade and
+swapping article for article, it came to be common eventually to swap
+an article for something called money and then use the money for the
+purchase of other desirable articles.  This made it possible for the
+individual to carry about in a small compass the means of obtaining any
+article in the market within the range of the purchasing power of his
+money.  Trade, transportation, and exchange not only had a vast deal to
+do with economic progress but were of tremendous importance in social
+development.  They were powerful in diffusion, extension, and promotion
+of culture.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Struggle for Existence Develops the Individual and the Race</I>.&mdash;The
+remnants and relics of the arts and industries of man give us a fair
+estimate of the process of man's mind and the accomplishment of his
+physical labor.  It is through the effort involved in the struggle for
+existence that he has made his various steps forward.  Truly the actual
+life of primitive man tends to verify the adage that "necessity is the
+mother of invention."  It was this tremendous demand on him for the
+means of existence that caused him to create the things that protected
+and improved his life.  It was the insistent struggle which forced him
+to devise means of taking advantage of nature and thus led to invention
+and discovery.  Every new invention and every new discovery showed the
+expansion of his mind, as well as gave him the means of material
+improvement.  It also added to his bodily vigor and added much to the
+development of his physical powers.  Upon this economic foundation has
+been built a superstructure of intellectual power, of moral worth and
+social improvement, for these in their highest phases of existence may
+be traced back to the early beginnings of life, where man was put to
+his utmost effort to supply the simplest of human wants.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P107"></A>107}</SPAN>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  The change in social life caused by the cultivation of the soil.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  The effect of the discovery and use of fire on civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  What was the social effect of the exchange of economic products?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  What influence had systematic labor on individual development?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  Show how the discovery and use of a new food advances civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  Compare primitive man's food supply with that of a modern city
+dweller.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  Trace a cup of coffee to its original source and show the different
+classes of people engaged in its production.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap05fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap05fn2"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn1text">1</A>] <I>Man and Culture</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap05fn2text">2</A>] See <A HREF="#chap03">Chapter III</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap06"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P108"></A>108}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER VI
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+PRIMITIVE SOCIAL LIFE
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Character of Primitive Social Life</I>.&mdash;Judging from the cultures of
+prehistoric man in Europe and from analogies of living races that
+appear to have the same state of culture, strong inferences may be
+drawn as to the nature of the beginnings of human association.  The
+hypothesis that man started as an individual and developed social life
+through mutual aid as he came in contact with his fellows does not
+cover the whole subject.  It is not easy to conceive man in a state of
+isolation at any period of his life, but it appears true that his early
+associations were simple and limited to a few functions.  The evidence
+of assemblage in caves, the kind of implements used, and the drawings
+on the walls of caves would appear to indicate that an early group life
+existed from the time of the first human cultures.  The search for food
+caused men to locate at the same place.  The number that could be
+supplied with food from natural subsistence in a given territory must
+have been small.  Hence, it would appear that the early groups
+consisted of small bands.  They moved on if the population encroached
+upon the food supply.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Also, the blood-related individuals formed the nucleus of the group.
+The dependency of the child on the mother led to the first permanent
+location as the seat of the home and the foundation of the family.  As
+the family continued to develop and became the most permanent of all
+social institutions, it is easy to believe as a necessity that it had a
+very early existence.  It came out of savagery into barbarism and
+became one of the principal bulwarks of civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It may be accepted as a hypothesis that there was a time in the history
+of every branch of the human race when social order was indefinite and
+that out of this incoherence came by
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P109"></A>109}</SPAN>
+degrees a complex organized
+society.  It was in such a rude state that the relations of individuals
+to each other were not clearly defined by custom, but were temporary
+and incidental.  Family ties were loose and irregular, custom had not
+become fixed, law was unheard of, government was unknown unless it was
+a case of temporary leadership, and unity of purpose and reciprocal
+social life were wanting.  Indeed, it is a picture of a human horde but
+little above the animal herd in its nature and composition.  Living
+tribes such as the Fuegians and Australians, and the extinct
+Tasmanians, represent very nearly the status of the horde&mdash;a sort of
+social protoplasm.  They wander in groups, incidentally through the
+influence of temporary advantage or on account of a fitful social
+instinct.  Co-operation, mutual aid, and reciprocal mental action were
+so faint that in many cases life was practically non-social.
+Nevertheless, even these groups had aggregated, communicated, and had
+language and other evidences of social heredity.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Family Is the Most Persistent of Social Origins</I>.&mdash;The relation of
+parent and child was the most potent influence in establishing
+coherency of the group, and next to it, though of later development,
+was the relation of man and woman&mdash;that is, the sex relation.  While
+the family is a universal social unit, it appears in many different
+forms in different tribes and, indeed, exhibits many changes in its
+development in the same tribe.  There is no probability that mankind
+existed in a complete state of promiscuity in sex relations, yet these
+relations varied in different tribes.  Mating was always a habit of the
+race and early became regulated by custom.  The variety of forms of
+mating leads us to think the early sex life of man was not of a
+degraded nature.  Granted that matrimony had not reached the high state
+of spiritual life contemplated in modern ideals, there are instances of
+monogamic marriage and pure, dignified rites in primitive peoples.
+Polygamy and polyandry were of later development.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A study of family life within the historic period, especially of
+Greeks, Romans, and Teutons, and possibly the Hebrews,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P110"></A>110}</SPAN>
+compared
+with the family life of the Australian and some of the North American
+Indian tribes, reveals great contrasts in the prevailing customs of
+matrimony.  All forms of marriage conceivable may be observed from rank
+animalism to high spiritual union; of numerous ideals, customs, and
+usages and ceremonies, as well as great confusion of purpose.  It may
+be assumed, therefore, that there was a time in the history of every
+branch of the human race when family customs were indefinite and family
+coherence was lacking.  Also that society was in a rude state in which
+the relations of individuals to each other and to the general social
+group were not clearly defined.  There are found to-day among the lower
+races, in the Pacific islands, Africa, and South America, evidences of
+lack of cohesive life.  They represent groups of people without
+permanent organization, held together by temporary advantage, with
+crude, purposeless customs, with the exercise of fitful social instinct.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+However, it is out of such conditions that the tribes, races, and
+nations of the early historic period have evolved into barbaric
+organization.  Reasoning backward by the comparative method, one may
+trace the survivals of ancient customs.  Following the social heredity
+of the oldest civilized tribes, such as the Egyptians, Babylonians,
+Greeks, Romans, and Teutonic peoples, there is evidence of the rise
+from a rude state of savagery to a higher social life.  Historical
+records indicate the passage from the middle state of barbarism to
+advanced civil life, even though the earlier phases of social life of
+primitive man remain obscure.  The study of tradition and a comparison
+of customs and language of races yield a definite knowledge of the
+evolution of society.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Kinship Is a Strong Factor in Social Organization</I>.&mdash;Of all causes
+that held people in coherent union, perhaps kinship, natural and
+artificial, was the most potent.  All of the direct and indirect
+offspring of a single pair settled in the same family group.  This
+enlarged family took its place as the only organ of social order.  Not
+only did all the relatives settle and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P111"></A>111}</SPAN>
+become members of one body,
+but also strangers who needed protection were admitted to the family by
+subscribing to their customs and religion.  Thus the father of the
+family had a numerous following, composed of relatives by birth and by
+adoption.  He was the ruler of this enlarged household, declaring the
+customs of his fathers, leading the armed men in war, directing the
+control of property, for he alone was the owner of all their
+possessions, acting as priest in the administration of religious
+ceremonies&mdash;a service performed only by him&mdash;and acting as judge in
+matters of dispute or discipline.  Thus the family was a compact
+organization with a central authority, in which both chief and people
+were bound by custom.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Individuals were born under status and must submit to whatever was
+customary in the rule of the family or tribe.  There was no law other
+than custom to determine the relation of individuals to one another.
+Each must abide in the sphere of activity into which he was born.  He
+could not rise above it, but must submit to the arbitrary rule of
+traditional usage.  The only position an individual had was in the
+family, and he must observe what custom had taught.  This made family
+life arbitrary and conventional.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Earliest Form of Social Order</I>.&mdash;The family is sometimes called
+the unit of society.  The best historical records of the family are
+found in the Aryan people, such as the Greeks, the Romans, and the
+Teutons.  Outside of this there are many historical references to the
+Aryans in their primitive home in Asia, and the story of the Hebrew
+people, a branch of the Semitic race, shows many phases of tribal and
+family life.  The ancient family differed from the modern in
+organization and composition.  The first historical family was the
+patriarchal, by which we mean a family group in which descent was
+traced in the male line, and in which authority was vested in the
+eldest living male inhabitant.  It is held by some that this is the
+original family type, and that the forms which we find among savage
+races are degenerate forms of the above.  Some have
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P112"></A>112}</SPAN>
+advocated
+that the patriarchal family was the developed form of the family, and
+only occurred after a long evolution through states of promiscuity,
+polygamy, and polyandry.  There is much evidence that the latter
+assumption is true.  But there is evidence that the patriarchal family
+was the first political unit of all the Aryan races, and also of the
+Semitic as well, and that monogamic marriage was developed in these
+ancient societies so far as historical evidence can determine.  The
+ancient Aryans in their old home, those who came into India, Greece,
+Rome, and the northern countries of Europe, whether Celt or Teuton, all
+give evidence of the permanency of early family organization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Reign of Custom</I>.&mdash;For a long period custom reigned supreme, and
+arbitrary social life became conventionalized, and the change from
+precedent became more and more difficult.  The family was despotic,
+exacting, unyielding in its nature, and individual activity was
+absorbed in it.  So powerful was this early sway of customary law that
+many tribes never freed themselves from its bondage.  Others by degrees
+slowly evolved from its crystallizing influences.  Changes in custom
+came about largely through the migration of tribes, which brought new
+scenes and new conditions, the intercourse of one tribe with another in
+trade and war, and the gradual shifting of the internal life of the
+social unit.  Those tribes that were isolated were left behind in the
+progress of the race, and to many of them still clung the customs
+practised thousands of years before.  Those that went forward from this
+first status grew by practice rather than by change of ideals.  It is
+the law of all progress that ideals are conservative, and that they can
+be broken away from only by the procedure of actual practice.
+Gradually the reign of customary law gave way to the laws framed by the
+people.  The family government gave way to the political; the
+individual eventually became the political unit, and freedom of action
+prevailed in the entire social body.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Greek and Roman Family Was Strongly Organized</I>.&mdash;In Greece and
+Rome the family enlarged and formed the gens,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P113"></A>113}</SPAN>
+the gentes united
+into a tribe, and the tribe passed into the nation.  In all of this
+formulated government the individual was represented by his family and
+received no recognition except as a member of such.  The tribal chief
+became the king, or, as he is sometimes called, the patriarchal
+president, because he presided over a band of equals in power, namely,
+the assembled elders of the tribe.  The heads of noble families were
+called together to consider the affairs of government, and at a common
+meal the affairs of the nation were discussed over viands and wine.
+The king thus gathered the elders about him for the purpose of
+considering measures to be laid before the people.  The popular
+assembly, composed of all the citizens, was called to sanction what the
+king and the elders had decreed.  Slowly the binding forms of
+traditional usage were broken down, and the king and his people were
+permitted to enact those laws which best served the immediate ends of
+government.  True, the old formal life of the family continued to
+exist.  There were the gentes, tribes, and phratries, or brotherhoods,
+that still existed, and the individual entered the state in civil
+capacity through his family.  But by degrees the old family régime gave
+way to the new political life, and sovereign power was vested in
+monarchy, democracy, or aristocracy, according to the nature of the
+sovereignty.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The functions or activities and powers of governments, which were
+formerly vested in the patriarchal chief, or king, and later in king,
+people, and council, gradually became separated and were delegated to
+different authorities, though the sharp division of legislative,
+judicial, and executive functions which characterizes our modern
+governments did not exist.  These forms of government were more or less
+blended, and it required centuries to distribute the various powers of
+government into special departments and develop modern forms.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>In Primitive Society Religion Occupied a Prominent Place</I>.&mdash;While
+kinship was first in order in the foundation of units of social
+organization, religion was second to it in importance.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P114"></A>114}</SPAN>
+Indeed,
+it is considered by able writers as the foundation of the family and,
+as the ethnic state is but the expanded family, the vital power in the
+formation of the state.  Among the Aryan tribes religion was a
+prominent feature of association.  In the Greek household stood the
+family altar, resting upon the first soil in possession of the family.
+Only members of the household could worship at this shrine, and only
+the eldest male members of the family in good standing could conduct
+religious service.  When the family grew into the gens it also had a
+separate altar and a separate worship.  Likewise, the tribe had its own
+worship, and when the city was formed it had its own temple and a
+particular deity, whom the citizens worshipped.  In the ancient family
+the worship of the house spirit or a deified ancestor was the common
+practice.  This practice of the worship of departed heroes and
+ancestors, which prevailed in all of the various departments of old
+Greek society, tended to develop unity and purity of family and tribe.
+As family forms passed into political, the religion changed from a
+family to a national religion.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Among the lower tribes the religious life is still most powerful in
+influencing their early life.  Mr. Tylor, in his valuable work on
+<I>Primitive Culture</I>, has devoted a good part of two large volumes to
+the treatment of early religious belief.  While recognizing that there
+is no complete definition of religion, he holds that "belief in
+spiritual beings" is a minimum definition which will apply to all
+religions, and, indeed, about the only one that will.  The lower races
+each had simple notions of the spiritual world.  They believed in a
+soul and its existence after death.  Nearly all believed in both good
+and evil spirits, and in one or more greater gods or spirits who ruled
+and managed the universe.  In this early stage of religious belief
+philosophy and religion were one.  The belief in the after life of the
+spirit is evidenced by implements which were placed in the grave for
+the use of the departed, and by food which was placed at the grave for
+his subsistence on the journey.  Indeed, some even set aside food at
+each meal for the departed; others, as
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P115"></A>115}</SPAN>
+instanced by the Greeks,
+placed tables in the burying ground for the dead.  Many views were
+entertained by the early people concerning the origin of the soul and
+its course after death.  But in all of the rude conditions of life
+religion was indefinite and uncultured.  From lower simple forms it
+arose to more complex systems and to higher generalizations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Religious influence on progress has been very great.  There are those
+who have neglected the subject of religion in the discussion of the
+history of civilization.  Other writers have considered it of little
+importance, and still others believe it to have been a positive
+hindrance to the development of the race.  Religion, in general, as
+practised by savage and barbarous races, based, as it is largely, on
+superstition, must of a necessity be conservative and non-progressive.
+Yet the service which it performs in making the tribe or family
+cohesive and in giving an impetus to the development of the mind before
+the introduction of science and art as special studies is, indeed,
+great.  The early forms of culture are found almost wholly in religious
+belief and practice.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The religious ceremonies at the grave of a departed companion, around
+the family altar or in the congregation, whether in the temple or in
+the open air, tended to social cohesion and social activity.  The
+exercise of religious belief in a superior being and a recognition of
+his authority, had a tendency to bring the actions of individuals into
+orderly arrangement and to develop unity of life.  It also had a strong
+tendency to prepare the simple mind of the primitive man for later
+intellectual development.  It gave the mind something to contemplate,
+something to reason about, before it reached a stage of scientific
+investigation.  Its moral influence is unquestioned.  While some of the
+early religions are barbarous in the extreme in their degenerate state,
+as a whole they teach man to consider himself and his fellows, and
+develop an ethical relationship.  And while altruism as a great factor
+in religious and in social progress appeared at a comparatively recent
+period, it has been in existence from the earliest associations of men
+to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P116"></A>116}</SPAN>
+the present time, and usually makes its strongest appeal
+through religious belief.  Religion thus becomes a great
+society-builder, as well as a means of individual culture.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Spirit Worship</I>.&mdash;The recognition of the continued journey of the
+spirit after death was in itself an altruistic practice.  Much of the
+worship of the controlling spirit was conducted to secure especial
+favor to the departed soul.  The burial service in early religious
+practice became a central idea in permanent religious rites.  Perhaps
+the earliest phase of religious belief arises out of the idea that the
+spirit or soul of man has control over the body.  It gives rise to the
+notion of spirit and the idea of continued existence.  Considering the
+universe as material existence, according to primitive belief, it is
+the working of the superior spirit over the physical elements that
+gives rise to natural phenomena.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+One of the early stages of religious progress is to attempt to form a
+meeting-place with the spirit.  This desire is seen in the lowest
+tribes and in the highest civilization of to-day.  When Cabrillo came
+to the coast of southern California he found natives that had never
+before come in contact with civilized people.  He describes a rude
+temple made by driving stakes in the ground in a circular form, and
+partitioning the enclosure by similar rows of stakes.  At the centre
+was a rude platform, on which were placed the feathers of certain birds
+pleasing to the spirit.  The natives came to this temple occasionally,
+and, circling around it, went through many antics of worship.  This
+represents the primitive idea of location in worship.  Not different in
+its fundamental conception from the rude altar of stones built by
+Abraham at Bethel, the Greek altar, or the mighty columns of St.
+Peter's, it was the simple meeting-place of man and the spirit.  For
+all of these represent location in worship, and just as the modern
+worshipper enters the church or cathedral to meet God, so did the
+primitive savage fix locations for the meeting of the spirit.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Man finally attempted to control the spirit for his own advantage.  A
+rude form of religion was reached, found in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P117"></A>117}</SPAN>
+certain stages of the
+development of all religions, in which man sought to manipulate or
+exorcise the spirits who existed in the air or were located in trees,
+stones, and other material forms.  Out of this came a genuine worship
+of the powerful, and supplication for help and support.  Seeking aid
+and favor became the fundamental ideas in religious worship.  Simple in
+the beginning, it sought to appease the wrath of the evil spirit and
+gain the favor of the good.  But finally it sought to worship on
+account of the sublimity and power possessed by the object of worship.
+With the advancement of religious practice, religious beliefs and
+religious ceremonies became more complex.  Great systems of mythology
+sprang up among nations about to enter the precincts of civilization,
+and polytheism predominated.  Purely ethical religions were of a later
+development, for the notion of the will of the gods concerning the
+treatment of man by his fellows belongs to an advanced stage of
+religious belief.  The ethical importance of religion reaches its
+culmination in the religion of Jesus Christ.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Moral Conditions</I>.&mdash;The slow development of altruistic notions
+presages a deficiency of moral action in the early stages of human
+progress.  True it is that moral conditions seem never to be entirely
+wanting in this early period.  There are many conflicting accounts of
+the moral practice of different savage and barbarous tribes when first
+discovered by civilized man.  Tribes differ much in this respect, and
+travellers have seen them from different standpoints.  Wherever a
+definite moral practice cannot be observed, it may be assumed that the
+standard is very low.  Moral progress seems to consist in the
+constantly shifting standards of right and wrong, of justice and
+injustice.  Perhaps the moral action of the savage should be viewed
+from two standpoints&mdash;namely, the position of the average savage of the
+tribe, and from the vantage of modern ethical standards.  It is only by
+considering it from these two views that we have the true estimation of
+his moral status.  There must be a difference between conventionality
+and morality, and many who have judged the moral status of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P118"></A>118}</SPAN>
+the
+savage have done so more from a conventional than from a moral
+standard.  True that morality must be judged from the individual motive
+and from social effects of individual action.  Hence it is that the
+observance of conventional rules must be a phase of morality; yet it is
+not all of morality.  Where conventionality does not exist, the motive
+of action must be the true moral test.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The actions of some savages and of barbarous people are revolting in
+the extreme, and so devoid of sympathy for the sufferings of their
+fellow-beings as to lead us to assume that they are entirely without
+moral sentiment.  The repulsive spectacle of human sacrifice is
+frequently brought about by religious fervor, while the people have
+more or less altruistic practice in other ways.  This practice was
+common to very many tribes, and indeed to some nations entering the
+pale of civilization.  Cannibalism, revolting as it may seem, may be
+practised by a group of people which, in every other respect, shows
+moral qualities.  It is composed of kind husbands, mothers, brothers,
+and sisters, who look after each other's welfare.  The treatment of
+infants, not only by savage tribes but by the Greek and Roman nations
+after their entrance into civilized life, represents a low status of
+morality, for it was the common custom to expose infants, even in these
+proud nations.  The degraded condition of woman, as slave and tool of
+man in the savage state, and indeed in the ancient civilization, does
+not speak well for the high standard of morality of the past.  More
+than this, the disregard of the rights of property and person and the
+common practice of revolting brutality, are conclusive evidence of the
+low moral status of early mankind.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Speaking of the Sioux Indians, a writer says: "They regard most of the
+vices as virtues.  Theft, arson, rape, and murder are among them
+regarded with distinction, and the young Indian from childhood is
+taught to regard killing as the highest of virtues."  And a writer who
+had spent many years among the natives of the Pacific coast said that
+"whatever is
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P119"></A>119}</SPAN>
+falsehood in the European is truth in the Indian,
+and vice versa."  Whether we consider the savages or barbarians of
+modern times, or the ancient nations that laid claim to civilization,
+we find a gradual evolution of the moral practice and a gradual change
+of the standard of right.  This standard has constantly advanced until
+it rests to-day on the Golden Rule and other altruistic principles of
+Christian teaching.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Warfare and Social Progress</I>.&mdash;The constant warfare of savages and
+barbarians was not without its effects in developing the individual and
+social life.  Cruel and objectionable as it is, the study and practice
+of war was an element of strength.  It developed physical courage, and
+taught man to endure suffering and hardships.  It developed
+intellectual power in the struggle to circumvent and overcome enemies.
+It led to the device and construction of arms, machines, engines, guns,
+and bridges, for facilitating the carrying on of successful warfare;
+all of this was instrumental in developing the inventive genius and
+engineering skill of man.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In a political way warfare developed tribal or national unity, and
+bound more closely together the different groups in sympathy and common
+interest.  It thus became useful in the preparation for successful
+civil government.  It prepared some to rule and others to obey, and
+divided the governing from the governed, an essential characteristic of
+all forms of government.  Military organization frequently accompanied
+or preceded the formation of the modern state.  Sparta and Rome, and in
+more modern times Prussia, were built upon military foundations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The effect of war in depopulating countries has proved a detriment to
+civilization by disturbing economic and social development and by
+destroying thousands of lives.  Looking back over the track which the
+human race has made in its persistent advance, it is easy to see that
+the ravages of war are terrible.  While ethical considerations have
+entered into warfare and made its effects less terrible, it still is
+deplorable.  It is not a necessity to modern civilization for the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P120"></A>120}</SPAN>
+development of intellectual or physical strength, nor for the
+development of either patriotism or courage.  Modern warfare is a relic
+of barbarism, and the sooner we can avoid it the better.  Social
+progress means the checking of war in every way and the development of
+the arts of peace.  It is high time that the ethical process between
+nations should take the place of the art of war.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Mutual Aid Developed Slowly</I>.&mdash;Owing to ignorance and to the instinct
+for self-preservation, man starts on his journey toward progress on an
+individualistic and selfish basis.  Gradually he learns to associate
+with his fellows on a co-operative basis.  The elements which enter
+into this formal association are the exercise of a general blood
+relationship, religion, economic life, social and political
+organization.  With the development of each of these, social order
+progresses.  Yet, in the clashing interests of individuals and tribes,
+in the clumsy methods adopted in the mastery of nature, what a waste of
+human energy; what a loss of human life!  How long it has taken mankind
+to associate on rational principles, to develop a pure home life, to
+bring about toleration in religion, to develop economic co-operation,
+to establish liberality in government, and to promote equality and
+justice!  By the rude master, experience, has man been taught all this
+at an immense cost.  Yet there was no other way possible.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  Study your community to determine that society is formed by the
+interactions of individuals.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  Discuss the earliest forms of mutual aid.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  Why is the family called the unit of social organization?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  Why did religion occupy such an important place in primitive
+society?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  To what extent and in what manner did the patriarchal family take
+the place of the state?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  What is the relation of morals to religion?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  What are the primary social groups?  What the secondary?
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap07"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P121"></A>121}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER VII
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+LANGUAGE AND ART AS A MEANS OF CULTURE <BR>
+AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Origin of Language Has Been a Subject of Controversy</I>.&mdash;Since man
+began to philosophize on the causes of things, tribes and races and,
+indeed, philosophers of all times have attempted to determine the
+origin of language and to define its nature.  In early times language
+was a mystery, and for lack of better explanation it was frequently
+attributed to the direct gift of the Deity.  The ancient Aryans deified
+language, and represented it by a goddess "which rushes onward like the
+wind, which bursts through heaven and earth, and, awe-inspiring to each
+one that it loves, makes him a Brahmin, a poet, and a sage."  Men used
+language many centuries before they seriously began to inquire into its
+origin and structure.  The ancient Hindu philosophers, the Greeks, and
+all early nations that had begun a speculative philosophy, wonderingly
+tried to ascertain whence language came.  Modern philologists have
+carried their researches so far as to ascertain with tolerable accuracy
+the history and life of language and to determine with the help of
+other scientists the facts and phenomena of its origin.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Language, in its broadest sense, includes any form of expression by
+which thoughts and feelings are communicated from one individual to
+another.  Words may be spoken, gestures made, cries uttered, pictures
+or characters drawn, or letters made as means of expression.  The
+deaf-mute converses with his fingers and his lips; the savage
+communicates by means of gesticulation.  It is easy to conceive of a
+community in which all communication is carried on in sign language.
+It is said that the Grebos of Africa carry this mode of expression
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P122"></A>122}</SPAN>
+to such an extent that the persons and tenses of the mood are
+indicated with the hands alone.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It has been advocated by some that man first learned to talk by
+imitating the sounds of nature.  It is sometimes called the "bow-wow"
+theory of the origin of language.  Words are used to express the
+meaning of nature.  Thus the purling of the brook, the lowing of the
+cow, the barking of the dog, the moaning of the wind, the rushing of
+water, the cry of animals, and other expressions of nature were
+imitated, and thus formed the root words of language.  This theory was
+very commonly upheld by the philosophers of the eighteenth century, but
+is now regarded as an entirely inadequate explanation of the process of
+the development of language.  It is true that every language has words
+formed by the imitation of sound, but these are comparatively few, and
+as languages are traced toward their origin, such words seem to have
+continually less importance.  Nothing conclusive has been proved
+concerning the origin of any language by adopting this theory.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Another theory is that the exclamations and interjections suddenly made
+have been the formation of root words, which in turn give rise to the
+complex forms of language.  This can scarcely be considered of much
+force, for the difference between sudden explosive utterance and words
+expressing full ideas is so great as to be of little value in
+determining the real formation of language.  These sudden interjections
+are more of the nature of gesture than of real speech.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The theologians insisted for many years that language was a gift of
+God, but failed to show how man could learn the language after it was
+given him.  They tried to show that man was created with his full
+powers of speech, thought, and action, and that a vocabulary was given
+him to use on the supposition that he would know how to use it.  But,
+in fact, nothing yet has been proved concerning the first beginnings of
+language.  There is no reason why man should be fully equipped in
+language any more than in intellect, moral quality, or economic
+condition, and it is shown conclusively that in all these
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P123"></A>123}</SPAN>
+characteristics he has made a slow evolution.  Likewise the further
+back towards its origin we trace any language or any group of languages
+the simpler we find it, coming nearer and yet nearer to the root
+speech.  If we could have the whole record of man, back through that
+period into which historical records cannot go, and into which
+comparative philology throws but a few rays of light, doubtless we
+should find that at one time man used gesture, facial expression, and
+signs, interspersed with sounds at intervals, as his chief means of
+expression.  Upon this foundation mankind has built the superstructure
+of language.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Some philosophers hold that the first words used were names applied to
+familiar objects.  Around these first names clustered ideas, and
+gradually new words appeared.  With the names and gestures it was easy
+to convey thought.  Others, refuting this idea, have held that the
+first words represented general notions and not names.  From these
+general notions there were gradually instituted the specific words
+representing separate ideas.  Others have held that language is a gift,
+and springs spontaneously in the nature of man, arising from his own
+inherent qualities.  Possibly from different standpoints there is a
+grain of truth in each one of these theories, although all combined are
+insufficient to explain the whole truth.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No theory yet devised answers all the questions concerning the origin
+of language.  It may be truly asserted that language is an acquisition,
+starting with the original capacity for imperfect speech found in the
+physiological structure of man.  This is accompanied by certain
+tendencies of thought and life which furnish the psychical notion of
+language-formation.  These represent the foundations of language, and
+upon this, through action and experience, the superstructure of
+language has been built.  There has been a continuous evolution from
+simple to complex forms.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Language Is an Important Social Function</I>.&mdash;Whatever conjectures may
+be made by philosophers or definite knowledge determined by
+philologists, it is certain that language has been
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P124"></A>124}</SPAN>
+built up by
+human association.  Granted that the physiological function of speech
+was a characteristic of the first beings to bear the human form, it is
+true that its development has come about by the mental interactions of
+individuals.  No matter to what extent language was used by a given
+generation, it was handed on through social heredity to the next
+generation.  Thus, language represents a continuous stream of
+word-bearing thought, moving from the beginning of human association to
+the present time.  It is through it that we have a knowledge of the
+past and frame the thoughts of the present.  While it is easy to
+concede that language was built up in the attempt of man to communicate
+his feelings, emotions, and thoughts to others, it in turn has been a
+powerful coercive influence and a direct social creation.  Only those
+people who could understand one another could be brought into close
+relationships, and for this purpose some generally accepted system of
+communicating ideas became essential.  Moreover, the tribes and
+assimilated nations found the force of common language in the coherency
+of group life.  Thus it became a powerful instrument in developing
+tribal, racial, or national independence.  If the primal force of early
+family or tribal organization was that of sex and blood relationship,
+language became a most powerful ally in forcing the group into formal
+social action, and in furnishing a means of defense against the social
+encroachments of other tribes and nations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It must be observed, however, that the social boundaries of races are
+not coincident with the divisions of language.  In general the tendency
+is for a race to develop an independent language, for racial
+development was dependent upon isolation from other groups.  But from
+the very earliest associations to the present time there has been a
+tendency for assimilation of groups even to the extent of direct
+amalgamation of those occupying contiguous territory, or through
+conquest.  In the latter event, the conquered group usually took the
+language of the conquerors, although this has not always followed, as
+eventually the stronger language becomes the more important
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P125"></A>125}</SPAN>
+through use.  For instance, for a time after the Norman Conquest,
+Norman French became, in the centres of government and culture at
+least, the dominant language, but eventually was thrown aside by a more
+useful language as English institutions came to the front.  As race and
+language may not represent identical groups, it is evident that a
+classification of language cannot be taken as conclusive evidence in
+the classification of races.  However, in the main it is true.  A
+classification of all of the languages of the Indians of North America
+would be a classification of all the tribes that have been
+differentiated in physical structure and other racial traits, as well
+as of habits and customs.  Yet a tribe using a common language may be
+composed of a number of racial elements.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When it comes to the modern state, language does not coincide with
+natural boundaries.  Thus, in Switzerland German is spoken in the north
+and northeast, French in the southwest, and Italian in the southeast.
+However, in this case, German is the dominant language taught in
+schools and used largely in literature.  Also, in Belgium, where one
+part of the people speak Flemish and the other French, they are living
+under the same national unity so far as government is concerned,
+although there have always remained distinctive racial types.  In
+Mexico there are a number of tribes that, though using the dominant
+Spanish language, called Mexican, are in their closer associations
+speaking the primitive languages of their race or tribe which have come
+down to them through long ages of development.  Sometimes, however, a
+tribe shows to be a mosaic of racial traits and languages, brought
+about by the complete amalgamation of tribes.  A very good example of
+this complete amalgamation would be that of the Hopi Indians of New
+Mexico, where distinctive group words and racial traits may be traced
+to three different tribes.  But to refer to a more complete
+civilization, where the Spanish language is spoken in Spain, we find
+the elements of Latin, Teutonic, Arabic, and Old Iberian speech, which
+are suggestive of different racial traits pointing to different racial
+origins.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P126"></A>126}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Regardless of origin and tradition, language gradually conforms to the
+type of civilization in existence.  A strong, vigorous industrial
+nation would through a period of years develop a tendency for a
+vigorous language which would express the spirit and life of the
+people, while a dreamy, conservative nation would find little change in
+the language.  Likewise, periods of romance or of war have a tendency
+to make changes in the form of speech in conformity to ideals of life.
+On the other hand, social and intellectual progress is frequently
+dependent upon the character of the language used to the extent that it
+may be said that language is an indication of the progress of a people
+in the arts of civilized life.  It is evident in comparing the Chinese
+language with the French, great contrasts are shown in the ease in
+which ideas are represented and the stream of thought borne on its way.
+The Chinese language is a clumsy machine as compared with the flexible
+and smooth-gliding French.  It appears that if it were possible for the
+Chinese to change their language for a more flexible, smooth-running
+instrument, it would greatly facilitate their progress in art, science,
+and social life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Written Language Followed Speech in Order of Development</I>.&mdash;Many
+centuries elapsed before any systematic writing or engraving recorded
+human events.  The deeds of the past were handed on through tradition,
+in the cave, around the campfire, and in the primitive family.  Stories
+of the past, being rehearsed over and over, became a permanent
+heritage, passing on from generation to generation.  But this method of
+descent of knowledge was very indefinite, because story-tellers,
+influenced by their environment, continually built the present into the
+past, and so the truth was not clearly expressed.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Slowly man began to make a permanent record of deeds and events, the
+first beginnings of which were very feeble, and were included in
+drawings on the walls of caves, inscriptions on bone, stone, and ivory,
+and symbols woven in garments.  All represented the first beginnings of
+the representative art of language.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P127"></A>127}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Gradually picture-writing became so systematized that an expression of
+continuous thought might be recorded and transferred from one to
+another through the observation of the symbols universally recognized.
+But these pictures on rocks and ivory, and later on tablets, have been
+preserved, and are expressive of the first steps of man in the art of
+written language.  The picture-writing so common to savages and
+barbarians finally passes from a simple <I>rebus</I> to a very complex
+written language, as in the case of the Egyptian or Mexican.  The North
+American Indians used picture-writing in describing battles, or an
+expedition across a lake, or an army on a march, or a buffalo hunt.  A
+simple picture shows that fifty-one warriors, led by a chief and his
+assistant, in five canoes, took three days to cross a lake and land
+their forces on the other side.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The use of pictographs is the next step in the process of written
+language.  It represents a generalized form of symbols which may be put
+together in such a way as to express complete thoughts.  Originally
+they were merely symbols or signs of ideas, which by being slightly
+changed in form or position led to the expression of a complete thought.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Following the pictograph is the ideograph, which is but one more step
+in the progress of systematic writing.  Here the symbol has become so
+generalized that it has a significance quite independent of its origin.
+In other words, it becomes idealized and conventionalized, so that a
+specific symbol stood for a universal idea.  It could be made specific
+by changing its form or position.  All that was necessary now was to
+have a sufficient number of general symbols representing ideas, to
+build up a constructive language.  The American Indian and the Chinese
+have apparently passed through all stages of the picture-writing, the
+use of the pictograph and of the ideograph.  In fact, the Chinese
+language is but an extension of these three methods of expression.  The
+objects were originally designated by a rude drawing, and then, to
+modify the meaning, different characters were attached to the picture.
+Thus a monosyllabic
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P128"></A>128}</SPAN>
+language was built up, and the root word had
+many meanings by the modification of its form and sometimes by the
+change of its position.  The hieroglyphic writings of the Egyptians,
+Moabites, Persians, and Assyrians went through these methods of
+language development, as their records show to this day.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Phonetic Writing Was a Step in Advance of the Ideograph</I>.&mdash;The
+difference between the phonetic writing and the picture-writing rests
+in the fact that the symbol representing the object is expressive of an
+idea or a complete thought, while in phonetic writing the symbol
+represents a sound which combined with other sounds expresses an idea
+called a word and complete thoughts through combination of words.  The
+discovery and use of a phonetic alphabet represent the key to modern
+civilization.  The invention of writing elevated man from a state of
+barbarism to a state of civilization.  About the tenth century before
+Christ the Phoenicians, Hebrews, and other allied Semitic races began
+to use the alphabet.  Each letter was named from a word beginning with
+it.  The Greeks learned the alphabet from the Phoenicians, and the
+Greeks, in turn, passed it to the Romans.  The alphabet continually
+changed from time to time.  The old Phoenician was weak in vowel
+sounds, but the defect was remedied in the Greek and Roman alphabets
+and in the alphabets of the Teutonic nations.  Fully equipped with
+written and spoken speech, the nations of the world were prepared for
+the interchange of thought and ideas and for the preservation of
+knowledge in an accurate manner.  History could be recorded, laws
+written and preserved, and the beginnings of science elaborated.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Use of Manuscripts and Books Made Permanent Records</I>.&mdash;At first
+all records were made by pen, pencil, or stylus, and manuscripts were
+represented on papyrus paper or parchment, and could only be duplicated
+by copying.  In Alexandria before the Christian era one could buy a
+copy of the manuscript of a great author, but it was at a high price.
+It finally became customary for monks, in their secluded retreats, to
+spend a good part of their lives in copying and preserving
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P129"></A>129}</SPAN>
+the
+manuscript writings of great authors.  But it was not until printing
+was invented that the world of letters rapidly moved forward.  Probably
+about the sixth century A.D. the Chinese began to print a group of
+characters from blocks, and by the tenth century they were engaged in
+keeping their records in this way.  Gutenberg, Faust, and others
+improved upon the Chinese method by a system of movable type.  But what
+a wonderful change since the fourteenth century printing!  Now, with
+modern type-machines, fine grades of paper made by improved machinery,
+and the use of immense steam presses, the making of an ordinary book is
+very little trouble.  Looking back over the course of events incident
+to the development of the modern complex and flexible language we
+observe, first, the rude picture scrawled on horn or rock.  This was
+followed by the representation of the sound of the name of the picture,
+which passed into the mere sound sign.  Finally, the relation between
+the figure and the sound becomes so arbitrary that the child learns the
+a, b, c as pure signs representing sounds which, in combination, make
+words which stand for ideas.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Language Is an Instrument of Culture</I>.&mdash;Culture areas always spread
+beyond the territory of language groups.  Culture depends upon the
+discovery and utilization of the forces of nature through invention and
+adaptation.  It may spread through imitation over very large human
+territory.  Man has universal mental traits, with certain powers and
+capacities that are developed in a relative order and in a degree of
+efficiency; but there are many languages and many civilizations of high
+and low degree.  Through human speech the life of the past may be
+handed on to others and the life of the present communicated to one
+another.  The physiological power of speech which exists in all permits
+every human group to develop a language in accordance with its needs
+and as influenced by its environment.  Thus language advanced very
+rapidly as an instrument of communication even at a very early period
+of cultural development.  A recent study of the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P130"></A>130}</SPAN>
+languages of the
+American Indians has shown the high degree of the art of expression
+among people of the Neolithic culture.  This would seem to indicate
+that primitive peoples are more definite in thought and more observant
+in the relation of cause and effect than is usually supposed.  Thus,
+definite language permits more precise thought, and definite thought,
+in turn, insists on more exact expression in language.  The two aid
+each other in development of cultural ideas, and invention and language
+move along together in the development of the human race.  It becomes a
+great human invention, and as such it not only preserves the thoughts
+of the past but unlocks the knowledge of the present.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Not only is language the means of communication, and the great racial
+as well as social bond of union, but it represents knowledge, culture,
+and refinement.  The strength and beauty of genuine artistic expression
+have an elevating influence on human life and become a means of social
+progress.  The drama and the choicest forms of prose and poetry in
+their literary aspects furnish means of presenting great thoughts and
+high ideals, and, thus combined with the beauty of expression, not only
+furnish the best evidence of moral and intellectual progress but make a
+perennial source of information in modern social life.  Hence it is
+that language and culture in all of their forms go hand in hand so
+closely that a high degree of culture is not attained without a
+dignified and expressive language.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Art as a Language of Aesthetic Ideas</I>.&mdash;The development of aesthetic
+ideas and aesthetic representations has kept pace with progress in
+other phases of civilization.  The notion of beauty as entertained by
+the savage is crude, and its representation is grotesque.  Its first
+expression is observed in the adornment of the body, either by paint,
+tattooing, or by ornaments.  The coarse, glaring colors placed upon the
+face or body, with no regard for the harmony of color, may attract
+attention, but has little expression of beauty from a modern standard.
+The first adornment in many savage tribes consisted in tattooing the
+body, an art which was finally rendered
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P131"></A>131}</SPAN>
+useless after clothing
+was fully adopted, except as a totemic design representing the unity of
+the tribe.  This custom was followed by the use of rude jewelry for
+arms, neck, ears, nose, or lips.  Other objects of clothing and
+ornament were added from time to time, the bright colors nearly always
+prevailing.  There must have been in all tribes a certain standard of
+artistic taste, yet so low in many instances as to suggest only the
+grotesque.  The taste displayed in the costumes of savages within the
+range of our own observation is remarkable for its variety.  It ranges
+all the way from a small piece of cloth to the elaborate robes made of
+highly colored cotton and woollen goods.  The Celts were noted for
+their highly colored garments and the artistic arrangement of the same.
+The Greeks displayed a grace and simplicity in dress never yet
+surpassed by any other nation.  Yet the dress of early Greeks, Romans,
+and Teutons was meagre in comparison with modern elaborate costumes.
+All of this is a method of expression of the emotions and ideas and, in
+one sense, is a language of the aesthetic.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Representative art, even among primitive peoples, carries with it a
+distinctive language.  It is a representation of ideas, as well as an
+attempt at beauty of expression.  The figures on pottery and basketry
+frequently carry with them religious ideas for the expression and
+perpetuation of religious emotion and belief.  Even rude drawings
+attempt to record the history of the deeds of the race.  Progress is
+shown in better lines, in better form, and a more exquisite blending of
+colors.  That many primitive people display a high degree of art and a
+low degree of general culture is one of the insoluble problems of the
+race.  Perhaps it may be attributed primarily to the fact that all
+artistic expression originally sprang from the emotional side of life,
+and, in addition, may be in part attributed to the early training in
+the acute observation of the forms of nature by primitive people upon
+which depended their existence.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Music Is a Form of Language</I>.&mdash;Early poetry was a recital of deeds,
+and a monotonous chant, which finally became recorded as language
+developed.  The sagas and the war songs
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P132"></A>132}</SPAN>
+were the earliest
+expressions which later were combined with dramatic action.  The poetry
+of primitive races has no distinguishing characteristics except metre
+or rhythm.  It is usually an oft-recurring expression of the same idea.
+Yet there are many fragmentary examples of lyric poetry, though it is
+mostly egoistic, the individual reciting his deeds or his desires.
+From the natives of Greenland we have the following about the hovering
+of the clouds about the mountain:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="poem">
+"The great Koonak mountain, over there&mdash;<BR>
+I see it;<BR>
+The great Koonak mountain, over there&mdash;<BR>
+I am looking at it;<BR>
+The bright shining in the South, over there&mdash;<BR>
+I admire it;<BR>
+The other side of Koonak&mdash;<BR>
+It stretches out&mdash;<BR>
+That which Koonak&mdash;<BR>
+Seaward encloses.<BR>
+See how they in the South<BR>
+Move and change&mdash;<BR>
+See how in the South<BR>
+They beautify one another;<BR>
+While it toward the sea<BR>
+Is veiled&mdash;by changing clouds<BR>
+Veiled toward the sea<BR>
+Beautifying one another."<BR>
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P>
+The emotional nature of savages varies greatly in different tribes.
+The lives of some seem to be moved wholly through the emotions, while
+others are stolid or dull.  The variations in musical ability and
+practice of savage and barbarous races are good evidence of this.  Many
+of the tribes in Africa have their rude musical instruments, and chant
+their simple, monotonous music.  The South Sea Islanders beat hollow
+logs with clubs, marking time and creating melody by these notes.  The
+Dahomans use a reed fife, on which they play music of several notes.
+In all primitive music, time is the chief element, and this is not
+always kept with any degree of accuracy.  The
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P133"></A>133}</SPAN>
+chanting of war songs,
+the moaning of the funeral dirge, or the sprightly singing with the
+dance, shows the varied expression of the emotional nature.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No better illustration of the arts of pleasure may be observed than the
+practices of the Zuñi Indians and other Pueblo Indians of New Mexico.
+The Zuñi melodies are sung on various festival occasions.  Some are
+sacred melodies, used in worship; others are on the occasion of the
+celebration of the rabbit hunt, the rain dances, and the corn dances.
+Among the Pueblo Indians the cachina dance is for the purpose of
+invoking bountiful rains and good harvests.  In all of their feasts,
+games, plays, and dances there are connected ceremonies of a religious
+nature.  Religion occupies a very strong position in the minds of the
+people.  Possessed of a superstitious nature, it was inevitable that
+all the arts of pleasure should partake somewhat of the religious
+ceremony.  The song and the dance and the beating of the drums always
+accompanied every festival.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Dance as a Means of Dramatic Expression</I>.&mdash;Among primitive peoples
+the dance, poetry, and music were generally introduced together, and
+were parts of one drama.  As such it was a social institution, with the
+religious, war, or play element fully represented.  Most primitive
+dances were conducted by men only.  In the celebrated <I>Corroboree</I> of
+the Australians, men danced and the women formed the orchestra.[<A NAME="chap07fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap07fn1">1</A>]
+This gymnastic dance was common to many tribes.  The dances of the
+Moros and Igorrotes at the St. Louis Exposition partook, in a similar
+way, of the nature of the gymnastic dance.  The war dances of the
+plains Indians of America are celebrated for their grotesqueness.  The
+green-corn dance and the cachina of the Pueblos and the snake dance of
+the Moqui all have an economic foundation.  In all, however, the play
+element in man and the desire for dramatic expression and the art of
+mimicry are evident.  The chief feature of the dance of the primitive
+people is the regular time beat.  This is more prominent than the grace
+of movement.  Yet this agrees with
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P134"></A>134}</SPAN>
+the nature of their music, for
+in this the time element is more prominent than the tune.  Rhythm is
+the strong element in the primitive art of poetry, music, or the dance,
+but all have an immense socializing influence.  The modern dance has
+added to rhythm the grace of expression and developed the social
+tendencies.  In it love is a more prominent feature than war or
+religion.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Catlin, in his <I>North American Indians</I>, describes the buffalo dance of
+the Mandan Indians, which appears to be more of a service toward an
+economic end than an art of pleasure.  After an unsuccessful hunt the
+returned warriors bring out their buffalo masks, made of the head and
+horns and tail of the buffalo.  These they don, and continue to dance
+until worn out.  Ten or fifteen dancers form a ring and, accompanied by
+drumming, yelling, and rattling, dance until the first exhausted one
+goes through the pantomime of being shot with the bow and arrow,
+skinned, and cut up; but the dance does not lag, for another masked
+dancer takes the place of the fallen one.  The dance continues day and
+night, without cessation, sometimes for two or three weeks, or until a
+herd of buffaloes appears in sight; then the warriors change the dance
+for the hunt.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The dancing of people of lower culture was carried on in many instances
+to express feelings and wishes.  Many of the dances of Egypt, Greece,
+and other early civilizations were of this nature.  Sacred hymns to the
+gods were chanted in connection with the dancing; but the sacred dance
+has become obsolete, in Western civilization its place being taken by
+modern church music.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Fine Arts Follow the Development of Language</I>.&mdash;While art varied
+in different tribes, we may assume in general that there was a
+continuity of culture development from the rude clay idol of primitive
+folk to the Venus de Milo or the Winged Victory; from the pictures on
+rocks and in caves to the Sistine Madonna; from the uncouth cooking
+bowl of clay to the highest form of earthenware vase; and from the
+monotonous
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P135"></A>135}</SPAN>
+strain of African music to the lofty conception of
+Mozart.  But this is a continuity of ideas covering the whole human
+race as a unit, rather than the progressive development of a single
+branch of the race.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Consider for a moment the mental and physical environment of the
+ancient cave or forest dweller.  The skies to him were marked only as
+they affected his bodily comfort in sunshine or storm; the trees
+invited his attention as they furnished him food or shelter; the
+roaring torrent was nothing to him except as it obstructed his journey;
+the sun and the moon and the stars in the heavens filled him with
+portentous awe, and the spirits in the invisible world worked for his
+good or for his evil.  Beyond his utilitarian senses no art emotion
+stirred in these signs of creation.  Perhaps the first art emotion was
+aroused in contemplation of the human body.  Through vanity, fear, or
+love he began to decorate it.  He scarifies or tattoos his naked body
+with figures upon his back, arms, legs, and face to represent an idea
+of beauty.  While the tribal or totemic design may have originated the
+custom, he wishes to be attractive to others, and his first emotions of
+beauty are thus expressed.  The second step is to paint his face and
+body to express love, fear, hate, war, or religious emotions.  This
+leads on to the art of decorating the body with ornaments, and
+subsequently to the ornamentation of clothing.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The art of representation at first possessed little artistic beauty,
+though the decorations on walls of caves show skill in lines and color.
+The first representations sought only intelligence in communicating
+thought.  The bas-reliefs of the ancients showed skill in
+representation.  The ideal was finally developed until the aesthetic
+taste was improved, and the Greek sculpture shows a high development of
+artistic taste.  In it beauty and truth were harmoniously combined.
+The arts of sculpture and painting are based upon the imagination.
+Through its perfect development, and the improvement in the art of
+execution, have been secured the aesthetic products of man.  Yet there
+is always a mingling of the emotional nature
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P136"></A>136}</SPAN>
+in the development
+of fine arts.  The growth of the fine arts consists in intensifying the
+pleasurable sensations of eye and ear.  This is done by enlarging the
+capacity for pleasure and increasing the opportunity for its
+satisfaction.  The beginnings of the fine arts were small, and the
+capacity to enjoy must have been slowly developed.  Of the arts that
+appeal to the eye there may be enumerated sculpture, painting, drawing,
+landscape-gardening, and architecture.  The pleasure from all except
+the last comes from an attempt to represent nature.  Architecture is
+founded upon the useful, and combines the industrial and the fine arts
+in one.  The attempt to imitate nature is to satisfy the emotions
+aroused in its contemplation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Love of the Beautiful Slowly Develops</I>.&mdash;There must have developed
+in man the desire to make a more perfect arrow-head, axe, or celt for
+the efficiency of service, and later for beauty of expression.  There
+must early have developed an idea of good form and bright colors in
+clothing.  So, too, in the mixing of colors for the purpose of
+expressing the emotions there gradually came about a refinement in
+blending.  Nor could man's attention be called constantly to the
+beautiful plants and flowers, to the bright-colored stones, metals, and
+gems found in the earth without developing something more than mere
+curiosity concerning them.  He must early have discovered the
+difference between objects which aroused desire for possession and
+those that did not.  Ultimately he preferred a more beautifully
+finished stone implement than one crudely constructed&mdash;a more beautiful
+and showy flower than one that was imperfect, and likewise more
+beautiful human beings than those that were crude and ugly.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The pleasure of sound manifested itself at an earlier stage than the
+pleasure of form, although the degree of advancement in music varies in
+different tribes.  Thus the inhabitants of Africa have a much larger
+capacity for recognizing and enjoying the effect of harmonious sounds
+than the aborigines of America.  While all nations have the faculty of
+obtaining pleasure from harmonious sounds, it varies greatly, yet not
+more
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P137"></A>137}</SPAN>
+widely than between separate individuals.  It may be
+considered quite a universal faculty.  The love of the beautiful in
+form, color, and in harmonious sound, is a permanent social force, and
+has much to do in the progress of civilization.  Yet it is not an
+essential force, for the beginnings of civilization could have been
+made without it.  However, it gives relief to the cold business world;
+the formal association of men is softened and embellished by painting,
+poetry, and music.  Thus considered, it represents an important part of
+the modern social development.  Art culture, which represents the
+highest expression of our civilization, has its softening influences on
+human life.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  The importance of language in the development of culture.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  Does language always originate the same way in different localities?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  Does language develop from a common centre or from many centres?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  What bearing has the development of language upon the culture of
+religion, music, poetry, and art?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  Which were the more important impulses, clothing for protection or
+for adornment?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  Show that play is an important factor in society-building.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  Compare pictograph, ideograph, and phonetic writing.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap07fn1"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap07fn1text">1</A>] Keane, <I>The World's Peoples</I>, p. 49.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap08"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P141"></A>141}</SPAN>
+
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+<I>PART III</I>
+</H2>
+
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+THE SEATS OF EARLY CIVILIZATIONS
+</H2>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER VIII
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+THE INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL NATURE ON HUMAN PROGRESS
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>Man Is a Part of Universal Nature</I>.&mdash;He is an integral part of the
+universe, and as such he must ever be subject to the physical laws
+which control it.  Yet, as an active, thinking being, conscious of his
+existence, it is necessary to consider him in regard to the relations
+which he sustains to the laws and forces of physical nature external to
+himself.  He is but a particle when compared to a planet or a sun, but
+he is greater than a planet because he is conscious of his own
+existence, and the planet is not.  Yet his whole life and being, so far
+as it can be reasoned about, is dependent upon his contact with
+external nature.  By adaptation to physical environment he may live;
+without adaptation he cannot live.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As a part of evolved nature, man comes into the world ignorant of his
+surroundings.  He is ever subject to laws which tend to sweep him
+onward with the remaining portions of the system of which he is a part,
+but his slowly awakening senses cause him to examine his surroundings.
+First, he has a curiosity to know what the world about him is like, and
+he begins a simple inquiry which leads to investigation.  The knowledge
+he acquires is adapted to his use day by day as his vision extends.
+Through these two processes he harmonizes his life with the world about
+him.  By degrees he endeavors to bring the materials and the forces of
+nature into subjection to his will.  Thus he progresses from the
+student to the master.  External nature is unconscious, submitting
+passively to the laws that control it, but man, ever conscious of
+himself and his effort, attempts to dominate the forces surrounding him
+and this struggle to overcome environment has characterized his
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P142"></A>142}</SPAN>
+progress.  But in this struggle, nature has reciprocated its influence
+on man in modifying his development and leaving her impress on him.
+Limited he has ever been and ever will be by his environment.  Yet
+within the limits set by nature he is master of his own destiny and
+develops by his own persistent endeavor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Indeed, the epitome of civilization is a struggle of nature and
+thought, the triumph of the psychical over the physical; and while he
+slowly but surely overcomes the external physical forces and makes them
+subordinate to his own will and genius, civilization must run along
+natural courses even though its products are artificial.  In many
+instances nature appears bountiful and kind to man, but again she
+appears mean and niggardly.  It is man's province to take advantage of
+her bounty and by toil and invention force her to yield her coveted
+treasures.  Yet the final outcome of it all is determined by the extent
+to which man masters himself.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Favorable Location Is Necessary for Permanent Civilization</I>.&mdash;In the
+beginning only those races have made progress that have sought and
+obtained favorable location.  Reflect upon the early civilizations of
+the world and notice that every one was begun in a favorable location.
+Observe the geographical position of Egypt, in a narrow, fertile valley
+bounded by the desert and the sea, cut off from contact with other
+races.  There was an opportunity for the Egyptians to develop
+continuity of life sufficient to permit the beginnings of civilization.
+Later, when wealth and art had developed, Egypt became the prey of
+covetous invading nations.  So ancient Chaldea, for a time far removed
+from contact with other tribes, and protected by desert, mountain, and
+sea, was able to begin a civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But far more favorable, not only for a beginning of civilization but
+for a high state of development, was the territory occupied by the
+Grecian tribes.  Shut in from the north by a mountain range, surrounded
+on every other side by the sea, a fertile and well-watered land, of
+mild climate, it was protected
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P143"></A>143}</SPAN>
+from the encroachments of
+"barbarians."  The influence of geographical contour is strongly marked
+in the development of the separate states of Greece.  The small groups
+that settled down on a family basis were separated from each other by
+ranges of hills, causing each community to develop its own
+characteristic life.  These communities had a common language,
+differing somewhat in dialect, and the foundation of a common religion,
+but there never could exist sufficient similarity of character or unity
+of sentiment to permit them to unite into a strong central nation.  A
+variety of life is evinced everywhere.  Those who came in contact with
+the ocean differed from those who dwelt in the interior, shut in by the
+mountains.  The contact with the sea gives breadth of thought,
+largeness of life, while those who are enclosed by mountains lead a
+narrow life, intense in thought and feeling.  Without the protection of
+nature, the Grecian states probably would never have developed the high
+state of civilization which they reached.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Rome presents a similar example.  It is true that the Italian tribes
+that entered the peninsula had considerable force of character and
+thorough development as they were about to enter upon a period of
+civilization.  Like the Greeks, the discipline of their early Aryan
+ancestors had given them much of strength and character.  Yet the
+favorable location of Italy, bounded on the north by a high mountain
+range and enclosed by the sea, gave abundant opportunity for the
+national germs to thrive and grow.  Left thus to themselves, dwelling
+under the protection of the snow-capped Alps, and surrounded by the
+beneficent sea, national life expanded, government and law developed
+and thrived, and the arts of civilized life were practised.  The
+national greatness of the Romans may in part be attributed to the
+period of repose in which they pursued unmolested the arts of peace
+before their era of conquest began.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Among the mountains of Switzerland are people who claim never to have
+been conquered.  In the wild rush of the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P144"></A>144}</SPAN>
+barbarian hordes into
+the Roman Empire they were not overrun.  They retain to this day their
+early sentiments of liberty; their greatness is in freedom and
+equality.  The mountains alone protected them from the assaults of the
+enemy and the crush of moving tribes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Other nations might be mentioned that owe much to geographical
+position.  More than once in the early part of her history it protected
+Spain from destruction.  The United States, in a large measure, owes
+her independent existence to the fact that the ocean rolls between her
+and the mother country.  On the other hand, Ireland has been hampered
+in her struggle for independent government on account of her proximity
+to England.  The natural defense against enemies, the protection of
+mountains and forests, the proximity to the ocean, all have had their
+influence in the origin and development of nations.  Yet races, tribes,
+and nations, once having opportunity to develop and become strong, may
+flourish without the protecting conditions of nature.  They may defy
+the mountains, seas, and the streams, and the onslaughts of the wild
+tribes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Nature of the Soil an Essential Condition of Progress</I>.&mdash;But
+geography alone, although a great factor in progress, is powerless
+without a fertile soil to yield a food supply for a large population.
+The first great impetus of all early civilizations occurred through
+agriculture.  Not until this had developed so as to give a steady food
+supply were people able to have sufficient leisure to develop the other
+arts of life.  The abundant food supply furnished by the fertility of
+the Nile valley was the key to the Egyptian civilization.  The valley
+was overflowed annually by the river, which left a fertilizing sediment
+upon the land already prepared for cultivation.  Thus annually without
+excessive labor the soil was watered, fertilized, and prepared for the
+seed.  Even when irrigation was introduced, in order to obtain a larger
+supply of food, the cultivation of the soil was a very easy matter.
+Agriculture consisted primarily in sowing seed on ready prepared ground
+and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P145"></A>145}</SPAN>
+reaping the harvest.  The certainty of the crop assured a
+living.  The result of cheap food was to rapidly multiply the race,
+which existed on a low plane.  It created a mass of inferior people
+ruled by a few despots.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+What is true of Egypt is true of all of the early civilizations, as
+they each started where a fertile soil could easily be tilled.  The
+inhabitants of ancient Chaldea developed their civilization on a
+fertile soil.  The great cities of Nineveh and Babylon were surrounded
+by rich valleys, and the yield of agricultural products made
+civilization possible.  The earliest signs of progress in India were
+along the valleys of the Ganges and the Indus.  Likewise, in the New
+World, the tribes that approached the nearest to civilization were
+situated in fertile districts in Peru, Central America, Mexico, and New
+Mexico.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Use of Land the Foundation of Social Order</I>.&mdash;The manner in which
+tribes and nations have attached themselves to the soil has determined
+the type of social organization.  Before the land was treated as
+property of individuals or regarded as a permanent possession by
+tribes, the method in which the land was held and its use determined
+the quality of civilization, and the land factor became more important
+as a determiner of social order as civilization progressed.  It was
+exceedingly important in determining the quality of the Greek life, and
+the entire structure of Roman civilization was based on the land
+question.  Master the land tenure of Rome and you have laid the
+foundation of Roman history.  The desire for more land and for more
+room was the chief cause of the barbarian invasion of the empire.  All
+feudal society, including lords and vassals, government and courts, was
+based upon the plan of feudal land-holding.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In modern times in England the land question has been at times the
+burning political and economic question of the nation, and is a
+disturbing factor in recent times.  In the United States, rapid
+progress is due more to the bounteous supply of free, fertile lands
+than to any other single cause.  Broad, fertile valleys are more
+pertinent as the foundation
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P146"></A>146}</SPAN>
+of nation-building than men are
+accustomed to believe; and now that nearly all the public domain has
+been apportioned among the citizens, intense desire for land remains
+unabated, and its method of treatment through landlord and tenant is
+rapidly becoming a troublesome question.  The relation of the soil to
+the population presents new problems, and the easy-going civilization
+will be put to a new test.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Climate Has Much to Do with the Possibilities of Progress</I>.&mdash;The early
+seats of civilization mentioned above were all located in warm
+climates.  Leisure is essential to all progress.  Where it takes man
+all of his time to earn a bare subsistence there is not much room for
+improvement.  A warm climate is conducive to leisure, because its
+requirements of food and clothing are less imperative than in cold
+countries.  The same quantity of food will support more people in warm
+than in cold climates.  This, coupled with the fact that nature is more
+spontaneous in furnishing a bountiful supply in warm climates than in
+cold, renders the first steps in progress much more possible.  The food
+in warm climates is of a light vegetable character, which is easily
+prepared for use; indeed, in many instances it is already prepared.  In
+cold countries, where it is necessary to consume large amounts of fatty
+food to sustain life, the food supply is meagre, because this can only
+be obtained from wild animals.  In this region it costs immense labor
+to obtain sufficient food for the support of life; likewise, in a cold
+climate it takes much time to tame animals for use and to build huts to
+protect from the storm and the cold.  The result is that the
+propagation of the race is slow, and progress in social and individual
+life is retarded.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+We should expect, therefore, all of the earliest civilization to be in
+warm regions.  In this we are not disappointed, in noting Egypt,
+Babylon, Mexico, and Peru.  Soil and climate co-operate in furnishing
+man a suitable place for his first permanent development.  There is,
+however, in this connection, one danger to be pointed out, arising from
+the conditions of cheap food&mdash;namely, a rapid propagation of the race,
+which
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P147"></A>147}</SPAN>
+entails misery through generations.  In these early
+populous nations, great want and misery frequently prevailed among the
+masses of the people.  Thousands of laborers, competing for sustenance,
+reduce the earning capacity to a very small amount, and this reduces
+the standard of life.  Yet because food and shelter cost little, they
+are able to live at a low standard and to multiply rapidly.  Human life
+becomes cheap, is valued little by despotic rulers, who enslave their
+fellows.  Another danger in warm climates which counteracts the
+tendency of nations to progress, is the fact that warm climates
+enervate man and make him less active; hence it occurs that in colder
+climates with unfavorable surroundings great progress is made on
+account of the excessive energy and strong will-force of the
+inhabitants.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In temperate climates man has reached the highest state of progress.
+In this zone the combination of a moderately cheap food supply and the
+necessity of excessive energy to supply food, clothing, and protection
+has been most conducive to the highest forms of progress.  While,
+therefore, the civilization of warm climates has led to despotism,
+inertia, and the degradation of the masses, the civilization of
+temperate climates has led to freedom, elevation of humanity, and
+progress in the arts.  This illustrates how essential is individual
+energy in taking advantage of what nature has provided.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The General Aspects of Nature Determine the Type of
+Civilization</I>.&mdash;While the general characteristics of nature have much
+to do with the development of the races of the earth, it is only a
+single factor in the great complex of influences.  People living in the
+mountain fastnesses, those living at the ocean side, and those living
+on great interior plains vary considerably as to mental characteristics
+and views of life in general.  Buckle has expanded this idea at some
+length in his comparison of India and Greece.  He has endeavored to
+show that "the history of the human mind can only be understood by
+connecting with it the history and aspects of the material universe."
+He holds that everything in India tended to depress the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P148"></A>148}</SPAN>
+dignity
+of man, while everything in Greece tended to exalt it.  After comparing
+these two countries of ancient civilization in respect to the
+development of the imagination, he says: "To sum up the whole, it may
+be said that the Greeks had more respect for human powers; the Hindus
+for superhuman.  The first dealt with the known and available, the
+second with the unknown and mysterious."  He attributes this difference
+largely to the fact that the imagination was excessively developed in
+India, while the reason predominated in Greece.  The cause attributed
+to the development of the imagination in India is the aspect of nature.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Everything in India is overshadowed with the immensity of nature.  Vast
+plains, lofty mountains, mighty, turbulent rivers, terrible storms, and
+demonstrations of natural forces abound to awe and terrify.  The causes
+of all are so far beyond the conception of man that his imagination is
+brought into play to furnish images for his excited and terrified mind.
+Hence religion is extravagant, abstract, terrible.  Literature is full
+of extravagant poetic images.  The individual is lost in the system of
+religion, figures but little in literature, and is swallowed up in the
+immensity of the universe.  While, on the other hand, the fact that
+Greece had no lofty mountains, no great plains; had small rivulets in
+the place of rivers, and few destructive storms, was conducive to the
+development of calm reflection and reason.  Hence, in Greece man
+predominated over nature; in India, nature overpowered man.[<A NAME="chap08fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap08fn1">1</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There is much of truth in this line of argument, but it must not be
+carried too far.  For individual and racial characteristics have much
+to do with the development of imagination, reason, and religion.  The
+difference, too, in the time of development, must also be considered,
+for Greece was a later product, and had the advantage of much that had
+preceded in human progress.  And so far as can be determined, the
+characteristics of the Greek colonists were quite well established
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P149"></A>149}</SPAN>
+before they left Asia.  The supposition, also, that man is
+subject entirely to the influence of physical nature for his entire
+progress, must be taken with modification.  His mind-force, his
+individual will-force, must be accounted for, and these occupy a large
+place in the history of his progress.  No doubt the thunders of Niagara
+and the spectacle of the volume of water inspire poetic admiration in
+the minds of the thousands who have gazed on this striking physical
+phenomenon of nature.  It is awe-inspiring; it arouses the emotions; it
+creates poetic imagination.  But the final result of contact with the
+will of man is to turn part of that force from its channels, to move
+the bright machinery engaged in creating things useful and beautiful
+which contribute to the larger well-being of man.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Granting that climate, soil, geographical position, and the aspects of
+nature have a vast influence in limiting the possibilities of man's
+progress, and in directing his mental as well as physical
+characteristics, it must not be forgotten that in the contact with
+these it is his mastery over them which constitutes progress, and this
+involves the activity of his will-power.  Man is not a slave to his
+environment.  He is not a passive creature acted upon by sun and storm
+and subjected to the powers of the elements.  True, that there are set
+about him limitations within which he must ever act.  Yet from
+generation to generation he forces back these limits, enlarges the
+boundary of his activities, increases the scope of his knowledge, and
+brings a larger number of the forces of nature in subjection to his
+will.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Physical Nature Influences Social Order</I>.&mdash;Not only is civilization
+primarily based upon the physical powers and resources of nature, but
+the quality of social order is determined thereby.  Thus, people
+following the streams, plains, and forests would develop a different
+type of social order from those who would settle down to permanent
+seats of agriculture.  The Bedouin Arabs of the desert, although among
+the oldest of organized groups, have changed very little through the
+passing centuries, because their mode of life permits only a
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P150"></A>150}</SPAN>
+simple organization.  Likewise, it is greatly in contrast with the
+modern nations, built upon industrial and commercial life, with all of
+the machinery run by the powers of nature.  When Rome developed her
+aristocratic proprietors to whom the land was apportioned in great
+estates, the old free farming population disappeared and slavery became
+a useful adjunct in the methods adopted for cultivating the soil.  On
+the other hand, the old village community where land was held in common
+developed a small co-operative group closely united on the basis of
+mutual aid.  The great landed estates of England and Germany must, so
+long as they continue, influence the type of social order and of
+government that will exist in those countries.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As the individual is in a measure subservient to the external laws
+about him, so must the social group of which he forms a part be so
+controlled.  The flexibility and variability of human nature, with its
+power of adaptation, make it possible to develop different forms of
+social order.  The subjective side of social development, wherein the
+individual seeks to supply his own wants and follow the directions of
+his own will, must ever be a modifying power acting upon the social
+organization.  Thus society becomes a great complex of variabilities
+which cannot be reduced to exact laws similar to those found in
+physical nature.  Nevertheless, if society in its development is not
+dependent upon immutable laws similar to those discovered in the forces
+of nature, yet as part of the great scheme of nature it is directly
+dependent upon the physical forces that permit it to exist the same as
+the individual.  This would give rise to laws of human association
+which are modified by the laws of external nature.  Thus, while society
+is psychical in its nature, it is ever dependent upon the material and
+the physical for its existence.  However, through co-operation, man is
+able to more completely master his environment than by working
+individually.  It is only by mutual aid and social organization that he
+is able to survive and conquer.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P151"></A>151}</SPAN>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  Give examples coming within your own observation of the influence
+of soil and climate on the character of society.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  Does the character of the people in Central America depend more on
+climate than on race?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  In what ways does the use of land determine the character of social
+order?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  Are the ideals and habits of thought of the people living along the
+Atlantic Coast different from those of the Middle West?  If so, in what
+respect?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  Is the attitude toward life of the people of the Dakota wheat belt
+different from those of New York City?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  Compare a mining community with an agricultural community and
+record the differences in social order and attitude toward life.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap08fn1"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap08fn1text">1</A>] Henry Thomas Buckle, <I>History of Civilization in England</I>.  General
+Introduction.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap09"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P152"></A>152}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER IX
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CIVILIZATION OF THE ORIENT
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>The First Nations with Historical Records in Asia and Africa</I>.&mdash;The
+seats of the most ancient civilizations are found in the fertile
+valleys of the Euphrates and the Nile.  These centres of civilization
+were founded on the fertility of the river valleys and the fact of
+their easy cultivation.  Just when the people began to develop these
+civilizations and whence they came are not determined.  It is out of
+the kaleidoscopic picture of wandering humanity seeking food and
+shelter, the stronger tribes pushing and crowding the weaker, that
+these permanent seats of culture became established.  Ceasing to wander
+after food, they settled down to make the soil yield its products for
+the sustenance of life.  Doubtless they found other tribes and races
+had been there before them, though not for permanent habitation.  But
+the culture of any one group of people fades away toward its origins,
+mingling its customs and life with those who preceded them.  Sometimes,
+indeed, when a tribe settled down to permanent achievement, its whole
+civilization is swept away by more savage conquerors.  Sometimes,
+however, the blood of the invaders mingled with the conquered, and the
+elements of art, religion, and language of both groups have built up a
+new type of civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The geography of the section comprising the nations where the earliest
+achievements have left permanent records, indicates a land extending
+from a territory east of the Tigris and Euphrates westward to the
+eastern shore of the Mediterranean and southward into Egypt.
+Doubtless, this region was one much traversed by tribes of various
+languages and cultures.  Emerging from the Stone Age, we find the
+civilization ranging from northern Africa and skirting Arabia through
+Palestine
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P153"></A>153}</SPAN>
+and Assyria down into the valley of the Tigris and the
+Euphrates.  Doubtless, the civilization that existed in this region was
+more or less closely related in general type, but had derived its
+character from many primitive sources.  As history dawns on the
+achievements of these early nations, it is interesting to note that
+there was a varied rainfall within this territory.  Some parts were
+well watered, others having long seasonal periods of drought followed
+by periodical rains.  It would appear, too, the uncertainty of rainfall
+seemed to increase rather than diminish, for in the valley of the
+Euphrates, as well as in the valley of the Nile, the inhabitants were
+forced to resort to artificial irrigation for the cultivation of their
+crops.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is not known at what time the Chaldeans began to build their
+artificial systems of irrigation, but it must have been brought about
+by the gain of the population on the food supply, or perhaps an
+increased uncertainty of rainfall.  At any rate, the irrigation works
+became a systematic part of their industry, and were of great size and
+variety.  It took a great deal of engineering skill to construct
+immense ditches necessary to control the violent floods of the
+Euphrates and the Tigris.  So far as evidence goes, the irrigation was
+carried on by the gravity system, by which canals were built from
+intakes from the river and extended throughout the cultivated district.
+In Egypt for a long time the periodical overflow of the Nile brought in
+the silt for fertilizer and water for moisture.  When the flood
+subsided, seed was planted and the crop raised and harvested.  As the
+population spread, the use of water for irrigation became more general,
+and attempts were made to distribute its use not only over a wider
+range of territory but more regularly throughout the seasons, thus
+making it possible to harvest more than one crop a year, or to develop
+diversified agriculture.  The Egyptians used nearly all the modern
+methods of procuring, storing, and distributing water.  Hence, in these
+centres of warm climate, fertile land, and plenty of moisture, the
+earth was made to yield an immense harvest, which made it possible to
+support a large population.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P154"></A>154}</SPAN>
+The food supply having been
+established, the inhabitants could devote themselves to other things,
+and slowly developed the arts and industries.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Civilization in Mesopotamia</I>.&mdash;The Tigris and Euphrates, two great
+rivers having their sources in mountain regions, pouring their floods
+for centuries into the Persian Gulf, made a broad, fertile valley along
+their lower courses.  The soil was of inexhaustible fertility and easy
+of cultivation.  The climate was almost rainless, and agriculture was
+dependent upon artificial irrigation.  The upper portion of this great
+river valley was formed of undulating plains stretching away to the
+north, where, almost treeless, they furnished great pasture ranges for
+flocks and herds, which also added to the permanency of the food supply
+and helped to develop the wealth and prosperity of the country.  It was
+in this climate, so favorable for the development of early man, and
+with this fertile soil yielding such bountiful productions, that the
+ancient Chaldean civilization started, which was followed by the
+Babylonian and Assyrian civilizations, each of which developed a great
+empire.  These empires, ruling in turn, not only represented centres of
+civilization and wealth, but they acquired the overlordship of
+territories far and wide, their monarchs ruling eastward toward India
+and westward toward Phoenicia.  In early times ancient Chaldea, located
+on the lower Euphrates, was divided into two parts, the lower portion
+known as Sumer, and the other, the upper, known as Akkad.  While in the
+full development of these civilizations the Semitic race was dominant,
+there is every appearance that much of the culture of these primitive
+peoples came from farther east.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Influences Coming from the Far East</I>.&mdash;The early inhabitants of this
+country have sometimes been called Turanian to distinguish them from
+Aryans, Semites, and other races sometimes called Hamitic.  They seem
+to have been closely allied to the Mongolian type of people who
+developed centres of culture in the Far East and early learned the use
+of metals and developed a high degree of skill in handicraft.  The
+Akkadians,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P155"></A>155}</SPAN>
+or Sumer-Akkadians, appear to have come from the
+mountain districts north and east, and entered this fertile valley to
+begin the work of civilization at a very early period.  Their rude
+villages and primitive systems of life were to be superseded by
+civilizations of other races that, utilizing the arts and industries of
+the Akkadians, carried their culture to a much higher standard.  The
+Akkadians are credited with bringing into this country the methods of
+making various articles from gold and iron which have been found in
+their oldest tombs.  They are credited with having laid the foundation
+of the industrial arts which were manifested at an early time in
+ancient Chaldea, Egypt, and later in Babylonia and Phoenicia.  Whatever
+foundation there may be for this theory, the subsequent history of the
+civilizations which have developed from Thibet as a centre would seem
+to attribute the early skill in handiwork in the metals and in
+porcelain and glass to these people.  They also early learned to make
+inscriptions for permanent record in a crude way and to construct
+buildings made of brick.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Akkadians brought with them a religious system which is shown in a
+collection of prayers and sacred texts found recorded in the ruins at
+the great library at Nineveh.  Their religion seemed to be a complex of
+animism and nature-worship.  To them the universe was peopled with
+spirits who occupied different spheres and performed different
+services.  Scores of evil spirits working in groups of seven controlled
+the earth and man.  Besides these there were numberless demons which
+assailed man in countless forms, which worked daily and hourly to do
+him harm, to control his spirit, to bring confusion to his work, to
+steal the child from the father's knee, to drive the son from the
+father's house, or to withhold from the wife the blessings of children.
+They brought evil days.  They brought ill-luck and misfortune.  Nothing
+could prevent their destructiveness.  These spirits, falling like rain
+from the skies to the earth, could leap from house to house,
+penetrating the doors like serpents.  Their dwelling-places were
+scattered in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P156"></A>156}</SPAN>
+the marshes by the sea, where sickly pestilence
+arose, and in the deserts, where the hot winds drifted the sands.
+Sickness and disease were represented by the demons of pestilence and
+of fever, which bring destruction upon man.  It was a religion of
+fatalism, which held that man was ever attacked by unseen enemies
+against whom there was no means of defense.  There was little hope in
+life and none after death.  There was no immortality and no eternal
+life.  These spirits were supposed to be under the control of sorcerers
+and magicians or priests, resembling somewhat the medicine men of the
+wild tribes of North America, who had power to compel them, and to
+inflict death or disaster upon the objects of their censure and wrath.
+Thus, these primitive peoples of early Chaldea were terrorized by the
+spirits of the earth and by the wickedness of those who manipulated the
+spirits.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The only bright side of this picture was the creation of other spirits
+conceived to be essentially good and beneficial, and to whom prayers
+were directed for protection and help.  Such beings were superior to
+all evil spirits, provided their support could be invoked.  So the
+spirit of heaven and the spirit of earth both appealed to the
+imagination of these primitive people, who thought that these unseen
+creatures called gods possessed all knowledge and wisdom, which was
+used to befriend and protect.  Especially would they look to the spirit
+of earth as their particular protector, who had power to break the
+spell of the spirits, compel obedience, and bring terror into the
+hearts of the wicked ones.  Such, in brief, was the religious system
+which these people created for themselves.  Later, after the Semitic
+invasion, a system of religion developed more colossal in its
+imagination and yet not less cruel in its final decrees regarding human
+life and destiny.  It passed into the purely imaginative religion, and
+the worship of the sun and moon and the stars gave man's imagination a
+broader vision, even if it did not lift him to a higher standard of
+moral conduct.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is not known at what date these early civilizations began,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P157"></A>157}</SPAN>
+but
+there is some evidence that the Akkadians appeared in the valley not
+less than four thousand years before Christ, and that subsequently they
+were conquered by the Elamites in the east, who obtained the supremacy
+for a season, and then were reinforced by the Semitic peoples, who
+ranged northeast, and, from northern Africa through Arabia, eastward to
+the Euphrates.[<A NAME="chap09fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap09fn1">1</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Egypt Becomes a Centre of Civilization</I>.&mdash;The men of Egypt are
+supposed to be related racially to the Caucasian people who dwelt in
+the northern part of Africa, from whom they separated at a very early
+period, and went into the Nile valley to settle.  Their present racial
+connection makes them related to the well-known Berber type, which has
+a wide range in northern Africa.  Some time after the departure of the
+Hamitic branch of the Caucasian race into Egypt, it is supposed that
+another people passed on beyond, entering Arabia, later spreading over
+Assyria, Babylon, Palestine, and Phoenicia.  These were called the
+Semites.  Doubtless, this passage was long continued and irregular, and
+there are many intermixtures of the races now distinctly Berber and
+Arabic, so that in some parts of Egypt, and north of Egypt, we find an
+Arab-Berber mongrel type.  Doubtless, when the Egyptian stock of the
+Berber type came into Egypt they found other races whose life dates
+back to the early Paleolithic, as the stone implements found in the
+hills and caves and graves showed not only Neolithic but Paleolithic
+culture.  Also, the wavering line of Sudan negro types extended across
+Africa from east to west and came in contact with the Caucasian stock
+of northern Africa, and we find many negroid intermixtures.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Egyptians, however, left to themselves for a number of centuries,
+began rapid ascendency.  First, as before stated, their food supply was
+permanent and abundant.  Second, there were inducements also for the
+development of the art of measurement of land which later led to the
+development of general principles of measurement.  There was
+observation of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P158"></A>158}</SPAN>
+the sun and moon and the stars, and a development
+of the art of building of stone and brick, out of which the vast
+pyramid tombs of kings were built.  The artificers, too, had learned to
+work in precious stones and metals and weave garments, also to write
+inscriptions on tombs and also on the papyrus.  It would seem as if the
+civilization once started through so many centuries had become
+sufficiently substantial to remain permanent or to become progressive,
+but Egypt was subject to a great many drawbacks.  The nation that has
+the food supply of the world is sooner or later bound to come into
+trouble.  So it appears in the case of Egypt, with her vast food
+resources and accumulation of wealth; she was eventually doomed to the
+attacks of jealous and envious nations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The history of Egypt is represented by dynasties of kings and changes
+of government through a long period interrupted by the invasion of
+tribes from the west and the north, which interfered with the
+uniformity of development.  It is divided into two great centres of
+development, Lower Egypt, or the Delta, and Upper Egypt, frequently
+differing widely in the character of civilization.  Yet, in the latter
+part of her supremacy Egypt went to war with the Semitic peoples of
+Babylon and Assyria for a thousand years.  It was the great granary of
+the world and a centre of wealth and culture.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The kings of Egypt were despots who were regarded by the people as
+gods.  They were the head not only of the state but of the religious
+system, and consequently through this double headship were enabled to
+rule with absolute sway.  The priesthood, together with a few nobles,
+represented the intellectual and social aristocracy of the country.
+Next to them were the warriors, who were an exclusive class.  Below
+these came the shepherds and farmers, and finally the slaves.  While
+the caste system did not prevail with as much rigidity here as in
+India, all groups of people were bound by the influence of class
+environment, from which they were unable to extricate themselves.
+Poorer classes became so degraded that in times of famine they were
+obliged to sell their liberty, their lives, or
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P159"></A>159}</SPAN>
+their labor to
+kings for food.  They became merely toiling animals, forced for the
+want of bread to build the monuments of kings.  The records of Egyptian
+civilization through art, writing, painting, sculpture, architecture,
+and the great pyramids, obelisks, and sphinxes were but the records of
+the glory of kings, built upon the shame of humanity.  True, indeed,
+there was some advance in the art of writing, in the science of
+astronomy and geometry, and the manufacture of glass, pottery, linens,
+and silk in the industrial arts.  The revelations brought forth in
+recent years from the tombs of these kings, where were stored the art
+treasures representing the civilization of the time, exhibit something
+of the splendors of royalty and give some idea of the luxuries of the
+civilization of the higher classes.  Here were stored the finest
+products of the art of the times.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The wonders of Egypt were manifested in the structure of the pyramids,
+which were merely tombs of kings, which millions of laborers spent
+their lives in building.  They represent the most stupendous structures
+of ancient civilization whose records remain.  Old as they appear, as
+we look backward to the beginning of history, they represent a
+culminating period of Egyptian art.  Sixty-seven of these great
+structures extended for about sixty miles above the city of Cairo,
+along the edge of the Libyan Desert.  They are placed along the great
+Egyptian natural burying place in the western side of the Nile valley,
+as a sort of boulevard of the tombs of kings and nobles.  Most of them
+are constructed of stone, although several are of adobe or sun-dried
+brick.  The latter have crumbled into great conical mountains, like
+those of the pyramid temples of Babylon.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The largest pyramid, Cheops, rises to a height of 480 feet, having a
+base covering 13 acres.  The historian Herodotus relates that 120,000
+men were employed for 20 years in the erection of this great structure.
+It has never been explained how these people, not yet well developed in
+practical mechanics, and not having discovered the use of steam and
+with no
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P160"></A>160}</SPAN>
+use of iron, could have reared these vast structures.
+Besides the pyramids, great palaces and temples of the kings of Thebes
+in Upper Egypt rivalled in grandeur the lonely pyramids of Memphis.
+Age after age, century after century, witnessed the building of these
+temples, palaces, and tombs.  It is said that the palace of Karnak, the
+most wonderful structure of ancient or modern times, was more than five
+hundred years in the process of building, and it is unknown how many
+hundreds of thousands of men spent their lives for this purpose.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+So, too, the mighty sphinxes and colossal statues excite the wonder and
+admiration of the world.  Especially to be mentioned in this connection
+are the colossi of Thebes, which are forty-seven feet high, each hewn
+from a single block of granite.  Upon the solitary plain these mute
+figures sat, serene and vigilant, keeping their untiring watch through
+the passage of the centuries.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Coming of the Semites</I>.&mdash;While the ancient civilization at the
+mouth of the Euphrates had its origin in primitive peoples from the
+mountains eastward beyond the Euphrates, and the ancient Egyptian
+civilization received its impetus from a Caucasian tribe of northern
+Africa, the great civilization from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus
+River was developed by the Semites.  Westward from the Euphrates, over
+Arabia, and through Syria to the Mediterranean coast were wandering
+tribes of Arabs.  Perhaps the most typical ancient type of the Semitic
+race is found in Arabia.  In these desert lands swarms of people have
+passed from time to time over the known world.  Their early life was
+pastoral and nomadic; hence they necessarily occupied a large territory
+and were continually on the move.  The country appears to have been,
+from the earliest historic records, gradually growing drier&mdash;having
+less regular rainfall.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+So these people were forced at times to the mountain valleys and the
+grasslands of the north, and as far as the agricultural lands in the
+river valleys, hovering around the settled districts for food supplies
+for themselves and their herds.  After
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P161"></A>161}</SPAN>
+the early settlement of
+Sumer and Akkad, these Semitic tribes moved into the valley of the
+Euphrates, and under Sargon I conquered ancient Babylonia at Akkad and
+afterward extended the conquest south over Sumer.  They found two main
+cities to the west of the Euphrates, Ur and Eridu.  Having invaded this
+territory, they adopted the arts and industries already established,
+but brought in the dominant power and language of the conquerors.  Four
+successive invasions of these people into this territory eventually
+changed the whole life into Semitic civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Later a branch moved north and settled higher up on the Tigris,
+founding the city of Nineveh.  The Elamites, another Semitic tribe on
+the east of the Euphrates, founded the great cities of Susa and
+Ecbatana.  Far to the northwest were the Armenian group of Semites, and
+directly east on the shores of the Mediterranean were the Phoenicians.
+This whole territory eventually became Semitic in type of civilization.
+Also, the Hixos, or shepherd kings, invaded Egypt and dominated that
+territory for two hundred years.  Later the Phoenicians became the
+great sea-going people of the world and extended their colonies along
+the coasts through Greece, Italy, northern Africa, and Spain.  So there
+was the Semitic influence from the Pillars of Hercules far east to the
+River Indus, in India.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Strange to say, the mighty empires of Babylon and Nineveh and Phoenicia
+and Elam failed, while a little territory including the valley of the
+Jordan, called Palestine, containing a small and insignificant branch
+of the Semitic race, called Hebrews, developed a literature, language,
+and religion which exercised a most powerful influence in all
+civilizations even to the present time.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Phoenicians Became the Great Navigators</I>.&mdash;While the Phoenicians
+are given credit for establishing the first great sea power, they were
+not the first navigators.  Long before they developed, boats plied up
+and down the Euphrates River, and in the island of Crete and elsewhere
+the ancient Aegeans carried on their trade in ships with Egypt and the
+eastern
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P162"></A>162}</SPAN>
+Mediterranean.  The Aegean civilization preceded the
+Greeks and existed at a time when Egypt and Babylon were young.  The
+principal city of Cnossus exhibited also a high state of civilization,
+as shown in the ruins discovered by recent explorers in the island of
+Crete.  It is known that they had trade with early Egypt, but whether
+their city was destroyed by an earthquake or by the savage Greek
+pirates of a later day is undetermined.  The Phoenicians, however,
+developed a strip of territory along the east shore of the
+Mediterranean, and built the great cities of Tyre and Sidon.  From
+these parent cities they extended their trade down through the
+Mediterranean and out through the Pillars of Hercules, and founded
+their colonies in Africa, Greece, Italy, and Spain.  Long after Tyre
+and Sidon, the parent states, had declined, Carthage developed one of
+the most powerful cities and governments of ancient times.  No doubt,
+the Phoenicians deserve great credit for advancing shipbuilding, trade,
+and commerce, and in extending their explorations over a wide range of
+the known earth.  To them, also, we give credit for the perfection of
+the alphabet and the manufacture of glass, precious stones, and dyes;
+but their prominence in history appears in the long struggle between
+the Carthaginians and the Romans.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>A Comparison of the Egyptian and Babylonian Civilizations</I>.&mdash;Taken as
+a whole, there is a similarity in some respects between the Egyptian
+and the Babylonian civilizations.  Coming from different racial groups,
+from different centres, there must necessarily be contrasts in many of
+the arts of life.  Egypt was an isolated country with a long river
+flowing through its entire length, which brought from the mountains the
+detritus which kept its valleys fertile.  Communication was established
+through the whole length by boats, which had a tendency to promote
+social intercourse and establish national life.  With the Mediterranean
+on the north, the Red Sea on the east, and the Libyan Desert to the
+west, it was tolerably well protected even though not shut in by high
+mountain ranges.  Yet it was open at all times for the hardy invaders
+who sought food for
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P163"></A>163}</SPAN>
+flocks and herds and people.  There was
+always "corn in Egypt" to those people suffering from drought in the
+semi-arid districts of Africa and Arabia.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Nevertheless, while Egypt suffered many invasions, she maintained with
+considerable constancy the ancient racial traits, and had a continuity
+of development through the passing centuries which retained many of the
+primitive characteristics.  The valley of the Euphrates was kept
+fertile by the flow of the great rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates,
+which, having a large watershed in the mountains, brought floods down
+through the valleys bearing the silt which made the land fertile.  But
+in both countries at an early period the population encroached upon the
+natural supply of food, and methods of irrigation were introduced to
+increase the food supply.  The attempts to build palaces, monuments,
+and tombs were characteristic of both peoples.  On account of the
+dryness of the climate, these great monuments have been preserved with
+a freshness through thousands of years.  In the valley of the Euphrates
+many of the cities that were reduced to ruin were covered with the
+drifting sands and floods until they are buried beneath the surface.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In sculpture, painting, and in art, as well as in permanency of her
+mighty pyramids, sphinxes, and tombs, Egypt stands far ahead of
+Babylonia.  The difference is mainly expressed in action, for in Egypt
+there is an expression of calm, solemnity, and peace in the largest
+portions of the architectural works, while in Babylonia there is less
+skill and more action.  The evidences of the type of civilization are
+similar in one respect, namely, that during the thousand years of
+development the great monuments were left to show the grandeur of
+kings, monarchs, and priests, built by thousands of slaves suffering
+from the neglect of their superiors through ages of toil.  Undoubtedly,
+this failure to recognize the rights of suffering humanity gradually
+brought destruction upon these great nations.  If the strength of a
+great nation was spent in building up the mighty representations of the
+glory and power of kings
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P164"></A>164}</SPAN>
+to the neglect of the improvement of the
+race as a whole, it could mean nothing else but final destruction.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+While we contemplate with wonder the greatness of the monuments of the
+pyramids and the sphinxes of Egypt and the winged bulls of Assyria, it
+is a sad reflection on the cost of material and life which it took to
+build them.  No wonder, then, that to-day, where once people lived and
+thought and toiled, where nations grew and flourished, where fields
+were tilled and harvests were abundant, and where the whole earth was
+filled with national life, there is nothing remaining but a barren
+waste and drifting sands, all because men failed to fully estimate real
+human values and worth.  Marvellous as many of the products of these
+ancient civilizations appear, there is comparatively little to show
+when it is considered that four thousand years elapsed to bring them
+about.  Mighty as the accomplishments were, the slow process of
+development shows a lack of vital progress.  We cannot escape the idea
+that the despotism existing in Oriental nations must have crushed out
+the best life and vigor of a people.  It is mournful to contemplate the
+destruction of these mighty civilizations, yet we may thoughtfully
+question what excuse could be advanced for their continuance.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is true that Egypt had an influence on Greece, which later became so
+powerful in her influences on Western civilizations; and doubtless
+Babylon contributed much to the Hebrews, who in turn have left a
+lasting impression upon the world.  The method of dispersion of
+cultures of a given centre shows that all races have been great
+borrowers, and usually when one art, industry, or custom has been
+thoroughly established, it may continue to influence other races after
+the race that gave the product has passed away, or other nations, while
+the original nation has perished.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Hebrews Made a Permanent Contribution to World
+Civilization</I>.&mdash;Tradition, pretty well supported by history, shows that
+Abraham came out of Ur of Chaldea about 1,900 years before Christ, and
+with his family moved northward into
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P165"></A>165}</SPAN>
+Haran for larger pasture for
+his flocks on the grassy plains of Mesopotamia.  Thence he proceeded
+westward to Palestine, made a trip to Egypt, and returned to the upper
+reaches of the Jordan.  Here his tribe grew and flourished, and
+finally, after the manner of pastoral peoples, moved into Egypt for
+corn in time of drought.  There his people lived for several hundred
+years, attached to the Egyptian nation, and adopting many phases of the
+Egyptian civilization.  When he turned his back upon his people in
+Babylon, he left polytheism behind.  He obtained conception of one
+supreme being, ruler and creator of the universe, who could not be
+shown in the form of an image made by man.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This was not the first time in the history of the human race when
+nations had approximated the idea of one supreme God above all gods and
+men, but it was the first time the conception that He was the only God
+and pure monotheism obtained the supremacy.  No doubt, in the history
+of the Hebrew development this idea came as a gradual growth rather
+than as an instantaneous inspiration.  In fact, all nations who have
+reached any advanced degree of religious development have approached
+the idea of monotheism, but it remained for the Hebrews to put it in
+practice in their social life and civil polity.  It became the great
+central controlling thought of national life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Compared with the great empires of Babylon and Nineveh and Egypt, the
+Hebrew nation was small, crude, barbarous, insignificant, but the idea
+of one god controlling all, who passed in conception from a god of
+authority, imminence, and revenge, to a god of justice and
+righteousness, who controlled the affairs of men, developed the Hebrew
+concept of human relations.  It led them to develop a legal-ethical
+system which became the foundation of the Hebrew commonwealth and
+established a code of laws for the government of the nation, which has
+been used by all subsequent nations as the foundation of the moral
+element in their civil code.  Moses was not the first lawgiver of the
+world of nations.  Indeed, before
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P166"></A>166}</SPAN>
+Abraham left his ancient home
+in Chaldea there was ruling in Babylon King Hammurabi, who formulated a
+wise code of laws, said to be the first of which we have any record in
+the history of the human race.  The Hebrew nation was always
+subordinate to other nations, but after its tribes developed into a
+kingdom and their king, Saul, was succeeded by David and Solomon, it
+reached a high state of civilization in certain lines.  Yet, at its
+best, under the reign of David and Solomon, it was upon the whole a
+barbarous nation.  When the Hebrews were finally conquered and led into
+captivity in Babylon, they reflected upon their ancient life, their
+laws, their literature, and there was compiled a greater part of the
+Bible.  This instrument has been greater than the palaces of Babylon or
+the pyramids of Egypt, or great conquests of military hosts in the
+perpetuation of the life of a nation.  Its history, its religion, its
+literature in proverbs and songs, its laws, its moral code, all have
+been enduring monuments that have lasted and will last as long as the
+human race continues its attempt to establish justice among men.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Civilizations of India and China</I>.&mdash;Before leaving the subject of
+the Oriental civilizations, at least brief mention must be made of the
+development of the Hindu philosophy and religion.  In the valleys of
+the great rivers of India, in the shadow of the largest mountains
+rising to the skies, there developed a great people of great learning
+and wonderful philosophy.  In their abstract conceptions they built up
+the most wonderful and complex theogony and theology ever invented by
+men.  This system, represented by elements of law, theology, philosophy
+and language, literature and learning, is found in the Vedas and the
+great literary remnants of the poets.  They reveal to us the intensity
+of learning at the time of the highest development of the Indian
+philosophy.  However, its influence, wrapped up in the Brahminical
+religion of fatalism, was largely non-progressive.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Later, about 500 years before Christ, when Gautama Buddha developed his
+ethical philosophy of life, new hope came
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P167"></A>167}</SPAN>
+into the world.  But
+this did not stay for the regeneration of India, but, rather, declined
+and passed on into China and Japan.  The influence of Indian
+civilization on Western civilization has been very slight, owing to the
+great separation between the two, and largely because their objectives
+have been different.  The former devoted itself to the reflection of
+life, the latter resolved itself into action.  Nevertheless, we shall
+find in the Greek philosophy and Greek religion shadows of the learning
+of the Orient.  But the Hindu civilization, while developing much that
+is grand and noble, like many Oriental civilizations, left the great
+masses of the people unaided and unhelped.  When it is considered what
+might have been accomplished in India, it is well characterized as a
+"land of regrets."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the dispersion of the human race over the earth, one of the first
+great centres of culture was found in Thibet, in Asia.  Here is
+supposed to be the origin of the Mongolian peoples, and the Chinese
+represent one of the chief branches of the Mongolian race.  At a very
+early period they developed an advanced stage of civilization with many
+commendable features.  Their art, the form of pottery and porcelain,
+their traditional codes of law, were influential in the Far East.
+Their philosophy culminated in Confucius, who lived about 500 years
+before Christ, and their religion was founded by Tao Tse, who existed
+many centuries before.  He was the founder of the Taoan religion of
+China.  But the civilization of China extended throughout the Far East,
+spread into Korea, and then into Japan.  It has had very little contact
+with the Western civilization, and its history is still obscure, but
+there are many marvellous things done in China which are now in more
+recent years being faithfully studied and recorded.  Their art in
+porcelain and metals had its influence on other nations and has been of
+a lasting nature.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Coming of the Aryans</I>.&mdash;The third great branch of the Caucasian
+people, whose primitive home seems to have been in central Asia, is the
+Aryan.  Somewhere north of the great
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P168"></A>168}</SPAN>
+territory of the Semites,
+there came gradually down into Nineveh and Babylon and through Armenia
+a people of different type from the Semites and from the Egyptians.
+They lived on the great grassy plains of central Asia, wandering with
+their flocks and herds, and settling down long enough to raise a crop,
+and then move on.  They lived a simple life, but were a vigorous,
+thrifty, and family-loving people; and while the great civilization of
+Babylon, Assyria, and Egypt was developing, they were pushing down from
+the north.  They finally developed in Persia a great national life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Subsequently, under Darius I, a great Aryan empire was established in
+the seats of the old civilization which he had conquered, whose extent
+was greater than the world had hitherto known.  It extended over the
+old Assyrian and Babylonian empires, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria, in
+Caucasian and Caspian regions; covered Media and Persia, and extended
+into India as far as the Indus.  The old Semitic civilizations were
+passing away, and the control of the Aryan race was appearing.  Later
+these Persians found themselves at war with the Greeks, who were of the
+same racial stock.  The Persian Empire was no great improvement over
+the later Babylonian and Assyrian Empires.  It had become more
+specifically a world empire, which set out to conquer and plunder other
+nations.  It might have been enlightened to a certain extent, but it
+had received the idea of militarism and conquest.  It was the first
+great empire of the Orient to come in contact with a rising Western
+civilization, then centering in Greece.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This Aryan stock, when considered in Europe or Western civilization, is
+known as the Nordic race.  In the consideration of Western civilization
+further discussion will be given of the origin and dispersion of this
+race.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  Study the economic foundation of Egypt.  Babylon.  Arabia.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  Why did Oriental nations go to war?  Show by example.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  What did Egypt and Babylon contribute of lasting value to
+civilization?
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P169"></A>169}</SPAN>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  What was the Hebrew contribution?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  Why did these ancient empires decline and disappear?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  Study the points of difference between the civilization of Babylon
+and Egypt and Western civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  Contrast the civilization of India and China with Western
+civilization.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap09fn1"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap09fn1text">1</A>] L. W. King, <I>History of Sumer and Akkad</I>.  <I>History of Babylon</I>.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap10"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P170"></A>170}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER X
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+THE ORIENTAL TYPE OF CIVILIZATION
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Governments of the Early Oriental Civilizations</I>.&mdash;In comparing
+the Oriental civilizations which sprang up almost independently in
+different parts of Asia and Africa with European civilizations, we
+shall be impressed with the despotism of these ancient governments.  It
+is not easy to determine why this feature should have been so
+universal, unless it could be attributed to human traits inherent in
+man at this particular stage of his development.  Perhaps, also, in
+emerging from a patriarchal state of society, where small, independent
+groups were closely united with the oldest male member as leader and
+governor of all, absolute authority under these conditions was
+necessary for the preservation of the tribe or group, and it became a
+fixed custom which no one questioned.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Subsequently, when the population increased around a common centre and
+various tribes and groups were subjected to a central organization, the
+custom of absolute rule was transferred from the small group to the
+king, who ruled over all.  Also, the nature of most of these
+governments may have been influenced by the type of religion which
+prevailed.  It became systematized under the direction of priests, who
+stood between the people and the great unknown, holding absolute sway
+but working on the emotion of fear.  Perhaps, also, a large group of
+people with a limited food supply were easily reduced to a state of
+slavery and dwelt in a territory as a mass of unorganized humanity,
+subservient only to the superior directing power.  It appears to be a
+lack of organized popular will.  The religions, too, looked intensely
+to the authority of the past, developing fixity of customs, habits,
+laws,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P171"></A>171}</SPAN>
+and social usages.  These conditions were conducive to the
+exercise of the despotism of those in power.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>War Existed for Conquest and Plunder</I>.&mdash;The kings of these Oriental
+despotisms seemed to be possessed with inordinate vanity, and when once
+raised to power used not only all the resources of the nation and of
+the people for magnifying that power, but also used the masses of the
+people at home at labor, and abroad in war, for the glory of the
+rulers.  Hence, wars of conquest were frequent, always accompanied with
+the desire for plunder of territory, the wealth of temples, and the
+coffers of the rulers.  Many times wars were based upon whims of kings
+and rulers and trivial matters, which can only be explained through
+excessive egoism and vanity; yet in nearly every instance the idea of
+conquest was to increase the wealth of the nation and power of the king
+by going to war.  There was, of course, jealousy of nations and rivalry
+for supremacy, as the thousand years of war between Egypt and Babylonia
+illustrates, or as the conquest of Babylon by Assyria, or, indeed, the
+later conquest of the whole East by the Persian monarchs, testifies.
+These great wars were characterized by the crude struggle and slaughter
+of hordes of people.  Not until the horse and chariot came into use was
+there any great improvement in methods of warfare.  Bronze weapons and,
+later, iron were used in most of these wars.  It was merely barbarism
+going to war with barbarism in order to increase barbaric splendor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Religious Belief Was an Important Factor in Despotic Government</I>.&mdash;In
+the beginning we shall find that animism, or the belief in spirits, was
+common to all nations and tribes.  There was in the early religious
+life of people a wild, unorganized superstition, which brought them in
+subjection to the control of the spirits of the world.  In the slow
+development of the masses, these ideas always remained prominent, and
+however highly developed religious life became, however pure the system
+of religious philosophy and religious worship, as represented by the
+most intelligent and farthest advanced of the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P172"></A>172}</SPAN>
+people, it yet
+remains true that the masses of the people were mastered and ruled by a
+gross superstition; and possibly this answers the question to a large
+extent as to why the religion of the Orient could, on the one hand,
+reach such heights of purity of spirit and worship and, on the other,
+such a degradation in thought, conception, and practice.  It could
+reach to the skies with one arm and into the grossest phases of
+nature-worship with the other.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It appears the time came when, as a matter of self-defense, man must
+manipulate and control spirits to save himself from destruction, and
+there were persons particularly adapted to this process, who formed the
+germs of the great system of priesthood.  They stood between the masses
+and the spirits, and as the system developed and the number of priests
+increased, they became the ones who ruled the masses in place of the
+spirits.  The priesthood, then, wherever it has developed a great
+system, has exercised an almost superhuman power over the ignorant, the
+debased, and the superstitious.  It was the policy of kings to
+cultivate and protect this priesthood, and it was largely this which
+enabled them to have power over the masses.  Having once obtained this
+power, and the military spirit having arisen in opposition to foreign
+tribes, the priests were at the head of the military, religious, and
+civil systems of the nation.  Indeed, the early king was the high
+priest of the tribe, and he inherited through long generations the
+particular function of leader of religious worship.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It will be easy to conceive that where the art of embalming was carried
+on, people believed in the future life of the soul.  The religious
+system of the Egyptians was, indeed, of very remarkable character.  The
+central idea in their doctrine was the unity of God, whom they
+recognized as the one Supreme Being, who was given the name of Creator,
+Eternal Father, to indicate the various characters in which he
+appeared.  This pure monotheism was seldom grasped by the great masses
+of the people; indeed, it is to be supposed that many of the priestly
+order scarcely rose to its pure conceptions.  But there
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P173"></A>173}</SPAN>
+were
+other groups or dynasties of gods which were worshipped throughout
+Egypt.  These were mostly mythical beings, who were supposed to perform
+especial functions in the creation and control of the universe.  Among
+these Osiris and Isis, his wife and sister, were important, and their
+worship common throughout all Egypt.  Osiris came upon the earth in the
+interests of mankind, to manifest the true and the good in life.  He
+was put to death by the machinations of the evil spirit, was buried and
+rose, and became afterward the judge of the dead.  In this we find the
+greatest mystery in the Egyptian religion.  Typhon was the god of the
+evil spirits, a wicked, rebellious devil, who held in his grasp all the
+terrors of disease and of the desert.  Sometimes he was in the form of
+a frightful serpent, again in the form of a crocodile or hippopotamus.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Seeking through the light of religious mystery to explain all the
+natural phenomena observed in physical nature, the Egyptians fell into
+the habit of coarse animal worship.  The cat, the snake, the crocodile,
+and the bull became sacred animals, to kill which was the vilest
+sacrilege.  Even if one was so unfortunate as to kill one of these
+sacred animals by accident, he was in danger of his life at the hands
+of the infuriated mob.  It is related that a Roman soldier, having
+killed a sacred cat, was saved from destruction by the multitude only
+by the intercession of the great ruler Ptolemy.  The taking of the life
+of one of these sacred creatures caused the deepest mourning, and
+frequently the wildest terror, while every member of the family shaved
+his head at the death of a dog.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There was symbolism, too, in all this worship.  Thus the scarabeus, or
+beetle, which was held to be especially sacred, was considered as the
+emblem of the sun.  Thousands of these relics may be found in the
+different museums, having been preserved to the present time.  The
+bull, Apis, not only was a sacred creature, but was held to be a real
+god.  It was thought that the soul of Osiris pervaded the spirit of the
+bull, and at the bull's death it passed on into that of his successor.
+The worship of the lower forms of life led to a coarseness in religious
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P174"></A>174}</SPAN>
+belief and practice.  How it came about is difficult to
+ascertain.  It is supposed by some scholars that the animal worship had
+its origin in the low form of worship belonging to the indigenous
+tribes of Egypt, and that the higher order was introduced by the
+Hamites, or perhaps by the Semites who mingled with and overcame the
+original inhabitants of the Nile valley.  In all probability, the
+advanced ideas of religious belief and thought were the essential
+outcome of the learning and speculative philosophy of the Egyptians,
+while the old animal worship became the most convenient for the great
+masses of low and degraded beings who spent their lives in building
+tombs for the great.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The religious life of the Egyptians was protected and guarded by an
+elaborate priesthood.  It formed a perfect hierarchy of priest, high
+priest, scribes, keepers of the sacred robes and animals, sculptors,
+embalmers, besides all the attendants upon the services of worship and
+religion.  Not only was this class privileged among all the castes of
+Egypt as representing the highest class of individuals, but it enjoyed
+immunity from taxation and had the privilege of administering the
+products of one-third of the land to carry on the expenses of the
+temple and religious worship.  The ceremonial life of the priests was
+almost perfect.  Scrupulous in the care of their person, they bathed
+twice each day and frequently at night, and every third day shaved the
+entire body.  Their linen was painfully neat, and they lived on plain,
+simple food, as conducive to the service of religion.  They exerted a
+great power not only over the religious life of the Egyptians but, on
+account of the peculiar relation of religion to government, over the
+entire development of Egypt.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The religion of Oriental nations was non-progressive in its nature.  It
+had a tendency to repress freedom of thought and freedom of action.
+Connected as it was with the binding influence of caste, man could not
+free himself from the dictates of religion.  The awful sublimity of
+nature found its counterpart in the terrors of religion; and that
+religion attempted to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P175"></A>175}</SPAN>
+answer all the questions that might arise
+concerning external nature.  It rested upon the basis of authority
+built through ages of tradition, and through a continuous domineering
+priest-craft.  The human mind struggling within its own narrow bounds
+could not overcome the stultifying and sterilizing influence of such a
+religion.  The lower forms of religion were "of the earth, earthy."
+The higher forms consisted of such abstract conceptions concerning the
+creation of the earth, and the manipulation of all the forces of nature
+and the control of all the powers of man, as to be entirely
+non-progressive.  There could be no independent scientific
+investigation.  There could be no rational development of the mind.
+The religion of the Orient brought gloom to the masses and cut off hope
+forever.  The people became subject to the grinding forces of fate.
+How, then, could there be intellectual development based upon freedom
+of action?  How could there be any higher life of the soul, any moral
+culture, any great advancement in the arts and sciences, or any popular
+expression regarding war and government?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Social Organization Was Incomplete</I>.&mdash;All social organization tended
+toward the common centre, the king, and there was very little local
+organization except as it was necessary to bring the people under
+control of official rule.  There were apparently very few voluntary
+associations.  Among the nobility, the priests, and ladies of rank, we
+find frequently elaborate costumes of dress, manifold ornaments,
+necklaces, rings, and earrings; but whatever went to the rich seemed to
+be a deprivation of the poor.  Indeed, when we consider that it cost
+only a few shillings at most to rear a child to the age of twenty-one
+years in Egypt, we can imagine how meagre and stinted that life must
+have been.  The poorer classes of people dressed in a very simple
+style, wearing a single linen shirt and over it a woollen mantle; while
+among the very poor much less was worn.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+However, it seems that there was time for some of the population to
+engage in sports such as laying snares for birds,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P176"></A>176}</SPAN>
+angling for
+fish, popular hunts, wrestling, playing checkers, chess, and ball, and
+it appears that many of these people were gifted in these sports.  Just
+what classes of people engaged in this leisure is difficult to
+determine.  Especially in the case of Egypt, most of the people were
+condemned to hard and toilsome labor.  Probably the nobility and people
+of wealth were the only classes who had time for sports.  The great
+temples and palaces were built with solid masonry of stone and brick,
+but the dwelling-houses were constructed in a light, graceful style,
+surrounded with long galleries and terraces common at this period of
+development in Oriental civilization.  The gardening was symmetrical
+and accurate, the walks led in well-defined lines and were carefully
+conventional.  The rooms of the houses, too, were well arranged and
+tastefully decorated, and members of the household distributed in its
+generous apartments, each individual finding his special place for
+position and service.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For the comparatively small number of prosperous and influential
+people, life was refined and luxurious so far as the inventions and
+conveniences for comfort would permit.  They had well-constructed and
+well-appointed houses, and, judging from the relics discovered in tombs
+and from the records and inscriptions, people wore richly decorated
+clothing and lovely jewels.  They had numerous feasts with music and
+dancing and servants to wait upon them in every phase of life.  It is
+related, too, that excursions were common in summer on the great
+rivers.  But even though there was a life of ease among the wealthy,
+they were without many comforts known to modern times.  They had cotton
+and woollen fabrics for clothing, but no silk.  They had dentists and
+doctors in those days, and teeth were filled with gold as in modern
+times.  Their articles of food consisted of meat and vegetables, but
+there were no hens and no eggs.  They used the camel in Mesopotamia and
+walked mostly in Egypt, or went by boat on the river.  However, when we
+consider the change of ancient Babylon to Nineveh, and the Egyptian
+civilization of old Thebes to that
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P177"></A>177}</SPAN>
+which developed later, there
+is evidence of progress.  The religious life lost a good many of its
+crudities, abolished human sacrifice, and developed a refined mysticism
+which was more elevating than the crude nature-worship.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The rule of caste which settled down over the community in this early
+period relegated every individual to his particular place.  From this
+place there could be no escape.  The common laborers moving the great
+blocks of stone to build the mighty pyramids of the valley of the Nile
+could be nothing but common laborers.  And their sons and their
+daughters for generation after generation must keep the same sphere of
+life.  And though the warriors fared much better, they, too, were
+confined to their own group.  The shepherd class must remain a shepherd
+class forever; they could never rise superior to their own
+surroundings.  So, too, in Babylon and India.  There was, indeed, a
+slight variation from the caste system in Egypt and in Babylon, but in
+India it settled down from the earliest times, and the people and their
+customs were crystallized; they were bound by the chain of fate in the
+caste system forever.  We shall see, then, that the relation of the
+population to the soil and the binding influences of early custom
+tended to develop despotism in Oriental civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The result of all this was that there was no freedom or liberty of the
+individual anywhere.  With caste and despotism and degradation men
+moved forward in political and religious life as on a plane which
+inclined so slightly that, except as we look over its surface through
+the passing centuries, little change can be observed.  The king was a
+god; the government possessed supernatural power; its authority was not
+to be questioned.  The rule of the army was final.  The cruelty of
+kings and the oppression of government were customary, and thus crushed
+and oppressed, the ordinary individual had no opportunity to arise and
+walk in the dignity of his manhood.  The government, if traced to its
+source at all, was of divine origin, and though those who ruled might
+stop to consider for an instant their own despotic actions, and in
+special cases yield
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P178"></A>178}</SPAN>
+in clemency to their subjects, from the
+subject's standpoint there could be nothing but to yield to the
+despotism of kings and the unrelenting rule of government.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+We shall find, then, that with all of the efforts put forth the greater
+part was wasted.  Millions of people were born, lived, and died,
+leaving scarcely a mark of their existence.  No wonder that, as the
+great kings of Egypt saw the wasting elements of time, the waste of
+labor in its dreary rounds, having employed the millions in building
+the mighty temples dedicated to the worship of the gods; or having
+built great canals and aqueducts to develop irrigation that greater
+food supply might be assured, thus observing the majesty of their
+condition in relation to other human beings, they should have employed
+these millions of serfs in building their own tombs and monuments to
+remain the only lasting vestige of the civilization long since passed
+away.  Everywhere in the Oriental civilization, then, are lack of
+freedom and the appearance of despotism.  Everywhere is evidence of
+waste of individual life.  No deep conception can be found in either
+the philosophy or the practice of the Egyptians or the Babylonians of
+the real object of human life.  And yet the few meagre products of art
+and of learning handed down to European civilization from these
+Oriental countries must have had a vast influence in laying the
+foundations of modern civilized life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Economic Influences</I>.&mdash;In the first place, the warm climate of these
+countries required but little clothing; for a few cents a year a person
+could be clothed sufficiently to protect himself from the climate and
+to observe the rules of modesty so far as they existed in those times.
+In the second place, in hot climates less food is required than in
+cold.  In cold countries people need a large quantity of heavy, oily
+foods, while in hot climates they need a lighter food and, indeed, less
+of it.  Thus we have in these fertile valleys of the Orient the
+conditions which supply sustenance for millions at a very small amount
+of exertion or labor.  Now, it is a well-established fact that cheap
+food among classes of people who have not developed
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P179"></A>179}</SPAN>
+a high state
+of civilization favors a rapid increase of population.  The records
+show in Babylon and Egypt, as well as in Palestine, that the population
+multiplied at a very rapid rate.  And this principle is enhanced by the
+fact that in tropical climates, where less pressure of want and cold is
+brought to bear, the conditions for successful propagation of the human
+race are present.  And this is one reason why the earliest
+civilizations have always been found in tropical climates, and it was
+not until man had more vigor of constitution and higher development of
+physical and mental powers that he could undertake the mastery of
+himself and nature under less favorable circumstances.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The result was that human life became cheap.  The great mass of men
+became so abundant as to press upon the food supply to its utmost
+limit.  And they who had the control of this food supply controlled the
+bodies and souls of the great poverty-stricken mass who toiled for
+daily bread.  Here we find the picture of abject slavery of the masses.
+The rulers, through the government, strengthened by the priests, who
+held over the masses of the lower people in superstitious awe the
+tenets of their faith, forced them into subjection.  There was no value
+placed upon a human life; why, then, should there be upon the masses of
+individuals?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+We shall find, too, as the result of all this, that the civilization
+became more or less stationary.  True, there must have been a slow
+development of religious ideas, a slow development of art, a slow
+development of government, and yet when the type was once set there was
+but little change from century to century in the relation of human
+beings to one another, and their relation to the products of nature.
+When we consider the accomplishments of these people we must not forget
+the length of time it took to produce them.  Reckon back from the
+present time 6,000 years, and then consider what has been accomplished
+in America in the last century.  Think back 2,000 years, and see what
+had been accomplished in Rome from the year of the founding of the
+imperial city until the Caesars lived
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P180"></A>180}</SPAN>
+in their mighty palaces, a
+period of seven and a half centuries.  Observe, too, what was
+accomplished in Greece from the time of Homer until the time of
+Aristotle, a period of about six and a half centuries; then observe the
+length of time it took to develop the Egyptian civilization, and we
+shall see its slow progress.  It is also to be observed that the
+Egyptian civilization had reached its culmination when Greece began,
+and had begun its slow decline.  After considering this we shall
+understand that the civilization of Egypt finally became stationary,
+conventionalized, non-progressive; that it was only a question of time
+when other nations should rule the land of the Pharaohs, and that sands
+should drift where once were populous cities, covering the relics of
+this ancient civilization far beneath the surface.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The progress in industrial arts and the use of implements was, of
+necessity, very slow.  Where the laboring man was considered of little
+value, treated as a mere physical machine, to be fed and used for
+mechanical purposes alone, it mattered little with what tools he
+worked.  In the building of the pyramids we find no mighty engines for
+the movement of the great stones, we find no evidence of mechanical
+genius to provide labor-saving machines.  The inclined plane and
+rollers, the simplest of all contrivances, were about the only
+inventions.  Also, in the buildings of Babylon, the tools with which
+men worked must of necessity have been very poor.  It is remarkable to
+what extent modern invention depends upon the elevation of the standard
+of life of labor, and how man through intelligence continually makes
+certain contrivances for the perfection of human industry.  However, if
+we consider the ornaments used to adorn the person, or for the service
+of the rich, or the elaborate clothing of the wealthy, we shall find
+quite a high state of development in these lines, showing the greatest
+contrast between the condition of the laboring multitudes on the one
+hand and the luxurious few on the other.  Along this line of the rapid
+development of ornaments we find evidence of luxury and ease, and, in
+the slow development of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P181"></A>181}</SPAN>
+industrial arts, the sacrifice of labor.
+And all of the advancement in the mighty works of art and industry was
+made at the sacrifice of human labor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+To sum this up, we find, then, that the influence of despotic
+government, of the binding power of caste, of the prevalence of custom,
+of the influence of priestcraft, the retarding power of a
+non-progressive religion, concentration of intelligence in a privileged
+class that seeks its own ease, the slow development of industrial
+implements, and the rapid development of ornaments, brought decay.  We
+see in all of this a retarding of improvement, a stagnation of
+organizing effort, and the crystallization of ancient civilization
+about old forms, to be handed down from generation to generation
+without progress.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Records, Writing, and Paper</I>.&mdash;At an early period papyrus, a paper
+made of a reed that grows along the Nile valley, was among the first
+inventions.  It was the earliest artificial writing material discovered
+by any nation of which we have a record; and we are likely to remember
+it from its two names, <I>biblos</I> and <I>papyrus</I>, for from these come two
+of our most common words, bible and paper.  Frequently, however,
+leather, pottery, tiles, and stone, and even wooden tablets, were used
+as substitutes for the papyrus.  In the early period the Egyptians used
+the hieroglyphic form of writing, which consisted of rude pictures of
+objects which had a peculiar significance.  Finally the hieratic
+simplified this form by symbolizing and conventionalizing to a large
+extent the hieroglyphic characters.  Later came the demotic, which was
+a further departure from the old concrete form of representation, and
+had the advantage of being more readily written than either of the
+others.[<A NAME="chap10fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap10fn1">1</A>]  These characters were used to inscribe the deeds of kings
+on monuments and tablets, and when in 1798 the key to the Egyptian
+writing was obtained through means of the Rosetta stone, the
+opportunity for a large addition to the history of Egypt was made.
+Strange as it may seem, these ancient people had written romances and
+fairy tales; one especially to be mentioned
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P182"></A>182}</SPAN>
+is the common
+<I>Cinderella and the Glass Slipper</I>, written more than thirteen
+centuries B.C.  But in addition to these were published documents,
+private letters, fables, epics, and autobiographies, and treatises on
+astronomy, medicine, history, and scientific subjects.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Babylonians and Assyrians developed the cuneiform method of
+writing.  They had no paper, but made their inscriptions on clay
+tablets and cylinders.  These were set away in rooms called libraries.
+The discovery of the great library of Ashur-bani-pal, of Nineveh,
+revealed the highest perfection of this ancient method of recording
+events.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The art of Egypt was manifested in the dressing of precious stones, the
+weaving of fine fabrics, and fine work in gold ornaments.  Sculpture
+and painting were practically unknown as arts, although the use of
+colors was practised to a considerable extent.  Artistic energy was
+worked out in the making of the tombs of kings, the obelisks, the
+monuments, the sphinxes, and the pyramids.  It was a conception of the
+massive in artistic expression.  In Babylon and Nineveh, especially the
+latter, the work of sculpture in carving the celebrated winged bulls
+gives evidence of the attempt to picture power and strength rather than
+beauty.  Doubtless the Babylonians developed artistic taste in the
+manufacture of jewelry out of precious stones and gold.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Beginnings of Science Were Strong in Egypt, Weak in Babylon</I>.&mdash;The
+greatest expression of the Egyptian learning was found in science.  The
+work in astronomy began at a very early date from a practical
+standpoint.  The rising of the Nile occurred at a certain time
+annually, coinciding with the time of the rise of the Dog-star, which
+led these people to imagine that they stood in the relation of effect
+and cause, and from these simple data began the study of astronomy.
+The Egyptians, by the study of the movement of the stars, were enabled
+to determine the length of the sidereal year, which they divided into
+twelve months, of thirty days each, adding five days to complete the
+year.  This is the calendar which was
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P183"></A>183}</SPAN>
+introduced from Egypt into
+the Roman Empire by Julius Caesar.  It was revised by Pope Gregory XIII
+in 1582, and has since been the universal system for the Western
+civilized world.  Having reached their limit of fact in regard to the
+movement of the heavenly bodies, their imagination related the stars to
+human conduct, and astrology became an essential outcome.  It was easy
+to believe that the heavenly bodies, which, apparently, had such great
+influence in the rise of the river and in the movement of the tides,
+would have either a good influence or a baneful influence, not only
+over the vegetable world but upon human life and human destiny as well.
+Hence, astrology, in Egypt as in Babylonia, became one of the important
+arts.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+From the measurement of the Nile and the calculation of the lands,
+which must be redistributed after each annual overflow, came the system
+of concrete measurement which later developed into the science of
+geometry.  Proceeding from the simple measurement of land, step by step
+were developed the universal abstract problems of geometry, and the
+foundation for this great branch of mathematics was laid.  The use of
+arithmetic in furnishing numerical expressions in the solution of
+geometrical and arithmetical problems became common.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Egyptians had considerable knowledge of many drugs and medicines,
+and the physicians of Egypt had a great reputation among the ancients;
+for every doctor was a specialist and pursued his subject and his
+practice to the utmost limit of fact and theory.  But the physician
+must treat cases according to customs already established in the past.
+There was but little opportunity for the advancement of his art.  Yet
+it became very much systematized and conventionalized.  The study of
+anatomy developed also the art of embalming, one of the most
+distinctive features of Egyptian civilization.  This art was carried on
+by the regular physicians, who made use of resins, oils, bitumens, and
+various gums.  It was customary to embalm the bodies of wealthy persons
+by filling them with resinous substances and wrapping them closely in
+linen
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P184"></A>184}</SPAN>
+bandages.  The poorer classes were cured very much as beef
+is cured before drying, and then wrapped in coarse garments preparatory
+to burial.  The number of individuals who were thus disposed of after
+death is estimated at not less than 420,000,000 between 2000 B.C. and
+700 A.D.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Contribution to Civilization</I>.&mdash;The building of the great empires
+on the Tigris and Euphrates had a tendency to collect the products of
+civilization so far as they existed, and to distribute them over a
+large area.  Thus, the industries that began in early Sumer and Akkad,
+coming from farther east, were passed on to Egypt and Phoenicia and
+were further distributed over the world.  Especially is this true in
+the work of metals, the manufacture of glass, and the development of
+the alphabet, which probably originated in Babylon and was improved by
+the Phoenicians, and, through them as traders, had a wide dispersion.
+Perhaps one ought to consider that the study of the stars and the
+heavenly bodies, although it led no farther than astrology and the
+development of magic, was at least a beginning, although in a crude
+way, of an inquiry into nature.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In Egypt, however, we find that there was more or less scientific study
+and invention and development of reflective thinking.  Moreover, the
+advancement in the arts of life, especially industrial, had great
+influence over the Greeks, whose early philosophers were students of
+the Egyptian system.  Also, the contact of the Hebrews and Phoenicians
+with Egypt gave a strong coloring to their civilization.  Especially is
+this true of the Hebrews, who dwelt so long in the shadow of the
+Egyptian civilization.  The Hebrews, after their captivity in Babylon,
+contributed the Bible, with its sacred literature, to the world, which
+with its influence through the legal-ethicalism, or moral code, its
+monotheistic doctrines, and its attempted development of a commonwealth
+based on justice, had a lasting influence on civilization.  But in the
+life of the Hebrew people in Palestine its influence on surrounding
+nations was not so great as in the later times when the Jews were
+scattered over the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P185"></A>185}</SPAN>
+world.  The Bible has been a tremendous
+civilizer of the world.  Hebrewism became a universal state of mind,
+which influenced all nations that came in contact with it.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But what did this civilization leave to the world?  The influence of
+Egypt on Greece and Greek philosophy must indeed have been great, for
+the greatest of the Greeks looked upon the Egyptian philosophy as the
+expression of the highest wisdom.  Nor can we hesitate in claiming that
+the influence of the Egyptians upon the Hebrews was considerable.
+There is a similarity in many respects between the Egyptian and the
+Hebrew code of learning; but the art and the architecture, the learning
+and the philosophy, had their influence likewise on all surrounding
+nations as soon as Egypt was opened up to communication with other
+parts of the world.  A careful study of the Greek philosophy brings
+clearly before us the influence of the Egyptian learning.  Thus Thales,
+the first of the philosophers to break away from the Grecian religion
+and mythology to inquire into the natural cause of the universe, was a
+student of Egyptian life and philosophy.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  What are the evidences of civilization discovered in
+Tut-Ankh-Amen's tomb?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  Give an outline of the chief characteristics of Egyptian
+civilization?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  What caused the decline of Egyptian civilization?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  What did Oriental civilization contribute to the subsequent welfare
+of the world?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  The influence of climate on industry in Egypt and Babylon.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  Why did the Egyptian religion fail to improve the lot of the common
+man?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  Retarding influence of the caste system in India and Egypt.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap10fn1"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap10fn1text">1</A>] See <A HREF="#chap07">Chapter VII</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap11"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P186"></A>186}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XI
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION IN AMERICA
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>America Was Peopled from the Old World</I>.&mdash;The origin of the people of
+America has been the subject of perennial controversy.  Gradually,
+however, as the studies of the human race and their migrations have
+increased, it is pretty well established that the one stream of
+migration came from Asia across a land connection along the Aleutian
+Islands, which extended to Alaska.  At an early period, probably from
+15,000 to 20,000 years age, people of the Mongoloid type crossed into
+America and gradually passed southward, some along the coast line,
+others through the interior of Alaska and thence south.  This stream of
+migration continued down through Mexico, Central America, South
+America, and even to Patagonia.  It also had a reflex movement eastward
+toward the great plains and the Mississippi valley.  There is a
+reasonable conjecture, however, that another stream of migration passed
+from Europe at a time when the British Islands were joined to the
+mainland, and the great ice cap made a solid bridge to Iceland,
+Greenland, and possibly to Labrador.  It would have been possible for
+these people to have come during the third glacial period, at the close
+of the Old Stone Age, or soon after in the Neolithic period.  The
+traditions of the people on the west coast all state their geographical
+origin in the northwest.  The traditions of the Indians of the Atlantic
+coast trace their origins to the northeast.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The people of the west coast are mostly of the round-headed type
+(brachycephalic), while those of the east coast have been of the
+long-headed type (dolichocephalic).  The two types have mingled in
+their migration southward until we have the long heads and the round or
+broad heads extending the whole
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P187"></A>187}</SPAN>
+length of the two continents.
+Intermingled with these are those of the middle derivative type, or
+mesocephalic.  From these sources there have developed on the soil of
+America, the so-called American Indians of numerous tribes, each with
+its own language and with specialized physical and mental types.  While
+the color of the skin has various shades, the coarse, straight black
+hair and brown eyes are almost general features of the whole Indian
+race.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+At different centres in both North and South America, tribes have
+become more or less settled and developed permanent phases of early
+civilization, strongly marked by the later Neolithic cultures.  In some
+exceptional cases, the uses of copper, bronze, and gold are to be
+noted.  Perhaps the most important centres are those of the Incas in
+Peru, the Mayas, Aztecs, and Terra-humares of Mexico, the
+cliff-dwellers and Pueblos of southwestern United States, the
+mound-builders of the Mississippi valley, and the Iroquois nation of
+northeastern United States and Canada.  At the time of the coming of
+the Europeans to America, the Indian population in general was nomadic,
+in the hunter-fisher stage of progress; but many of the tribes had
+tentatively engaged in agriculture, cultivating maize, squashes, and in
+some cases fruits.  Probably the larger supply of food was from
+animals, birds, fish, and shell-fish, edible roots and grains, such as
+the wild rice, and fruits from the native trees in the temperate and
+tropical countries.  The social organization was based upon the family
+and the tribe, and, in a few instances, a federation of tribes like
+that of the Iroquois nation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Incas of Peru</I>.&mdash;When the Spaniards under Pizarro undertook the
+conquest of the Peruvians, they found the Inca civilization at its
+highest state of development.  However, subsequent investigations
+discovered other and older seats of civilization of a race in some ways
+more highly developed than those with whom they came in contact.  Among
+the evidences of this ancient civilization were great temples built of
+stone, used as public buildings for the administration of religious
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P188"></A>188}</SPAN>
+rights [Transcriber's note: rites?], private buildings of
+substantial order, and paved roads with numerous bridges.  There were
+likewise ruins of edifices apparently unfinished, and traditions of an
+ascendent race which had passed away before the development of the
+Incas of Pizarro's time.  In the massive architecture of their
+buildings there was an attempt to use sculpture on an elaborate scale.
+They showed some skill in the arts and industries, such as ornamental
+work in gold, copper, and tin, and the construction of pottery on a
+large scale.  They had learned to weave and spin, and their clothing
+showed some advancement in artistic design.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In agriculture they raised corn and other grains, and developed a state
+of pastoral life, although the llama was the only domesticated animal
+of service.  Great aqueducts were built and fertilizers were used to
+increase the productive value of the soil.  The dry climate of this
+territory necessitated the use of water by irrigation, and the limited
+amount of tillable soil had forced them to use fertilizers to get the
+largest possible return per acre.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Peruvians, or Incas, were called the children of the sun.  They had
+a sacred feeling for the heavenly bodies, and worshipped the sun as the
+creator and ruler of the universe.  They had made some progress in
+astronomy, by a characterization of the sun and moon and chief planets,
+mostly for a religious purpose.  However, they had used a calendar to
+represent the months, the year, and the changing seasons.  Here, as
+elsewhere in primitive civilization, religion becomes an important
+factor in social control.  The priest comes in as the interpreter and
+controller of mysteries, and hence an important member of the
+community.  Religious sacrifices among the Peruvians were commonly of
+an immaculate nature, being mostly of fruits and flowers.  This
+relieved them of the terrors of human sacrifices so prevalent in early
+beginnings of civilization where religion became the dominant factor of
+life.  Hence their religious life was more moderate than that of many
+nations where religious control was more powerful.  Yet in governmental
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P189"></A>189}</SPAN>
+affairs and in social life, here as in other places, religion was
+made the means of enslaving the masses of the people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The government of the Incas was despotic.  It was developed through the
+old family and tribal life to a status of hereditary aristocracy.
+Individuals of the oldest families became permanent in government, and
+these were aided and supported by the priestly order.  Caste prevailed
+to a large extent, making a great difference between the situation of
+the nobility and the peasants and slaves.  Individuals born into a
+certain group must live and die within that group.  Hence the people
+were essentially peaceable, quiet, and not actively progressive.  But
+we find that the social life, in spite of the prominence of the priest
+and the nobility, was not necessarily burdensome.  Docile and passive
+in nature, they were ready to accept what appeared to them a
+well-ordered fate.  If food, clothing, and shelter be furnished, and
+other desires remain undeveloped, and life made easy, what occasion was
+there for them to be moved by nobler aspirations?  Without higher
+ideals, awakened ambition, and the multiplication of new desires, there
+was no hope of progress.  The people seemed to possess considerable
+nobility of character, and were happy, peaceful, and well disposed
+toward one another, even though non-progressive conditions gave
+evidence that they had probably reached the terminal bud of progress of
+their branch of the human race.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As to what would have been the outcome of this civilization had not the
+ruthless hand of the Spaniard destroyed it, is a matter of conjecture.
+How interesting it would have been if these people could have remained
+unmolested for 400 years as an example of progress or retardation of a
+race.  Students then could, through observation, have learned a great
+lesson concerning the development of the human race.  Is it possible
+when a branch of the human race has only so much potential power based
+upon hereditary development, upon attitude toward life, and upon
+influence of environmental conditions, that after working out its
+normal existence it grows old and decays and dies, just as even the
+sturdy oak has its normal life
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P190"></A>190}</SPAN>
+and decay?  At any rate, it seems
+that the history of the human race repeats itself over and over again
+with thousands of examples of this kind.  When races become highly
+specialized along certain lines and are unadaptable along other lines,
+changes in climate, soil, food supply, or conflict with other races
+cause them to perish.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+If we admit this to be the universal fate of tribes and races, there is
+one condition in which the normal life of the race can be prolonged,
+and that is by contact with other races which bring in new elements,
+and make new accommodations, not only through biological heredity, but
+through social heredity which causes a new lease of life to the tribe.
+Of course the deteriorating effects of a race of less culture would
+have a tendency to shorten the spiritual if not the physical life of
+the race.  Whatever conjecture we may have as to the past and the
+probable future of such a race, it is evident that the Peruvians had
+made a strong and vigorous attempt at civilization.  Their limited
+environment and simple life were not conducive to progressive ideas,
+and gave little inducement for inventive genius to lead the race
+forward.  But even as we find them, the sum-total of their civilization
+compares very favorably with the sum-total of the civilization of the
+Spaniards, who engaged to complete their destruction.  Different were
+these Spaniards in culture and learning, it is true, but their great
+difference is in the fact that the Spaniards had the tools and
+equipment for war and perhaps a higher state of military organization
+than the peace-loving Peruvians.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Aztec Civilization in Mexico</I>.&mdash;When Cortez in 1525 began his conquest
+of Mexico, he found a strong political organization under the Emperor
+Montezuma, who had through conquest, diplomacy, and assumption of power
+united all of the tribes in and around Mexico City in a strong
+federation.  These people were made up of many different tribes.  At
+this period they did not show marked development in any particular
+line, except that of social organization.  The people that occupied
+this great empire ruled by Montezuma, with the seat of power
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P191"></A>191}</SPAN>
+at
+Mexico City, were called Aztecs.  The empire extended over all of lower
+Mexico and Yucatan.  As rapidly as possible Montezuma brought adjacent
+tribes into subjection, and at the time of the Spanish conquest he
+exercised lordship over a wide country.  So far as can be ascertained,
+arts and industries practised by most of these tribes were handed down
+from extinct races that had a greater inventive genius and a higher
+state of progress.  The conquering tribes absorbed and used the arts of
+the conquered, as the Greeks did those of the conquered Aegeans.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The practice of agriculture, of the industrial arts, such as clothing,
+pottery, and implements of use and ornaments for adornment, showed
+advancement in industrial life.  They built large temples and erected
+great buildings for the worship of their gods.  There was something in
+their worship bordering on sun-worship, although not as distinctive as
+the sun-worship of the Peruvians.  They were highly developed in the
+use of gold and copper, and produced a good quality of pottery.  They
+had learned the art of decorating the pottery, and their temples also
+were done in colors and in bas-relief.  They had developed a language
+of merit and had a hieroglyphic expression of the same.  They had a
+distinct mythology, comprising myths of the sun and of the origin of
+various tribes, the origin of the earth and of man.  They had developed
+the idea of charity, and had a system of caring for the poor, with
+hospitals for the sick.  Notwithstanding this altruistic expression,
+they offered human sacrifices of maidens to their most terrible god.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As before stated, there were many tribes, consequently many languages,
+although some of them were near enough alike that members of different
+tribes could be readily understood.  Also the characteristic traits
+varied in different tribes.  It is not known whence they came, although
+their tradition points to the origin of the northwest.  Undoubtedly,
+each tribe had a myth of its own origin, but, generally speaking, they
+all came from the northwest.  Without doubt, at the time of the coming
+of the Spaniards, the tribes were non-progressive except in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P192"></A>192}</SPAN>
+government.  The coming of the Spaniards was a rude shock to their
+civilization, and with a disintegration of the empire, the spirit of
+thrift and endeavor was quenched.  They became, as it were, slaves to a
+people with so-called higher civilization, who at least had the tools
+with which to conquer if they had not higher qualities of human
+character than those of the conquered.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Earliest Centres of Civilization in Mexico</I>.&mdash;Prior to the
+formation of the empire of the Aztecs, conquered by the Spaniards,
+there existed in Mexico centres of development of much greater
+antiquity.  The more important among these were Yucatan and Mitla.  A
+large number of the ruins of these ancient villages have been
+discovered and recorded.  The groups of people who developed these
+contemporary civilizations were generally known as Toltecs.  The Maya
+race, the important branch of the Toltecs, which had its highest
+development in Yucatan, was supposed to have come from a territory
+northeast of Mexico City, and traces of its migrations are discovered
+leading south and east into Yucatan.  It is not known at what period
+these developments began, but probably their beginnings might have been
+traced back to 15,000 years, although the oldest known tablet found
+gives a record of 202 years B.C.  Other information places their coming
+much later, at about 387 A.D.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+All through Central America and southern Mexico ruins of these ancient
+villages have been discovered.  While the civilizations of all were
+contemporaneous, different centres show different lines of development.
+There is nothing certain concerning the origin of the Toltecs, and they
+seemed to have practically disappeared so far as independent tribal
+life existed after their conquest by the Aztecs, although the products
+of their civilization were used by many other tribes that were living
+under the Aztec rule, and, indeed, traces of their civilization exist
+to-day in the living races of southern and central Mexico.  Tradition
+states that the Toltecs reached their highest state of power between
+the seventh and the twelfth
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P193"></A>193}</SPAN>
+centuries, but progress in the
+interpretation of their hieroglyphics gives us but few permanent
+records.  The development of their art was along the line of heavy
+buildings with bas-reliefs and walls covered with inscriptions
+recording history and religious symbols.  One bas-relief represents the
+human head, with the facial angle shown at forty-five degrees.  It was
+carved in stone of the hardest composition and was left unpainted.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Ethnologists have tried repeatedly and in vain to show there was a
+resemblance of this American life to the Egyptian civilization.  In
+art, architecture, and industry, in worship and the elements of
+knowledge, there may be some resemblance to Egyptian models, but there
+is no direct evidence sufficient to connect these art products with
+those of Egypt or to assume that they must have come from the same
+centre.  The construction of pyramids and terraces on a large scale
+does remind us of the tendency of the Oriental type of civilization.
+In all of their art, however, there was a symmetrical or conventional
+system which demonstrated that the indigenous development must have
+been from a common centre.  Out of the fifty-two cities that have been
+explored which exhibit the habitations of the Toltec civilization, many
+exhibit ruins of art and architecture worthy of study.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the construction of articles for use and ornament, copper and gold
+constituted the chief materials, and there was also a great deal of
+pottery.  The art of weaving was practised, and the soil cultivated to
+a considerable extent.  The family life was well developed, though
+polygamy appears to have been practised as a universal custom.  The
+form of government was the developed family of the patriarchal type,
+and, where union of tribes had taken place, an absolute monarchy
+prevailed.  War and conquest here, as in all other places where contact
+of tribes appeared, led to slavery.  The higher classes had a large
+number of slaves, probably taken as prisoners of war.  This indicates a
+degree of social progress in which enemies were preserved for slavery
+rather than exterminated in war.  Their laws and regulations indicate a
+high sense of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P194"></A>194}</SPAN>
+justice in establishing the relationship of
+individuals within the tribe or nation.  These people were still in the
+later Neolithic Age, but with signs of departure from this degree of
+civilization in the larger use of the metals.  There were some
+indications that bronze might have been used in making ornaments.
+Perhaps they should be classified in the later Neolithic Age of the
+upper status of barbarism.  Recent excavations in Central America,
+Yucatan, and more recently in the valley near Mexico City, have brought
+to light many new discoveries.  Representations of early and later
+cultures show a gradual progress in the use of the arts, some of the
+oldest of which show a great resemblance to the early Mongolian culture
+of Asia.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Pueblo Indians of the Southwest</I>.&mdash;In northern Mexico and Arizona
+there are remains of ancient buildings which seem to indicate that at
+one time a civilization existed here that has long since become
+extinct.  Long before the arrival of the Spaniards, irrigation was
+practised in this dry territory.  Indeed, in the Salt River valley of
+Arizona, old irrigation ditches were discovered on the lines of which
+now flow the waters that irrigate the modern orchards and vineyards.
+The discoveries in recent years in the southwest territory indicate
+that this ancient civilization had been destroyed by the warlike tribes
+that were ever ready to take possession of centres of culture and
+possess or destroy the accumulation of wealth of the people who toiled.
+If one could fill in the missing links of history with his imagination,
+it would be easy to conjecture that the descendants of these people
+fled to the mountains, and became the Cliff-Dwellers of the Southwest.
+These people built their homes high on the cliffs, in caves or on
+projecting prominences.  Here they constructed great communal
+dwellings, where they could defend themselves against all enemies.
+They were obliged to procure their food and water from the valley, and
+to range over the surrounding <I>mesas</I> in the hunt.  Gradually they
+stole down out of the cliffs to live in the valleys and built large
+communal houses, many of which now are in existence in this territory.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P195"></A>195}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+These people have several centres of civilization which are similar in
+general, but differ in many particulars.  They are classed as Pueblo
+Indians.  Among these centres are the Hopi Indians, the Zuñian, Taoan,
+Shoshonean, and many others.[<A NAME="chap11fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap11fn1">1</A>]  The pre-history of these widely
+extended groups of Indians is not known, but in all probability they
+have been crowded into this southwest arid region by warlike tribes,
+and for the shelter and protection of the whole tribe have built large
+houses of stone or adobe.  The idea of protection seems to have been
+the dominant one in building the cliff houses and the adobe houses of
+the plain.  The latter were entered by means of ladders placed upon the
+wall, so that they could ascend from one story to another.  The first
+story had no doors or windows, but could be entered by means of a
+trap-door.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Pueblos were, as a rule, people of low stature, but of an
+intelligent and pleasing appearance.  They dressed in cotton goods or
+garments woven from the fibre of the yucca plant, or from coarse bark,
+and later, under Spanish rule, from specially prepared wool.  Their
+feet were protected by sandals made from the yucca, or moccasins from
+deer or rabbit skins.  Leggings coming above the knee were formed by
+wrapping long strips of buckskin around the leg.  The women and men
+dressed very much alike.  The women banged their hair to the eyebrows,
+allowing it to hang loosely behind, although in some instances maidens
+dressed their hair with two large whirls above the ears.  The Zuñi
+Indians practised this custom after the coming of the Spaniards.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Pueblos were well organized into clans, and descent in the female
+line was recognized.  The clans were divided usually into the north,
+south, east, and west clans by way of designation, showing that the
+communal idea had been established with recognition of government by
+locality.  Here, as elsewhere among the American aborigines, the clans
+were named after the animals chosen as their totem, but there were in
+addition
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P196"></A>196}</SPAN>
+to these ordinary clans, the Sun clan, the Live Oak, the
+Turquoise, or others named from objects of nature.  Each group of clans
+was governed by a priest chief, who had authority in all religious
+matters and, consequently, through religious influences, had large
+control in affairs pertaining to household government, and to social
+and political life in general.  The duties and powers of these chiefs
+were carefully defined.  The communal houses in which the people lived
+were divided into apartments for different clans and families.  In some
+instances there was a common dining-hall for the members of the tribe.
+The men usually resided outside of the communal house, but came to the
+common dining-hall for their meals.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There were many secret societies among these people which seemed to
+mingle religious and political sentiments.  The members of these
+societies dwelt to a large extent in the Estufa, or Kiva, a large
+half-subterranean club-house where they could meet in secret.  In every
+large tribe there were four to seven of these secret orders, and they
+were recognized as representing the various organizations.  These "cult
+societies," so called by Mr. Powell, had charge of the mythical rites,
+the spirit lore, the mysteries, and the medicines of the part of the
+tribe which they represented.  They conducted the ceremonies at all
+festivals and celebrations.  It is difficult to determine the exact
+nature of their religion.  It was a worship full of superstition,
+recognizing totemism and direct connection with the spirits of nature.
+Their religion was of a joyous nature, and always was associated with
+their games and feasts.  The games were usually given in the
+celebration of some great event, or for some economic purpose, and were
+accompanied with dancing, music, pantomime, and symbolism.  Perhaps of
+all of the North American Indians, the Pueblos showed the greatest
+fondness for music and had made some advancement in the arts of poetry
+and song.  The noted snake dance, the green-corn dance, and the cachina
+all had at foundation an economic purpose.  They were done ostensibly
+to gain the favor of the gods of nature.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P197"></A>197}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+When discovered by the Spaniards, the Pueblos had made good beginnings
+in agriculture and the industrial arts, were living in a state of peace
+and apparently contented, there seeming to be little war between the
+tribes.  Their political organization in connection with the secret
+societies and their shamanistic religion gave them a good development
+of social order.  After nearly 400 years of Spanish and American rule,
+they appear to have retained many of their original traits and
+characteristics, and cherish their ancient customs.  Apparently the
+Spanish and the American civilization is merely a gloss over their
+ancient life which they seek every opportunity to express.  They are
+to-day practically non-assimilative and live to a large extent their
+own life in their own way, although they have adopted a few of the
+American customs.  While quite a large number of these villages are now
+to be seen very much in their primitive style of architecture and life,
+more than 3,000 architectural ruins in the Southwest, chiefly in
+Arizona and New Mexico, have been discovered.  Many of them are
+partially obscured in the drifting sands, but they show attempts at
+different periods by different people to build homes.  The devastation
+of flood and famine and the destruction of warlike tribes retarded
+their progress and caused their extinction.  The Pueblo Indians were in
+the middle status of barbarism when the Spaniards arrived, and there
+they would have remained forever or become extinct had not the Spanish
+and American civilizations overtaken them.  Even now self-determined
+progress seems not to possess them.  However, through education the
+younger generations are being slowly assimilated into American life.
+But it appears that many generations will pass before their tribal life
+is entirely absorbed into a common democracy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Mound-Builders of the Mississippi Valley</I>.&mdash;At the coming of the
+Europeans this ancient people had nearly all disappeared.  Only a few
+descendants in the southern part of the great valley of the Mississippi
+represented living traces of the Mound-Builders.  They had left in
+their burial mounds
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P198"></A>198}</SPAN>
+and monuments many relics of a high type of
+the Neolithic civilization which they possessed.  As to their origin,
+history has no direct evidence.  However, they undoubtedly were part of
+that great stream of early European migration to America which
+gradually spread down the Ohio valley and the upper Mississippi.  At
+what time they flourished is not known, although their civilization was
+prehistoric when compared with that of the Algonquins, Athabascans, and
+Iroquois tribes that were in existence at the time of the coming of the
+Europeans.  Although the tradition of these Indians traces them to the
+Southwest, and that they became extinct by being driven out by more
+savage and more warlike people, whence they came and whither they went
+are both alike open to conjecture.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Their civilization was not very different from that of many other
+tribes of North American Indians.  Their chief characteristic consisted
+in the building of extensive earth mounds as symbolical of their
+religious and tribal life.  They also built immense enclosures for the
+purpose of fortification.  Undoubtedly on the large mounds were
+originally built public houses or dwellings or temples for worship or
+burial.  Those in the form of a truncated pyramid were used for the
+purposes of building sites for temples and dwellings, and those having
+circular bases and a conical shape were used as burial places.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Besides these two kinds was another, called effigy mounds, which
+represented the form of some animal or bird, which undoubtedly was the
+totem of the tribe.  These latter mounds were seldom more than three or
+four feet high, but were of great extent.  They indicated the unity of
+the gens, either by representing it through the totem or a mythical
+ancestry.  Other mounds of less importance were used in religious
+worship, namely, for the location of the altar to be used for
+sacrificial purposes.  All were used to some extent as burial mounds.
+Large numbers of their implements made of quartz, chert, bone, and
+slate for the household and for the hunt have been found.  They used
+copper to some extent, which was obtained in a free or native state and
+hammered into implements and ornaments.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P199"></A>199}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Undoubtedly, the centre of the distribution of copper was the Lake
+Superior region, which showed that there was a diffusion of cultures
+from this centre at this early period.  They made some progress in
+agriculture, cultivating maize and tobacco.  Apparently their commerce
+with surrounding tribes was great, which no doubt gave them a variety
+of means of life.  The pottery, judging from specimens that have been
+preserved, was inferior to that of the Mexicans or the Arizona Indians,
+but, nevertheless, in the lower Mississippi fine collections of pottery
+showing beautiful lines and a large number of designs were found.  It
+fills one with wonder that a tribe of such power should have begun the
+arts of civilization and developed a powerful organization, and then
+have been so suddenly destroyed&mdash;why or how is not known.  In all
+probability it is the old story of a sedentary group being destroyed by
+the more hardy, savage, and warlike conquerors.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Other Types of Indian Life</I>.&mdash;While the great centres of culture were
+found in Peru, Central America, Mexico, southwest United States, and
+the Mississippi valley, there were other cultures of a less pronounced
+nature worthy of mention.  On the Pacific coast, in the region around
+Santa Barbara, are the relics of a very ancient tribe of Indians who
+had developed some skill in the making of pottery and exhibit other
+forms of industrial life.  Recently an ancient skeleton has been
+discovered which seems to indicate a life of great antiquity.
+Nevertheless, it is a lower state of civilization than those of the
+larger centres already mentioned.  Yet it is worthy of note that there
+was here started a people who had adopted village habits and attained a
+considerable degree of progress.  Probably they were contemporary with
+other people of the most ancient civilizations of America.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+So far as the advancement of government is concerned, the Iroquois
+Indians of Canada and New York showed considerable advancement.  As
+represented by Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, who made a careful study of the
+Iroquois, their tribal divisions and their federation of tribes show an
+advancement along
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P200"></A>200}</SPAN>
+governmental lines extending beyond the mere
+family or tribal life.  Their social order showed civil progress, and
+their industrial arts, in agriculture especially, were notable.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Why Did the Civilization of America Fail?</I>&mdash;There is a popular theory
+that the normal advancement of the Indian races of America was arrested
+or destroyed by the coming of the Europeans.  Undoubtedly the contact
+of the higher civilization with the latter had much to do with the
+hastening of the decay of the former.  The civilizations were so widely
+apart that it was not easy for the primitive or retarded race to adopt
+the civilization of the more advanced.  But when it is assumed that if
+the Europeans had never come to the American continent, native tribes
+and races would eventually, of their own initiative, develop a high
+state of civilization, such an assumption is not well founded, because
+at the time of the coming of the Europeans there was no great show of
+progress.  It seems as if no branch of the race could go forward very
+far without being destroyed by more warlike tribes.  Or, if let alone,
+they seemed to develop a stationary civilization, reaching their limit,
+beyond which they could not go.  As the races of Europe by
+specialization along certain lines became inadaptable to new conditions
+and passed away to give place to others, so it appears that this was
+characteristic of the civilization of America.  Evidently the
+prehistoric Peruvians, Mexicans, Pueblos, and Mound-Builders had
+elements of civilization greater than the living warring Indian tribes
+which came in contact with the early European settlers in America.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It may not be wise to enter a plea that all tribes and races have their
+infancy, youth, age, and decay, with extinction as their final lot, but
+it has been repeated so often in the history of the human race that one
+may assume it to be almost, if not quite, universal.  The momentum of
+racial power gained by biological heredity and social achievement,
+reaches its limit when it can no longer adapt itself to new conditions,
+with the final end and inevitable result of extinction.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Nordic race, with all of its vigor and persistency, has
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P201"></A>201}</SPAN>
+had a
+long and continuous life on account of its roving disposition and its
+perpetual contact with new conditions of its own choice.  It has always
+had power to overcome, and its vigor has kept it exploiting and
+inventing and borrowing of others the elements of civilization, which
+have continually forced it forward.  When it, too, reaches a state when
+it cannot adapt itself to new conditions, perhaps it will give way to
+some other branch of the human race, which, gathering new strength or
+new vigor from sources not available to the Nordic, will be able to
+overpower it; but the development of science and art with the power
+over nature, is greater in this race than in any other, and the
+maladies which destroy racial life are less marked than in other races.
+It would seem, then, that it still has great power of continuance and
+through science can adapt itself to nature and live on.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But what would the American Indian have contributed to civilization?
+Would modern civilization have been as far advanced as now, had the
+Europeans found no human life at all on the American continent?  True,
+the Europeans learned many things of the Indians regarding cultivation
+of maize and tobacco, and thus increased their food supply, but would
+they not have learned this by their own investigations, had there been
+no Indians to teach?  The arts of pottery have been more highly
+developed by the Etruscans, the Aegeans, and the Greeks than by the
+American Indians.  The Europeans had long since passed the Stone Age
+and entered the Iron Age, which they brought to the American Indians.
+But the studies of ethnology have been greatly enlarged by the fact of
+these peculiar and wonderful people, who exhibited so many traits of
+nobility of character in life.  Perhaps it would not be liberal to say
+the world would have been just as well off had they never existed.  At
+any rate, we are glad of the opportunity to study what their life was
+and what it was worth to them, and also its influence on the life and
+character of the Europeans.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The most marked phases of this civilization are found in the
+development of basketry and pottery, and the exquisite work
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P202"></A>202}</SPAN>
+in
+stone implements.  Every conceivable shape of the arrow-head, the
+spear, the stone axe and hammer, the grinding board for grains, the
+bow-and-arrow, is evidence of the skill in handiwork of these primitive
+peoples.  Also, the skill in curing and tanning hides for clothing, and
+the methods of hunting and trapping game are evidences of great skill.
+Perhaps, also, there is something in the primitive music of these
+people which not only is worthy of study but has added something to the
+music culture of more advanced peoples.  At least, if pressed to learn
+the real character of man, we must go to primitive peoples and
+primitive life and customs.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  What contributions did the American Indians make to European
+civilization?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  What are the chief physical and mental traits of the Indian?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  What is the result of education of the Indian?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  How many Indians are there in the United States?  (<I>a</I>) Where are
+they located?  (<I>b</I>) How many children in school?  Where?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  If the Europeans made a better use of the territory than did the
+Indians, had the Europeans the right to dispossess them?  Did they use
+the right means to gain possession?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  Study an Indian tribe of your own selection regarding customs,
+habits, government, religion, art, etc.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap11fn1"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap11fn1text">1</A>] Recent discoveries in Nevada and Utah indicate a wide territorial
+extension of the Pueblo type.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap12"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P205"></A>205}</SPAN>
+
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+<I>PART IV</I>
+</H2>
+
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+WESTERN CIVILIZATION
+</H2>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XII
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+THE OLD GREEK LIFE
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Old Greek Life Was the Starting Point of Western
+Civilization</I>.&mdash;Civilization is a continuous movement&mdash;hence there is a
+gradual transition from the Oriental civilization to the Western.  The
+former finally merges into the latter.  Although the line of
+demarcation is not clearly drawn, some striking differences are
+apparent when the two are placed in juxtaposition.  Perhaps the most
+evident contrast is observed in the gradual freedom of the mind from
+the influences of tradition and religious superstition.  Connected with
+this, also, is the struggle for freedom from despotism in government.
+It has been observed how the ancient civilizations were characterized
+by the despotism of priests and kings.  It was the early privilege of
+European life to gradually break away from this form of human
+degradation and establish individual rights and individual development.
+Kings and princes, indeed, ruled in the Western world, but they learned
+to do so with a fuller recognition of the rights of the governed.
+There came to be recognized, also, free discussion as the right of
+people in the processes of government.  It is admitted that the
+despotic governments of the Old World existed for the few and neglected
+the many.  While despotism was not wanting in European civilization,
+the struggle to be free from it was the ruling spirit of the age.  The
+history of Europe centres around this struggle to be free from
+despotism and traditional learning, and to develop freedom of thought
+and action.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Among Oriental people the idea of progress was wanting in their
+philosophy.  True, they had some notion of changes that take place in
+the conditions of political and social life, and in individual
+accomplishments, yet there was nothing hopeful in their presentation of
+the theory of life or in their practices
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P206"></A>206}</SPAN>
+of religion; and the few
+philosophers who recognized changes that were taking place saw not in
+them a persistent progress and growth.  Their eyes were turned toward
+the past.  Their thoughts centred on traditions and things that were
+fixed.  Life was reduced to a dull, monotonous round by the great
+masses of the people.  If at any time a ray of light penetrated the
+gloom, it was turned to illuminate the accumulated philosophies of the
+past.  On the other hand, in European civilization we find the idea of
+progress becoming more and more predominant.  The early Greeks and
+Romans were bound to a certain extent by the authority of tradition on
+one side and the fixity of purpose on the other.  At times there was
+little that was hopeful in their philosophy, for they, too, recognized
+the decline in the affairs of men.  But through trial and error, new
+discoveries of truth were made which persisted until the revival of
+learning in the Middle Ages, at the time of the formation of new
+nations, when the ideas of progress became fully recognized in the
+minds of the thoughtful, and subsequently in the full triumph of
+Western civilization came the recognition of the possibility of
+continuous progress.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Another great distinction in the development of European civilization
+was the recognition of humanity.  In ancient times humanitarian spirit
+appeared not in the heart of man nor in the philosophy of government.
+Even the old tribal government was for the few.  The national
+government was for selected citizens only.  Specific gods, a special
+religion, the privilege of rights and duties were available to a few,
+while all others were deprived of them.  This invoked a selfishness in
+practical life and developed a selfish system even among the leaders of
+ancient culture.  The broad principle of the rights of an individual
+because he was human was not taken into serious consideration even
+among the more thoughtful.  If he was friendly to the recognized god he
+was permitted to exist.  If he was an enemy, he was to be crushed.  On
+the other hand, the triumph of Western civilization is the recognition
+of the value of a human being and his right to engage in all human
+associations
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P207"></A>207}</SPAN>
+for which he is fitted.  While the Greeks came into
+contact with the older civilizations of Egypt and Asia, and were
+influenced by their thought and custom, they brought a vigorous new
+life which gradually dominated and mastered the Oriental influences.
+They had sufficient vigor and independence to break with tradition,
+wherever it seemed necessary to accomplish their purpose of life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Aegean Culture Preceded the Coming of the Greeks</I>.&mdash;Spreading over
+the islands of the Aegean Sea was a pre-Greek civilization known as
+Minoan.  Its highest centre of development was in the Island of Crete,
+whose principal city was Cnossos.  Whence these people came and what
+their ethnological classification are still unsettled.[<A NAME="chap12fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap12fn1">1</A>]  They had a
+number of centres of development, which varied somewhat in type of
+culture.  They were a dark-haired people, who probably came from Africa
+or Asia Minor, settling in Crete about 5,000 years B.C.  It is thought
+by some that the Etruscans of Italy were of Aegean origin.  Prior to
+the Minoans there existed a Neolithic culture throughout the islands of
+Greece.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the great city of Cnossos, which was sacked and burned about the
+fourteenth century B.C., were found ruins which show a culture of
+relatively high degree.  By the excavations in Crete at this point a
+stratum of earth twenty feet thick was discovered, in which were found
+evidences of all grades of civilization, from the Neolithic implements
+to the highest Minoan culture.  Palaces with frescoes and carvings,
+ornaments formed of metal and skilfully wrought vases with significant
+colorings, all evinced a civilization worthy of intensive study.  These
+people had developed commerce and trade with Egypt, and their boats
+passed along the shores of the Mediterranean, carrying their
+civilization to Italy, northern Africa, and everywhere among the
+islands of Greece, as well as on the mainland.  The cause of the
+decline of their civilization is
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P208"></A>208}</SPAN>
+not known, unless it could be
+attributed to the Greek pirates who invaded their territory, and
+possibly, like all nations that decline, they were beset by internal
+maladies which marked their future destiny.  Possibly, high
+specialization along certain lines of life rendered them unadaptable to
+new conditions, and they passed away because of this lack.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Greeks Were of Aryan Stock</I>.&mdash;Many thousand years ago there
+appeared along the shores of the Baltic, at the beginning of the
+Neolithic period of culture, a group of people who seem to have come
+from central Asia.  It is thought by some that these were at least the
+forerunners of the great Nordic race.  Whatever conjectures there may
+be as to their origin, it is known that about 2,000 years before
+Christ, wandering tribes extended from the Baltic region far eastward
+to the Caspian Sea, to the north of Persia, down to the borderland of
+India.  These people were of Caucasian features, with fair hair and
+blue eyes&mdash;a type of the Nordic race.  They were known as the Aryan
+branch of the Caucasian race.  Whether this was their primitive abode,
+or whether their ancestors had come at a much earlier time from a
+central home in northern Africa, which is considered by ethnologists as
+the centre from which developed the Caucasian race, is not known.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+They were not a highly cultured people, but were living a nomadic life,
+engaged in hunting, fishing, piratical exploits, and carrying on
+agriculture intermittently.  They had also become acquainted with the
+use of metals, having passed during this period from the Neolithic into
+the Bronze Age.  About the year 1500 B.C. they had become acquainted
+with iron, and about the same time had come into possession of the
+horse, probably through their contact with central Asia.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The social life of these people was very simple.  While they
+undoubtedly met and mingled with many tribes, they had a language
+sufficiently common for ordinary intercourse.  They had no writing or
+means of records at all, but depended upon the recital of deeds of
+warriors and nations and tribes.  Wherever the Aryan people have been
+found, whether in Greece,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P209"></A>209}</SPAN>
+Italy, Germany, along the Danube,
+central Asia, or India, they have been noted for their epics, sagas,
+and vedas, which told the tales of historic deeds and exploits of the
+tribal or national life.  It is thought that this was the reason they
+developed such a strong and beautiful language.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+They came in contact with Semitic civilization in northern Persia, with
+the primitive tribes in Italy, with the Dravidian peoples of India, and
+represented the vigorous fighting power of the Scythians, Medes, and
+Persians.  They or their kindred later moved up the Danube into Spain
+and France, with branches into Germany and Russia, and others finally
+into the British Islands.  It was a branch of these people that came
+into the Grecian peninsula and overthrew and supplanted the Aegean
+civilization&mdash;where they were known as the Greeks.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Coming of the Greeks</I>.&mdash;It is not known when they came down
+through Asia Minor.  Not earlier than 2000 B.C. nor later than 1500
+B.C. the invasion began.  In successive waves came the Phrygians,
+Aeolians, the Ionians, and the Dorians&mdash;different divisions of the same
+race.  Soon they spread over the mainland of Greece and all the
+surrounding islands, and established their trading cities along the
+borders of the Mediterranean Sea.  These people, though uncultured,
+seemed to absorb culture wherever they went.  They learned the methods
+of the civilization that had been established in the Orient wherever
+they came in contact with other peoples, and also in the Aegean
+country.  In fact, though they conquered and occupied the Aegean
+country, they took on the best of the Minoan civilization.[<A NAME="chap12fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap12fn2">2</A>]  As
+marauders, pirates, and conquerors, they were masterful, but they came
+in conflict with the ideas developed among the Semitic people of Asia
+and the Hamitic of Egypt.  Undoubtedly, this conquest of the Minoan
+civilization furnished the origin of many of the tales or folklore that
+afterward were woven into the <I>Iliad</I> and the <I>Odyssey</I> by
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P210"></A>210}</SPAN>
+Homer.
+It is not known how early in Greek life these songs originated, but it
+is a known fact that in the eighth century the Greeks were in
+possession of their epics, and at this period not only had conquered
+the Minoan civilization but had absorbed it so far as they had use for
+it.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+They came into this territory in the form of the old tribal government,
+with their primitive social customs, and as they settled in different
+parts of the territory in tribes, they developed independent
+communities of a primitive sort.  They had what was known in modern
+historical literature as the village community, which was always found
+in the primitive life of the Aryans.  Their mode of life tended to
+develop individualism, and when the group life was established, it
+became independent and was lacking in co-operation&mdash;that is, it became
+a self-sufficient social order.  Later in the development of the Greek
+life the individual, so far as political organization goes, was
+absorbed in the larger state, after it had developed from the old Greek
+family life.  These primitive Greeks soon had a well-developed
+language.  They began systematic agriculture, became skilled in the
+industrial arts, domesticated animals, and had a pure home life with
+religious sentiments of a high order.  Wherever they went they carried
+with them the characteristics of nation-building and progressive life.
+They mastered the earth and its contents by living it down with force
+and vigor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Greek peninsula was favorably situated for development.  Protected
+on the north by a mountain range from the rigors of a northern climate
+and from the predatory tribes, with a range of mountains through the
+centre, with its short spurs cutting the entire country into valleys,
+in which were developed independent community states, circumstances
+were favorable to local self-government of the several tribes.  This
+independent social life was of great importance in the development of
+Greek thought.  In the north the grains and cereals were grown, and in
+the south the citrus and the orange.  This wide range from a temperate
+to a semi-tropical climate
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P211"></A>211}</SPAN>
+furnished a variety of fruits and
+diversity of life which gave great opportunity for development.  The
+variety of scenery caused by mountain and valley and proximity to the
+sea, the thousand islands washed by the Aegean Sea, brought a new life
+which tended to impress the sensitive mind of the Greek and to develop
+his imagination and to advance culture in art.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Character of the Primitive Greeks</I>.&mdash;The magnificent development of
+the Greeks in art, literature, philosophy, and learning, together with
+the fortunate circumstance of having powerful writers, gives us rather
+an exaggerated notion of the Greeks, if we attempt to apply a lofty
+manner and a magnificent culture to the Homeric period.  They had a
+good deal of piratical boldness, and, after the formation of their
+small states, gave examples of spurts of courage such as that at
+Marathon and Thermopylae.  Yet these evidences were rare exceptions
+rather than the rule, for even the Spartan, trained on a military
+basis, seldom evinced any great degree of bravery.  Perhaps the gloomy
+forebodings of the future, characteristic of the Greeks, made them fear
+death, and consequently caused them to lack in courage.  However, this
+is a disputed point.  Pages of the earlier records are full of the
+sanction of deception of enemies, friends, and strangers.  Evidently,
+there was a low moral sense regarding truth.  While the Greek might be
+loyal to his family and possibly to his tribe, there are many examples
+of disloyalty to one another, and, in the later development, a
+disloyalty of one state toward another.  Excessive egoism seems to have
+prevailed, and this principle was extended to the family and local
+government group.  Each group appeared to look out for its own
+interests, irrespective of the welfare of others.  How much a united
+Greece might have done to have continued the splendors and the service
+of a magnificent civilization is open to conjecture.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Greeks were not sympathetic with children nor with the aged.  Far
+from being anxious to preserve the life of the aged, their greatest
+trouble was in disposing of them.  The honor and rights of women were
+not observed.  In war women
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P212"></A>212}</SPAN>
+were the property of their captors.
+Yet the home life of the Greeks seems to have been in its purity and
+loyalty an advance on the Oriental home life.  In their treatment of
+servants and slaves, in the care of the aged and helpless, the Greeks
+were cold and without compassion.  While the poets, historians, and
+philosophers have been portraying with such efficiency the character of
+the higher classes; while they have presented such a beautiful exterior
+of the old Greek life; the Greeks, in common with other primitive
+peoples, were not lacking in coarseness, injustice, and cruelty in
+their internal life.  Here, as elsewhere in the beginnings of
+civilization, only the best of the real and the ideal of life was
+represented, while the lower classes were suffering a degraded life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The family was closely organized in Greece.  Monogamic marriage and the
+exclusive home life prevailed at an early time.  The patriarchal
+family, in which the oldest male member was chief and ruler, was the
+unit of society.  Within this group were the house families, formed
+whenever a separate marriage took place and a separate altar was
+erected.  The house religion was one of the characteristic features of
+Greek life.  Each family had its own household gods, its own worship,
+its private shrine.  This tended to unify the family and promote a
+sacred family life.  A special form of ancestral worship, from the
+early Aryan house-spirit worship, prevailed to a certain extent.  The
+worship of the family expanded with the expansion of social life.  Thus
+the gens, and the tribe, and the city when founded, had each its
+separate worship.  Religion formed a strong cement to bind the
+different social units of a tribe together.  The worship of the Greeks
+was associated with the common meal and the pouring of libations to the
+gods.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As religion became more general, it united to make a more common social
+practice, and in the later period of Greek life was made the basis of
+the games and general social gatherings.  Religion brought the Greeks
+together in a social way, and finally led to the mutual advantage of
+members of society.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P213"></A>213}</SPAN>
+Later, mutual advantage superseded religion
+in its practice.  The Greeks, at an early period, attempted to explain
+the origin of the earth and unknown phenomena by referring it to the
+supernatural powers.  Every island had its myth, every phenomenon its
+god, and every mountain was the residence of some deity.  They sought
+to find out the causes of the creation of the universe, and developed a
+theogony.  There was the origin of the Greeks to be accounted for, and
+then the origin of the earth, and the relation of man to the deities.
+Everything must be explained, but as the imagination was especially
+strong, it was easier to create a god as a first cause than to
+ascertain the development of the earth by scientific study.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Influence of Old Greek Life</I>.&mdash;In all of the traditions and writings
+descriptive of the old Greek social life, with the exception of the
+<I>Works and Days</I> of Hesiod, the aristocratic class appears uppermost.
+Hesiod "pictures a hopeless and miserable existence, in which care and
+the despair of better things tended to make men hard and selfish and to
+blot out those fairer features which cannot be denied to the courts and
+palaces of the <I>Iliad</I> and <I>Odyssey</I>."  It appears that the foundation
+of aristocracy&mdash;living in comparative luxury, in devotion to art and
+the culture of life&mdash;was early laid by the side of the foundation of
+poverty and wretchedness of the great mass of the people.  While, then,
+the Greeks derived from their ancestry the beautiful pictures of heroic
+Greece, they inherited the evils of imperfect social conditions.  As we
+pass to the historical period of Greece, these different phases of life
+appear and reappear in changeable forms.  If to the nobleman life was
+full of inspiration; if poetry, religion, art, and politics gave him
+lofty thoughts and noble aspirations; to the peasant and the slave,
+life was full of misery and degradation.  If one picture is to be drawn
+in glowing colors, let not the other be omitted.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The freedom from great centralized government, the development of the
+individual life, the influences of the early ideas of art and life, and
+the religious conceptions, were of great importance in shaping the
+Greek philosophy and the Greek
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P214"></A>214}</SPAN>
+national character.  They had a
+tendency to develop men who could think and act.  It is not surprising,
+therefore, that the first real historical period was characterized by
+struggles of citizens within the town for supremacy.  Fierce quarrels
+between the upper and the lower classes prevailed everywhere, and
+resulted in developing an intense hatred of the former for the latter.
+This hatred and selfishness became the uppermost causes of action in
+the development of Greek social polity.  Strife led to compromise, and
+this in turn to the recognition of the rights and privileges of
+different classes.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  The Aegean culture.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  The relation of Greek to Egyptian culture.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  What were the great Greek masterpieces of (<I>a</I>) Literature, (<I>b</I>)
+Sculpture, (<I>c</I>) Architecture, (<I>d</I>) Art, (<I>e</I>) Philosophy?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  Compare Greek democracy with American democracy.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  What historical significance have Thermopylae, Marathon,
+Alexandria, Crete, and Delphi?
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap12fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap12fn2"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap12fn1text">1</A>] Sergi, in his <I>Mediterranean Race</I>, says that they came from N. E.
+Africa.  Beginning about 5000 years B.C., they gradually infiltrated
+the whole Mediterranean region.  This is becoming the general belief
+among ethnologists, archaeologists, and historians.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap12fn2text">2</A>] Recent studies indicate that some of the Cretan inscriptions are
+prototypes of the Greece-Phoenician alphabet.  The Phoenicians
+evidently derived the original characters of their alphabet from a
+number of sources.  The Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet about
+800-1000 B.C.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap13"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P215"></A>215}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XIII
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+GREEK PHILOSOPHY
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Transition from Theology to Inquiry</I>.&mdash;The Greek theology prepared
+the way for the Ionian philosophy.  The religious opinions led directly
+up to the philosophy of the early inquirers.  The Greeks passed slowly
+from accepting everything with a blind faith to the rational inquiry
+into the development of nature.  The beginnings of knowing the
+scientific causes were very small, and sometimes ridiculous, yet they
+were of immense importance.  To take a single step from the "age of
+credulity" toward the "age of reason" was of great importance to Greek
+progress.  To cease to accept on faith the statements that the world
+was created by the gods, and ordered by the gods, and that all
+mysteries were in their hands, and to endeavor to find out by
+observation of natural phenomena something of the elements of nature,
+was to gradually break from the mythology of the past as explanatory of
+the creation.  The first feeble attempt at this was to seek in a crude
+way the material structure and source of the universe.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Explanation of the Universe by Observation and Inquiry</I>.&mdash;The Greek
+mind had settled down to the fact that there was absolute knowledge of
+truth, and that cosmogony had established the method of creation; that
+theogony had accounted for the creation of gods, heroes, and men, and
+that theology had foretold their relations.  A blind faith had accepted
+what the imagination had pictured.  But as geographical study began to
+increase, doubts arose as to the preconceived constitution of the
+earth.  As travel increased and it was found that none of the terrible
+creatures that tradition had created inhabited the islands of the sea
+or coasts of the mainland, earth lost its terrors and disbelief in the
+system of established
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P216"></A>216}</SPAN>
+knowledge prevailed.  Free inquiry was
+slowly substituted for blind credulity.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This freedom of inquiry had great influence on the intellectual
+development of man.  It was the discovery of truth through the relation
+of cause and effect, which he might observe by opening his eyes and
+using his reason.  The development of theories of the universe through
+tradition and the imagination gave exercise to the emotions and
+beliefs; but change from faith in the fixity of the past to the future
+by observation led to intellectual development.  The exercise of faith
+and the imagination even in unproductive ways prepared the way for
+broader service of investigation.  But these standing alone could
+permit nothing more than a childish conception of the universe.  They
+could not discover the reign of law.  They could not advance the
+observing and reflecting powers of man; they could not develop the
+stronger qualities of his intellect.  Individual action would be
+continually stultified by the process of accepting through credulity
+the trite sayings of the ancients.  The attempt to find out how things
+were made was an acknowledgment of the powers of the individual mind.
+It was a recognition that man has a mind to use, and that there is
+truth around him to be discovered.  This was no small beginning in
+intellectual development.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Ionian Philosophy Turned the Mind Toward Nature</I>.&mdash;Greek
+philosophy began in the seventh century before Christ.  The first
+philosopher of note was Thales, born at Miletus, in Asia Minor, about
+640 B.C.  Thales sought to establish the idea that water is the first
+principle and cause of the universe.  He held that water is filled with
+life and soul, the essential element in the foundation of all nature.
+Thales had great learning for his time, being well versed in geometry,
+arithmetic, and astronomy.  He travelled in Egypt and the Orient, and
+became acquainted with ancient lore.  It is said that being impressed
+with the importance of water in Egypt, where the Nile is the source of
+all life, he was led to assert the importance of water in animate
+nature.  In his attempts to break away from the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P217"></A>217}</SPAN>
+old cosmogony, he
+still exhibits traces of the old superstitions, for he regarded the sun
+and stars as living beings, who received their warmth and life from the
+ocean, in which they bathed at the time of setting.  He held that the
+whole world was full of soul, manifested in individual daemons, or
+spirits.  Puerile as his philosophy appears in comparison with the
+later development of Greek philosophy, it created violent antagonism
+with mythical theology and led the way to further investigation and
+speculation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Anaximander, born at Miletus 611 B.C., an astronomer and geographer,
+following Thales chronologically, wrote a book on "Nature," the first
+written on the subject in the philosophy of Greece.  He held that all
+things arose from the "infinite," a primordial chaos in which was an
+internal energy.  From a universal mixture things arose by separation,
+the parts once formed remaining unchanged.  The earth was cylindrical
+in shape, suspended in the air in the centre of the universe, and the
+stars and planets revolved around it, each fastened in a crystalline
+ring; the moon and sun revolved in the same manner, only at a farther
+distance.  The generation of the universe was by the action of
+contraries, by heat and cold, the moist and the dry.  From the moisture
+all things were originally generated by heat.  Animals and men came
+from fishes by a process of evolution.  There is evidence in his
+philosophy of a belief in the development of the universe by the action
+of heat and cold on matter.  It is also evident that the principles of
+biology and the theory of evolution are hinted at by this philosopher.
+Also, he was the first to observe the obliquity of the ecliptic; he
+taught that the moon received its light from the sun and that the earth
+is round.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Anaximenes, born at Miletus 588 B.C., asserted that air was the first
+principle of the universe; indeed, he held that on it "the very earth
+floats like a broad leaf."  He held that air was infinite in extent;
+that it touched all things, and was the source of life of all.  The
+human soul was nothing but air, since life consists in inhaling and
+exhaling, and when this is no longer
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P218"></A>218}</SPAN>
+continued death ensues.
+Warmth and cold arose from rarefaction and condensation, and probably
+the origin of the sun and planets was caused by the rarefaction of air;
+but when air underwent great condensation, snow, water, and hail
+appeared, and, indeed, with sufficient condensation, the earth itself
+was formed.  It was only a step further to suppose that the infinite
+air was the source of life, the god of the universe.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Somewhat later Diogenes of Apollonia asserted that all things
+originated from one essence, and that air was the soul of the world,
+eternal and endowed with consciousness.  This was an attempt to explain
+the development of the universe by a conscious power.  It led to the
+suggestion of psychology, as the mind of man was conscious air.  "But
+that which has knowledge is what men call air; it is it that regulates
+all and governs all, and hence it is the use of air to pervade all, and
+to dispose all, and to be in all, for there is nothing that has not
+part in it."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Other philosophers of this school reasoned or speculated upon the
+probable first causes in the creation.  In a similar manner Heraclitus
+asserted that fire was the first principle, and states as the
+fundamental maxim of his philosophy that "all is convertible into fire,
+and fire into all."  There was so much confusion in his doctrines as to
+give him the name of "The Obscure."  "The moral system of Heraclitus
+was based on the physical.  He held that heat developed morality,
+moisture immorality.  He accounted for the wickedness of the drunkard
+by his having a moist soul, and inferred that a warm, dry soul was
+noblest and best."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Anaxagoras taught the mechanical processes of the universe, and
+advanced many theories of the origin of animal life and of material
+objects.  Anaxagoras was a man of wealth, who devoted all of his time
+and means to philosophy.  He recognized two principles, one material
+and the other spiritual, but failed to connect the two, and in
+determining causes he came into open conflict with the religion of the
+times, and asserted that the "divine miracles" were nothing more than
+natural
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P219"></A>219}</SPAN>
+causes.  He was condemned for his atheism and thrown into
+prison, but, escaping, he was obliged to end his days in exile.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Another notable example of the early Greek philosophy is found in
+Pythagoras, who asserted that number was the first principle.  He and
+his followers found that the "whole heaven was a harmony of number."
+The Pythagoreans taught that all comes from one, but that the odd
+number is finite, the even infinite; that ten was a perfect number.
+They sought for a criterion of truth in the relation of numbers.
+Nothing could exist or be formed without harmony, and this harmony
+depended upon number, that is, upon the union of contrary elements.
+The musical octave was their best example to illustrate their meaning.
+The union of the atoms in modern chemistry illustrates in full the
+principle of number after which they were striving.  It emphasized the
+importance of measurements in investigation.  Much more might be said
+about the elaborate system of the Pythagoreans; but the main principle
+herein stated must suffice.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Weakness of Ionian Philosophy</I>.&mdash;Viewed from the modern standpoint
+of scientific research, the early philosophers of Greece appear puerile
+and insignificant.  They directed their thoughts largely toward nature,
+but instead of systematic observation and comparison they used the
+speculative and hypothetical methods to ascertain truth.  They had
+turned from the credulity of ancient tradition to simple faith in the
+mind to determine the nature and cause of the universe.  But this was
+followed by a scepticism as to the sense perception, a scepticism which
+could only be overcome by a larger observation of facts.  Simple as it
+appears, this process was an essential transition from the theology of
+the Greeks to the perfected philosophy built upon reason.  The attitude
+of the mind was of great value, and the attention directed to external
+nature was sure to turn again to man, and the supernatural.  While
+there is a mixture of the physical, metaphysical, and mystical, the
+final lesson to be learned is the recognition of reality of nature as
+external to mind.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P220"></A>220}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Eleatic Philosophers</I>.&mdash;About 500 B.C., and nearly contemporary
+with the Pythagoreans, flourished the Eleatic philosophers, among whom
+Xenophanes, Parmenides, Zeno, and Melissus were the principal leaders.
+They speculated about the nature of the mind, or soul, and departed
+from the speculations respecting the origin of the earth.  The nature
+of the infinite and the philosophy of being suggested by the Ionian
+philosophers were themes that occupied the attention of this new
+school.  Parmenides believed in the knowledge of an absolute being, and
+affirmed the unity of thought and being.  He won the distinction of
+being the first logical philosopher among the Greeks, and was called
+the father of idealism.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Zeno is said to have been the most remarkable of this school.  He held
+that if there was a distinction between <I>being</I> and <I>not being</I>, only
+<I>being</I> existed.  This led him to the final assumption that the laws of
+nature are unchangeable and God remains permanent.  His method of
+reasoning was to reduce the opposite to absurdity.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Upon the whole, the Eleatic philosophy is one relating to knowledge and
+being, which considered thought primarily as dependent upon being.  It
+holds closely to monism, that is, that nature and mind are of the same
+substance; yet there is a slight distinction, for there is really a
+dualism expressed in knowledge and being.  Many other philosophers
+followed, who discoursed upon nature, mind, and being, but they arrived
+at no definite conclusions.  The central idea in the early philosophy
+up to this time was to account for the existence and substance of
+nature.  It gave little consideration to man in himself, and said
+little of the supernatural.  Everything was speculative in nature,
+hypothetical in proposition, and deductive in argument.  The Greek
+mind, departing from its dependence upon mythology, began boldly to
+assert its ability to find out nature, but ended in a scepticism as to
+its power to ascertain certainty.  There was a final determination as
+to the distinction of reality as external to mind, and this represents
+the best product of the early philosophers.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P221"></A>221}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Sophists</I>.&mdash;Following the Eleatics was a group of philosophers
+whose principle characteristic was scepticism.  Man, not nature, was
+the central idea in their philosophy, and they changed the point of
+view from objective to subjective contemplation.  They accomplished
+very little in their speculation except to shift the entire attitude of
+philosophy from external nature to man.  They were interested in the
+culture of the individual, yet, in their psychological treatment of
+man, they relied entirely upon sense perception.  In the consideration
+of man's ethical nature they were individualistic, considering private
+right and private judgment the standards of truth.  They led the way to
+greater speculation in this subject and to a higher philosophy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Socrates the First Moral Philosopher (b. 469 B.C.)</I>.&mdash;Following the
+sophists in the progressive development of philosophy, Socrates turned
+his attention almost exclusively to human nature.  He questioned all
+things, political, ethical, and theological, and insisted upon the
+moral worth of the individual man.  While he cast aside the nature
+studies of the early philosophy and repudiated the pseudo-wisdom of the
+sophists, he was not without his own interpretation of nature.  He was
+interested in questions pertaining to the order of nature and the wise
+adaptation of means to an end.  Nature is animated by a soul, yet it is
+considered as a wise contrivance for man's benefit rather than a
+living, self-determining organism.  In the subordination of all nature
+to the good, Socrates lays the foundation of natural theology.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But the ethical philosophy of Socrates is more prominent and positive.
+He asserted that scientific knowledge is the sole condition to virtue;
+that vice is ignorance.  Hence virtue will always follow knowledge
+because they are a unity.  His ethical principles are founded on
+utility, the good of which he speaks is useful, and is the end of
+individual acts and aims.  Wisdom is the foundation of all virtues;
+indeed, every virtue is wisdom.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Socrates made much of friendship and love, and thought temperance to be
+the fundamental virtue.  Without
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P222"></A>222}</SPAN>
+temperance, men were not useful
+to themselves or to others, and temperance meant the complete mastery
+of self.  Friendship and love were cardinal points in the doctrine of
+ethical life.  The proper conduct of life, justice in the treatment of
+man by his fellow-man, and the observance of the duties of citizenship,
+were part of the ethical philosophy of Socrates.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Beauty is only another name for goodness, but it is only a harmony or
+adaptation of means to an end.  The Socratic method of ascertaining
+truth by the art of suggestive questioning was a logical mode of
+procedure.  The meeting of individuals in conversation was a method of
+arriving at the truth of ethical conduct and ethical relations.  It was
+made up of induction and definition.  No doubt the spirit of his
+teaching was sceptical in the extreme.  While having a deeper sense of
+the reality of life than others, he realized that he did not know much.
+He criticized freely the prevailing beliefs, customs, and religious
+practice.  For this he was accused of impiety, and forced to drink the
+hemlock.  With an irony in manner and thought, Socrates introduced the
+problem of self-knowledge; he hastened the study of man and reason; he
+instituted the doctrine of true manhood as an essential part in the
+philosophy of life.  Conscience was enthroned, and the moral life of
+man began with Socrates.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Platonic Philosophy Develops the Ideal</I>.&mdash;Plato was the pupil of
+Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle.  These three represent the
+culmination of Greek philosophy.  In its fundamental principles the
+Platonic philosophy represents the highest flight of the mind in its
+conception of being and of the nature of mind and matter, entertained
+by the philosophers.  The doctrine of Plato consisted of three primary
+principles: matter, ideas, and God.  While matter is co-eternal with
+God, he created all animate and inanimate things from matter.  Plato
+maintained that there was a unity in design.  And as God was an
+independent and individual creator of the world, who fashioned the
+universe, and is father to all creatures, there was unity in God.
+Plato advanced the doctrine of reminiscences,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P223"></A>223}</SPAN>
+in which he
+accounted for what had otherwise been termed innate ideas.  Plato also
+taught, to a certain extent, the transmigration of souls.  He was
+evidently influenced in many ways by the Indian philosophy; but the
+special doctrine of Plato made ideas the most permanent of all things.
+Visible things are only fleeting shadows, which soon pass away; only
+ideas remain.  The universal concept, or notion, is the only real
+thing.  Thus the perfect globe is the concept held in the mind; the
+marble, ball, or sphere of material is only an imperfect representation
+of the same.  The horse is a type to which all individual horses tend
+to conform; they pass away, but the type remains.  His work was purely
+deductive.  His major premise was accepted on faith rather than
+determined by his reason.  Yet in philosophical speculations the
+immortality of the soul, future rewards and punishments, the unity of
+the creation and the unity of the creator, and an all-wise ruler of the
+universe, were among the most important points of doctrine.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Aristotle the Master Mind of the Greeks</I>.&mdash;While Aristotle and Plato
+sought to prove the same things, and agreed with each other on many
+principles of philosophy, the method employed by the former was exactly
+the reverse of that of the latter.  Plato founded his doctrine on the
+unity of all being, and observed the particular only through the
+universal.  For proof he relied on the intuitive and the synthetic.
+Aristotle, on the contrary, found it necessary to consider the
+particular in order that the universal might be established.  He
+therefore gathered facts, analyzed material, and discoursed upon the
+results.  He was patient and persistent in his investigations, and not
+only gave the world a great lesson by his example, but he obtained
+better results than any other philosopher of antiquity.  It is
+generally conceded that he showed the greatest strength of intellect,
+the deepest insight, the greatest breadth of speculative thought, and
+the clearest judgment of all philosophers, either ancient or modern.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Perhaps his doctrine of the necessity of a final cause, or sufficient
+reason, which gives a rational explanation of individual
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P224"></A>224}</SPAN>
+things,
+is Aristotle's greatest contribution to pure philosophy.  The doctrine
+of empiricism has been ascribed to Aristotle, but he fully recognized
+the universal, and thought it connected with the individual, and not
+separated from it, as represented by Plato.  The universal is
+self-determining in its individualization, and is, therefore, a process
+of identification rather than of differentiation.  The attention which
+Aristotle gave to fact as opposed to theory, to investigation as
+opposed to speculation, and to final cause, led men from a condition of
+necessity to that of freedom, and taught philosophers to substantiate
+their theories by reason and by fact.  There is no better illustration
+of his painstaking investigation than his writing 250 constitutional
+histories as the foundation of his work on "Politics."  In this
+masterly work will be found an exposition of political theories and
+practice worthy the attention of all modern political philosophers.
+The service given by Aristotle to the learning of the Middle Ages, and,
+in fact, to modern philosophy, was very great.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Aristotle was of a more practical turn of mind than Plato.  While he
+introduced the formal syllogism in logic, he also introduced the
+inductive method.  Perhaps Aristotle represented the wisest and most
+learned of the Greeks, because he advanced beyond the speculative
+philosophy to a point where he attempted to substantiate theory by
+facts, and thus laid the foundation for comparative study.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Other Schools</I>.&mdash;The Epicureans taught a philosophy based upon
+pleasure-seeking&mdash;or, as it may be stated, making happiness the highest
+aim of life.  They said that to seek happiness was to seek the highest
+good.  This philosophy in its pure state had no evil ethical tendency,
+but under the bad influences of remote followers of Epicurus it led to
+the degeneration of ethical practice.  "Beware of excesses," says
+Epicurus, "for they will lead to unhappiness."  Beware of folly and
+sin, for they lead to wretchedness.  Nothing could have been better
+than this, until people began to follow sensuality as the immediate
+return of efforts to secure happiness.  Then it led to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P225"></A>225}</SPAN>
+corruption, and was one of the causes of the downfall of Greek as well
+as the Roman civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Stoics were a group of philosophers who placed great emphasis upon
+ethics in comparison with logic and physics.  They looked on the world
+from the pessimistic side and made themselves happy by becoming
+martyrs.  They taught that suffering, the endurance of pain without
+complaint, was the highest virtue.  To them logic was the science of
+thought and of expression, physics was the science of nature, and
+ethics the science of the good.  All ideas originated from sensation,
+and perception was the only criterion of truth.  "We know only what we
+perceive (by sense); only those ideas contain certain knowledge for us
+which are ideas of real objects."  The soul of man was corporeal and
+material, hence physics and metaphysics were almost identical.  There
+is much incoherency in their philosophy; it abounds in paradoxes.  For
+instance, it recognizes sense as the criterion and source of knowledge,
+and asserts that reason is universal and knowable.  Yet it asserts that
+there is no rational element in sense that is universal.  It confuses
+individual human nature and universal nature, though its final result
+was to unite both in one concept.  The result of their entire
+philosophy was to create confusion, although they had much influence on
+the practical life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Sceptics doubted all knowledge obtained by the senses.  There was
+no criterion of truth in the intellect, consequently no knowledge.  If
+truth existed it was in conduct, and thus the judgment must be
+suspended.  They held that there was nothing that could be determined
+of specific nature, nothing that could be of certainty.  Eventually the
+whole Greek philosophy went out in scepticism.  The three schools, the
+sceptic, the Epicurean, and the stoic, though widely differing in many
+ways, agreed upon one thing, in basing their philosophy on
+subjectivity, on mind rather than on objective nature.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Results Obtained in Greek Philosophy</I>.&mdash;The philosophical conclusions
+aimed at by the Greeks related to the origin and destiny of the world.
+The world is an emanation from God,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P226"></A>226}</SPAN>
+and in due time it will
+return to Him.  It may be considered as a part of the substance of God,
+or it may be considered as something objective proceeding from him.
+The visible world around us becomes thus but an expression of the God
+mind.  But as it came forth a thing of beauty, so it will return again
+to Him after its mission is fulfilled.  On the existence and attributes
+of God the Greeks dwelt with great force.  There is established first a
+unity of God, and this unity is the first cause in the creation.  To
+what extent this unity is independent and separate in existence from
+nature, is left in great doubt.  It was held that God is present
+everywhere in nature, though His being is not limited by time or space.
+Much of the philosophy bordered upon, if it did not openly avow, a
+belief in pantheism.  The highest conception recognizes design in
+creation, which would give an individual existence to the Creator.  Yet
+the most acute mind did not depart from the assumption of the idea of
+an all-pervading being of God extending throughout the universe,
+mingling with nature and to a certain extent inseparable from it.  In
+their highest conception the most favored of the Greeks were not free
+from pantheistic notions.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The nature of the soul occupied much of the attention of the Greeks.
+They began by giving material characteristics to the mind.  They soon
+separated it in concept from material nature and placed it as a part of
+God himself, who existed apart from material form.  The soul has a past
+life, a present, and a future, as a final outcome of philosophical
+speculations.  The attributes of the soul were confused with the
+attributes of the Supreme Being.  These conceptions of the Divine Being
+and of the soul border on the Hindu philosophy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Perhaps the subject which caused the most discussion was the attempt to
+determine a criterion of truth.  Soon after the time when they broke
+away from the ancient religious faith, the thinkers of Greece began to
+doubt the ability of the mind to ascertain absolute truth.  This arose
+out of the imperfections of knowledge obtained through the senses.
+Sense perception
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P227"></A>227}</SPAN>
+was held in much doubt.  The world is full of
+delusions.  Man thinks he sees when he does not.  The rainbow is but an
+illusion when we attempt to analyze it.  The eye deceives, the ear
+hears what does not exist; even touch and taste frequently deceive us.
+What, then, can be relied upon as accurate in determining knowledge?
+To this the Greek mind answers, "Nothing"; it reaches no definite
+conclusion, and this is the cardinal weakness of the philosophy.
+Indeed, the great weakness of the entire age of philosophy was want of
+data.  It was a time of intense activity of the mind, but the lack of
+data led to much worthless speculation.  The systematic method of
+scientific observation had not yet been discovered.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But how could this philosophical speculation affect civilization?  It
+determined the views of life entertained by the Greeks, and human
+progress depended upon this.  The progress of the world depends upon
+the attitude of the human mind toward nature, toward man and his life.
+The study of philosophy developed the mental capacity of man, gave him
+power to cope with nature, and enhanced his possibility of right
+living.  More than this, it taught man to rely upon himself in
+explaining the origin and growth of the universe and the development of
+human life.  Though these points were gained only by the few and soon
+lost sight of by all, yet they were revived in after years, and placed
+man upon the right basis for improvement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The quickening impulse of philosophy had its influence on art and
+language.  The language of the Greeks stands as their most powerful
+creation.  The development of philosophy enlarged the scope of language
+and increased its already rich vocabulary.  Art was a representation of
+nature.  The predominance given to man in life, the study of heroes and
+gods, gave ideal creations and led to the expression of beauty.
+Philosophy, literature, language, and art, including architecture,
+represent the products of Greek civilization, and as such have been the
+lasting heritage of the nations that have followed.  The philosophy and
+practice of social life and government
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P228"></A>228}</SPAN>
+received a high
+development in Greece.  They will be treated in a separate chapter.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  What was the importance of Socrates' teaching?  Why was he put to
+death?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  What has been the influence of Plato's teaching on modern life?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  Why is Aristotle considered the greatest of the Greeks?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  What was the influence of the library at Alexandria?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  What caused the decline in Greek philosophy?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  What was the influence on civilization of the Greek attitudes of
+mind toward nature?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  Compare the use of Greek philosophy with modern science as to their
+value in education.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap14"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P229"></A>229}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XIV
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+THE GREEK SOCIAL POLITY
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Struggle for Greek Equality and Liberty</I>.&mdash;The greater part of the
+activity of Western nations has been a struggle for social equality and
+for political and religious liberty.  These phases of European social
+life are clearly discerned in the development of the Greek states.  The
+Greeks were recognized as having the highest intellectual culture and
+the largest mental endowments of all the ancients, characteristics
+which gave them great prestige in the development of political life and
+social philosophy.  The problem of how communities of people should
+live together, their relations to one another, and their rights,
+privileges, and duties, early concerned the philosophers of Greece; but
+more potent than all the philosophies that have been uttered, than all
+of the theories concerning man's social relation, is the vivid
+portrayal of the actual struggle of men to live together in community
+life, pictured in the course of Grecian history.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the presentation of this life, writers have differed much in many
+ways.  Some have eulogized the Greeks as a liberty-loving people, who
+sought to grant rights and duties to every one on an altruistic basis;
+others have pictured them as entirely egoistic, with a morality of a
+narrow nature, and with no sublime conception of the relation of the
+rights of humanity as such.  Without entering into a discussion of the
+various views entertained by philosophers concerning the
+characteristics of the Greeks, it may be said that, with all their
+noble characteristics, the ideal pictures which are presented to us by
+the poet, the philosopher, and the historian are too frequently of the
+few, while the great mass of the people remained in a state of
+ignorance, superstition, and slavery.  With a due recognition of the
+existence of the germs of democracy,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P230"></A>230}</SPAN>
+we find that Greece, after
+all, was in spirit an aristocracy.  There was an aristocracy of birth,
+of wealth, of learning, and of hereditary power.  While we must
+recognize the greatness of the Greek life in comparison with that of
+Oriental nations, it must still be evident to us that the best phases
+of this life and the magnificent features of Greek learning have been
+emphasized much by writers, while the wretched and debasing conditions
+of the people of Greece have seldom been recounted.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Greek Government an Expanded Family</I>.&mdash;The original family was
+ruled by the father, who acted as king, priest, and lawgiver.  As long
+as life lasted he had supreme control over all members of his family,
+whether they were so by birth or adoption.  All that they owned, all of
+the products of their hands, all the wealth of the family, belonged to
+him; even their lives were at his disposal.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As the family becomes stronger and is known as a gens, it represents a
+close, compact organization, looking after its own interests, and with
+definite customs concerning its own government.  As the gentes are
+multiplied they form tribes, and the oldest male member of the tribal
+group acts as its leader and king, while the heads of the various
+gentes thus united become his counsellors and advisers in later
+development, and the senate after democratic government organization
+takes place.  As time passes the head of this family is called a king
+or chief, and rules on the ground that he has descended from the gods,
+is under the divine protection, and represents the oldest aristocratic
+family in the tribe.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the beginning this tribal chief holds unlimited sway over all of his
+subjects.  But to maintain his power well he must be a soldier who is
+able to command the forces in war; he must be able to lead in the
+councils with the chiefs and, when occasion requires, discuss matters
+with the people.  Gradually passing from the ancient hereditary power,
+he reaches a stage when it becomes a custom to consult with all the
+chiefs of the tribe in the management of the affairs.  The earliest
+picture of Greek government represents a king who is equal in birth
+with
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P231"></A>231}</SPAN>
+other heads of the gentes, presiding over a group of elders
+deliberating upon the affairs of the state.  The influence of the
+nobles over whom he presided must have been great.  It appears that the
+king or chief must convince his associates in council before any
+decision could be considered a success.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The second phase of Greek government represents this same king as
+appearing in the assembly of all the people and presenting for their
+consideration the affairs of the state.  It is evident from this that,
+although he was a hereditary monarch, deriving his power from
+aristocratic lineage traced even to the gods themselves, he was
+responsible to the people for his government, and this principle
+extends all the way through the development of Greek social and
+political life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The right to free discussion of affairs in open council, the right to
+object to methods of procedure, were cardinal principles in Greek
+politics; but while the great mass of people were not taken into
+account in the affairs of the government, there was an equality among
+all those called citizens which had much to do with the establishment
+of the civil polity of all nations.  The whole Greek political life,
+then, represents the slow evolution from aristocratic government of
+hereditary chiefs toward a complete democracy, which unfortunately it
+failed to reach before the decline of the Greek state.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As before related, the Greeks had established a large number of
+independent communities which developed into small states.  These small
+states were mostly isolated from one another, hence they developed an
+independent social and political existence.  This was of great
+consequence in the establishing of the character of the Greek
+government.  In the first place, the kings, chiefs, and rulers were
+brought closely in contact with the people.  Everybody knew them,
+understood the character of the men, realizing that they had passions
+and prejudices similar to other men, and that, notwithstanding they
+were elevated to positions of power, they nevertheless were human
+beings like the people themselves.  This led to a democratic feeling.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P232"></A>232}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Again, the development of these separate small states led to great
+diversity of government.  All kinds of government were exercised in
+Greece, from the democracy to the hereditary monarchy.  Many of these
+governments passed in their history through all stages of government to
+be conceived of&mdash;the monarchy, absolute and constitutional, the
+aristocracy, the oligarchy, the tyranny, the democracy, and the polity.
+All phases of politics had their representation in the development of
+the Greek life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In a far larger way the development of these isolated communities made
+local self-government the primary basis of the state.  When the Greek
+had developed his own small state he had done his duty so far as
+government was concerned.  He might be on friendly terms with the
+neighboring states, especially as they might use the same language as
+his own and belonged to the same race, but he could in no way be
+responsible for the success or the failure of men outside of his
+community.  This was many times a detriment to the development of the
+Greek race, as the time arrived when it should stand as a unit against
+the encroachments of foreign nations.  No unity of national life found
+expression in the repulsion of the Persians, no unity in the
+Peloponnesian war, no unity in the defense against the Romans; indeed,
+the Macedonians found a divided people, which made conquering easy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There was another phase of this Greek life worthy of notice: the fact
+that it developed extreme selfishness and egoism respecting government.
+We shall find in this development, in spite of the pretensions for the
+interests of the many, that government existed for the few;
+notwithstanding the professions of an enlarged social life, we shall
+find a narrowness almost beyond belief in the treatment of Greeks by
+one another in the social life.  It is true that the recognition of
+citizenship was much wider than in the Orient, and that the individual
+life of man received more marked attention than in any ancient
+despotism; yet, after all, when we recognize the multitudes of slaves,
+who were considered not worthy to take part in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P233"></A>233}</SPAN>
+government
+affairs, the numbers of the freedmen and non-citizens, and realize that
+the few who had power or privilege of government looked with disdain
+upon all others, it gives us no great enthusiasm for Greek democracy
+when compared with the modern conception of that term.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As Mr. Freeman says in his <I>Federal Government</I>, the citizen "looked
+down upon the vulgar herd of slaves, the freedmen and unqualified
+residents, as his own plebeian fathers had been looked down upon by the
+old Eupatrides in the days of Cleisthenes and Solon."  Whatever phase
+of this Greek society we discuss, we must not forget that there was a
+large class excluded from rights of government, and that the few sought
+always to maintain their own rights and privileges supported by the
+many, and the pretensions of an enlarged privilege of citizenship had
+little effect in changing the actual conditions of the aristocratic
+government.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Athenian Government a Type of Grecian Democracy</I>.&mdash;Indeed, it was
+the only completed government in Greece.  The civilization of Athens
+shows the character of the Greek race in its richest and most beautiful
+development.  Here art, learning, culture, and government reached their
+highest development.  It was a small territory that surrounded the city
+of Athens, containing a little over 850 English square miles, possibly
+less, as some authorities say.  The soil was poor, but the climate was
+superb.  It was impossible for the Athenian to support a high
+civilization from the soil of Attica, hence trade sprang up and Athens
+grew wealthy on account of its great maritime commerce.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The population of all Attica in the most flourishing times was about
+500,000 people, 150,000 of whom were slaves, 45,000 settlers, or
+unqualified people, while the free citizens did not exceed 90,000&mdash;so
+that the equality so much spoken of in Grecian democracies belonged to
+only 90,000 out of 500,000, leaving 410,000 disfranchised.  The
+district was thickly populous for Greece, and the stock of the Athenian
+had little mixture of foreign blood in it.  The city itself was formed
+of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P234"></A>234}</SPAN>
+villages or cantons, united into one central government.
+These appear to be survivals of the old village communities united
+under the title of city-state.  It was the perfection of this
+city-state that occupied the chief thought of the Athenian political
+philosophers.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The ancient kingship of Athens passed, on deposition of the last of the
+Medoutidae, about 712 B.C., into the hands of the nobles.  This was the
+first step in the passage from monarchy toward democracy; it was the
+beginning of the foundation of the republican constitution.  In 682
+B.C. the government passed into the hands of nine archons, chosen from
+all the rest of the nobles.  It was a movement on the part of the
+nobles to obtain a partition of the government, while the common people
+were not improved at all by the process.  The kings, indeed, in the
+ancient time made a better government for the people than did the
+nobles.  The people at this period were in great trouble.  The nobles
+had loaned money to their wretched neighbors and, as the law was very
+strict, the creditor might take possession of the property and even of
+the person of the debtor, making of him a slave.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In this way the small proprietors had become serfs, and the masters
+took from them five-sixths of the products of the soil, and would, no
+doubt, have taken their lands had these not been inalienable.
+Sometimes the debtors were sold into foreign countries as slaves, and
+at other times their children were taken as slaves according to the
+law.  On account of the oppression of the poor by the nobility, there
+sprang up a hatred between these two classes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A few changes were made by the laws of Draco and others, but nothing
+gave decided relief to the people.  The nine archons, representing the
+power of the state, managed nearly all of its affairs, and retained
+likewise their seats in the council of nobles.  The old national
+council formed by the aristocratic members of the community still
+retained its hold, and the council of archons, though it divided the
+country into administrative districts and sought to secure more
+specific
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P235"></A>235}</SPAN>
+management of the several districts, failed to keep down
+internal disorders or to satisfy the people.  The people were formed
+into three classes: the wealthy nobility, or land-owners of the plain,
+the peasants of the mountains districts, and the people of the coast
+country, the so-called middle classes.  The hatred of the nobility by
+the peasants of the mountains was intense.  The nobles demanded their
+complete suppression and subordination to the rule of their own class.
+The people of the coast would have been contented with moderate
+concessions from the nobility, which would give them a part in the
+government and leave them unmolested.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Constitution of Solon Seeks a Remedy</I>.&mdash;Such was the condition of
+affairs when Solon proposed his reforms.  He sought to remove the
+burdens of the people, first, by remitting all fines which had been
+imposed; second, by preventing the people from offering their persons
+as security against debt; and third, by depreciating the coin so as to
+make payment of debt easy.  He replaced the Pheidonian talent by that
+of the Euboic coinage, thus increasing the debt-paying capacity of
+money twenty-seven per cent, or, in other words, reduced the debt about
+that amount.  It was further provided that all debts could be paid in
+three annual instalments, thus allowing poor farmers with mortgages
+upon their farms an opportunity to pay their debts.  There was also
+granted an amnesty to all persons who had been condemned to payment of
+money penalties.  By further measures the exclusive privileges of the
+old nobility were broken down, and a new government established on the
+basis of wealth.  People were divided into classes according to their
+property, and their privileges in government, as well as their taxes,
+were based upon these classes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Revising the old council of 401, Solon established a council (Boule) of
+400, 100 from each district.  These were probably elected at first, but
+later were chosen by lot.  The duties of this council were to prepare
+all business for passage in the popular assembly.  No business could
+come before the assembly of the people except by decree of the council,
+and in nearly
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P236"></A>236}</SPAN>
+every case the council could decide what measures
+should be brought before the assembly.  While in some instances the law
+made it obligatory for certain cases to be brought before the assembly,
+there were some measures which could be disposed of by the council
+without reference to the assembly.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The administration of justice was distributed among the nine archons,
+each one of whom administered some particular department.  The archon
+as judge could dispose of matters or refer them to an arbitrator for
+decision.  In every case the dissatisfied party had a right to appeal
+to the court made up of a collective body of 6,000 citizens, called the
+Heliaea.  This body was annually chosen from the whole body of
+citizens, and acted as jurors and judges.  In civil matters the
+services of the Heliaea were slight.  They consisted in holding open
+court on certain matters appealed to them from the archons.  In
+criminal matters the Heliaea frequently acted immediately as a sole
+tribunal, whose decision was final.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is one of the remarkable things in the Greek polity that the supreme
+court or court of appeals should be elected from the common people,
+while in other courts judges should hold their offices on account of
+position.  Solon also recognized what is known as the Council of the
+Areopagus.  The functions of this body had formerly belonged to the old
+council included in the Draconian code.  The Council of the Areopagus
+was formed from the ex-archons who had held the office without blame.
+It became a sort of supreme advisory council, watching over the whole
+collective administration.  It took account of the behavior of the
+magistrates in office and of the proceedings of the public assembly,
+and could interpose in other cases when, in its judgment, it thought it
+necessary.  It could advise as to the proper conducting of affairs and
+criticise the process of administration.  It could also administer
+private discipline and call citizens to account for their individual
+acts.  In this respect it somewhat resembled the Ephors of Sparta.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P237"></A>237}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+The popular assembly would meet and consider the questions put before
+it by the council, voting yes or no, but the subject was not open for
+discussion.  However, it was possible for the assembly to bring other
+subjects up for discussion and, through motion, refer them to the
+consideration of the council.  It was also possible to attach to the
+proposition of the council a motion, called in modern terms "a rider,"
+and thus enlarge upon the work of the council; but it was so arranged
+that the preponderance of all the offices went to the nobility and that
+the council be made up of this class, and hence there was no danger
+that the government would fall into the hands of the people.  Solon
+claimed to have put into the hands of the people all the power that
+they deserved, and to have established numerous checks on government
+which made it possible for each group of people to be well represented.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Thus the council limited the power of the assembly, the Areopagus
+supervised the council, while the courts of the people had the final
+decision in cases of appeal.  As is well known, Solon could not carry
+out his own reforms, but was forced to leave the country.  Had he been
+of a different nature and at once seized the government, or appealed to
+the people, as did his successor, Pisistratus, he might have made his
+measures of reform more effective.  As it was, he was obliged to leave
+their execution to others.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Cleisthenes Continues the Reforms of Solon</I>.&mdash;Some years later (509
+B.C.) Cleisthenes instituted other reforms, increasing the council to
+500, the members of which might be drawn from the first three classes
+rather than the first, limiting the archonship to the first class, and
+breaking up the four ancient tribes formed from the nobility.  He
+formed ten new tribes of religious and political unions, thus intending
+to break down the influence of the nobility.  Although the popular
+assembly was composed of all citizens of the four classes, the
+functions of this body in the early period were very meagre.  It gave
+them the privilege of voting on the principal affairs of the nation
+when the council desired them to assume the responsibility.  The
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P238"></A>238}</SPAN>
+time for holding it was in the beginning indefinite, it being only
+occasionally convened, but in later times there were ten[<A NAME="chap14fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap14fn1">1</A>] assemblies
+in each year, when business was regularly placed before it.  Meetings
+were held in the market-place at first; later a special building was
+erected for this purpose.  Sometimes, however, special assemblies were
+held elsewhere.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The assembly was convoked by the prytanes, while the right of convoking
+extraordinary assemblies fell to the lot of the strategi.  There were
+various means for the compulsion of the attendance of the crowd.  There
+was a fine for non-attendance, and police kept out people who ought not
+to appear.  Each assembly opened with religious service.  Usually
+sucking pigs were sacrificed, which were carried around to purify the
+place, and their blood was sprinkled over the floor.  This ceremony was
+followed by the offering of incense.  This having been done, the
+president stated the question to be considered and summoned the people
+to vote.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As the assembly developed in the advanced stage of Athenian life, every
+member in good standing had a right to speak.  The old men were called
+upon first and then the younger men.  This discussion was generally
+upon open questions, and not upon resolutions prepared by the council,
+though amendments to these resolutions were sometimes allowed.  No
+speaker could be interrupted except by the presiding officer, and no
+member could speak more than once.  As each speaker arose, he mounted
+the rostrum and placed a wreath of myrtle upon his head, which
+signified that he was performing a duty to the state.  The Greeks
+appear to have developed considerable parliamentary usage and to have
+practised a system of voting similar to our ballot reform.  Each
+individual entered an enclosure and voted by means of pebbles.
+Subsequently the functions of the assembly grew quite large.  The
+demagogues found it to their interests to extend its powers.  They
+tried to establish the principle in Athens that the people were the
+rulers of everything by right.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P239"></A>239}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+The powers of the assembly were generally divided into four groups, the
+first including the confirmation of appointments, the accusation of
+offenders against the state, the confiscation of goods, and claims to
+succession of property.  The second group considered petitions of the
+people, the third acted upon motions for the remission of sentences,
+and the fourth had charge of dealings with foreign states and religious
+matters in general.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is observed that the Athenians represented the highest class of the
+Greeks and that government received its highest development among them.
+But the only real political liberty in Greece may be summed up in the
+principle of hearing both sides of a question and of obtaining a
+decision on the merits of the case presented.  Far different is this
+from the old methods of despotic rule, under which kings were looked
+upon as authority in themselves, whose will must be carried out without
+question.  The democracy of Athens, too, was the first instance of the
+substitution of law for force.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is true that in the beginning all of the Greek communities rested
+upon a military basis.  Their foundations were laid in military
+exploits, and they maintained their position by the force of arms for a
+long period.  But this is true of nearly all states and nations when
+they make their first attempt at permanent civilization.  But after
+they were once established they sought to rule their subjects by the
+introduction of well-regulated laws and not by the force of arms.  The
+military discipline, no doubt, was the best foundation for a state of
+primitive people, but as this passed away the newer life was regulated
+best by law and civil power.  Under this the military became
+subordinate.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+To Greece must be given the credit of founding the city, and, indeed,
+this is one of the chief characteristics of the Greek people.  They
+established the city-state, or polis.  It represented a full and
+complete sovereignty in itself.  When they had accomplished this idea
+of sovereignty the political organization had reached its highest aim.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P240"></A>240}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>Athenian Democracy Failed in Obtaining Its Best and Highest
+Development</I>.&mdash;It is a disappointment to the reader that Athens, when
+in the height of power, when the possibilities for extending and
+promoting the best interests of humanity in social capacity were
+greatest, should end in decline and failure.  In the first place,
+extreme democracy in that early period was more open than now to
+excessive dangers.  It was in danger of control by mobs, who were
+ignorant of their own real interests and the interests of popular
+government; it was in danger of falling into the hands of tyrants, who
+would rule for their own private interests; it was in danger of falling
+into the hands of a few, which frequently happened.  And this democracy
+in the ancient time was a rule of class&mdash;class subordination was the
+essence of its constitution.  There was no universal rule by the
+majority.  The franchise was an exclusive privilege extended to a
+minority, hence it differed little from aristocracy, being a government
+of class with a rather wider extension.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The ancient democracies were pure in form, in which the people governed
+immediately.  For every citizen had a right to appear in the assembly
+and vote, and he could sit in the assembly, which acted as an open
+court.  Indeed, the elective officers of the democracy were not
+considered as representatives of the people.  They were the state and
+not subject to impeachment, though they should break over all law.
+After they returned among the citizens and were no longer the state
+they could be tried for their misdemeanors in office.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Now, a state of this nature and form must of necessity be small, and as
+government expanded and its functions increased, the representative
+principle should have been introduced as a mainstay to the public
+system.  The individual in the ancient democracy lived for the state,
+being subordinate to its existence as the highest form of life.  We
+find this entirely different from the modern democracy, in which
+slavery and class subordination are both excluded, as opposed to its
+theory and antagonistic to its very being.  Its citizenship is wide,
+extending to its native population, and its suffrage is universal to
+all who qualify as citizens.  The citizens, too, in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P241"></A>241}</SPAN>
+modern
+democracies, live for themselves, and believe that the state is made by
+them for themselves.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The decline of the Athenian democracy was hastened, also, by the
+Peloponnesian war, caused first by the domineering attitude of Athens,
+which posed as an empire, and the jealousy of Sparta.  This struggle
+between Athens and Sparta amounted almost to civil war.  And although
+it brought Sparta to the front as the most powerful state in all
+Greece, she was unable to advance the higher civilization, but really
+exercised a depressing influence upon it.  It might be mentioned
+briefly, too, that the overthrow of Athens somewhat later, and the
+establishment of the 400 as rulers, soon led to political
+disintegration.  It was the beginning of the founding of Athenian
+clubs, or political factions, which attempted to control the elections
+by fear or force.  These, by their power, forced the decrees of the
+assembly to suit themselves, and thus gave the death-blow to liberty.
+There was the reaction from this to the establishment of 5,000 citizens
+as a controlling body, and restricting the constitution, which
+attempted to unite all classes into one body and approximated the
+modern democracy, or that which is represented in the "polity" of
+Aristotle.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+After the domination of Sparta, Lysander and the thirty tyrants rose to
+oppress the citizens, and deposed a previous council of ten made for
+the ruling of the city.  But once more after this domination democracy
+was restored, and under the Theban and Macedonian supremacies the old
+spirit of "equality of equals" was once more established.  But Athens
+could no longer maintain her ancient position; her warlike ambitions
+had passed away, her national intelligence had declined; the dangers of
+the populace, too, threatened her at every turn, and the selfishness of
+the nobility in respect to the other classes, as well as the
+selfishness of the Spartan state outside, soon led to her downfall.  At
+first, too, all the officers were not paid, it being considered a
+misdemeanor to take pay for office; but finally regular salaries were
+paid, and this forced the leaders to establish free theatres for the
+people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+And finally, it may be said, that the power for good or evil
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P242"></A>242}</SPAN>
+in
+the democracy lacking in permanent foundations is so great that it can
+never lead on to perfect success.  It will prosper to-day and decline
+to-morrow.  So the attempt of the Athenians to found a democracy led
+not to permanent success; nevertheless, it gave to the world for the
+first time the principles of government founded upon equality and
+justice, and these principles have remained unchanged in the practice
+of the more perfect republics of modern times.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Spartan State Differs from All Others</I>.&mdash;If we turn our attention
+to Sparta we shall find an entirely different state&mdash;a state which may
+be represented by calling it an aristocratic republic.  Not only was it
+founded on a military basis, but its very existence was perpetuated by
+military form.  The Dorian conquest brought these people in from the
+north to settle in the Peloponnesus, and by degrees they obtained a
+foothold and conquered their surrounding neighbors.  Having established
+themselves on a small portion of the land, the Dorians, or Spartans,
+possessed themselves of superior military skill in order to obtain the
+overlordship of the surrounding territory.  Soon they had control of
+nearly all of the Peloponnesus.  Although Argos was at first the ruling
+city of the conquerors, Sparta soon obtained the supremacy, and the
+Spartan state became noted as the great military state of the Greeks.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The population of Sparta was composed of the Dorians, or citizens, who
+were the conquerors, and the independent subjects, who had been
+conquered but who had no part in the government, and the serfs or
+helots, who were the lower class of the conquered ones.  The total
+population is estimated at about 380,000 to 400,000, while the serfs
+numbered at least 175,000 to 224,000.  These serfs were always a cause
+of fear and anxiety to the conquerors, and they were watched over by
+night and day by spies who kept them from rising.  The helots were
+employed in peace as well as in war, and in all occupations where
+excessive toil was needed.  The middle class (Perioeci) were subjects
+dependent upon the citizens.  They had no share in the Spartan state
+except to obey its
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P243"></A>243}</SPAN>
+administration.  They were obliged to accept
+the obligations of military service, to pay taxes and dues when
+required.  Their occupations were largely the promotion of agriculture
+and the various trades and industries.  Their proportion to the
+citizens was about thirty to nine, or, as is commonly given, there was
+one citizen to four of the middle class and twelve of the helots,
+making the ratio of citizens to the entire population about
+one-seventeenth, or every seventeenth man was a citizen.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Attempts were made to divide the lands of the rich among the poor, and
+this redistribution of lands occurred from time to time.  There were
+other semblances of pure democracy of communistic nature.  It was a
+pure military state, and all were treated as soldiers.  There was a
+common table, or "mess," for a group, called the social union.  There
+all the men were obliged to assemble at meal-time, the women remaining
+at home.  The male children were taken at the age of seven years and
+trained as soldiers.  These were then in charge of the state, and the
+home was relieved of its responsibility concerning them.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The state also adopted many sumptuary laws regulating what should be
+eaten and what should be used, and what not.  All male persons were
+subjected to severe physical training, for Sparta, in her education,
+always dwelt upon physical development and military training.  The
+development of language and literature, art and sculpture, was not
+observed here as it was in Athens.  The ideal of aristocracy was the
+rule of the nobler elements of the nation and the subordination of the
+mass.  This was supposed to be the best that could be done for the
+state and hence the best for the people.  There was no opportunity for
+subjects to rise to citizenship&mdash;nor, indeed, was this true in Athens,
+except by the gradual widening force of legal privilege.  Individual
+life in Sparta was completely subordinate to the state life, and here
+the citizen existed more fully for the state than in Athens in her
+worst days.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Finally abuses grew.  It was the old story of the few rich
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P244"></A>244}</SPAN>
+dominating and oppressing the many poor.  The minority had grown
+insolent and overbearing, and attempted to rule a hopeless and
+discontented majority.  The reforms of Lycurgus led to some
+improvements, by the institution of new divisions of citizens and
+territory and the division of the land, not only among citizens but the
+half-citizens and dependents.  Nevertheless, it appears that in spite
+of these attempted reforms, in spite of the establishment of the
+council, the public assembly, and the judicial process, Sparta still
+remained an arbitrary military power.  Yet the government continued to
+expand in form and function until it had obtained a complex existence.
+But there was a non-progressive element in it all.  The denial of
+rights of marriage between citizens and other groups limited the
+increase of the number of citizens, and while powers were gradually
+extended to those outside of the pale of citizenship, they were given
+so niggardly, and in such a manner, as to fail to establish the great
+principle of civil government on the basis of a free democracy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The military régime was non-progressive in its nature.  It could lead
+to conquest of enemies, but could not lead to the perpetuation of the
+rights and privileges of citizens; it could lead to domination of
+others, but could not bring about the subordination of universal
+citizenship to law and order, nor permit the expansion and growth of
+individual life under benevolent institutions of government.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+So the Greek government, the democracy with all of its great promises
+and glorious prospects, declined certainly from the height which was
+great in contrast to the Oriental despotisms.  It declined at a time
+when, as we look back from the present, it ought apparently to have
+gone on to the completion of the modern representative government.
+Probably, had the Greeks adopted the representative principle and
+enlarged their citizenship, their government would have been more
+lasting.  It is quite evident, also, that had they adopted the
+principle of federation and, instead of allowing the operation of
+government to cease when one small state had been perfected, united
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P245"></A>245}</SPAN>
+these small states into a great nation throbbing with patriotism
+for the entire country, Greece might have withstood the warlike shocks
+of foreign nations.  But, thus unprepared alike to resist internal
+dissension and foreign oppression, the Greek states, notwithstanding
+all of their valuable contributions to government and society, were
+forced to yield their position of establishing a permanent government
+for the people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Some attempts were made to unify and organize Greek national life, not
+entirely without good results.  The first instance of this arose out of
+temple worship, where members of different states met about a common
+shrine erected to a special deity.  This led to temporary organization
+and mutual aid.  Important among these centres was the shrine of Apollo
+at Delphi.  This assemblage was governed by a council of general
+representation.  Important customs were established, such as the
+keeping of roads in repair which led to the shrine, and providing that
+pilgrims should have safe conduct and be free from tolls and taxes on
+their way to and from the shrine.  The members of the league were sworn
+not to destroy a city member or to cut off running water from the city.
+This latter rule was the foundation of the law of riparian rights&mdash;one
+of the oldest and most continuous in Western civilization.  The
+inspiration for the great national Olympic Games came from these early
+assemblages about shrines.[<A NAME="chap14fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap14fn2">2</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Also the Aetolian and Achaean leagues, which occurred in the later
+development of Greece, after the Macedonian conquest, were serious
+attempts for federal unity.  Although they were meritorious and
+partially successful, they came too late to make a unified nation of
+Greece.  In form and purpose these federal leagues are suggestive of
+the early federation of the colonies of America.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Greek Colonization Spreads Knowledge</I>.&mdash;The colonies of Greece,
+established on the different islands and along the shores of the
+Mediterranean, were among the important
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P246"></A>246}</SPAN>
+civilizers of this early
+period.  Its colonies were established for the purpose of relieving the
+population of congested districts, on the one hand, and for the purpose
+of increasing trade, on the other.  They were always independent in
+government of the mother country, but were in sympathy with her in
+language, in customs, and in laws and religion.  As the ships plied
+their trade between the central government and these distant colonies,
+they carried with them the fundamentals of civilization&mdash;the language,
+the laws, the customs, the art, the architecture, the philosophy and
+thought of the Greeks.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There was a tendency, then, to spread abroad over a large territory the
+Grecian philosophy and life.  More potent, indeed, than war is the
+civilizing influence of maritime trade.  It brings with it exchange of
+ideas, inspiration, and new life; it enables the planting of new
+countries with the best products.  No better evidence of this can be
+seen than in the planting of modern English colonies, which has spread
+the civilization of England around the world.  This was begun by the
+Greeks in that early period, and in the dissemination of knowledge it
+represents a wide influence.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Conquests of Alexander</I>.&mdash;Another means of the dissemination of
+Greek thought, philosophy, and learning was the Alexandrian conquest
+and domination.  The ambitious Alexander, extending the plan of Philip
+of Macedon, who attempted to conquer the Greeks and the surrounding
+countries, desired to master the whole known world.  And so into Egypt
+and Asia Minor, into Central Asia, and even to the banks of the Ganges,
+he carried his conquests, and with them the products of Greek learning
+and literature.  And most potent of all these influences was the
+founding of Alexandria in Egypt, which he hoped to make the central
+city of the world.  Into this place flowed the products of learning,
+not only of Greece but of the Orient, and developed a mighty city with
+its schools and libraries, with its philosophy and doctrines and
+strange religious influences.  And for many years the learning of the
+world centred about Alexandria, forming a great rival to Athens, which,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P247"></A>247}</SPAN>
+though never losing its prominence in certain lines of culture,
+was dominated by the greater Alexandria.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Age of Pericles</I>.&mdash;In considering all phases of life the splendors
+of Greece culminated in a period of 50 years immediately following the
+close of the Persian wars.  This period is known as the Age of
+Pericles.  Although the rule of Pericles was about thirty years
+(466-429), his influence extended long after.  The important part
+Athens performed in the Persian wars gave her the political ascendancy
+in Greece and enabled her to assume the beginning of the states; in
+fact, enabled her to establish an empire.  Pericles rebuilt Athens
+after the destructive work of the Persians.  The public buildings, the
+Parthenon and the Acropolis, were among the noted structures of the
+world.  A symmetrical city was planned on a magnificent scale hitherto
+unknown.  Pericles gathered about him architects, sculptors, poets,
+dramatists, teachers, and philosophers.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The age represents a galaxy of great men: Aeschylus, Sophocles,
+Euripides, Herodotus, Socrates, Thucydides, Phidias, Ictinus, and
+others.  Greek government reached its culmination and society had its
+fullest life in this age.  The glory of the period extended on through
+the Peloponnesian war, and after the Macedonian conquest it gradually
+waned and the splendor gradually passed from Athens to Alexandria.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Contributions of Greece to Civilization</I>.&mdash;It is difficult to
+enumerate all of the influences of Greece on modern civilization.
+First of all, we might mention the language of Greece, which became so
+powerful in the development of the Roman literature and Roman
+civilization and, in the later Renaissance, a powerful engine of
+progress.  Associated with the language is the literature of the
+Greeks.  The epic poems of Homer, the later lyrics, the drama, the
+history, and the polemic, all had their highest types presented in the
+Greek literature.  Latin and modern German, English and French owe to
+these great originators a debt of gratitude for every form of modern
+literature.  The architecture of Greece was broad enough to lay the
+foundation of the future, and so we find, even in our
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P248"></A>248}</SPAN>
+modern
+life, the Grecian elements combined in all of our great buildings.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Painting and frescoing were well established in principle, though not
+carried to a high state until the mediaeval period; but in sculpture
+nothing yet has exceeded the perfection of the Greek art.  It stands a
+monument of the love of the beauty of the human form and the power to
+represent it in marble.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Greek philosophy finds its best results not only in developing the
+human mind to a high state but in giving to us the freedom of thought
+which belongs by right to every individual.  An attempt to find out
+things as they are, to rest all philosophy upon observation, and to
+determine by the human reason the real essence of truth, is of such
+stupendous magnitude in the development of the human mind that it has
+entered into the philosophy of every educational system presented since
+by any people or any individual.  The philosophers of modern times,
+while they may not adopt the principles of the ancient philosophy,
+still recognize their power, their forms of thought, and their
+activities, and their great influence on the intellectual development
+of the world.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Last, but not least, are the great lessons recounted of the foundations
+of civil liberty.  Incomplete as the ancient democracies were, they
+pointed to the world the great lessons of the duties of man to man and
+the relations of mankind in social life.  When we consider the
+greatness of the social function and the prominence of social
+organization in modern life, we shall see how essential it is that,
+though the development of the individual may be the highest aim of
+civilization, the social organization must be established upon a right
+basis to promote individual interests.  Freedom, liberty,
+righteousness, justice, free discussion, all these were given to us by
+the Greeks, and more&mdash;the forms of government, the assembly, the
+senate, the judiciary, the constitutional government, although in their
+imperfect forms, are represented in the Greek government.  These
+represent the chief contributions of the Greeks to civilization.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P249"></A>249}</SPAN>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  What were the achievements of the Age of Pericles?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  Which are more important to civilization, Greek ideals or Greek
+practice?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  The ownership of land in Greece.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  The characteristics of the city-state of Athens.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  Alexandria as an educational centre.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  Why did the Greeks fail to make a strong central nation?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  The causes of the decline of Greek civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+8.  Give a summary of the most important contributions of Greece to
+modern civilization.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap14fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap14fn2"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap14fn1text">1</A>] Some authorities state forty assemblies were held each year.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap14fn2text">2</A>] The Confederation of Delos, the Athenian Empire, and the
+Peloponnesian League were attempts to federalize Greece.  They were
+successful only in part.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap15"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P250"></A>250}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XV
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+ROMAN CIVILIZATION
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Romans Differed in Nature from the Greeks</I>.&mdash;Instead of being of a
+philosophic, speculative nature, the Romans were a practical, even a
+stoical, people of great achievement.  They turned their ideas always
+toward the concrete, and when they desired to use the abstract they
+borrowed the principles and theories established by other nations.
+They were poor theorizers, both in philosophy and in religion, but were
+intensely interested in that which they could turn to immediate and
+practical benefit.  They were great borrowers of the products of other
+people's imagination.  In the very early period they borrowed the gods
+of the Greeks and somewhat of their forms of religion!
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Later they borrowed forms of art from other nations and developed them
+to suit their own, and, still later, they used the literary language of
+the Greeks to enrich their own.  This method of borrowing the best
+products of others and putting them to practical service led to immense
+consequences in the development of civilization.  The Romans lacked not
+in originality, for practical application leads to original creation,
+but their best efforts in civilization were wrought out from this
+practical standpoint.  Thus, in the improvement of agriculture, in the
+perfection of the art of war, in the development of law and of
+government, their work was masterly in the extreme; and to this extent
+it was worked out rather than thought out.  Indeed, their whole
+civilization was evolved from the practical standpoint.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Social Structure of Early Rome and That of Early Greece</I>.&mdash;Rome
+started, like Greece, with the early patriarchal kings, who ruled over
+the expanded family, but with this difference, that these kings, from
+the earliest historical records, were
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P251"></A>251}</SPAN>
+elected by the people.
+Nevertheless there is no evidence that the democratic spirit was
+greater in early Rome than in early Greece, except in form.  In the
+early period all Italy was filled with tribes, mostly of Aryan descent,
+and in the regal period the small territory of Latium was filled with
+independent city communities; but all these cities were federated on a
+religious basis and met at Alba Longa as a centre, where they conducted
+their worship and duly instituted certain regulations concerning the
+government of all.  Later, after the decline of Alba Longa, the seat of
+this federal government was removed to Rome, which was another of the
+federated cities.  Subsequently this territory was invaded by the
+Sabines, who settled at Rome, and, as an independent community, allied
+themselves with the Romans.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+And, finally, the invasion of the Etruscans gave the last of three
+separate communities, which were federated into one state and laid the
+foundation of the imperial city.  But if some leader founded Rome in
+the early period, it is quite natural that he should be called Romulus,
+after the name of Rome.  Considering the nature of the Romans and the
+tendency to the old ancestral worship among them, it does not seem
+strange that they should deify this founder and worship him.
+Subsequently, we find that this priestly monarchy was changed to a
+military monarchy, in which everything was based upon property and
+military service.  Whatever may be the stories of early Rome, so much
+may be mentioned as historical fact.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The foundation was laid in three great tribes, composed of the ancient
+families, or patricians, who formed the body of the league.  Those who
+settled at Rome at an early period became the aristocracy; they were
+members of the tribes of immemorial foundation.  At first the old
+tribal exclusiveness prevailed, and people who came later into Rome
+were treated as unequal to those who long had a right to the soil.
+This led to a division among the people based on hereditary right,
+which lasted in its effect as long as Rome endured.  It became the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P252"></A>252}</SPAN>
+custom to call those persons belonging to the first families
+patricians, and all who were not patricians plebeians, representing
+that class who did not belong to the first families.  The plebeians
+were composed of foreigners, who had only commercial rights, of the
+clients who attached themselves to these ancient families, but who
+gradually passed into the plebeian rank, and of land-holders,
+craftsmen, and laborers.  The plebeians were free inhabitants, without
+political rights.  As there was no great opportunity for the patricians
+to increase in number, the plebeians, in the regal period, soon grew to
+outnumber them.  They were increased by those conquered ones who were
+permitted to come to Rome and dwell.  Also the tradesmen and immigrants
+who dwelt at Rome increased rapidly, for they could have the protection
+of the Roman state without having the responsibility of Roman soldiers.
+It was of great significance in the development of the Roman government
+that these two great classes existed.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Civil Organization of Rome</I>.&mdash;The organization of the government of
+early Rome rested in a peculiar sense upon the family group.  The first
+tribes that settled in the territory were governed upon a family basis,
+and their land was held by family holdings.  No other nation appears to
+have perpetuated such a power of the family in the affairs of the
+state.  The father, as the head of the family, had absolute power over
+all; the son never became of age so far as the rights of property are
+considered as long as the father lived.  The father was priest, king,
+and legislator for all in the family group.  Parental authority was
+arbitrary, and when the head of the family passed away the oldest male
+member of the family took his place, and ruled as his father had ruled.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A group of these families constituted a clan, and a group of clans made
+a tribe, and three tribes, according to the formula for the formation
+of Rome, made a state.  Whether this formal process was carried out
+exactly remains to be proved, but the families related to one another
+by ties of blood were united in distinct groups, which were again
+reorganized into larger
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P253"></A>253}</SPAN>
+groups, and the formula at the time of
+the organization of the state was that there were 30 cantons formed by
+300 clans, and these clans averaged about 10 families each.  This is
+based upon the number of representatives which afterward formed the
+senate, and upon the number of soldiers furnished by the various
+families.  The state became then an enlarged family, with a king at the
+head, whose prerogatives were somewhat limited by his position.  There
+were also a popular assembly, consisting of all the freeholders of the
+state, and the senate, formed by the heads of all the most influential
+families, for the government of Rome.  These ancient hereditary forms
+of government extended with various changes in the progress of Rome.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Struggle for Liberty</I>.&mdash;The members of the Roman senate were
+chosen from the noble families of Rome, and were elected for life,
+which made the senate of Rome a perpetual body.  Having no legal
+declaration of legislative, judicial, executive, or administrative
+authority, it was, nevertheless, the most powerful body of its kind
+ever in existence.  Representing the power of intellect, and having
+within its ranks men of the foremost character and ability of the city,
+this aristocracy overpowered and ruled the affairs of Rome until the
+close of the republic, and afterward became a service to the imperial
+government of the Caesars.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+From a very early period in the history of the Roman nation the people
+struggled for their rights and privileges against this aristocracy of
+wealth and hereditary power.  At the expulsion of the kings, in 500
+B.C., the senate lived on, as did the old popular assembly of the
+people, the former gaining strength, the latter becoming weakened.
+Realizing what they had lost in political power, having lost their
+farms by borrowing money of the rich patricians, and suffered
+imprisonment and distress on that account, the plebeians, resolved to
+endure no longer, marched out upon the hill, Mons Sacer, and demanded
+redress by way of tribunes and other officers.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This was the beginning of an earnest struggle for 50 years
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P254"></A>254}</SPAN>
+for
+mere protection, to be followed by a struggle of 150 years for equality
+of power and rights.  The result of this was that a compromise was made
+with the senate, which allowed the people to have tribunes chosen from
+the plebeians, and a law was passed giving them the right of protection
+against the oppression of any official, and subsequently the right of
+intercession against any administrative or judicial act, except in the
+case when a dictator was appointed.  This gave the plebeians some
+representation in the government of Rome.  They worked at first for
+protection, and also for the privilege of intermarriage among the
+patricians.  After this they began to struggle for equal rights and
+privileges.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A few years after the revolt in 486 B.C. Spurius Cassius brought
+forward the first agrarian law.  The lands of the original Roman
+territory belonged at first to the great families, and were divided and
+subdivided among the various family groups.  But a large part of the
+land obtained by conquest of the Italians became the public domain, the
+property of the entire people of Rome.  It became necessary for these
+lands to be leased by the Roman patricians, and as these same Roman
+patricians were members of the senate, they became careless about
+collecting rent of themselves, and so the lands were occupied year
+after year, and, indeed, century after century, by the Roman families,
+who were led to claim them as their own without rental.  Cassius
+proposed to divide a part of these lands among the needy plebeians and
+the Latins as well, and to lease the rest for the profit of the public
+treasury.  The patricians fought against Cassius because he was to take
+away their lands, and the plebeians were discontented with him because
+he had favored the Latins.  The result was that at the close of his
+office he was sentenced and executed for the mere attempt to do justice
+to humanity.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The tribunes of the people finally gained more power, and a resolution
+was introduced in the senate providing that a body of ten men should be
+selected to reduce the laws of the state to a written code.  In 451
+B.C. the ten men were chosen
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P255"></A>255}</SPAN>
+from the patricians, who formed ten
+tables of laws, had them engraved on copper plates, and placed them
+where everybody could read them.  The following year ten men were again
+appointed, three of whom were plebeians, who added two more tables; the
+whole body became known as the Laws of the Twelve Tables.  It was a
+great step in advance when the laws of a community could be thus
+published.  Soon after this the laws of Valerius and Horatius made the
+acts of the assembly of the tribunes of equal force with those of the
+assembly of the centuries, and established that every magistrate,
+including the dictator, was obliged in the future to allow appeals from
+his decision.  They also recognized the inviolability of the tribunes
+of the people and of the aediles who represented them.  But in order to
+circumvent the plebeians, two quaestors were appointed in charge of the
+military treasury.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Indeed, at every step forward which the people made for equality and
+justice, the senate, representing the aristocracy, passed laws to
+circumvent the plebeians.  In 445 B.C. the tribune Canuleius introduced
+a law legalizing marriage between the patricians and plebeians.  The
+children were to inherit the rank of their father.  This tribune
+further attempted to pass a law allowing consuls to be chosen from the
+plebeians.  To this a fierce opposition sprang up, and a compromise
+measure was adopted which allowed military tribunes to be elected from
+the plebeians, who had consular power.  But again the senate sought to
+circumvent the plebeians, and created the new patrician office of
+censor, to take the census, make lists of citizens and taxes, appoint
+senators, prepare the publication of the budget, manage the state
+property, farm out the taxes, and superintend public buildings; also he
+might supervise the public morality.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+With the year 587 B.C. came the invasion of the Gauls from the north
+and the famous battle of the Allia, in which the Romans suffered defeat
+and were forced to the right bank of the Tiber, leaving the city of
+Rome defenseless.  Abandoned by the citizens, the city was taken,
+plundered, and burned by
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P256"></A>256}</SPAN>
+the Gauls.  Senators were slaughtered,
+though the capitol was not taken.  Finally, surprised and overcome by a
+contingent of the Roman army, the enemy was forced to retire and the
+inhabitants again returned.  But no sooner had they returned than the
+peaceful struggle of the plebeians against the patricians began again.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+First, there were the poor, indebted plebeians, who sought the reform
+of the laws relating to debtor and creditor and desired a share in the
+public lands.  Second, the whole body of the plebeians were engaged in
+an attempt to open the consulate to their ranks.  In 367 B.C. the
+Licinian laws were passed, which gave relief to the debtors by
+deducting the interest already accrued from the principal, and allowing
+the rest to be paid in three annual instalments; and a second law
+forbade that any one should possess more than 500 jugera of the public
+lands.  This was to prevent the wealthy patricians from holding lands
+in large tracts and keeping them from the plebeians.  This law also
+abolished the military tribuneship and insisted that one at least of
+the two consuls should be chosen from the plebeians&mdash;giving a
+possibility of two.  The patricians, in order to counteract undue
+influence in this respect, established the praetorship, the praetor
+having jurisdiction and vicegerence of the consuls during their absence.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There also sprang up about this time the new nobility (<I>optimates</I>),
+composed of the plebeians and patricians who had held office for a long
+time, and representing the aristocracy of the community.  From this
+time on all the Roman citizens tended to go into two classes, the
+<I>optimates</I> and, exclusive of these, the great Roman populace.  In the
+former all the wealth and power were combined; in the latter the
+poverty, wretchedness, and dependence.  Various other changes in the
+constitution succeeded, until the great wars of the Samnites and those
+of the Carthaginians directed the attention of the people to foreign
+conquest.  After the close of these great wars and the firm
+establishment of the universal power of Rome abroad, there sprang up a
+great civil war, induced largely by the disturbance
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P257"></A>257}</SPAN>
+of the
+Gracchi, who sought to carry out the will of the people in regard to
+popular democracy and the division of the public lands.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Thus, step by step, the plebeians, by a peaceful civil struggle, had
+obtained the consulship, and, indeed, the right to all other civil
+offices.  They had obtained a right to sit in the senate, had obtained
+the declaration of social equality, had settled the great land
+question; and yet the will of the people never prevailed.  The great
+Roman senate, made up of the aristocracy of Rome, an aristocracy of
+both plebeians and patricians, ruled with unyielding sway, and the
+common people never obtained full possession of their rights and
+privileges.  Civil strife continued; the gulf between the rich and the
+poor, the nobility and the proletariat representing a few rich
+political manipulators, on the one side, and the half-fed, half-mad
+populace, on the other, grew wider and wider, finally ending in civil
+war.  In the midst of the strife the republic passed away, and only the
+coming of the imperial power of the Caesars perpetuated Roman
+institutions.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Rome Becomes a Dominant City</I>.&mdash;In all of this struggle at home and
+abroad, foreign conquest led to the establishment of Rome as the
+central city.  The constitution of Rome was the typical constitution
+for all provincial cities, and from this one centre all provinces were
+ruled.  No example heretofore had existed of the centralization of
+government similar to this.  The overlordship of the Persians was only
+for the purpose of collecting tribute; there was little attempt to
+carry abroad the Persian institutions or to amalgamate the conquered
+provinces in one great homogeneous nation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The empire of Athens was but a temporary hegemony over tributary
+states.  But the Roman government conquered and absorbed.  Wherever
+went the Roman arms, there the Roman laws and the Roman government
+followed; there followed the Roman language, architecture, art,
+institutions, and civilization.  Great highways passed from the Eternal
+City to all parts of the territory, binding together the separate
+elements of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P258"></A>258}</SPAN>
+national life, and levelling down the barriers
+between all nations.  Every colony planted by Rome in the new provinces
+was a type of the old Roman life, and the provincial government
+everywhere became the type of this central city.  Here was reached a
+state in the development of government which no nation had hitherto
+attained&mdash;the dominant city and the rule of a mighty empire from
+central authority.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Development of Government</I>.&mdash;The remarkable development of Rome in
+government from the old hereditary nobility, in which priest-kings
+ruled the people, to a military king who was leader, subsequently into
+a republic which stood the test for several centuries of a fierce
+struggle for the rights of the people, finally into an imperial
+government to last for 450 years, represents the growth of one of the
+most remarkable governments in the world's history.  The fundamental
+idea in government was the ruling of an entire state from the central
+city, and out of this idea grew imperialism as a later development,
+vesting all authority in a single monarch.  The governments of
+conquered provinces were gradually made over into the Roman system.
+The Roman municipal government was found in all the cities of the
+provinces, and the provincial government became an integral part of the
+Roman system.  The provinces were under the supervision of imperial
+officers appointed by the emperor.  Thus the tendency was to bind the
+whole government into one unified system, with its power and authority
+at Rome.  So long as this central authority remained and had its full
+sway there was little danger of the decline of Roman power, but when
+disintegration began in the central government the whole structure was
+doomed.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+One of the remarkable characteristics of the Roman government was a
+system of checks of one part by every other part.  Thus, in the
+republic, the consuls were checked by the senate, the senate by the
+consular power, the various assemblies, such as the Curiata, Tributa,
+and Centuriata, each having its own particular powers, were checks upon
+each other and upon other departments of the government.  The whole
+system of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P259"></A>259}</SPAN>
+magistrates was subject to the same checks or limits in
+authority.  And while impeachment was not introduced, each officer, at
+the close of his term, was accountable for his actions while in office.
+But under imperialism the tendency was to break down the power of each
+separate form of government and to absorb it in the imperial power.
+Thus Augustus soon attributed to himself the power of the chief
+magistrates and obtained a dominating power in the senate until the
+functions of government were all centralized in the emperor.  While
+this made a strong government, in many phases it was open to great
+dangers, and in due time it failed, as a result of the corruption that
+clustered around the despotism of a single ruler unchecked by
+constitutional power.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Development of Law Is the Most Remarkable Phase of the Roman
+Civilization</I>.&mdash;Perhaps the most lasting effect of the Roman
+civilization is observed in the contribution of law to the nations
+which arose at the time of the decline of the imperial sway.  From the
+time of the posting of the Twelve Tables in a public place, where they
+could be read by all the citizens of Rome, there was a steady growth of
+the Roman law.  The decrees of the senate, as well as the influence of
+judicial decisions, gradually developed a system of jurisprudence.
+There sprang up, also, interpreters of the law, who had much influence
+in shaping its course.  Also, in the early period of the republic, the
+acts of the popular assemblies became laws.  This was before the senate
+became the supreme lawmaking body of the state.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+During the imperial period the emperor acted somewhat through the
+senate, but the latter body was more or less under his control, for he
+frequently dictated its actions.  Having assumed the powers of a
+magistrate, he could issue an edict; as a judge he could give decrees
+and issue commands to his own officials, all of which tended to
+increase the body of Roman law.  In the selection of jurists for the
+interpretation of the law the emperor also had great control over its
+character.  The great accomplishment of the lawmaking methods of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P260"></A>260}</SPAN>
+the Romans was, in the first place, to allow laws to be made by popular
+assemblies and the senate, according to the needs of a developing
+social organization.  This having once been established, the foundation
+of lawmaking was laid for all nations to follow.  The Roman law soon
+passed into a complex system of jurisprudence which has formed a large
+element in the structure, principles, and practice of all modern legal
+systems.  The character of the law in itself was superior and masterly,
+and its universality was accomplished through the universal rule of the
+empire.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The later emperors performed a great service to the world by collecting
+and codifying Roman laws.  The Theodosian code (Theodosius II, 408-450
+A.D.) was a very important one on account of the influence it exercised
+over the various Teutonic systems of law practised by the different
+barbarian tribes that came within the borders of the Roman Empire.  The
+jurists who gave the law a great development had by the close of the
+fourth century placed on record all the principal legal acts of the
+empire.  They had collected and edited all the sources of law and made
+extensive commentaries of great importance upon them, but it remained
+for Theodosius to arrange the digests of these jurists and to codify
+the later imperial decrees.  But the Theodosian code went but a little
+way in the process of digesting the laws.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Justinian code, however, gave a complete codification of the law in
+four distinct parts, known as (1) "the Pandects, or digest of the
+scientific law literature; (2) the Codex, or summary of imperial
+legislation; (3) the Institutes, a general review or text-book, founded
+upon the digest and code, an introductory restatement of the law; and
+(4) the Novels, or new imperial legislation issued after the
+codification, to fill the gaps and cure the inconsistencies discovered
+in the course of the work of codification and manifest in its published
+results."[<A NAME="chap15fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap15fn1">1</A>]  Thus the whole body of the civil law was incorporated.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Here, then, is seen the progress of the Roman law from the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P261"></A>261}</SPAN>
+semireligious rules governing the patricians in the early patriarchal
+period, whose practice was generally a form of arbitration, to the
+formal writing of the Twelve Tables, the development of the great body
+of the law through interpretation, the decrees of magistrates, acts of
+legislative assemblies, and finally the codification of the laws under
+the later emperors.  This accumulation of legal enactments and
+precedents formed the basis of legislation under the declining empire
+and in the new nationalities.  It also occupied an important place in
+the curriculum of the university.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Influence of the Greek Life on Rome</I>.&mdash;The principal influence of the
+Greeks on Roman civilization was found first in the early religion and
+its development in the Latin race at Rome.  The religion of the Romans
+was polytheistic, but far different from that of the Greeks.  The
+deification of nature was not so analytic, and their deities were not
+so human as those of the Greek religion.  There was no poetry in the
+Roman religion; it all had a practical tendency.  Their gods were for
+use, and, while they were honored and worshipped, they were clothed
+with few fancies.  The Romans seldom speculated on the origin of the
+gods and very little as to their personal character, and failed to
+develop an independent theogony.  They were behind the Greeks in their
+mental effort in this respect, and hence we find all the early religion
+was influenced by the ideas of the Latins, the Etruscans, and the
+Greeks, the last largely through the colonies which were established in
+Italy.  Archaeology points conclusively to the fact of early Greek
+influence.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In later development the conquest of the Greeks brought to Rome the
+religion, art, paintings, and philosophy of the conquered.  The Romans
+were shrewd and acute in the appreciation of all which they had found
+that was good in the Greeks.  From the time of this contact there was a
+constant and continued adoption of Grecian models in Rome.  The first
+Roman writers, Fabius Pictor and Quintus Ennius, both wrote in Greek.
+All the early Roman writers considered Greek the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P262"></A>262}</SPAN>
+finished style.
+The influence of the Greek language was felt at Rome on the first
+acquaintance of the Italians with it, through trade and commerce and
+through the introduction of Greek forms of religion.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The early influence of language was less than the influence of art.
+While the Phoenicians and Etruscans furnished some of the models, they
+were usually unproductive and barren types, and not to be compared with
+those furnished by Greece.  The young Romans who devoted themselves to
+the state and its service were from the fifth century B.C. well versed
+in the Greek language.  No education was considered complete in the
+latter days of the republic, and under the imperial power, until it had
+been finished at Athens or Alexandria.  The effect on literature,
+particularly poetry and the drama, was great in the first period of
+Roman literature, and even Horace, the most original of all Latin
+poets, began his career by writing Greek verse, and no doubt his
+beautiful style was acquired by his ardent study of the Greek language.
+The plays of Plautus and Terence deal also with the products of Athens,
+and, indeed, every Roman comedy was to a certain extent a copy, either
+in form or spirit, of the Greek.  In tragedy, the spirit of Euripides,
+the master, came into Rome.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The influence of the Greek philosophy was more marked than that of
+language.  Its first contact with Rome was antagonistic.  The
+philosophers and rhetoricians, because of the disturbance they created,
+were expelled from Rome in the second century.  As early as 161 A.D.
+those who pursued the study of philosophy always read and disputed in
+Greek.  Many Greek schools of philosophy of an elementary nature were
+established temporarily at Rome, while the large number of students of
+philosophy went to Athens, and those of rhetoric to Rhodes, for the
+completion of their education.  The philosophy of Greece that came into
+Rome was something of a degenerate Epicureanism, fragments of a
+broken-down system, which created an unwholesome atmosphere.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The only science which Rome developed was that of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P263"></A>263}</SPAN>
+jurisprudence,
+and the scientific writings of the Greeks had comparatively little
+influence upon Roman culture.  Mr. Duruy, in speaking of the influence
+of the Greeks on Rome, particularly in the days of its decline, says:
+"In conclusion, we find in certain sciences, for which Rome cared
+nothing, great splendor, but in art and poetry no mighty inspiration;
+in eloquence, vain chatter of words and images (the rhetoricians),
+habits but no faith; in philosophy, the materialism which came from the
+school of Aristotle, the doubt born of Plato, the atheism of Theodorus,
+the sensualism of Epicurus vainly combated by the moral protests of
+Zeno; and lastly, in the public life, the enfeeblement or the total
+loss of all of those virtues which make the man and the citizen; such
+were the Greeks at the time.  And now we say, with Cato, Polybius,
+Livy, Pliny, Justinian, and Plutarch, that all this passed into the
+Eternal City.  The conquest of Greece by Rome was followed by the
+conquest of Rome by Greece.  <I>Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit</I>."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Latin Literature and Language</I>.&mdash;The importance of the Latin language
+and literature in the later history of the Romans and throughout the
+Middle Ages is a matter of common knowledge.  The language of the Latin
+tribes congregating at Rome finally predominated over all Italy and
+followed the Roman arms through all the provinces.  It became to a
+great extent the language of the common people and subsequently the
+literary language of the empire.  It became finally the great vehicle
+of thought in all civil and ecclesiastical proceedings in the Middle
+Ages and at the beginning of the modern era.  As such it has performed
+a great service to the world.  Cato wrote in Latin, and so did the
+annalists of the early period of Latin literature.  Livy became a
+master of his own language, and Cicero presents the improved and
+elevated speech.  The study of these masterpieces, full of thought and
+beauty of expression, has had a mighty influence in the education of
+the youth of modern times.  It must be conceded, however, that in Rome
+the productions of the great masters were not as universally
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P264"></A>264}</SPAN>
+known or as widely celebrated as one would suppose.  But, like all
+great works of art, they have lived on to bear their influence through
+succeeding ages.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Development of Roman Art</I>.&mdash;The elements of art and architecture were
+largely borrowed from the Greeks.  We find, however, a distinctive
+style of architecture called Roman, which varies from that of the
+Greek, although the influence of Greek form is seen not only in the
+decorations but in the massive structure of the buildings.  Without
+doubt, in architecture the Romans perfected the arch as their chief
+characteristic and contribution to art progress.  But this in itself
+was a great step in advance and laid the foundation of a new style.  As
+might be expected from the Romans, it became a great economic advantage
+in building.  In artistic decoration they made but little advancement
+until the time of the Greek influence.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Decline of the Roman Empire</I>.&mdash;The evolution of the Roman nation from
+a few federated tribes with archaic forms of government to a fully
+developed republic with a complex system of government, and the passage
+of the republic into an imperialism, magnificent and powerful in its
+sway, are subjects worthy of our most profound contemplation; and the
+gradual decline and decay of this great superstructure is a subject of
+great interest and wonder.  In the contemplation of the progress of
+human civilization, it is indeed a mournful subject.  It seems to be
+the common lot of man to build and destroy in order to build again.
+But the Roman government declined on account of causes which were
+apparent to every one.  It was an impossibility to build up such a
+great system without its accompanying evils, and it was impossible for
+such a system to remain when such glaring evils were allowed to
+continue.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+If it should be asked what caused the decline of this great
+civilization, it may be said that the causes were many.  In the first
+place, the laws of labor were despised and capital was consumed without
+any adequate return.  There was consequently nothing left of an
+economic nature to withstand the rude
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P265"></A>265}</SPAN>
+shocks of pestilence and
+war.  The few home industries, when Rome ceased to obtain support from
+the plunder of war, were not sufficient to supply the needs of a great
+nation.  The industrial condition of Rome had become deplorable.  In
+all the large cities there were a few wealthy and luxurious families, a
+small number of foreigners and freedmen who were superintending a large
+number of slaves, and a large number of free citizens who were too
+proud to work and yet willing to be fed by the government.  The
+industrial conditions of the rural districts and small cities were no
+better.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There were a few non-residents who cultivated the soil by means of
+slaves, or by <I>coloni</I>, or serfs who were bound to the soil.  These
+classes were recruited from the conquered provinces.  Farming had
+fallen into disrepute.  The small farmers, through the introduction of
+slavery, were crowded from their holdings and were compelled to join
+the great unfed populace of the city.  Taxation fell heavily and
+unjustly upon the people.  The method of raising taxes by farming them
+out was a pernicious system that led to gross abuse.  All enterprise
+and all investments were discouraged.  There was no inducement for men
+to enter business, as labor had been dishonored and industry crippled.
+The great body of Roman people were divided into two classes, those who
+formed the lower classes of laborers and those who had concentrated the
+wealth of the country in their own hands and held the power of the
+nation in their own control.  The mainstay of the nation had fallen
+with the disappearance of the sterling middle class.  The lower classes
+were reduced to a mob by the unjust and unsympathetic treatment
+received at the hands of the governing class.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the civil administration there was a division of citizens into two
+classes: those who had influence in the local affairs of their towns or
+neighborhood, and those who were simply interested in the central
+organization.  During the days of the republic these people were
+closely related, because all citizens were forced to come to Rome in
+order to have a voice in the political interests of the government.
+But during the empire
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P266"></A>266}</SPAN>
+there came about a change, and the citizens
+of a distant province were interested only in the management of their
+own local affairs and lost their interest in the general government, so
+that when the central government weakened there was a tendency for the
+local interests to destroy the central.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+After the close of Constantine's reign very great evils threatened the
+Roman administration.  First of these was the barbarians; second, the
+populace; and third, the soldiers.  The barbarians continually made
+inroads upon the territory, broke down the governmental system, and
+established their own, not so much for the sake of destruction and
+plunder, as is usually supposed, but to seek the betterment of their
+condition as immigrants into a new territory.  That they were in some
+instances detrimental to the Roman institutions is true, but in others
+they gave new life to the declining empire.  The populace was a rude,
+clamorous mass of people, seeking to satisfy their hunger in the
+easiest possible way.  These were fed by the politicians for the sake
+of their influence.  The soldiery of Rome had changed.  Formerly made
+up of patriots who marched out to defend their own country or to
+conquer surrounding provinces in the name of the Eternal City, the
+ranks were filled with mercenary soldiers taken from the barbarians,
+who had little interest in the perpetuation of the Roman institutions.
+They had finally obtained so much power that they set up an emperor, or
+dethroned him, at their will.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+And finally it may be said that of all these internal maladies and
+external dangers, the decline in moral worth of the Roman nation is the
+most appalling.  Influenced by a broken-down philosophy, degenerated in
+morals, corrupt in family and social life, the whole system decayed,
+and could not withstand the shock of external influence.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Summary of Roman Civilization</I>.&mdash;The Roman contribution, then, to
+civilization is largely embraced in the development of a system of
+government with forms and functions which have been perpetuated to this
+day; the development of a system of law which has found its place in
+all modern legal
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P267"></A>267}</SPAN>
+codes; a beautiful and rich language and
+literature; a few elements of art and architecture; the development of
+agriculture on a systematic basis; the tendency to unify separate races
+in one national life; the practice of the art of war on a humane basis,
+and the development of the municipal system of government which has had
+its influence on every town of modern life.  These are among the chief
+contributions of the Roman system to the progress of humanity.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+While it is common to talk of the fall of the Roman Empire, Rome is
+greater to-day in the perpetuity of her institutions than during the
+glorious days of the republic or of the magnificent rule of the
+Caesars.  Rome also left a questionable inheritance to the posterity of
+nations.  The idea of imperialism revived in the empire of Charlemagne,
+and later in the Holy Roman Empire, and, cropping out again and again
+in the monarchies of new nations, has not become extinct to this day.
+The recent World War gave a great shock to the idea of czarism.  The
+imperial crowns of the Hohenzollerns, the Hapsburgs, the Romanoffs, and
+the royal crowns of minor nations fell from the heads of great rulers,
+because the Emperor of Germany overworked the idea of czarism after the
+type of imperial Rome.  But the idea is not dead.  In shattered Europe,
+the authority and infallibility of the state divorced from the
+participation of the people, though put in question, is yet a
+smouldering power to be reckoned with.  It is difficult to erase Rome's
+impress upon the world.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  How were the Greeks and Romans related racially?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  Difference between the Greek and the Roman attitude toward life.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  What were the land reforms of the Gracchi?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  What advancement did the Romans make in architecture?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  What were the internal causes of the decline of Rome?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  Why did the Celts and the Germans invade Rome?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  Enumerate the permanent contributions of Rome to subsequent
+civilization.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap15fn1"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap15fn1text">1</A>] Hadley, <I>Introduction to Roman Law</I>.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap16"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P268"></A>268}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XVI
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>Important Factors in the Foundation of Western Civilization</I>.&mdash;When
+the European world entered the period of the Middle Ages, there were a
+few factors more important than others that influenced civilization.[<A NAME="chap16fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap16fn1">1</A>]
+(1) The Oriental cultures, not inspiring as a whole, left by-products
+from Mesopotamia, Palestine, and Egypt.  These were widely spread
+through the influence of world wars and world empires.  (2) The Greek
+cultures in the form of art, architecture, philosophy, and literature,
+and newer forms of political and social organization were widely
+diffused.  (3) The Romans had established agriculture, universal
+centralized government and citizenship, and developed a magnificent
+body of law; moreover, they had formed a standing army which was used
+in the support of monarchy, added some new features to architecture and
+industrial structures, and developed the Latin language, which was to
+be the carrier of thought for many centuries.  (4) The Christian
+religion with a new philosophy of life was to penetrate and modify all
+society, all thought, government, law, art, and, in fact, all phases of
+human conduct.  (5) The barbarian invasion carried with it the Teutonic
+idea of individual liberty and established a new practice of human
+relationships.  It was vigor of life against tradition and convention.
+With these contributions, the European world was to start out with the
+venture of mediaeval civilization, after the decline of the Roman
+Empire.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Social Contacts of the Christian Religion</I>.&mdash;Of the factors
+enumerated above, none was more powerful than the teaching of the
+Christians.  For it came in direct contrast and opposition to
+established opinions and old systems.  It was also constructive, for it
+furnished a definite plan of social order different from all existing
+ones, which it opposed.  The
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P269"></A>269}</SPAN>
+religions of the Orient centred
+society around the temple.  Among all the Semitic races, Babylonian,
+Assyrian, and Hebrew, temple worship was an expression of religious and
+national unity.  National gods, national worship, and a priesthood were
+the rule.  Egypt was similar in many respects, and the Greeks used the
+temple worship in a limited degree, though no less real in its
+influences.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Romans, though they had national gods, yet during the empire had
+liberalized the right of nations to worship whom they pleased, provided
+nothing was done to militate against the Roman government, which was
+committed to the worship of certain gods, in which the worship of the
+emperor became a more or less distinctive feature.  The Christian
+teaching recognized no national gods, no national religion, but a world
+god who was a father of all men.  Furthermore, it recognized that all
+men, of whatsoever race and country, were brethren.  So this doctrine
+of love crossed boundaries of all nations and races, penetrated systems
+of religion and philosophy, and established the idea of international
+and universal brotherhood.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Social Conditions at the Beginning of the Christian Era</I>.&mdash;The
+philosophy of the Greeks and Romans had reached a state of degeneracy
+at the time of the coming of Christ.  Thought had become weak and
+illogical.  Trusting to the influence of the senses, which were at
+first believed to be infallible, scepticism of the worst nature
+influenced all classes of the people.  Epicureanism, not very bad in
+the beginning, had come to a stage of decrepitude.  To seek immediate
+pleasure regardless of consequences was far different from avoiding
+extravagance and intemperance, in order to make a higher happiness.
+Licentiousness, debauchery, the demoralized condition of the home and
+family ties, made all society corrupt.  Stoicism had been taken up by
+the Romans; it agreed with their nature, and, coupled with
+Epicureanism, led to the extinction of faith.  There was no clear
+vision of life; no hope, no high and worthy aspirations, no inspiration
+for a noble life.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P270"></A>270}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+The character of worship of the Romans of their various gods led to a
+non-religious attitude of mind.  Religion, like everything else, had
+become a commercial matter, to be used temporarily for the benefit of
+all parties who indulged.  While each separate nationality had its own
+shrine in the temple, and while the emperor was deified, all worship
+was carried on in a selfish manner.  There was no reverence, no devout
+attitude of worship, and consequently no real benefit derived from the
+religious life.  The Roman merchant went to the temple to offer
+petitions for the safety of his ship on the seas, laden with
+merchandise.  After its safe entrance, the affair troubled him no more;
+his religious emotion was satisfied.  Moral degeneration could be the
+only outcome of following a broken-down philosophy and an empty
+religion.  Men had no faith in one another, and consequently felt no
+obligation to moral actions.  Dishonesty in all business transactions
+was the rule.  Injustice in the administration of the law was worked by
+the influence of factions and cliques.  The Roman world was politically
+corrupt.  Men were struggling for office regardless of the effect of
+their methods on the social welfare.  The marriage relation became
+indefinite and unholy.  The home life lost its hallowed influence as a
+support to general, social, and political life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The result of a superficial religion, an empty philosophy, and a low
+grade of morality, was to drive men to scepticism, to a doubt in all
+things, or to a stoic indifference to all things, or perhaps in a
+minority of cases to a search for light.  To nearly all there was
+nothing in the world to give permanent satisfaction to the sensual
+nature, or nothing to call out the higher qualities of the soul.  Men
+turned with loathing from their own revels and immoral practices and
+recognized nothing worthy of their thoughts in life.  Those who held to
+a moral plane at all found no inspiration in living, had no enthusiasm
+for anything or any person.  It were as well that man did not exist;
+that there was no earth, no starry firmament, no heaven, no hell, no
+present, no future.  The few who sought for the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P271"></A>271}</SPAN>
+light did so from
+their inner consciousness or through reflection.  Desiring a better
+life, they advocated higher aspirations of the soul and an elevated,
+moral life, and sought consolation in the wisdom of the sages.  Their
+life bordered on the monastic.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Contact of Christianity with Social Life</I>.&mdash;The most striking
+contrast to be observed in comparing the state of the world with
+Christianity is the novelty of its teachings.  No doctrine like the
+fatherhood of God had hitherto been taught in the European world.
+Plato reached, in his philosophy, a conception of a universal creator
+and father of all, but his doctrine was influenced by dualism.  There
+was no conception of the fatherly care which Christians supposed God to
+exercise over all of his creatures.  It also taught the brotherhood of
+man, that all people of every nation are brethren, with a common
+father, a doctrine that had never been forcibly advanced before.  The
+Jehovah of the Jews watched over their especial affairs and was
+considered in no sense the God of the Gentiles.  For how could Jehovah
+favor Jews and also their enemies at the same time?  So, too, for the
+Greek and the barbarian, the Roman and the Teuton, the jurisdiction of
+deities was limited by national boundaries, or, in case of family
+worship, by the tribe, for the household god belonged only to a limited
+number of worshippers.  A common brotherhood of all men on a basis of
+religious equality of right and privilege was decidedly new.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Christianity taught of the nature and punishment of sin.  This, too,
+was unknown to the degenerate days of the Roman life.  To sin against
+the Creator and Father was new in their conception, and to consider
+such as worthy of punishment was also beyond their philosophy.
+Christianity clearly pointed out what sin is, and asserted boldly that
+there is a just retribution to all lawbreakers.  It taught of
+righteousness and justice, and that acts were to be performed because
+they were right.  Individuals were to be treated justly by their
+fellows, regardless of birth or position.  And finally, making marriage
+a
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P272"></A>272}</SPAN>
+divine institution, Christianity introduced a pure moral code
+in the home.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+While a few philosophers, following after Plato, conjectured respecting
+the immortality of the soul, Christianity was the first religious
+system to teach eternal life as a fundamental doctrine.  Coupled with
+this was the doctrine of the future judgment, at which man should give
+an account of his actions on this side of the grave.  This was a new
+doctrine to the people of the world.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Christians introduced a new phase of social life by making their
+practice agree with their profession.  It had been the fault of the
+moral sentiments of the ancient sages that they were never carried out
+in practice.  Many fine precepts respecting right conduct had been
+uttered, but these were not realized by the great mass of humanity, and
+were put in practice by very few people.  They had seldom been
+vitalized by humanizing use.  Hence Christianity appeared in strong
+relief in the presence of the artificial system with which it came in
+contact.  It had a faith and genuineness which were vigorous and
+refreshing.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Christians practised true benevolence, which was a great point in
+these latter days of selfishness and indifference.  They systematically
+looked after their own poor and cared for the stranger at the gates.
+Later the church built hospitals and refuges and prepared for the care
+of all the oppressed.  Thousands who were careworn, oppressed, or
+disgusted with the ways of the world turned instinctively to
+Christianity for relief, and were not disappointed.  The Greeks and the
+Romans had never practised systematic charity until taught by the
+Christians.  The Romans gave away large sums for political reasons, to
+appease the populace, but with no spirit of charity.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But one of the most important of the teachings of the early church was
+to dignify labor.  There was a new dignity lent to service.  Prior to
+the dominion of the church, labor had become degrading, for slavery had
+supplanted free labor to such an extent that all labor appeared
+dishonorable.  Another
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P273"></A>273}</SPAN>
+potent cause of the demoralization of
+labor was the entrance of a large amount of products from the conquered
+nations.  The introduction of these supplies, won by conquest,
+paralyzed home industries and developed a spirit of pauperism.  The
+actions of the nobility intensified the evils.  They spent their time
+in politics, and purchased the favor of the populace for the right of
+manipulating the wealth and power of the community.  The Christians
+taught that labor was honorable, and they labored with their own hands,
+built monasteries, developed agriculture, and in many other ways taught
+that it is noble to labor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Christianity Influenced the Legislation of the Times</I>.&mdash;At first
+Christians were a weak and despised group of individuals.  Later they
+obtained sufficient force to become partners with the empire and in a
+measure dictate some of the laws of the community.  The most
+significant of these were to abolish the inhuman treatment of
+criminals, who were considered not so well as the beasts of the field.
+Organized Christianity secured human treatment of prisoners while they
+were in confinement, and the abolition of punishment by crucifixion.
+Gladiatorial shows were suppressed, and laws permitting the freer
+manumission of slaves were passed.  The exposure of children, common to
+both Greeks and Romans, was finally forbidden by law.  The laws of
+marriage were modified so that the sanctity of the home was secured;
+and, finally, a law was passed securing Sunday as a day of rest to be
+observed by the whole nation.  This all came about gradually as the
+church came into power.  This early influence of the Christian religion
+on the legislation of the Roman government presaged a time when, in the
+decline of the empire, the church would exercise the greatest power of
+any organization, political or religious, in western Europe.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Christians Come Into Conflict with Civil Authority</I>.&mdash;It was
+impossible that a movement so antagonistic to the usual condition of
+affairs as Christianity should not come into conflict with the civil
+authority.  Its insignificant beginning, although
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P274"></A>274}</SPAN>
+it excited the
+hatred and the contempt of the jealous and the discontented, gave no
+promise of a formidable power sufficient to contend with the imperial
+authority.  But as it gained power it excited the alarm of rulers, as
+they beheld it opposing cherished institutions.  Nearly all of the
+persecutions came about through the attitude of the church toward the
+temporal rulers.  The Roman religion was a part of the civil system,
+and he who would not subscribe to it was in opposition to the state.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Christians would not worship the emperor, nor indeed would they, in
+common with other nations, set up an image or shrine in the temple at
+Rome and worship according to the privilege granted.  They recognized
+One higher in power than the emperor.  The Romans in their practical
+view of life could not discriminate between spiritual and temporal
+affairs, and a recognition of a higher spiritual being as giving
+authority was in their sight the acknowledgment of allegiance to a
+foreign power.  The fact that the Christians met in secret excited the
+suspicions of many, and it became customary to accuse them on account
+of any mishap or evil that came upon the people.  Thus it happened at
+the burning of Rome that the Christians were accused of setting it on
+fire, and many suffered persecution on account of these suspicions.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Christians also despised civic virtues, or made light of their
+importance.  In this they were greatly mistaken in their practical
+service, for they could have wielded more power had they given more
+attention to civic life.  Like many good people of modern times, they
+observed the corruption of government, and held themselves aloof from
+it rather than to enter in and attempt to make it better.  The result
+of this indifference of the Christians was to make the Romans believe
+that they were antagonistic to the best interests of the community.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The persecution of the Christians continued at intervals with greater
+or less intensity for more than two centuries; the Christians were
+early persecuted by the Jews, later by the Romans.  In the first
+century they were persecuted under Nero and Domitian, through personal
+spite or selfish interests.  After
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P275"></A>275}</SPAN>
+this their persecution was
+political; there was a desire to suppress a religion that was held to
+be contrary to law.  The persecution under Hadrian arose on account of
+the supposition that the Christians were the cause of plagues and
+troubles on account of their impiety.  Among later emperors it became
+customary to attribute to them any unusual occurrence or strange
+phenomenon which was destructive of life or property.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Organized Christianity grew so strong that it came in direct contact
+with the empire, and the latter had need of real apprehension, for the
+conflict brought about by the divergence of belief suddenly
+precipitated a great struggle within the empire.  The strong and
+growing power of the Christians was observed everywhere.  It was no
+insignificant opponent, and it attacked the imperial system at all
+points.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Finally Constantine, who was a wise ruler as well as an astute
+politician, saw that it would be good policy to recognize the church as
+an important body in the empire and to turn this growing social force
+to his own account.  From this time on the church may be said to have
+become a part of the imperial system, which greatly influenced its
+subsequent history.  While in a measure it brought an element of
+strength into the social and political world, it rapidly undermined the
+system of government, and was a potent force in the decline of the
+empire by rendering obsolete many phases of the Roman government.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Wealth of the Church Accumulates</I>.&mdash;As Rome declined and new
+governments arose, the church grew rapidly in the accumulation of
+wealth, particularly in church edifices and lands.  It is always a sign
+of growing power when large ownership of property is obtained.  The
+favors of Constantine, the gifts of Pepin and Charlemagne, and the
+large number of private gifts of property brought the church into the
+Middle Ages with large feudal possessions.  This gave it prestige and
+power, which it could not otherwise have held, and hastened the
+development of a system of government which was powerful in many ways.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P276"></A>276}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>Development of the Hierarchy</I>.&mdash;The clergy finally assumed powers of
+control of the church separate from the laity.  Consequently there was
+a gradual decline in the power of lay members to have a voice in the
+affairs of the church.  While the early church appeared as a simple
+democratic association, the organization had developed into a formal
+system or hierarchy, which extended from pope to simple lay members.
+The power of control falling into the hands of high officials, there
+soon became a distinction between the ordinary membership and the
+machinery of government.  Moreover, the clergy were exempt from
+taxation and any control or discipline similar to that imposed on
+ordinary lay members.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+These conditions soon led to the exercise of undue authority of the
+hierarchy over the lay membership.  This dominating principle became
+dogmatic, until the members of the church became slaves to an arbitrary
+government.  The only saving quality in this was the fact that the
+members of the clergy were chosen from the laity, which kept up the
+connection between the higher and lower members of the church.  The
+separation of the governors from the governed proceeded slowly but
+surely until the higher officers were appointed from the central
+authority of the church, and all, even to the clergy, were directly
+under the imperial control of the papacy.  Moreover, the clergy assumed
+legal powers and attempted to regulate the conduct of the laymen.
+There finally grew up a great body of canon law, according to which the
+clergy ruled the entire church and, to a certain extent, civil life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But the church, under the canon law, must add a penalty to its
+enforcement and must assume the punishment of offenders within its own
+jurisdiction.  This led to the assumption that all crime is sin, and as
+its particular function was to punish sin, the church claimed
+jurisdiction over all sinners and the right to apprehend and sentence
+criminals; but the actual punishment of the more grievous offenses was
+usually given over to the civil authority.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P277"></A>277}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>Attempt to Dominate the Temporal Powers</I>.&mdash;Having developed a strong
+hierarchy which completely dominated the laity, from which it had
+separated, having amassed wealth and gained power, and having invaded
+the temporal power in the apprehension and punishment of crime, the
+church was prepared to go a step farther and set its authority above
+kings and princes in the management of all temporal affairs.  In this
+it almost succeeded, for its power of excommunication was so great as
+to make the civil authorities tremble and bow down before it.  The
+struggle of church and empire in the Middle Ages, and, indeed, into the
+so-called modern era, represents one of the important phases of
+history.  The idea of a world empire had long dominated the minds of
+the people, who looked to the Roman imperialism as the final solution
+of all government.  But as this gradually declined and was replaced by
+the Christian church, the idea of a world religion finally became
+prevalent.  Hence the ideas of a world religion and a world empire were
+joined in the Holy Roman Empire, begun by Charlemagne and established
+by Otto the Great.  In this combination the church assumed first place
+as representing the eternal God, as the head of all things temporal and
+spiritual.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In this respect the church easily overreached itself in the employment
+of force to carry out its plans.  Assuming to control by love, it had
+entered the lists to contend with force and intrigue, and it became
+subject to all forms of degradation arising from political corruption.
+In this respect its high object became degraded to the mere attempt to
+dominate.  The greed for power and force was very great, and this again
+and again led the church into error and lessened its influence in the
+actual regeneration of man and society.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Dogmatism</I>.&mdash;The progress of the imperial power of the church finally
+settled into the condition of absolute authority over the thoughts and
+minds of the people.  The church assumed to be absolutely correct in
+its theory of authority, and assumed to be infallible in regard to
+matters of right and wrong.  It went farther, and prescribed what men
+should
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P278"></A>278}</SPAN>
+believe, and insisted that they should accept that dictum
+without question, on the authority of the church.  This monopoly of
+religious belief assumed by the church had a tendency to stifle free
+inquiry and to retard progress.  It more than once led to
+irregularities of practice on the part of the church in order to
+maintain its position, and on the part of the members to avoid the
+harsh treatment of the church.  Religious progress, except in
+government-building, was not rapid, spirituality declined, and the
+fervent zeal for the right and for justice passed into fanaticism for
+purity.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This caused the church to fail to utilize the means of progress.  It
+might have advanced its own interest more rapidly by encouraging free
+inquiry and developing a struggle for the truth.  By exercising
+liberality it could have ingratiated itself into the government of all
+nations as a helpful adviser, and thus have conserved morality and
+justice; but by its illiberality it retarded the progress of the mind
+and the development of spirituality.  While it lowered the conception
+of religion, on the one hand, it lowered the estimate of knowledge, on
+the other, and in all suppressed truth through dogmatic belief.  This
+course not only affected the character and quality of the clergy, and
+created discontent in the laymen, but finally lessened respect for the
+church, and consequently for the gospel, in the minds of men.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Church Becomes the Conservator of Knowledge</I>.&mdash;Very early in the
+days of the decline of the Roman Empire, when the inroads of the
+barbarian had destroyed reverence for knowledge, and, indeed, when
+within the tottering empire all philosophy and learning had fallen into
+contempt, the church possessed the learning of the times.  Through its
+monasteries and its schools all the learning of the period was found.
+It sought in a measure to preserve, by copying, the manuscripts of many
+of the ancient and those of later times.  Thus the church preserved the
+knowledge which otherwise must have passed away through Roman
+degeneration and barbarian influences.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P279"></A>279}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>Service of Christianity</I>.[<A NAME="chap16fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap16fn2">2</A>]&mdash;The service of Christianity to European
+civilization consists chiefly in: (1) the respect paid to woman; (2)
+the establishment of the home and the enthronement of the home
+relation; (3) the advancement of the idea of humanity; (4) the
+development of morality; (5) the conservation of spiritual power; (6)
+the conservation of knowledge during the Dark Ages; (7) the development
+of faith; (8) the introduction of a new social order founded on
+brotherhood, which manifested itself in many ways in the development of
+community life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+If the church fell into evil habits it was on account of the conditions
+under which it existed.  Its struggle with Oriental despotism, as well
+as with Oriental mysticism, a degenerate philosophy, corrupt social and
+political conditions, could not leave it unscathed.  If evil at times,
+it was better than the temporal government.  If its rulers were
+dogmatic, arbitrary, and inconsistent, they were better, nevertheless,
+than the ruling temporal princes.  The church represented the only
+light there was in the Dark Ages.  It was far superior in morality and
+justice to all other institutions.  If it assumed too much power it
+must be remembered that it came naturally to this assumption by
+attending specifically to its apparent duty in exercising the power
+that the civil authority failed to exercise.  The development of faith
+in itself is a great factor in civilization.  It must not be ignored,
+although it is in great danger of passing into dogmatism.  A world
+burdened with dogmatism is a dead world; a world without faith is a
+corrupt world leading on to death.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Christian religion taught the value of the individual, but also
+taught of the Kingdom of God, which involved a community spirit&mdash;the
+universal citizenship of the Romans prepared the way, and the
+individual liberty of the Germans strengthened it.  Whenever the church
+adhered to the teachings of the four gospels, it made for liberty of
+thought, freedom of life, progress in knowledge and in the arts of
+right living.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P280"></A>280}</SPAN>
+Whenever it ceased to follow these and put
+institutionalism first, it retarded progress, in learning, science, and
+philosophy, and likewise in justice and righteousness.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+To the church organization as an institution are due the preservation,
+perpetuation, and propagation of the teachings of Jesus, which
+otherwise might have been lost or passed into legend.  All the way
+through the development of the Christian doctrine in Europe, under the
+direction of the church there are two conflicting forces&mdash;the rule by
+dogma and the freedom of individual belief.  The former comes from the
+Greeks and Latins, the latter from the Nordic idea of personal liberty.
+Both have been essential to the development of the Christian religion
+and the political life alike.  The dominant force in the religious
+dogma of the church was necessary to a people untutored in spiritual
+development.  Its error was to insist that the individual had no right
+to personal belief.  Yet the former established rules of faith and
+prevented the dissipation of the treasured teachings of Jesus.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  In what ways was the Christian religion antagonistic to other
+religions?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  What new elements did it add to human progress?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  How did the fall of Rome contribute to the power of the church?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  What particular service did the church contribute to social order
+during the decline of the Roman Empire?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  How did the church conserve learning and at the same time suppress
+freedom of thought?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  How do you discriminate between Christianity as a religious culture
+and the church as an institution?
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap16fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap16fn2"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap16fn1text">1</A>] Adams, <I>Civilization During the Middle Ages</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap16fn2text">2</A>] Adams, <I>Civilization During the Middle Ages</I>, chap. I.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap17"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P281"></A>281}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XVII
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+TEUTONIC INFLUENCE ON CIVILIZATION
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Coming of the Barbarians</I>.&mdash;The picture usually presented by the
+historical story-tellers of the barbarian hordes that invaded the Roman
+Empire is that of bold pirates, plunderers of civilization, and
+destroyers of property.  No doubt, as compared with the Roman system of
+warfare and plunder, their conduct was somewhat irregular.  They were
+wandering groups or tribes, who lived rudely, seeking new territory for
+exploitation after the manner of their lives.  They were largely a
+pastoral people with cattle as the chief source of industry with
+intermittent agriculture.  Doubtless, they were attracted by the
+splendor of Rome, its wealth and its luxury, but primarily they were
+seeking a chance to live.  It was the old luring food quest, which is
+the foundation of most migrations, that was the impelling force of
+their invasion.  In accordance with their methods of life, the northern
+territory was over-crowded, and tribe pressed upon tribe in the
+struggle for existence.  Moreover, the pressure of the Asiatic
+populations drove one tribe upon another and forced those of northern
+Europe south and east.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+All of the invaders, except the Huns who settled in Pannonia, were of
+the Aryan branch of the Caucasian race.  They were nearly all of the
+Nordic branch of the Aryan stock and were similar in racial
+characteristics and social life to the Greeks, who conquered the
+ancient Aegean races of Greece, and to those others who conquered the
+primitive inhabitants of Italy prior to the founding of the Roman
+nation.  The Celts were of Aryan stock but not of Nordic race.  They
+appeared at an early time along the Danube, moved westward into France,
+Spain, and Britain, and took side excursions into Italy, the most
+notable of which was the invasion of Rome
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P282"></A>282}</SPAN>
+390 B.C.  Wherever the
+Nordic people have gone, they have brought vigor of life and achieved
+much after they had acquired the tools of civilization.  If they were
+pirates of property, they also were appropriators of the civilization
+of other nations, into which they projected the vigor of their own life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Importance of Teutonic Influence</I>.&mdash;Various estimates have been made
+as to the actual influence of the Teutonic races in shaping the
+civilization of western Europe.  Mr. Guizot insists that this influence
+is entirely overestimated, and also, to a certain extent,
+misrepresented: that much has been done in their name which does not
+rightfully belong to them.  He freely admits that the idea of law came
+from the Romans, morality from the Christian church, and the principle
+of liberty from the Germans.  Yet he fails to emphasize the result of
+the union of liberty with the law, with morality, and with the church.
+It is just this leaven of liberty introduced into the various elements
+of civilization that gave it a new life and brought about progress, the
+primary element of civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+France, in the early period of European history, had an immense
+prestige in the advancement of civilization.  There was a large
+population in a compact territory, with a closely organized government,
+both civil and ecclesiastical, and a large use of the Roman products of
+language, government, law, and other institutions.  Consequently,
+France took the lead in progress, and Mr. Guizot is quite right in
+assuming that every element of progress passed through France to give
+it form, before it became recognized.  Yet, in the later development of
+political liberty, law, and education, the Teutonic element becomes
+more prominent, until it would seem that the native and acquired
+qualities of the Teutonic life have the stronger representation in
+modern civilization.  In stating this, due acknowledgment must be made
+to the Roman influence through law and government.  But the spirit of
+progress is Teutonic, although the form, in many instances, may be
+Roman.  It must be observed, too, that the foundation of local
+government in Germany, England, and the United States was of Teutonic
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P283"></A>283}</SPAN>
+origin; that the road from imperialism to democracy is lined with
+Teutonic institutions and lighted with Teutonic liberty, and that the
+whole system of individual rights and popular government has been
+influenced by the attitude of the Teutonic spirit toward government and
+law.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Teutonic Liberty</I>.&mdash;All writers recognize that the Germanic tribes
+contributed the quality of personal liberty to the civilization of the
+West.  The Roman writers, in setting forth their own institutions, have
+left a fair record of the customs and habits of the so-called
+barbarians.  Titus said of them: "Their bodies are, indeed, great, but
+their souls are greater."  Caesar had a remarkable method of eulogizing
+his own generalship by praising the valor and strength of the
+vanquished foes.  "Liberty," wrote Lucanus, "is the German's
+birthright."  And Florus, speaking of liberty, said: "It is a privilege
+which nature has granted to the Germans, and which the Greeks, with all
+of their arts, knew not how to obtain."  At a later period Montesquieu
+was led to exclaim: "Liberty, that lovely thing, was discovered in the
+wild forests of Germany."  While Hume, viewing the results of this
+discovery, said: "If our part of the world maintains sentiments of
+liberty, honor, equity, and valor superior to the rest of mankind, it
+owes these advantages to the seeds implanted by the generous
+barbarians."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+More forcible than all these expressions of sentiment are the results
+of the study of modern historians of the laws and customs of the early
+Teutons, and the tracing of these laws in the later civilization.  This
+shows facts of the vitalizing process of the Teutonic element.  The
+various nations to-day which speak the Teutonic languages, of which the
+English is the most important, are carrying the burden of civilization.
+These, rather than those overcome by a preponderance of Roman
+influences, are forwarding the progress of the world.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Tribal Life</I>.&mdash;Referring to the period of Germanic history prior to
+the influence of the Romans on the customs, laws, and institutions of
+the people, which transformed them from
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P284"></A>284}</SPAN>
+wandering tribes into
+settled nationalities, it is easy to observe, even at this time, the
+Teutonic character.  The tribes had come in contact with Roman
+civilization, and many of them were already being influenced by the
+contact.  Their social life and habits were becoming somewhat fixed,
+and the elements of feudalism were already prominent as the foundation
+of the great institution of the Middle Ages.  This period also embraces
+the time when the tribes were about to take on the influence of the
+Christian religion, and when there was a constant mingling of the
+Christian spirit with the spirit of heathenism.  In fact, the subject
+should cover all that is known of the Germanic tribes prior to the
+Roman contact and after it, down to the full entrance of the Middle
+Ages and the rise of new nationalities.  In this period we shall miss
+the full interest of the society of the Middle Ages after the feudal
+system had transformed Europe or, rather, after Europe had entered into
+a great period of transformation from the indefinite, broken-down
+tribal life into the new life of modern nations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Tribal society has its limitations and types distinctive from every
+other.  The very name "tribe" suggests to us something different from
+the conditions of a modern nation.  Caesar and Tacitus were accustomed
+to speak of the Germanic tribes as <I>nationes</I>, although with no such
+fulness of meaning as we attach to our modern nations.  The Germanic,
+like the Grecian, tribe is founded upon two cardinal principles, and is
+a natural and not an artificial assemblage of people.  These two
+principles are religion and kinship, or consanguinity.  In addition to
+this there is a growth of the tribe by adoption, largely through the
+means of matrimony and the desire for protection.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+These principles in the formation of the tribe are universal with the
+Aryan people, and, probably, with all other races.  There is a
+clustering of the relatives around the eldest parent, who becomes the
+natural leader of the tribe and who has great power over the members of
+the expanded family.  There is no state, there are no citizens,
+consequently the social life must be far different from that which we
+are accustomed to see.  At
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P285"></A>285}</SPAN>
+the time of our first knowledge of the
+Germans, the family had departed a step from the conditions which bound
+the old families of Greece and Rome into such compact and firmly
+organized bodies.  There was a tendency toward individualism, freedom,
+and the private ownership of land.  All of these points, and more, must
+be taken into consideration, as we take a brief survey of the
+characteristics of the early Teutonic society.  What has been said in
+reference to the tribe, points at once to the fact that there must have
+been different ranks of society, according to the manner in which a
+person became a member of the tribe.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Classes of Society</I>.&mdash;The classes of people were the freemen of noble
+blood, or the nobility, the common freemen, the freedmen, or half-free,
+and the slaves.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The class of the nobility was based largely upon ancient lineage, some
+of whom could trace their ancestry to such a distance that they made
+tenable the claim that they were descended from the gods.  The position
+of a noble was so important in the community that he found no
+difficulty in making good his claim to pure blood and a title of
+reverence, but this in no way gave him any especial political
+privilege.  It assured a consideration which put him in the way of
+winning offices of preferment by his wealth and influence, but he must
+submit to the decision of the people for his power rather than depend
+upon the virtues of his ancestry.  This is why, in a later period, the
+formation of the new kingship left out the idea of nobility and placed
+the right of government upon personal service.  The second class
+represented the rank and file of the German freemen, the long-haired
+and free-necked men, who had never felt the yoke of bondage.  Those
+were the churls of society, but upon them fell the burden of service
+and the power of leadership.  Out of this rank came the honest yeomen
+of England.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The third class represented those who held lands of the freemen as
+serfs, and in the later period of feudal society they became attached
+to the soil and were bought with the land and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P286"></A>286}</SPAN>
+sold with the land,
+though not slaves in the common acceptation of the term.  The fourth
+class were those who were reduced to the personal service of others.
+They were either captives taken in war or those who had lost their
+freedom by gambling.  This body was not large in the early society,
+although it tended to increase as society developed.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It will be seen at once that in the primitive life of a people like the
+one we are studying, there is a mingling of the political, religious,
+and social elements of society.  There are no careful lines of
+distinction to be drawn as in present society, and more than
+this&mdash;there was a tendency to consolidate and simplify all of the forms
+of political and social life.  There was a simplicity of forms and a
+lack of conventional usage, with a complexity of functions.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Home and the Home Life</I>.&mdash;The family of the Germans, like the
+family of all other Aryan races, was the social, political, and
+religious unit of the larger organization.  As compared with the
+Oriental nations, the family was monogamic and noted for purity and
+virtue.  Add to this the idea of reverence for women that characterized
+the early German people, and we may infer that the home life, though of
+a somewhat rude nature, was genuine, and that the home circle was not
+without a salutary influence in those times of wandering and war.  The
+mother, as we may well surmise, was the ruler of the home, had the care
+of the household, deliberated with the husband in the affairs of the
+tribe, and even took her place by his side in the field of battle when
+it seemed necessary.  In truth, if we may believe the chroniclers,
+woman was supposed to be the equal of man.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But returning to the tribal life, we find that the houses were of the
+rudest kind, made of undressed lumber or logs, with a hole in the roof
+for the smoke to pass out, with but one door and sometimes no window.
+There were no cities among the Germans until they were taught by
+contact with Rome to build them.  The villages were, as a rule, an
+irregular collection of houses, more or less scattered, as is customary
+where land is
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P287"></A>287}</SPAN>
+plentiful and of no particular value.  There were
+no regularly laid out streets, the villagers being a group of kinsmen
+of the same tribe, grouped together for convenience.  Around the
+village was constructed a ditch and a hedge as a rampart for
+protection.  This was called a "tun" (German <I>Zoun</I>), from which word
+we derive our name "town."  The house generally had but one room, which
+was used for all purposes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There was another class of houses, belonging to the nobility and the
+chiefs, called halls.  They consisted of one long room, which sometimes
+had transepts or alcoves for the women, partitioned off by curtains
+from the main hall.  This large room was the place where the lord and
+his companions were accustomed to sit at the great feasts after their
+return from a successful expedition.  This is the "beer hall" that we
+read so much about in song, epic, and legend.  Here the beer and the
+mead were passed; here arose the songs and the mirth of the warriors.
+On the walls of the hall might be seen the rude arms of the warrior,
+the shield and the spear, or decorations composed of the heads and the
+skins of wild beasts&mdash;all of which bring us to the early type of the
+hall of the great baron of the feudal age.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Until the age of chivalry, women were not present at these rude feasts.
+The religious life of the early Germans was tribal rather than personal
+or of the simple family.  There were certain times at which members of
+the same tribe were wont to assemble and sacrifice to the gods.  There
+was a common meeting-place from year to year.  As it has been related,
+this had a tendency to cement the tribe together and enhance political
+unity.  This custom must have had its influence on social order and
+must have, in a measure, arrested the tendency of the people to an
+unsocial and selfish life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Political Assemblies</I>.&mdash;The political assemblies, where all of the
+freemen met to discuss the affairs of the community, must have been
+powerful factors in the establishment of social customs and usage.  The
+kinsmen or fellow tribesmen were grouped in villages, and each village
+maintained its privilege
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P288"></A>288}</SPAN>
+of self-government, and consequently the
+freemen met in the village assembly to consider the affairs of the
+community.  We find combined in the political representation the ideas
+of tribal unity and individuality, or at least family independence.  As
+the tribes federated, there was a tendency to make the assemblies more
+general, and thus the family exclusiveness tended to give way in favor
+of the development of the individual as a member of the tribal state.
+It was a slow transition from an ethnic to a democratic type of society.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This association created a feeling of common interest akin to
+patriotism.  Mr. Freeman has given us a graphic representation of the
+survival of the early assembly in the Swiss cantons.[<A NAME="chap17fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap17fn1">1</A>]  In the forest
+cantons the freemen met in the open field on stated occasions to enact
+the laws and transact the duties of legislators and judges.  But
+although there was a tendency to sectional and clannish relations in
+society, this became much improved by the communal associations for
+political and economic life.  But society, as such, could not advance
+very far when the larger part of the occupation of the freemen was that
+of war.  The youth were educated in the field, and the warriors spent
+much of their time fighting with neighboring tribes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The entire social structure, resting as it did upon kinship, found its
+changes in developing economic, political, and religious life.
+Especially is this seen in the pursuit of the common industries.  As
+soon as the tribes obtained permanent seats and had given themselves
+mostly to agriculture, the state of society became more settled, and
+new customs were gradually introduced.  At the same time society became
+better organized, and each man had his proper place, not only in the
+social scale but also in the industrial and political life of the tribe.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>General Social Customs</I>.&mdash;In the summer-time the clothing was very
+light.  The men came frequently to the Roman camp clad in a short
+jacket and a mantle; the more wealthy ones
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P289"></A>289}</SPAN>
+wore a woollen or
+linen undergarment.  But in the cold weather sheepskins and the pelts
+of wild animals, as well as hose for the legs and shoes made of leather
+for the feet, were worn.  The mantle was fastened with a buckle, or
+with a thorn and a belt.  In the belt were carried shears and knives
+for daily use.  The women were not as a general thing dressed
+differently from the men.  After the contact with the Romans the
+methods of dress changed, and there was a greater difference in the
+garments worn by men and women.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Marriage was a prominent social institution among the tribes, as it
+always is where the monogamic family prevails.  There were doubtless
+traces of the old custom, common to most races, of wife capture, a
+custom which long continued as a mere fiction to some extent among the
+peasantry of certain localities in Germany.  In this survival the bride
+makes feint to escape, and is chased and captured by the bridegroom.
+Some modern authorities have tried to show that there is a survival of
+this old custom of courtship, whereby the advances are supposed to be
+made by the men.  The engagement to be married meant a great deal more
+in those days than at present.  It was more than half of the marriage
+ceremony.  Just as among the Hebrews, the engagement was the real
+marriage contract, and the latter ceremony only a form, so among the
+Germans the same custom prevailed.  After engagement, until marriage
+they were called the Bräut and Bräutigam, but when wedded they ceased
+to be thus entitled.  The betrothal contained the essential bonds of
+matrimony, and was far more important before the law than the later
+ceremony.  In modern usage the opposite custom prevails.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The woman was always under wardship; her father was her natural
+guardian and made the marriage contract or the engagement.  When a
+woman married, she brought with her a dower, furnished by her parents.
+This consisted of all house furnishings, clothes, and jewelry, and a
+more substantial dower in lands, money, or live stock.  On the morning
+of the day after marriage the husband gave to the wife the
+"Morgengabe,"
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P290"></A>290}</SPAN>
+which thereafter was her own property.  It was the
+wedding-present of the groom.  This is but a survival of the time when
+marriage among the Germans meant a simple purchase of a wife.  It is
+said that "ein Weib zu kaufen" (to buy a wife) was the common term for
+getting engaged, and that this phrase was so used as late as the
+eleventh century.  The wardship was called the <I>mundium</I>, and when the
+maid left her father's house for another home, her <I>mundium</I> was
+transferred from her father to her husband.  This dower began, indeed,
+with the engagement, and the price of the <I>mundium</I> was paid over to
+the guardian at the time of the contract.  From this time suit for
+breach of promise could be brought.  These are the primitive customs of
+the marriage ceremony, but they were changed from time to time.
+Through the influence of Christianity, the woman finally attained
+prominence in the matter of choosing a husband, and learned, much to
+her satisfaction, to make her own contracts in matrimony.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Economic Life</I>.&mdash;The economic life was of the most meagre kind in
+the earlier stages of society.  We find that Tacitus, writing 150 years
+after Caesar, shows that there had been some changes in the people.  In
+the time of Caesar, the tribes were just making their transition from
+the pastoral-nomadic to the pastoral-agricultural state, and by the
+time of Tacitus this transition was so general that most of the tribes
+had settled to a more or less permanent agricultural life.  It must be
+observed that the development of the tribes was not symmetrical, and
+that which reads very pleasantly on paper represents a very confused
+state of society.  However much the tribes practised agriculture, they
+had but little peace, for warfare continued to be one of their chief
+occupations.  It was in the battle that a youth received his chief
+education, and in the chase that he occupied much of his spare time.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But the ground was tilled, and barley, wheat, oats, and rye were
+raised.  Flax was cultivated, and the good housewife did the spinning
+and weaving&mdash;all that was done&mdash;for the household.  Greens, or herbage,
+were also cultivated, but
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P291"></A>291}</SPAN>
+fruit-trees seldom were cultivated.
+With the products of the soil, of the chase, and of the herds, the
+Teutons lived well.  They had bread and meat, milk, butter and cheese,
+beer and mead, as well as fish and wild game.  The superintending of
+the fields frequently fell to the lot of the hausfrau, and the labor
+was done by serfs.  The tending of the fields, the pursuit of wild
+animals or the catching of fish, the care of the cattle or herds, and
+the making of butter and cheese, the building of houses, the bringing
+of salt from the sea, the making of garments, and the construction of
+weapons of war and utensils of convenience&mdash;these represent the chief
+industries of the people.  Later, the beginnings of commerce sprang up
+between the separate tribes, and gradually extended to other
+nationalities.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Contributions to Law</I>.&mdash;The principle of the trial by jury, which was
+developed in the English common law, was undoubtedly of Teutonic
+origin.  That a man should be tried by his peers for any misdemeanor
+was considered to be a natural right.  The idea of personal liberty
+made a personal law, which gradually gave way to civil law, although
+the personal element was never entirely obliterated.  The Teutonic
+tribes had no written law, yet they had a distinct legal system.  The
+comparison of this legal system with the Roman or with our modern
+system brings to light the individual character of the early Germanic
+laws.  The Teuton claimed rights on account of his own personality and
+his relation to a family, not because he was a member of a state.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When the Teutons came in contact with the Romans they mingled their
+principles of law with those of the latter, and thus made law more
+formal.  Nearly all of the tribes, after this contact, had their laws
+codified and written in Latin, by Roman scholars, chiefly of the
+clergy, who incorporated not only many elements of Roman law but also
+more or less of the elements of Christian usage.  Those tribes which
+had been the longer time in contact with the Romans had a greater body
+of laws, more systematized and of more Roman
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P292"></A>292}</SPAN>
+characteristics.
+Finally, as modern nationality arose, the laws were codified, combining
+the Roman and the Teutonic practice.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The forms of judicial procedure remained much the same on account of
+the character of Teutonic social organization.  The personal element
+was so strong in the Teutonic system as to yield a wide influence in
+the development of judicial affairs.  The trial by combat and the early
+ordeals, the latter having been instituted largely through the church
+discipline, and the idea of local courts based upon a trial of peers,
+had much to do with shaping the course of judicial practice.  The time
+came, however, when nearly every barbarian judicial process was
+modified by the influence of the Roman law, until the predominance of
+the state, in judicial usage, was recognized in place of the personal
+element which so long prevailed in the early Teutonic customs.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But in the evolution of the judicial systems of the various countries
+the Teutonic element of individual liberty and individual offenses
+never lost its influences.  These simple elements of life indicate the
+origin of popular government, individual and social liberty, and the
+foundation of local self-government.  Wherever the generous barbarians
+have gone they have carried the torch of liberty.  In Italy, Greece,
+England, Germany, Spain, and the northern nations, wherever the lurid
+flames of revolt against arbitrary and conventional government have
+burst forth, it can be traced to the Teutonic spirit of freedom.  This
+was the greatest contribution of the Teutonic people to civilization.[<A NAME="chap17fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap17fn2">2</A>]
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P293"></A>293}</SPAN>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  The vital elements of modern civilization contributed by the
+Germans.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  Teutonic influence on Roman civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  Compare the social order of the Teutons with that of the early
+Greeks.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  Causes of the invasion of Rome by the Teutonic tribes.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  What were the racial relations of Romans, Greeks, Germans, Celts,
+and English?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  Modern contributions to civilization by Germany.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap17fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap17fn2"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap17fn1text">1</A>] See <A HREF="#chap21">Chapter XXI</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap17fn2text">2</A>] The modern Prussian military state was a departure from the main
+trend of Teutonic life.  It represented a combination of later
+feudalism and the Roman imperialism.  It was a perversion of normal
+development, a fungous growth upon institutions of freedom and justice.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap18"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P294"></A>294}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XVIII
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+FEUDAL SOCIETY
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>Feudalism a Transition of Social Order</I>.&mdash;Feudalism represents a
+change from the ancient form of imperialism to the newer forms of
+European government.  It arose out of the ruins of the Roman system as
+an essential form of social order.  It appears to be the only system
+fitted to bring order out of the chaotic conditions of society, but by
+the very nature of affairs it could not long continue as an established
+system.  It is rather surprising, indeed, that it became so universal,
+for every territory in Europe was subjected to its control in a greater
+or less degree.  Frequently those who were forced to adopt its form
+condemned its principle, and those who sought to maintain the doctrine
+of Roman imperialism were subjected to its sway.  The church itself,
+seeking to maintain its autocracy, came into direct contact with feudal
+theory and opposed it bitterly.  The people who submitted to the yoke
+of personal bondage which it entailed hated the system.  Yet the whole
+European world passed under feudalism.  But notwithstanding its
+universality, feudalism could offer nothing permanent, for in the
+development of social order it was forced to yield to monarchy,
+although it made a lasting influence on social life and political and
+economic usage.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>There Are Two Elementary Sources of Feudalism</I>.&mdash;The spirit of
+feudalism arises out of the early form of Teutonic social life.  It
+sprang from the personal obligation of the comitatus, which was
+composed of a military leader and his followers or companions.  The
+self-constituted assembly elected the leader who was most noted for
+courage and prowess in battle.  To him was consigned the task of
+leading in battle the host, which was composed of all the freemen in
+arms.  Usually
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P295"></A>295}</SPAN>
+these chiefs were chosen for a single campaign,
+but it not infrequently happened that their leadership was continuous,
+with all the force of hereditary selection.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Another phase of the comitatus is represented by the leader's setting
+forth in time of peace with his companions to engage in fighting,
+exploiting, and plunder on his own account.  The courageous young men
+of the tribe, thirsting for adventure in arms, gathered about their
+leader, whom they sought to excel in valor.  He who was bravest and
+strongest in battle was considered most honorable.  The principal
+feature to be noted is the personal allegiance of the companions to
+their leader, for they were bound to him with the closest ties.  For
+the service which they rendered, the leader gave them sustenance and
+also reward for personal valor.  They sat at his table and became his
+companions, and thus continually increased his power in the community.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This custom represents the germ of the feudal system.  The leader
+became the lord, the companions his vassals.  When the lord became a
+tribal chief or king, the royal vassals became the king's thegns, or
+represented the nobility of the realm.  The whole system was based upon
+service and personal allegiance.  As conquest of territory was made,
+the land was parcelled out among the followers, who received it from
+the leader as allodial grants and, later, as feudal grants.  The
+allodial grant resembled the title in fee simple, the feudal grant was
+made on condition of future service.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Roman element of feudalism finds its representation in clientage.
+This was a well-known institution at the time of the contact of the
+Romans with their invaders.  The client was attached to the lord, on
+whom he depended for support and for representation in the community.
+Two of the well-known feudal aids, namely, the ransom of the lord from
+captivity and the gift of dowry money on the marriage of his eldest
+daughter, are similar to the services rendered by the Roman client to
+his lord.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The personal tie of clientage resembled the personal
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P296"></A>296}</SPAN>
+allegiance
+in the comitatus, with the difference that the client stood at a great
+distance from the patron, while in the comitatus the companions were
+nearly equal to their chief.  The Roman influence tended finally to
+make the wide difference which existed between the lord and vassal in
+feudal relations.  Other forms of Roman usage, such as the institution
+of the <I>coloni</I>, or half-slaves of the soil, and the custom of granting
+land for use without actual ownership, seem to have influenced the
+development of feudalism.  Without doubt the Roman institutions here
+gave form and system to feudalism, as they did in other forms of
+government.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Feudal System in Its Developed State Based on Land-Holding</I>.&mdash;In
+the early period in France, where feudalism received its most perfect
+development, several methods of granting land were in vogue.  First,
+the lands in the immediate possession of the conquered were retained by
+them on condition that they pay tribute to the conquerors; the wealthy
+Romans were allowed to hold all or part of their large estates.
+Second, many lands were granted in fee simple to the followers of the
+chiefs.  Third was the beneficiary grant, most common to feudal tenure
+in its developed state.  By this method land was granted as a reward
+for services past or prospective.  The last method to be named is that
+of commendation, by which the small holder of land needing protection
+gave his land to a powerful lord, who in turn regranted it to the
+original owner on condition that the latter became his vassal.  Thus
+the lands conquered by a chief or lord were parcelled out to his
+principal supporters, who in turn regranted them to those under them,
+so that all society was formed in a gradation of classes based on the
+ownership of land.  Each lord had his vassal, every vassal his lord.
+Each man swore allegiance to the one next above him, and this one to
+his superior, until the king was reached, who himself was but a
+powerful feudal lord.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As the other forms and functions of state life developed, feudalism
+became the ruling principle, from which many strove in vain to free
+themselves.  There were in France, in the time
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P297"></A>297}</SPAN>
+of Hugh Capet,
+according to Kitchen, "about a million of souls living on and taking
+their names from about 70,000 separate fiefs or properties; of these
+about 3,000 carried titles with them.  Of these again, no less than a
+hundred were sovereign states, greater or smaller, whose lords could
+coin money, levy taxes, make laws, and administer their own
+justice."[<A NAME="chap18fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap18fn1">1</A>]  Thus the effect of feudal tenure was to arrange society
+into these small, compact social groups, each of which must really
+retain its power by force of arms.  The method gave color to monarchy,
+which later became universal.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Other Elements of Feudalism</I>.&mdash;Prominent among the characteristics of
+feudalism was the existence of a close personal bond between the
+grantor and the receiver of an estate.  The receiver did homage to the
+grantor in the form of oath, and also took the oath of fealty.  In the
+former he knelt before the lord and promised to become his man on
+account of the land which he held, and to be faithful to him in defense
+of life and limb against all people.  The oath of fealty was only a
+stronger oath of the same tenor, in which the vassal, standing before
+the lord, appealed to God as a witness.  These two oaths, at first
+entirely separate, became merged into one, which passed by the name of
+the oath of fealty.  When the lord desired to raise an army he had only
+to call his leading vassals, and they in turn called those under them.
+When he needed help to harvest his grain the vassals were called upon
+for service.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Besides the service rendered, there were feudal aids to be paid on
+certain occasions.  The chief of these were the ransom of the lord when
+captured, the amount paid when the eldest son was knighted, and the
+dowry on the marriage of the eldest daughter.  There were lesser feudal
+taxes called reliefs.  Of these the more important were the payment of
+a tax by the heir of a deceased vassal upon succession to property,
+one-half year's profit paid when a ward became of age, and the right to
+escheated lands of the vassal.  The lord also had the right to land
+forfeited on account of certain heinous crimes.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P298"></A>298}</SPAN>
+Wardship
+entitled the lord to the use of lands during the minority of the ward.
+The lord also had a right to choose a husband for the female ward at
+the age of fourteen; if she refused to accept the one chosen, the lord
+had the use of her services and property until she was twenty-one.
+Then he could dispose of her lands as he chose and refuse consent for
+her to marry.  These aids and reliefs made a system of slavery for
+serfs and vassals.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Rights of Sovereignty</I>.&mdash;The feudal lord had the right of
+sovereignty over all of his own vassal domain.  Not only did he have
+military sovereignty on account of allegiance of vassals, but political
+sovereignty also, as he ruled the assemblies in his own way.  He had
+legal jurisdiction, for all the courts were conducted by him or else
+under his jurisdiction, and this brought his own territory completely
+under his control as proprietor, and subordinated everything to his
+will.  In this is found the spirit of modern absolute monarchy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Classification of Feudal Society</I>.&mdash;In France, according to Duruy,
+under the perfection of feudalism, the people were grouped in the
+following classes: First, there was a group of Gallic or Frankish
+freemen, who were obliged to give military service to the king and give
+aids when called upon.  Second, the vassals, who rendered service to
+those from whom they held their lands.  Third, the royal vassals, from
+whom the king usually chose his dukes and counts to lead the army or to
+rule over provinces and cities.  Fourth, the <I>liti</I>, who, like the
+Roman <I>coloni</I>, were bound to the soil, which they cultivated as
+farmers, and for which they paid a small rent.  Finally, there were the
+ordinary slaves.  The character of the <I>liti</I>, or <I>glebe</I>, serfs varied
+according to the degree of liberty with which they were privileged.
+They might have emancipation by charter or by the grant of the king or
+the church, but they were never free.  The feudal custom was binding on
+all, and no one escaped from its control.  Even the clergy became
+feudal, there being lords and vassals within the church.  Yet the
+ministry, in their preaching, recognized the opportunity of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P299"></A>299}</SPAN>
+advancement, for they claimed that even a serf might become a bishop,
+although there was no great probability of this.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Progress of Feudalism</I>.&mdash;The development of feudalism was slow in all
+countries, and it varied in character in accordance with the condition
+of the country.  In England the Normans in the eleventh century found
+feudalism in an elementary state, and gave formality to the system.  In
+Germany feudalism was less homogeneous than in France.  It lacked the
+symmetrical finish of the Roman institutions, although it was
+introduced from French soil through overlordship and proceeded from the
+sovereign to the serf, rather than springing from the serf to the
+sovereign.  It varied somewhat in characteristics from French
+feudalism, although the essentials of the system were not wanting.  In
+the Scandinavian provinces the Teutonic element was too strong, and in
+Spain and Italy the Romanic, to develop in these countries perfect
+feudalism.  But in France there was a regular, progressive development.
+The formative period began in Caesar's time and ended with the ninth
+century.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This was followed by the period of complete domination and full power,
+extending to the end of the thirteenth century, at the close of which
+offices and benefices were in the hands of the great vassals of Charles
+the Bald.  Then followed a period of transformation of feudalism, which
+extended to the close of the sixteenth century.  Finally came the
+period of the decay of feudalism, beginning with the seventeenth
+century and extending to the present time.  There are found now, both
+in Europe and America, laws and usages which are vestiges of the
+ancient forms of feudalism, which the formal organization of the state
+has failed to eradicate.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The autocratic practice of the feudal lord survived in the new monarch,
+and, except in the few cases of constitutional limitation, became
+imperialistic.  The Prussian state, built upon a military basis,
+exercised the rights of feudal conquest over neighboring states.  After
+the war with Austria, Prussia exercised an overlordship over part of
+the smaller German
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P300"></A>300}</SPAN>
+states, with a show of constitutional liberty.
+After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the German Empire was formed,
+still with a show of constitutional liberty, but with the feudal idea
+of overlordship dominant.  Having feudalized the other states of
+Germany, Prussia sought to extend the feudal idea to the whole world,
+but was checked by the World War of 1914.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>State of Society Under Feudalism</I>.&mdash;In searching for the effects of
+feudalism on human progress, the family deserves our first
+consideration.  The wife of the feudal lord and her equal associates
+were placed on a higher plane.  The family in no wise represented the
+ancient patriarchal family nor the modern family.  The head of the
+family stood alone, independent of every form of government.  He was
+absolute proprietor of himself and of all positions under him.  He was
+neither magistrate, priest, nor king, nor subordinate to any system
+except as he permitted.  His position developed arbitrary power and
+made him proud and aristocratic.  With a few members of his family, he
+lived in his castle, far removed from serfs and vassals.  He spent his
+life alternately in feats of arms or in systematic idleness.  Away from
+home much of the time, fighting to defend his castle or obtain new
+territory, or engaging in hunting, while the wife and mother cared for
+the home, he developed strength and power.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It was in the feudal family that woman obtained her position of honor
+and power in the home.  It was this position that developed the
+chivalry of the Middle Ages.  The improvement of domestic manners and
+the preponderance of home society among the few produced the moral
+qualities of the home.  Coupled with this was the idea of nobility on
+one side, and the idea of inheritance on the other, which had a
+tendency to unify the family under one defender and to perpetuate the
+right and title to property of future generations.  It was that benign
+spirit which comes from the household in more modern life, giving
+strength and permanence to character.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+While there was a relation of common interest between the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P301"></A>301}</SPAN>
+villagers clustered around the feudal castle, the union was not
+sufficient to make a compact organization.  Their rights were not
+common, as there was a recognized superiority on one hand and a
+recognized inferiority on the other.  This grew into a common hatred of
+the lower classes for the upper, which has been a thousand times
+detrimental to human progress.  The little group of people had their
+own church, their own society.  Those who had a fellow-feeling for them
+had much influence directly, but not in bridging over the chasm between
+them and the feudal lord.  Feudalism gave every man a place, but
+developed the inequalities of humanity to such an extent that it could
+not be lasting as a system.  Society became irregular, in which extreme
+aristocracy was divorced from extreme democracy.  Relief came slowly,
+through the development of monarchy and the citizenship of the modern
+state.  It was a rude attempt to find the secret of social
+organization.  The spirit of revolt of the oppressed lived on
+suppressed by a galling tyranny.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+To maintain his position as proprietor of the soil and ruler over a
+class of people treated as serfs required careful diplomacy on the part
+of the lord, or else intolerant despotism.  He usually chose the
+latter, and sought to secure his power by force of arms.  He cared
+little for the wants or needs of his people.  He did not associate with
+them on terms of equality, and only came in contact with them as a
+master meets a servant.  Consulting his own selfish interest, he made
+his rule despotic, and all opposition was suppressed with a high hand.
+The only check upon this despotism was the warlike attitude of other
+similar despotic lords, who always sought to advance their own
+interests by the force of arms.  Feudalism in form of government was
+the antithesis of imperialism, yet in effect something the same.  It
+substituted a horde of petty despots for one and it developed a petty
+local tyranny in the place of a general despotism.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Lack of Central Authority in Feudal Society</I>.&mdash;So many feudal lords,
+each master of his own domain, contending with one
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P302"></A>302}</SPAN>
+another for
+the mastery, each resting his course on the hereditary gift of his
+ancestors, or, more probably, on his force of armed men and the
+strength of his castle, made it impossible that there should be any
+recognized authority in government, or any legal determination of the
+rights of the ruler and his subjects.  Feudal law was the law of force;
+feudal justice the right of might.  Among all of these feudal lords
+there was not one to force by will all others into submission, and thus
+create a central authority.  There was no permanent legislative body,
+no permanent judicial machinery, no standing army, no uniform and
+regular system of taxation.  There could be no guaranty to permanent
+political power under such circumstances.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There was little progress in social order under the rule of feudalism.
+Although we recognize that it was an essential form of government
+necessary to control the excesses of individualism; although we realize
+that a monarchy was impossible until it was created by an evolutionary
+process, that a republic could not exist under the irregularity of
+political forces, yet it must be maintained that social progress did
+not exist under the feudal régime.  There was no unity of social
+action, no co-operation of classes in government.  The line between the
+governed and the governing, though clearly marked at times, was an
+irregular, wavering line.  Outside of the family life&mdash;which was
+limited in scope&mdash;and of the power of the church&mdash;which failed to unify
+society&mdash;there was no vital social growth.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Individual Development in the Dominant Group</I>.&mdash;Feudalism established
+a strong individualism among leaders, a strong personality based on
+sterling intellectual qualities.  It is evident that this excessive
+individual development became very prominent in the later evolution of
+social order, and is recognized as a gain in social advancement.
+Individual culture is essential to social advancement.  To develop
+strong, independent, self-reliant individuals might tend to produce
+anarchy rather than social order, yet it must eventually lead to the
+latter; and so it proved in the case of feudalism, for its very
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P303"></A>303}</SPAN>
+chaotic state brought about, as a necessity, social order.  But it came
+about through survival of the fittest, in conquest and defense.  Nor
+did the most worthy always succeed, but rather those who had the
+greatest power in ruthless conquest.  Unity came about through the
+unbridled exercise of the predatory spirit, accompanied by power to
+take and to hold.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This chaotic state of individualistic people was the means of bringing
+about an improvement in intellectual development.  The strong
+individual character with position and leisure becomes strong
+intellectually in planning defense and in meditating upon the
+philosophy of life.  The notes of song and of literature came from the
+feudal times.  The determination of the mind to intellectual pursuits
+appeared in the feudal régime, and individual culture and independent
+intellectual life, though of the few and at the expense of the
+majority, were among the important contributions to civilization.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  What was the basis of feudal society?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  What elements of feudalism were Roman and what Teutonic?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  What service did feudalism render civilization?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  Show that feudalism was transition from empire to modern
+nationality.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  How did feudal lords obtain titles to their land?  Give examples.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  What survivals of feudalism may be observed in modern governments?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  When King John of England wrote after his signature "King of
+<I>England</I>," what was its significance?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+8.  How did feudalism determine the character of monarchy in modern
+nations?
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap18fn1"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap18fn1text">1</A>] <I>History of France</I>.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap19"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P304"></A>304}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XIX
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+ARABIAN CONQUEST AND CULTURE
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+The dissemination of knowledge, customs, habits, and laws from common
+centres of culture has been greatly augmented by population movements
+or migrations, by great empires established, by wars of conquest, and
+systems of intercommunication and transportation.  The Babylonian,
+Assyrian, Persian, Alexandrian, and Roman empires are striking examples
+of the diffusion of knowledge and the spread of ideas over different
+geographical boundaries and through tribal and national organizations;
+and, indeed, the contact of the barbarian hordes with improved systems
+of culture was but a process of interchange and intermingling of
+qualities of strength and vigor with the conventionalized forms of
+human society.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+One of the most remarkable movements was that of the rise and expansion
+of the Arabian Empire, which was centred about religious ideals of
+Mohammed and the Koran.  Having accepted the idea of one God universal,
+which had been so strongly emphasized by the Hebrews, and having
+accepted in part the doctrine of the teachings of Jesus regarding the
+brotherhood of man, Mohammed was able through the mysticism of his
+teaching, in the Koran, to excite his followers to a wild fanaticism.
+Nor did his successors hesitate to use force, for most of their
+conquests were accomplished by the power of the sword.  At any rate,
+nation after nation was forced to bow to Mohammedanism and the Koran,
+in a spectacular whirlwind of conquest such as the world had not
+previously known.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is remarkable that after the decline of the old Semitic
+civilization, as exhibited in the Babylonian and Assyrian empires, the
+practical extinction of the Phoenicians, the conquest of Jerusalem, and
+the spread of the Jews over the whole world, there should have risen a
+new Semitic movement to disrupt
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P305"></A>305}</SPAN>
+and disorganize the world.  It is
+interesting to note in this connection, also, that wherever the Arabs
+went they came in contact with learned Jews of high mentality, who
+co-operated with them in advancing learning.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Rise and Expansion of the Arabian Empire</I>.&mdash;Mohammedanism, which
+arose in the beginning of the seventh century, spread rapidly over the
+East and through northern Africa, and extended into Spain.  All Arabia
+was converted to the Koran, and Persia and Egypt soon after came under
+its influence.  In the period 623-640, Syria was conquered by the
+Mohammedans, upper Asia in 707, and Spain in 711.  They established a
+great caliphate, extending from beyond the Euphrates through Egypt and
+northern Africa to the Pyrenees in Spain.  They burned the great
+library at Alexandria, founded by Ptolemy, destroying the manuscripts
+and books in a relentless zeal to blot out all vestiges of Christian
+learning.  In their passage westward they mingled with the Moors of
+northern Africa, whom they had subdued after various struggles, the
+last one ending in 709.  In this year they crossed the Strait of
+Gibraltar and encountered the barbarians of the north.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Visigothic monarchy was in a ruined condition.  Frequent internal
+quarrels had led to the dismemberment of the government and the decay
+of all fortifications, hence there was little organized resistance to
+the incoming of the Arabs.  All Spain, except in the far north in the
+mountains of the Asturias, was quickly reduced to the sway of the
+Arabs.  They crossed the Pyrenees, and the broad territory of Gaul
+opened before them, awaiting their conquest.  But on the plains between
+Tours and Poitiers they met Charles Martel with a strong army, who
+turned the tide of invasion back upon itself and set the limits of
+Mohammedan dominion in Europe.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the tenth century the great Arabian Empire began to disintegrate.
+One after another of the great caliphates declined.  The caliphate of
+Bagdad, which had existed so long in Oriental splendor, was first
+dismembered by the loss of Africa.  The fatimate caliphate of northern
+Africa next lost its power,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P306"></A>306}</SPAN>
+and the caliphate of Cordova, in
+Spain, brilliant in its ascendancy, followed the course of the other
+two.  The Arabian conquest of Spain left the country in a state of
+tolerable freedom, but Cordova, like the others, was doomed to be
+destroyed by anarchy and confusion.  All the principal cities became in
+the early part of the eleventh century independent principalities.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Thus the Mohammedan conquest, which built an extensive Arabian Empire,
+ruling first in Asia, then Africa, and finally Europe, spreading abroad
+with sudden and irresistible expansion, suddenly declined through
+internal dissensions and decay, having lasted but a few centuries.  The
+peculiar tribal nature of the Arabian social order had not developed a
+strong central organization, nor permitted the practice of organized
+political effort on a large scale, so that the sudden transition from
+the small tribe, with its peculiar government, to that of the
+organization and management of a great empire was sufficient to cause
+the disintegration and downfall of the empire.  So far as political
+power was concerned, the passion for conquest was the great impelling
+motive of the Mohammedans.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Religious Zeal of the Arab-Moors</I>.&mdash;The central idea of the
+Mohammedan conquest seems to have been a sort of religious zeal or
+fanaticism.  The whole history of their conquest shows a continual
+strife to propagate their religious doctrine.  The Arabians were a
+sober people, of vivid imagination and excessive idealism, with
+religious natures of a lofty and peculiar character.  Their religious
+life in itself was awe-inspiring.  Originally dwelling on the plains of
+Arabia, where nature manifested itself in strong characteristics,
+living in one sense a narrow life, the imagination had its full play,
+and the mystery of life had centred in a sort of wisdom and lore, which
+had accumulated through long generations of reflection.  There always
+dwelt in the minds of this branch of the Semitic people a conception of
+the unity of God, and when the revelation of God came to them through
+Mohammed, when they realized "Allah is Allah, and Mohammed is his
+prophet," they were swept entirely away by this religious conception.
+When once
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P307"></A>307}</SPAN>
+this idea took firm hold upon the Arabian mind, it
+remained there a permanent part of life.  Under military organization
+the conquest was rapidly extended over surrounding disintegrated
+tribes, and the strong unity of government built on the basis of
+religious zeal.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+So strong was this religious zeal that it dominated their entire life.
+It turned a reflective and imaginative people, who had sought out the
+hidden mysteries of life by the acuteness of their own perception, to
+base their entire operations upon faith.  Faith dominated the reason to
+such an extent that the deep and permanent foundations of progress
+could not be laid, and the vast opportunities granted to them by
+position and conquest gradually declined for the lack of vital
+principles of social order.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Not only had the Arabians laid the foundations of culture and learning
+through their own evolution, but they had borrowed much from other
+Oriental countries.  Their contact with learning of the Far East, of
+Palestine, of Egypt, of the Greeks, and of the Italians, had given them
+an opportunity to absorb most of the elements of ancient culture.
+Having borrowed these products, they were able to combine them and use
+them in building an empire of learning in Spain.  If their own subtle
+genius was not wanting in the combination of the knowledge of the
+ancients, and in its use in building up a system, neither lacked they
+in original conception, and on the early foundation they built up a
+superstructure of original knowledge.  They advanced learning in
+various forms, and furnished means for the advancement of civilization
+in the west.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Foundations of Science and Art</I>.&mdash;In the old caliphates of Bagdad
+and Damascus there had developed great interest in learning.  The
+foundation of this knowledge, as has been related, was derived from the
+Greeks and the Orientals.  It is true that the Koran, which had been
+accepted by them as gospel and law, had aroused and inspired the
+Arabian mind to greater desires for knowledge.  Their knowledge,
+however, could not be set by the limitations of the Koran, and the
+desire
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P308"></A>308}</SPAN>
+for achievement in learning was so great that scarcely a
+century had passed after the burning of the libraries of Alexandria
+before all branches of knowledge were eagerly cultivated by the
+Arabians.  They ran a rapid course from the predominance of physical
+strength and courage, through blind adherence to faith, to the position
+of superior learning.  The time soon came when the scholar was as much
+revered as the warrior.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In every conquered country the first duty of the conquerors was to
+build a mosque in which Allah might be worshipped and his prophet
+honored.  Attached to this mosque was a school, where people were first
+taught to read and write and study the Koran.  From this initial point
+they enlarged the study of science, literature, and art, which they
+pursued with great eagerness.  Through the appreciation of these things
+they collected the treasures of art and learning wherever they could be
+found, and, dwelling upon these, they obtained the results of the
+culture of other nations and other generations.  From imitation they
+passed to the field of creation, and advances were made in the
+contributions to the sum of human knowledge.  In Spain schools were
+founded, great universities established, and libraries built which laid
+the permanent foundation of knowledge and art and enabled the
+Arab-Moors to advance in science, art, invention, and discovery.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Beginnings of Chemistry and Medicine</I>.&mdash;In chemistry the careful
+study of the elements of substances and the agents in composition was
+pursued by the Arab-Moors in Spain, but it must be remembered that the
+chemistry of their day is now known as alchemy.  Chemistry then was in
+its formative period and not a science as viewed in the modern sense.
+Yet when we consider that the science of modern chemistry is but a
+little over a century old, we find the achievements of the Arabians in
+their own time, as compared with the changes which took place in the
+following seven centuries, to be worthy of note.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the eleventh century a philosopher named Geber knew the chemical
+affinities of quicksilver, tin, lead, copper, iron,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P309"></A>309}</SPAN>
+gold, and
+silver, and to each one was given a name of the planet which was
+supposed to have special influence over it.  Thus silver was named for
+the moon, gold for the sun, copper for Venus, tin for Jupiter, iron for
+Vulcan, quicksilver for Mercury, and lead for Saturn.  The influences
+of the elements were supposed to be similar to the influence of the
+heavenly bodies over men.  This same chemist was acquainted with
+oxidizing and calcining processes, and knew methods of obtaining soda
+and potash salts, and the properties of saltpetre.  Also nitric acid
+was obtained from the nitrate of potassium.  These and other similar
+examples represent something of the achievements of the Arabians in
+chemical knowledge.  Still, their lack of knowledge is shown in their
+continued search for the philosopher's stone and the attempt to create
+the precious metals.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The art of medicine was practised to a large extent in the Orient, and
+this knowledge was transferred to Spain.  The entire knowledge of these
+early physicians, however, was limited to the superficial diagnosis of
+cases and to a knowledge of medicinal plants.  By the very law of their
+religion, anatomy was forbidden to them, and, indeed, the Arabians had
+a superstitious horror of dissection.  By ignorance of anatomy their
+practice of surgery was very imperfect.  But their physicians,
+nevertheless, became renowned throughout the world by their use of
+medicines and by their wonderful cures.  They plainly led the world in
+the art of healing.  It is true their superstition and their astrology
+constantly interfered with their better judgment in many things, but
+notwithstanding these drawbacks they were enabled to develop great
+interest in the study of medicine and to accomplish a great work in the
+advancement of the science.  In <I>Al Makkari</I> it is stated "that disease
+could be more effectively checked by diet than by medicine, and that
+when medicine became necessary, simples were far preferable to compound
+medicaments, and when these latter were required, as few drugs as
+possible ought to enter into their composition."  This exhibits the
+thoughtful reflection that was
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P310"></A>310}</SPAN>
+given to the administration of
+drugs in this early period, and might prove a lesson to many a modern
+physician.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Toward the close of their career, the Arabian doctors began the
+practice of dissecting and the closer study of anatomy and physiology,
+which added much to the power of the science.  Yet they still believed
+in the "elixir of life," and tried to work miracle cures, which in many
+respects may have been successful.  It is a question whether they went
+any farther into the practice of miracle cures than the quacks and
+charlatans and faith doctors of modern times have gone.  The influence
+of their study of medicine was seen in the great universities, and
+especially in the foundation of the University at Salerno at a later
+time, which was largely under the Arabian influence.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Metaphysics and Exact Science</I>.&mdash;It would seem that the Arab-Moors
+were well calculated to develop psychological science.  Their minds
+seemed to be in a special measure metaphysical.  They laid the
+foundation of their metaphysical speculations on the philosophy of the
+Greeks, particularly that of Aristotle, but later they attempted to
+develop originality, although they succeeded in doing little more, as a
+rule, than borrowing from others.  In the early period of Arabian
+development the Koran stood in the way of any advancement in
+philosophy.  It was only at intervals that philosophy could gain any
+advancement.  Indeed, the philosophers were driven away from their
+homes, but they carried with them many followers into a larger field.
+The long list of philosophers who, after the manner of the Greeks, each
+attempted to develop his own separate system, might be mentioned,
+showing the zeal with which they carried on inquiry into metaphysical
+science.  As may be supposed, they added little to the sum of human
+knowledge, but developed a degree of culture by their philosophical
+speculations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But it is in the exact sciences that the Arabs seem to have met with
+the greatest success.  The Arabic numerals, probably brought from India
+to Bagdad, led to a new and larger use of arithmetic.  The decimal
+system and the art of figures were
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P311"></A>311}</SPAN>
+introduced into Spain in the
+ninth century, and gave great advancement in learning.  But, strange to
+relate, these numerals, though used so early by the Arabs in Spain,
+were not common in Germany until the fifteenth century.  The importance
+of their use cannot be overestimated, for by means of them the Arabians
+easily led the world in astronomy, mechanics, and mathematics.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The science of algebra is generally attributed to the Arabians.  Its
+name is derived from gabara, to bind parts together, and yet the origin
+of this science is not certain.  It is thought that the Arabs derived
+their knowledge from the Greeks, but in all probability algebra had its
+first origin among the philosophers of India.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Arabians used geometry, although they added little to its
+advancement.  Geometry had reached at this period an advanced stage of
+progress in the problems of Euclid.  It was to the honor of the
+Arabians that they were the first of any of the Western peoples to
+translate Euclid and use it, for it was not until the sixteenth century
+that it was freely translated into the modern languages.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But in trigonometry the Arabians, by the introduction of the use of the
+sine, or half-chord, of the double arc in the place of the arc itself,
+made great advancement, especially in the calculations of surveying and
+astronomy.  In the universities and colleges of Spain under Arabian
+dominion we find, then, that students had an opportunity of mastering
+nearly all of the useful elementary mathematics.  Great attention was
+paid to the study of astronomy.  Here, as before, they used the Greek
+knowledge, but they advanced the study of the science greatly by the
+introduction of instruments, such as those for measuring time by the
+movement of the pendulum and the measurement of the heavenly bodies by
+the astrolabe.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Likewise they employed the word "azimuth" and many other terms which
+show a more definite knowledge of the relation of the heavenly bodies.
+They were enabled, also, to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P312"></A>312}</SPAN>
+measure approximately a degree of
+latitude.  They knew that the earth was of spheroid form.  But we find
+astrology accompanying all this knowledge of astronomy.  While the
+exact knowledge of the heavenly bodies had been developed to a certain
+degree, the science of star influence, or astrology, was cultivated to
+a still greater extent.  Thus they sought to show the control of mind
+forces on earth, and, indeed, of all natural forces by the heavenly
+bodies.  This placed mystical lore in the front rank of their
+philosophical speculations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Geography and History</I>.&mdash;In the study of the earth the Arabians showed
+themselves to be practical and accurate geographers.  They applied
+their mathematical and astronomical knowledge to the study of the
+earth, and thus gave an impulse to exploration.  While their theories
+of the origin of the earth were crude and untenable, their practical
+writings on the subject derived from real knowledge, and the practical
+instruction in schools by the use of globes and maps, were of immense
+practical value.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Their history was made up chiefly of the histories of cities and the
+lives of prominent men.  There was no national history of the rise and
+development of the Arabian kingdom, for historical writing and study
+were in an undeveloped state.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Discoveries, Inventions, and Achievements</I>.&mdash;It cannot be successfully
+claimed that the Arabians exhibited very much originality in the
+advancement of the civilized arts, yet they had the ability to take
+what they found elsewhere developed by other scholars, improve upon it,
+and apply it to the practical affairs of life.  Thus, although the
+Chinese discovered gunpowder over 3,000 years ago, it remained for the
+Arabs to bring it into use in the siege of Mecca in the year 690, and
+introduce it into Spain some years later.  The Persians called it
+Chinese salt, the Arabians Indian snow, indicating that it might have
+originated in different countries.  The Arab-Moors used it in their
+wars with the Christians as early as the middle of the thirteenth
+century.  They excelled also in making paper from flax, or cotton,
+which was probably an imitation
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P313"></A>313}</SPAN>
+of the paper made by the Chinese
+from silk.  We find also that the Arabs had learned to print from
+movable type, and the introduction of paper made the printing-press
+possible.  Linen paper made from old clothes was said to be in use as
+early as 1106.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Without doubt the Arab-Moors introduced into Spain the use of the
+magnet in connection with the mariner's compass.  But owing to the fact
+that it was not needed in the short voyages along the coast of the
+Mediterranean, it did not come into a large use until the great voyages
+on the ocean, in the beginning of the fourteenth century.  Yet the
+invention of the mariner's compass, so frequently attributed to Flavio
+Giorgio, may be as well attributed to the Arab-Moors.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Knives and swords of superior make, leather, silk, and glass, as well
+as large collections of delicate jewelry, show marked advancement in
+Arabian industrial art and mechanical skill.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+One of the achievements of the Arab-Moors in Spain was the introduction
+of agriculture, and its advancement to an important position among the
+industries by means of irrigation.  The great, fertile valleys of Spain
+were thus, through agricultural skill, made "to blossom as the rose."
+Seeds were imported from different parts of the world, and much
+attention was given to the culture of all plants which could be readily
+raised in this country.  Rice and cotton and sugar-cane were cultivated
+through the process of irrigation.  Thus Spain was indebted to the
+Arab-Moors not only for the introduction of industrial arts and skilled
+mechanics, but the establishment of agriculture on a firm foundation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Language and Literature</I>.&mdash;The language of the Arabians is said to be
+peculiarly rich in synonyms.  For instance, it is said there are 1,000
+expressions for the word "camel," and the same number for the word
+"sword," while there are 4,000 for the word "misfortune."  Very few
+remnants of the Arabic remain in the modern European languages.  Quite
+a number of words in the Spanish language, fewer in English and in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P314"></A>314}</SPAN>
+other modern languages, are the only remnants of the use of this
+highly developed Arabian speech.  It represents the southern branch of
+the Semitic language, and is closely related to the Hebrew and the
+Aramaic.  The unity and compactness of the language are very much in
+evidence.  Coming little in contact with other languages, it remained
+somewhat exclusive, and retained its original form.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When it came into Spain the Arabic language reigned almost supreme, on
+account of the special domination of Arabic influences.  Far in the
+north of Spain, however, among the Christians who had adopted the Low
+Latin, was the formation of the Spanish language.  The hatred of the
+Spaniards for the Arabs led these people to refuse to use the language
+of the conquerors.  Nevertheless, the Arabic had some influence in the
+formation of the Spanish language.  The isolated geographic terms, and
+especial names of things, as well as idioms of speech, show still that
+the Arabian influence may be traced in the Spanish language.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In literature the Arabians had a marked development.  The Arabian
+poetry, though light in its character, became prominent.  There were
+among these Arabians in Spain ardent and ready writers, with fertile
+fancy and lively perception, who recited their songs to eager
+listeners.  The poet became a universal teacher.  He went about from
+place to place singing his songs, and the troubadours of the south of
+France received in later years much of their impulse indirectly from
+the Arabic poets.  While the poetry was not of a high order, it was
+wide-reaching in its influence, and extended in later days to Italy,
+Sicily, and southern France, and had a quickening influence in the
+development of the light songs of the troubadours.  The influence of
+this lighter literature through Italy, Sicily, and southern France on
+the literature of Europe and of England in later periods is well marked
+by the historians.  In the great schools rhetoric and grammar were also
+taught to a considerable extent.  In the universities these formed one
+of the great branches of special culture.  We find, then, on the
+linguistic
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P315"></A>315}</SPAN>
+side that the Arabians accomplished a great deal in
+the advancement of the language and literature of Europe.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Art and Architecture</I>.&mdash;Perhaps the Arabians in Spain are known more
+by their architecture than any other phase of their culture.  Not that
+there was anything especially original in it, except in the combination
+which they made of the architecture of other nations.  In the building
+of their great mosques, like that of Cordova and of the Alhambra, they
+perpetuated the magnificence and splendor of the East.  Even the actual
+materials with which they constructed these magnificent buildings were
+obtained from Greece and the Orient, and placed in their positions in a
+new combination.  The great original feature of the Mooresque
+architecture is found in the famous horseshoe arch, which was used so
+extensively in their mosques and palaces.  It represented the Roman
+arch, slightly bent into the form of a horseshoe.  Yet from
+architectural strength it must be considered that the real support
+resting on the pillar was merely the half-circle of the Roman arch,
+while the horseshoe was a continuation for ornamental purposes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Arab-Moors were forbidden the use of sculpture, which they never
+practised, and hence the artistic features were limited to
+architectural and art decorations.  Many of the interior decorations of
+the walls of these great buildings show advanced skill.  Upon the
+whole, their buildings are remarkable mainly in the perpetuation of
+Oriental architecture rather than in the development of any originality
+except in skill of decoration and combination.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Government of the Arab-Moors Was Peculiarly Centralized</I>.&mdash;The
+caliph was at the head as an absolute monarch.  He appointed viceroys
+in the different provinces for their control.  The only thing that
+limited the actual power of the caliph was the fact that he was a
+theocratic governor.  Otherwise he was supreme in power.  There was no
+constitutional government, and, indeed, but little precedent in law.
+The government depended somewhat upon the whims and caprices
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P316"></A>316}</SPAN>
+of a
+single individual.  It was said that in the beginning the caliph was
+elected by the people, but in a later period the office became
+hereditary.  It is true the caliph, who was called the "vicar of God,"
+or "the shadow of God," had his various ministers appointed from the
+wise men to carry out his will.  Yet, such was the power of the people
+what when in Spain they were displeased with the rulings of the judges,
+they would pelt the officers or storm the palace, thus in a way
+limiting the power of these absolute rulers.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The government, however, was in a precarious condition.  There could be
+nothing permanent under such a régime, for permanency of government is
+necessary to the advancement of civilization.  The government was
+non-progressive.  It allowed no freedom of the people and gave no
+incentive to advancement, and it was a detriment many times to the
+progressive spirit.  Closely connected with a religion which in itself
+was non-progressive, we find limitations set upon the advancement of
+the civilization of the Arab-Moors in Spain.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Arabian Civilization Soon Reached Its Limits</I>.&mdash;One views with wonder
+and astonishment the brilliant achievements of the Arabian
+civilization, extending from the Tagus to the Indus.  But brilliant as
+it was, one is impressed at every turn with the instability of the
+civilization and with its peculiar limitations.  It reached its
+culmination long before the Christian conquest.  What the Arabians have
+given to the European world was formulated rapidly and given quickly,
+and the results were left to be used by a more slowly developing
+people, who rested their civilization upon a permanent basis.  Much
+stress has been laid by Mr. Draper and others upon the great
+civilization of the Arabians, comparing it favorably with the
+civilization of Christian Europe.  But it must be remembered that the
+Arab-Moors, especially in Spain, had come so directly in contact with
+Oriental nations that they were enabled to borrow and utilize for a
+time the elements of civilization advanced by these more mature
+peoples.  However, built as it was upon borrowed materials, the
+structure once completed,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P317"></A>317}</SPAN>
+there was no opportunity for growth or
+original development.  It reached its culmination, and would have
+progressed no further in Spain, even had not the Christians under
+Ferdinand and Isabella conquered the Arab-Moors and eventually overcome
+and destroyed their civilization.  In this conquest, in which the two
+leading faiths of the Western world were fighting for supremacy,
+doubtless the Christian world could not fully appreciate what the
+Arab-Moors accomplished, nor estimate their value to the economic
+system of Spain.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Subsequent facts of history show that, the Christian religion once
+having a dominant power in Spain, the church became less liberal in its
+views and its rule than that exhibited by the government of the
+Arab-Moors.  Admitting that the spirit of liberty had burst forth in
+old Asturias, a seat of Nordic culture, it soon became obscure in the
+arbitrary domination of monarchy, and of the church through the
+instrumentality of Torquemada and the Inquisition.  Nevertheless, the
+civilization of the Arab-Moors cannot be pictured as an ideal one,
+because it was lacking in the fundamentals of continuous progress.
+Knowledge had not yet become widely disseminated, nor truth free enough
+to arouse vigorous qualities of life which make for permanency in
+civilization.  With all of its borrowed art and learning and its
+adaptation to new conditions, still the civilization was sufficiently
+non-progressive to be unsuited to carry the burden of the development
+of the human race.  Nevertheless, in the contemplation of human
+progress, the Arab-Moors of Spain are deserving of attention because of
+their universities and their studies, which influenced other parts of
+mediaeval Europe at a time when they were breaking away from scholastic
+philosophy and assuming a scientific attitude of mind.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  What contributions to art and architecture did the Arab-Moors make
+in Spain?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  The nature of their government.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P318"></A>318}</SPAN>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  How did their religion differ from the Christian religion in
+principle and in practice?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  The educational contribution of the universities of the Arab-Moors.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  What contributions to science and learning came from the Arabian
+civilization?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  Why and by whom were the Arab-Moors driven from Spain?  What were
+the economic and political results?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  What was the influence of the Arabs on European civilization?
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap20"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P319"></A>319}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XX
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+THE CRUSADES STIR THE EUROPEAN MIND
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>What Brought About the Crusades</I>.&mdash;We have learned from the former
+chapters that the Arabs had spread their empire from the Euphrates to
+the Strait of Gibraltar, and that the Christian and Mohammedan
+religions had compassed and absorbed the entire religious life over
+this whole territory.  As Christianity had become the great reforming
+religion of the western part of Europe, so Mohammedanism had become the
+reforming religion of Asia.  The latter was more exacting in its
+demands and more absolute in its sway than the former, spreading its
+doctrines mainly by force, while the former sought more to extend its
+doctrine by a leavening process.  Nevertheless, when the two came in
+contact, a fierce struggle for supremacy ensued.  The meteorlike rise
+of Mohammedanism had created consternation and alarm in the Christian
+world as early as the eighth century.  There sprang up not only fear of
+Islamism, but a hatred of its followers.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+After the Arabian Empire had become fully established, there arose to
+the northeast of Bagdad, the Moslem capital, a number of Turkish tribes
+that were among the more recent converts to Mohammedanism.  Apparently
+they took the Mohammedan religion as embodied in the Koran literally
+and fanatically, and, considering nothing beyond these, sought to
+propagate the doctrine through conquest by sword.  They are frequently
+known as Seljuks.  It is to the credit of the Arabs, whether in
+Mesopotamia, Africa, or Spain, that their minds reached beyond the
+Koran into the wider ranges of knowledge, a fact which tempered their
+fanatical zeal, but the Seljuk Turks swept forward with their armies
+until they conquered the Byzantine Empire of the East, the last branch
+of the great Roman Empire.  They had also conquered Jerusalem and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P320"></A>320}</SPAN>
+taken possession of the holy sepulchre, to which pilgrimages of
+Christians were made annually, and aroused the righteous indignation of
+the Christians of the Western world.  The ostensible purpose of the
+crusades was to free Palestine, the oppressed Christians, and the holy
+sepulchre from the domination of the Turks.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It must be remembered that the period of the Middle Ages was
+represented by fancies and theories and an evanescent idealism which
+controlled the movements of the people to a large extent.  Born of
+religious sentiment, there dwelt in the minds of Christian people a
+reverence for the land of the birth of Christ, to which pilgrims passed
+every year to show their adoration for the Saviour and patriotism for
+the land of his birth.  These pilgrims were interfered with by the
+Mohammedans and especially by the Seljuk Turks.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Turks in their blind zeal for Mohammedanism could see nothing in
+the Christian belief worthy of respect or even civil treatment.  The
+persecution of Christians awakened the sympathy of all Europe and
+filled the minds of people with resentment against the occupation of
+Jerusalem by the Turks.  This is one of the earliest indications of the
+development of religious toleration, which heralded the development of
+a feeling that people should worship whom they pleased unmolested,
+though it was like a voice crying in the wilderness, for many centuries
+passed before religious toleration could be acknowledged.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There were other considerations which made occasion for the crusades.
+Gregory VII preached a crusade to protect Constantinople and unify the
+church under one head.  But trouble with Henry IV of Germany caused him
+to abandon the enterprise.  There still dwelt in the minds of the
+people an ideal monarchy, as represented by the Roman Empire.  It was
+considered the type of all good government, the one expression of the
+unity of all people.  Many dreamed of the return of this empire to its
+full temporal sway.  It was a species of idealism which lived on
+through the Middle Ages long after the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P321"></A>321}</SPAN>
+Western Empire had passed
+into virtual decay.  In connection with this idea of a universal empire
+controlling the whole world was the idea of a universal religion which
+should unite all religious bodies under one common organization.  The
+centre of this organization was to be the papal authority at Rome.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There dwelt then in the minds of all ecclesiastics this common desire
+for the unity of all religious people in one body regardless of
+national boundaries.  And it must be said that these two ideas had much
+to do with giving Europe unity of thought and sentiment.  Disintegrated
+as it was, deflected and disturbed by a hundred forces, thoughts of a
+common religion and of universal empire nevertheless had much to do to
+harmonize and unify the people of Europe.  Hence, it was when Urban II,
+who had inherited all of the great religious improvements instituted by
+Gregory VII, preached a crusade to protect Constantinople, on the one
+hand, and to deliver Jerusalem, on the other, and made enthusiastic
+inflammatory speeches, that Europe awoke like an electric flash.  Peter
+the Hermit, on the occasion of the first crusade, was employed to
+travel throughout Europe to arouse enthusiasm in the minds of the
+people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The crusades so suddenly inaugurated extended over a period of nearly
+two hundred years, in which all Europe was in a restless condition.
+The feudal life which had settled down and crystallized all forms of
+human society throughout Europe had failed to give that variety and
+excitement which it entertained in former days.  Thousands of knights
+in every nation were longing for the battle-field.  Many who thought
+life at home not worth living, and other thousands of people seeking
+opportunities for change, sought diversion abroad.  All Europe was
+ready to exclaim "God wills it!" and "On to Jerusalem!" to defend the
+Holy City against the Turk.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Specific Causes of the Crusades</I>.&mdash;If we examine more specifically
+into the real causes of the crusades we shall find, as Mr. Guizot has
+said, that there were two causes, the one moral, the other social.  The
+moral cause is represented in the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P322"></A>322}</SPAN>
+desire to relieve suffering
+humanity and fight against the injustice of the Turks.  Both the
+Mohammedan and the Christian, the two most modern of all great
+religions, were placed upon a moral basis.  Morality was one of the
+chief phases of both religions; yet they had different conceptions of
+morality, and no toleration for each other.  Although prior to the
+Turkish invasion the Mohammedans, through policy, had tolerated the
+visitations of the Christians, the two classes of believers had never
+gained much respect for each other, and after the Turkish invasion the
+enmity between them became intense.  It was the struggle of these two
+systems of moral order that was the great occasion and one of the
+causes of the crusades.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The social cause, however, was that already referred to&mdash;the desire of
+individuals for a change from the monotony which had settled down over
+Europe under the feudal régime.  It was the mind of man, the enthusiasm
+of the individual, over-leaping the narrow bounds of his surroundings,
+and looking for fields of exploitation and new opportunities for
+action.  The social cause represents, then, the spontaneous outburst of
+long-pent-up desires, a return to the freedom of earlier years, when
+wandering and plundering were among the chief occupations of the
+Teutonic tribes.  To state the causes more specifically, perhaps it may
+be said that the ambition of temporal and spiritual princes and the
+feudal aristocracy for power, the general poverty of the community on
+account of overpopulation leading the multitudes to seek relief through
+change, and a distinct passion for pilgrimages were influential in
+precipitating this movement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Unification of Ideals and the Breaking of Feudalism</I>.&mdash;It is to be
+observed that the herald of the crusades thrilled all Europe, and that,
+on the basis of ideals of empire and church, there were a common
+sentiment or feeling and a common ground for action.  All Europe soon
+placed itself on a common plane in the interest of a common cause.  At
+first it would seem that this universal movement would have tended to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P323"></A>323}</SPAN>
+develop a unity of Western nations.  To the extent of breaking
+down formal custom, destroying the sterner aspects of feudalism, and
+levelling the barriers of classes, it was a unifier of European thought
+and life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But a more careful consideration reveals the fact that although all
+groups and classes of people ranged themselves on one side of the great
+and common cause, the effect was not merely to break down feudalism
+but, in addition, to build up nationality.  There was a tendency toward
+national unity.  The crusades in the latter part of the period became
+national affairs, rather than universal or European affairs, even
+though the old spirit of feudalism, whereby each individual followed by
+his own group of retainers sought his own power and prestige, still
+remained.  The expansion of this spirit to larger groups invoked the
+national spirit and national life.  While, in the beginning, the papacy
+and the church were all-powerful in their controlling influence on the
+crusades, in the later period we find different nationalities,
+especially England, France, and Germany, struggling for predominance,
+the French nation being more strongly represented than any other.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Among the important results of the crusades, then, were the breaking
+down of feudalism and the building up of national life.  The causes of
+this result are evident.  Many of the nobility were slain in battle or
+perished through famine and suffering, or else had taken up their abode
+under the new government that had been established at Jerusalem.  This
+left a larger sway to those who were at home in the management of the
+affairs of the territory.  Moreover, in the later period, the stronger
+national lines had been developed, which caused the subordination of
+the weaker feudal lords to the more powerful.  Many, too, of the strong
+feudal lords had lost their wealth, as well as their position, in
+carrying on the expenses of the crusades.  There was, consequently, the
+beginning of the remaking of all Europe upon a national basis.  First,
+the enlarged ideas of life broke the bounds of feudalism; second, the
+failure to unite the nations in the common sentiment of a Western
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P324"></A>324}</SPAN>
+Empire had left the political forces to cluster around new
+nationalities which sprang up in different sections of Europe.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Development of Monarchy</I>.&mdash;The result of this centralization was
+to develop monarchy, an institution which became universal in the
+process of the development of government in Europe.  It became the
+essential form of government and the type of national unity.  Through
+no other known process of the time could the chaotic state of the
+feudal régime be reduced to a system.  Constitutional liberty could not
+have survived under these conditions.  The monarchy was not only a
+permanent form of government, but it was possessed of great
+flexibility, and could adapt itself to almost any conditions of the
+social life.  While it may, primarily, have rested on force and the
+predominance of power of certain individuals, in a secondary sense it
+represented not only the unity of the race from which it had gained
+great strength, but also the moral power of the tribe, as the
+expression of their will and sentiments of justice and righteousness.
+It is true that it drew a sharp line between the governing and the
+governed; it made the one all-powerful and the other all-subordinate;
+yet in many instances the one man represented the collective will of
+the people, and through him and his administration centred the wisdom
+of a nation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Among the Teutonic peoples, too, there was something more than
+sentiment in this form of government.  It was an old custom that the
+barbarian monarch was elected by the people and represented them; and
+whether he came through hereditary rank, from choice of nobles, or from
+the election of the people, this idea of monarchy was never lost sight
+of in Europe in the earliest stages of existence, and it was perverted
+to a great extent only by the Louis's of France and the Stuarts of
+England, in the modern era.  Monarchy, then, as an institution, was
+advanced by the crusades; for a national life was developed and
+centralization took place, the king expressed the unity of it all, and
+so everywhere throughout Europe it became the universal type.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P325"></A>325}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Crusades Quickened Intellectual Development</I>.&mdash;The intense
+activity of Europe in a common cause could not do otherwise than
+stimulate intellectual life.  In a measure, it was an emancipation of
+mind, the establishment of large and liberal ideas.  This freedom of
+the mind arose, not so much from any product of thought contributed by
+the Orientals to the Christians, although in truth the former were in
+many ways far more cultured than the latter, but rather from the
+development which comes from observation and travel.  A habit of
+observing the manners and customs, the government, the laws, the life
+of different nations, and the action and reaction of the different
+elements of human life, tended to develop intellectual activity.  Both
+Greek and Mohammedan had their influence on the minds of those with
+whom they came in contact, and Christians returned to their former
+homes possessed of new information and new ideas, and quickened with
+new impulses.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The crusades also furnished material for poetic imagination and for
+literary products.  It was the development of the old saga hero under
+new conditions, those of Christianity and humanity, and this led to
+greater and more profound sentiments concerning life.  The crusades
+also took men out from their narrow surroundings and the belief that
+the Christian religion, supported by the monasteries, or cloisters,
+embodied all that was worth living in this life and a preparation for a
+passage into a newer, happier future life beyond.  Humanity, according
+to the doctrine of the church, had not been worth the attention of the
+thoughtful.  Life, as life, was not worth living.  But the mingling of
+humanity on a broader basis and under new circumstances quickened the
+thoughts and sentiments of man in favor of his fellows.  It gave an
+enlarged view of the life of man as a human creature.  There was a
+thought engendered, feeble though it was at first, that the life on
+earth was really important and that it could be enlarged and broadened
+in many ways, and hence it was worth saving here for its own sake.  The
+culmination of this idea appeared in the period of the Renaissance, a
+century later.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P326"></A>326}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Commercial Effects of the Crusades</I>.&mdash;A new opportunity for trade
+was offered, luxuries were imported from the East in exchange for money
+or for minerals and fish of the West.  Cotton, wine, dyestuffs,
+glassware, grain, spice, fruits, silk, and jewelry, as well as weapons
+and horses, came pouring in from the Orient to enlarge and enrich the
+life of the Europeans.  For, with all the noble spirit manifested in
+government and in social life, western Europe was semibarbaric in the
+meagreness of the articles of material wealth there represented.  The
+Italian cities, seizing the opportunity of the contact of the West with
+the East, developed a surprising trade with the Oriental cities and
+with the northwest of Europe, and thus enhanced their power.[<A NAME="chap20fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap20fn1">1</A>]  From
+this impulse of trade that carried on commerce with the Orient largely
+through the Italian cities, there sprang up a group of Hanse towns in
+the north of Europe.  From a financial standpoint we find that money
+was brought into use and became from this time on a necessity.
+Money-lending became a business, and those who had treasure instead of
+keeping it lying idle and unfruitful were now able to develop wealth,
+not only for the borrower but also for the lender.  This tended to
+increase the rapid movement of wealth and to stimulate productive
+industry and trade in every direction.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>General Influence of the Crusades on Civilization</I>.&mdash;We see, then,
+that it mattered little whether Jerusalem was taken by the Turks or the
+Christians, or whether thousands of Christians lost their lives in a
+great and holy cause, or whether the Mohammedans triumphed or were
+defeated at Jerusalem&mdash;the great result of the crusades was one of
+education of the people of Europe.  The boundaries of life were
+enlarged, the power of thought increased, the opportunities for doing
+and living multiplied.  It was the breaking away from the narrow shell
+of its own existence to the newly discovered life of the Orient that
+gave Europe its first impulse toward a larger life.  And to this extent
+the crusades may be said to have been a
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P327"></A>327}</SPAN>
+great civilizer.  Many
+regard them as merely accidental phenomena difficult to explain, and
+yet, by tracing the various unobserved influences at work in their
+preparation, we shall see it was merely one phase of a great
+transitional movement in the progress of human life, just as we have
+seen that the feudal system was transitional between one form of
+government and another.  The influence of the crusades on civilization
+was immense in giving it an impulse forward.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Under the general intellectual awakening, commercial enterprise was
+quickened, industry developed, and new ideas of government and art
+obtained.  The boundaries of Christian influences were extended and new
+nationalities were strengthened.  Feudalism was undermined by means of
+the consolidation of fiefs, the association of lord and vassal, the
+introduction of a new military system, the transfer of estates, and the
+promotion of the study and use of Roman jurisprudence.  Ecclesiasticism
+was greatly strengthened at Rome, through the power of the pope and the
+authority of his legates, the development of monastic orders, by the
+introduction of force and the use of the engine of excommunication.
+But something was gained for the common people, for serfs could be
+readily emancipated and there was a freer movement among all people.
+Ideas of equality began to be disseminated, which had their effect on
+the relation of affairs.  Upon the whole it may be stated in conclusion
+that the emancipation of the mind had begun.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  Show how the crusades helped to break down feudalism and prepare
+for monarchy.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  What intellectual benefit were the crusades to Europe?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  Were there humanitarian and democratic elements of progress in the
+crusades?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  What was the effect of the crusades on the power of the church?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  What was the general influence of the crusades on civilization?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  How did the crusades stimulate commerce?
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap20fn1"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap20fn1text">1</A>] See <A HREF="#chap21">Chapter XXI</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap21"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P328"></A>328}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XXI
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+ATTEMPTS AT POPULAR GOVERNMENT
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Cost of Popular Government</I>.&mdash;The early forms of government were
+for the most part based upon hereditary authority or upon force.  The
+theories of government first advanced seldom had reference to the rule
+of the popular will.  The practice of civil affairs, enforcing theories
+of hereditary government or the rule of force, interfered with the
+rights of self-government of the people.  Hence every attempt to assume
+popular government was a struggle against old systems and old ideas.
+Freedom has been purchased by money or blood.  Men point with interest
+to the early assemblies of the Teutonic people to show the germs of
+democratic government, afterward to be overshadowed by imperialism, but
+a careful consideration would show that even this early stage of pure
+democracy was only a developed state from the earlier hereditary
+nobility.  The Goddess of Liberty is ideally a creature of beautiful
+form, but really her face is scarred and worn, her figure gnarled and
+warped with time, and her garments besprinkled with blood.  The
+selfishness of man, the struggle for survival, and the momentum of
+governmental machinery, have prevented the exercise of justice and of
+political equality.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The liberty that has been gained is an expensive luxury.  It has cost
+those who have tried to gain it the treasures of accumulated wealth and
+the flower of youth.  When it has once been gained, the social forces
+have rendered the popular will non-expressive of the best government.
+Popular government, although ideally correct, is difficult to
+approximate, and frequently when obtained in name is far from real
+attainment.  After long oppression and subservience to monarchy or
+aristocracy, when the people, suddenly gaining power through great
+expense of treasure and blood, assume self-government, they find to
+their distress that they are incapable of it when
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P329"></A>329}</SPAN>
+struggling
+against unfavorable conditions.  The result is a mismanaged government
+and an extra expense to the people.  There has been through many
+centuries a continual struggle for popular government.  The end of each
+conflict has seen something gained, yet the final solution of the
+problem has not been reached.  Nevertheless, imperfect as government by
+the people may be, it is, in the long run, the safest and best, and it
+undoubtedly will triumph in the end.  The democratic government of
+great nations is the most difficult of all forms to maintain, and it is
+only through the increased wisdom of the people that its final success
+may be achieved.  The great problem now confronting it arises from
+purely economic considerations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Feudal Lord and the Towns</I>.&mdash;Feudalism made its stronghold in
+country life.  The baronial castle was built away from cities and
+towns&mdash;in a locality favorable for defense.  This increased the
+importance of country life to a great extent, and placed the feudal
+lord in command of large tracts of territory.  Many of the cities and
+towns were for a time accorded the municipal privileges that had been
+granted them under Roman rule; but in time these wore away, and the
+towns, with a few exceptions, became included in large feudal tracts,
+and were held, with other territory, as feudatories.  In Italy, where
+feudalism was less powerful, the greater barons were obliged to build
+their castles in the towns, or, indeed, to unite with the towns in
+government.  But in France and Germany, and even to a certain extent in
+England, the feudal lord kept aloof from the town.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There was, consequently, no sympathy existing between the feudal lord
+and the people of the cities.  It was his privilege to collect feudal
+dues and aids from the cities, and beyond this he cared nothing for
+their welfare.  It became his duty and privilege to hold the baronial
+court in the towns at intervals and to regulate their internal affairs,
+but he did this through a subordinate, and troubled himself little
+about any regulation or administration except to further his own ends.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P330"></A>330}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Rise of Free Cities</I>.&mdash;Many of the towns were practically run by
+the surviving machinery of the old Roman municipal system, while many
+were practically without government except the overlordship of the
+feudal chief by his representative officer.  The Romans had established
+a complete system of municipal government in all their provinces.  Each
+town or city of any importance had a complete municipal machinery
+copied after the government of the imperial city.  When the Roman
+system began to decay, the central government failed first, and the
+towns found themselves severed from any central imperial government,
+yet in possession of machinery for local self-government.  When the
+barbarians invaded the Roman territory, and, avoiding the towns,
+settled in the country, the towns fell into the habit of managing their
+own affairs as far as feudal régime would permit.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It appears, therefore, that the first attempts at local self-government
+were made in the cities and towns.  In fact, liberty of government was
+preserved in the towns, through the old Roman municipal life, which
+lived on, and, being shorn of the imperial idea, took on the spirit of
+Roman republicanism.  It was thus that the principles of Roman
+municipal government were kept through the Middle Ages and became
+useful in the modern period, not only in developing independent
+nationality but in perpetuating the rights of a people to govern
+themselves.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The people of the towns organized themselves into municipal guilds to
+withstand the encroachments of the barons on their rights and
+privileges.  This gave a continued coherence to the city population,
+which it would not otherwise have had or perpetuated.  In thus
+perpetuating the idea of self-government, this cohesive organization,
+infused with a common sentiment of defense, made it possible to wrest
+liberty from the feudal baron.  When he desired to obtain money or
+supplies in order to carry on a war, or to meet other expenditures, he
+found it convenient to levy on the cities for this purpose.  His
+exactions, coming frequently and irregularly, aroused the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P331"></A>331}</SPAN>
+citizens to opposition.  A bloody struggle ensued, which usually ended
+in compromise and the purchase of liberty by the citizens by the
+payment of an annual tax to the feudal lord for permission to govern
+themselves in regard to all internal affairs.  It was thus that many of
+the cities gained their independence of feudal authority, and that
+some, in the rise of national life, gained their independence as
+separate states, such, for instance, as Hamburg, Venice, Lübeck, and
+Bremen.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Struggle for Independence</I>.&mdash;In this struggle for independent life
+the cities first strove for just treatment.  In many instances this was
+accorded the citizens, and their friendly relations with the feudal
+lord continued.  When monarchy arose through the overpowering influence
+of some feudal lord, the city remained in subjection to the king, but
+in most instances the free burgesses of the towns were accorded due
+representation in the public assembly wherever one existed.  Many
+cities, failing to get justice, struggled with more or less success for
+independence.  The result of the whole contest was to develop the right
+of self-government and finally to preserve the principle of
+representation.  It was under these conditions that the theory of
+"taxation without representation is tyranny" was developed.  A
+practical outcome of this struggle for freedom has been the converse of
+this principle&mdash;namely, that representation without taxation is
+impossible.  Taxation, therefore, is the badge of liberty&mdash;of a liberty
+obtained through blood and treasure.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Affranchisement of Cities Developed Municipal Organization</I>.&mdash;The
+effect of the affranchisement of cities was to develop an internal
+organization, usually on the representative plan.  There was not, as a
+rule, a pure democracy, for the influences of the Roman system and the
+feudal surroundings, rapidly tending toward monarchy, rendered it
+impossible that the citizens of the so-called free cities should have
+the privileges of a pure democracy, hence the representative plan
+prevailed.  There was not sufficient unity of purpose, nor common
+sentiment of the ideal government, sufficient to maintain
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P332"></A>332}</SPAN>
+
+permanently the principles and practice of popular government.  Yet
+there was a popular assembly, in which the voice of the people was
+manifested in the election of magistrates, the voting of taxes, and the
+declaration of war.  In the mediaeval period, however, the municipal
+government was, in its real character, a business corporation, and the
+business affairs of the town were uppermost after defense against
+external forces was secured, hence it occurred that the wealthy
+merchants and the nobles who dwelt within the town became the most
+influential citizens in the management of municipal affairs.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There sprang up, as an essential outcome of these conditions, an
+aristocracy within the city.  In many instances this aristocracy was
+reduced to an oligarchy, and the town was controlled by a few men; and
+in extreme cases the control fell into the hands of a tyrant, who for a
+time dominated the affairs of the town.  Whatever the form of the
+municipal government, the liberties of the people were little more than
+a mere name, recognized as a right not to be denied.  Having obtained
+their independence of foreign powers, the towns fell victims to
+internal tyranny, yet they were the means of preserving to the world
+the principles of local self-government, even though they were not
+permitted to enjoy to a great extent the privileges of exercising them.
+It remained for more favorable circumstances to make this possible.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Italian Cities</I>.&mdash;The first cities to become prominent after the
+perpetuation of the Roman system by the introduction of barbarian blood
+were those of northern Italy.  These cities were less influenced by the
+barbarian invasion than others, on account of, first, their substantial
+city organization; second, the comparatively small number of invaders
+that surrounded them; and, third, the opportunity for trade presented
+by the crusades, which they eagerly seized.  Their power was increased
+because, as stated above, the feudal nobility, unable to maintain their
+position in the country, were forced to live in the cities.  The
+Italian cities were, therefore, less interfered with by barbarian and
+feudal influences, and continued to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P333"></A>333}</SPAN>
+develop strength.  The
+opportunity for immense trade and commerce opened up through the
+crusades made them wealthy.  Another potent cause of the rapid
+advancement of the Italian cities was their early contact with the
+Greeks and the Saracens, for they imbibed the culture of these peoples,
+which stimulated their own culture and learning.  Also, the invasions
+of the Saracens on the south and of the Hungarians on the north caused
+them to strengthen their fortifications.  They enclosed their towns
+with walls, and thus made opportunity for the formation of small,
+independent states within the walls.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Comparatively little is known of the practice of popular government,
+although most of these cities were in the beginning republican and had
+popular elections.  In the twelfth century freedom was granted, in most
+instances, to the peasantry.  There were a parliament, a republican
+constitution, and a secret council (<I>credenza</I>) that assisted the
+consuls.  There was also a great council called a senate, consisting of
+about a hundred representatives of the people.  The chief duty of the
+senate was to discuss important public measures and refer them to the
+parliament for their approval.  In this respect it resembled the Greek
+senate (<I>boule</I>).  The secret council superintended the public works
+and administered the public finance.  These forms of government were
+not in universal use, but are as nearly typical as can be found, as the
+cities varied much in governmental practice.  It is easy to see that
+the framework of the government is Roman, while the spirit of the
+institutions, especially in the earlier part of their history, is
+affected by Teutonic influence.  There was a large number of these free
+towns in Italy from the close of the twelfth to the beginning of the
+fourteenth century.  At the close of this period, the republican phase
+of their government declined, and each was ruled by a succession of
+tyrants, or despots (<I>podestas</I>).
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In vain did the people attempt to regain their former privileges; they
+succeeded only in introducing a new kind of despotism in the captains
+of the people.  The cities had fallen
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P334"></A>334}</SPAN>
+into the control of the
+wealthy families, and it mattered not what was the form of government,
+despotism prevailed.  In many of the cities the excessive power of the
+despots made their reign a prolonged terror.  As long as enlightened
+absolutism prevailed, government was administered by upright rulers and
+judges in the interests of the people; but when the power fell into the
+hands of unscrupulous men, the privileges and rights of the people were
+lost.  It is said that absolutism, descending from father to son, never
+improves in the descent; in the case of some of the Italian cities it
+produced monsters.  As the historian says: "The last Visconti, the last
+La Scalas, the last Sforzas, the last Farnesi, the last
+Medici&mdash;magnificent promoters of the humanities as their ancestors had
+been&mdash;were the worst specimens of the human race."  The situation of
+government was partially relieved by the introduction at a later period
+of the trade guilds.  All the industrial elements were organized into
+guilds, each one of which had its representation in the government.
+This was of service to the people, but nothing could erase the blot of
+despotism.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The despots were of different classes, according to the method by which
+they obtained power.  First, there were nobles, who were
+representatives of the emperor, and governed parts of Lombardy while it
+was under the federated government, a position which enabled them to
+obtain power as captains of the people.  Again, there were some who
+held feudal rights over towns and by this means became rulers or
+captains.  There were others who, having been raised to office by the
+popular vote, had in turn used the office as a means to enslave the
+people and defeat the popular will.  The popes, also, appointed their
+nephews and friends to office and by this means obtained supremacy.
+Merchant princes, who had become wealthy, used their money to obtain
+and hold power.  Finally, there were the famous <I>condottieri</I>, who
+captured towns and made them principalities.  Into the hands of such
+classes as these the rights and privileges of the people were
+continually falling, and the result was disastrous to free government.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P335"></A>335}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>Government of Venice</I>.&mdash;Florence and Venice represent the two typical
+towns of the group of Italian cities.  Wealthy, populous, and
+aggressive, they represent the greatest power, the highest intellectual
+development, becoming cities of culture and learning.  In 1494 the
+inhabitants of Florence numbered 90,000, of whom only 3,200 were
+burghers, or full citizens, while Venice had 100,000 inhabitants and
+only 5,000 burghers.  This shows what a low state popular government
+had reached&mdash;only one inhabitant in twenty was allowed the rights of
+citizens.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Venice was established on the islands and morasses of the Adriatic
+Coast by a few remnants of the Beneti, who sought refuge upon them from
+the ravages of the Huns.  These people were early engaged in fishing,
+and later began a coast trade which, in time, enlarged into an
+extensive commerce.  In early times it had a municipal constitution,
+and the little villages had their own assemblies, discussed their own
+affairs, and elected their own magistrates.  Occasionally the
+representatives of the several tribal villages met to discuss the
+affairs of the whole city.  This led to a central government, which, in
+697 A.D., elected a doge for life.  The doges possessed most of the
+attributes of kings, became despotic and arbitrary, and finally ruled
+with absolute sway, so that the destinies of the republic were
+subjected to the rule of one man.  Aristocracy established itself, and
+the first families struggled for supremacy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Venice was the oldest republic of modern times, and continued the
+longest.  "It was older by 700 years than the Lombard republics, and it
+survived them for three centuries.  It witnessed the fall of the Roman
+Empire; it saw Italy occupied by Odoacer, by Charlemagne, and by
+Napoleon."  Its material prosperity was very great, and great buildings
+remain to this day as monuments of an art and architecture the
+foundations of which were mostly laid before the despots were at the
+height of their power.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Government of Florence</I>.&mdash;There was a resemblance between Florence and
+Athens.  Indeed, the former has been called the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P336"></A>336}</SPAN>
+Athens of the
+West, for in it the old Greek idea was first revived; in it the love
+for the artistic survived.  Both cities were devoted to the
+accumulating of wealth, and both were interested in the struggles over
+freedom and general politics.  Situated in the valley of the Arno,
+under the shadow of the Apennines, Florence lacked the charm of Venice,
+situated on the sea.  It was early conquered by Sulla and made into a
+military city of the Romans, and by a truce the Roman government and
+the Roman spirit prevailed in the city.  It was destroyed by the Goths
+and rebuilt by the Franks, but still retained the Roman spirit.  It was
+then a city of considerable importance, surrounded by a wall six miles
+in circumference, having seventy towers.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+After it was rebuilt, the city was governed by a senate, but finally
+the first families predominated.  Then there arose, in 1215, the great
+struggle between the papal and the imperial parties, the Ghibellines
+and the Guelphs&mdash;internal dissensions which were not quieted until
+these two opposing factions were driven out and a popular government
+established, with twelve <I>seignors</I>, or rulers, as the chief officers.
+Soon after this the art guilds obtained considerable power.  They
+elected <I>priors</I> of trades every two months.  At first there were seven
+guilds that held control in Florence; they were the lawyers, who were
+excluded from all offices, the physicians, the bankers, the mercers,
+the woollen-drapers, the dealers in foreign cloths, and the dealers in
+pelts from the north.  Subsequently, men following the baser
+arts&mdash;butchers, retailers of cloth, blacksmiths, bakers, shoemakers,
+builders&mdash;were admitted to the circle of arts, until there were
+twenty-one.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+After having a general representative council, it was finally (1266)
+determined that each of the seven greater arts should have a council of
+its own.  The next step in government was the appointment of a
+<I>gonfalconier</I> of justice by the companies of arts that had especial
+command of citizens.  But soon a struggle began between the commons and
+the nobility, in which for a long time the former were successful.
+Under the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P337"></A>337}</SPAN>
+leadership of Giano della Bella they enacted ordinances
+of justice destroying the power of the nobles, making them ineligible
+to the office of <I>prior</I>, and fining each noble 13,000 pounds for any
+offense against the law.  The testimony of two credible persons was
+sufficient to convict a person if their testimony agreed; hence it
+became easy to convict persons of noble blood.  Yet the commons were in
+the end obliged to succumb to the power of the nobility and
+aristocracy, and the light of popular government went out.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Lombard League</I>.&mdash;The Lombard cities of the north of Italy were
+established subsequent to the invasion of the Lombards, chiefly through
+the peculiar settlement of the Lombard dukes over different territories
+in a loose confederation.  But the Lombards found cities already
+existing, and became the feudal proprietors of these and the territory.
+There were many attempts to unite these cities into a strong
+confederation, but owing to the nature of the feudal system and the
+general independence and selfishness of each separate city, they proved
+futile.  We find here the same desire for local self-government that
+existed in the Greek cities, the indulgence of which was highly
+detrimental to their interests in time of invasion or pressure from
+external power.  There were selfishness and rivalry between all these
+cities, not only in the attempt to outdo each other in political power,
+but by reason of commercial jealousy.  "Venice first, Christians next,
+and Italy afterward" was the celebrated maxim of Venice.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+To the distressing causes which kept the towns apart, the strife
+between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines increased the trouble.  Nor had
+the pope any desire to see a strong, unified government so near him.
+In those days popes were usually not honored in their own country, and,
+moreover, had enough to do to control their refractory subjects to the
+north of the Alps.  Unity was impossible among cities so blindly and
+selfishly opposed to one another, and it was, besides, especially
+prevented by jealous sovereigns from without, who wished rather to see
+these cities acting independently and separately
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P338"></A>338}</SPAN>
+than
+effectively, in a strong, united government.  Under these circumstances
+it was impossible there should be a strong and unified government; yet,
+could they have been properly utilized, all the materials were at hand
+for developing a national life which would have withstood the shock of
+opposing nationalities through centuries.  The attempt to make a great
+confederation, a representative republic, failed, however, and with it
+failed the real hopes of republicanism in Italy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Rise of Popular Assemblies in France</I>.&mdash;In the early history of
+France, while feudalism yet prevailed, it became customary for the
+provinces to have their popular assemblies.  These assemblies usually
+were composed of all classes of the people, and probably had their
+origin in the calls made by feudal lords to unite all those persons
+within their feudatories who might have something to say respecting the
+administration of the government and the law.  In them the three
+estates were assembled&mdash;the clergy, the nobility, and the commons.
+Many of these old provincial assemblies continued for a long time, for
+instance, in Brittany and Languedoc, where they remained until the
+period of the revolution.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It appears that every one of these provinces had its own provincial
+assembly, and a few of these assemblies survived until modern times, so
+that we know somewhat of their nature.  Although their powers were very
+much curtailed on the rise of monarchy, especially in the time of the
+Louis's, yet the provinces in which they continued had advantages over
+those provinces which had lost the provincial assemblies.  They had
+purchased of the crown the privilege of collecting all taxes demanded
+by the central government, and they retained the right to tax
+themselves for the expenses of their local administration and to carry
+on improvements, such as roads and water-courses, without any
+administration of the central government.  Notwithstanding much
+restriction upon their power within their own domain, they moved with a
+certain freedom which other provinces did not possess.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Rural Communes Arose in France</I>.&mdash;Although feudalism had prevailed
+over the entire country, there was a continual growth
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P339"></A>339}</SPAN>
+of local
+self-government at the time when feudalism was gradually passing into
+monarchial power.  It was to the interest of the kings to favor
+somewhat the development of local self-government, especially the
+development of the cities while the struggle for dominion over
+feudalism was going on; but when the kings had once obtained power they
+found themselves confronted with the uprising spirit of local
+government.  The struggle between king and people went on for some
+centuries, until the time when everything ran to monarchy and all the
+rights of the people were wrested from them; indeed, the perfection of
+the centralized government of the French monarch left no opportunity
+for the voice of the people to be heard.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The rural communes existed by rights obtained from feudal lords who had
+granted them charters and given them self-government over a certain
+territory.  These charters allowed the inhabitants of a commune to
+regulate citizenship and the administration of property, and to define
+feudal rights and duties.  Their organ of government was a general
+assembly of all the inhabitants, which either regulated the affairs of
+a commune directly or else delegated especial functions to communal
+officers who had power to execute laws already passed or to convoke the
+general assembly of the people on new affairs.  The collection of taxes
+for both the central and the local government, the management of the
+property of the commune, and the direction of the police system
+represented the chief powers of the commune.  The exercise of these
+privileges led into insistence upon the right of every man, whether
+peasant, freeman, or noble, to be tried by his peers.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Municipalities of France</I>.&mdash;As elsewhere related, the barbarians
+found the cities and towns of France well advanced in their own
+municipal system.  This system they modified but little, only giving
+somewhat of the spirit of political freedom.  In the struggle waged
+later against the feudal nobility these towns gradually obtained their
+rights, by purchase or agreement, and became self-governing.  In this
+struggle we find the Christian church, represented by the bishop,
+always arraying itself on the side of the commons against the nobility,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P340"></A>340}</SPAN>
+and thus establishing democracy.  Among the municipal privileges
+which were wrested from the nobility was included the right to make all
+laws that might concern the people; to raise their own taxes, both
+local and for the central government; to administer justice in their
+own way, and to manage their own police system.  The relations of the
+municipality to the central government or the feudal lord forced them
+to pay a certain tribute, which gave them a legal right to manage
+themselves.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Their pathway was not always smooth, however, but, on the contrary,
+full of contention and struggle against overbearing lords who sought to
+usurp authority.  Their internal management generally consisted of two
+assemblies&mdash;one a general assembly of citizens, in which they were all
+well represented, the other an assembly of notables.  The former
+elected the magistrates, and performed all legislative actions; the
+latter acted as a sort of advisory council to assist the magistrates.
+Sometimes the cities had but one assembly of citizens, which merely
+elected magistrates and exercised supervision over them.  The
+magistracy generally consisted of aldermen, presided over by a mayor,
+and acted as a general executive council for the city.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Municipal freedom gradually declined through adverse circumstances.
+Within the city limits tyranny, aristocracy, or oligarchy sometimes
+prevailed, wresting from the people the rights which they had purchased
+or fought for.  Without was the pressure of the feudal lord, which
+gradually passed into the general fight of the king for royal
+supremacy.  The king, it is true, found the towns very strong allies in
+his struggle against the nobility.  They too had commenced a struggle
+against the feudal lords, and there was a common bond of sympathy
+between them.  But when the feudal lords were once mastered, the king
+must turn his attention to reducing the liberties of the people, and
+gradually, through the influence of monarchy and centralization of
+government, the rights and privileges of the people of the towns of
+France passed away.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P341"></A>341}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>The States-General Was the First Central Organization</I>.&mdash;It ought to
+be mentioned here that after the monarchy was moderately well
+established, Philip the Fair (1285-1314) called the representatives of
+the nation together.  He called in the burghers of the towns, the
+nobility, and the clergy and formed a parliament for the discussion of
+the affairs of the realm.  It appeared that the constitutional
+development which began so early in England was about to obtain in
+France.  But it was not to be realized, for in the three centuries that
+followed&mdash;namely, the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth&mdash;the
+monarchs of France managed to keep this body barely in existence,
+without giving it any real power.  When the king was secure upon his
+throne and imperialism had received its full power, the nobility, the
+clergy, and the commons were no longer needed to support the throne of
+France, and, consequently, the will of the people was not consulted.
+It is true that each estate of nobility, clergy, and commons met
+separately from time to time and made out its own particular grievances
+to the king, but the representative power of the people passed away and
+was not revived again until, on the eve of the revolution, Louis XVI,
+shaken with terror, once more called together the three estates in the
+last representative body held before the political deluge burst upon
+the French nation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Failure of Attempts at Popular Government in Spain</I>.&mdash;There are signs
+of popular representation in Spain at a very early date, through the
+independent towns.  This representation was never universal or regular.
+Many of the early towns had charter rights which they claimed as
+ancient privileges granted by the Roman government.  These cities were
+represented for a time in the popular assembly, or Cortes, but under
+the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella the Cortes were seldom called, and
+when they were, it was for the advantage of the sovereign rather than
+of the people.  Many attempts were made in Spain, from time to time, to
+fan into flame this enthusiasm for popular representation, but the
+predominance of monarchy and the dogmatic centralized power of the
+church tended to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P342"></A>342}</SPAN>
+repress all real liberty.  Even in these later
+days sudden bursts of enthusiasm for constitutional liberty and
+constitutional privilege are heard from the southern peninsula; but the
+transition into monarchy was so sudden that the rights of the people
+were forever curtailed.  The frequent outbursts for liberty and popular
+government came from the centres where persisted the ideas of freedom
+planted by the northern barbarians.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Democracy in the Swiss Cantons</I>.&mdash;It is the boast of some of the rural
+districts of Switzerland, that they never submitted to the feudal
+régime, that they have never worn the yoke of bondage, and, indeed,
+that they were never conquered.  It is probable that several of the
+rural communes of Switzerland have never known anything other than a
+free peasantry.  They have continually practised the pure democracy
+exemplified by the entire body of citizens meeting in the open field to
+make the laws and to elect their officers.  Although it is true that in
+these rural communities of Switzerland freedom has been a continuous
+quantity, yet during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries Switzerland,
+as a whole, was dominated by feudalism.  This feudalism differed
+somewhat from the French feudalism, for it represented a sort of
+overlordship of absentee feudal chiefs, which, leaving the people more
+to themselves, made vassalage less irksome.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+At the beginning of the fourteenth century, in the year 1309, the
+cantons, Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden, lying near Lake Lucerne, gained,
+through the emperor, Henry VII, the recognition of their independence
+in all things except allegiance to the empire.  Each of these small
+states had its own government, varying somewhat from that of its
+neighbors.  Yet the rural cantons evinced a strong spirit of pure
+democracy, for they had already, about half a century previous, formed
+themselves into a league which proved the germ of confederacy, which
+perpetuated republican institutions in the Middle Ages.  The spirit of
+freedom prevailing throughout diverse communities brought the remainder
+of the Swiss cantons into the confederation.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P343"></A>343}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+The first liberties possessed by the various cantons were indigenous to
+the soil.  From time immemorial they had clung to the ancient right of
+self-government, and had developed in their midst a local system which
+feudalism never succeeded in eradicating.  It mattered not how diverse
+their systems of local government, they had a common cause against
+feudal domination, and this brought them into a close union in the
+attempt to throw off such domination.  It is one of the remarkable
+phenomena of political history, that proud, aristocratic cities with
+monarchial tendencies could be united with humble and rude communes
+which held expressly to pure democracy.  It is but another illustration
+of the truth that a particular form of government is not necessary to
+the development of liberty, but it is the spirit, bravery,
+independence, and unity of the people that make democracy possible.
+Another important truth, also, is illustrated here&mdash;that Italian,
+German, and French people who respect each other's liberty and have a
+common cause may dwell together on a basis of unity and mutual support.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Switzerland stands, then, for the perpetuation of the early local
+liberties of the people.  It has always been the synonym of freedom and
+the haven of refuge for the politically oppressed of all nations, and
+its freedom has always had a tendency to advance civilization, not only
+within the boundaries of the Swiss government, but throughout all
+Europe.  Progressive ideas of religion and education have ever
+accompanied liberty in political affairs.  The long struggle with the
+feudal lords and the monarchs of European governments, and with the
+Emperor of Germany, united the Swiss people on a basis of common
+interests and developed a spirit of independence.  At the same time, it
+had a tendency to warp their judgments respecting the religious rights
+and liberties of a people, and more than once the Swiss have shown how
+narrow in conception of government a republic can be.  Yet, upon the
+whole, it must be conceded that the watch-fires of liberty have never
+been extinguished in Switzerland, and that the light they
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P344"></A>344}</SPAN>
+have
+shed has illumined many dark places in Europe and America.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Ascendancy of Monarchy</I>.&mdash;Outside of Switzerland the faint
+beginning of popular representation was gradually overcome by the
+ascendancy of monarchy.  Feudalism, after its decline, was rapidly
+followed by the development of monarchy throughout Europe.  The
+centralization of power became a universal principle, uniting in one
+individual the government of an entire nation.  It was an expression of
+unity, and was essential to the redemption of Europe from the chaotic
+state in which it had been left by declining feudalism.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Monarchy is not necessarily the rule of a single individual.  It may be
+merely the proclamation of the will of the people through one man, the
+expression of the voice of the people from a single point.  Of all
+forms of government a monarchy is best adapted to a nation or people
+needing a strong central government able to act with precision and
+power.  As illustrative of this, it is a noteworthy fact that the old
+Lombard league of confederated states could get along very well until
+threatened with foreign invasion; then they needed a king.  The Roman
+republic, with consuls and senate, moved on very well in times of
+peace, but in times of war it was necessary to have a dictator, whose
+voice should have the authority of law.  The President of the United
+States is commander-in-chief of the army, which position in time of war
+gives him a power almost resembling imperialism.  Could Greece have
+presented against her invaders a strong monarchy which could unite all
+her heroes in one common command, her enemies would not so easily have
+prevailed against her.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Monarchy, then, in the development of European life seemed merely a
+stage of progress not unlike that of feudalism itself&mdash;a stage of
+progressive government; and it was only when it was carried to a
+ridiculous extreme in France and in England&mdash;in France under the
+Louis's and in England under the Stuarts&mdash;that it finally appeared
+detrimental to the highest interests of the people.  On the other hand,
+the weak
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P345"></A>345}</SPAN>
+republicanism of the Middle Ages had not sufficient
+unity or sufficient aggressiveness to maintain itself, and gave way to
+what was then a form of government better adapted to conditions and
+surroundings.  But the fires of liberty, having been once lighted, were
+to burst forth again in a later period and burn with sufficient heat to
+purify the governments of the world.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Beginning of Constitutional Liberty in England</I>.&mdash;When the Normans
+entered England, feudalism was in its infancy and wanted yet the form
+of the Roman system.  The kings of the English people soon became the
+kings of England, and the feudal system spread over the entire island.
+But this feudalism was already in the grasp of monarchy which prevailed
+much more easily in England than in France.  There came a time in
+England, as elsewhere, when the people, seeking their liberties, were
+to be united with the king to suppress the feudal nobility, and there
+sprang up at this time some elements of popular representative
+government, most plainly visible in the parliament of Simon de Montfort
+(1265) and the "perfect parliament" of 1295, the first under the reign
+of Henry III, and the second under Edward I.  In one or two instances
+prior to this, county representation was summoned in parliament in
+order to facilitate the method of assessing and collecting taxes, but
+these two parliaments marked the real beginnings of constitutional
+liberty in England, so far as local representation is concerned.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Prior to this, in 1215, the nobles and the commons, working together,
+had wrested the concession of the great <I>Magna Charta</I> from King John,
+and thus had established a precedent of the right of each class of
+individuals to have its share in the government of the realm; under its
+declaration king, nobility, and commons, each a check upon the other,
+each struggling for power, and all developing through the succeeding
+generations the liberty of the people under the constitution.  This
+long, slow process of development, reminding one somewhat of the
+struggle of the plebeians of Rome against the patricians,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P346"></A>346}</SPAN>
+finally
+made the lower house of parliament, which represents the people of the
+realm, the most prominent factor in the government of the English
+people&mdash;and at last, without a cataclysm like the French Revolution,
+established liberty of speech, popular representation, and religious
+liberty.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+We find, then, that in England and in other parts of Europe a
+liberalizing tendency set in after monarchy had been established and
+become predominant, which limited the actions of kings and declared for
+the liberties of the people.  Imperialism in monarchy was limited by
+the constitution of the people.  England laid the foundations of
+democracy in recognizing the rights of representation of all classes.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  What phases of popular government are to be noted in the Italian
+cities?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  What is the relation of "enlightened absolutism" to social progress?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  The characteristics of mediaeval guilds.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  Why were the guilds discontinued?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  The rise and decline of popular assemblies and rural communes of
+France.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  The nature of the government of the Swiss cantons.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  The transition from feudalism to monarchy.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+8.  In what ways was the idea of popular government perpetuated in
+Europe?
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap22"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P347"></A>347}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XXII
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+THE INTELLECTUAL AWAKENING OF EUROPE
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>Social Evolution Is Dependent Upon Variation</I>.&mdash;The process by which
+ideas are born and propagated in human society is strangely analogous
+to the methods of biological evolution.  The laws of survival, of
+adaptation, of variation and mutation prevail, and the evidence of
+conspicuous waste is ever present.  The grinding and shifting of human
+nature under social law is similar to the grinding and shifting of
+physical nature under organic law.  When we consider the length of time
+it takes physical nature to accomplish the ultimate of fixed values,
+seventy millions of years or more to produce an oak-tree, millions of
+years to produce a horse or a man, we should not be impatient with the
+slow processes of human society nor the waste of energy in the process.
+For human society arises out of the confusion of ideas and progresses
+according to the law of survival.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+New ideas must be accepted, diffused, used, and adapted to new
+conditions.  It would seem that Europe had sufficient knowledge of life
+contributed by the Orient, by Greek, Roman, and barbarian to go
+forward; but first must come a period of readjustment of old truth to
+new environment and the discovery of new truth.  For several centuries,
+in the Dark Ages, the intellectual life of man lay dormant.  Then must
+come a quickening of the spirit before the world could advance.
+However, in considering human progress, the day of small things must
+"not be despised."  For in the days of confusion and low tide of
+regression there are being established new modes of life and thought
+which through right adaptation will flow on into the full tide of
+progress.  Revivals come which gather up and utilize the scattered and
+confused ideas of life, adapting and utilizing them by setting new
+standards and imparting new impulses of progress.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P348"></A>348}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Revival of Progress Throughout Europe</I>.&mdash;Human society, as a world
+of ideas, is a continuous quantity, and therefore it is difficult to
+mark off any definite period of time to show social causation.  Roughly
+speaking, the period from the beginning of the eighth century to the
+close of the fifteenth is a period of intellectual ferment, the climax
+of which extended from the eleventh to the close of the fifteenth
+century.  It was in this period that the forces were gathering in
+preparation for the achievements of the modern era of progress.  There
+was one general movement, an awakening along the whole line of human
+endeavor in the process of transition from the old world to the new.
+It was a revival of art, language, literature, philosophy, theology,
+politics, law, trade, commerce, and the additions of invention and
+discovery.  It was the period of establishing schools and laying the
+foundation of universities.  In this there was a more or less
+continuous progress of the freedom of the mind, which permitted
+reflective thought, which subsequently led on to the religious
+reformation that permitted freedom of belief, and the French
+Revolution, which permitted freedom of political action.  It was the
+rediscovery of the human mind, a quickening of intellectual liberty, a
+desire of alert minds for something new.  It was a call for humanity to
+move forward.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Revival of Learning a Central Idea of Progress</I>.&mdash;As previously
+stated, the church had taken to itself by force of circumstances the
+power in the Western world relinquished by the fallen Roman Empire.  In
+fighting the battles against unbelief, ignorance, and political
+corruption, it had become a powerful hierarchy.  As the conservator of
+learning, it eventually began to settle the limits of knowledge and
+belief on its own interpretation and to force this upon the world.  It
+saved the elements of knowledge from the destruction of the barbarians,
+but in turn sought to lock up within its own precincts of belief the
+thoughts of the ages, presuming to do the thinking for the world.  It
+became dogmatic, arbitrary, conservative, and conventional.  Moreover,
+this had become the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P349"></A>349}</SPAN>
+attitude of all inert Europe.  The several
+movements that sought to overcome this stifling condition of the mind
+are called the "revival of learning."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A more specific use of the term renaissance, or revival of learning,
+refers especially to the restoration of the intellectual continuity of
+Europe, or the rebirth of the human mind.  It is generally applied to
+what is known as humanism, or the revival of classical learning.
+Important as this phase of general progress is, it can be considered
+only as a part of the great revival of progress.  Humanism, or the
+revival of classical learning, having its origin and first great
+impulse in Italy, it has become customary to use humanism and the
+Italian renaissance interchangeably, yet without careful consideration;
+for although the Italian renaissance is made up largely of humanism, it
+had such wide-reaching consequences on the progress of all Europe as
+not to be limited by the single influence of the revival of the
+classical learning.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Influence of Charlemagne</I>.&mdash;Clovis founded the Frankish kingdom, which
+included the territory now occupied by France and the Netherlands.
+Subsequently this kingdom was enlarged under the rule of Charles
+Martel, who turned back the Moslem invasion at Poitiers in 732, and
+became ruler of Europe north of the Alps.  His son Pepin enlarged and
+strengthened the kingdom, so that when his successor Charlemagne came
+into power in 768 he found himself in control of a vast inland empire.
+He conquered Rome and all north Italy and assumed the title of Roman
+emperor.  The movement of Charlemagne was a slight and even a doubtful
+beginning of the revival.  Possibly his reform was a faint flickering
+of the watch-fires of intellectual and civil activity, but they went
+out and darkness obscured the horizon until the breaking of the morn of
+liberty.  Yet in the darkness of the ages that followed new forces were
+forming unobserved by the contemporary historian&mdash;forces which should
+give a new awakening to the mind of all Europe.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Charlemagne re-established the unity of government which
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P350"></A>350}</SPAN>
+had been
+lost in the decline of the old Roman government; he enlarged the
+boundary of the empire, established an extensive system of
+administration, and promoted law and order.  He did more than this: he
+promoted religion by favoring the church in the advancement of its work
+throughout the realm.  But unfortunately, in the attempt to break down
+feudalism, he increased it by giving large donations to the church, and
+so helped to develop ecclesiastical feudalism, and laid the foundation
+of subsequent evils.  He was a strong warrior, a great king, and a
+master of civil government.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Charlemagne believed in education, and insisted that the clergy should
+be educated, and he established schools for the education of his
+subjects.  He promoted learning among his civil officers by
+establishing a school all the graduates of which were to receive civil
+appointments.  It was the beginning of the civil service method in
+Europe.  Charlemagne was desirous, too, of promoting learning of all
+kinds, and gathered together the scattered fragments of the German
+language, and tried to advance the educational interests of his
+subjects in every direction.  But the attempts to make learning
+possible, apparently, passed for naught in later days when the iron
+rule of Charlemagne had passed away, and the weaker monarchs who came
+after him were unable to sustain his system.  Darkness again spread
+over Europe, to be dispelled finally by other agencies.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Attitude of the Church Was Retrogressive</I>.&mdash;The attitude of the
+Christian church toward learning in the Middle Ages was entirely
+arbitrary.  It had become thoroughly institutionalized and was not in
+sympathy with the changes that were taking place outside of its own
+policy.  It assumed an attitude of hostility to everything that tended
+toward the development of free and independent thought outside the
+dictates of the authorities of the church.  It found itself, therefore,
+in an attitude of bitter opposition to the revival of learning which
+had spread through Europe.  It was unfortunate that the church appeared
+so diametrically opposed to freedom of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P351"></A>351}</SPAN>
+thought and independent
+activity of mind.  Even in England, when the new learning was first
+introduced, although Henry VIII favored it, the church in its blind
+policy opposed it, and when the renaissance in Germany had passed
+continuously into the Reformation, Luther opposed the new learning with
+as much vigor as did the papalists themselves.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But from the fact of the church's assuming this attitude toward the new
+learning, it must not be inferred that there was no learning within the
+church, for there were scholars in theology, logic, and law, astute and
+learned.  Yet the church assumed that it had a sort of proprietorship
+or monopoly of learning, and that only what it might see fit to
+designate was to receive attention, and then only in the church's own
+way; all other knowledge was to be opposed.  The ecclesiastical
+discussions gave evidence of intense mental activity within the church,
+but, having little knowledge of the outside world to invigorate it or
+to give it something tangible upon which to operate, the mind passed
+into speculative fields that were productive of little permanent
+culture.  Dwelling only upon a few fundamental conceptions at first, it
+soon tired itself out with its own weary round.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The church recognized in all secular advocates of literature and
+learning its own enemies, and consequently began to expunge from the
+literary world as far as possible the remains of the declining Roman
+and Greek culture.  It became hostile to Greek and Latin literature and
+art and sought to repress them.  In the rise of new languages and
+literature in new nationalities every attempt was made by the church to
+destroy the effects of the pagan life.  The poems and sagas treating of
+the religion and mythologies of these young, rising nationalities were
+destroyed.  The monuments of the first beginnings of literature, the
+products of a period so hard to compass by the historian, were served
+in the same way as were the Greek and Latin masterpieces.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The church said, if men will persist in study, let them ponder the
+precepts of the gospels as interpreted by the church.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P352"></A>352}</SPAN>
+For those
+who inquired about the problems of life, the churchmen pointed to the
+creeds and the dogmas of the church, which had settled all things.  If
+men were too persistent in inquiring about the nature of this world,
+they were told that it is of little importance, only a prelude to the
+world to come; that they should spend their time in preparation for the
+future.  Even as great a man as Gregory of Tours said: "Let us shun the
+lying fables of the poets and forego the wisdom of the sages at enmity
+with God, lest we incur the condemnation of endless death by the
+sentence of our Lord."  Saint Augustine deplored the waste of time
+spent in reading Virgil, while Alcuin regretted that in his boyhood he
+had preferred Virgil to the legends of the saints.  With the monks such
+considerations gave excuse for laziness and disregard of rhetoric.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But in this movement of hostility to the new learning, the church went
+too far, and soon found the entire ecclesiastical system face to face
+with a gross ignorance, which must be eradicated or the superstructure
+would fall.  As Latin was the only vehicle of thought in those days, it
+became a necessity that the priests should study Virgil and the other
+Latin authors, consequently the churches passed from their opposition
+to pagan authors to a careful utilization of them, until the whole
+papal court fell under the influence of the revival of learning, and
+popes and prelates became zealous in the promotion and, indeed, in the
+display of learning.  When the son of Lorenzo the Magnificent became
+Pope Leo X, the splendor of the ducal court of Florence passed to the
+papal throne, and no one was more zealous in the patronage of learning
+than he.  He encouraged learning and art of every kind, and built a
+magnificent library.  It was merely the transferrence of the pomp of
+the secular court to the papacy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Such was the attitude of the church toward the new learning&mdash;first, a
+bitter opposition; second, a forced toleration; and third, the
+absorption of its best products.  Yet in all this the spirit of the
+church was not for the freedom of mind nor independence of thought.  It
+could not recognize this freedom nor
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P353"></A>353}</SPAN>
+the freedom of religious
+belief until it had been humiliated by the spirit of the Reformation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Scholastic Philosophy Marks a Step in Progress</I>.&mdash;There arose in the
+ninth century a speculative philosophy which sought to harmonize the
+doctrine of the church with the philosophy of Neo-Platonism and the
+logic of Aristotle.  The scholastic philosophy may be said to have had
+its origin with John Scotus Erigena, who has been called "the morning
+star of scholasticism."  He was the first bold thinker to assert the
+supremacy of reason and openly to rebel against the dogma of the
+church.  In laying the foundation of his doctrine, he starts with a
+philosophical explanation of the universe.  His writings and
+translations were forerunners of mysticism and set forth a peculiar
+pantheistic conception.  His doctrine appears to ignore the pretentious
+authority of the church of his time and to refer to the earlier church
+for authority.  In so doing he incorporated the doctrine of emanation
+advanced by the Neo-Platonists, which held that out of God, the supreme
+unity, evolve the particular forms of goodness, and that eventually all
+things will return to God.  In like manner, in the creation of the
+universe the species comes from the genera by a process of unfolding.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The complete development and extension of scholastic philosophy did not
+come until the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.  The term
+"scholastics" was first applied to those who taught in the cloister
+schools founded by Charlemagne.  It was at a later period applied to
+the teachers of the seven liberal arts&mdash;grammar, rhetoric, and
+dialectic, in the <I>Trivium,</I> and arithmetic, geometry, music, and
+astronomy, in the <I>Quadrivium</I>.  Finally it was applied to all persons
+who occupied themselves with science or philosophy.  Scholastic
+philosophy in its completed state represents an attempt to harmonize
+the doctrines of the church with Aristotelian philosophy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There were three especial doctrines developed in the scholastic
+philosophy, called respectively nominalism, realism, and conceptualism.
+The first asserted that there are no generic
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P354"></A>354}</SPAN>
+types, and
+consequently no abstract concepts.  The formula used to express the
+vital point in nominalism is "<I>Universalia post rem</I>."  Its advocates
+asserted that universals are but names.  Roscellinus was the most
+important advocate of this doctrine.  In the fourteenth century William
+of Occam revived the subject of nominalism, and this had much to do
+with the downfall of scholasticism, for its inductive method suggested
+the acquiring of knowledge through observation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Realism was a revival of the Platonic doctrine that ideas are the only
+real things.  The formula for it was "<I>Universalia ante rem</I>."  By it
+the general name preceded that of the species.  Universal concepts
+represent the real; all else is merely illustrative of the real.  The
+only real sphere is the one held in the mind, mathematically correct in
+every way.  Balls and globes and other actual things are but the
+illustrations of the genus.  Perhaps Anselm was the strongest advocate
+of this method of reasoning.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It remained for Abelard to unite these two theories of philosophical
+reasoning into one, called conceptualism.  He held that universals are
+not ideals, but that they exist in the things themselves.  The formula
+given was "<I>Universalia in re</I>." This was a step in advance, and laid
+something of a foundation for the philosophy of classification in
+modern science.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The scholastic philosophers did much to sharpen reason and to develop
+the mind, but they failed for want of data.  Indeed, this has been the
+common failure of man, for in the height of civilization men speculate
+without sufficient knowledge.  Even in the beginning of scientific
+thought, for lack of facts, men spent much of their time in
+speculation.  The scholastic philosophers were led to consider many
+unimportant questions which could not be well settled.  They asked the
+church authorities why the sacramental wine and bread turned into blood
+and flesh, and what was the necessity of the atonement?  And in
+considering the nature of pure being they asked: "How many angels can
+dance at once on the point of a needle?" and "In moving from point to
+point, do angels pass through
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P355"></A>355}</SPAN>
+intervening space?"  They asked
+seriously whether "angels had stomachs," and "if a starving ass were
+placed exactly midway between two stacks of hay would he ever move?"
+But it must not be inferred that these people were as ridiculous as
+they appear, for each question had its serious side.  Having no
+assistance from science, they fell single-handed upon dogmatism; yet
+many times they busied themselves with unprofitable discussions, and
+some of them became the advocates of numerous doctrines and dogmas
+which had a tendency to confuse knowledge, although in defense of which
+wits were sharpened.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Lord Bacon, in a remarkable passage, has characterized the scholastic
+philosophers as follows:
+</P>
+
+<P>
+"This kind of degenerate learning did chiefly reign among the
+schoolmen, who&mdash;having sharp and strong wits and abundance of leisure
+and small variety of reading, but their wits being shut up in the cells
+of a few authors (chiefly Aristotle, their dictator) as their persons
+were shut up in the cells of monasteries and colleges, and having
+little history, either of nature or of time&mdash;did, out of no great
+quantity of matter and infinite agitation of wit, spin out unto us
+those laborious webs of learning which are extant in their books.  For
+the wit and mind of man, if it work upon matter which is the
+contemplation of the creatures of God, worketh according to the stuff
+and is limited thereby; but if it work upon itself, as the spider
+worketh its web, then it is endless, and brings forth indeed cobwebs of
+learning, admirable for the fineness of thread and work, but of no
+substance or profit."[<A NAME="chap22fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap22fn1">1</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Scholasticism, as the first phase of the revival of learning, though
+overshadowed by tradition and mediaeval dogmatism, showed great
+earnestness of purpose in ascertaining the truth by working "the wit
+and mind of man"; but it worked not "according to the stuff," and,
+having little to feed upon, it produced only speculations of truth and
+indications of future possibilities.  There were many bright men among
+the scholastic
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P356"></A>356}</SPAN>
+philosophers, especially in the thirteenth
+century, who left their impress upon the age; yet scholasticism itself
+was affected by dogmatism and short-sightedness, and failed to utilize
+the means at its hand for the improvement of learning.  It exercised a
+tyranny over all mental endeavor, for the reason that it was obliged in
+all of its efforts to carry through all of its reasoning the heavy
+weight of dogmatic theology.  Whatever else it attempted, it could not
+shake itself free from this incubus of learning, through a great system
+of organized knowledge, which hung upon the thoughts and lives of men
+and attempted to explain all things in every conceivable way.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But to show that independent thinking was a crime one has only to refer
+to the results of the knowledge of Roger Bacon, who advanced his own
+methods of observation and criticism.  Had the scholastics been able to
+accept what he clearly pointed out to them, namely, that reason can
+advance only by finding, through observation, new material upon which
+to work, science might have been active a full century in advance of
+what it was.  He laid the foundation of experimental science, and
+pointed out the only way in which the revival of learning could be made
+permanent, but his voice was unheeded by those around him, and it
+remained for the philosophers of succeeding generations to estimate his
+real worth.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Cathedral and Monastic Schools</I>.&mdash;There were two groups of schools
+under the management of the church, known as the cathedral and monastic
+schools.  The first represented the schools that had developed in the
+cathedrals for the sons of lay members of the church; the second, those
+in the monasteries that were devoted largely to the education of the
+ministry.  To understand fully the position of these schools it is
+necessary to go back a little and refer to the educational forces of
+Europe.  For a long period after Alexandria had become established as a
+great centre of learning, Athens was really the centre of education in
+the East, and this city held her sway in educational affairs down to
+the second century.  The influence of the traditions of great teachers
+and the encouragement and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P357"></A>357}</SPAN>
+endowments given by emperors kept up a
+school at Athens, to which flocked the youth of the land who desired a
+superior education.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Finally, when the great Roman Empire joined to itself the Greek
+culture, there sprang up what was known as the Greek and Roman schools,
+or Graeco-Roman schools, although Rome was not without its centre of
+education at the famous Athenaeum.  In these Graeco-Roman schools were
+taught grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic, music, arithmetic, geometry,
+and astronomy.  The grammar of that day frequently included language,
+criticism, history, literature, metre; the dialectic considered logic,
+metaphysics, and ethics; while rhetoric contemplated the fitting of the
+youth for public life and for the law.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But these schools, though dealing in real knowledge for a time,
+gradually declined, chiefly on account of the declining moral powers of
+the empire and the relaxation of intellectual activity, people thinking
+more of ease and luxury and the power of wealth than of actual
+accomplishment.  The internal disorganization, unjust taxation, and
+unjust rule of the empire had also a tendency to undermine education.
+The coming of the barbarians, with their honest, illiterate natures,
+had its influence, likewise, in overthrowing the few schools that
+remained.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The rise of Christianity, which supposed that all pagan literature and
+pagan knowledge were of the devil, and hence to be suppressed, opposed
+secular teaching, and tended to dethrone these schools.  Constantine's
+effort to unite the church and state tended for a while to perpetuate
+secular institutions.  But the pagan schools passed away; the
+philosophy of the age had run its course until it had become a hollow
+assumption, a desert of words, a weary round of speculation without
+vitality of expression; and the activity of the sophists in these later
+times narrowed all literary courses until they dwindled into mere
+matters of form.  Perhaps, owing to its force, power, and dignity, the
+Roman law retained a vital
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P358"></A>358}</SPAN>
+position in the educational
+curriculum.  The school at Athens was suppressed in 529 by Justinian,
+because, as it had been claimed, it was tainted with Oriental
+philosophy and allied with Egyptian magic, and hence could not develop
+ethical standards.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is easy to observe how the ideas of Christian learning came into
+direct competition with the arrogant self-assumption and the hollowness
+of the selfish teachings of the old Graeco-Roman schools.  The
+Christian doctrine, advocating the development of the individual life,
+intimate relations with God, the widening of social functions, with its
+teachings of humility, and humanity, could not tolerate the instruction
+given in these schools.  Moreover, the Christian doctrine of education
+consisted, on the one hand, in preparing for the future life, and on
+the other, in the preparation of Christian ministers to teach this
+future life.  As might be expected, when narrowed to this limit,
+Christian education had its dwarfing influence.  If salvation were an
+important thing and salvation were to be obtained only by the denial of
+the life of this world, then there would be no object in perpetuating
+learning, no attempt to cultivate the mind, no tendency to develop the
+whole man on account of his moral and intellectual worth.  The use of
+secular books was everywhere discouraged.  As a result the instruction
+of the religious schools was of a very meagre nature.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Within the monasteries devotional exercises and the study of the
+Scriptures represented the chief intellectual development of the monks.
+The Western monks required a daily service and a systematic training,
+but the practice of the Eastern monks was not educational in its nature
+at all.  After a while persons who were not studying for religious vows
+were admitted to the schools that they might understand the Bible and
+the services of the church.  They were taught to write, that they might
+copy the manuscripts of the church fathers, the sacred books, and the
+psalter; they were taught arithmetic, that they might be able to
+calculate the return of Easter and the other festivals; they were
+taught music, that they might
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P359"></A>359}</SPAN>
+be able to chant well.  But the
+education in any line was in itself superficial and narrow.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Benedictine order was exceptional in the establishment of better
+schools and in promoting better educational influences.  Their
+curriculum consisted of the Old and New Testaments, the exposition of
+the Scriptures by learned theologians, and the discourses, or
+conversations, of Cassianus; yet, as a rule, the monks cared little for
+knowledge as such, not even for theological knowledge.  The
+monasteries, however, constituted the great clerical societies, where
+many prepared for secular pursuits.  The monasteries of Ireland
+furnished many learned scholars to England, Scotland, and Germany, as
+well as to Ireland; yet it was only a monastic education which they
+exported.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Finally it became customary to found schools within the monasteries,
+and this was the beginning of the church schools of the Middle Ages.
+Formal and meagre as the instruction of these schools was, it
+represents a beginning in church education.  But in the seventh and
+eighth centuries they again declined, and learning retrograded very
+much; literature was forgotten; the monks and friars boasted of their
+ignorance.  The reforms of Charlemagne restored somewhat the
+educational status of the new empire, and not only developed the church
+schools and cathedral schools but also founded some secular schools.
+The cathedral schools became in many instances centres of learning
+apart from monasticism.  The textbooks, however, of the Middle Ages
+were chiefly those of Boethius, Isidor, and Capella, and were of the
+most meagre content and character.  That of Capella, as an
+illustration, was merely an allegory, which showed the seven liberal
+arts in a peculiar representation.  The logic taught in the schools was
+that given by Alcuin; the arithmetic was limited to the reckoning of
+holidays and festivals; astronomy was limited to a knowledge of the
+names and courses of the stars; geometry was composed of the first four
+books of Euclid, and supplemented with a large amount of geography.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P360"></A>360}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+But all this learning was valued merely as a support to the church and
+the church authorities, and for little else.  Yet there had been
+schools of importance founded at Paris, Bologna, and Padua, and at
+other places which, although they were not the historical foundations
+of the universities, no doubt became the means, the traditional means,
+of the establishment of universities at these places.  Also, many of
+the scholars, such as Theodore of Tarsus, Adalbert, Bede, and Alcuin,
+who studied Latin and Greek and also became learned in other subjects,
+were not without their influence.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Rise of Universities</I>.[<A NAME="chap22fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap22fn2">2</A>]&mdash;An important phase of this period of
+mediaeval development was the rise of universities.  Many causes led to
+their establishment.  In the eleventh century the development of
+independent municipal power brought the noble and the burgher upon the
+same level, and developed a common sentiment for education.  The
+activity of the crusades, already referred to, developed a thirst for
+knowledge.  There was also a gradual growth of traditional learning, an
+accumulation of knowledge of a certain kind, which needed
+classification, arrangement, and development.  By degrees the schools
+of Arabia, which had been prominent in their development, not only of
+Oriental learning but of original investigation, had given a quickening
+impulse to learning throughout southern Europe.  The great division of
+the church between the governed and governing had led to the
+development of a strong lay feeling as opposed to monasticism or
+ecclesiasticism.  Perhaps the growth of local representative government
+had something to do with this.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But the time came when great institutions were chartered at these
+centres of learning.  Students flocked to Bologna, where law was
+taught; to Salerno, where medicine was the chief subject; and to Paris,
+where philosophy and theology predominated.  At first these schools
+were open to all, without special rules.  Subsequently they were
+organized, and finally were chartered.  In those days students elected
+their own
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P361"></A>361}</SPAN>
+instructors and built up their own organization.  The
+schools were usually called <I>universitas magistrorum et scholarium</I>.
+They were merely assemblages of students and instructors, a sort of
+scholastic guild or combination of teachers and scholars, formed first
+for the protection of their members, and later allowed by pope and
+emperor the privilege of teaching, and finally given the power by these
+same authorities to grant degrees.  The result of these schools was the
+widening of the influence of education.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The universities proposed to teach what was found in a new and revived
+literature and to adopt a new method of presenting truth.  Yet, with
+all these widening foundations, there was a tendency to be bound by
+traditional learning.  The scholastic philosophy itself invaded the
+universities and had its influence in breaking down the scientific
+spirit.  Not only was this true of the universities of the continent,
+but of those of England as well.  The German universities, however,
+were less affected by this tendency of scholasticism.  Founded at a
+later period, when the Renaissance was about to be merged into the
+Reformation, there was a wider foundation of knowledge, a more earnest
+zeal in its pursuit, and also a tendency for the freedom and activity
+of the mind which was not observed elsewhere.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The universities may be said to mark an era in the development of
+intellectual life.  They became centres where scholars congregated,
+centres for the collection of knowledge; and when the humanistic idea
+fully prevailed, in many instances they encouraged the revival of
+classical literature and the study of those things pertaining to human
+life.  The universities entertained and practised free discussion of
+all subjects, which made an important landmark of progress.  They
+encouraged people to give a reason for philosophy and faith, and
+prepared the way for scientific investigation and experiment.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Failure to Grasp Scientific Methods</I>.&mdash;Perhaps the greatest wonder in
+all this accumulation of knowledge, quickening of the mind, philosophy,
+and speculation, is that men of so much
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P362"></A>362}</SPAN>
+learning failed to grasp
+scientific methods.  Could they but have turned their attention to
+systematic methods of investigation based upon facts logically stated,
+the vast intellectual energy of the Middle Ages might have been turned
+to more permanent account.  It is idle, however, to deplore their
+ignorance of these conditions or to ridicule their want of learning.
+When we consider the ignorance that overshadowed the land, the breaking
+down of the old established systems of Greece and Rome, the struggle of
+the church, which grew naturally into its power and made conservatism
+an essential part of its life; indeed, when we consider that the whole
+medieval system was so impregnated with dogmatism and guided by
+tradition, it is a marvel that so many men of intellect and power
+raised their voices in the defense of truth, and that so much
+advancement was made in the earnest desire for truth.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Inventions and Discoveries</I>.&mdash;The quickening influence of discovery
+was of great moment in giving enlarged views of life.  The widening of
+the geographical horizon tended to take men out of their narrow
+boundaries and their limited conceptions of the world, into a larger
+sphere of mental activity, and to teach them that there was much beyond
+their narrow conceptions to be learned.  The use of gunpowder changed
+the method of warfare and revolutionized the financial system of
+nations.  The perfection of the mariner's compass reformed navigation
+and made great sea voyages possible; the introduction of printing
+increased the dissemination of knowledge; the building of great
+cathedrals had a tendency to develop architecture, and the contact with
+Oriental learning developed art.  These phases tended to assist the
+mind in the attempt to free itself from bondage.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Extension of Commerce Hastened Progress</I>.&mdash;But more especially
+were men's ideas enlarged and their needs supplied by the widening
+reach of commerce.  Through its exchanges it distributed the
+food-supply, and thus not only preserved thousands from want but
+furnished leisure for others to study.  It had a tendency to distribute
+the luxuries of manufactured
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P363"></A>363}</SPAN>
+articles, and to quicken the
+activity of the mind by giving exchange of ideas.  Little by little the
+mariners, plying their trade, pushed farther and farther into unknown
+seas, and at last brought the products of every clime in exchange for
+those of Europe.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The manner in which commerce developed the cities of Italy and of the
+north has already been referred to.  Through this development the
+foundations of local government were laid.  The manner in which it
+broke down the feudal system after receiving the quickening impulse of
+the crusades has also been dealt with.  In addition to its influence in
+these changes, it brought about an increased circulation of
+money&mdash;which also struck at the root of feudalism, in destroying the
+mediaeval manor and serfdom, for men could buy their freedom from
+serfdom with money&mdash;which also made taxation possible; and the
+possibility of taxation had a vast deal to do with the building up of
+new nations and stimulating national life.  Moreover, as a distributer
+of habits and customs, commerce developed uniformity of political and
+social life and made for national solidarity.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  What is meant by Renaissance, Revival of Learning, Revival of
+Progress and Humanism, as applied to the mediaeval period?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  The causes of the Revival of Progress.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  The direct influence of humanism.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  The attitude of the church toward freedom of thought.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  The scholastic philosophy, its merits and its defects.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  What did the following persons stand for in human progress: Dante,
+Savonarola, Charlemagne, John Scotus Erigena, Thomas Aquinas, Abelard,
+William of Occam, Roger Bacon?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  Rise of universities.  How did they differ from modern universities?
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap22fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap22fn2"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap22fn1text">1</A>] <I>Advancement of Learning</I>, iv, 5.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap22fn2text">2</A>] See <A HREF="#chap29">Chapter XXIX</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap23"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P364"></A>364}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XXIII
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+HUMANISM AND THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+Perhaps the most important branch of the revival of learning is that
+which is called humanism, or the revival of the study of the
+masterpieces of Greek and Latin literature.  The promoters of this
+movement are called humanists, because they held that the study of the
+classics, or <I>litterae humaniores</I>, is the best humanizing agent.  It
+has already been shown how scholasticism developed as one of the
+important phases of the renaissance, and how, close upon its track, the
+universities rose as powerful aids to the revival of learning, and that
+the cathedral and monastic schools were the traditional forerunners of
+the great universities.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Primarily, then, were taught in the universities scholastic philosophy,
+theology, the Roman and the canon law, with slight attention to Greek
+and Hebrew, the real value of the treasures of antiquity being unknown
+to the Western world.  The Arabic or Saracen schools of Spain had taken
+high rank in learning, and through their efforts the scientific works
+of Aristotle were presented to the mediaeval world.  There were many
+men of importance, such as Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, who were
+leaders in universities and who lent their influence to the development
+of learning in Europe.  The translation of the scientific works of
+Aristotle into Latin at the beginning of the thirteenth century by
+Thomas Aquinas had its influence.  But, after all, scholasticism had
+settled down to speculative ideas within the universities and without,
+and little attention was paid to the old classical authors.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Discovery of Manuscripts</I>.&mdash;The real return to the study of Greek
+literature and art finally came through the fortunate discoveries of
+ancient sculpture and ancient manuscripts on the occasion of the
+turning of the mind of Europe
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P365"></A>365}</SPAN>
+toward the Eastern learning.  The
+fall of the Eastern Empire accelerated the transfer of learning and
+culture to the West.  The discovery and use of old manuscripts brought
+a survival of classical literature and of the learning of antiquity.
+The bringing of this literature to light gave food for thought and
+means of study, and turned the mind from its weary round of speculative
+philosophy to a large body of literature containing the views of the
+ancients respecting the progress and development of man.  As has been
+heretofore shown, the Greeks, seeking to explain things by the human
+reason, although not advanced far in experimental science, had
+accomplished much by way of logical thought based upon actual facts.
+They had turned from credulity to inquiry.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Who Were the Humanists?</I>&mdash;Dante was not a humanist, but he may be said
+to have been the forerunner of the Italian humanists, for he furnished
+inspiration to Petrarch, the so-called founder of humanism.  His
+magnificent creation of <I>The Divine Comedy</I>, his service in the
+foundation of the Italian language, and his presentation of the
+religious influence of the church in a liberal manner made him a great
+factor in the humanizing of Europe.  Dante was neither modern nor
+ancient.  He stood at the parting of the ways controlling the learning
+of the past and looking toward the open door of the future, and
+directed thought everywhere to the Latin.  His masterpiece was well
+received through all Italy, and gave an impulse to learning in many
+ways.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Petrarch was the natural successor of Dante.  The latter immortalized
+the past; the former invoked the spirit of the future.  He showed great
+enthusiasm in the discovery of old manuscripts, and brought into power
+more fully the Latin language.  He also attempted to introduce Greek
+into the Western world, but in this he was only partially successful.
+But in his wide search for manuscripts, monasteries and cathedrals were
+ransacked and the literary treasures which the monks had copied and
+preserved through centuries, the products of the classical writers of
+the early times, were brought to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P366"></A>366}</SPAN>
+light.  Petrarch was an
+enthusiast, even a sentimentalist.  But he was bold in his expression
+of the full and free play of the intellect, in his denunciation of
+formalism and slavery to tradition.  The whole outcome of his life,
+too, was a tendency toward moral and aesthetic aggrandizement.
+Inconsistent in many things, his life may be summed up as a bold
+remonstrance against the binding influences of tradition and an
+enthusiasm for something new.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+"We are, therefore," says Symonds,[<A NAME="chap23fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap23fn1">1</A>] "justified in hailing Petrarch as
+the Columbus of a new spiritual hemisphere, the discoverer of modern
+culture.  That he knew no Greek, that his Latin verse was lifeless and
+his prose style far from pure, that his contributions to history and
+ethics have been superseded, and that his epistles are now read only by
+antiquaries, cannot impair his claim to this title.  From him the
+inspiration needed to quicken curiosity and stimulate zeal for
+knowledge proceeded.  But for his intervention in the fourteenth
+century it is possible that the revival of learning, and all that it
+implies, might have been delayed until too late."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+His influence was especially felt by those who followed him, and his
+enthusiasm made him a successful promoter of the new learning.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But it remained for Boccaccio, who was of a more practical turn of mind
+than Petrarch, to systematize the classical knowledge of antiquity.  If
+Petrarch was an enthusiastic collector, Boccaccio was a practical
+worker.  With the aid of Petrarch, he was the first to introduce a
+professor of Greek language and literature into Italy, and through this
+influence he secured a partial translation of Homer.  Boccaccio began
+at an early age to read the classical authors and to repent the years
+he had spent in the study of law and in commercial pursuits.  It was
+Petrarch's example, more than anything else, which caused Boccaccio to
+turn his attention to literature.  By persistence and vigor in study,
+he was enabled to accomplish much by his own hand in the translation of
+the authors, and in middle life
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P367"></A>367}</SPAN>
+he began a persistent and
+successful study of Greek.  His contributions to learning were great,
+and his turn toward naturalism was of immense value in the foundation
+of modern literature.  He infused a new spirit in the common literature
+of the times.  He turned away from asceticism, and frankly and openly
+sought to justify the pleasures of life.  Although his teaching may not
+be of the most wholesome kind, it was far-reaching in its influence in
+turning the mind toward the importance and desirability of the things
+of this life.  Stories of "beautiful gardens and sunny skies, fair
+women and luxurious lovers" may not have been the most healthful diet
+for universal consumption; they introduced a new element into the
+literature of the period and turned the thoughts of men from the
+speculative to the natural.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A long line of Italian writers followed these three great master
+spirits and continued to develop the desire for classical literature.
+For such power and force did these men have that they turned the whole
+tide of thought toward the masterpieces of the Greeks and Romans.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Relation of Humanism to Language and Literature</I>.&mdash;When the zeal for
+the classical learning declined somewhat, there sprang up in Italy a
+group of Italian poets who were the founders of an Italian literature.
+They received their impulse from the classical learning, and, turning
+their attention to the affairs which surrounded them, developed a new
+literature.  The inspiration which humanism had given to scholars of
+the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries had a tendency to develop a
+literary spirit among all classes of students.  The products of the
+Italian literature, however, brought out through the inspiration of
+humanistic studies, were not great masterpieces.  While the number and
+variety were considerable, the quality was inferior when the
+intellectual power of the times is considered.  The great force of
+Italian intellect had been directed toward classical manuscripts, and
+hence failed to develop a literature that had real originality.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Perhaps among the few great Italian writers of these times
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P368"></A>368}</SPAN>
+may be
+mentioned Guicciardini and Machiavelli.  The former wrote a history of
+Italy, and the latter is rendered immortal by his <I>Prince</I>.
+Guicciardini was a native of Florence, who had an important position in
+the service of Leo X.  As professor of jurisprudence, ambassador to
+Spain, and subsequently minister of Leo X, governor of Modena,
+lieutenant-general of the pope in the campaign against the French,
+president of the Romagna and governor of Bologna, he had abundant
+opportunity for the study of the political conditions of Italy.  He is
+memorable for his admirable history of Italy, as a talented Florentine
+and as a member of the Medicean party.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Machiavelli, in his <I>Prince</I>, desired to picture the type of rulers
+needed to meet the demands of Italy at the time he wrote.  It is a
+picture of imperialism and, indeed, of despotism.  The prince or ruler
+was in no way obliged to consider the feelings and rights of
+individuals.  Machiavelli said it was not necessary that a prince
+should be moral, humane, religious, or just; indeed, that if he had
+these qualities and displayed them they would harm him, but if he were
+new to his place in the principality he might seem to have them.  It
+would be as useful to him to keep the path of rectitude when this was
+not too inconvenient as to know how to deviate from it when
+circumstances dictate.  In other words, a prudent prince cannot and
+ought not really to keep his word except when he can do it without
+injury to himself.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Among other Italian writers may be mentioned Boiardo, on account of his
+<I>Orlando Innamorato</I>, and Ariosto, who wrote <I>Orlando Furioso</I>.  Upon
+the whole, the writings of the period were not worthy of its
+intellectual development, although Torquato Tasso, in his <I>Jerusalem
+Delivered</I>, presents the first crusade as Homer presented the Trojan
+War.  The small amount of really worthy literature of this age has been
+attributed to the lack of moral worth.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Art and Architecture</I>.&mdash;Perhaps the renaissance art exceeded that
+which it replaced in beauty, variety, and naturalness, as well as in
+exuberance.  There was an attempt to make
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P369"></A>369}</SPAN>
+all things beautiful,
+and no attempt to follow the spirit of asceticism in degrading the
+human body, but rather to try to delineate every feature as noble in
+itself.  The movement, life, and grace of the human form, the beauty of
+landscape, all were enjoyed and presented by the artists of the
+renaissance.  The beauty of this life is magnified, and the artists
+represented in joyous mood the best qualities that are important in the
+world.  They turned the attention from asceticism to the importance of
+the present life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Perhaps the Italians reached the highest point of development in
+painting, for the Madonnas of Italy have given her celebrity in art
+through all succeeding generations.  Cimabue was the first to paint the
+Madonna as a beautiful woman.  Giotto followed next, and a multitude of
+succeeding Madonnas have given Italy renown.  Raphael excelled all
+others in the representation of the Madonna, and was not only the
+greatest painter of all Italy, but a master artist of all ages.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Architecture, however, appears to be the first branch of art that
+defied the arbitrary power of tradition.  It could break away more
+readily than any other form of art, because of the great variety which
+existed in different parts of the Roman Empire&mdash;the Byzantine in the
+south of Italy, the Gothic in the north, and Romanesque in Rome and the
+provinces.  There was no conventional law for architectural style,
+hence innovations could be made with very little opposition.  In the
+search for classical remains, a large number of buildings had already
+become known, and many more were uncovered as the searching continued.
+These gave types of architecture which had great influence in building
+the renaissance art.  The changes, beginning with Brunelleschi, were
+continued until nearly all buildings were completely Romanized.  Then
+came Michael Angelo, who excelled in both architecture and sculpture at
+Rome, and Palladio, who worked at Venice and Verona.  In the larger
+buildings the Basilica of Rome became the model, or at least the
+principles of its construction became the prevailing element in
+architectural design.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P370"></A>370}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Florence became the centre of art and letters in the Italian
+renaissance.[<A NAME="chap23fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap23fn2">2</A>]  Though resembling Athens in many respects, and bearing
+the same relations to surrounding cities that Athens did to cities in
+the classic times, her scholars were more modern than those of Greece
+or Rome, and, indeed, more modern than the scholars who followed after
+the Florentines, two centuries later.  It was an important city, on the
+Arno, surrounded by hills, a city of flowers, interesting to-day to the
+modern scholar and student of history.  Surrounded by walls, having
+magnificent gates, with all the modern improvements of paved streets,
+of sewers, gardens, and spacious parks, it represented in this early
+period the ideal city life.  Even to-day the traveller finds the
+Palazzo Vecchio, or ancient official residence of the city fathers, and
+very near this the Loggia dei Lanzi, now filled with the works of
+precious art, and the Palazzo del Podesta, now used as a national
+museum, the great cathedral, planned in 1294 by Arnolfo, ready for
+consecration in 1498, and not yet completed, and many other remarkable
+relics of this wonderful era.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The typical idea in building the cathedral was to make it so beautiful
+that no other in the world could ever surpass it.  Opposite the main
+door were the gates of Ghiberti, which Michael Angelo, for their great
+beauty, thought worthy to be the gates of paradise.  They close the
+entrance of the temple of Saint John the Baptist, the city's patron
+saint.  More than a hundred other churches, among them the Santa Croce
+and the Santa Maria Novella, the latter the resting-place of the
+Medici, were built in this magnificent city.  The churches were not
+only used for religious worship, but were important for meeting-places
+of the Florentines.  The Arno was crossed by four bridges, of which the
+Ponte Vecchio, built in the middle of the fourteenth century, alone
+remains in its original form.  Upon it rest two rows of houses, each
+three stories high, and over this is the passageway from the Palazzo
+Pitti to the Palazzo Vecchio.  In addition to the public buildings of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P371"></A>371}</SPAN>
+Florence, there were many private residences and palaces of
+magnificence and splendor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Effect of Humanism on Social Manners</I>.&mdash;By the intellectual
+development of Italy, fresh ideas of culture were infused into common
+society.  To be a gentleman meant to be conversant with poetry,
+painting, and art, intelligent in conversation and refined in manners.
+The gentleman must be acquainted with antiquity sufficiently to admire
+the great men of the past and to reverence the saints of the church.
+He must understand archaeology in order to speak intelligently of the
+ancient achievements of the classical people.  But this refinement was
+to a large extent conventional, for there was a lack of genuine moral
+culture throughout the entire renaissance.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+These moral defects of Italy in this period have often been the
+occasion of dissertations by philosophers, and there is a question as
+to whether this moral condition was caused by the revival of classical
+learning or the decline of morality in the church.  It ought to be
+considered, without doubt, as an excessive development of certain lines
+of intellectual supremacy without the accustomed moral guide.  The
+church had for years assumed to be the only moral conservator, indeed
+the only one morally responsible for the conduct of the world.  Yet its
+teachings at this time led to no self-developed morality; helped no one
+to walk alone, independent, in the dignity of manhood, for all of its
+instructions were superimposed and not vital.  At last the church fell
+into flagrant discord under the rule of worldly popes, and this gave a
+great blow to Italy through the loss of the one great moral control.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But the renaissance had in its day a wide-spread influence throughout
+Europe, and gave us as its result a vitalizing influence to the whole
+world for centuries to come, although Italy suffered a decline largely
+on account of its lack of the stable moral character of society.  The
+awakening of the mind from lethargy, the turning away from dogmatism to
+broader views of life, enlarged duties, and new surroundings causing
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P372"></A>372}</SPAN>
+the most Intense activity of thought, needed some moral stay to
+make the achievements permanent and enduring.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Relation of Humanism to Science and Philosophy</I>.&mdash;The revival of the
+freedom of thought of the Greeks brought an antagonism to the logic and
+the materialistic views of the times.  It set itself firmly against
+tradition of whatsoever sort.  The body of man had not been considered
+with care until anatomy began to be studied in the period of the
+Italian renaissance.  The visionary notions of the world which the
+people had accepted for a long time began gradually to give way to
+careful consideration of the exact facts.  Patience and loving
+admiration in the study of man and nature yielded immense returns to
+the scholars of Italy.  It changed the attitude of the thoughtful mind
+toward life, and prepared the way for new lines of thought and new
+accomplishments in the world of philosophy and science.  Through the
+scientific discoveries of Galileo and Copernicus and exploration of
+Columbus, brought about largely by the influence of humanistic studies,
+were wrought far-reaching consequences in the thought of the age.  And
+finally the scholars of Italy not only threw off scholasticism but also
+disengaged themselves from the domineering influence of the classical
+studies and laid the foundation of modern freedom of inquiry.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Study of the Classics Became Fundamental in Education</I>.&mdash;The
+modern classical education received its first impulse from the Italian
+renaissance.  As before stated, it was customary for the universities
+to teach, with some vigor,[<A NAME="chap23fn3text"></A><A HREF="#chap23fn3">3</A>] physics, medicine, law, and philosophy,
+largely after the manner of the medieval period, though somewhat
+modified and broadened in the process of thought.  But in the fifteenth
+and sixteenth centuries, those who taught the ancient languages and
+literature were much celebrated.  Under the title of rhetoric we find
+progress not only in the study of the Greek and Roman masterpieces, but
+in a large number of subjects which had a tendency to widen the views
+of students and to change
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P373"></A>373}</SPAN>
+the trend of the education in
+universities.  It became customary for the towns and cities to have
+each a public place, an academy, a university, or a hall, for the means
+of studying the humanistic branches.  The professors of the classics
+passed from town to town, giving instruction where the highest pay was
+offered.  The direct influence of the renaissance on the Italian
+education, and, indeed, on the English classical education, introduced
+somewhat later, has continued until this day.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Closely connected with the educational influences of the renaissance
+was the introduction of literary criticism.  There was a tendency among
+the early humanists to be uncritical, but as intelligence advanced and
+scholarship developed, we find the critical spirit introduced.  Form,
+substance, and character of art and letters were carefully examined.
+This was the essential outcome of the previous sharp criticism of
+dogmatic theology and philosophy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>General Influence of Humanism</I>.&mdash;The development of new intellectual
+ideals was the most important result of this phase of the renaissance.
+Nor did this extend in any particular direction.  A better thought came
+to be held of God and man's relation to him.  Instead of being an
+arbitrary, domineering creature, he had become in the minds of the
+people rational and law-loving; instead of being vindictive and fickle,
+as he was wont to be pictured, he had been endowed with benevolence
+toward his creatures.  The result of all this was that religion itself
+became more spiritual and the conscience more operative.  There was
+less of formality and conventionality in religion and more of real,
+devout feeling and consciousness of worthy motive in life, but the
+church must have more strenuous lessons before spiritual freedom could
+be fulfilled.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Life, too, came to be viewed as something more than merely a temporary
+expedient, a thing to be viewed as a necessary evil.  It had come to be
+regarded as a noble expression worthy of the thought and the best
+attention of every individual.  This world, too, was meant to be of use
+and to make people happy.  It was to be enjoyed and used as best it
+might be.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P374"></A>374}</SPAN>
+The old guild classes finally broke down, and where
+formerly men thought in groups, a strong individuality developed and
+man became an independent, thinking being in himself, bound by neither
+religion nor philosophy.  He was larger than either philosophy or
+religion made him.  He was a being of capacity and strength, and
+enabled to take the best of this life in order to enhance the delight
+of living.  There came, also, with this a large belief in the law and
+order of the universe.  Old beliefs had become obsolete because the
+people could no longer depend on them.  And when these dogmatic
+formulas ceased to give satisfaction to the human mind, it sought for
+order in the universe and the laws which controlled it, and the
+intellectual world then entered the field of research for truth&mdash;the
+field of experiment.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  How did the Revival of Learning prepare the way for modern science?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  What contributions to progress were made by Petrarch, Boccaccio,
+Michael Angelo, Justinian, Galileo, Copernicus, Columbus?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  The nature of Machiavelli's political philosophy.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  Compare Gothic, Romanesque, and Arabian architecture.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  The status of morals during the period of the intellectual
+development of Europe.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  The great weakness of the philosophy of this period.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  What was the state of organized society and what was the "common
+man" doing?
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap23fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap23fn2"></A>
+<A NAME="chap23fn3"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap23fn1text">1</A>] <I>Revival of Learning</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap23fn2text">2</A>] See <A HREF="#chap21">Chapter XXI</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap23fn3text">3</A>] See <A HREF="#chap22">preceding chapter</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap24"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P375"></A>375}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XXIV
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+THE REFORMATION
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Character of the Reformation</I>.&mdash;The Reformation, or Protestant
+Revolution, as it is sometimes called, was a movement of such extended
+relations as to be difficult to define.  In general, it was the
+liberalizing movement of the revival of learning applied to the church.
+As the church had attempted to be all things to all men, the movement
+was necessarily far-reaching in its results, affecting not only the
+religious but the social, educational, and political affairs of Europe.
+In its religious aspect it shows an attempt to reform the church.  This
+failing, the revolution followed, resulting in the independence of
+certain parts of the church, which were then organized under separate
+constitutions and governments.  Then followed a partial reform within
+the Catholic Church.  The whole movement may be characterized as a
+revolt against papal authority and ecclesiastical usurpation of power.
+It was an assertion of independence of the mind respecting religious
+beliefs and a cry for a consistent life of righteousness and purity.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The church had assumed an attitude which made either a speedy
+reformation or else a revolution necessary.  The "reforming councils"
+of Pisa, Constance, and Basel failed to adopt adequate reform measures.
+The result of these councils was merely to confirm the absolutism of
+papal authority.  At the same time there were a very large number of
+adherents to the church who were anxiously seeking a reform in church
+government, as well as a reform in the conduct of the papacy, the
+clergy, and the lay membership.  The papal party succeeded in
+suppressing all attempts of this nature, the voice of the people being
+silenced by a denial of constitutional government; nor was assurance
+given that the intrigues of the papacy, and of the church in general,
+would be removed.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P376"></A>376}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+The people had lost faith in the assumptions of infallibility of the
+papacy.  The great schism in the church, in which three popes, each
+claiming to be the rightful successor of Saint Peter, each one having
+the "keys," each one calling the others impostors, and seeking by all
+possible means to dethrone them, was a great shock to the claims of
+infallible authority.  For many years, to maintain their position as a
+ruling power, the popes had engaged in political squabbles with the
+princes of Europe.  While the popes at times were victorious, the
+result of their course was to cause a feeling of contempt for their
+conduct, as well as of fear of their power.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The quarrel of Henry IV and Gregory VII, of Innocent III and John of
+England, of Boniface and Philip the Fair, the Babylonian captivity, and
+many lesser difficulties, had placed the papacy in a disreputable
+light.  Distrust, fear, and contempt for the infallible assumptions
+were growing.  The papacy had been turned into a political engine to
+maintain the temporal possessions of the church and to increase its
+temporal power.  The selfishness of the ruling prince became uppermost
+in all papal affairs, which was so different from the teachings of the
+Christ who founded his kingdom on love that the contrast became
+observable, and even painful, to many devout people.  Added to this,
+the corruption of the members of religious orders, who had departed
+from their vows of chastity, was so evident to the people with whom
+they came in daily contact as to bring shame and disgrace upon the
+cause of religion.  Consequently, from these and other irregularities
+there developed a strong belief that the church needed reforming from
+the lowest to the highest offices.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Signs of the Rising Storm</I>.&mdash;For several centuries before the
+religious revolution broke out there were signs of its coming.  In the
+first place, the rise of the laical spirit was to be observed,
+especially after the establishment of local self-government in the free
+cities.  The desire for representative government had extended to the
+lay members of the church.  There was a growing feeling that the
+clergy, headed by the papacy, had
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P377"></A>377}</SPAN>
+no right to usurp all the
+governing power of the church.  Many bold laymen asserted that the lay
+members of the church should have a voice in its government, but every
+such plea was silenced, every aspiration for democratic government
+suppressed, by a jealous papacy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There arose a number of religious sects which opposed the subordination
+to dogma, and returned to the teachings of the Bible for authority.
+Prominent among these were the Albigenses, who became the victims of
+the cruel crusade instigated by the pope and led by Simon de Montfort.
+They were a peaceable, religious people who dwelt far and wide in the
+south of France, who refused to obey implicitly the harsh and arbitrary
+mandates of the pope.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Waldenses were another society, composed of the followers of Peter
+Waldo, known at first as the "Poor Man of Lyons," believing in a return
+to the Scriptures, which they persistently read.  Like the Albigenses,
+they were zealous for purity of life, and bitterly opposed to the
+usurpation and profligacy of the clergy.  They, too, suffered bitter
+persecution, which indicated to many that a day of retribution was
+coming.  There were also praying societies, formed in the church to
+read the Scriptures and to promote a holy life.  All these had their
+influence in preparing for a general reformation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The revival of learning had specific influences in bringing about the
+Reformation.  The two movements were blended in one in several
+countries, but the revival of learning in Germany was overtaken by the
+Reformation.  The former sought freedom of the mind respecting
+philosophy and learning, the latter sought liberty of conscience
+respecting religious belief.  The revival of learning broke down
+scholasticism, and thus freed the mind from dogmatic philosophy.
+Seeking for the truth, the works of the church fathers were brought
+forth and read, and the texts of the Old and the New Testament were
+also used, as a criterion of authority.  They showed to what extent the
+papacy had gone in its assumption of power, and making more prominent
+the fact that the church, particularly
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P378"></A>378}</SPAN>
+the clergy, had departed
+from a life of purity.  The result of the quickening thought of the
+revival was to develop independent characteristics of mind, placing it
+in the attitude of revolt against ecclesiastical dogmatism.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Attempts at Reform Within the Church</I>.&mdash;Many attempts were made,
+chiefly on the part of individuals, to work a reform of abuses within
+the church.  Many devout men, scholars engaged in theological research
+and living lives of purity, sought by precept and example to bring
+about better spiritual and moral conditions.  Others sought to bring
+about changes in ecclesiastical government, not only in the "reforming
+councils" but through efforts at the papal court and in the strong
+bishoprics.  Had the church listened to these cries of the laity and
+zealously availed itself of the many opportunities presented, possibly
+the religious revolution would not have come.  Although it is difficult
+to say what would have been the result had the church listened to the
+voice of reform, yet it is certain that the revolution would at least
+have taken a different course, and the position of the church before
+the world would have been greatly changed.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Powerful individual reformers exercised great influence in bringing on
+the religious revolution.  The voices of John Wyclif, John Huss, John
+Tauler, and John Wessel, like the voice of John the Baptist, cried out
+for repentance and a return to God.  These reformers desired among
+other things a change in the constitutional government of the church.
+They sought a representation of the laity and the re-establishment of
+the authority of the general councils.  Through influence such as
+theirs the revolution was precipitated.  Others in a different way,
+like Savonarola, hastened the coming of the revolution by preaching
+liberty of thought and attacking the abuses of the church and its
+methods of government.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Wyclif in England advocated a simple form of church worship, rebelled
+against the arbitrary power of popes and priests, preached against
+transubstantiation, and advocated the practice of morality.  He was
+greatly influenced by William of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P379"></A>379}</SPAN>
+Occam, who asserted that the
+pope, or even a general council, might err in declaring the truth, and
+that the hierarchy might be given up if the good of the church demanded
+it.  Wyclif, in England, started a movement for freedom and purity
+which never died out.  His translation of the Bible was the most
+valuable of all his work.  Though he preceded the religious revolution
+by nearly two centuries, his influence was of such great importance
+that his enemies, who failed to burn him at the stake in life, ordered
+his grave to be desecrated.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+At first Wyclif had the support of the king and of the university, as
+well as the protection of the Prince of Wales.  But when, in 1381, he
+lectured at Oxford against transubstantiation, he lost the royal
+protection, and by a senate of twelve doctors was forbidden longer to
+lecture at the university, although he continued preaching until his
+death.  As his opinions agreed very nearly with those of Calvin and
+Luther, he has been called "the morning star of the Reformation."  The
+Council of Constance, before burning John Huss and Jerome of Prague at
+the stake, condemned the doctrines of Wyclif in forty-five articles,
+declared him a heretic, and ordered his body to be removed from
+consecrated ground and thrown upon a dunghill.  Thirteen years later
+Clement VIII, hyena-like, ordered his bones to be burned and the ashes
+thrown into the Swift.  Thus his short-sighted enemies thought to stay
+the tide of a great reformation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+John Huss, a Bohemian reformer, followed closely after the doctrine of
+Wyclif, although he disagreed with him in his opposition to
+transubstantiation.  He preached for constitutional reform of the
+church, reformative administration, and morality.  He urged a return to
+the Bible as a criterion for belief and a guide to action.  Finally he
+was summoned to the Council of Constance to answer for his heresy, and
+guaranteed safe-conduct by the Emperor Sigismund, who presided; but,
+notwithstanding this promise, the council declared him a heretic and
+burned him at the stake with Jerome of Prague.  This was one of the
+results of the so-called reforming Council of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P380"></A>380}</SPAN>
+Constance&mdash;its
+reform consisted in silencing the opponents of papal authority and
+corruption.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+John Tauler belonged to a group of people called mystic philosophers,
+who, though remaining within the church, opposed dogmatism and
+formalism and advocated spiritual religion.  Their doctrine was to
+leave formality and return to God.  Many other societies, calling
+themselves "Friends of God," sprang up in the Netherlands and in the
+south and west of Germany.  John Tauler was the most prominent of all
+their preachers.  He held that man is justified by faith alone, and
+Luther, who republished Tauler's book on German theology,[<A NAME="chap24fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap24fn1">1</A>] asserted
+that it had more influence over him than any other books, except the
+Bible and the works of Saint Augustine.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Savonarola, a most powerful orator and great scholar of Italy, lifted
+his voice in favor of reform in the church administration and in favor
+of the correction of abuses.  He transcended the teachings of the
+schools of philosophy, departed from the dogma of the church, and
+preached in the name of God and His Son.  He was shocked at the signs
+of immorality which he saw in common society.  As a preacher of
+righteousness, he prophesied a judgment speedily to come unless men
+turned from the error of their ways.  But in the ways of the world he
+paid for his boldness and his enthusiasm, for the pope excommunicated
+him, and his enemies created distrust of him in the hearts of the
+people.  He was put in prison, afterward brought to trial and condemned
+to death, and finally hanged and burned and his ashes thrown into the
+Arno&mdash;all because the pope hoped to stay the tide of religious and
+social reform.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Immediate Causes of the Reformation</I>.&mdash;Mr. Bryce, in his <I>Holy Roman
+Empire</I>,[<A NAME="chap24fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap24fn2">2</A>] says:
+</P>
+
+<P>
+"There is perhaps no event in history which has been represented in so
+great a variety of lights as the Reformation.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P381"></A>381}</SPAN>
+It has been called
+a revolt of the laity against the clergy, or of the Teutonic races
+against the Italians, or of the kingdoms of Europe against the
+universal monarchy of the popes.  Some have seen in it only a burst of
+long-repressed anger at the luxury of the prelates and the manifold
+abuses of the ecclesiastical system; others a renewal of the youth of
+the church by a return to primitive forms of doctrine.  All these,
+indeed, to some extent it was; but it was also something more profound,
+and fraught with mightier consequences than any of them.  It was in its
+essence the assertion of the principle of individuality&mdash;that is to
+say, of true spiritual freedom."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The primary nature of the Reformation was, first, a return to primitive
+belief and purity of worship.  This was accompanied by a protest
+against the vices and the abuses of the church and of formalism in
+practice.  It was also an open revolt against the authority of the
+church, authority not only in constitution and administration but in
+spiritual affairs.  According to Bryce, "true spiritual freedom" was
+the prime motive in the religious revolution.  And Guizot, in his
+chapter on the Reformation, clusters all statements around a single
+idea, the idea that it was freedom of the mind in religious belief and
+practice which was the chief purpose of the Reformation.[<A NAME="chap24fn3text"></A><A HREF="#chap24fn3">3</A>]  But the
+immediate causes of the precipitation of the Reformation may be stated
+as follows:
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>First</I>.&mdash;The great and continued attack on the unreasonableness of the
+Roman Catholic Church, caused by the great mental awakening which had
+taken place everywhere in Europe, the persistent and shameless
+profligacy of the clergy and the various monastic orders and sects, the
+dissolute and rapacious character of many of the popes, and the
+imperial attitude of the entire papacy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Second</I>.&mdash;We may consider as another cause the influence of the art of
+printing, which scattered the Bible over the land, so that it could be
+read by a large number of people, who were thus incited to independent
+belief.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P382"></A>382}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>Finally</I>.&mdash;It may be said that the sale of indulgences, and
+particularly the pretensions of many of the agents of the pope as to
+their power to release from the bondage of sin, created intense disgust
+and hatred of the church, and caused the outbreak of the Reformation.[<A NAME="chap24fn4text"></A><A HREF="#chap24fn4">4</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Luther Was the Hero of the Reformation in Germany</I>.&mdash;He was not the
+cause of the Reformation, only its most powerful and efficient agency,
+for the Reformation would have taken place in time had Luther never
+appeared.  Somebody would have led the phalanx, and, indeed, Luther,
+led steadily on in his thought and researches, became a reformer and
+revolutionist almost before he was aware.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+He began (1517) by preaching against the sale of indulgences.  He
+claimed that works had been made a substitute for faith, while man is
+justified by faith alone.  His attack on indulgences brought him in
+direct conflict with one Tetzel, who stirred up the jealousy of other
+monks, who reported Luther to Pope Leo X.[<A NAME="chap24fn5text"></A><A HREF="#chap24fn5">5</A>]  Luther, in a letter to
+the pope, proclaimed his innocence, saying that he is misrepresented
+and called heretic "and a thousand ignominious names; these things
+shock and amaze me; one thing only sustains me&mdash;the sense of my
+innocence."  He had pinned his ninety-five theses on the door of the
+church at Wittenberg.  In writing to the pope he claimed that these
+were set forth for their own local interest at the university, and that
+he knows not why they "should go forth into all the earth."  Then he
+says: "But what shall I do?  Recall them I cannot, and yet I see their
+notoriety bringeth upon me great odium."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But Luther, in spite of the censure of the pope and his friends, was
+still an ardent adherent to the papal power and the authority of the
+church.  He says to the pope: "Save or slay, kill or recall, approve or
+disapprove, as it shall please you, I will acknowledge you even as the
+voice of Christ
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P383"></A>383}</SPAN>
+presiding and speaking in you."  In writing to
+Spalatine, he says that he may err in disputation, but that he is never
+to be a heretic, that he wishes to decide no doctrine, "only I am not
+willing to be the slave of the opinions of men."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Luther persisted in his course of criticism.  To Staupitz he wrote: "I
+see that attempts are made at Rome that the kingdom of truth, <I>i.e.</I>,
+of Christ, be no longer the kingdom of truth."  After the pope had
+issued his first brief condemning him, Luther exclaimed: "It is
+incredible that a thing so monstrous should come from the chief
+pontiff, especially Leo X.  If in truth it be come forth from the Roman
+court, then I will show them their most licentious temerity and their
+ungodly ignorance."  These were bold words from a man who did not wish
+to become a reformer, a revolutionist, or a heretic.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Now the pope regarded this whole affair as a quarrel of monks, and
+allowed Luther to give his side of the story.  He was induced to send a
+certain cardinal legate, Cajetan, to Augsburg to bring this heretic
+into submission, but the legate failed to bring Luther into subjection.
+Luther then appealed to the pope, and when the pope issued a bull
+approving of the sale of indulgences, Luther appealed to the council.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Thus far Luther had only protested against the perversion of the rules
+of the church and of the papal doctrine, but there followed the public
+disputations with Doctor John Eck, the vice-chancellor of the
+University of Ingolstadt, in which the great subject under discussion
+was the primacy of the pope.  Luther held that the pope was not
+infallible that he might err in matters of doctrine, and that the
+general council, which represented the universal church, should decide
+the case.  Now Luther had already asserted that certain doctrines of
+Huss were true, but the Council of Constance had condemned these and
+burned Huss at the stake.  Luther was compelled by his shrewd opponent
+to acknowledge that a council also might err, and he had then to
+maintain his position that the pope and the council both might err and
+to commit himself to the proposition that there is no absolute
+authority on the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P384"></A>384}</SPAN>
+face of the earth to interpret the will of God.
+But now Luther was forced to go yet a step farther.  When the papal
+bull condemning him and excommunicating him was issued, he took the
+bull and burned it in the presence of a concourse of people, and then
+wrote his address to the German nobles.  He thus set at defiance the
+whole church government and authority.  He had become an open
+revolutionist.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Catholic Church, to defend itself from the position it had taken
+against Luther, reasoned in this way: "Where there is difference of
+opinion, there is doubt; where there is doubt, there is no certainty;
+where there is no certainty, there is no knowledge.  Therefore, if
+Luther is right, that there is room for difference of opinion about
+divine revelation, then we have no knowledge of that revelation."  In
+this way did the Roman Church attempt to suppress all freedom of
+religious belief.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For the opposition which Luther made, he was summoned to appear before
+the Diet of Augsburg, which condemned him as a heretic.  Had it not
+been that Charles V, who presided, had promised him a safe-conduct to
+and from the diet, Luther would have suffered the same fate as John
+Huss.  Indeed, it is said that Charles V, when near his death,
+regretted that he had not burned Luther at the stake.  It shows how
+little the emperor knew of the real spiritual scope of the Reformation,
+that he hoped to stay its tide by the burning of one man.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The safe-conduct of Luther by Charles V was decided on account of the
+existing state of European politics.  The policy followed by the
+emperor at the diet was not based upon the arguments which Luther so
+powerfully presented before the diet, but upon a preconceived policy.
+Had the Emperor of Germany been only King of Spain in seeking to keep
+the pretentious power of the pope within bounds he might have gained a
+great advantage by uniting with Luther in the Reformation.  But as
+emperor he needed the support of the pope, on account of the danger of
+invasion of Italy by Francis I of France.  He finally concluded it
+would be best to declare Luther a heretic, but he was impotent to
+enforce
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P385"></A>385}</SPAN>
+punishment by death.  In this way he would set himself
+directly in opposition to the Reformation and save his crown.
+Apparently Charles cared less for the Reformation than he did for his
+own political preservation.[<A NAME="chap24fn6text"></A><A HREF="#chap24fn6">6</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+From this time on the Reformation in Germany became wholly political.
+Its advantages and disadvantages hung largely upon the political
+intrigues and manipulations of the European powers.  It furnished the
+means of an economic revolt, which Luther, having little sympathy with
+the common people in their political and social bondage, was called to
+suppress from the castle of Wartburg.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Reformation spread rapidly over Germany until the time of the
+organization of the Jesuits, in 1542, when fully two-thirds of all
+Germany had revolted from papal authority and had become Protestant.
+After the organization of the Jesuits, the Reformation declined, on
+account of the zeal of that organization and the dissensions which
+arose among the Protestants.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Zwingli Was the Hero of the Reformation in Switzerland</I>.&mdash;The
+Reformation which was begun by Zwingli at first took on a social and a
+political aspect and, being soon taken up by the state, resulted in a
+decision by the Council of Zurich that no preacher could advance any
+arguments not found in the Old or New Testament.  This position, with
+some variations, was maintained through the entire Reformation.  The
+moral and religious condition of the people of Switzerland was at a
+very low ebb, and the course of the Reformation was to preach against
+abuses.  Zwingli drew his knowledge and faith from the Bible, holding
+that for authority one ought to return to it or to the primitive
+church.  He advocated the abolition of image-worship, and, in addition,
+the abolition of enforced celibacy, nunneries, and the celebration of
+the mass.  He held, too, that there ought to be a return to local
+church government, and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P386"></A>386}</SPAN>
+that all of the cloisters should be
+converted into schools.  He objected to so many days being devoted to
+the festivals of the saints, because it lessened the productive power
+of the people.  The whole tenor of his preaching was that the Bible
+should be used as the basis of doctrine, and that there is no mediation
+except through Jesus Christ.  As to the doctrine of the sacrament, he
+believed that the bread and wine are merely symbols, thus approximating
+the belief as established by the Protestants of the present day.  On
+the other hand, Luther persistently held to the doctrine of
+transubstantiation, though the organized Protestant churches held to
+"consubstantiation."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Reformation in Switzerland tended to develop more strongly an
+independent political existence, to make for freedom and righteousness,
+to work practical reforms in the abuses of both church and state, and
+to promote a deeper spiritual religion among the people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Calvin Establishes the Genevan System</I>.&mdash;John Calvin was driven out of
+France on account of his preaching.  He went to Geneva and there
+perfected a unique system of religious organization.  Perhaps it is the
+most complete system of applied theology developed by any of the
+reformers.  While it did not strongly unite the church and the state on
+the same foundation of government, it placed them in such a close unity
+that the religious power would be felt in every department of state
+life.  The Genevan system was well received in France, became the
+foundation of the reform party there, and subsequently extended its
+influence to Scotland, and, finally, to England.  It became the
+foundation of Presbyterianism throughout the world.  While Calvinism
+was severe and arbitrary in its doctrine, on account of its system of
+administration, it greatly advanced civil liberty and gave a strong
+impulse toward democracy.  It was the central force in the Commonwealth
+of England, and upheld the representative system of government, which
+led to the establishment of constitutional liberty.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Reformation in England Differed from the German</I>.&mdash;The work of
+John Wyclif and his followers was so remote from
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P387"></A>387}</SPAN>
+the period of
+the Reformation as to have very little immediate influence.  Yet, in a
+general way, the influence of the teachings of Wyclif continued
+throughout the Reformation.  The religious change came about slowly in
+England and was modified by political affairs.  People gradually became
+liberal on the subject of religion, and began to exercise independent
+thought as to church government.  Yet, outwardly, at the beginning of
+the sixteenth century, the followers of John Wyclif made no impression
+upon religious affairs.  The new learning, advocated by such men as
+Erasmus, Colet, and More, was gaining ground rapidly in England.  Its
+quickening influence was observed everywhere.  It was confined to no
+particular field, but touched all departments, religious, social,
+political.  It invaded the territory of art, of education, of
+literature.  Henry VIII favored the new learning and gave it great
+impulse by his patronage.  But the new learning in England was
+antagonistic to the Reformation of Luther.  The circumstances were
+different, and Luther attacked the attitude of the English reformers,
+who desired a slow change in church administration and a gradual
+purification of the ecclesiastical atmosphere.  The difference of
+opinion called out a fierce attack by Henry VIII on Luther, which gave
+the king the title of "Defender of the Faith."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The real beginning of the Reformation in England was a revolt from the
+papacy by the English king for political reasons.  England established
+a national church, with the king at its head, and made changes in the
+church government and reformed abuses.  The national, or Anglican,
+Church once formed, the struggle began, on the one hand, between it and
+the Catholic Church, and on the other, at a later date, against
+Puritanism.  The Anglican Church was not fully established until the
+reign of Elizabeth.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The real spirit of the Reformation in England is best exhibited in the
+rise of Puritanism, which received its impulse largely from the
+Calvinistic branch of the Reformation.  The whole course of the
+Reformation outside of the influence of the new learning, or humanism,
+was of a political nature.  The
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P388"></A>388}</SPAN>
+revolt from Rome was prompted by
+political motives; the Puritan movement was accompanied with political
+democracy.  The result was to give great impetus to constitutional
+liberty, stimulate intellectual activity, and to declare for freedom of
+conscience in religious matters.  Yet it was a long way from complete
+religious toleration and the full establishment of the rights and
+liberties of the people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Many Phases of Reformation in Other Countries</I>.&mdash;The Reformation in
+Spain was crushed by the power of the church, which used the weapon of
+the Inquisition so effectively.  In Italy the papal power prevailed
+almost exclusively.  In the Netherlands we find almost complete
+conversion to Protestantism, and in the other northern countries we
+find Protestantism prevailing to a great extent.  Indeed, we shall find
+between the north and the south an irregular line dividing
+Protestantism from Catholicism, in the north the former predominating,
+in the south the latter.  In France a long, severe struggle between
+Catholicism and Protestantism took place.  It was combined with the
+struggle of political factions, and led to bitter, hard oppression.  In
+fact, the Reformation varied in different countries according to the
+political, social, and intellectual state of each.  Interesting as the
+history of these countries is, it is not necessary to follow it to
+determine the spirit and results of the Reformation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Results of the Reformation Were Far-Reaching</I>.&mdash;The results of the
+Reformation interest us in this discussion far more than its historical
+progress.  In the first place, we shall find, as the primary result,
+that the northern nations were separated from the power of Rome and the
+great ecclesiastical power that the papacy possessed was broken.  It
+could no longer maintain its position of supremacy throughout the
+world.  Although it still was powerful, especially in Italy and
+Austria, it could no longer rest its assumption on absolute authority,
+but must demonstrate that power by intrigue and political prowess in
+order to cope with the nations of Europe.  In the second place, there
+was a development of political liberty.  The nations had freed
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P389"></A>389}</SPAN>
+themselves from the domination and imperial power of the church, and
+were left alone to carry on their own affairs and develop their
+national freedom.  But there was something more in the development of
+the Reformation than those things which made for religious liberty.  To
+the desire of freedom of the mind in religious belief the desire for
+freedom in political life had joined itself, and we shall find that the
+Reformation everywhere stirred up a desire for political liberty.  The
+fires of freedom, thus lighted, never went out, but slowly burned on
+until they burst out in the great conflagration of the French
+Revolution.  Political liberty, then, was engendered and developed in
+the hearts of men and nations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Again, the foundation of religious toleration was laid by the
+Reformation, although it was not yet secured, for it must be maintained
+that even Luther was as persistent and dogmatic in his own position, as
+intolerant of the beliefs of other people, as was the papal authority
+itself.  Convinced that he was right, he recognized no one's right to
+differ from his opinion, even though he himself had revolted from the
+authority of the church.  He showed his bigotry and lack of tolerance
+in his treatment of Zwingli, of Calvin, and of Erasmus.  Most of the
+early reformers, indeed, were intolerant of the opinions of others; the
+development of religious toleration has been a very slow process, not
+only in Europe but in America.  The many and various phases of the
+Reformation nevertheless made as a whole for religious toleration.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When in the Reformation in Germany it was decided at the religious
+peace of Augsburg that Catholics and Protestants should have the same
+privileges, only one division of Protestants was recognized, and that
+was the Lutheran division.  Calvinists were entirely excluded.  It was
+not until the peace of Westphalia in 1648, which closed the great
+struggle known as the Thirty Years' War, that all denominations were
+recognized upon the same basis.  The struggle for religious toleration
+in England is a history in itself, and it was not until the last
+century that it might be said that toleration really existed
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P390"></A>390}</SPAN>
+in
+the United Kingdom, for during two centuries or more there was a state
+religion supported by revenues raised by taxing the people, although
+other churches were tolerated.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Another great result of the Reformation was the advancement of
+intellectual progress.  All progress rests primarily upon freedom of
+the mind, and whatever enhances that freedom has a tendency to promote
+intellectual progress.  The advancement of language and letters, of
+philosophy and science, and of all forms of knowledge, became rapid on
+account of this intense activity of the mind.  The revival of learning
+received a new impulse in the development of man's spiritual nature&mdash;an
+impulse which was felt throughout the entire world.  In this respect
+the Reformation was far-reaching in its consequences.  The church no
+longer assumed the sole power to think for the people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Again, it may be said that the Reformation improved man's material
+progress.  The development of the independent individual life brought
+about strength of character, industry, and will force, which, in turn,
+built up material affairs and made great improvements in the economic
+conditions of man.  Everywhere that Protestantism prevailed there was a
+rapid increase of wealth and better economic conditions.  Trade and
+commerce improved rapidly, and the industrial life went through a
+process of revolution.  Freedom upon a rational basis always brings
+about this vital prosperity, while despotism suppresses the desires of
+man for a better economic life.  So we shall find that intellectual and
+material progress followed everywhere in the course of the Reformation,
+while those states and nations over which the papal authority retained
+its strongest hold began to decline in intellectual power and material
+welfare.  Such was the force of the Reformation to renovate and
+rejuvenate all which it touched.  It made possible the slow evolution
+of the independence of the common man and established the dignity of
+labor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Finally, let it be said that the Reformation caused a
+counter-reformation within the Catholic Church.  For many years
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P391"></A>391}</SPAN>
+there was an earnest reform going on within the Romanist Church.
+Abuses were corrected, vices eradicated, the religious tone of church
+administration improved, and the general character of church polity
+changed in very many ways.  But once having reformed itself, the church
+became more arbitrary than before.  In the Council of Trent, in clearly
+defining its position, it declared its infallibility and absolute
+authority, thus relapsing into the old imperial régime.  But the
+Reformation, after all, was the salvation of the Roman Church, for
+through it that church was enabled to correct a sufficient number of
+abuses to regain its power and re-establish confidence in itself among
+the people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Reformation, like the Renaissance, has been going on ever since it
+started, and we may say to-day that, so far as most of the results are
+concerned, we are yet in the midst of both.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  Needed reforms in the church and why they failed.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  Enumerate the causes that led to the Reformation prior to Luther.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  Compare the main characteristics in the Reformation in the
+following countries: Germany, England, Switzerland, and France.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  What were the characteristics of the Genevan system instituted by
+John Calvin?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  The results of the Reformation on intellectual development,
+political freedom, scientific thought, and, in general, on human
+progress.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  The effect of the Reformation on the character and policy of the
+Romanist Church (Catholic).
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  What was the nature of the quarrels of Henry IV and Gregory VII, of
+Innocent III and John of England, of Boniface and Philip the Fair?
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap24fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap24fn2"></A>
+<A NAME="chap24fn3"></A>
+<A NAME="chap24fn4"></A>
+<A NAME="chap24fn5"></A>
+<A NAME="chap24fn6"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap24fn1text">1</A>] <I>Theologia Germania</I>, generally accredited to Tauler, but written
+by one of his followers.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap24fn2text">2</A>] <I>The Holy Roman Empire</I>, p. 327.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap24fn3text">3</A>] <I>History of Civilization</I>, vol. I, pp. 255-257.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap24fn4text">4</A>] Recent writers emphasize the economic and national causes, which
+should be added to this list.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap24fn5text">5</A>] Luther sent his ninety-five theses to Archbishop Albert of Mainz.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap24fn6text">6</A>] Luther had many friends In the diet.  Also he was in his own
+country before a German national assembly.  Huss was in a foreign
+country before a church assembly.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap25"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P392"></A>392}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XXV
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CONSTITUTIONAL LIBERTY AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>Progress in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries</I>.&mdash;It is not easy
+to mark in brief space the steps of progress in the complex activities
+of the great movements of society of the first centuries of the period
+of modern history.  It is not possible to relate the details of the
+great historical movements, with their many phases of life moving on
+toward great achievements.  Only a few of the salient and vital
+features may be presented, but these will be sufficient to show the
+resultant general achievements coming from the interaction of a
+multitude of forces of an expanding civilization.  The great
+determiners of this period are found in the national life of England,
+France, Germany, and America.  Out of many complex movements and causes
+the dominant factor is the struggle of monarchy and democracy.  The
+revival of learning, the Protestant revolution, and the attempts at
+popular government heralded the coming of political liberty and the
+recognition of the rights of man.  The whole complex is a vivid example
+of the processes of social evolution through the interaction of groups,
+each moving about a central idea.  Again and again when freedom of mind
+and liberty of action seem to be successful, they have been obscured by
+new social maladies or retarded by adverse environmental conditions.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Struggle of Monarchy with Democracy</I>.&mdash;In a previous chapter, in
+which were recounted the early attempts at popular representation, it
+was shown that in nearly every instance the rise of popular power was
+suppressed by the rapid and universal growth of monarchy.  Having
+obtained power by combining with the people in their struggle against
+the nobility, monarchy finally denied the people the right to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P393"></A>393}</SPAN>
+participate in the government.  It was recognized nearly everywhere in
+Europe as the dominant type of government through which all nations
+must pass.  Through it the will of the people was to find expression,
+or, to use a more exact statement, monarchy proposed to express the
+will of the people without asking their permission.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The intellectual revival which spread over Europe tended to free the
+mind from the binding power of tradition, prestige, and dogmatism, and
+to give it freedom in religious belief.  But while these great
+movements were taking place, monarchy was being established in Europe,
+and wherever monarchy was established without proper checks of
+constitutional government, it became powerful and arbitrary to such a
+degree as to force the people into a mighty cry for political liberty.
+In France royalty ran rapidly into imperialism; in Spain it became
+oppressive; but in England there was a decided check upon its absolute
+assumptions by way of slowly developing constitutional liberty.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Struggle for Constitutional Liberty in England</I>.&mdash;For a long period
+monarchy had to struggle fiercely with the feudal nobility of England,
+but finally came off conqueror, and then assumed such arbitrary powers
+as appeared necessary for the government of the realm of England.  It
+was inevitable, however, that in a people whose minds had been
+emancipated from absolute spiritual power and given freedom of thought,
+a conflict would eventually occur with monarchy which had suppressed
+municipal liberty, feudal nobility, and popular representation.  Pure
+monarchy sought at all times the suppression of political liberty.
+Hence, in England, there began a struggle against the assumptions of
+absolute monarchy and in favor of the liberty of the people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There grew up in England under the Tudors an advocacy of the inherited
+rights of kings.  There was a systematic development of arbitrary power
+until monarchy in England declared itself superior to all laws and to
+all constitutional rights and duties.  In another place it has been
+told how the English
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P394"></A>394}</SPAN>
+Reformation was carried on by the kings as a
+political institution, how the authority of Rome was overthrown and the
+kings of England seized the opportunity to enhance their power and
+advance their own interests.  When the people realized that they had
+exchanged an arbitrary power in Rome for an arbitrary power in England,
+centred in the king, they cried out again at this latter tyranny, and
+sought for religious reform against the authority of the church.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This movement was accompanied by a desire for political reform, also.
+Indeed, all civil and religious authority centred in one person, the
+king, and a reform of religious administration could not take place
+without a reform of the political.  The activity of English commerce
+and the wide-spread influence of the revival of learning, which
+developed a new and independent literary culture, made life intense and
+progress rapid.  When this spirit of political liberty sought
+expression in England, it found it in the ancient privileges and rights
+of the English people, to which they sought to return.  It was
+unfortunate that the desires for political liberty on the continent
+found no such means to which they could attach their ideas of a liberal
+government.  In England we find these old rights and privileges a ready
+support for the principles of constitutional liberty.  There were many
+precedents and examples of liberty which might be recalled for the
+purpose of quickening the zeal of the people&mdash;many, indeed, had been
+continued in local communities.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Nor were the English government and law wanting in the principles of
+liberty which had been handed down from former generations.  Moreover,
+it became necessary, as a practical measure, for the kings of England,
+if they desired to maintain their position, to call a parliament of the
+people for the sake of their co-operation and help in the support of
+the government.  It is seen, therefore, that in England the spirit of
+constitutional liberty, though perhaps suppressed at times, never
+perished, though the assumption of royal power was very great, and when
+the party which was seeking to carry forward
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P395"></A>395}</SPAN>
+religious reform
+joined itself to the party seeking political liberty, there was aroused
+a force in England which would be sure to prove a check on royalty and
+insure the rights and privileges of a free people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Though the sentiment for religious reform was general throughout
+England, this principle was viewed in many different ways by different
+parties.  Thus the pure-monarchy party saw many evils in the laws of
+England and in the administration of affairs, and sought reform, but
+without yielding anything of the high conception of the absolute power
+of the king.  They believed that the ancient laws and precedents of
+England were a check upon monarchy sufficient to reform all abuses of
+power that might arise.  They acknowledged the divine right of kings
+and thought that royalty possessed a superior power, but they held that
+it was obliged, for its own preservation and the proper government of
+the realm, to confine its activity within certain limits.  Two other
+parties, the one political and the other religious, went hand in hand,
+both for revolution.  The former denied the absolute sovereignty of the
+king and sought a great change in the form, the spirit, and the
+structure of government.  They held that the ultimate power of control
+should rest in the House of Commons as the representative of the
+people.  The latter party sought the same process within the church.
+They held that it should be controlled by assemblages of the people,
+maintained that decentralization should take place and the constitution
+of the church be changed as well as its form of administration.  It is
+easy to see that the leaders of either of these parties were also
+leaders of the other.  A fourth party sought to repudiate the
+constitution, as radically wrong, and to build up an entirely new
+political system.  It disregarded the past life of England and
+repudiated all precedents, desiring to build up a new government
+founded upon abstract theories of right and justice.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The course of history under these four parties is plain.  Each one,
+struggling for power, tried to manage the government
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P396"></A>396}</SPAN>
+upon its
+particular theory, and signally failed.  The struggle in the House of
+Commons, had it not finally brought about such great consequences,
+would be disgusting and discouraging in the extreme.  The struggle in
+England for liberty of conscience and for government of the people
+through Parliament went on through turmoil and disgrace for two
+centuries.  It was king against the people, Catholic against
+Protestant, and, within the latter group, Anglican, Presbyterian, and
+independent, each against one another.  All sorts of unjust and inhuman
+practices were indulged in.  It would seem that the spirit of Magna
+Charta and of the Christian religion was constantly outraged.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+When Henry VIII, in 1521, wrote his attack on Luther embodied in the
+<I>Assertion of the Seven Sacraments</I>, Pope Leo X gave him the title of
+"Defender of the Faith."  Subsequently, when he appealed to the pope to
+help him settle his marital difficulties, the pope refused to support
+him, and finally excommunicated him for divorcing his wife Catherine.
+This led to a break with Rome, and the Supremacy Act, which made the
+king protector and only supreme head of the church and clergy of
+England.  This inaugurated the long struggle between Catholic and
+Protestant, with varying fortunes to each side.  The Tudor period
+closed with the death of Elizabeth, in 1603, with a fairly
+well-established conformity to the Anglican Church; but Puritanism was
+growing slowly but surely, which meant a final disruption.  From this
+time on there was confusion of political and religious affairs for
+another century.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In 1621 Parliament rebuked King James I for his high-handed proceedings
+with protestation: "That the liberties, franchises, privileges, and
+jurisdictions of Parliament are the ancient and undoubted birthright
+and inheritance of the subjects of England, and that the arduous and
+urgent affairs of the king, state, and defense of the realm ... are
+proper subjects and matters of council and debate in Parliament."  The
+king tore the page containing the resolution from the journal of
+Parliament; but this did not retard the struggle for the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P397"></A>397}</SPAN>
+recognition of ancient rights.  The strife went on throughout the reign
+of the Stuarts, until Charles I lost his head and the nation was
+plunged into a great civil war.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There finally appeared on the scene of action a man of destiny.
+Cromwell, seizing the opportunity, turned everything toward democracy,
+and ruled republicans, Puritans, and royalists with such an iron hand
+that his painful democracy came to a sudden close through reaction
+under the rule of his successor.  The Stuarts again came into power,
+and, believing in the divine right of kings&mdash;a principle which seems to
+have been imbibed from the imperialism of France&mdash;sought to bring
+everything into subordination to royalty.  The people, weary of the
+irregular government caused by the attempts of the different parties to
+rule, and tired of the abuses and irregularities of the administration,
+welcomed the restoration of royalty as an advantage to the realm.  But
+the Stuarts sought not only to rule with high hand, regardless of the
+wants, desires, and will of the people, but also to bring back the
+absolute authority of the papacy.  By their arbitrary, high-handed
+proceedings, they brought the English government to a crisis which was
+ended only by the coming of William of Orange to rule upon the throne
+with constitutional right; for the people seized their opportunity to
+demand a guaranty of the rights of freemen which would thoroughly
+establish the principle of constitutional liberty in England.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But the declaration of Parliament at the accession of William and Mary,
+which subsequently was enacted as a famous Bill of Rights, showed a
+great permanent gain in constitutional liberty.  It centred the power
+in Parliament, whose authority was in the Commons.  It was true the
+arbitrary power of kings came to the front during the rule of the four
+Georges, but it was without avail, and reform measures followed their
+reign.  Constitutional government had won.  It is true that the
+revolution failed to establish religious toleration, but it led the way
+with rapid strides.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the progress of civil liberty and freedom of conscience in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P398"></A>398}</SPAN>
+England, the literature of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries had
+a powerful influence.  In the world of ideas, freedom of thought found
+expression through the great writers.  While few attacked the evils of
+government, they were not wanting in setting forth high ideals of life,
+liberty, and justice.  Such men as John Milton, John Locke, John
+Bunyan, and Shakespeare turned the thinking world toward better things
+in government and life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Thus England had a check on the growth of monarchy, while freedom of
+investigation led to an inquiry about the rights of the people; hence,
+the seeds of popular liberty were growing at the time monarchy was
+making its greatest assumption.  The people never yielded, in theory at
+least, their ancient rights to the absolute control of royalty.
+Kingship in England was developed through service, and while the
+English were strong for monarchy because it expressed a unity of the
+nation, they expected the king to consider the rights of the people,
+which gave rise to a complex movement in England, making for religious
+and political liberty, in which all classes were engaged in some degree
+at different times.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In France, however, it was different.  At first the feudal nobility
+ruled with absolute sway.  It continued in power long enough to direct
+the thoughts of the people toward it and to establish itself as a
+complete system.  It had little opposition in the height of its power.
+When monarchy arose it, too, had the field all to itself.  People
+recognized this as the only legitimate form of government.  Again, when
+monarchy failed, people rushed enthusiastically to democracy, and in
+their wild enthusiasm made of it a government of terror.  How different
+were the results.  In England there was a slow evolution of
+constitutional government in which the rights of the people, the king,
+the nobility, and the clergy were respected, and each class fell into
+its proper place in the government.  In France, each separate power
+made its attempt to govern, and failed.  Its history points to a truth,
+namely, that no kind of government is safe without a system of checks.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P399"></A>399}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Place of France in Modern Civilization</I>.&mdash;Guizot tries to show
+that in the seventeenth century France led the civilization of the
+world; that while Louis XIV was carrying absolute government to its
+greatest height, philosophy, art, and letters flourished; that France,
+by furnishing unique and completed systems, has led the European world
+in civilization.  To a great extent this is true, for France had better
+opportunities to develop an advanced civilization than any other
+European nation.  It must be remembered that France, at an early
+period, was completely Romanized, and never lost the force and example
+of the Roman civilization; and, also, that in the invasion of the
+Norman, the northern spirit gave France vigor, while its crude forms
+were overcome by the more cultured forms of French life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+While other nations were still in turmoil France developed a distinct
+and separate nationality.  At an early period she cast off the power of
+Rome and maintained a separate ecclesiastical system which tended to
+develop an independent spirit and further increase nationality.  Her
+population was far greater than that of any other nation, and her
+wealth and national resources were vastly superior to those of others.
+These elements gave France great prestige and great power, and fitted
+her to lead in civil progress.  They permitted her to develop a high
+state of civilization.  If the genius of the French people gave them
+adaptability in communicating their culture to others, it certainly was
+of service to Europe.  Yet the service of France must not be too highly
+estimated.  If, working in the dark, other nations, not so far advanced
+as France on account of material causes, were laying a foundation of
+the elements of civilization, which were to be of vast importance in
+the development of the race, it would appear that as great credit
+should be given them as to the French manners, genius, and culture
+which gave so little permanent benefit to the world.  Guizot wisely
+refrains from elaborating the vices of the French monarchy, and fails
+to point out the failure of the French system of government.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P400"></A>400}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Divine Right of Kings</I>.&mdash;From the advent of the Capetian dynasty
+of French kings royalty continually increased its power until it
+culminated under Louis XIV.  The court, the clergy, and, in fact, the
+greater number of the preachers of France, advocated the divine origin
+and right of kings.  If God be above all and over all, his temporal
+rulers as well as his spiritual rulers receive their power from him;
+hence the king receives his right to rule from God.  Who, then, has the
+right to oppose the king?  Upon this theory the court preachers adored
+him and in some instances deified him.  People sought to touch the hem
+of his garment, or receive from his divine majesty even a touch of the
+hand, that they might be healed of their infirmities.  In literature
+Louis was praised and deified.  The "Grand Monarch" was lauded and
+worshipped by the courtiers and nobles who circled around him.  He
+maintained an extravagant court and an elaborate etiquette, so
+extravagant that it depleted the rural districts of money, and drew the
+most powerful families to revolve around the king.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The extravagant life paralyzed the energies of kings and ministers, who
+built a government for the advantage of the governing and not the
+governed.  "I am the state!" said the Grand Monarch.  Although showing
+in many ways an enlightened absolutism, his rule plunged French royalty
+into despotism.  Louis XV held strongly to absolutism, but lacked the
+power to render it attractive and magnificent.  Louis XVI attempted to
+stem the rising tide, but it was too late.  The evils were too deeply
+seated; they could not be changed by any temporary expedient.  French
+royalty reached a logical outcome from all power to no power.  Louis
+XIV had built a strong, compact administration under the direction of
+able men, but it was wanting in liberty, it was wanting in justice, and
+it is only a matter of time when these deficiencies in a nation lead to
+destruction.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Power of the Nobility</I>.&mdash;The French nobility had been mastered by
+the king, but to keep them subservient, to make them circle around
+royalty and chant its praises, they were
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P401"></A>401}</SPAN>
+given a large extension
+of rights and privileges.  They were exempt from the responsibilities
+for crime; they occupied all of the important places in church and
+state; they were exempt from taxation; many who dwelt at the court with
+the king lived off the government; many were pensioned by the
+government, their chief recommendation apparently being idleness and
+worthlessness.  There was a great gulf between the peasantry and the
+nobility.  The latter had control of all the game of the forests and
+the fish in the rivers; one-sixth of all the grain grown in the realm
+went to the nobility, as did also one-sixth of all the land sold, and
+all confiscated property fell to them.  The peasants had no rights
+which the nobility were bound to respect.  The nobility, with all of
+the emoluments of office, owned, with the clergy, two-thirds of all the
+land.  Yet this unproductive class numbered only about 83,000 families.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Misery of the People</I>.&mdash;If the nobility despised the lower classes
+and ignored their rights, they in turn were hated intensely by those
+whom they sought to degrade.  The third estate in France was divided
+into the bourgeoisie and the peasantry and small artisans.  The former
+gradually deteriorated in character and tended toward the condition of
+the lowest classes.  By the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, a large
+number of the bourgeoisie, or middle class, was driven from France.
+This deprived France of the class that would have stood by the nation
+when it needed support, and would have stood for moderate
+constitutional government against the radical democrats like
+Robespierre and Marat.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The lowest class, composed of small peasant farmers, laborers, and
+artisans, were improved a little under the reign of Louis XIV, but this
+made them feel more keenly the degradation in succeeding years, from
+which there was no relief.  The condition of the people indicated that
+a revolution was on its way.  In the evolution of European society the
+common man was crowded down toward the condition of serfdom.  The
+extravagances and luxuries of life, the power of kings, bishops, and
+nobles bore like a burden of heavy weight upon his
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P402"></A>402}</SPAN>
+shoulders.  He
+was the common fodder that fed civilization, and because of this more
+than anything else, artificial systems of society were always running
+for a fall, for the time must come when the burdens destroy the
+foundation and the superstructure comes tumbling down.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Church</I>.&mdash;The church earned an important position in France soon
+after the conquest by the Romans; seizing opportunities, it came into
+power by right of service.  It brought the softening influences of
+religion; it established government where there was no government; it
+furnished a home for the vanquished and the oppressed; it preserved
+learning from the barbarians; it conquered and controlled the warlike
+spirit of the Germans; it provided the hungry with food, and by
+teaching agriculture added to the economic wealth of the community; and
+finally, it became learned, and thus brought order out of chaos.
+Surely the church earned its great position, and reaped its reward.
+Taine says:
+</P>
+
+<P>
+"Its popes for two hundred years were the dictators of Europe.  It
+organized crusades, dethroned monarchs, and distributed kingdoms.  Its
+bishops and abbots became here sovereign princes and there veritable
+founders of dynasties.  It held in its grasp a third of the territory,
+one-half the revenue, and two-thirds of the capital of Europe."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The church was especially strong in France.  It was closely allied to
+the state, and opposed everything that opposed the state.  When the
+king became the state, the church upheld the king.  The church of
+France, prior to the revolution, was rich and aristocratic.  In 1789
+its property was valued at 4,000,000,000 francs, and its income at
+200,000,000 francs; to obtain a correct estimate according to our
+modern measure of value, these amounts should be doubled.  In some
+territories the clergy owned one-half the soil, in others
+three-fourths, and in one, at least, fourteen-seventeenths of the land.
+The Abbey of St.-Germain-des-Prés possessed 900,000 acres.  Yet within
+the church were found both the wealthy and the poverty-stricken.  In
+one community was a bishop rolling in luxury
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P403"></A>403}</SPAN>
+and ease, in another
+a wretched, half-starved country curate trying to carry the gospel to
+half-starved people.  Such extremes were shocking commentaries upon a
+church founded on democracy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The church persecuted the literary men who expressed freedom of thought
+and opinion.  It ignored facts and the people distrusted it.  The
+religious reformation in France became identified with political
+factions, which brought the church into a prominent place in the
+government and made it take an important place in the revolution.  It
+had succeeded in suppressing all who sought liberty, either political
+or religious, and because of its prominence in affairs, it was the
+first institution to feel the storm of the revolution.  The church in
+France was attacked fully forty years before the king and the nobility
+were arraigned by the enraged populace.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Influence of the Philosophers</I>.&mdash;There appeared in France in the reign
+of Louis XV what was known as "the new literature," in contrast with
+the classic literature of the previous reign.  The king and the church
+combined fought this new literature, because it had a tendency to
+endanger absolutism.  It was made by such brilliant men as Helvetius,
+Montesquieu, Voltaire, Condillac, and Rousseau.  Perhaps the writings
+of these men had more to do with the precipitation of the revolution
+than the arbitrary assumptions of royalty, the wretchedness of the
+people, the supercilious abuses of the nobility, and the corruption of
+the church.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Without presenting the various philosophies of these writers, it may be
+said that they attacked the systems of government, religion, and
+philosophy prevailing in France, and each succeeding writer more boldly
+proclaimed the evils of the day.  Condillac finally convinced the
+people that they owed their evil conditions to the institutions of
+church and state under which they lived, and showed that, if they
+desired a change, all it was necessary to do was to sweep those
+institutions away.  Other philosophers speculated on the best means of
+improving the government.  Presenting ideal forms of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P404"></A>404}</SPAN>
+government
+and advocating principles not altogether certain in practice, they made
+it seem, through these speculative theories, that a perfect government
+is possible.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Of the great writers of France prior to the revolution who had a
+tremendous power in hastening the downfall of the royal régime, three
+stand out more prominently than others, namely, Voltaire, Montesquieu,
+and Rousseau.  Voltaire, keen critic and satirist, attacked the evils
+of society, the maladministration of courts and government, the
+dogmatism of the church, and aided and defended the victims of the
+system.  He was a student of Shakespeare, Locke, and Newton, and of
+English government.  He was highly critical but not constructive.
+Montesquieu, more philosophical, in his <I>Spirit of the Laws</I> pointed
+out the cause of evils, expounded the nature of governments, and upheld
+English liberty as worthy the consideration of France.  Rousseau,
+although he attacked civilization, depicting its miseries and
+inconsistencies, was more constructive, for in his <I>Social Contract</I> he
+advocated universal suffrage and government by the people through the
+principles of natural rights and mutual aid.  These writers aroused a
+spirit of liberty among the thoughtful which could not do otherwise
+than prove destructive to existing institutions.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Failure of Government</I>.&mdash;It soon became evident to all that a
+failure of the government from a practical standpoint was certain.  The
+burdens of unequal taxation could no longer be borne; the treasury was
+empty; there was no means of raising revenue to support the government
+as it was run; there was no one who could manage the finances of the
+nation; the administration of justice had fallen into disrepute; even
+if there had been an earnest desire to help the various classes of
+people in distress, there were no opportunities to do so.  Louis XVI,
+in his weakness, called the States-General for counsel and advice.  It
+was the first time the people had been called in council for more than
+200 years; monarchy had said it could run the government without the
+people, and now, on the verge of destruction, called upon the people to
+save it from the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P405"></A>405}</SPAN>
+wreck.  The well-intended king invoked a storm;
+his predecessors had sown the wind, he reaped the whirlwind.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>France on the Eve of the Revolution</I>.&mdash;The causes of the revolution
+were dependent, in part, upon the peculiarity of the character of the
+French people, for in no other way can the sudden outburst or the
+course of the revolution be accounted for.  Yet a glimpse at the
+condition of France before the storm burst will cause one to wonder,
+not that it came, but that it was so long delayed.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+A careful examination of the facts removes all mystery respecting the
+greatest political phenomenon of all history, and makes of it an
+essential outcome of previous conditions.  The French people were
+grossly ignorant of government.  The long period of misrule had
+distorted every form of legitimate government.  One school of political
+philosophers gave their attention to pointing out the evils of the
+system; another to presenting bright pictures of ideal systems of
+government which had never been put in practice.  The people found no
+difficulty in realizing the abuses of government, for they were intense
+sufferers from them, and, having no expression in the management of
+affairs, they readily adopted ideal theories for the improvement of
+social conditions.  Moreover, there was no national unity, no coherence
+of classes such as in former days brought strength to the government.
+Monarchy was divided against itself; the lay nobility had no loyalty,
+but were disintegrated by internal feuds; the people were divided into
+opposing classes; the clergy were rent asunder.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Monarchy, though harsh, arbitrary, and unjust, did not have sufficient
+coercive force to give a strong rule.  The church had lost its moral
+influence&mdash;indeed, morality was lacking within its organization.  It
+could persecute heretics and burn books which it declared to be
+obnoxious to its doctrines, but it could not work a moral reform, much
+less stem the tide that was carrying away its ancient prerogatives.
+The nobility had no power in the government, and the dissension between
+the crown, the nobility, and the church was continuous and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P406"></A>406}</SPAN>
+destructive of all authority.  Continuous and disreputable quarrels,
+profligacy, extravagance, and idleness characterized each group.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Worst of all was the condition of the peasantry.  The commons of
+France, numbering twenty-five millions of people, had, let it be said
+in their favor, no part in the iniquitous and oppressive government.
+They were never given a thought by the rulers except as a means of
+revenue.  There had grown up another, a middle class, especially in
+towns, who had grown wealthy by honest toil, and were living in ease
+and luxury, possessed of some degree of culture.  They disliked the
+nobles, on the one hand, and the peasants, on the other; hated and
+opposed the nobility and ignored the common people.  This class did not
+represent the sterling middle class of England or of modern life, but
+were the product of feudalism.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The condition of the rural peasantry is almost beyond description.
+Suffering from rack-rents, excessive taxation, and the abuses of the
+nobility, they presented a squalor and wretchedness worse than that of
+the lowest vassals of the feudal regime.  In the large cities collected
+the dangerous classes who hated the rich.  Ignorant, superstitious,
+half-starved, they were ready at a moment's notice to attack the
+wealthy and to destroy property.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The economic and financial conditions of the nation were deplorable,
+for the yield of wealth decreased under the poorly organized state.
+The laborers received such wages as left them at the verge of
+starvation and prepared them for open revolution.  The revenues
+reserved for the support of the government were insufficient for the
+common needs, and an empty treasury was the result.  The extravagance
+of king, court, and nobility had led to excessive expenditures and
+gross waste.  There were no able ministers to manage the affairs of the
+realm on an economic basis.  Add to these evils lack of faith, raillery
+at decency and virtue, and the poisonous effects of a weak and
+irresponsible philosophy, and there are represented sufficient evils to
+make a revolution whenever there is sufficient vigor to start it.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P407"></A>407}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Revolution</I>.&mdash;The revolution comes with all of its horrors.  The
+church is humbled and crushed, the government razed to the ground,
+monarchy is beheaded, and the flower of nobility cut off.  The wild mob
+at first seeks only to destroy; later it seeks to build a new structure
+on the ruins.  The weak monarch, attempting to stem the tide, is swept
+away by its force.  He summons the States-General, and the commons
+declare themselves the national assembly.  Stupendous events follow in
+rapid succession&mdash;the revolt in Paris, the insubordination of the army,
+the commune of Paris, and the storming of the Bastile.  The legislative
+assembly brings about the constitutional assembly, and laws are enacted
+for the relief of the people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Intoxicated with increasing liberty, the populace goes mad, and the
+legislators pass weak and harmful laws.  The law-making and
+constitutional bodies cannot make laws fast enough to regulate the
+affairs of the state.  Lawlessness and violence increase until the
+"reign of terror" appears with all its indescribable horrors.  The rest
+is plain.  Having levelled all government to the ground, having
+destroyed all authority, having shown themselves incapable of
+self-government, the French people are ready for Napoleon.  Under his
+command and pretense they march forth to liberate humanity from
+oppression in other nations, but in reality to a world conquest.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Results of the Revolution</I>.&mdash;The French Revolution was by far the most
+stupendous event of modern history.  It settled forever in the Western
+world the relation of man to government.  It taught that absolutism of
+any class, if unchecked, must lead sooner or later to the destruction
+of all authority.  It taught that men, to be capable of
+self-government, must be educated in its principles through a long
+period, yet proclaimed to the Western world the freedom of man, and
+asserted his right to participate in government.  While France
+temporarily failed to bring about this participation, it awoke the cry
+for independence, equality, and fraternity around the world.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The results of the revolution became the common property
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P408"></A>408}</SPAN>
+of all
+nations, and a universal sentiment arising from it pervaded every
+country, shaping its destiny.  The severe blow given to absolutism and
+exclusive privilege in church and state settled forever the theory of
+the divine right of kings and prelates to govern.  The revolution
+asserted that the precedent in religious and political affairs must
+yield to the necessities of the people; that there is no fixed
+principle in government except the right of man to govern himself.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The establishment of the theory of the natural right of man to
+participate in government had great influence on succeeding legislation
+and modified the policy of surrounding nations.  The social-contract
+theory was little understood and gave an incorrect notion of the nature
+of government.  In its historical creation, government was a growth,
+continually suiting itself to the changing needs of a people.  Its
+practice rested upon convenience and precedent, but the real test for
+participation in government was capability.  But the French Revolution
+startled the monarchs of Europe with the assumption of the natural
+right of people to self-government.  Possibly it is incorrect when
+carried to extremes, for the doctrine of natural right must be merged
+into the practice of social rights, duties, and privileges.  But it was
+a check on despotism.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The revolution had an influence on economic life also.  It was only a
+step from freedom of intellectual opinion to freedom of religious
+belief, and only a step from religious freedom to political liberty.
+Carried to its legitimate outcome, the growing sentiment of freedom
+asserted industrial liberty and economic equality.  Its influence in
+the emancipation of labor was far-reaching.  Many of the theories
+advanced in the French Revolution were impracticable; sentiments
+engendered were untrue, which in the long run would lead to injustice.
+Many of its promises remain unfulfilled, yet its lessons are still
+before us, its influence for good or evil continues unabated.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P409"></A>409}</SPAN>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  The progress in constitutional government was made in England
+during the Commonwealth.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  Changes in the social and economic condition of England from 1603
+to 1760.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  When did the Industrial Revolution begin?  What were its causes?
+What its results?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  The rise of British commerce.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  Effect of commerce on English economic and social life.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  Of what use to England were her American colonies?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  The effect of the American Revolution on the French Revolution.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+8.  The effect of the French Revolution on American liberty.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap26"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P413"></A>413}</SPAN>
+
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+<I>PART V</I>
+</H2>
+
+<H2 ALIGN="center">
+MODERN PROGRESS
+</H2>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XXVI
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+PROGRESS OF POLITICAL LIBERTY
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>Political Liberty in the Eighteenth Century</I>.&mdash;Looking backward from
+the standpoint of the close of the eighteenth century and following the
+chain of events in the previous century, the real achievement in social
+order is highly disappointing.  The French Revolution, which had
+levelled the monarchy, the church, and the nobility, and brought the
+proletariat in power for a brief season and lifted the hopes of the
+people toward a government of equality, was hurrying on from the
+directorate to the consulate to the empire, and finally returning to
+the old monarchy somewhat worn and dilapidated, indeed, but sufficient
+in power to smother the hopes of the people for the time being.
+Numerous French writers, advocating anarchy, communism, and socialism,
+set up ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity which were not to be
+realized as the immediate result of the revolution.  Babeuf,
+Saint-Simon, Cabet, and Louis Blanc set forth new ideals of government,
+which were diametrically opposed to the practices of the French
+government in preceding centuries.  Though some of their ideals were
+lofty, the writers were critical and destructive rather than
+constructive.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+England, after the coming of William and Mary and the passing of the
+Bill of Rights in 1689, witnessed very little progress in political
+rights and liberty until the reform measures of the nineteenth century.
+On the continent, Prussia had risen to a tremendous power as a military
+state and developed an autocratic government with some pretenses to
+political liberty.  But the dominant force of Prussia working on the
+basis of the ancient feudalism was finally to crush out the liberties
+of the German people and establish autocratic government.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P414"></A>414}</SPAN>
+The
+Holy Roman Empire, which had continued so long under the union of
+Austria and Italy, backed by the papacy, had reached its height of
+arbitrary power, and was destroyed by the Napoleonic wars.  In the
+whole period there were political struggles and intrigues within the
+various states, and political struggles and intrigues and wars between
+the nations.  It was a period of the expression of national selfishness
+which sought enlarged territory and the control of commerce and trade.
+Taken as a whole, there is little that is inspiring in the movement of
+nations in this period.  Indeed, it is highly disappointing when we
+consider the materials at their hand for political advancement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The political game at home played by cliques and factions and
+politicians struggling for power frequently led to disgraces abroad,
+such as the war against the American colonies and the extension of
+power and domination in India.  There is scarcely a war, if any, in
+this whole period that should not have been settled without difficulty,
+provided nations were honest with each other and could exercise, if not
+reason, common sense.  The early great movements, such as the revival
+of learning and progress centring in Italy and extending to other
+nations, the religious revolution which brought freedom of belief, the
+revolution of England and the Commonwealth, the French Revolution with
+its projections of new ideals of liberty on the horizon of political
+life, promised better things.  Also, during this period the development
+of literature and the arts and sciences should have been an enlightened
+aid to political liberty.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Nevertheless, the higher ideals of life and liberty which were set
+forth during these lucid intervals of the warring nations of the world
+were never lost.  The seeds of liberty, once having been sown, were to
+spring up in future years and develop through a normal growth.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Progress of Popular Government Found Outside of the Great
+Nations</I>.&mdash;The rise of democracy in Switzerland and the Netherlands and
+its development in America, although
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P415"></A>415}</SPAN>
+moving indirectly and by
+reaction, had a lasting influence on the powerful nations like Germany,
+England, France, and Austria.  In these smaller countries the warfare
+against tyranny, despotism, and ignorance was waged with success.
+Great gain was made in the overthrow of the accumulated power of
+traditional usage and the political monopoly of groups of people who
+had seized and held the power.  Through trial and error, success and
+failure, these people, not noted for their brilliant warfare but for
+their love of peace, succeeded in establishing within their boundaries
+a clear definition of human rights and recognizing the right of the
+people to have a better government.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Reform Measures in England</I>.&mdash;The famous Bill of Rights of 1689 in
+England has always been intact in theory.  It laid the foundation for
+popular government in which privileges and rights of the people were
+guaranteed.  It may have been a good expedient to have declared that no
+papist should sit upon the throne of England, thus declaring for
+Protestantism, but it was far from an expression of religious
+toleration.  The prestige of the House of Lords, an old and
+well-established aristocratic body, built upon ancient privilege and
+the power of the monarchy which too frequently acknowledged
+constitutional rights and then proceeded to trample upon them, made the
+progress in popular government very slow.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+One great gain had been made when the nation agreed to fight its
+political battles in Parliament and at elections.  The freedom of the
+press and the freedom of speech gradually became established facts.
+Among the more noted acts for the benefit of popular government was the
+Reform Bill of 1832, which enlarged the elective franchise.  This was
+bitterly opposed by the Lords, but the persistency of the Commons won
+the day and the king signed the bill.  Again in 1867 the second Reform
+Bill enlarged the franchise, and more modern acts of Parliament have
+given greater liberties to the English people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+England opposed independent local government of Scotland and Ireland
+and of her colonies.  Ireland had been oppressed
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P416"></A>416}</SPAN>
+by the malady of
+English landlordism, which had always been a bone of contention in the
+way of any amicable adjustment of the relations between England and
+Ireland.  Throughout the whole century had waged this struggle.
+England at times had sought through a series of acts to relieve the
+country, but the conservative element in Parliament had usually
+thwarted any rational system like that proposed by Mr. Gladstone.  On
+the other hand, the Irish people themselves desired absolute freedom
+and independence and were restive under any form of restraint.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Nothing short of entire independence from the English nation or the
+establishment of home rule on some practical basis could insure peace
+and contentment in Ireland.  Nor in the past could one be assured at
+any time that Ireland would have been contented for any length of time
+had she been given or acquired what she asked for.  Being forced to
+support a large population on an infertile soil where landlordism
+dominated was a cause of a continual source of discontent, and the lack
+of practice of the Irish people in the art of local government always
+gave rise to doubts in the minds of her friends as to whether she could
+succeed as an independent nation or not.  But the final triumph of
+Ireland in establishing a free state with the nominal control of the
+British Empire shows that Ireland has power to govern herself under
+fair treatment.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+What a great gain it would have been if many years ago England had
+yielded to the desire of Ireland for an independent constitutional
+government similar to that of Canada!  Tremendous changes have taken
+place in recent years in the liberalizing movement in England.  The
+state church still exists, but religious toleration is complete.  Women
+have been allowed the right to vote and are taking deep interest in
+political affairs, three women already having seats in Parliament.  The
+labor movement, which has always been strong and independent in
+England, by the exercise of its right at the polls finally gained
+control of the government and, for the first time
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P417"></A>417}</SPAN>
+in the history
+of England, a leading labor-union man and a socialist became premier of
+England.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Final Triumph of the French Republic</I>.&mdash;On account of ignorance of
+the true theories of government, as well as on account of lack of
+practical exercise in administration, for several decades the
+government which the French people established after the destruction of
+the monarchy of Louis XVI failed.  The democracy of the French
+Revolution was iconoclastic, not creative.  It could tear down, but
+could not rebuild.  There were required an increased intelligence and
+the slow process of thought, a meditation upon the principles for which
+the people had fought and bled, and an enlarged view of the principles
+of government, before a republic could be established in France.
+Napoleon, catching the spirit of the times, gratified his ambition by
+obtaining the mastery of national affairs and leading the French people
+against foreign nations under the pretext of overthrowing despotism in
+Europe.  In so doing he established absolutism once more in France.  He
+became the imperial monarch of the old type, with the exceptions that
+intelligence took the place of bigotry and the welfare of the people
+took the place of the laudation of kings.  But in attempting to become
+the dictator of all Europe, he caused other nations to combine against
+him, and finally he closed his great career with a Waterloo.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The monarchy, on its restoration, became constitutional; the government
+was composed of two chambers&mdash;the peers, nominated by the king, and the
+lower house, elected by the people.  A system of responsible ministers
+was established, and of judges, who were not removable.  Much had been
+gained in religious and civil liberty and the freedom of the press.
+But monarchy began to grow again, urged by the middle class of France,
+until in July, 1830, another revolution broke out on account of
+election troubles.  The charter was violated in the prohibition of the
+publication of newspapers and pamphlets, and the elective system
+arbitrarily changed so as to restrict the suffrage to the landowners.
+The reaction
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P418"></A>418}</SPAN>
+from this was to gain something more for democratic
+government.  In the meantime there had been a growth of socialism, the
+direct product of the revolution.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The king finally abdicated in favor of his grandson, and then a
+provisional government was established, and finally a republic, the
+second republic of France.  Louis Napoleon, who became president of the
+republic under the constitution, gradually absorbed all powers to
+himself and proclaimed himself emperor.  After the close of the
+Franco-German War, in 1871, France became a republic for the third
+time.  A constitution was formed, under which the legislative power was
+exercised by two chambers&mdash;the Chamber of Deputies, elected by direct
+vote and manhood suffrage for four years, and the Senate, consisting of
+300 senators, 75 of whom were elected for life by the national
+assembly, the rest for nine years, by electoral colleges.  These latter
+were composed of deputies, councils of the departments, and delegates
+of communes.  The executive power was vested in a president, who was
+assisted by a responsible ministry.  Republicanism was at last secured
+to France.  Many changes have taken place in the application of the
+constitution to popular government since then, and much progress has
+been made in the practice of free government.  The whole composition of
+the government reminds one of constitutional monarchy, with the
+exception that the monarch is chosen by the people for a short period
+of time.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Democracy in America</I>.&mdash;The progress of democracy in America has been
+rapid.  The first colonists were oppressed by the authority of European
+nations and bound by unyielding precedent.  While the principle of
+local self-government obtained to a large extent in many of them, they
+partook more of aristocracies, or of governments based on class
+legislation, than of pure democracies.  When independence from foreign
+countries was won by the united efforts of all the colonies, the real
+struggle for universal liberty began.  A government was founded, so far
+as it was possible, on the principles of the Declaration of
+Independence, which asserted "that all men
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P419"></A>419}</SPAN>
+are created equal;
+that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable
+rights"; and that "for securing these rights, governments are
+instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of
+the governed."  The creation of a federal constitution and the
+formation of a perfect union guaranteed these rights to every citizen.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Yet in the various states forming a part of the Union, and, indeed, in
+the national government itself, it took a long time to approximate, in
+practice, the liberty and justice which were set forth in the
+Declaration of Independence and the Constitution.  Still, in the past
+century, the people have become more and more closely connected with
+the state, and a "government of the people, for the people, and by the
+people" is a certainty.  The laws which have been made under the
+Constitution increase in specific declarations of the rights of the
+people.  Justice is more nearly meted out to all classes at present
+than in any decade for a century.  The political powers of citizens
+have constantly enlarged.  The elective franchise has been extended to
+all citizens of both sexes.  The requirements as to naturalization of
+foreigners are exceedingly lenient, and thus free government is offered
+to all people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Of necessity the central government has been strengthened on account of
+the enlargement of territory and the great extension of national
+governmental powers.  It has been necessary that the central forces
+which bind the separate parts of the nation together in a common union
+should be strengthened.  The result has been a decline in the
+importance and power of the state governments.  On the other hand, the
+large increase of population in the great cities has tended to enhance
+the power and importance of local government.  The government of a
+single large city now becomes more difficult and of greater vital
+importance to the people than that of a state.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The enlarged territory and increased population, and the enormous
+amount of legislative machinery, have tended to extend to its utmost
+limit the principle of representative government.  Congress represents
+the people of the whole nation,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P420"></A>420}</SPAN>
+but committees represent Congress
+and subcommittees represent committees.  There is a constant tendency
+to delegate powers to others.  Pure democracy has no place in the great
+American republic, except as it is seen in the local government unit.
+Here the people always have a part in the caucus, in the primary or the
+town meeting, in the election of local officers and representatives for
+higher offices, in the opportunity to exercise their will and raise
+their voice in the affairs of the nation.  To some extent the supposed
+greater importance of the national government has led the people to
+underestimate the opportunities granted them for exercising their
+influence as citizens within the precinct in which they live.  But
+there is to-day a tendency to estimate justly the importance of local
+government as the source of all reforms and the means of the
+preservation of civil liberty.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It has been pointed out frequently by the enemies of democracy that the
+practice of the people in self-government has not always been of the
+highest type.  In many instances this criticism is true, for experience
+is always a dear teacher.  The principles of democracy have come to
+people through conviction and determination, but the practices of
+self-government come through rough experiences, sometimes marked by a
+long series of blunders.  The cost of a republican form of government
+to the people has frequently been very expensive on account of their
+ignorance, their apathy, and their unwillingness to take upon
+themselves the responsibilities of government.  Consider, for instance,
+the thousands of laws that are made and placed upon the statute-books
+which have been of no value, possibly of detriment, to the
+community&mdash;laws made through the impulse of half-informed, ill-prepared
+legislators.  Consider also the constitutions, constitutional
+amendments, and other important acts upon which the people express
+their opinion.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The smallness of the vote of a people who are jealous of their own
+rights and privileges is frequently surprising.  Notice, too, how
+frequently popular power has voted against its
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P421"></A>421}</SPAN>
+own rights and
+interests.  See the clumsy manner by which people have voted away their
+birthrights or, failing to vote at all, have enslaved themselves to
+political or financial monopoly.  Observe, too, the expenses of the
+management of democratic governments, the waste on account of imperfect
+administration, and the failure of the laws to operate.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Consideration of these points brings us to the conclusion that the
+perfection of democracy or republican government has not been reached,
+and that while liberty may be an expensive affair, it is so on account
+of the negligence of the people in qualifying for self-government.  If
+a democratic form of government is to prevail, if popular government is
+to succeed, if the freedom of the people is to be guaranteed, there
+must be persistent effort on the part of the people to prepare
+themselves for their own government; a willingness to sacrifice for
+liberty, for liberty will endure only so long as people are willing to
+pay the price it costs.  They must govern themselves, or government
+will pass from them to others.  Eternal vigilance is the price of good
+government.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Modern Political Reforms</I>.&mdash;Political reform has been proceeding
+recently in many particular ways.  Perhaps the most noticeable in
+America is that of civil service reform.  Strong partisanship has been
+a ruling factor in American politics, often to the detriment of the
+financial and political interests of the country.  Jealous of their
+prerogative, the people have insisted that changes in government shall
+occur often, and that the ruling party shall have the privilege of
+appointing the officers of the government.  This has made it the almost
+universal practice for the incoming party to remove the officers of the
+old administration and replace them with its own appointments.  To such
+an extent has this prevailed that it has come to be known as the
+"spoils system."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But there is now a general tendency for the principles of civil service
+to prevail in all parts of the national government, and a growing
+feeling that they should be instituted in the various states and
+municipalities of the Union.  The
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P422"></A>422}</SPAN>
+federal government has made
+rapid progress in this line in recent years, and it is to be hoped that
+before long the large proportion of appointive offices will be put upon
+a merit basis and the persons who are best qualified to fill these
+places retained from administration to administration.  Attempts are
+being made in nearly all of our cities for business efficiency in
+government, though there is much room for improvement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The government of the United States is especially weak in
+administration, and is far behind many of the governments of the Old
+World in this respect.  With a thoroughly established civil service
+system, the effectiveness of the administration would be increased
+fully fifty per cent.  Under the present party system the waste is
+enormous, and as the people must ultimately pay for this waste, the
+burden thrown upon them is great.  In the first place, the partisan
+system necessarily introduces large numbers of inexperienced,
+inefficient officers who must spend some years in actual practice
+before they are really fitted for the positions which they occupy.  In
+the second place, the time spent by congressmen and other high
+officials in attention to applicants for office and in urging of
+appointments, prevents them from improving their best opportunity for
+real service to the people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The practice of civil service reform is being rapidly adopted in the
+nations of the world which have undertaken the practice of
+self-government, and in those nations where monarchy or imperialism
+still prevails, persons in high authority feel more and more impelled
+to appoint efficient officers to carry out the plans of administrative
+government.  It is likely that the time will soon come when all offices
+requiring peculiar skill or especial training will be filled on the
+basis of efficiency, determined by competitive examination or other
+tests of ability.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Another important reform, which has already been begun in the United
+States, and which, in its latest movement, originated in Australia, is
+ballot reform.  There has been everywhere in democratic government a
+tendency for fraud to increase on election days.  The manipulation of
+the votes of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P423"></A>423}</SPAN>
+individuals through improper methods has been the
+cause of fraud and a means of thwarting the will of the people.  It is
+well that the various states and cities have observed this and set
+themselves to the task of making laws to guard properly the ballot-box
+and give free, untrammelled expression to the will of the people.
+Though nearly all the states in the Union have adopted some system of
+balloting (based largely upon the Australian system), many of them are
+far from perfection in their systems.  Yet the progress in this line is
+encouraging when the gains in recent years are observed.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Since the decline of the old feudal times, in which our modern tax
+system had its origin, there has been a constant improvement in the
+system of taxation.  Yet this has been very slow and apparently has
+been carried on in a bungling way.  The tendency has been to tax every
+form of property that could be observed or described.  And so our own
+nation, like many others, has gone on, step by step, adding one tax
+after another, without carefully considering the fundamental principles
+of taxation or the burdens laid upon particular classes.  To-day we
+have a complex system, full of irregularities and imperfections.  Our
+taxes are poorly and unjustly assessed, and the burdens fall heavily
+upon some, while others have an opportunity of escaping.  We have just
+entered an era of careful study of our tax systems, and the various
+reports from the different states and the writings of economists are
+arousing great interest on these points.  When once the imperfections
+are clearly understood and defined, there may be some hope of a remedy
+of present abuses.  To be more specific, it may be said that the
+assessments of the property in counties of the same state vary between
+seventeen and sixty per cent of the market valuation.  Sometimes this
+discrepancy is between the assessments of adjacent counties, and so
+great is the variation that seldom two counties have the same standard
+for assessing valuation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The personal-property tax shows greater irregularity than this,
+especially in our large cities.  The tax on imports, though
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P424"></A>424}</SPAN>
+apparently meeting the approval of a majority of the American people,
+makes, upon the whole, a rather expensive system of taxation, and it is
+questionable whether sufficient revenue can be raised from this source
+properly to support the government without seriously interfering with
+our foreign commerce.  The internal revenue has many unsatisfactory
+phases.  The income tax has been added to an imperfect system of
+taxation, instead of being substituted for the antiquated
+personal-property tax.  Taxes on franchises, corporations, and
+inheritances are among those more recently introduced in attempts to
+reform the tax system.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The various attempts to obtain sufficient revenue to support the
+government or to reform an unjust and unequal tax have led to double
+taxation, and hence have laid the burden upon persons holding a
+specific class of property.  There are to-day no less than five methods
+in which double taxation occurs in the present system of taxation of
+corporations.  The taxation of mortgages, because it may be shifted to
+the borrower, is virtually a double tax.  The great question of the
+incidence of taxation, or the determination upon whom the tax
+ultimately falls, has not received sufficient care in the consideration
+of improved systems of taxation.  Until it has, and until statesmen use
+more care in tax legislation and the regulation of the system, and
+officers are more conscientious in carrying it out, we need not hope
+for any rapid movement in tax reform.  The tendency here, as in all
+other reforms, especially where needed, is for some person to suggest a
+certain political nostrum&mdash;like the single tax&mdash;for the immediate and
+complete reform of the system and the entire renovation and
+purification of society.  But scientific knowledge, clear insight, and
+wisdom are especially necessary for any improvement, and even then
+improvement will come through a long period of practice, more or less
+painful on account of the shifting of methods of procedure.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The most appalling example of the results of modern government is to be
+found in the municipal management of our
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P425"></A>425}</SPAN>
+large cities.  It has
+become proverbial that the American cities are the worst ruled of any
+in the world.  In European countries the evils of city government were
+discovered many years ago, and in most of the nations there have been
+begun and carried out wisely considered reforms, until many of the
+cities of the Old World present examples of tolerably correct municipal
+government.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In America there is now a general awakening in every city, but to such
+an extent have people, by their indifference or their wickedness, sold
+their birthrights to politicians and demagogues and the power of
+wealth, that it seems almost impossible to work any speedy radical
+reform.  Yet many changes are being instituted in our best cities, and
+the persistent effort to manage the city as a business corporation
+rather than as a political engine is producing many good results.  The
+large and growing urban population has thrown the burden of government
+upon the city&mdash;a burden which it was entirely unprepared for&mdash;and there
+have sprung up sudden evils which are difficult to eradicate.  Only
+persistent effort, loyalty, sacrifice, and service, all combined with
+wisdom, can finally accomplish the reforms needed in cities.  There is
+a tendency everywhere for people to get closer to the government, and
+to become more and more a part of it.[<A NAME="chap26fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap26fn1">1</A>]  Our representative system has
+enabled us to delegate authority to such an extent that people have
+felt themselves irresponsible for all government, except one day in the
+year, when they vote at the polls; we need, instead, a determination to
+govern 365 days in the year, and nothing short of this perpetual
+interest of the people will secure to them the rights of
+self-government.  Even then it is necessary that every citizen shall
+vote at every election.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Republicanism in Other Countries</I>.&mdash;The remarkable spread of forms of
+republican government in the different nations of the world within the
+present century has been unprecedented.
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P426"></A>426}</SPAN>
+Every independent nation
+in South America to-day has a republican form of government.  The
+Republic of Mexico has made some progress in the government of the
+people, and the dependencies of Great Britain all over the world have
+made rapid progress in local self-government.  In Australia, New
+Zealand, and Canada, we find many of the most advanced principles and
+practices of free government.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is true that many of these nations calling themselves republics have
+not yet guaranteed the rights and privileges of a people to any greater
+extent than they would have done had they been only constitutional
+monarchies; for it must be maintained at all times that it depends more
+upon the characteristics of the people&mdash;upon their intelligence, their
+social conditions and classes, their ideas of government, and their
+character&mdash;what the nature of their government shall be, than upon the
+mere form of government, whether that be aristocracy, monarchy, or
+democracy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Many of the evils which have been attributed to monarchy ought more
+truly to have been attributed to the vital conditions of society.
+Vital social and political conditions are far more important to the
+welfare of the people than any mere form of government.  Among the
+remarkable expressions of liberal government in modern times has been
+the development of the Philippine Islands under the protecting care of
+the United States, the establishment of republicanism in Porto Rico and
+Hawaii, now parts of the territory of the United States, and the
+development of an independent and democratic government in Cuba through
+the assistance of the United States.  These expressions of an extended
+democracy have had far-reaching consequences on the democratic idealism
+of the world.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Influence of Democracy on Monarchy</I>.&mdash;But the evidences of the
+progress of popular government are not all to be observed in republics.
+It would be difficult to estimate the influence of the rise of popular
+government in some countries upon the monarchial institutions of
+others.  This can never be
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P427"></A>427}</SPAN>
+properly determined, because we know
+not what would have taken place in these monarchies had republicanism
+never prevailed anywhere.  When republicanism arose in France and
+America, monarchy was alarmed everywhere; and again, when the
+revolutionary wave swept over Europe in 1848, monarchy trembled.
+Wherever, indeed, the waves of democracy have swept onward they have
+found monarchy raising breakwaters against them.  Yet with all this
+opposition there has been a liberalizing tendency in these same
+monarchial governments.  Monarchy has been less absolute and less
+despotic; the people have had more constitutional rights granted them,
+greater privileges to enjoy; and monarchies have been more careful as
+to their acts, believing that the people hold in their hands the means
+of retribution.  The reforming influence of democratic ideas has been
+universal and uninterrupted.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The World War has been iconoclastic in breaking up old forms of
+government and has given freedom to the democratic spirit and in many
+cases has developed practical democracy.  Along with this, forces of
+radicalism have come to the front as an expression of long-pent
+feelings of injustice, now for the first time given opportunity to
+assert and express themselves.  The ideal of democracy historically
+prevalent in Europe has been the rule of the "lower classes" at the
+expense of the "upper classes."  This theory has been enhanced by the
+spread of Marxian socialism, which advocates the dominance and rule of
+the wage-earning class.  The most serious attempt to put this idea in
+practice occurred in Russia with disastrous results.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  Why did the French Revolution fail to establish liberty?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  What were the lasting effects of the English Commonwealth?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  What were the causes of liberal government in the Netherlands?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  The reform acts in 1832 and in 1867 in England.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  The chief causes of trouble between England and Ireland.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  The growth of democracy in the United States.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P428"></A>428}</SPAN>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  Enumerate the most important modern political reforms.  What are
+some needed political reforms?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+8.  England's influence on American law and government.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+9.  Investigate the population in your community to determine the
+extent of human equality.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+10.  City government under the municipal manager plan; also commission
+plan.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap26fn1"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap26fn1text">1</A>] Consider the commission form of city government and the municipal
+manager plan.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap27"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P429"></A>429}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XXVII
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>Industries Radiate from the Land as a Centre</I>.&mdash;In primitive
+civilizations industry was more or less incidental to life.  The food
+quest, protection of the body from storm and sun by improvised
+habitation and the use of skins, furs, bark, and rushes for clothing,
+together with the idea of human association for the perpetuation of the
+species, are the fundamental notions regarding life.  Under such
+conditions industry was fitful and uncertain.  Hunting for vegetable
+products and for animals to sustain life, the protection of the life of
+individuals from the elements and, incidentally, from the predatory
+activities of human beings, were the objectives of primitive man.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As the land is the primary source of all economic life, systematic
+industry has always begun in its control and cultivation.  Not until
+man settled more or less permanently with the idea of getting his
+sustenance from the soil did industrial activities become prominent.
+In the development of civilization one must recognize the ever-present
+fact that the method of treatment of the land is a determining factor
+in its fundamental characteristics, for it must needs be always that
+the products that we utilize come from the action of man on nature and
+its reaction on him.  While the land is the primary source of wealth,
+and its cultivation a primal industry, it does not include the whole
+category of industrial enterprises, for tools must be made, art
+developed, implements provided, and machinery constructed.  Likewise,
+clothing and ornaments were manufactured, and habitations constructed,
+and eventually transportation begun to carry people and goods from one
+place to another.  These all together make an enlarged group of
+activities, all radiating from the soil as a common centre.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P430"></A>430}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+We have already referred to the cultivation of the valleys of the
+Euphrates and the Nile by systems of irrigation and the tilling of the
+soil in the valleys of Greece in the crude and semibarbarous methods
+introduced by the barbarians from the north.  We have referred to the
+fact that the Romans were the first to develop systematic agriculture,
+and even the Teutonic people, the invaders of Rome, were rude
+cultivators of the soil.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Social organization is dependent to a large extent upon the method of
+attachment to the soil&mdash;whether people wander over a large area in the
+hunter-fisher and the nomadic stages, or whether they become attached
+to the soil permanently.  Thus, the village community developed a
+united, neighborly community, built on the basis of mutual aid.  The
+feudal system was built upon predatory tribal warfare, where possession
+was determined by might to have and to hold.  In the mediaeval period
+the manorial system of landholding developed, whereby the lord and his
+retainers claimed the land by their right of occupation and the power
+to hold, whether this came through conquest, force of arms, or
+agreement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This manorial system prevailed to a large extent in England, France,
+and parts of Germany.  These early methods of landholding were brought
+about by people attempting to make their social adjustments, primarily
+in relation to survival, and subsequently in relation to the justice
+among individuals within the group, or in relation to the reactions
+between the groups themselves.  After the breaking down of the Roman
+Empire, the well-established systems of landholding in the empire and
+the older nations of the Orient in the Middle Ages developed into the
+feudal system, which forced all society into groups or classes, from
+the lord to the serf.  Subsequently there sprang up the individual
+system of landholding, which again readjusted the relation of society
+to the land system and changed the social structure.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Early Mediaeval Methods of Industry</I>.&mdash;Outside of the tilling of
+the soil, the early industries were centred in the home, which gave
+rise to the well-known house system of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P431"></A>431}</SPAN>
+culture.  "Housework" has
+primary relation to goods which are created for the needs of the
+household.  Much of the early manufacturing industry was carried on
+within the household.  Gradually this has disappeared to a large extent
+through the multiplication of industries outside the home, power
+manufacture, and the organization of labor and capital.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In many instances house culture preceded that of systematic
+agriculture.  The natural order was the house culture rising out of the
+pursuits of fishing, hunting, and tending flocks and herds, and the
+incidental hoe culture which represented the first tilling of the soil
+about the tent or hut.  The Indians of North America are good examples
+of the development of the house culture in the making of garments from
+the skins of animals or from weeds and rushes, the weaving of baskets,
+the making of pottery and of boats, and the tanning of hides.  During
+all this period, agriculture was of slow growth, it being the
+incidental and tentative process of life, while the house culture
+represented the permanent industry.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Industries varied in different tribes, one being skilled in
+basket-making, another in stone implements for warfare and domestic
+use, another in pottery, another in boats, and still another in certain
+kinds of clothing&mdash;especially the ornaments made from precious stones
+or bone.  This made it possible to spread the culture of one group to
+other groups, and later there developed the wandering peddler who went
+from tribe to tribe trading and swapping goods.  This is somewhat
+analogous to the first wage-work system of England, where the
+individual went from house to house to perform services for which he
+received pay in goods, or, as we say, in kind.  Subsequently the
+wage-earner had his own shop, where raw material was sent to him for
+finishing.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+All through Europe these customs prevailed and, indeed, in some parts
+of America exist to the present day.  We see survivals of these customs
+which formerly were permanent, in the people who go from house to house
+performing certain types of work or bringing certain kinds of goods for
+sale, and,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P432"></A>432}</SPAN>
+indeed, in the small shop of modern times where goods
+are repaired or manufactured.  They represent customs which now are
+irregular, but which formerly were permanent methods.  It was a simple
+system, requiring no capital, no undertaker or manager, no middleman.
+Gradually these customs were replaced by many varied methods, such as
+the establishment of the laborer in his individual shop, who at first
+only made the raw material, which people brought him, into the finished
+product; later he was required to provide his own raw material, taking
+orders for certain classes of goods.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+After the handcraft system was well established, there was a division
+between the manufacturer of goods and those who produced the raw
+material, a marked distinction in the division of labor.  The expansion
+of systems of industry developed the towns and town life, and as the
+manor had been self-sufficient in the manufacture of goods, so now the
+town becomes the unit of production, and independent town economy
+springs up.  Later we find the towns beginning to trade with each
+other, and with this expanded industry the division of labor came about
+and the separation of laborers into classes.  First, the merchant and
+the manufacturer were united.  It was common for the manufacturer of
+goods to have his shop in his own home and, after he had made the
+goods, to put them on the shelf until called for by customers.  Later
+he had systems of distribution and trade with people in the immediate
+locality.  Soon weavers, spinners, bricklayers, packers, tanners, and
+other classes became distinctive.  It was some time before
+manufacturers and traders, however, became separate groups, and a
+longer time before the manufacturer was separated from the merchant,
+because the manufacturer must market his own goods.  Industries by
+degrees thus became specialized, and trades became clearly defined in
+their scope.  This led, of course, to a distinct division of
+occupation, and later to a division of labor within the occupation.
+The introduction of money after the development of town economy brought
+about the wage system, whereby people were paid in money rather than
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P433"></A>433}</SPAN>
+kind.  This was a great step forward in facilitating trade and
+industry.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+One of the earliest methods of developing organized industrial society
+was through the various guilds of the Middle Ages.  They represented
+the organization of the industries of a given town, with the purpose of
+establishing a monopoly in trade of certain kinds of goods, and
+secondarily to develop fraternal organization, association, and
+co-operation among groups of people engaged in the same industry.
+Perhaps it should be mentioned that the first in order of development
+of the guilds was known as the "guild-merchant," which was an
+organization of all of the inhabitants of the town engaged in trading
+or selling.  This was a town monopoly of certain forms of industry
+controlled by the members of that industry.  It partook of the nature
+of monopoly of trade, and had a vast deal to do with the social
+organization of the town.  Its power was exercised in the place of more
+systematic political town government.  However, after the political
+town government became more thoroughly established, the guild-merchant
+declined, but following the decline of the guild-merchant, the craft
+guild developed, which was an organization of all of the manufacturers
+and traders in a given craft.  This seemed to herald the coming of the
+trade-union after the industrial machinery of society had made a number
+of changes.  English industrial society became finally completely
+dominated, as did societies in countries on the Continent, by the craft
+guilds.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+All the payments in the handcraft system were at first in kind.  When
+the laborer had finished his piece of goods, his pay consisted in
+taking a certain part of what he had created in the day or the week.
+Also, when he worked by the day he received his pay in kind.  This
+system prevailed until money became sufficiently plentiful to enable
+the payment of wages for piecework and by the day.  The payment in
+kind, of course, was a very clumsy and wasteful method of carrying on
+industry.  Many methods of payment in kind prevailed for centuries,
+even down to recent times in America.  Before the great
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P434"></A>434}</SPAN>
+flour-mills were developed, the farmer took his wheat to the mill, out
+of which the miller took a certain percentage for toll in payment for
+grinding.  The farmer took the remainder home with him in the form of
+flour.  So, too, we have in agriculture the working of land on shares,
+a certain percentage of the crops going to the owner and the remainder
+to the tiller of the soil.  Fruit is frequently picked on shares, which
+is nothing more than payment for services in kind.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Beginnings of Trade</I>.&mdash;While these simple changes were slowly
+taking place in the towns and villages of Europe, there were larger
+movements of trade being developed, not only between local towns, but
+between the towns of one country and those of another, which led later
+to international trade and commerce.  Formerly trade had become of
+world importance in the early Byzantine trade with the Orient and
+Phoenicia.  After the crusades, the trade of the Italian cities with
+the Orient and northwest Europe was of tremendous importance.[<A NAME="chap27fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap27fn1">1</A>] In
+connection with this, the establishment of the Hanseatic League, of
+which Hamburg was a centre, developed trade between the east and the
+west and the south.  These three great mediaeval trade movements
+represent powerful agencies in the development of Europe.  They carried
+with them an exchange of goods and an exchange of ideas as well.  This
+interchange stimulated thought and industrial activity throughout
+Europe.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Expansion of Trade and Transportation</I>.&mdash;The great discoveries in the
+fifteenth and sixteenth centuries had a vast deal to do with the
+expansion of trade.  The discovery of America, the establishment of
+routes to the Philippines around South America and to India around
+South Africa opened up wide vistas, not only for exploration but for
+the exchange of goods.  Also, this brought about national trade, and
+with it national competition.  From this time on the struggle for the
+supremacy of the sea was as important as the struggle of the various
+nations for extended territory.  Portugal, the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P435"></A>435}</SPAN>
+Netherlands,
+England, and Spain were competing especially for the trade routes of
+the world.  France and England were drawn into sharp competition
+because of the expansion of English trade and commerce.  Portugal
+became a great emporium for the distribution of Oriental goods after
+she became a maritime power, with a commercial supremacy in India and
+China.  Subsequently she declined and was forced to unite with Spain,
+and even after she obtained her freedom, in the seventeenth century,
+her war with the Netherlands caused her to lose commercial supremacy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The rise of the Dutch put the Netherlands to the front and Antwerp and
+Amsterdam became the centres of trade for the Orient.  Dutch trade
+continued to lead the world until the formation of the English East and
+West India companies, which, with their powerful monopoly on trade,
+brought England to the front.  Under the monopolies of these great
+companies and other private monopolies, England forged ahead in trade
+and commerce.  But the private monopolies became so powerful that
+Cromwell, by the celebrated Navigation Acts of 1651, made a gigantic
+trade monopoly of the English nation.  The development of agricultural
+products and manufactures in England, together with her immense
+carrying trade, made her mistress of the seas.  The results of this
+trade development were to bring the products of every clime in exchange
+for the manufactured goods of Europe, and to bring about a change of
+ideas which stimulated thought and life, not only in material lines but
+along educational and spiritual lines as well.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Invention and Discoveries</I>.&mdash;One of the most remarkable eras of
+progress in the whole range of modern civilization appeared at the
+close of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth,
+especially in England.  The expanded trade and commerce of England had
+made such a demand for economic goods that it stimulated invention of
+new processes of production.  The spinning of yarn became an important
+industry.  It was a slow process, and could not supply the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P436"></A>436}</SPAN>
+weavers so that they could keep their looms in operation.  Moreover,
+Kay introduced what is known as the drop-box and flying shuttle in
+1738, which favored weaving to the detriment of spinning, making the
+trouble worse.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the extremity of trade the Royal Society offered a prize to any
+person who would invent a machine to spin a number of threads at the
+same time.  As a result of this demand, James Hargreaves in 1764
+invented the spinning-jenny, which was followed by Arkwright's
+invention of spinning by rollers, which was patented in 1769.
+Combining Arkwright's and Hargreaves's inventions, Crompton in 1779
+invented the spinning-"mule."  This quickened the process of spinning
+and greatly increased the production of the weavers.  But one necessity
+satisfied leads to another in invention, and Cartwright's powerloom,
+which was introduced in 1784, came into general use at the beginning of
+the nineteenth century.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+During this period America had become a producer of cotton, and Eli
+Whitney's cotton-gin, invented in 1792, which separated the seeds from
+the cotton fibre in the boll, greatly stimulated the production of
+cotton in the United States.  In the meanwhile the steam-engine, which
+had been perfected in 1769, was applied to power manufacture in 1785 by
+James Watt.  This was the final stroke that completed the power
+manufacture of cotton and woollen goods.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Other changes were brought about by the new method of smelting ore by
+means of coal, charcoal having been hitherto used for the process, and
+the invention of the blast-furnace in 1760 by Roebuck, which brought
+the larger use of metals into the manufactures of the world.  To aid in
+the carrying trade, the building of canals between the large
+manufacturing towns in England to the ocean, and the building of
+highways over England, facilitated transportation and otherwise
+quickened industry.  Thus we have in a period of less than forty years
+the most remarkable and unprecedented change in industry, which has
+never been exceeded in importance even by the introduction of the
+gasoline-engine and electrical power.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P437"></A>437}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Change of Handcraft to Power Manufacture</I>.&mdash;Prior to the
+development of the mechanical contrivances for spinning and weaving and
+the application of steam-power to manufacturing, nearly everything in
+Europe was made by hand.  All clothing, carpets, draperies, tools,
+implements, furniture&mdash;everything was hand-made.  In this process no
+large capital was needed, no great factories, no great assemblage of
+laborers, no great organization of industry.  The work was done in
+homes and small shops by individual enterprise, mainly, or in
+combinations of laborers and masters.  Power manufacture and the
+inventions named above changed the whole structure of industrial
+society.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Industrial Revolution</I>.&mdash;The period from 1760 to about 1830 is
+generally given as that of the industrial revolution, because this
+period is marked by tremendous changes in the industrial order.  It
+might be well to remark, however, that if the industrial revolution
+began about 1760, it has really never ended, for new inventions and new
+discoveries have continually come&mdash;a larger use of steam-power, the
+introduction of transportation by railroads and steamship-lines, the
+modern processes of agriculture, the large use of electricity, with
+many inventions, have constantly increased power manufacture and drawn
+the line more clearly between the laborers on one side and the
+capitalists or managers on the other.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the first place, because the home and the small shop could not
+contain the necessary machinery, large factories equipped with great
+power-machines became necessary, and into the factories flocked the
+laborers, who formerly were independent handcraft manufacturers or
+merchants.  It was necessary to have people to organize this labor and
+to oversee its work&mdash;that is, "bosses" were necessary.  Under these
+circumstances the capitalistic managers were using labor with as little
+consideration or, indeed, less than they used raw material in the
+manufacture of goods.  The laborers must seek employment in the great
+factories.  The managers forced them down to the lowest rate of wage,
+caused them to live in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P438"></A>438}</SPAN>
+ill-ventilated factories in danger of life
+and health from the machinery, and to work long hours.  They employed
+women and children, who suffered untold miseries.  The production of
+goods demanded more and more coal, and women went into the coal-mines
+and worked fourteen to sixteen hours a day.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Society was not ready for the great and sudden change and could not
+easily adjust itself to new conditions.  Capital was necessary, and
+must have its reward.  Factories were necessary to give the laborers a
+chance to labor.  Labor was necessary, but it did not seem necessary to
+give any consideration to the justice of the laborer nor to his
+suffering.  The wage system and the capitalistic system
+developed&mdash;systems that the socialists have been fighting against for
+more than a century.  Labor, pressed down and suffering, arose in its
+own defense and organized.  It was successively denied the right to
+assemble, to organize, to strike, but in each separate case the law
+prevailed in its favor.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+All through the development of European history the ordinary laborer
+never received full consideration regarding his value and his rights.
+It is true at times that he was happy and contented without
+improvement, but upon the whole the history of Europe has been the
+history of kings, queens, princes, and nobility, and wars for national
+aggrandizement, increased territory, or the gratification of the whims
+of the dominant classes.  The laborer has endured the toil, fought the
+battles, and paid the taxes.  Here we find the introduction of
+machinery, which in the long run will make the world more prosperous,
+happier, and advance it in civilization, yet the poor laborer must be
+the burden-bearer.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Gradually, however, partly by his own demands, partly by the growing
+humanity of capitalistic employers, and partly because of the interest
+of outside philanthropic statesmen, labor has been protected by laws.
+In the first place, all trades are organized, and nearly all
+organizations are co-operating sympathetically with one another.  Labor
+has been able thus to demand things and to obtain them, not only by the
+persistency
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P439"></A>439}</SPAN>
+of demand, but by the force of the strike which
+compels people to yield.  To-day the laborer has eight hours a day of
+work in a factory well ventilated and well lighted, protected from
+danger and accident, insured by law, better wages than he has ever had,
+better opportunities for life and the pursuit of happiness, better fed,
+better clothed, and better housed than ever before in the history of
+the world.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Yet the whole problem is far from being settled, because it is not easy
+to define the rights, privileges, and duties of organized labor.  Some
+things we know, and one is that the right to strike does not carry with
+it the right to destroy, or the right to organize the right to oppress
+others.  But let us make the lesson universal and apply the same to
+capitalistic organizations and the employers' associations.  And while
+we make the latter responsible for their deeds, let us make the
+organization of the former also responsible, and let the larger
+community called the state determine justice between groups and insure
+freedom and protection to all.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Modern Industrial Development</I>.&mdash;It was stated above that the
+industrial revolution is still going on.  One need only to glance at
+the transformation caused by the introduction of railway transportation
+and steam navigation in the nineteenth century, to the uses of the
+telegraph, the telephone, the gasoline-engine, and later the radio and
+the airplane, to see that the introduction of these great factors in
+civilization must continue to make changes in the social order.  They
+have brought about quantity transportation, rapidity of manufacture,
+and rapidity of trade, and stimulated the activities of life
+everywhere.  This stimulation, which has brought more things for
+material improvement, has caused people to want paved streets, electric
+lights, and modern buildings, which have added to the cost of living
+through increased taxation.  The whole movement has been characterized
+by the accumulated stress of life, which demands greater activity, more
+goods consumed, new desires awakened, and greater efforts to satisfy
+them.  The quickening process goes on unabated.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P440"></A>440}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+In order to carry out these great enterprises, the industrial
+organization is complex in the extreme and tremendous in its magnitude.
+Great corporations capitalized by millions, great masses of laborers
+assembled which are organized from the highest to the lowest in the
+great industrial army, represent the spectacular display.  And to be
+mentioned above all is the great steam-press that sends the daily paper
+to every home and the great public-school system that puts the book in
+every hand.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Scientific Agriculture</I>.&mdash;It has often been repeated that man's wealth
+comes originally from the soil, and that therefore the condition of
+agriculture is an index of the opportunity offered for progress.  What
+has been done in recent years, especially in England and America, in
+the development of a higher grade stock, so different from the old
+scrub stock of the Colonial period; in the introduction of new grains,
+new fertilizers, improved soils, and the adaptability of the crop to
+the soil in accordance with the nature of both; the development of new
+fruits and flowers by scientific culture&mdash;all have brought to the door
+of man an increased food-supply of great variety and of improved
+quality.  This is conducive to the health and longevity of the race, as
+well as to the happiness and comfort of everybody.  Moreover, the
+introduction of agricultural machinery has changed the slow, plodding
+life of the farmer to that of the master of the steam-tractor,
+thresher, and automobile, changed the demand from a slow, inactive mind
+to the keenest, most alert, best-educated man of the nation, who must
+study the highest arts of production, the greatest economy, and the
+best methods of marketing.  Truly, the industrial revolution applies
+not to factories alone.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Building of the City</I>.&mdash;The modern industrial development has
+forced upon the landscape the great city.  No one particularly wanted
+it.  No one called it into being&mdash;it just came at the behest of the
+conditions of rapid transportation, necessity of centralization of
+factories where cheap distribution could be had, not only for the raw
+material but for the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P441"></A>441}</SPAN>
+finished product, and where labor could be
+furnished with little trouble&mdash;all of these things have developed a
+city into which rush the great products of raw material, and out of
+which pour the millions of manufactured articles and machinery; into
+which pours the great food-supply to keep the laborers from starving.
+Into the city flows much of the best blood of the country, which seeks
+opportunity for achievement.  The great city is inevitable so long as
+great society insists on gigantic production and as great consumption,
+but the city idea is overwrought beyond its natural condition.  If some
+power could equalize the transportation question, so that a factory
+might be built in a smaller town, where raw material could be furnished
+as cheaply as in the large city, and the distribution of goods be as
+convenient, there is no reason why the population might not be more
+evenly distributed, to its own great improvement.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Industry and Civilization</I>.&mdash;But what does this mean so far as human
+progress is concerned?  We have increased the material production of
+wealth and added to the material comfort of the inhabitants of the
+world.  We have extended the area of wealth to the dark places of the
+world, giving means of improvement and enlightenment.  We have
+quickened the intellect of man until all he needs to do is to direct
+the machinery of his own invention.  Steam, electricity, and
+water-power have worked for him.  It has given people leisure to study,
+investigate, and develop scientific discoveries for the improvement of
+the race, protecting them from danger and disease and adding to their
+comfort.  It has given opportunity for the development of the higher
+spiritual power in art, music, architecture, religion, and science.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Industrial progress is something more than the means of heaping up
+wealth.  It has to do with the well-being of humanity.  It is true we
+have not yet been able to carry out our ideals in this matter, but
+slowly and surely industrial liberty and justice are following in the
+wake of the freedom of the mind to think, the freedom of religious
+belief, and the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P442"></A>442}</SPAN>
+political freedom of self-government.  We are
+to-day in the fourth great period of modern development, the
+development of justice in industrial relations.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Moreover, all of this quickening of industry has brought people
+together from all over the world.  London is nearer New York than was
+Philadelphia in revolutionary times.  Not only has it brought people
+closer together in industry, but in thought and sympathy.  There have
+been developed a world ethics, a world trade, and a world interchange
+of science and improved ideas of life.  It has given an increased
+opportunity for material comforts and an increased opportunity for the
+achievement of the ordinary man who seeks to develop all the capacities
+and powers granted him by nature.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  Show that land is the foundation of all industry.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  Compare condition of laborers now with conditions before the
+industrial revolution.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  Are great organizations of business necessary to progress?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  Do railroads create wealth?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  Does the introduction of machinery benefit the wage-earner?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  How does rapid ocean-steamship transportation help the United
+States?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  If England should decline in wealth and commerce, would the United
+States be benefited thereby?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+8.  How does the use of electricity benefit industry?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+9.  To what extent do you think the government should control or manage
+industry?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+10.  Is Industrial Democracy possible?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+11.  Cutting and hammering two processes of primitive civilization.
+What mechanical inventions take the place of the stone hammer and the
+stone knife?
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap27fn1"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap27fn1text">1</A>] See <A HREF="#chap21">Chapter XXI</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap28"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P443"></A>443}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XXVII
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+SOCIAL EVOLUTION
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Evolutionary Processes of Society</I>.&mdash;Social activity is primarily
+group activity.  Consequently the kind and nature of the group, the
+methods which brought its members together, its organization and
+purpose, indicate the type of civilization and the possibility of
+achievement.  As group activity means mutual aid of members, and
+involves processes of co-operation in achievement, the type of society
+is symbolic of the status of progress.  The function of the group is to
+establish social order of its members, protect them from external foes,
+as well as internal maladies, and to bring into existence a new force
+by which greater achievement is possible than when individuals are
+working separately.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Social Individual</I>.&mdash;While society is made of physio-psychic
+individuals, as a matter of fact the social individual is made by
+interactions and reactions arising from human association.  Society on
+one hand and the social individual on the other are both developed at
+the same time through the process of living together in co-operation
+and mutual aid.  Society once created, no matter how imperfect, begins
+its work for the good of all its members.  It begins to provide against
+cold and hunger and to protect from wild animals and wild men.  It
+becomes a feeling, thinking, willing group seeking the best for all.
+It is in the fully developed society that the social process appears of
+providing a water-supply, sanitation through sewer systems,
+preventative medicine and health measures, public education, means of
+establishing its members in rights, duties, and privileges, and
+protecting them in the pursuit of industry.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Ethnic Society</I>.&mdash;Just at what period society became well
+established is not known, but there are indications that some forms of
+primitive family life and social activities were
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P444"></A>444}</SPAN>
+in existence
+among the men of the Old Stone Age, and certainly in the Neolithic
+period.  After races had reached a stage of permanent historical
+records, or had even handed down traditions from generation to
+generation, there are evidences of family life and tribal or national
+achievements.  Though there are evidences of religious group activities
+prior to formal tribal life, it may be stated in general that the first
+permanent organization was on a family or ethnic basis.  Blood
+relationship was the central idea of cohesion, which was early aided by
+religious superstition and belief.  Following this idea, all of the
+ancient monarchies and empires were based on the ethnic group or race.
+All of this indicates that society was based on natural law, and from
+that were gradually evolved the general and political elements which
+foreshadowed the enlarged functions of the more complex society of
+modern times.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Territorial Group</I>.&mdash;Before the early tribal groups had settled
+down to permanent habitations, they had developed many social
+activities, but when they became permanently settled they passed from
+the ethnic to the demographic form of social order&mdash;that is, they
+developed a territorial group that performed all of its functions
+within a given boundary which they called their own.  From this time on
+population increased and occupied territory expanded, and the group
+became self-sufficient and independent in character.  Then it could
+co-operate with other groups and differentiate functions within.
+Industrial, religious, and political groups, sacred orders, and
+voluntary associations became prominent, all under the protection of
+the general social order.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The National Group Founded on Race Expansion</I>.&mdash;Through conquest,
+amalgamation, and assimilation, various independent groups were united
+in national life.  All of the interior forces united in the
+perpetuation of the nation, which became strong and domineering in its
+attitude toward others.  This led to warfare, conquest, or plunder, the
+union of the conquered with the conquerors, and imperialism came into
+being.  Growth of wealth and population led to the demand for more
+territory
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P445"></A>445}</SPAN>
+and the continuation of strife and warfare.  The rise
+and fall of nations, the formation and dissolving of empires under the
+constant shadow of war continued through the ages.  While some progress
+was made, it was in the face of conspicuous waste of life and energy,
+and the process of national protection of humanity has been of doubtful
+utility.  Yet the development of hereditary leadership, the dominance
+of privileged classes, and the formation of traditions, laws, and forms
+of government went on unabated, during which the division of industrial
+and social functions within, causing numerous classes to continually
+differentiate, took place.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Functions of New Groups</I>.&mdash;In all social groupings the function
+always precedes the form or structure of the social order.  Society
+follows the method of organic evolution in growing by differentiation.
+New organs or parts are formed, which in time become strengthened and
+developed.  The organs or parts become more closely articulated with
+each other and with the whole social body, and finally over all is the
+great society, which defends, shields, protects, and fights for all.
+The individual may report for life service in many departments, through
+which his relation to great society must be manifested.  He no longer
+can go alone in his relation to the whole mass.  He may co-operate in a
+general way, it is true, with all, but must have a particularly active
+co-operation in the smaller groups on which his life service and life
+sustenance depend.  The multiplication of functions leads to increased
+division of service and to increased co-operation.  In the industrial
+life the division of labor and formation of special groups are more
+clearly manifested.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Great Society and the Social Order</I>.&mdash;This is manifested chiefly in
+the modern state and the powerful expression of public opinion.  No
+matter how traditional, autocratic, and arbitrary the centralized
+government becomes, there is continually arising modifying power from
+local conditions.  There are things that the czar or the king does not
+do if he wishes to continue in permanent authority.  From the masses of
+the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P446"></A>446}</SPAN>
+people there arises opposition to arbitrary power, through
+expressed discontent, public opinion, or revolution.  The whole social
+field of Europe has been a seething turmoil of action and reaction, of
+autocracy and the demand for human rights.  Thirst for national
+aggrandizement and power and the lust of the privileged classes have
+been modified by the distressing cry of the suffering people.  What a
+slow process is social evolution and what a long struggle has been
+waged for human rights!
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Great Society Protects Voluntary Organizations</I>.&mdash;Freedom of assembly,
+debate, and organization is one of the important traits of social
+organization.  With the ideal of democracy comes also freedom of speech
+and the press.  Voluntary organizations for the good of the members or
+for a distinctive agency for general good may be made and receive
+protection in society at large through law, the courts, and public
+opinion; but the right to organize does not carry with it the right to
+destroy, and all such organizations must conform to the general good as
+expressed in the laws of the land.  Sometimes organizations interested
+in their own institutions have been detrimental to the general good.
+Even though they have law and public opinion with them, in their zeal
+for propaganda they have overstepped the rules of progress.  But such
+conditions cannot last; progress will cause them to change their
+attitude or they meet a social death.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Widening Service of the Church</I>.&mdash;The importance of the religious
+life in the progress of humanity is acknowledged by all careful
+scholars.  Sometimes, it is true, this religious belief has been
+detrimental to the highest interests of social welfare.  Religion
+itself is necessarily conservative, and when overcome by superstition,
+tradition, and dogmatism, it may stifle the intellect and retard
+progress.  The history of the world records many instances of this.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The modern religious life, however, has taken upon it, as a part of its
+legitimate function, the ethical relations of mankind.  Ethics has been
+prominent in the doctrine and service of the church.  When the church
+turned its attention to the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P447"></A>447}</SPAN>
+future life, with undue neglect of
+the present, it became non-progressive and worked against the best
+interests of social progress.  When it based its operation entirely
+upon faith, at the expense of reason and judgment, it tended to enslave
+the intellect and to rob mankind of much of its best service.  But when
+it turned its attention to sweetening and purifying the present,
+holding to the future by faith, that man might have a larger and better
+life, it opened the way for social progress.  Its motto has been, in
+recent years, the salvation of this life that the future may be
+assured.  Its aim is to seize the best that this life furnishes and to
+utilize it for the elevation of man, individually and socially.  Its
+endeavor is to save this life as the best and holiest reality yet
+offered to man.  Faith properly exercised leads to invention,
+discovery, social activity, and general culture.  It gives an impulse
+not only to religious life, but to all forms of social activity.  But
+it must work with the full sanction of intelligence and allow a
+continual widening activity of reason and judgment.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The church has shown a determination to take hold of all classes of
+human society and all means of reform and regeneration.  It has evinced
+a tendency to seize all the products of culture, all the improvements
+of science, all the revelations of truth, and turn them to account in
+the upbuilding of mankind on earth, in perfecting character and
+relieving mankind, in developing the individual and improving social
+conditions.  The church has thus entered the educational world, the
+missionary field, the substratum of society, the political life, and
+the field of social order, everywhere becoming a true servant of the
+people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Growth of Religious Toleration</I>.&mdash;There is no greater evidence of the
+progress of human society than the growth of religious toleration.  In
+the first hundred years of the Reformation, religious toleration was
+practically unknown.  Indeed, the last fifty years has seen a more
+rapid growth in this respect than in the previous three hundred.
+Luther and his followers could not tolerate Calvinists any more than
+they could
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P448"></A>448}</SPAN>
+Catholics, and Calvinists, on the other hand, could
+tolerate no other religious opinion.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The slow evolution of religious toleration in England is one of the
+most remarkable things in history.  Henry VIII, "Defender of the
+Faith," was opposed to religious liberty.  Queen Mary persecuted all
+except Catholics.  Elizabeth completed the establishment of the
+Anglican Church, though, forced by political reasons, she gave more or
+less toleration to all parties.  But Cromwell advocated unrelenting
+Puritanism by legislation and by the sword.  James I, though a
+Protestant wedded to imperialism in government, permitted oppression.
+The Bill of Rights, which secured to the English people the privileges
+of constitutional government, insisted that no person who should
+profess the "popish" religion or marry a "papist" should be qualified
+to wear the crown of England.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+At the close of the sixteenth century it was a common principle of
+belief that any person who adhered to heterodox opinions in religion
+should be burned alive or otherwise put to death.  Each church adhered
+to this sentiment, though, it is true, many persons believed
+differently, and at the close of the seventeenth century Bossuet, the
+great French ecclesiastic, maintained with close argument that the
+right of the civil magistrate to punish religious errors was a point on
+which nearly all churches agreed, and asserted that only two bodies of
+Christians, the Socinians and the Anabaptists, denied it.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In 1673 all persons holding office under the government of England were
+compelled to take the oath of supremacy and of allegiance, to declare
+against transubstantiation, and to take the sacrament according to the
+ritual of the established church.  In 1689 the Toleration Act was
+passed, exempting dissenters from the Church of England from the
+penalties of non-attendance on the service of the established church.
+This was followed by a bill abolishing episcopacy in Scotland.  In 1703
+severe laws were passed in Ireland against those who professed the
+Roman Catholic religion.  The Test Act was not repealed until 1828,
+when the oath was taken "on the true
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P449"></A>449}</SPAN>
+faith of a Christian," which
+was substituted for the sacrament test.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+From this time on Protestant dissenters might hold office.  In the year
+following, the Catholic Relief Act extended toleration to the
+Catholics, permitting them to hold any offices except those of regent,
+lord chancellor of England or Ireland, and of viceroy of Ireland.  In
+1858, by act of Parliament, Jews were for the first time admitted to
+that body.  In 1868 the Irish church was disestablished and disendowed,
+and a portion of its funds devoted to education.  But it was not until
+1871 that persons could lecture in the universities of Oxford and
+Cambridge without taking the sacrament of the established church and
+adhering to its principles.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The growth of toleration in America has been evinced in the struggle of
+the different denominations for power.  The church and the state,
+though more or less closely connected in the colonies of America, have
+been entirely separated under the Constitution, and therefore the
+struggle for liberal views has been between the different denominations
+themselves.  In Europe and in America one of the few great events of
+the century has been the entire separation of church and state.  It has
+gone so far in America that most of the states have ceased to aid any
+private or denominational institutions.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+There is a tendency, also, not to support Indian schools carried on by
+religious denominations, or else to have them under the especial
+control of the United States government.  There has been, too, a
+liberalizing tendency among the different denominations themselves.  In
+some rural districts, and among ignorant classes, bigotry and
+intolerance, of course, break out occasionally, but upon the whole
+there is a closer union of the various denominations upon a
+co-operative basis of redeeming men from error, and a growing tendency
+to tolerate differing beliefs.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Altruism and Democracy</I>.&mdash;The law of evolution that involves the
+survival of the fittest of organic life when applied to humanity was
+modified by social action.  But as man must
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P450"></A>450}</SPAN>
+always figure as an
+individual and his development is caused by intrinsic and extrinsic
+stimuli, he has never been free from the exercise of the individual
+struggle for existence, no matter how highly society is developed nor
+to what extent group activity prevails.  The same law continues in
+relation to the survival of the group along with other groups, and as
+individual self-interest, the normal function of the individual, may
+pass into selfishness, so group interest may pass into group
+selfishness, and the dominant idea of the group may be its own
+survival.  This develops institutionalism, which has been evidenced in
+every changing phase of social organization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Along with this have grown altruistic principles based on the law of
+love, which in its essentials is antagonistic to the law of the
+survival of the fittest.  It has been developed from two sources&mdash;one
+which originally was founded on race morality, that is, the protection
+of individuals for the good of the order, and the other that of
+sympathy with suffering of the weak and unprotected.  In the progress
+of modern society the application of Christian principles to life has
+kept pace with the application of democratic principles in establishing
+the rights of man.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Gradually the duty of society to protect and care for the weak has
+become generally recognized.  This idea has been entirely
+overemphasized in many cases, on the misapplication of the theory that
+one individual is as good as another and entitled to equality of
+treatment by all.  At least it is possible for the normal progress of
+society to be retarded if the strong become weakened by excessive care
+of the weak.  The law of love must be so exercised that it will not
+increase weakness on the part of those being helped, nor lessen the
+opportunities of the strong to survive and manifest their strength.
+The history of the English Poor Law is an account of the systematic
+care of pauperism to the extent that paupers were multiplied so that
+those who were bearing the burden of taxation for their support found
+it easier and, indeed, sometimes necessary to join the pauper ranks in
+order to live at all.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P451"></A>451}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Many are alarmed to-day at the multiplication of the number of insane,
+weak-minded, imbeciles, and paupers who must be supported by the
+taxation of the people and helped in a thousand ways by the altruism of
+individuals and groups.  Unless along with this excessive altruistic
+care, scientific principles of breeding, of prevention, and of care can
+be introduced, the dependent, defective, and delinquent classes of the
+world will eventually become a burden to civilization.  Society cannot
+shirk its duty to care for these groups, but it would be a misfortune
+if they reach a status where they can demand support and protection of
+society.  It is a question whether we have not already approached in a
+measure this condition.  Fortunately there is enough knowledge in the
+world of science regarding man and society to prevent any such
+catastrophe, if it could only be applied.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Hence, since one of the great ideals of life is to develop a perfect
+society built upon rational principles, the study of social pathology
+has become important.  The care of the weak and the broken-down classes
+of humanity has something more than altruism as a foundation.  Upon it
+rest the preservation of the individual and the perpetuation of a
+healthy social organism.  The care of the insane, of imbeciles, of
+criminals, and of paupers is exercised more nearly on a scientific
+basis each succeeding year.  Prevention and reform are the fundamental
+ideas in connection with the management of these classes.  Altruism may
+be an initial motive power, prompting people to care for the needy and
+the suffering, but necessity for the preservation of society is more
+powerful in its final influences.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+To care for paupers without increasing pauperism is a great question,
+and is rapidly putting all charity upon a scientific basis.  To care
+for imbeciles without increasing imbecility, and to care for criminals
+on the basis of the prevention and decrease of crime, are among the
+most vital questions of modern social life.  As the conditions of human
+misery become more clearly revealed to humanity, and their evil effects
+on the social system become more apparent, greater efforts will be
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P452"></A>452}</SPAN>
+put forward&mdash;greater than ever before&mdash;in the care of dependents,
+defectives, and delinquents.  Not only must the pathology of the
+individual be studied, for the preservation of his physical system, but
+the pathology of human society must receive scientific investigation in
+order to perpetuate the social organism.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Modern Society a Machine of Great Complexity</I>.&mdash;While the family
+remains as the most persistent primary unit of social organization out
+of which differentiated the great social functions of to-day, it now
+expresses but a very small part of the social complex.  It is true it
+is still a conserving, co-operating, propagating group of individuals,
+in which appear many of the elemental functions of society.  While it
+represents a group based on blood relationship, as in the old dominant
+family drawn together by psychical influences and preserved on account
+of the protection of the different members of the group and the various
+complex relations between them, still within its precincts are found
+the elementary practices of economic life, the rights of property, and
+the beginnings of education and religion.  Outside of this family
+nucleus there have been influences of common nationality and common
+ancestry or race, which are natural foundations of an expanded society.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Along with this are the secondary influences, the memories and
+associations of a common birthplace or a common territorial community,
+and by local habitation of village, town, city, or country.  But the
+differentiation of industrial functions or activities has been most
+potent in developing social complexity.  The multiplication of
+activities, the choice of occupation, and the division of labor have
+multiplied the economic groups by the thousand.  Following this,
+natural voluntary social groups spring up on every hand.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Again, partly by choice and partly by environment, we find society
+drawn together in other groups, more or less influenced by those just
+enumerated.  From the earliest forms of social existence we find men
+are grouped together on the basis of wealth.  The interests of the rich
+are common, as are also the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P453"></A>453}</SPAN>
+interests of the poor and those of
+the well-to-do.  Nor is it alone a matter of interest, but in part of
+choice, that these groupings occur.  This community of interests brings
+about social coherence.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Again, the trades, professions, and occupations of men draw them
+together in associated groups.  It is not infrequent that men engaged
+in the same profession are thrown together in daily contact, have the
+same interests, sentiments, and thought, and form in this way a group
+which stands almost aloof from other groups in social life; tradesmen
+dealing in a certain line of goods are thrown together in the same way.
+But the lines in these groupings must not be too firmly drawn, for
+groups formed on the basis of friendship may cover a field partaking in
+part of all these different groups.  Again, we shall find that the
+school lays the foundation of early associations, and continues to have
+an influence in creating social aggregates.  Fraternal societies and
+political parties in the same way form associated groups.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The church at large forms a great organizing centre, the influence of
+which in political and social life enlarges every day.  The church body
+arranges itself in different groups on the basis of the different sects
+and denominations, and within the individual church organization there
+are small groups or societies, which again segregate religious social
+life.  But over and above all these various social groups and classes
+is the state, binding and making all cohere in a common unity.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The tendency of this social life is to differentiate into more and more
+groups, positive in character, which renders our social existence
+complex and difficult to analyze.  The social groups overlap one
+another, and are interdependent in all their relations.  In one way the
+individual becomes more and more self-constituted and independent in
+his activity; in another way he is dependent on all his fellows for
+room or opportunity for action.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This complexity of social life renders it difficult to estimate the
+real progress of society; yet, taking any one of these
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P454"></A>454}</SPAN>
+individual
+groups, it will be found to be improving continually.  School life and
+school associations show a marked improvement; family life,
+notwithstanding the various evidences of the divorce courts, shows
+likewise an improved state as intelligence increases; the social life
+of the church becomes larger and broader.  The spread of literature and
+learning, the increase of education, renders each social group more
+self-sustaining and brings about a higher life, with a better code of
+morals.  Even political groups have their reactions, in which,
+notwithstanding the great room for improvement, they stand for morality
+and justice.  The relations of man to man are becoming better
+understood every day.  His fickleness and selfishness are more readily
+observed in recent than in former times, and as a result the evils of
+the present are magnified, because they are better understood; in
+reality, social conditions are improving, and the fact that social
+conditions are understood and evils clearly observed promises a great
+improvement for the future.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Interrelation of Different Parts of Society</I>.&mdash;The various social
+aggregates are closely interrelated and mutually dependent upon one
+another.  The state itself, though expressing the unity of society, is
+a highly complex organization, consisting of forms of local and central
+government.  These parts, having independent functions, are
+co-ordinated to the general whole.  Voluntary organizations have their
+specific relation to the state, which fosters and protects them on an
+independent basis.  The school, likewise, has its relation to the
+social life, having an independent function, yet touching all parts of
+the social life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+We find the closest interdependence of individuals in the economic
+life.  Each man performs a certain service which he exchanges for the
+services of others.  The wealth which he creates with his own hand,
+limited in kind, must be exchanged for all the other commodities which
+he would have.  More than this, all people are ranged in economic
+groups, each group dependent upon all the others&mdash;the farmers dependent
+upon
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P455"></A>455}</SPAN>
+the manufacturers of implements and goods, upon bankers,
+lawyers, ministers, and teachers; the manufacturers dependent upon the
+farmers and all the other classes; and so with every class.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+This interdependent relation renders it impossible to improve one group
+without improving the others, or to work a great detriment to one group
+without injuring the others.  If civilization is to be perpetuated and
+improved, the banker must be interested in the welfare of the farmer,
+the farmer in the welfare of the banker, both in the prosperity of
+manufacturers, and all in the welfare of the common laborer.  The
+tendency for this mutual interest to increase is evinced in all human
+social relations, and speaks well for the future of civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Progress of the Race Based on Social
+Opportunities</I>.&mdash;Anthropologists tell us that no great change in the
+physical capacity of man has taken place for many centuries.  The
+maximum brain capacity has probably not exceeded that of the Crô-Magnon
+race in the Paleolithic period of European culture.  Undoubtedly,
+however, there has been some change in the quality of the brain,
+increasing its storage batteries of power and through education the
+utilization of that power.  We would scarcely expect, however, with all
+of our education and scientific development, to increase the stature of
+man or to enlarge his brain.  Much is being done, however, in getting
+the effective service of the brain not only through natural selective
+processes, but through education.  The improvement of human society has
+been brought about largely by training and the increased knowledge
+which it has brought to us through invention and discovery, and their
+application to the practical and theoretical arts.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+All these would have been buried had it not been for the protection of
+co-operative society and the increased power derived therefrom.  Even
+though we exercise the selective power of humanity under the direction
+of our best intelligence, the individual must find his future
+opportunity in the better
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P456"></A>456}</SPAN>
+conditions furnished by society.
+Granted that individual and racial powers are essential through
+hereditary development, progress can only be obtained by the expression
+of these powers through social activity.  For it is only through social
+co-operation that a new power is brought into existence, namely,
+achievement by mutual aid.  This assertion does not ignore the fact
+that the mutations of progress arise from the brain centres of
+geniuses, and that by following up these mutations by social action
+they may become productive and furnish opportunity for progress.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Central Idea of Modern Civilization</I>.&mdash;The object of life is not
+to build a perfect social mechanism.  It is only a means to a greater
+end, namely, that the individual shall have opportunity to develop and
+exercise the powers which nature has given him.  This involves an
+opportunity for the expression of his whole nature, physical and
+mental, for the satisfaction of his normal desires for home, happiness,
+prosperity, and achievement.  It involves, too, the question of
+individual rights, privileges, and duties.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The history of man reveals to us somewhat of his progress.  There is
+ever before us the journey which he has taken in reaching his present
+status.  The road has been very long, very rough, very crooked.  What
+he has accomplished has been at fearful expense.  Thousands have
+perished, millions have been swept away, that a single idea for the
+elevation and culture of the race might remain.  Deplore it as we may,
+the end could be reached only thus.  The suffering of humanity is
+gradually lessening, and destruction and waste being stayed, yet we
+must recognize, in looking to the future, that all means of improvement
+will be retarded by the imperfection of human life and human conditions.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The central principle, however, the great nucleus of civilization,
+becomes more clearly defined, in turn revealing that man's happiness on
+earth, based upon duty and service, is the end of progress.  If the
+achievements of science, the vast accumulations of wealth, the
+perfection of social organization,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P457"></A>457}</SPAN>
+the increased power of
+individual life&mdash;if all these do not yield better social conditions, if
+they do not give to humanity at large greater contentment, greater
+happiness, a larger number of things to know and enjoy, they must fail
+in their service.  But they will not fail.  Man is now a larger
+creature in every way than ever before.  He has better religion; a
+greater God in the heavens, ruling with beneficence and wisdom; a
+larger number of means for improvement everywhere; and the desire and
+determination to master these things and turn them to his own benefit.
+The pursuit of truth reveals man to himself and God to him.  The
+promotion of justice and righteousness makes his social life more
+complete and happy.  The investigations of science and the advances of
+invention and discovery increase his material resources, furnishing him
+means with which to work; and with increasing intelligence he will
+understand more clearly his destiny&mdash;the highest culture of mind and
+body and the keenest enjoyment of the soul.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  What were the chief causes of aggregation of people?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  Are there evidences of groups without the beginning of social
+organization?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  What is the relation of the individual to society?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  The basis of national groups.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  Factors in the progress of the human race.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  Growth of religious toleration in the world.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  Name ten "American institutions" that should be perpetuated.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+8.  Race and democracy.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+9.  What per cent of the voters of your town take a vital interest in
+government?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+10.  The growth of democratic ideas in Europe.  In Asia.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+11.  Study the welfare organizations in your town, comparing objects
+and results.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+12.  The trend of population from country to city and its influence on
+social organization.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+13.  Explain why people follow the fashions.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap29"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P458"></A>458}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XXIX
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+THE EVOLUTION OF SCIENCE
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>Science Is an Attitude of Mind Toward Life</I>.&mdash;As usually defined,
+science represents a classified body of knowledge logically arranged
+with the purpose of arriving at definite principles or truths by
+processes of investigation and comparison.  But the largest part of
+science is found in its method of approaching the truth as compared
+with religion, philosophy, or disconnected knowledge obtained by casual
+observation.  In many ways it is in strong contrast with speculative
+philosophy and with dogmatic theology, both of which lack sufficient
+data for scientific development.  The former has a tendency to
+interpret what is assumed to have already been established.  With the
+latter the laboratory of investigation of truth has been closed.  The
+laboratory of science is always open.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+While scientists work with hypotheses, use the imagination, and even
+become dogmatic in their assertions, the degree of certainty is always
+tested in the laboratory.  If a truth is discovered to-day, it must be
+verified in the laboratory or shown to be incorrect or only a partial
+truth.  Science has been built up on the basis of the inquiry into
+nature's processes.  It is all the time inquiring: "What do we find
+under the microscope, through the telescope, in the chemical and
+physical reactions, in the examination of the earth and its products,
+in the observation of the functions of animals and plants, or in the
+structure of the brain of man and the laws of his mental functioning?"
+If it establishes an hypothesis as a means of procedure, it must be
+determined true or abandoned.  If the imagination ventures to be
+far-seeing, observation, experimentation, and the discovery of fact
+must all come to its support before it can be called scientific.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Scientific Methods</I>.&mdash;We have already referred to the turning of the
+minds of the Greeks from the power of the gods to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P459"></A>459}</SPAN>
+a look into
+nature's processes.  We have seen how they lacked a scientific method
+and also scientific data sufficient to verify their assumptions.  We
+have observed how, while they took a great step forward, their
+conclusions were lost in the Dark Ages and in the early mediaeval
+period, and how they were brought to light in the later medieval period
+and helped to form the scholastic philosophy and to stimulate free
+inquiry, and how the weakness of all systems was manifested in all
+these periods of human life by failure to use the simple process of
+observing the facts of nature, getting them and classifying them so as
+to demonstrate truth.  It will not be possible to recount in this
+chapter a full description of the development of science and scientific
+thought.  Not more can be done than to mention the turning-points in
+its development and expansion.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Though other influences of minor importance might be mentioned, it is
+well to note that Roger Bacon (1214-1294) stands out prominently as the
+first philosopher of the mediaeval period who turned his attitude of
+mind earnestly toward nature.  It is true that he was not free from the
+taint of dogmatic theology and scholastic philosophy which were so
+strongly prevailing at the time, but he advocated the discovery of
+truth by observation and experiment, which was a bold assumption at
+that time.  He established as one of his main principles that
+experimental science "investigates the secrets of nature by its own
+competency and out of its own qualities, irrespective of any connection
+with the other sciences."  Thus he did not universalize his method as
+applicable to all sciences.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Doubtless Roger Bacon received his inspiration from the Greek and
+Arabian scientists with whom he was familiar.  It is interesting that,
+following the lines of observation and discovery in a very primitive
+way, he let his imagination run on into the future, predicting many
+things that have happened already.  Thus he says: "Machines for
+navigation are possible without rowers, like great ships suited to
+river or ocean, going with greater velocity than if they were full of
+rowers; likewise
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P460"></A>460}</SPAN>
+wagons may be moved <I>cum impetu inaestimabili</I>,
+as we deem the chariots of antiquity to have been.  And there may be
+flying-machines, so made that a man may sit in the middle of the
+machine and direct it by some device; and again, machines for raising
+great weights."[<A NAME="chap29fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap29fn1">1</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In continuity with the ideas of Roger Bacon, Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
+gave a classification of human learning and laid the real foundation on
+which the superstructure of science has been built.  Between the two
+lives much had been done by Copernicus, who taught that the earth was
+not the centre of the universe, and that it revolved on its axis from
+west to east.  This gave the traditions of fourteen centuries a severe
+jolt, and laid the foundation for the development of the heliocentric
+system of astronomy.  Bacon's classification of all knowledge showed
+the relationship of the branches to a comprehensive whole.  His
+fundamental theory was that nature was controlled and modified by man.
+He recognized the influence of natural philosophy, but insisted that
+the "history mechanical" was a strong support to it.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+His usefulness seems to have been in the presentation of a wide range
+of knowledge distinctly connected, the demonstration of the utility of
+knowledge, and the suggestion of unsolved problems which should be
+investigated by observation and experiment.  Without giving his
+complete classification of human learning, it may be well to state his
+most interesting classification of physical science to show the middle
+ground which he occupied between mediaeval thought and our modern
+conception of science.  This classification is as follows:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+1.  Celestial phenomena.<BR>
+2.  Atmosphere.<BR>
+3.  Globe.<BR>
+4.  Substance of earth, air, fire, and water.<BR>
+5.  Genera, species, etc.[<A NAME="chap29fn2text"></A><A HREF="#chap29fn2">2</A>]<BR>
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P461"></A>461}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+Descartes, following Bacon, had much to do with the establishment of
+method, although he laid more stress upon deduction than upon
+induction.  With Bacon he believed that there was need of a better
+method of finding out the truth than that of logic.  He was strong in
+his refusal to recognize anything as true that he did not understand,
+and had no faith in the mere assumption of truth, insisting upon
+absolute proof derived through an intelligent order.  Perhaps, too, his
+idea was to establish universal mathematics, for he recognized
+measurements and lines everywhere in the universe, and recognized the
+universality of all natural phenomena, laying great stress on the
+solution of problems by measurement.  He was a fore runner of Newton
+and many other scientists, and as such represents an epoch-making
+period in scientific development.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The trend of thought by a few leaders having been directed to the
+observation of nature and the experimentation with natural phenomena,
+the way was open for the shifting of the centre of thought of the
+entire world.  It only remained now for each scientist to work out in
+his own way his own experiments.  The differentiation of knowledge
+brought about many phases of thought and built up separate divisions of
+science.  While each one has had an evolution of its own, all together
+they have worked out a larger progress of the whole.  Thus Gilbert
+(1540-1603) carried on practical experiments and observations with the
+lodestone, or magnet, and thus made a faint beginning of the study of
+electrical phenomena which in recent years has played such an important
+part in the progress of the world.  Harvey (1578-1657) by his careful
+study of the blood determined its circulation through the heart by
+means of the arterial and venous systems.  This was an important step
+in leading to anatomical studies and set the world far ahead of the
+medical studies of the Arabians.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Galileo (1564-1642), in his study of the heavenly bodies and the
+universe, carried out the suggestion of Copernicus a century before of
+the revolution of the earth on its axis, to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P462"></A>462}</SPAN>
+take the place of the
+old theory that the sun revolved around the earth.  Indeed, this was
+such a disturbing factor among churchmen, theologians, and
+pseudo-philosophers that Galileo was forced to recant his statements.
+In 1632 he published at Florence his <I>Dialogue on the Ptolemaic and
+Copernican Systems of the World</I>.  For this he was cited to Rome, his
+book ordered to be burned, and he was sentenced to be imprisoned, to
+make a recantation of his errors, and by way of penance to recite the
+seven penitential psalms once a week.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It seems very strange that a man who could make a telescope to study
+the heavenly bodies and carry on experiments with such skill that he
+has been called the founder of experimental science could be forced to
+recant the things which he was convinced by experiment and observation
+to be true.  However, it must be remembered that the mediaeval doctrine
+of authority had taken possession of the minds of the world of thinkers
+to such an extent that to oppose it openly seemed not only sacrilege
+but the tearing down of the walls of faith and destroying the permanent
+structure of society.  Moreover, the minds of all thinkers were trying
+to hold on to the old while they developed the new, and not one could
+think of destroying the faith of the church.  But the church did not so
+view this, and took every opportunity to suppress everything new as
+being destructive of the church.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No one could contemplate the tremendous changes that might have been
+made in the history of the world if the church could have abandoned its
+theological dogmas far enough to welcome all new truth that was
+discovered in God's workshop.  To us in the twentieth century who have
+such freedom of expressing both truth and untruth, it is difficult to
+realize to what extent the authorities of the Middle Ages tried to seal
+the fountains of truth.  Picture a man kneeling before the authorities
+at Rome and stating: "With a sincere heart and unfeigned faith I
+abjure, curse, and detest the said errors and heresies.  I swear that
+for the future I will never say nor assert anything verbally or in
+writing which may give rise to a
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P463"></A>463}</SPAN>
+similar suspicion against
+me."[<A NAME="chap29fn3text"></A><A HREF="#chap29fn3">3</A>]  Thus he was compelled to recant and deny his theory that the
+earth moves around the sun.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Measurement in Scientific Research</I>.&mdash;All scientific research involves
+the recounting of recurring phenomena within a given time and within a
+given space.  In order, therefore, to carry on systematic research,
+methods of measuring are necessary.  We can thus see how mathematics,
+although developed largely through the study of astronomy, has been
+necessary to all investigation.  Ticho Brahe and Kepler may be said to
+have accentuated the phase of accurate measurement in investigation.
+They specialized in chemistry and astronomy, all measurements being
+applied to the heavenly bodies.  Their main service was found in
+accurate records of data.  Kepler maintained "that every planet moved
+in an ellipse of which the sun occupied one focus."  He also held "that
+the square of the periodic time of any planet is proportional to the
+cube of its mean distance from the sun," and "that the area swept by
+the radius vector from the planet to the sun is proportional to the
+time."[<A NAME="chap29fn4text"></A><A HREF="#chap29fn4">4</A>]  He was much aided in his measurements by the use of a system
+of logarithms invented by John Napier (1614).  Many measurements were
+established regarding heat, pressure of air, and the relation of solids
+and liquids.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Isaac Newton, by connecting up a single phenomenon of a body falling a
+distance of a few feet on the earth with all similar phenomena, through
+the law of gravitation discovered the unity of the universe.  Though
+Newton carried on important investigations in astronomy, studied the
+refraction of light through optic glasses, was president of the Royal
+Society, his chief contribution to the sciences was the tying together
+of the sun, the planets, and the moons of the solar system by the
+attraction of gravitation.  Newton was able to carry along with his
+scientific investigations a profound reverence for Christianity.  That
+he was not attacked shows that there had
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P464"></A>464}</SPAN>
+been considerable
+progress made in toleration of new ideas.  With all of his greatness of
+vision, he had the humbleness of a true scientist.  A short time before
+his death he said: "I know not what I may appear to the world; but to
+myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the seashore, and
+diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble, or a
+prettier shell, than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all
+undiscovered before me."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Science Develops from Centres</I>.&mdash;Bodies of truth in the world are all
+related one to another.  Hence, when a scientist investigates and
+experiments along a particular line, he must come in contact more or
+less with other lines.  And while there is a great differentiation in
+the discovery of knowledge by investigation, no single truth can ever
+be established without more or less relation to all other truths.
+Likewise, scientists, although working from different centres, are each
+contributing in his own way to the establishment of universal truth.
+Even in the sixteenth century scientists began to co-operate and
+interchange views, and as soon as their works were published, each fed
+upon the others as he needed in advancing his own particular branch of
+knowledge.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is said that Bacon in his <I>New Atlantis</I> gave such a magnificent
+dream of an opportunity for the development of science and learning
+that it was the means of forming the Royal Society in England.  That
+association was the means of disseminating scientific truth and
+encouraging investigation and publication of results.  It was a
+tremendous advancement of the cause of science, and has been a type for
+the formation of hundreds of other organizations for the promotion of
+scientific truth.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Science and Democracy</I>.&mdash;While seeking to extend knowledge to all
+classes of people, science paves the way for recognition of equal
+rights and privileges.  Science is working all the time to be free from
+the slavery of nature, and the result of its operations is to cause
+mankind to be free from the slavery of man.  Therefore, liberty and
+science go hand in hand in
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P465"></A>465}</SPAN>
+their development.  It is interesting
+to note in this connection that so many scientists have come from
+groups forming the ordinary occupations of life rather than, as we
+might expect, from the privileged classes who have had leisure and
+opportunity for development.  Thus, "Pasteur was the son of a tanner,
+Priestley of a cloth-maker, Dalton of a weaver, Lambert of a tailor,
+Kant of a saddler, Watt of a ship-builder, Smith of a farmer, and John
+Ray was, like Faraday, the son of a blacksmith.  Joule was a brewer.
+Davy, Scheele, Dumas, Balard, Liebig, Wöhler, and a number of other
+distinguished chemists were apothecaries' apprentices."[<A NAME="chap29fn5text"></A><A HREF="#chap29fn5">5</A>]
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Science also is a great leveller because all scientists are bowing down
+to the same truth discovered by experimentation or observation, and,
+moreover, scientists are at work in the laboratories and cannot be
+dogmatic for any length of time.  But scientists arise from all classes
+of people, so far as religious or political belief is concerned.  Many
+of the foremost scientists have been distributed among the Roman
+Catholics, Anglicans, Calvinists, Quakers, Unitarians, and Agnostics.
+The only test act that science knows is that of the recognition of
+truth.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Benjamin Franklin was a printer whose scientific investigations were
+closely intermingled with the problems of human rights.  His
+experiments in science were subordinate to the experiments of human
+society.  His great contribution to science was the identification of
+lightning and the spark from a Leyden jar.  For the identification and
+control of lightning he received a medal from the Royal Society.  The
+discussion of liberty and the part he took in the independence of the
+colonies of America represent his greatest contribution to the world.
+To us he is important, for he embodied in one mind the expression of
+scientific and political truth, showing that science makes for
+democracy and democracy for science.  In each case it is the choice of
+the liberalized mind.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Study of the Biological and Physical Sciences</I>.&mdash;The last century
+is marked by scientific development along several
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P466"></A>466}</SPAN>
+rather distinct
+lines as follows: the study of the earth, or geology; animal and
+vegetable life, or biology; atomic analysis, or chemistry;
+biochemistry; physics, especially that part relating to electricity and
+radioactivity; and more recently it might be stated that investigations
+are carried on in psychology and sociology, while mathematics and
+astronomy have made progress.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The main generalized point of research, if it could be so stated, is
+the discovery of law and order.  This has been demonstrated in the
+development of chemistry under the atomic theory; physics in the
+molecular theory; the law of electrons in electricity, and the
+evolutionary theory in the study of biology.  Great advance has been
+made in the medical sciences, including the knowledge of the nature and
+prevention of disease.  Though a great many new discoveries and, out of
+new discoveries, new inventions have appeared along specific lines and
+various sciences have advanced with accuracy and precision, perhaps the
+evolutionary theory has changed the thought of the world more than any
+other.  It has connected man with the rest of the universe and made him
+a definite part of it.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Evolutionary Theory</I>.&mdash;The geography of the earth as presented by
+Lyell, the theory of population of Malthus, and the <I>Origin of the
+Species</I> and the <I>Descent of Man</I> by Darwin changed the preconceived
+notions of the creation of man.  Slowly and without ostentation science
+everywhere had been forcing all nature into unity controlled by
+universal laws.  Traditional belief was not prepared for the bold
+statement of Darwin that man was part of the slow development of animal
+life through the ages.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For 2,000 years or more the philosophic world had been wedded to the
+idea of a special creation of man entirely independent of the creation
+of the rest of the universe.  All conceptions of God, man, and his
+destiny rested upon the recognition of a separate creation.  To deny
+this meant a reconstruction of much of the religious philosophy of the
+world.  Persons
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P467"></A>467}</SPAN>
+were needlessly alarmed and began to attack the
+doctrine on the assumption that anything interfering with the
+long-recognized interpretation of the relation of man to creation was
+wrong and was instituted for the purpose of tearing down the ancient
+landmarks.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Darwin accepted in general the Lamarckian doctrine that each succeeding
+generation would have new characters added to it by the modification of
+environmental factors and by the use and disuse of organs and
+functions.  Thus gradually under such selection the species would be
+improved.  But Darwin emphasized selection through hereditary traits.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Subsequently, Weismann and others reinterpreted Darwin's theory and
+strengthened its main propositions, abandoning the Lamarckian theory of
+use and disuse.  Mendel, De Vries, and other biologists have added to
+the Darwinian theory by careful investigations into the heredity of
+plants and animals, but because Darwin was the first to give clear
+expression to the theory of evolution, "Darwinism" is used to express
+the general theory.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Cosmic evolution, or the development of the universe, has been
+generally acknowledged by the acceptance of the results of the studies
+of geology, astronomy, and physics.  History of plant and animal life
+is permanently written in the rocks, and their evolutionary process so
+completely demonstrated in the laboratory that few dare to question it.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Modern controversy hinges upon the assumption that man as an animal is
+not subjected to the natural laws of other animals and of plants, but
+that he had a special creation.  The maintenance of this belief has led
+to many crude and unscientific notions of the origin of man and the
+meaning of evolution.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Evolution is very simple in its general traits, but very complex in its
+details.  It is a theory of process and not a theory of creation.  It
+is continuous, progressive change, brought about by natural forces and
+in accordance with natural laws.  The evolutionist studies these
+changes and records the results obtained thereby.  The scientist thus
+discovers new truths,
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P468"></A>468}</SPAN>
+establishes the relation of one truth to
+another, enlarges the boundary of knowledge, extends the horizon of the
+unknown, and leaves the mystery of the beginning of life unsolved.  His
+laboratory is always open to retest and clarify his work and to add new
+knowledge as fast as it is acquired.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Evolution as a working theory for science has correlated truths,
+unified methods, and furnished a key to modern thought.  As a
+co-operative science it has had a stimulating influence on all lines of
+research, not only in scientific study of physical nature, but also in
+the study of man, for there are natural laws as well as man-made laws
+to be observed in the development of human society.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Some evolutionary scientists will be dogmatic at times, but they return
+to their laboratories and proceed to reinterpret what they have
+assumed, so that their dogmatism is of short duration.  Theological
+dogmatists are not so fortunate, because of persistence of religious
+tradition which has not yet been put fully to the laboratory test.
+Some of them are continuously and hopelessly dogmatic.  They still
+adhere to belief founded on the emotions which they refuse to put to
+scientific test.  Science makes no attempt to undermine religion, but
+is unconsciously laying a broader foundation on which religion may
+stand.  Theologians who are beginning to realize this are forced to
+re-examine the Bible and reinterpret it according to the knowledge and
+enlightenment of the time.  Thus science becomes a force to advance
+Christianity, not to destroy it.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+On the other hand, science becomes less dogmatic as it applies its own
+methods to religion and humanity and recognizes that there is a great
+world of spiritual truth which cannot be determined by experiments in
+the physical laboratory.  It can be estimated only in the laboratory of
+human action.  Faith, love, virtue, and spiritual vision cannot be
+explained by physical and chemical reactions.  If in the past science
+has rightly pursued its course of investigation regardless of spiritual
+truth, the future is full of promise that religion and human reactions
+and science will eventually work together in the pursuit of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P469"></A>469}</SPAN>
+truth
+in God's great workshop.  The unity of truth will be thus realized.
+The area of knowledge will be enlarged while the horizon of the unknown
+will be extended.  The mystery of life still remains unsolved.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Galton followed along in the study of the development of race and
+culture, and brought in a new study of human life.  Pasteur and Lister
+worked out their great factors of preventive medicine and health.
+Madame Curie developed the radioactivity as a great contribution to the
+evolution of science.  All of this represents the slow evolution of
+science, each new discovery quickening the thought of the age in which
+it occurred, changing the attitude of the mind toward nature and life,
+and contributing to human comfort and human welfare.  But the greatest
+accomplishment always in the development of science is its effect on
+the mental processes of humanity, stimulating thought and changing the
+attitude of mind toward life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Science and War</I>.&mdash;It is a travesty on human progress, a social
+paradox, that war and science go hand in hand.  On one side are all of
+the machines of destruction, the battleships, bombing-planes, huge
+guns, high explosives, and poisonous gases, products of scientific
+experiment and inventive genius, and on the other ambulances,
+hospitals, medical and surgical care, with the uses of all medical
+discoveries.  The one seeks destruction, the other seeks to allay
+suffering; one force destroys life, the other saves it.  And yet they
+march forth under the same flag to conquer the enemy.  It is like the
+conquest of the American Indians by the Spaniards, in which the warrior
+bore in one hand a banner of the cross of Christ and in the other the
+drawn sword.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+War has achieved much in forcing people into national unity, in giving
+freedom to the oppressed and protecting otherwise helpless people, but
+in the light of our ideals of peace it has never been more than a cruel
+necessity, and, more frequently, a grim, horrible monster.  Chemistry
+and physics and their discoveries underlying the vast material
+prosperity of moderns have contributed much to the mechanical and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P470"></A>470}</SPAN>
+industrial arts and increased the welfare and happiness of mankind.
+But when war is let loose, these same beneficent sciences are worked
+day and night for the rapid destruction of man.  All the wealth built
+up in the passing years is destroyed along with the lives of millions
+of people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Out of the gloom of the picture proceeds one ray of beneficent light,
+that of the service rendered by the discoveries of medical science and
+surgical art.  The discoveries arising from the study of anatomy,
+physiology, bacteriology, and neurology, with the use of anaesthetics
+and antiseptics in connection with surgery, have made war less horrible
+and suffering more endurable.  Scientists like Pasteur, Lister, Koch,
+Morton, and many others brought forth from their laboratories the
+results of their study for the alleviation of suffering.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Yet it seems almost incredible that with all of the horrid experiences
+of war, an enterprise that no one desires, and which the great majority
+of the world deplore, should so long continue.  Nothing but the
+discovery and rise of a serum that will destroy the germs of national
+selfishness and avarice will prevent war.  Possibly it stimulates
+activity in invention, discovery, trade and commerce, but of what avail
+is it if the cycle returns again from peace to war and these products
+of increased activity are turned to the destruction of civilization?
+Does not the world need a baptism of common sense?  Some gain is being
+made in the changing attitude of mind toward the warrior in favor of
+the great scientists of the world.  But nothing will be assured until
+the hero-worship of the soldier gives way to the respect for the
+scholar, and ideals of truth and right become mightier than the sword.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Scientific Progress Is Cumulative</I>.&mdash;One discovery leads to another,
+one invention to others.  It is a law of science.  Science benefits the
+common man more than does politics or religion.  It is through science
+that he has means of use and enjoyment of nature's progress.  It is
+true this is on the side of materialistic culture, and it does not
+provide all that is needed for the completed life.  Even though the
+scientific
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P471"></A>471}</SPAN>
+experiments and discoveries are fundamentally more
+essential, the common man cannot get along without social order,
+politics, or religion.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Perhaps we can get the largest expression of the value of science to
+man through a consideration of the inventions and discoveries which he
+may use in every-day life.[<A NAME="chap29fn6text"></A><A HREF="#chap29fn6">6</A>]  Prior to the nineteenth century we have
+to record the following important inventions: alphabetic writing,
+Arabic numbers, mariner's compass, printing, the telescope, the
+barometer and thermometer, and the steam-engine.  In the nineteenth
+century we have to record: railroads, steam navigation, the telegraph,
+the telephone, friction matches, gas lighting, electrical lighting,
+photography, the phonograph, electrical transmission of power, Röntgen
+rays, spectrum analysis, anaesthetics, antiseptic surgery, the
+airplane, gasoline-engine, transmission of news by radio, and
+transportation by automobile.  Also we shall find in the nineteenth
+century thirteen important theoretical discoveries as compared with
+seven in all previous centuries.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is interesting to note what may have taken place also in the last
+generation.  A man who was born in the middle of the last century might
+reflect on a good many things that have taken place.  Scientifically he
+has lived to see the development of electricity from a mere academic
+pursuit to a tremendous force of civilization.  Chemistry, although
+supposed to have been a completed science, was scarcely begun.  Herbert
+Spencer's <I>Synthetic Philosophy</I> and Darwin's <I>Origin of the Species</I>
+had not yet been published.  Huxley and Tyndall, the great experimental
+scientists, had not published their great works.  Transportation with a
+few slow steam-propelled vessels crossing the ocean preceded the era of
+the great floating palaces.  The era of railroad-building had only just
+started in America.  Horseless carriages propelled by gas or
+electricity were in a state of conjecture.  Politically in America the
+Civil War had not been fought or the Constitution really completed.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The great wealth and stupendous business organization of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P472"></A>472}</SPAN>
+to-day
+were unknown in 1850.  In Europe there was no German Empire, only a
+German Federation.  The Hapsburgs were still holding forth in Austria
+and the Hohenzollerns in Prussia and the Romanoffs in Russia.  The
+monarchial power of the old régime was the rule of the day.  These are
+institutions of the past.  Civilization in America, although it had
+invaded the Mississippi valley, had not spread over the great Western
+plains nor to the Pacific coast.  Tremendous changes in art and
+industries, in inventions and discoveries have been going on in this
+generation.  The flying-machine, the radio, the automobile, the
+dirigible balloon, and, more than all, the tremendous business
+organization of the factories and industries of the age have given us
+altogether a complete revolution.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Research Foundations</I>.&mdash;All modern universities carry on through
+instructors and advanced students many departments of scientific
+research.  The lines of research extend through a wide range of
+subjects&mdash;Chemistry, Biology, Physics, Anatomy, Physiology, Medicine,
+Geology, Agriculture, History, Sociology, and other departments of
+learning.  These investigations have led to the discovery of new
+knowledge and the extension of learning to mankind.  Outside of
+colleges and universities there have been established many foundations
+of research and many industrial laboratories.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Prominent among those in the United States are The Carnegie Corporation
+and The Rockefeller Foundation, which are devoting hundreds of millions
+of dollars to the service of research, for the purpose of advancing
+science and directly benefiting humankind.  The results play an
+important part in the protection and daily welfare of mankind.  The
+Mellon Institute contributes much to the solution of problems of
+applied chemistry.[<A NAME="chap29fn7text"></A><A HREF="#chap29fn7">7</A>] It is interesting to note how the investigation
+carried on by these and other foundations is contributing directly to
+human welfare by mastering disease.  The elimination of the hookworm
+disease, the fight to control malaria, the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P473"></A>473}</SPAN>
+mastery of yellow
+fever, the promotion of public health, and the study of medicine, the
+courageous attack on tuberculosis, and the suppression of typhoid
+fever, all are for the benefit of the public.  The war on disease and
+the promotion of public health by preventive measures have lowered the
+death-rate and lengthened the period of life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Trend of Scientific Investigations</I>.&mdash;While research is carried on
+in many lines, with many different objectives, it may be stated that
+intense study is devoted to the nature of matter and the direct
+connection of it with elemental forces.  The theories of the molecule
+and the atom are still working hypotheses, but the investigator has
+gone further and disintegrated the atom, showing it to be a complex of
+corpuscles or particles.  Scientists talk of electrons and protons as
+the two elemental forces and of the mechanics of the atom.  In
+chemistry, investigation follows the problems of applied chemistry,
+while organic chemistry or biochemistry opens continually new fields of
+research.  It appears that biology and chemistry are becoming more
+closely allied as researches continue and likewise physics and
+chemistry.  In the field of surgery the X-ray is in daily use, and
+radium and radioactivity may yet be great aids to medicine.  In medical
+investigation much is dependent upon the discoveries in neurology.
+This also will throw light upon the studies in psychology, for the
+relation of nerve functions to mind functions may be more clearly
+defined.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Explorations of the earth and of the heavens continually add new
+knowledge of the extent and creation of the universe.  The study of
+anthropology and archaeology throw new light upon the origin and early
+history of man.  Experimental study of animals, food, soils, and crops
+adds increased means of sustenance for the race.  Recent investigations
+of scientific education, along with psychology, are throwing much light
+on mental conditions and progress.  And more recently serious inquiry
+into social life through the study of the social sciences is revealing
+the great problems of life.  All of knowledge, all of science, and all
+of human invention which add to material
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P474"></A>474}</SPAN>
+comforts will be of no
+avail unless men can learn to live together harmoniously and justly.
+But the truths discovered in each department of investigation are all
+closely related.  Truly there is but one science with many divisions,
+one universe with many parts, and though man is a small particle of the
+great cosmos, it is his life and welfare that are at the centres of all
+achievements.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  In what ways has science contributed to the growth of democracy?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  How has the study of science changed the attitude of the mind
+toward life?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3. How is every-day life of the ordinary man affected by science?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  Is science antagonistic to true Christianity?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  What is the good influence of science on religious belief and
+practice?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  What are the great discoveries of the last twenty-five years in
+Astronomy?  Chemistry?  Physics?  Biology?  Medicine?  Electricity?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  What recent inventions are dependent upon science?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+8.  Relation between investigation in the laboratory and the modern
+automobile.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+9.  How does scientific knowledge tend to banish fear?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+10.  Give a brief history of the development of the automobile.  The
+flying-machine.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+11.  Would a law forbidding the teaching of science in schools advance
+the cause of Christianity?
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap29fn1"></A>
+<A NAME="chap29fn2"></A>
+<A NAME="chap29fn3"></A>
+<A NAME="chap29fn4"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap29fn1text">1</A>] Taylor, <I>The Mediaeval Mind</I>, vol. II, p. 508.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap29fn2text">2</A>] Libby, <I>History of Science</I>, p. 63.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap29fn3text">3</A>] Copernicus's view was not published until thirty-six years after
+its discovery.  A copy of his book was brought to him at his death-bed,
+but he refused to look at it.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap29fn4text">4</A>] Libby, p. 91.
+</P>
+
+<A NAME="chap29fn5"></A>
+<A NAME="chap29fn6"></A>
+<A NAME="chap29fn7"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap29fn5text">5</A>] Libby, <I>History of Science</I>, p. 280.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap29fn6text">6</A>] Libby, <I>Introduction to the History of Science</I>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap29fn7text">7</A>] The newly created department at Johns Hopkins University for the
+study of international relations may assist in the abolition of war.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+
+
+<A NAME="chap30"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P475"></A>475}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XXX
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+UNIVERSAL EDUCATION AND DEMOCRACY
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>Universal Public Education Is a Modern Institution</I>.&mdash;The Greeks
+valued education and encouraged it, but only those could avail
+themselves of its privileges who were able to pay for it.  The training
+by the mother in the home was followed by a private tutor.  This system
+conformed to the idea of leadership and was valuable in the
+establishment of an educated class.  However, at the festivals and the
+theatres there were opportunities for the masses to learn much of
+oratory, music, and civic virtues.  The education of Athens conformed
+to the class basis of society.  Sparta as an exception trained all
+citizens for the service of state, making them subordinate to its
+welfare.  The state took charge of children at the age of seven, put
+them in barracks, and subjected them to the most severe discipline.
+But there was no free education, no free development of the ordinary
+mind.  It was in the nature of civic slavery for the preservation of
+the state in conflict with other states.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+During the Middle Ages Charlemagne established the only public schools
+for civic training, the first being established at Paris, although he
+planned to extend them throughout the empire.  The collapse of his
+great empire made the schools merely a tradition.  But they were a
+faint sign of the needs of a strong empire and an enlightened
+community.  The educational institutions of the Middle Ages were
+monasteries, and cathedral schools for the purpose of training men for
+the service of the church and for the propagating of religious
+doctrine.  They were all institutional in nature and far from the idea
+of public instruction for the enlightenment of the people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Mediaeval University Permitted Some Freedom of Choice</I>.&mdash;There was
+exhibited in some of them especially a desire to discover the truth
+through traditional knowledge.  They were
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P476"></A>476}</SPAN>
+composed of groups of
+students and masters who met for free discussion, which led to the
+verification of established traditions.  But this was a step forward,
+and scholars arose who departed from dogma into new fields of learning.
+While the universities of the Middle Ages were a step in advance, full
+freedom of the mind had not yet manifested itself, nor had the idea of
+universal education appeared.  Opportunity came to a comparatively
+small number; moreover, nearly all scientific and educational
+improvement came from impulses outside of the centres of tradition.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The English and German Universities</I>.&mdash;The English universities,
+particularly Oxford and Cambridge, gave a broader culture in
+mathematics, philosophy, and literature, which was conducive to
+liberality in thought, but even they represented the education of a
+selected class.  The German universities, especially in the nineteenth
+century, emphasized the practical or applied side of education.  By
+establishing laboratories, they were prepared to apply all truths
+discovered, and by experimentation carry forward learning, especially
+in the chemical and other physical sciences.  The spirit of research
+was strongly invoked for new scientific discoveries.  While England was
+developing a few noted secondary schools, like Harrow and Eton, Germany
+was providing universal real <I>schule</I>, and <I>gymnasia</I>, as preparatory
+for university study and for the general education of the masses.  As a
+final outcome the Prussian system was developed, which had great
+influence on education in the United States in the latter part of the
+nineteenth century.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Early Education in the United States</I>.&mdash;The first colleges and
+universities in the United States were patterned after the English
+universities and the academies and high schools of England.  These
+schools were of a selected class to prepare for the ministry, law,
+statesmanship, and letters.  The growth of the American university was
+rapid, because it continually broadened its curriculum.  From the study
+of philosophy, classical languages, mathematics, literature, it
+successively
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P477"></A>477}</SPAN>
+embraced modern languages, physical sciences,
+natural science, history, and economics, psychology, law, medicine,
+engineering, and commerce.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In the present-day universities there is a wide differentiation of
+subjects.  The subjects have been multiplied to meet the demand of
+scientific development and also to fit students for the ever-increasing
+number of occupations which the modern complex society demands.  The
+result of all this expansion is democratic.  The college class is no
+longer an exclusive selection.  The plane of educational selection
+continually lowers until the college draws its students from all
+classes and prepares them for all occupations.  In the traditional
+college certain classes were selected to prepare for positions of
+learning.  There was developed a small educated class.  In the modern
+way there is no distinctive educated class.  University education has
+become democratic.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Common, or Public, Schools</I>.&mdash;In the Colonial and early national
+period of the United States, education was given by a method of tutors,
+or by a select pay school taught by a regularly employed teacher under
+private contract.  Finally the sympathy for those who were not able to
+pay caused the establishing of "common schools."  This was the real
+beginning of universal education, for the practice expanded and the
+idea finally prevailed of providing schools by taxation "common" to
+all, and free to all who wish to attend.  Later, for civic purposes,
+primary education has become compulsory in most states.  Following the
+development of the primary grades, a complete system of secondary
+schools has been provided.  Beyond these are the state schools of
+higher education, universities, agricultural and mechanical schools,
+normal schools and industrial schools, so that a highway of learning is
+provided for the child, leading from the kindergarten through
+successive stages to the university.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Knowledge, Intelligence, and Training Necessary in a
+Democracy</I>.&mdash;Washington, after experimenting with the new nation for
+eight years, having had opportunity to observe the defects
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P478"></A>478}</SPAN>
+and
+virtues of the republic, said in his Farewell Address: "Promote, then,
+as an object of primary importance institutions for the general
+diffusion of knowledge.  In proportion as the structure of a government
+gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion
+should be enlightened."[<A NAME="chap30fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap30fn1">1</A>]  Again and again have the leaders of the
+nation who have had at heart the present welfare and future destiny of
+their country urged public education as a necessity.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+And right well have the people responded to these sentiments.  They
+have poured out their hard-earned money in taxation to provide adequate
+education for the youth of the land.  James Bryce, after studying in
+detail American institutions, declared that "the chief business of
+America is education."  This observation was made nearly forty years
+ago.  If it was true then, how much more evident is it now with
+wonderful advance of higher education in colleges and universities, and
+in the magnificent system of secondary education that has been built up
+in the interval.  The swarming of students in high school and college
+is evidence that they appreciate the opportunities furnished by the
+millions of wealth, largely in the form of taxes, given for the support
+of schools.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Education Has Been Universalized</I>.&mdash;Having made education universal,
+educators are devoting their energies to fit the education to the needs
+of the student and to assist the student in choosing the course of
+instruction which will best fit him for his chosen life-work.  The
+victory has been won to give every boy and girl an educational chance.
+To give him what he actually needs and see that he uses it for a
+definite purpose is the present problem of the educator.  This means a
+careful inquiry into mental capacity and mental traits, into
+temperament, taste, ambition, and choice of vocation.  It means further
+provision of the special education that will best prepare him for his
+chosen work, and, indeed, it means sympathetic co-operation of the
+teacher and student in determining the course to be pursued.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P479"></A>479}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>Research an Educational Process</I>.&mdash;Increased knowledge comes from
+observation or systematic investigation in the laboratory.  Every child
+has by nature the primary element of research, a curiosity to know
+things.  Too often this is suppressed by conventional education instead
+of continued into systematic investigation.  One of the great defects
+of the public school is the failure to keep alive, on the part of the
+student, the desire to know things.  Undue emphasis on instruction, a
+mere imparting of knowledge, causes the student to shift the
+responsibility of his education upon the teacher, who, after all, can
+do no more than help the student to select the line of study, and
+direct him in methods of acquiring.  Together teacher and student can
+select the trail, and the teacher, because he has been over it, can
+direct the student over its rough ways, saving him time and energy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Perhaps the greatest weakness in popular government to-day is
+indifference of citizens to civic affairs.  This leads to a shifting of
+responsibility of public affairs frequently to those least competent to
+conduct them.  Perhaps a training in individual responsibility in the
+schools and more vital instruction in citizenship would prepare the
+coming generation to make democracy efficient and safe to the world.
+The results of research are of great practical benefit to the so-called
+common man in the ordinary pursuits of life.  The scientist in the
+laboratory, spending days and nights in research, finally discovers a
+new process which becomes a life-saver or a time-saver to general
+mankind.  Yet the people usually accept this as a matter of fact as
+something that just happened.  They forget the man in the laboratory
+and exploit the results of his labor for their own personal gain.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+How often the human mind is in error, and unobserving, not to see that
+the discovery of truth and its adaptation to ordinary life is one of
+the fundamental causes of the progress of the race.  Man has advanced
+in proportion as he has become possessed of the secrets of nature and
+has adapted them to his service.  The number of ways he touches nature
+and forces
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P480"></A>480}</SPAN>
+her to yield her treasures, adapting them to his use,
+determines the possibility of progress.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The so-called "common man," the universal type of our democracy, is
+worthy of our admiration.  He has his life of toil and his round of
+duties alternating with pleasure, bearing the burdens of life
+cheerfully, with human touch with his fellows; amid sorrow and joy,
+duty and pleasure, storm and sunshine, he lives a normal existence and
+passes on the torch of life to others.  But the man who shuts himself
+in his laboratory, lives like a monk, losing for a time the human
+touch, spends long days of toil and "nights devoid of ease" until he
+discovers a truth or makes an invention that makes millions glad, is
+entitled to our highest reverence.  The ordinary man and the
+investigator are complementary factors of progress and both essential
+to democracy.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Diffusion of Knowledge Necessary to Democracy</I>.&mdash;Always in
+progress is a deflecting tendency, separating the educated class from
+the uneducated.  This is not on account of the aristocracy of learning,
+but because of group activity, the educated man following a pursuit
+different from the man of practical affairs.  Hence the effort to
+broadcast knowledge through lectures, university extension, and the
+radio is essential to the progress of the whole community.  One phase
+of enlightenment is much neglected, that of making clear that the
+object of the scholar and the object of the man of practical affairs
+should be the same&mdash;that of establishing higher ideals of life and
+providing means for approximating these ideals.  It frequently occurs
+that the individual who has centred his life on the accumulation of
+wealth ignores the educator and has a contempt for the impractical
+scholar, as he terms him.  Not infrequently state legislatures, when
+considering appropriations for education, have shown more interest in
+hogs and cattle than in the welfare of children.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It would be well if the psychology of the common mind would change so
+as to grasp the importance of education and scientific investigation to
+every-day life.  Does it occur to the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P481"></A>481}</SPAN>
+man who seats himself in
+his car to whisk away across the country in the pursuit of ordinary
+business, to pause to inquire who discovered gasoline or who invented
+the gasoline-engine?  Does he realize that some patient investigator in
+the laboratory has made it possible for even a child to thus utilize
+the forces of nature and thus shorten time and ignore space?  Whence
+comes the improvement of live-stock in this country?  Compare the
+cattle of early New England with those on modern farms.  Was the little
+scrubby stock of our forefathers replaced by large, sleek, well-bred
+cattle through accident?  No, it was by the discovery of investigators
+and its practical adaptation by breeders.  Compare the vineyards and
+the orchards of the early history of the nation, the grains and the
+grasses, or the fruits and the flowers with those of present
+cultivation.  What else but investigation, discovery, and adaptation
+wrought the change?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+My common neighbor, when your child's poor body is racked with pain and
+likely to die, and the skilled surgeon places the child on the
+operating-table, administers the anaesthetic to make him insensible to
+pain, and with knowledge gained by investigation operates with such
+skill as to save the child's life and restore him to health, are you
+not ready to say that scientific investigation is a blessing to all
+mankind?  Whence comes this power to restore health?  Is it a
+dispensation from heaven?  Yes, a dispensation brought about through
+the patient toil and sacrifice of those zealous for the discovery of
+truth.  What of the knowledge that leads to the mastery of the
+yellow-fever bacillus, of the typhoid germ, to the fight against
+tuberculosis and other enemies of mankind?  Again, it is the man in the
+laboratory who is the first great cause that makes it possible for
+humanity to protect itself from disease.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Could our methods of transportation by steamship, railroad, or air, our
+great manufacturing processes, our vast machinery, or our scientific
+agriculture exist without scientific research?  Nothing touches
+ordinary life with such potent force as the results of the
+investigation in the laboratory.  Clearly it is
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P482"></A>482}</SPAN>
+understood by the
+thoughtful that education in all of its phases is a democratic process,
+and a democratic need, for its results are for everybody.  Knowledge is
+thus humanized, and the educated and the non-educated must co-operate
+to keep the human touch.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Educational Progress.&mdash;One of the landmarks of the present century of
+progress will be the perfecting of educational systems.  Education is
+no longer for the exclusive few, developing an aristocracy of learning
+for the elevation of a single class; it has become universal.  The
+large number of universities throughout the world, well endowed and
+well equipped, the multitudes of secondary schools, and the
+universality of the primary schools, now render it possible for every
+individual to become intelligent and enlightened.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But these conditions are comparatively recent, so that millions of
+individuals to-day, even in the midst of great educational systems,
+remain entirely unlettered.  Nevertheless, the persistent effort on the
+part of people everywhere to have good schools, with the best methods
+of instruction, certainly must have its effect in bringing the masses
+of unlearned into the realm of letters.  The practical tendency of
+modern education, by which discipline and culture may be given while at
+the same time preparing the student for the active duties of life,
+makes education more necessary for all persons and classes.  The great
+changes that have taken place in methods of instruction and in the
+materials of scientific investigation, and the tendency to develop the
+man as well as to furnish him with information, evince the masterly
+progress of educational systems, and demonstrate their great worth.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Importance of State Education</I>.&mdash;So necessary has education become
+to the perpetuation of free government that the states of the world
+have deemed it advisable to provide on their own account a sufficient
+means of education.  Perpetuation of liberty can be secured only on the
+basis of intellectual progress.  From the time of the foundation of the
+universities of Europe, kings and princes and state authorities have
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P483"></A>483}</SPAN>
+encouraged and developed education, but it remained for America
+to begin a complete and universal free-school system.  In the United
+States educators persistently urge upon the people the necessity of
+popular education and intelligence as the only means of securing to the
+people the benefits of a free government, and other statesmen from time
+to time have insisted upon the same principle.  The private
+institutions of America did a vast work for the education of the youth,
+but proved entirely inadequate to meet the immediate demands of
+universal education, and the public-school system sprang up as a
+necessary means of preparation for citizenship.  It found its earliest,
+largest, and best scope in the North and West, and has more recently
+been established in the South, and now is universal.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The grant by the United States government at the time of the formation
+of the Ohio territory of lands for the support of universities led to
+the provision in the act of formation of each state and territory in
+the Union for the establishment of a university.  Each state, since the
+admission of Ohio, has provided for a state university, and the Act of
+1862, which granted lands to each state in the Union for the
+establishment of agricultural and mechanical colleges, has also given a
+great impulse to state education.  In the organizing acts of some of
+the newer states these two grants have been joined in one for the
+upbuilding of a university combining the ideas of the two kinds of
+schools.  The support insured to these state institutions promises
+their perpetuity.  The amount of work which they have done for the
+education of the masses in higher learning has been prodigious, and
+they stand to-day as the greatest and most perfect monument of the
+culture and learning of the Western states.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The tremendous growth of state education has increased the burden of
+taxation to the extent that the question has arisen as to whether there
+is not a limit to the amount people are willing to pay for public
+education.  If it can be shown that they receive a direct benefit in
+the education of their children there
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P484"></A>484}</SPAN>
+will be no limit within
+their means to the support of both secondary schools and universities.
+But there must be evidence that the expenditure is economically and
+wisely administered.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The princely endowments of magnificent universities like the Leland
+Stanford Junior University, the University of Chicago, Johns Hopkins
+University, Harvard, Yale, and others, have not interfered with the
+growth and development of state education, for it rests upon the
+permanent foundation of a popular demand for institutions supported by
+the contributions of the whole people for the benefit of the state at
+large.  State institutions based upon permanent foundations have been
+zealous in obtaining the best quality of instruction, and the result is
+that a youth in the rural districts may receive as good undergraduate
+instruction as he can obtain in one of the older and more wealthy
+private institutions, and at very little expense.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Printing-Press and Its Products</I>.&mdash;Perhaps of all of the
+inventions that occurred prior to the eighteenth century, printing has
+the most power in modern civilization.  No other one has so continued
+to expand its achievements.  Becoming a necessary adjunct of modern
+education, it continually extends its influence in the direct aid of
+every other art, industry, or other form of human achievement.  The
+dissemination of knowledge through books, periodicals, and the
+newspaper press has made it possible to keep alive the spirit of
+learning among the people and to assure that degree of intelligence
+necessary for a self-governed people.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The freedom of the press is one of the cardinal principles of progress,
+for it brings into fulness the fundamental fact of freedom of
+discussion advocated by the early Greeks, which was the line of
+demarcation between despotism and dogmatism and the freedom of the mind
+and will.  In common with all human institutions, its power has
+sometimes been abused.  But its defect cannot be remedied by repression
+or by force, but by the elevation of the thought, judgment,
+intelligence, and good-will of a people by an education which causes
+them to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P485"></A>485}</SPAN>
+demand better things.  The press in recent years has been
+too susceptible to commercial dominance&mdash;a power, by the way, which has
+seriously affected all of our institutions.  Here, as in all other
+phases of progress, wealth should be a means rather than an end of
+civilization.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Public Opinion</I>.&mdash;Universal education in school and out, freedom of
+discussion, freedom of thought and will to do are necessary to social
+progress.  Public opinion is an expression of the combined judgments of
+many minds working in conscious or unconscious co-operation.  Laws,
+government, standards of right action, and the type of social order are
+dependent upon it.  The attempt to form a League of Nations or a Court
+of International Justice depends upon the support of an intelligent
+public opinion.  War cannot be ended by force of arms, for that makes
+more war, but by the force of mutually acquired opinion of all nations
+based on good-will.  Every year in the United States there are examples
+of the failure of the attempt to enforce laws which are not well
+supported by public opinion.  Such laws are made effective by a gradual
+education of those for whom they are made to the standard expressed in
+the laws, or they become obsolete.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  Show from observations in your own neighborhood the influence of
+education on social progress.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  Imperfections of public schools and the difficulties confronting
+educators.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  Should all children in the United States be compelled to attend the
+public schools?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  What part do newspapers and periodicals play in education?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  Relation of education to public opinion.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  Should people who cannot read and write be permitted to vote?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  Study athletics in your school and town to determine their
+educational value.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+8.  Show by investigation the educational value of motion-pictures and
+their misuse.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+9.  In what ways may social inequality be diminished?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+10.  Would a law compelling the reading of the Bible in public schools
+make people more religious?
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap30fn1"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap30fn1text">1</A>] Richardson, <I>Messages and Papers of the Presidents</I>, I, 220.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap31"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P486"></A>486}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XXXI
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+WORLD ECONOMICS AND POLITICS
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>Commerce and Communication</I>.&mdash;The nations of the world have been drawn
+together in thought and involuntary co-operation by the stimulating
+power of trade.  The exchange of goods always leads to the exchange of
+ideas.  By commerce each nation may profit by the products of all
+others, and thus all may enjoy the material comforts of the world.  At
+times some countries are deficient in the food-supply, but there has
+been in recent years a sufficient world supply for all, when properly
+distributed through commerce.  Some countries produce goods that cannot
+be produced by others, but by exchange all may receive the benefits of
+everything discovered, produced, or manufactured.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Rapid and complete transportation facilities are necessary to
+accomplish this.  Both trade and transportation are dependent upon
+rapid communication, hence the telegraph, the cable, and the wireless
+have become prime necessities.  The more voluminous reports of trade
+relations found in printed documents, papers, and books, though they
+represent a slower method of communication, are essential to world
+trade, but the results of trade are found in the unity of thought, the
+development of a world mind, and growing similarity of customs, habits,
+usages, and ideals.  Slowly there is developing a world attitude toward
+life.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Exchange of Ideas Modifies Political Organization</I>.&mdash;The desire for
+liberty of action is universal among all people who have been assembled
+in mass under co-operation.  The arbitrary control by the
+self-constituted authority of kings and governments without the consent
+of the governed is opposed by all human associations, whether tribal,
+territorial, or national.  Since the world settled down to the idea of
+monarchy as a necessary form of government, men have been trying to
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P487"></A>487}</SPAN>
+substitute other forms of government.  The spread of democratic
+ideas has been slowly winning the world to new methods of government.
+The American Revolution was the most epoch-making event of modern
+times.  While the French Revolution was about to burst forth, the
+example of the American colonies was fuel to the flames.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In turn, after the United States had won their freedom and were well on
+their way in developing a republican government, the influence of the
+radical democracy was seen in the laws and constitutions of the states,
+particularly in the first half of the nineteenth century.  The
+Spanish-American War led to the development of democracy, not only in
+Cuba and Porto Rico but in the Philippine Islands.  But the planting of
+democracy in the Philippines had a world influence, manifested
+especially in southeastern Asia, China, Japan, and India.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Spread of Political Ideas</I>.&mdash;The socialism of Karl Marx has been one
+of the most universal and powerful appeals to humanity for industrial
+freedom.  His economic system is characterized by the enormous emphasis
+placed upon labor as a factor in production.  Starting from the
+hypothesis that all wealth is created by labor, and limiting all labor
+to the wage-earner, there is no other conclusion, if the premise be
+admitted, than that the product of industry belongs to labor
+exclusively.  His theories gained more or less credence in Germany and
+to a less extent in other countries, but they were never fully tested
+until the Russian revolution in connection with the Great War.  After
+the downfall of Czarism, leaders of the revolution attacked and
+overthrew capitalism, and instituted the Soviet government.  The
+proletariat came to the top, while the capitalists, nobility, and
+middle classes went to the bottom.  This was brought about by sudden
+revolution through rapid and wild propaganda.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Strenuous efforts to propagate the Soviet doctrine and the war against
+capitalism in other countries have taken place, without working a
+revolution similar to that in Russia.  But the International is slowly
+developing a world idea among
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P488"></A>488}</SPAN>
+laborers, with the ultimate end of
+destroying the capitalistic system and making it possible for organized
+wage-earners to rule the world.  It is not possible here to discuss the
+Marxian doctrine of socialism nor to recount what its practical
+application did to Russia.  Suffice it to say that the doctrine has a
+fatal fallacy in supposing that wage-earners are the only class of
+laborers necessary to rational economic production.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The World War Breaks Down the Barriers of Thought</I>.&mdash;The Great War
+brought to light many things that had been at least partially hidden to
+ordinary thinking people.  It revealed the national selfishness which
+was manifested in the struggle for the control of trade, the extension
+of territory, and the possession of the natural resources of the world.
+This selfishness was even more clearly revealed when, in the Treaty of
+Versailles and the formation of the League of Nations, each nation was
+unwilling to make necessary sacrifice for the purpose of establishing
+universal peace.  They all appeared to feel the need of some
+international agreement which should be permanent and each favored it,
+could it first get what it wanted.  Such was the power of tradition
+regarding the sanctity of national life and the sacredness of national
+territory and, moreover, of national prerogatives!
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Nevertheless, the interchange of ideas connecting with the gruelling of
+war caused change of ideas about government and developed, if not an
+international mind, new modes of national thinking.  The war brought
+new visions of peace, and developed to a certain extent a recognition
+of the rights of nations and an interest in one another's welfare.
+There was an advance in the theory at least of international justice.
+Also the world was shocked with the terror of war as well as its
+futility and terrible waste.  While national selfishness was not
+eradicated, it was in a measure subdued, and a feeling of co-operation
+started which eventually will result in unity of feeling, thought, and
+action.  The war brought into being a sentiment among the national
+peoples that they will not in the future be forced into war without
+their consent.
+</P>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P489"></A>489}</SPAN>
+
+<P>
+<I>Attempt to Form a League for Permanent Peace</I>.&mdash;Led by the United
+States, a League of Nations was proposed which should settle all
+disputes arising between nations without going to war.  The United
+States having suggested the plan and having helped to form the League,
+finally refused to become a party to it, owing in part to the tradition
+of exclusiveness from European politics&mdash;a tradition that has existed
+since the foundation of the nation.  Yet the United States was
+suggesting a plan that it had long believed in, and a policy which it
+had exercised for a hundred years with most nations.  It took a
+prominent part in the first peace conference called by the Czar of
+Russia in 1899.  The attempt to establish a permanent International
+Tribunal ended in forming a permanent Court of Arbitration, which was
+nothing more than an intelligence office with a body of arbitrators
+composed of not more than four men from each nation, from whom nations
+that had chosen to arbitrate a dispute might choose arbitrators.  The
+conference adjourned with the understanding that another would be
+called within a few years.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The Boxer trouble in China and the war between Japan and Russia delayed
+the meeting.  Through the initiation of Theodore Roosevelt, of the
+United States, a second Hague Conference met in 1907.  Largely through
+the influence of Elihu Root a permanent court was established, with the
+exception that a plan for electing delegates could not be agreed upon.
+It was agreed to hold another conference in 1915 to finish the work.
+Thus it is seen that the League of Nations advocated by President
+Wilson was born of ideas already fructifying on American soil.
+McKinley, Roosevelt, John Hay, Elihu Root, Joseph H. Choate, James
+Brown Scott, and other statesmen had favored an International Tribunal.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The League of Nations provided in its constitution among other things
+for a World Court of Nations.  In the first draft of the constitution
+of the League no mention was made of a World Court.  But through a
+cablegram of Elihu Root to Colonel E. M. House, the latter was able to
+place articles 13
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P490"></A>490}</SPAN>
+and 14, which provided that the League should
+take measures for forming a Court of International Justice.
+Subsequently the court was formed by the League, but national
+selfishness came to the front and crippled the court.  Article 34
+originally read: "Between states which are members of the League of
+Nations, the court shall have jurisdiction, and this without any
+convention giving it jurisdiction to hear and determine cases of legal
+nature."  It was changed to read; "The jurisdiction of the court
+comprises all cases which the parties refer to it and all matters
+specially provided for in treaties and conventions in force."
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is to be observed that in the original statement, either party to a
+dispute could bring a case into court without the consent of the other,
+thus making it a real court of justice, and in the modified law both
+parties must agree to bring the case in court, thus making it a mere
+tribunal of arbitration.  The great powers&mdash;England, France, Italy, and
+Japan&mdash;were opposed to the original draft, evidently being unwilling to
+trust their disputes to a court, while the smaller nations favored the
+court as provided in the original resolution.  However, it was provided
+that such nations who desired could sign an agreement to submit all
+cases of dispute to the court with all others who similarly signed.
+Nearly all of the smaller nations have so signed, and President Harding
+urged the United States, though not a member of the League, to sign.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The judges of the court, eleven in all, are nominated by the old
+Arbitration Court of the Hague Tribunal, and elected by the League of
+Nations, the Council and Assembly voting separately.  Only one judge
+may be chosen from a nation, and of course every nation may not have a
+judge.  In cases where a dispute involves a nation which has no member
+in the court, an extra judge may be appointed.  The first court was
+chosen from the following nations: Great Britain, France, Italy, United
+States, Cuba, Switzerland, Netherlands, Denmark, Japan, and Brazil.  So
+the Court of International Justice is functioning in an incomplete way,
+born of the spirit of
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P491"></A>491}</SPAN>
+America, and the United States, though not
+a member of the League of Nations, has a member in the court sitting in
+judgment on the disputes of the nations of the world.  So likewise the
+League of Nations, which the United States would not join, is
+functioning in an incomplete way.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>International Agreement and Progress</I>.&mdash;But who shall say that the
+spirit of international justice has not grown more rapidly than appears
+from the workings of the machinery that carries it out?  Beneath the
+selfish interests of nations is the international consciousness that
+some way must be devised and held to for the settlement of disputes
+without war; that justice between nations may be established similar to
+that practised within the boundaries of a single nation.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+No progress comes out of war itself, though it may force other lines of
+conduct.  Progress comes from other sources than war.  Besides, it
+brings its burdens of crime, cripples, and paupers, and its discontent
+and distrust.  It may hasten production and stimulate invention of
+destruction, but it is not constructive and always it develops an army
+of plunderers who prey upon the suffering and toil of others.  These
+home pirates are more destructive of civilization than poison gases or
+high explosives.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Mutual Aid of Nations</I>.&mdash;In a previous chapter it was shown that
+mutual aid of individuals was the beginning of society.  It now is
+evident that the mutual aid of nations is their salvation.  As the
+establishment of justice between individuals through their reactions
+does not destroy their freedom nor their personalities, so the
+establishment of justice among nations does not destroy their autonomy
+nor infringe upon their rights.  It merely insists that brutal national
+selfishness shall give way to a friendly co-operation in the interest
+and welfare of all nations.  "A nation, like an individual, will become
+greater as it cherishes a high ideal and does service and helpful acts
+to its neighbors, whether great or small, and as it co-operates with
+them in working toward a common end."[<A NAME="chap31fn1text"></A><A HREF="#chap31fn1">1</A>]
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P492"></A>492}</SPAN>
+Truly "righteousness
+exalteth a nation," and it will become strong and noble as it seeks to
+develop justice among all nations and to exercise toward them fair
+dealing and friendly relations that make for peace.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Reorganization of International Law</I>.&mdash;The public opinion of the
+nations of the world is the only durable support of international law.
+The law represents a body of principles, usages, and rules of action
+regarding the rights of nations in peace and in war.  As a rule nations
+have a wholesome respect for international law, because they do not
+wish to incur the unfriendliness and possible hatred of their fellow
+nations nor the contempt and criticism of the world.  This fear of open
+censure has in a measure led to the baneful secret treaties, such an
+important factor in European diplomacy, whose results have been
+suspicion, distrust, and war.  Germany is the only modern nation that
+felt strong enough to defy world opinion, the laws of nations, and to
+assume an entirely independent attitude.  But not for long.  This
+attitude ended in a disastrous war, in which she lost the friendship
+and respect of the world&mdash;lost treasure and trade, lives and property.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+It is unfortunate that modern international law is built upon the basis
+of war rather than upon the basis of peace.  In this respect there has
+not been much advance since the time of Grotius, the father of modern
+international law.  However, there has been a remarkable advance among
+most nations in settling their difficulties by arbitration.  This has
+been accompanied by a strong desire to avoid war when possible, and a
+longing for its entire abandonment.  Slowly but surely public opinion
+realizes not only the desire but the necessity of abandoning great
+armaments and preparation for war.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+But the nations cannot go to a peace basis without concerted action.
+This will be brought about by growth in national righteousness and a
+modification of crude patriotism and national selfishness.  It is now
+time to codify and revise international law on a peace basis, and new
+measures adopted in accordance to the progress nations have made in
+recent
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P493"></A>493}</SPAN>
+years toward permanent peace.  Such a move would lead to a
+better understanding and furnish a ready guide to the Court of
+International Justice and all other means whereby nations seek to
+establish justice among themselves.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Outlook for a World State</I>.&mdash;If it be understood that a world
+state means the abandonment of all national governments and their
+absorption in a world government, then it may be asserted truly that
+such is an impossibility within the range of the vision of man.  Nor
+would it be desirable.  If by world state is meant a political league
+which unites all in a co-operative group for fair dealing in regard to
+trade, commerce, territory, and the command of national resources, and
+in addition a world court to decide disputes between nations, such a
+state is possible and desirable.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Great society is a community of groups, each with its own life to live,
+its own independence to maintain, and its own service to perform.  To
+absorb these groups would be to disorganize society and leave the
+individual helpless before the mass.  For it is only within group
+activity that the individual can function.  So with nations, whose life
+and organization must be maintained or the individual would be left
+helpless before the world.  But nations need each other and should
+co-operate for mutual advantage.  They are drawn closer each year in
+finance, in trade and commerce, in principles of government and in
+life.  A serious injury to one is an injury to all.  The future
+progress of the world will not be assured until they cease their
+squabbles over territory, trade, and the natural resources of the
+world&mdash;not until they abandon corroding selfishness, jealousy, and
+suspicion, and covenant with each other openly to keep the peace.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+To accomplish this, as Mr. Walter Hines Page said: "Was there ever a
+greater need than there is now for first-class minds unselfishly
+working on world problems?  The ablest ruling minds are engaged on
+domestic tasks.  There is no world-girdling intelligence at work on
+government.  The present order must change.  It holds the Old World
+still.  It keeps all
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P494"></A>494}</SPAN>
+parts of the world apart, in spite of the
+friendly cohesive forces of trade and travel.  It keeps back
+self-government of men."  These evils cannot be overcome by law, by
+formula, by resolution or rule of thumb, but rather by long, patient
+study, research, and work of many master-minds in co-operative
+leadership, who will create a sound international public opinion.  The
+international mind needs entire regeneration, not dominance of the
+powers.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The recent war was but a stupendous breaking with the past.  It
+furnished opportunity for human society to move forward in a new
+adjustment on a larger and broader plan of life.  Whether it will or
+not depends upon the use made of the opportunity.  The smashing process
+was stupendous, horrible in its moment.  Whether society will adapt
+itself to the new conditions remains to be seen.  Peace, a highly
+desirable objective, is not the only consideration.  There are even
+more important phases of human adjustment.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  What were the results of the first (1899) and the second (1907)
+Hague Conference?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  What is meant by "freedom of the seas"?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  Should a commission of nations attempt to equalize the ownership
+and distribution of the natural products and raw materials, such as
+oil, coal, copper, etc.?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  How did the World War make opportunity for democracy?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  Believing that war should be abolished, how may it be done?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  What are the dangers of extreme radicalism regarding government and
+social order?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  The status of the League of Nations and the Court of International
+Justice.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+8.  National selfishness and the League of Nations.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+9.  The consolidation or co-operation of churches in your town.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+10.  The union of social agencies to improve social welfare.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+11.  Freedom of the press; freedom of speech.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+12.  Public opinion.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap31fn1"></A>
+
+<P CLASS="footnote">
+[<A HREF="#chap31fn1text">1</A>] Cosmos, <I>The Basis of Durable Peace</I>.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="chap32"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P495"></A>495}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+CHAPTER XXXII
+</H3>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+THE TREND OF CIVILIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES
+</H3>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Economic Outlook</I>.&mdash;The natural resources of forest, mines, and
+agriculture are gradually being depleted.  The rapidity of movement in
+the economic world, the creation of wealth by vast machinery, and the
+organization of labor and industry are drawing more and more from the
+wealth stored by nature in her treasure-houses.  There is a strong
+agitation for the conservation of these resources, but little has been
+accomplished.  The great business organizations are exploiting the
+resources, for the making of the finished products, not with the prime
+motive of adding to the material comforts and welfare of mankind, but
+to make colossal fortunes under private control.  While the progress of
+man is marked by mastery of nature, it should also be marked by
+co-operation with nature on a continued utility basis.  Exploitation of
+natural resources leads to conspicuous waste which may lead to want and
+future deterioration.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The development of scientific agriculture largely through the influence
+of the Agricultural Department at Washington and the numerous
+agricultural colleges and experiment stations has done something to
+preserve and increase the productivity of the soil.  Scientific study
+and practical experiment have given improved quality of seed, a better
+grade of stock, and better quality of fruits and vegetables.  They have
+also given improved methods of cultivation and adaptability of crops to
+the land, and thus have increased the yield per acre.  The increased
+use of selected fertilizers has worked to the same end.  The use of a
+large variety of labor-saving machines has conduced to increase the
+amount of the product.  But all of this improvement is small,
+considering the amount that needs to be done.  The population is
+increasing rapidly from
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P496"></A>496}</SPAN>
+the native stock and by immigration.
+There is need for wise conservation in the use of land to prevent
+economic waste and to provide for future generations.  The greedy
+consumers, with increasing desire for more and better things, urge,
+indirectly to be sure, for larger production and greater variety of
+finished products.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Economics of Labor</I>.&mdash;In complex society there are many divisions
+or groups of laborers&mdash;laborers of body and laborers of mind.  Every
+one who is performing a legitimate service, which is sought for and
+remunerative to the laborer and serviceable to the public, is a
+laborer.  At the base of all industry and social activity are the
+industrial wage-earners, who by their toil work the mines, the
+factories, the great steel and iron industries, the railroads, the
+electric-power plants and other industries.  Since the beginning of the
+industrial revolution in the latter part of the eighteenth century,
+labor has been working its way out of slavery into freedom.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+As a result laborers have better wages, better conditions of life, more
+of material comforts, and a higher degree of intelligence than ever
+before.  Yet there is much improvement needed.  While the hours of
+labor have been reduced in general to eight per day, the irregularity
+of employment leads to unrest and frequently to great distress.  There
+is a growing tendency to make laborers partners in the process of
+production.  This does not mean that they shall take over the direction
+of industry, but co-operate with the managers regarding output, quality
+of goods, income, and wages, so as to give a solidarity to productive
+processes and eliminate waste of time, material, and loss by strikes.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The domestic peace in industry is as important as the world peace of
+nations in the economy of the world's progress.  A direct interest of
+the wage-earner in the management of production and in the general
+income would have a tendency to equalize incomes and prevent laborers
+from believing that the product of industry as well as its management
+should be under their direct control.  Public opinion usually favors
+the
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P497"></A>497}</SPAN>
+laborer and, while it advocates the freedom and dignity of
+labor, does not favor the right of labor to exploit industry nor
+concede the right to destroy.  But it believes that labor organizations
+should be put on the same basis as productive corporations, with equal
+degree of rights, privileges, duties, and responsibilities.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Public and Corporate Industries</I>.&mdash;The independent system of organized
+industry so long dominant in America, known by the socialists as
+capitalistic production, has become so thoroughly established that
+there is no great tendency to communistic production and distribution.
+There is, however, a strong tendency to limit the power of exploitation
+and to control larger industries in the interest of the public.
+Especially is this true in regard to what are known as public
+utilities, such as transportation, lighting, telephone, and telegraph
+companies, and, in fact, all companies that provide necessaries common
+to the public, that must be carried on as monopolies.  Public opinion
+demands that such corporations, conducting their operations as special
+privileges granted by the people, shall be amenable to the public so
+far as conduct and income are concerned.  They must be public service
+companies and not public exploitation companies.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The great productive industries are supposed to conduct their business
+on a competitive basis, which will determine price and income.  As a
+matter of fact, this is done only in a general way, and the incomes are
+frequently out of proportion to the power of the consuming public to
+purchase.  Great industries have the power to determine the income
+which they think they ought to have, and, not receiving it, may cease
+to carry on their industry and may invest their capital in non-taxable
+securities.  While under our present system there is no way of
+preventing this, it would be a great boon to the public, and a new
+factor in progress, if they were willing to be content with a smaller
+margin of profit and a slower accumulation of wealth.  At least some
+change must take place or the people of small incomes will be obliged
+to give up many
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P498"></A>498}</SPAN>
+of the comforts of life of which our boasted
+civilization is proud, and gradually be reduced to the most sparing
+economy, if not to poverty.  The same principle might be applied to the
+great institutions of trade.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Political Outlook</I>.&mdash;In our earlier history the struggle for
+liberty of action was the vital phase of our democracy.  To-day the
+struggle is to make our ideal democracy practical.  In theory ours is a
+self-governed people; in practice this is not wholly true.  We have the
+power and the opportunity for self-government, but we are not
+practising it as we might.  There is a real danger that the people will
+fail to assume the responsibility of self-government, until the affairs
+of government are handed over to an official class of exploiters.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+For instance, the free ballot is the vital factor in our government,
+but there are many evidences that it is not fully exercised for the
+political welfare of the country.  It frequently occurs that men are
+sent to Congress on a small percentage of voters.  Other elective
+offices meet the same fate.  Certainly, more interest must be taken in
+selecting the right kind of men to rule over them or the people will
+barter away their liberties by indifference.  Officials should be
+brought to realize that they are to serve the public and it is largely
+a missionary job they are seeking rather than an opportunity to exploit
+the office for personal gain.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The expansive process of political society makes a larger number of
+officers necessary.  The people are demanding the right to do more
+things by themselves, which leads to increased expenses in the cost of
+administration, great bonded indebtedness, and higher taxation.  It
+will be necessary to curb expansion and reduce overhead charges upon
+the government.  This may call for the reorganization of the machinery
+of government on the basis of efficiency.  At least it must be shown to
+the people that they have a full return for the money paid by taxation.
+It is possible only by study, care, civic responsibility, and interest
+in government affairs, as well as by increased intelligence, that our
+democratic idealism may be put
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P499"></A>499}</SPAN>
+into practice.  Laboratory methods
+in self-government are a prime necessity.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Equalization of Opportunity</I>.&mdash;Popular education is the greatest
+democratic factor in existence.  It is the one great institution which
+recognizes that equal opportunities should be granted to everybody.
+Yet it has its limits in establishing equal opportunities in the
+accepted meaning of the term.  There is a false idea of equality which
+asserts that one man is as good as another before he has proved himself
+to be so.  True equality means justice to all.  It does not guarantee
+that equality of power, of intellect, of wealth, and social standing
+shall obtain.  It seeks to harmonize individual development with social
+development, and to insure the individual the right to achieve
+according to his capacity and industry.  "The right to life, liberty,
+and the pursuit of happiness" is a household word, but the right to
+<I>pursue</I> does not insure success.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The excessive altruism of the times has led to the protecting care of
+all classes.  In its extreme processes it has made the weak more
+helpless.  What is needed is the cultivation of individual
+responsibility.  Society is so great, so well organized, and does so
+much that there is a tendency of the individual to shift his
+responsibility to it.  Society is composed of individuals, and its
+quality will be determined by the character and quality of the
+individual working especially for himself and generally for the good of
+all.  A little more of the law of the survival of the fittest would
+temper our altruism to more effective service.  The world is full of
+voluntary altruistic and social betterment societies, making drives for
+funds.  They should re-examine their motives and processes and
+carefully estimate what they are really accomplishing.  Is the
+institution they are supporting merely serving itself, or has it a
+working power and a margin of profit in actual service?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Influence of Scientific Thought on Progress</I>.&mdash;The effect of
+scientific discovery on material welfare has been referred to
+elsewhere.  It remains to determine how scientific thought changes the
+attitude of the mind toward life.  The laboratory
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P500"></A>500}</SPAN>
+method
+continually tests everything, and what he finds to be true the
+scientist believes.  He gradually ignores tradition and adheres to
+those things that are shown to be true by experimentation or recorded
+observation.  It is true that he uses hypotheses and works the
+imagination.  But his whole tendency is to depart from the realm of
+instinct and emotions and lay a foundation for reflective thinking.
+The scientific attitude of mind influences all philosophy and all
+religion.  "Let us examine the facts in the case" is the attitude of
+scientific thought.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The study of anthropology and sociology has, on the one hand,
+discovered the natural history of man and, on the other, shown his
+normal social relations.  Both of these studies have co-operated with
+biology to show that man has come out of the past through a process of
+evolution; that all that he is individually and socially has been
+attained through long ages of development.  Even science, philosophy,
+and religion, as well as all forms of society, have had a slow, painful
+evolution.  This fact causes people to re-examine their traditional
+belief to see how far it corresponds to new knowledge.  It has helped
+men to realize on their philosophy of life and to test it out in the
+light of new truth and experience.  This has led the church to a
+broader conception of the truth and to a more direct devotion to
+service.  It is becoming an agency for visualizing truth rather than an
+institution of dogmatic belief.  The religious traditionalists yield
+slowly to the new religious liberalism.  But the influence of
+scientific thought has caused the church to realize on the investment
+which it has been preaching these many centuries.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Relation of Material Comfort to Spiritual Progress</I>.&mdash;The material
+comforts which have been multiplying in recent centuries do not insure
+the highest spiritual activity.  The nations that have achieved have
+been forced into activity by distressing conditions.  In following the
+history of any nation along any line of achievement, it will be noticed
+that in its darkest, most uncomfortable days, when progress seemed
+least
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P501"></A>501}</SPAN>
+in evidence, forces were in action which prepared for great
+advancement.  It has been so in literature, in science, in liberty, in
+social order; it is so in the sum-total of the world's achievements.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+Granting that the increase of material comforts, in fact, of wealth, is
+a great achievement of the age, the whole story is not told until the
+use of the wealth is determined.  If it leads to luxurious living,
+immorality, injustice, and loss of sense of duty, as in some of the
+ancient nations, it will prove the downfall of Western civilization.
+If the leisure and strength it offers are utilized in raising the
+standard of living, of establishing higher ideals, and creating a will
+to approximate them, then they will prove a blessing and an impulse to
+progress.  Likewise, the freedom of the mind and freedom in
+governmental action furnish great opportunities for progress, but the
+final result will be determined by use of such opportunities in the
+creation of a higher type of mind characterized by a well-balanced
+social attitude.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>The Balance of Social Forces</I>.&mdash;There are two sources of the origin of
+social life, one arising out of the attitude of the individual toward
+society, and the other arising out of the attitude of society toward
+the individual.  These two attitudes seem, at first view, paradoxical
+in many instances, for both individual and society must survive.  But
+in the long run they are not antagonistic, for the good of one must be
+the good of the other.  The perfect balancing of the two forces would
+make a perfect society.  The modern social problem is to determine how
+much choice shall be left to individual initiative and how much shall
+be undertaken by the group.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+In recent years the people have been doing more and more for themselves
+through group action.  The result has been a multiplication of laws,
+many of them useless; the creation of a vast administrative force
+increasing overhead charges, community control or operation of
+industries, and the vast amount of public, especially municipal,
+improvements.  All of these have been of advantage to the people in
+common, but have
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P502"></A>502}</SPAN>
+greatly increased taxation until it is felt to
+be a burden.  Were it not for the great war debts that hang heavily on
+the world, probably the increased taxation for legitimate expenses
+would not have been seriously felt.  But it seems certain that a halt
+in excessive public expenditures will be called until a social
+stock-taking ensues.  At any rate, people will demand that useless
+expenditures shall cease and that an ample return for the increased
+taxation shall be shown in a margin of profit for social betterment.  A
+balance between social enterprise and individual effort must be secured.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Restlessness Versus Happiness</I>.&mdash;Happiness is an active principle
+arising from the satisfaction of individual desires.  It does not
+consist in the possession of an abundance of material things.  It may
+consist in the harmony of desires with the means of satisfying them.
+Perhaps the "right to achieve" and the successful process of
+achievement are the essential factors in true happiness.  Realizing how
+wealth will furnish opportunities for achievement, and how it will
+furnish the luxuries of life as well as furnish an outlet for restless
+activity, great energy is spent in acquiring it.  Indeed, the attitude
+of mind has been centred so strongly on the possession of the dollar
+that this seems to be the end of pursuit rather than a means to higher
+states of life.  It is this wrong attitude of life that brings about so
+much restlessness and so little real happiness.  Only the utilization
+of material wealth to develop a higher spiritual life of man and
+society will insure continuous progress.
+</P>
+
+<P>
+The vast accumulations of material wealth in the United States and the
+wonderful provisions for material comfort are apt to obscure the vision
+of real progress.  Great as are the possible blessings of material
+progress, it is possible that eventually they may prove a menace.
+Other great civilizations have fallen because they stressed the
+importance of the material life and lost sight of the great adventure
+of the spirit.  Will the spiritual wealth rise superior, strong, and
+dominant to overcome the downward drag of material prosperity and
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P503"></A>503}</SPAN>
+thus be able to support the burdens of material civilization that must
+be borne?
+</P>
+
+<P>
+<I>Summary of Progress</I>.&mdash;If one were to review the previous pages from
+the beginnings of human society to the present time, he would observe
+that mind is the ruling force of all human endeavor.  Its freedom of
+action, its inventive power, and its will to achieve underlie every
+material and social product of civilization.  Its evolution through
+action and reaction, from primitive instincts and emotions to the
+dominance of rational planning and reflective thinking, marks the trail
+of man's ascendancy over nature and the establishing of ideals of
+social order.  Has man individual traits, physical and mental,
+sufficiently strong to stand the strain of a highly complex social
+order?  It will depend upon the strength of his moral character, mental
+traits, and physical resistance, and whether justice among men shall
+prevail, manifested in humane and sound social action.  Future progress
+will depend upon a clearness of vision, a unity of thought, the
+standardization of the objectives of social achievement, and, moreover,
+an elevation of human conduct.  Truly, "without vision the people
+perish."
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<H4 ALIGN="center">
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+</H4>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+1.  What measures are being taken to conserve the natural resources?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+2.  What plan would you suggest for settling the labor problem so as to
+avoid strikes?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+3.  How shall we determine what people shall do in group activity and
+what shall be left to private initiative?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+4.  How may our ideals of democracy be put to effective practice?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+5.  To what extent does future progress of the race depend upon science?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+6.  Is there any limit to the amount of money that may be wisely
+expended for education?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+7.  Public measures for the promotion of health.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+8.  What is meant by the statement that "Without vision the people
+perish"?
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="question">
+9.  Equalization of opportunity.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="biblio"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P504"></A>504}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+BIBLIOGRAPHY
+</H3>
+
+<PRE>
+Abbott, Frank Frost:  History and Description of Roman Political
+                      Institutions.
+
+Adams, George Burton:  Civilization During the Middle Ages.
+
+Amicis, Edmondo de:  Spain and the Spaniards.
+
+Aristotle's Politics:  Translation by Welldon.
+
+Arnold, Matthew:  Civilization in the United States.
+
+Bakewell, Chas. M.:  Source Book of Ancient Philosophy.
+
+Blackmar, F. W., and Gillin, J. L.:  Outlines of Sociology.
+
+Blummer, Hugo:  Home Life of the Ancient Greeks.
+
+Boak, A. E. R.:  Roman History.
+
+Boas, Franz:  The Mind of Primitive Man.
+
+Botsford, George Willis:  Ancient History for Beginners.
+                          Hellenic History.
+                          The Story of Rome.
+
+Bowman, Isaiah:  The New World.
+
+Breasted, J. H.:  Ancient Times: A History of the Early World.
+
+Brinton, Daniel G.:  The American Races.
+
+Bryce, James:  The American Commonwealth.
+               The Holy Roman Empire.
+               The Relations of the Advanced and the Backward
+                   Nations of the World.
+               Modern Democracies.
+
+Buckle, Henry Thomas:  History of Civilization in England.
+
+Burckhart, Jacob:  Civilization of the Renaissance in Italy.
+
+Burt, B. C.:  A Brief History of Greek Philosophy.
+
+Bury, J. B.:  The Idea of Progress.
+
+Carlyle, Thomas:  History of the French Revolution.
+
+Carpenter, Edward:  Civilization, Its Causes and Cure.
+
+Carter, Howard, and Mace, A. C.:  The Tomb of Tut-Ankh-Amen.
+
+Carver, Thos. N.:  Sociology and Social Progress.
+
+Chapin, F. Stuart:  Introduction to Social Evolution.
+
+Cheney, Edward P.:  An Introduction to the Industrial and Social
+                        History of England.
+
+Church, R. W.:  The Beginnings of the Middle Ages.
+</PRE>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P505"></A>505}</SPAN>
+
+<PRE>
+Commons, John R.:  Industrial Democracy.
+                   Trade Unionism and Labor Problems.
+
+Conklin, Grant:  The Direction of Human Evolution.
+
+Cooley, Charles H.:  Social Organization.
+
+Coppee, Henry:  History of the Conquest of Spain by the Arabs.
+
+Cox, G. W.:  The Crusades.
+
+Croiset, Maurice:  Hellenic Civilization.
+                       (Translated by Paul B. Thomas.)
+
+Deniker, J.:  The Races of Men.
+
+Dewey, John:  Human Nature and Conduct.
+
+Draper, John W.:  History of the Intellectual Development of Europe.
+
+Duncan, Robert K.:  The Chemistry of Commerce.
+                    The New Knowledge.
+
+Duruy, Victor:  History of France.
+                History of the Middle Ages.
+                History of Rome.
+
+Edman, Erwin:  Human Traits.
+
+Elliot, G. F. Scott:  Prehistoric Man and His Story.
+
+Ely, Richard T.:  Evolution of Industrial Society.
+
+Emerton, Ephraim:  Introduction to the Middle Ages.
+                   Mediaeval Europe.
+
+Fisher, George P.:  History of the Christian Church.
+
+Fowler, Ward:  The City State of the Greeks and Romans.
+
+Gardiner, Samuel R.:  The Puritan Revolution.
+
+Gibbon, Edward:  Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
+
+Goldenweiser, Alexander A.:  Early Civilization.
+
+Gordon, Childe:  The Dawn of European Civilization.
+
+Green, John Richard:  A Short History of the English People.
+
+Green, William Chase:  The Achievement of Greece.
+
+Guizot, F.:  History of Civilization.
+
+Hadley, James:  Introduction to Roman Law.
+
+Hayes, Carlton J. H.:  A Brief History of the Great War.
+                       A Political and Social History of Modern Europe.
+
+Henderson, Ernest F.:  History of Germany in the Middle Ages.
+
+Hobson, J. A.:  The Problems of the New World.
+
+Hodgkin, Thomas:  Italy and Her Invaders.
+
+Holm, Adolph:  History of Greece.
+
+Hudson, J. W.:  The College and New America.
+</PRE>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P506"></A>506}</SPAN>
+
+<PRE>
+Ihne, W. H.:  Early Rome.
+
+Inge, W. R.:  The Idea of Progress.
+
+Irving, Washington:  The Conquest of Granada.
+
+James, E. O.:  An Introduction to Anthropology.
+
+Kelsey, Carl:  The Physical Basis of Society.
+
+Keynes, J. M.:  The Economic Consequences of the Peace.
+
+King, L. W.:  A History of Babylon.
+              A History of Sumer and Akkad.
+
+Kirkup, Thomas:  The History of Socialism.
+
+Kitchen, G. W.:  History of France.
+
+Kroeber, A. L.:  Anthropology.
+
+Lawrence, I. J.:  The Society of Nations.
+
+Libby, Walter:  An Introduction to the History of Science.
+
+Lipton, Walter:  Drift and Mastery.
+                 Liberty and the News.
+
+Lowell, A. Lawrence:  Public Opinion and Popular Government.
+
+Lowie, Robert H.:  Culture and Ethnology.
+                   Primitive Society.
+
+Mahaffy, J. P.:  The Story of Alexander's Empire.
+
+Mason, Otis Tufton:  The Origins of Inventions.
+
+Mason, Wm. A.:  The History of the Art of Writing.
+
+May, Thos. E.:  Democracy in Europe.
+
+McCarthy, Justin:  The Epoch of Reform.
+
+McGiffert, Arthur C.:  The Rise of Modern Religious Ideas.
+
+Meyers, J. L.:  The Dawn of History.
+
+Mills, John:  Within the Atom.
+
+Monroe, Dana Carlton:  The Middle Ages.
+
+Monroe, Paul:  History of Education.
+
+Morris, Charles:  Civilization: An Historical Review of Its Elements.
+
+Morris, William O'Connor:  The French Revolution and the First Empire.
+
+Murray, Gilbert:  Ancient Greece.
+
+O'Leary, De Lacy:  Arabic Thought and Its Place in History.
+
+Osborn, Henry Fairfield:  Men of the Old Stone Age.
+
+Peet, Stephen:  The Cliff Dwellers.
+
+Plato's Republic:  Translation by Jowett.
+
+Powell, I. W.:  The Pueblo Indians.
+
+Preston and Dodge:  The Private Life of the Romans.
+
+Ragozin, Z. A.:  The Story of Chaldea.
+
+Rawlinson, George:  Ancient Monarchies.
+                    The Story of Egypt.
+</PRE>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P507"></A>507}</SPAN>
+
+<PRE>
+Robinson, James Harvey:  The Mind in the Making.
+
+Sayre, Francis B.:  Experiments in International Administration.
+
+Scott, J. B. (editor):  President Wilson's Foreign Policy: Messages,
+                            Addresses, and Papers.
+
+Sedgwick, W. J., and Tyler, H. W.:  A Short History of Science.
+
+Seebohm, Frederick:  The Era of the Protestant Revolt.
+
+Semple, Ellen C.:  Influences of Geographic Environment.
+
+Sloane, W. M.:  The Powers and Aims of Western Democracy.
+
+Slosson, Edwin E.:  Creative Chemistry.
+
+Smith, J. Russell:  The World and Its Food Resources.
+
+Smith, Walter R.:  Educational Sociology.
+
+Spinden, H. J.:  Ancient Civilization of Mexico.
+
+Stubbs, William:  The Early Plantagenets.
+
+Symonds, John Addington:  The Renaissance in Italy.
+
+Taylor, Edward B.:  Researches Into the Early History of Mankind.
+                    The Development of Civilization.
+
+Thwing, Charles F. and Carrie F.:  The Family.
+
+Todd, Arthur James:  Theories of Social Progress.
+
+Turner, F. J.:  The Rise of the New West.
+
+Tyler, John M.:  The New Stone Age of Northern Europe.
+
+Van Hook, La Rue:  Greek Life and Thought.
+
+Walker, Francis A.:  The Making of a Nation.
+
+Wallas, Graham:  Great Society.
+                 Principles of Western Civilization.
+
+Weber, Alfred, and R. B. Perry:  History of Philosophy.
+
+Weigall, Arthur:  The Story of the Pharaohs.
+
+White, Andrew D.:  The French Revolution and the First Empire.
+
+Whitney, Wm. Dwight:  The Life and Growth of Language.
+
+Wilder, H. H.:  Man's Prehistoric Past.
+
+Wissler, Clark:  The American Indian.
+                 Man and Culture.
+</PRE>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<A NAME="index"></A>
+
+<SPAN CLASS="pagenum">{<A NAME="P508"></A>508}</SPAN>
+
+<H3 ALIGN="center">
+INDEX
+</H3>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Abelard, <A HREF="#P354">354</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Aegean culture, <A HREF="#P207">207</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Ages of culture, stone, bronze, <A HREF="#P36">36</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Agriculture, beginning of, <A HREF="#P93">93</A>; modern, <A HREF="#P440">440</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Akkadians, religion of, <A HREF="#P155">155</A>, <A HREF="#P156">156</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Alexander, conquests of, <A HREF="#P246">246</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Allia, battle of the, <A HREF="#P387">387</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Altruism and democracy, <A HREF="#P449">449-462</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+America, peopling of, <A HREF="#P185">185</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+American Indians, culture of, <A HREF="#P200">200</A>; contributions to civilization, <A HREF="#P201">201</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Anaxagoras, <A HREF="#P218">218</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Anaximander, <A HREF="#P217">217</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Anaximenes, <A HREF="#P217">217</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Ancient society, Morgan, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>, <A HREF="#P49">49</A>,
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Animals, domestication of, <A HREF="#P92">92</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Anselm, <A HREF="#P354">354</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Antiquity of man shown by race development, <A HREF="#P69">69</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Arabian empire, <A HREF="#P305">305</A>; science and art, <A HREF="#P307">307</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Arab-Moors in Spain, <A HREF="#P305">305</A>; cultures, <A HREF="#P308">308-315</A>; science and art, <A HREF="#P307">307-310</A>;
+discoveries, <A HREF="#P312">312</A>; language and literature, <A HREF="#P313">313</A>; architecture, <A HREF="#P315">315</A>;
+achievement, <A HREF="#P316">316</A>; decline, <A HREF="#P317">317</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Arab-Moors, religious zeal of, <A HREF="#P308">308</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Aristotle, <A HREF="#P223">223</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Arkwright, Richard, spinning by rollers, <A HREF="#P436">436</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Art, development of, <A HREF="#P37">37</A>; as a language of aesthetic ideas, <A HREF="#P130">130</A>;
+representative, <A HREF="#P131">131</A>; and architecture, <A HREF="#P368">368</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Aryans, coming of the, <A HREF="#P167">167</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Athens, Government of, <A HREF="#P233">233</A>; character of democracy, <A HREF="#P240">240</A>; decline of,
+<A HREF="#P241">241</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Aztecs, culture of, <A HREF="#P190">190</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Babylon, <A HREF="#P146">146</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Bacon, Francis, <A HREF="#P355">355</A>, <A HREF="#P460">460</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Bacon, Roger, <A HREF="#P459">459</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Barbarians, <A HREF="#P281">281</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Beautiful, the love of, develops slowly, <A HREF="#P135">135-136</A>; a permanent social
+force, <A HREF="#P137">137</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Bill of Rights, <A HREF="#P397">397</A>, <A HREF="#P413">413</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Boccaccio, <A HREF="#P366">366</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Books, <A HREF="#P128">128</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Bow and arrow, <A HREF="#P87">87</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Brahe, Ticho, <A HREF="#P463">463</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Bryce, James, <A HREF="#P380">380</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Bunyan, John, <A HREF="#P398">398</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Burial mounds, <A HREF="#P76">76</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Cabrillo, <A HREF="#P116">116</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Calvin, John, and the Genevan system, <A HREF="#P386">386</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Canuleius, <A HREF="#P255">255</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Cassius, Spurius, agrarian laws, <A HREF="#P254">254</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Catholic Church, the, <A HREF="#P384">384</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Catlin, North American Indians, <A HREF="#P134">134</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Caves, <A HREF="#P71">71</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Chaldea, early civilization of, <A HREF="#P153">153-156</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Charlemagne, <A HREF="#P349">349</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Chemistry, <A HREF="#P308">308</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+China, <A HREF="#P166">166</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Christian influence on Roman legislation, <A HREF="#P273">273</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Christian religion, social contacts of, <A HREF="#P268">268</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Christianity and the social life, <A HREF="#P271">271</A>; service of, <A HREF="#P279">279</A>; opposes pagan
+literature, <A HREF="#P357">357</A>; competition with Graeco-Roman schools, <A HREF="#P357">357</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Christians come into conflict with civil authority, <A HREF="#P273">273</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Church, the wealth of, <A HREF="#P275">275</A>; development of hierarchy, <A HREF="#P270">270</A>; control of
+temporal power, <A HREF="#P277">277</A>; service of, <A HREF="#P278">278</A>; retrogressive attitude, <A HREF="#P350">350</A>; in
+France, <A HREF="#P402">402</A>; widening influences of, <A HREF="#P446">446</A>; organizing centre, <A HREF="#P453">453</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Cities, rise of free, <A HREF="#P330">330-332</A>; modern, <A HREF="#P440">440</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Civilization, material evidences of, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>; fundamentals of, <A HREF="#P10">10-14</A>;
+possibilities of, <A HREF="#P15">15</A>; can be estimated, <A HREF="#P16">16</A>; modern, <A HREF="#P456">456</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Cleisthenes, reforms of, <A HREF="#P237">237</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Cliff Dwellers, <A HREF="#P194">194</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Clothing, manufacture of, <A HREF="#P97">97</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Cnossos, <A HREF="#P207">207</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Colonization, Greek, <A HREF="#P246">246</A>; Phoenician, <A HREF="#P161">161</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Commerce and communication, <A HREF="#P486">486</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Commerce, hastens progress, <A HREF="#P362">362</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Common schools, <A HREF="#P477">477</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Constitutional liberty in England, <A HREF="#P393">393</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Copernicus, <A HREF="#P461">461</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Crete, island of, <A HREF="#P207">207</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Crô-Magnon, earliest ancestral type, <A HREF="#P28">28</A>; cultures of, <A HREF="#P72">72</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Crompton, Samuel, spinning "mule," <A HREF="#P436">436</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Crusades, causes of, <A HREF="#P319">319</A>, <A HREF="#P320">320</A>, <A HREF="#P321">321</A>; results of, <A HREF="#P322">322-323</A>; effect on
+monarchy, <A HREF="#P324">324</A>; intellectual development, <A HREF="#P325">325</A>; impulse to commerce, <A HREF="#P326">326</A>;
+social effect, <A HREF="#P327">327</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Cultures, evidence of primitive, <A HREF="#P28">28</A>; mental development and, <A HREF="#P32">32</A>; early
+European, <A HREF="#P32">32</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Curie, Madame, <A HREF="#P469">469</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Custom, <A HREF="#P112">112</A>, <A HREF="#P288">288</A>, <A HREF="#P295">295</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Dance, the, as dramatic expression, <A HREF="#P133">133</A>; economic, religious, and
+social functions of, <A HREF="#P134">134</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Darius I, founded Persian Empire, <A HREF="#P168">168</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Darwin, Charles, <A HREF="#P467">467</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Democracy, <A HREF="#P342">342</A>, <A HREF="#P392">392</A>, <A HREF="#P449">449</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Democracy in America, <A HREF="#P418">418</A>; characteristics of, <A HREF="#P419">419-421</A>; modern
+political reforms of, <A HREF="#P421">421-425</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Descartes, René, <A HREF="#P461">461</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Diogenes, <A HREF="#P218">218</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Discovery and invention, <A HREF="#P362">362</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Duruy, Victor, <A HREF="#P363">363</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Economic life, <A HREF="#P170">170-180</A>, <A HREF="#P290">290</A>, <A HREF="#P429">429</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Economic outlook, <A HREF="#P495">495</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Education and democracy, <A HREF="#P477">477-482</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Education, universal, <A HREF="#P475">475</A>, <A HREF="#P478">478</A>; in the United States, <A HREF="#P476">476</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Educational progress, <A HREF="#P482">482</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Egypt, <A HREF="#P145">145</A>, <A HREF="#P146">146</A>; centre of civilization, <A HREF="#P157">157-160</A>; compared with
+Babylon, <A HREF="#P162">162</A>; pyramids, <A HREF="#P160">160</A>; religion, <A HREF="#P172">172</A>; economic life, <A HREF="#P178">178</A>;
+science, <A HREF="#P182">182</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+England, beginnings of constitutional liberty in, <A HREF="#P345">345</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Environment, physical, determines the character of civilization, <A HREF="#P141">141</A>;
+quality of soil, <A HREF="#P144">144</A>; climate and progress, <A HREF="#P146">146</A>; social order, <A HREF="#P149">149</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Equalization of opportunities, <A HREF="#P499">499</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Euphrates valley, seat of early civilization, <A HREF="#P152">152</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Evidences of man's antiquity, <A HREF="#P69">69</A>; localities of, <A HREF="#P71">71-78</A>; knowledge of,
+develops reflective thinking, <A HREF="#P77">77</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Evolution, <A HREF="#P467">467-469</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Family, the early, <A HREF="#P109">109-112</A>; Greek and Roman, <A HREF="#P212">212-213</A>; German, <A HREF="#P286">286</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Feudalism, nature of, <A HREF="#P294">294-299</A>; sources of, <A HREF="#P294">294</A>, based on land tenure,
+<A HREF="#P296">296</A>; social classification under, <A HREF="#P298">298</A>; conditions of society under,
+<A HREF="#P300">300</A>; individual development under, <A HREF="#P302">302</A>; influence on world progress,
+<A HREF="#P303">303</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Fire and its economy, <A HREF="#P88">88</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Florence, <A HREF="#P336">336</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Food supply, determines progress, <A HREF="#P83">83-85</A>; increased by discovery and
+invention, <A HREF="#P86">86</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+France, free cities of, <A HREF="#P330">330</A>; rise of popular assemblies, <A HREF="#P338">338</A>; rural
+communes, <A HREF="#P338">338</A>; place in modern civilization, <A HREF="#P399">399</A>; philosophers of, <A HREF="#P403">403</A>;
+return to monarchy, <A HREF="#P417">417</A>; character of constitutional monarchy, <A HREF="#P418">418</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+France, in modern civilization, <A HREF="#P399">399</A>; philosophers of, <A HREF="#P403">403</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Franklin, Benjamin, <A HREF="#P465">465</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Freedom of the press, <A HREF="#P484">484</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Freeman, E. A., <A HREF="#P233">233</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+French republic, triumph of, <A HREF="#P417">417</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+French Revolution, <A HREF="#P405">405-407</A>; results of, <A HREF="#P407">407</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Galileo, <A HREF="#P461">461</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Gabon, Francis, <A HREF="#P469">469</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Geography, <A HREF="#P312">312</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Germans, social life of, <A HREF="#P283">283</A>; classes of society, <A HREF="#P285">285</A>; home life, <A HREF="#P286">286</A>;
+political organization, <A HREF="#P287">287</A>; social customs, <A HREF="#P288">288</A>; contribution to law,
+<A HREF="#P291">291</A>; judicial system, <A HREF="#P292">292</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Gilbert, William, <A HREF="#P461">461</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Glacial epoch, <A HREF="#P62">62</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Greece, <A HREF="#P148">148</A>, <A HREF="#P205">205</A>, <A HREF="#P210">210</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Greece and Rome compared, <A HREF="#P250">250</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Greek equality and liberty, <A HREF="#P229">229</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Greek federation, <A HREF="#P245">245</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Greek government, an expanded family, <A HREF="#P229">229</A>; diversity of, <A HREF="#P231">231</A>; admits
+free discussion, <A HREF="#P231">231</A>; local self-government, <A HREF="#P232">232</A>; independent community
+life, <A HREF="#P231">231</A>; group selfishness, <A HREF="#P232">232</A>; city state, <A HREF="#P239">239</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Greek influence on Rome, <A HREF="#P261">261</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Greek life, early, <A HREF="#P205">205</A>; influence of, <A HREF="#P213">213</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Greek philosophy, observation and inquiry, <A HREF="#P215">215</A>; Ionian philosophy, <A HREF="#P216">216</A>;
+weakness of, <A HREF="#P219">219</A>; Eleatic philosophy, <A HREF="#P220">220</A>; Sophists, <A HREF="#P221">221</A>; Epicureans,
+<A HREF="#P224">224</A>; influence of, <A HREF="#P225">225</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Greek social life, <A HREF="#P241">241</A>, <A HREF="#P243">243</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Greeks, origin of, <A HREF="#P209">209</A>; early social life of, <A HREF="#P208">208</A>; character of
+primitive, <A HREF="#P209">209</A>; family life of, <A HREF="#P212">212</A>; religion of, <A HREF="#P212">212</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Guizot, <A HREF="#P399">399</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Hargreaves, James, invents the spinning jenny, <A HREF="#P436">436</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Harvey, William, <A HREF="#P461">461</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Hebrew influence, <A HREF="#P164">164</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Henry VIII and the papacy, <A HREF="#P387">387</A>; defender of the faith, <A HREF="#P396">396</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Heraclitus, <A HREF="#P218">218</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Hierarchy, development of, <A HREF="#P276">276</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+History, <A HREF="#P312">312</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Holy Roman Empire, <A HREF="#P414">414</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Human chronology, <A HREF="#P59">59</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Humanism, <A HREF="#P349">349</A>, <A HREF="#P364">364</A>, <A HREF="#P366">366</A>; relation of language and literature to, <A HREF="#P367">367</A>;
+effect on social manners, <A HREF="#P371">371</A>; relation to science and philosophy, <A HREF="#P372">372</A>;
+advances the study of the classics, <A HREF="#P373">373</A>; general influence on life, <A HREF="#P373">373</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Huss, John, <A HREF="#P378">378</A>, <A HREF="#P379">379</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Huxley, Thomas H., <A HREF="#P471">471</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Ice ages, the, <A HREF="#P62">62</A>, <A HREF="#P64">64</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Incas, culture of, <A HREF="#P187">187</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+India, <A HREF="#P148">148</A>, <A HREF="#P166">166</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Individual culture and social order, <A HREF="#P150">150</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Industrial development, <A HREF="#P429">429-433</A>, <A HREF="#P439">439</A>; revolution, <A HREF="#P437">437</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Industries, radiate from land as a centre, <A HREF="#P429">429</A>; early mediaeval, <A HREF="#P430">430</A>;
+public, <A HREF="#P497">497</A>; corporate, <A HREF="#P497">497</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Industry and civilization, <A HREF="#P441">441</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+International law, reorganization of, <A HREF="#P492">492</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Invention, <A HREF="#P86">86</A>, <A HREF="#P362">362</A>, <A HREF="#P436">436</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Iroquois, social organization of, <A HREF="#P198">198</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Italian art and architecture, <A HREF="#P368">368</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Italian cities, <A HREF="#P332">332</A>; popular government of, <A HREF="#P333">333</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Jesuits, the, <A HREF="#P385">385</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Justinian Code, <A HREF="#P260">260</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Kepler, <A HREF="#P463">463</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Knowledge, diffusion of, <A HREF="#P480">480</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Koch, <A HREF="#P470">470</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Koran, the, <A HREF="#P304">304</A>, <A HREF="#P310">310</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Labor, social economics of, <A HREF="#P496">496</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Lake dwellings, <A HREF="#P78">78</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Lamarck, J. P., <A HREF="#P467">467</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Land, use of, determines social life, <A HREF="#P145">145</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Language, origin of, <A HREF="#P121">121</A>; a social function, <A HREF="#P123">123</A>; development of,
+<A HREF="#P126">126-129</A>; an instrument of culture, <A HREF="#P129">129</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Latin language and literature, <A HREF="#P261">261</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+League for permanent peace, <A HREF="#P489">489-492</A>
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Licinian laws, <A HREF="#P256">256</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Lister, <A HREF="#P469">469</A>, <A HREF="#P470">470</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Locke, John, <A HREF="#P398">398</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Lombard League, <A HREF="#P337">337</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Louis XIV, the divine right of kings, <A HREF="#P400">400</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Luther, Martin, and the German Reformation, <A HREF="#P382">382-385</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Lycurgus, reforms of, <A HREF="#P244">244</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Lysander, <A HREF="#P241">241</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Magdalenian cultures, <A HREF="#P72">72</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Man, origin of, <A HREF="#P57">57</A>; primitive home of, <A HREF="#P66">66</A>, antiquity of, <A HREF="#P73">73-70</A>; and
+nature, <A HREF="#P141">141</A>; not a slave to environment, <A HREF="#P149">149</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Manorial system, <A HREF="#P430">430</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Manuscripts, discovery of, <A HREF="#P364">364</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Marxian socialism in Russia, <A HREF="#P427">427</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Maya race, <A HREF="#P192">192</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Medicine, <A HREF="#P308">308</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Medontidae, <A HREF="#P234">234</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Men of genius, <A HREF="#P33">33</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Mesopotamia, <A HREF="#P154">154</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Metals, discovery and use of, <A HREF="#P100">100</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Metaphysics, <A HREF="#P310">310</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Mexico, <A HREF="#P146">146</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Michael Angelo, <A HREF="#P370">370</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Milton, John, <A HREF="#P398">398</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Minoan civilization, <A HREF="#P207">207</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Monarchy, a stage of progress in Europe, <A HREF="#P344">344</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Monarchy versus democracy, <A HREF="#P392">392</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Mongolian race, <A HREF="#P167">167</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Montesquieu, <A HREF="#P404">404</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Morgan, Lewis H., beginning of civilization, <A HREF="#P4">4</A>; classification of
+social development, <A HREF="#P49">49</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Morton, William, T. G., <A HREF="#P470">470</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Mound builders, <A HREF="#P197">197</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Music, as language, <A HREF="#P131">131</A>; as a socializing factor, <A HREF="#P133">133</A>, <A HREF="#P137">137</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Mutual aid, <A HREF="#P120">120</A>; of nations, <A HREF="#P491">491</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Napier, John, <A HREF="#P463">463</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Napoleon Bonaparte, <A HREF="#P417">417</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Nationality and race, <A HREF="#P444">444</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Nature, aspects of, determine types of social life, <A HREF="#P147">147</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Neanderthal man, <A HREF="#P29">29</A>, <A HREF="#P65">65</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Newton, Sir Isaac, <A HREF="#P463">463</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Nile, valley, seat of early civilization, <A HREF="#P152">152</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Nobility, the French, <A HREF="#P400">400</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Occam, William of, <A HREF="#P379">379</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Oriental civilization, character of, <A HREF="#P170">170</A>; war for conquest and plunder,
+<A HREF="#P171">171</A>; religious belief, <A HREF="#P171">171-174</A>; social condition, <A HREF="#P175">175</A>; social
+organization, <A HREF="#P176">176-178</A>; economic life, <A HREF="#P178">178-180</A>; writing, <A HREF="#P181">181</A>; science,
+<A HREF="#P182">182</A>; contribution to world progress, <A HREF="#P184">184</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Parliament, rebukes King James I, <A HREF="#P396">396</A>; declaration of, <A HREF="#P397">397</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Pasteur, Louis, <A HREF="#P469">469</A>, <A HREF="#P470">470</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Peloponnesian War, <A HREF="#P241">241</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+People, the condition of, in France, <A HREF="#P401">401</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Pericles, age of, <A HREF="#P247">247</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Petrarch, <A HREF="#P365">365</A>, <A HREF="#P366">366</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Philosophy, Ionian, <A HREF="#P216">216</A>; Eleatic, <A HREF="#P220">220</A>; sophist, <A HREF="#P221">221</A>; stoic, <A HREF="#P225">225</A>;
+sceptic, <A HREF="#P225">225</A>; influence of Greek on civilization, <A HREF="#P226">226</A>, <A HREF="#P228">228</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Phoenicians, the, become great navigators, <A HREF="#P161">161</A>; colonization by, <A HREF="#P161">161</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Physical needs, efforts to satisfy, <A HREF="#P82">82-85</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Picture writing, <A HREF="#P126">126</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Pithecanthropus erectus, <A HREF="#P29">29</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Plato, <A HREF="#P222">222</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Political ideas, spread of, <A HREF="#P486">486-488</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Political liberty in XVIII century. [Transcriber's note: no page number
+in source]
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Polygenesis, monogenesis, <A HREF="#P66">66</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Popular government, expense of, <A HREF="#P328">328</A>, <A HREF="#P414">414</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Power manufacture, <A HREF="#P437">437</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Pre-historic human types, <A HREF="#P63">63</A>, <A HREF="#P65">65</A>, <A HREF="#P66">66</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Pre-historic man, types of, <A HREF="#P28">28</A>,
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Pre-historic time, <A HREF="#P60">60-61</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Primitive man, social life of, <A HREF="#P31">31</A>, <A HREF="#P32">32</A>; brain capacity of, <A HREF="#P29">29</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Progress and individual development, <A HREF="#P23">23</A>; and race development, <A HREF="#P22">22</A>;
+influence of heredity on, <A HREF="#P24">24</A>; influence of environment on, <A HREF="#P25">25</A>; race
+interactions and, <A HREF="#P26">26</A>; early cultural evidence of, <A HREF="#P32">32</A>; mutations in, <A HREF="#P33">33</A>;
+data of, <A HREF="#P34">34</A>; increased by the implements used, <A HREF="#P35">35</A>; revival of,
+throughout Europe, <A HREF="#P348">348</A>; and revival of learning, <A HREF="#P372">372-373</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Progress, evidence of, <A HREF="#P456">456</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Public opinion, <A HREF="#P485">485</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Pueblo Indians, culture of, <A HREF="#P194">194</A>; social life, <A HREF="#P195">195</A>; secret societies,
+<A HREF="#P196">196</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Pythagoras, <A HREF="#P219">219</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Race and language, <A HREF="#P124">124</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Races, cause of decline, <A HREF="#P201">201</A>, <A HREF="#P202">202</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Racial characters, <A HREF="#P70">70</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Recounting human progress, methods of <A HREF="#P37">37-52</A>; economic development,
+<A HREF="#P39">39-40</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Reform measures in England, <A HREF="#P415">415</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Reformation, the, character of, <A HREF="#P375">375</A>; events leading to, <A HREF="#P376">376-380</A>; causes
+of, <A HREF="#P380">380-382</A>; far-reaching results of, <A HREF="#P388">388-391</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Religion and social order, <A HREF="#P113">113-116</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Religious toleration, growth of, <A HREF="#P447">447</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Renaissance, the, <A HREF="#P349">349</A>, <A HREF="#P370">370</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Republicanism, spread of, <A HREF="#P425">425</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Research, foundations of, <A HREF="#P472">472</A>; educational process of, <A HREF="#P479">479</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Revival of learning, <A HREF="#P364">364</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+River and glacial drift, <A HREF="#P74">74</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Roebuck, John, the blast furnace, <A HREF="#P436">436</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Roman civil organization, <A HREF="#P258">258</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Roman empire, and its decline, <A HREF="#P264">264</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Roman government, <A HREF="#P258">258</A>; law, <A HREF="#P259">259</A>; imperialism, <A HREF="#P267">267</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Roman social life, <A HREF="#P264">264</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Rome a dominant city, <A HREF="#P257">257</A>; development of government, <A HREF="#P258">258</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Rome, political organization, <A HREF="#P252">252</A>; struggle for liberty, <A HREF="#P243">243</A>; social
+conditions, <A HREF="#P255">255</A>; invasion of the Gauls, <A HREF="#P255">255</A>; Agrarian laws, <A HREF="#P254">254</A>, <A HREF="#P256">256</A>;
+plebeians and patricians, <A HREF="#P256">256</A>; optimates, <A HREF="#P256">256</A>; influence on world
+civilization, <A HREF="#P266">266</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Rousseau, <A HREF="#P404">404</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Savonarola, <A HREF="#P380">380</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Scholastic philosophy, <A HREF="#P353">353</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Schools, cathedral and monastic, <A HREF="#P356">356</A>; Graeco-Roman, <A HREF="#P357">357</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Science, in Egypt, <A HREF="#P182">182</A>; in Spain, <A HREF="#P306">306</A>; nature of, <A HREF="#P307">307</A>, <A HREF="#P458">458</A>; and
+democracy, <A HREF="#P464">464</A>, <A HREF="#P465">465</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Scientific classification, <A HREF="#P460">460</A>; men, <A HREF="#P465">465</A>; progress, <A HREF="#P470">470</A>; investigation,
+trend of, <A HREF="#P473">473</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Scientific methods, <A HREF="#P459">459</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Scientific research, <A HREF="#P463">463</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Semites, <A HREF="#P160">160</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Shakespeare, <A HREF="#P398">398</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Shell mounds, <A HREF="#P73">73</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Shelters, primitive, <A HREF="#P99">99</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Social conditions at the beginning of the Christian era, <A HREF="#P269">269</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Social contacts of the Christian religion, <A HREF="#P268">268</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Social development, <A HREF="#P13">13</A>, <A HREF="#P23">23</A>, <A HREF="#P49">49</A>, <A HREF="#P104">104</A>, <A HREF="#P114">114</A>, <A HREF="#P347">347</A>, <A HREF="#P443">443</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Social evolution, depends on variation, <A HREF="#P347">347</A>; character of, <A HREF="#P443">443</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Social forces, balance of, <A HREF="#P501">501</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Social groups, interrelation of, <A HREF="#P454">454</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Social life, <A HREF="#P31">31</A>, <A HREF="#P133">133</A>, <A HREF="#P145">145</A>, <A HREF="#P147">147</A>, <A HREF="#P171">171</A>, <A HREF="#P178">178-180</A>, <A HREF="#P208">208</A>, <A HREF="#P241">241</A>, <A HREF="#P243">243</A>, <A HREF="#P247">247</A>, <A HREF="#P255">255</A>,
+<A HREF="#P258">258</A>, <A HREF="#P283">283</A>, <A HREF="#P285">285</A>, <A HREF="#P289">289</A>, <A HREF="#P298">298</A>, <A HREF="#P300">300</A>, <A HREF="#P327">327</A>, <A HREF="#P371">371</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Social life of primitive man, <A HREF="#P31">31</A>, <A HREF="#P32">32</A>; development of social order,
+<A HREF="#P41">41-45</A>; intellectual character of, <A HREF="#P47">47</A>; religious and moral condition of,
+<A HREF="#P46">46</A>, <A HREF="#P47">47</A>; character of, <A HREF="#P108">108</A>; moral status of, <A HREF="#P117">117</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Social opportunities, <A HREF="#P455">455</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Social order, <A HREF="#P8">8</A>, <A HREF="#P41">41</A>, <A HREF="#P122">122</A>, <A HREF="#P149">149</A>, <A HREF="#P150">150</A>, <A HREF="#P176">176-178</A>, <A HREF="#P193">193</A>, <A HREF="#P196">196</A>, <A HREF="#P444">444</A>, <A HREF="#P445">445</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Social organization, <A HREF="#P145">145</A>, <A HREF="#P176">176-178</A>, <A HREF="#P210">210</A>, <A HREF="#P250">250-252</A>, <A HREF="#P432">432</A>, <A HREF="#P433">433</A>, <A HREF="#P444">444</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Social unrest, <A HREF="#P502">502</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Society, <A HREF="#P5">5</A>, <A HREF="#P175">175</A>, <A HREF="#P205">205</A>, <A HREF="#P255">255</A>, <A HREF="#P256">256</A>, <A HREF="#P268">268-273</A>, <A HREF="#P285">285</A>, <A HREF="#P301">301</A>, <A HREF="#P316">316</A>, <A HREF="#P443">443</A>, <A HREF="#P445">445</A>, <A HREF="#P446">446</A>,
+<A HREF="#P450">450</A>, <A HREF="#P451">451</A>, <A HREF="#P452">452</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Society, complexity of modern, <A HREF="#P452">452</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Socrates, <A HREF="#P221">221</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Solon, constitution of, <A HREF="#P235">235</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Spain, attempts at popular government in, <A HREF="#P341">341</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Sparta, domination of, <A HREF="#P241">241</A>; character of Spartan state, <A HREF="#P242">242</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Spencer, Herbert, <A HREF="#P471">471</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Spiritual progress and material comfort, <A HREF="#P500">500</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+State education, <A HREF="#P482">482</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+States-general, <A HREF="#P341">341</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Struggle for existence develops the individual and the race, <A HREF="#P106">106</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Summary of progress, <A HREF="#P503">503</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Switzerland, democracy in cantons, <A HREF="#P342">342</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Symonds, J. A., <A HREF="#P366">366</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Teutonic liberty, <A HREF="#P281">281</A>; influence of, <A HREF="#P282">282</A>, <A HREF="#P291">291</A>, <A HREF="#P292">292</A>; laws, <A HREF="#P291">291</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Theodosian Code, <A HREF="#P260">260</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Toltecs, <A HREF="#P192">192</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Towns, in the Middle Ages, <A HREF="#P329">329</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Trade,434.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Trade and its social Influence, <A HREF="#P104">104</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Transportation, <A HREF="#P102">102</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Tylor, E. B., Primitive Culture, <A HREF="#P114">114</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Tyndall, John, <A HREF="#P471">471</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Unity of the human race, <A HREF="#P66">66</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Universities, mediaeval, <A HREF="#P475">475</A>; English, <A HREF="#P476">476</A>; German, <A HREF="#P476">476</A>; American, <A HREF="#P476">476</A>;
+endowed, <A HREF="#P484">484</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Universities, rise of, <A HREF="#P360">360</A>; nature of, <A HREF="#P361">361</A>; failure in scientific
+methods, <A HREF="#P361">361</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Venice, <A HREF="#P335">335</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Village community, <A HREF="#P44">44</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Village sites, <A HREF="#P77">77</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Voltaire, <A HREF="#P404">404</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Waldenses, <A HREF="#P378">378</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Warfare and social progress, <A HREF="#P119">119</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Watt, James, power manufacture, <A HREF="#P436">436</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Weissman, A., <A HREF="#P467">467</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Western civilisation, important factors in its foundation, <A HREF="#P268">268</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Whitney, Ely, the cotton gin, <A HREF="#P436">436</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Wissler, Clark, culture areas, <A HREF="#P26">26</A>; trade, <A HREF="#P104">104</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+World state, <A HREF="#P493">493</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+World war, breaks the barriers of thought, <A HREF="#P488">488</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+World War, iconoclastic effects of, <A HREF="#P427">427</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Writing, <A HREF="#P181">181</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Wyclif, John, and the English reformation, <A HREF="#P378">378</A>, <A HREF="#P386">386</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Zeno, <A HREF="#P220">220</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Zenophanes, <A HREF="#P220">220</A>.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="index">
+Zwingli and the reformation in Switzerland, <A HREF="#P385">385</A>.
+</P>
+
+<BR><BR><BR>
+
+<HR>
+
+<BR><BR>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Transcriber's notes:
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+In the Table of Contents, the "PART III" division precedes Chapter VII,
+but in the body of the book it precedes Chapter VIII.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Page numbers in this book are enclosed in curly braces.  For its Index,
+a page number has been placed only at the start of that section.  In
+the HTML version of this book, page numbers are placed in the left
+margin.
+</P>
+
+<P CLASS="noindent">
+Footnote numbers are enclosed in square brackets.  Each chapter's
+footnotes have been renumbered sequentially and moved to the end of
+that chapter.
+</P>
+
+<BR>
+
+<HR>
+
+<BR><BR><BR><BR>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's History of Human Society, by Frank W. Blackmar
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of Human Society, by Frank W. Blackmar
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: History of Human Society
+
+Author: Frank W. Blackmar
+
+Release Date: December 6, 2009 [EBook #30610]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF HUMAN SOCIETY ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Al Haines
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  [Transcriber's note: Extensive research found no evidence
+  that the U.S. copyright on this publication was renewed.]
+
+
+
+
+
+
+HISTORY OF
+
+HUMAN SOCIETY
+
+
+BY
+
+FRANK W. BLACKMAR
+
+
+PROFESSOR OF SOCIOLOGY, UNIVERSITY OF KANSAS
+
+
+
+
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+
+NEW YORK ---- CHICAGO ---- BOSTON
+
+ATLANTA ---- SAN FRANCISCO
+
+
+
+
+Copyright, 1926, by
+
+CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
+
+
+Printed in the United States of America
+
+
+
+
+{v}
+
+PREFACE
+
+This book tells what we know of man, how he first lived, how he worked
+with other men, what kinds of houses he built, what tools he made, and
+how he formed a government under which to live.  So we learn of the
+activities of men in the past and what they have passed on to us.  In
+this way we may become acquainted with the different stages in the
+process which we call civilization.
+
+The present trend of specialization in study and research has brought
+about widely differentiated courses of study in schools and a large
+number of books devoted to special subjects.  Each course of study and
+each book must necessarily represent but a fragment of the subject.
+This method of intensified study is to be commended; indeed, it is
+essential to the development of scientific truth.  Those persons who
+can read only a limited number of books and those students who can take
+only a limited number of courses of study need books which present a
+connected survey of the movement of social progress as a whole, and
+which blaze a trail through the accumulation of learning, and give an
+adequate perspective of human achievement.
+
+It is hoped, then, that this book will form the basis of a course of
+reading or study that will give the picture in small compass of this
+most fascinating subject.  If it serves its purpose well, it will be
+the introduction to more special study in particular fields or periods.
+
+That the story of this book may be always related more closely with the
+knowledge and experience of the individual reader, questions and
+problems have been added at the conclusion of each chapter, which may
+be used as subjects for {vi} discussion or topics for themes. For those
+who wish to pursue some particular phase of the subject a brief list of
+books has been selected which may profitably be read more intensively.
+
+F. W. B.
+
+
+
+
+{vii}
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+_PART I_
+
+CIVILIZATION AND PROGRESS
+
+CHAPTER                                                          PAGE
+
+I.  WHAT IS CIVILIZATION?  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .      3
+
+The human trail.  Civilization may be defined.  The material evidences
+of civilization are all around us.  Primitive man faced an unknown
+world.  Civilization is expressed in a variety of ways.  Modern
+civilization includes some fundamentals.  Progress an essential
+characteristic of civilization.  Diversity is necessary to progress.
+What is the goal of civilized man? Possibilities of civilization.
+Civilization can be estimated.
+
+
+II.  THE ESSENTIALS OF PROGRESS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .     18
+
+How mankind goes forward on the trail.  Change is not necessarily
+progress.  Progress expresses itself in a variety of ideals and aims.
+Progress of the part and progress of the whole.  Social progress
+involves individual development.  Progress is enhanced by the
+interaction of groups and races.  The study of uncultured races of
+to-day.  The study of prehistoric types.  Progress is indicated by
+early cultures.  Industrial and social life of primitive man.  Cultures
+indicate the mental development of the race.  Men of genius cause
+mutations which permit progress.  The data of progress.
+
+
+III.  METHODS OF RECOUNTING HUMAN PROGRESS . . . . . . . . . .     35
+
+Difficulty of measuring progress.  Progress may be measured by the
+implements used.  The development of art.  Progress is estimated by
+economic stages.  Progress is through the food-supply.  Progress
+estimated by the different forms of social order.  Development of
+family life.  The growth of political life.  Religion important in
+civilization.  Progress through moral evolution.  Intellectual
+development of man.  Change from savagery to barbarism.  Civilization
+includes all kinds of human progress.  Table showing methods of
+recounting human progress.
+
+
+
+_PART II_
+
+FIRST STEPS OF PROGRESS
+
+IV.  PREHISTORIC MAN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .     57
+
+The origin of man has not yet been determined.  Methods of recounting
+prehistoric time: (1) geologic method, (2) paleontology, (3) anatomy,
+(4) cultures.  Prehistoric types of the human race.  The unity of the
+human race.  The primitive home of man may be determined in a general
+way.  The antiquity of man is shown in racial differentiation.  The
+evidences of man's ancient life in different localities: (1) caves, (2)
+shell mounds, (3) river and glacial drifts, (4) burial-mounds, (5)
+battle-fields and village sites, (6) lake-dwellings.  Knowledge of
+man's antiquity influences reflective thinking.
+
+
+{viii}
+
+V.  THE ECONOMIC FACTORS OF PROGRESS . . . . . . . . . . . . .     82
+
+The efforts of man to satisfy physical needs.  The attempt to satisfy
+hunger and protect from cold.  The methods of procuring food in
+primitive times.  The variety of food was constantly increased.  The
+food-supply was increased by inventions.  The discovery and use of
+fire.  Cooking added to the economy of the food-supply.  The
+domestication of animals.  The beginnings of agriculture were very
+meagre.  The manufacture of clothing.  Primitive shelters and houses.
+Discovery and use of metals.  Transportation as a means of economic
+development.  Trade, or exchange of goods.  The struggle for existence
+develops the individual and the race.
+
+
+VI.  PRIMITIVE SOCIAL LIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    108
+
+The character of primitive social life.  The family is the most
+persistent of social origins.  Kinship is a strong factor in social
+organization.  The earliest form of social order.  The reign of custom.
+The Greek and Roman family was strongly organized.  In primitive
+society religion occupied a prominent place.  Spirit worship.  Moral
+conditions.  Warfare and social progress.  Mutual aid developed slowly.
+
+
+
+_PART III_
+
+SEATS OF EARLY CIVILIZATION
+
+VII.  LANGUAGE AND ART AS A MEANS OF CULTURE AND
+      SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    121
+
+The origin of language has been a subject of controversy.  Language is
+an important social function.  Written language followed speech in
+order of development.  Phonetic writing was a step in advance of the
+ideograph.  The use of manuscripts and books made permanent records.
+Language is an instrument of culture.  Art as a language of aesthetic
+ideas.  Music is a form of language.  The dance as a means of dramatic
+expression.  The fine arts follow the development of language.  The
+love of the beautiful slowly develops.
+
+
+VIII.  THE INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL NATURE ON HUMAN PROGRESS  . .    141
+
+Man is a part of universal nature.  Favorable location is necessary for
+permanent civilization.  The nature of the soil an essential condition
+of progress.  The use of land the foundation of social order.  Climate
+has much to do with the possibilities of progress.  The general aspects
+of nature determine the type of civilization.  Physical nature
+influences social order.
+
+
+IX.  CIVILIZATION OF THE ORIENT  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    152
+
+The first nations with historical records in Asia and Africa.
+Civilization in Mesopotamia.  Influences coming from the Far East.
+Egypt becomes a centre of civilization.  The coming of the Semites.
+The Phoenicians became the great navigators.  A comparison of the
+Egyptian and Babylonian empires.  The Hebrews made a permanent
+contribution to world civilization.  The civilization of India and
+China.  The coming of the Aryans.
+
+
+X.  THE ORIENTAL TYPE OF CIVILIZATION  . . . . . . . . . . . .    170
+
+The governments of the early Oriental civilizations.  War existed for
+conquest and plunder.  Religious belief was an important factor in
+despotic {ix} government.  Social organization was incomplete.
+Economic influences.  Records, writing, and paper.  The beginnings of
+science were strong in Egypt, weak in Babylon.  The contribution to
+civilization.
+
+
+XI.  BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION IN AMERICA . . . . . . . . . .    186
+
+America was peopled from the Old World.  The Incas of Peru.  Aztec
+civilization in Mexico.  The earliest centres of civilization in
+Mexico.  The Pueblo Indians of the Southwest.  The Mound-Builders of
+the Mississippi Valley.  Other types of Indian life.  Why did the
+civilization of America fail?
+
+
+
+_PART IV_
+
+WESTERN CIVILIZATION
+
+XII.  THE OLD GREEK LIFE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    205
+
+The old Greek life was the starting-point of Western civilization.  The
+Aegean culture preceded the coming of the Greeks.  The Greeks were of
+Aryan stock.  The coming of the Greeks.  Character of the primitive
+Greeks.  Influence of old Greek life.
+
+
+XIII.  GREEK PHILOSOPHY  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    215
+
+The transition from theology to inquiry.  Explanation of the universe
+by observation and inquiry.  The Ionian philosophy turned the mind
+toward nature.  The weakness of Ionian philosophy.  The Eleatic
+philosophers.  The Sophists.  Socrates the first moral philosopher (b.
+469 B.C.).  Platonic philosophy develops the ideal.  Aristotle the
+master mind of the Greeks.  Other schools.  Results obtained in Greek
+philosophy.
+
+
+XIV.  THE GREEK SOCIAL POLITY  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    229
+
+The struggle for Greek equality and liberty.  The Greek government an
+expanded family.  Athenian government a type of Grecian democracy.
+Constitution of Solon seeks a remedy.  Cleisthenes continues the
+reforms of Solon.  Athenian democracy failed in obtaining its best and
+highest development.  The Spartan state differs from all others.  Greek
+colonization spreads knowledge.  The conquests of Alexander.
+Contributions of Greece to civilization.
+
+
+XV.  ROMAN CIVILIZATION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    250
+
+The Romans differed in nature from the Greeks.  The social structure of
+early Rome and that of early Greece.  Civil organization of Rome.  The
+struggle for liberty.  The development of government.  The development
+of law is the most remarkable phase of the Roman civilization.
+Influence of the Greek life on Rome.  Latin literature and language.
+Development of Roman art.  Decline of the Roman Empire.  Summary of
+Roman civilization.
+
+
+XVI.  THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    268
+
+Important factors in the foundation of Western civilization.  The
+social contacts of the Christian religion.  Social conditions at the
+beginning of the Christian era.  The contact of Christianity with
+social life.  Christianity influenced the legislation of the times.
+Christians come into conflict with civil authority.  The wealth of the
+church accumulates.  Development of the hierarchy.  Attempt to dominate
+the temporal powers.  Dogmatism.  The church becomes the conservator of
+knowledge.  Service of Christianity.
+
+
+{x}
+
+XVII.  TEUTONIC INFLUENCE ON CIVILIZATION  . . . . . . . . . .    281
+
+The coming of the barbarians.  Importance of Teutonic influence.
+Teutonic liberty.  Tribal life.  Classes of society.  The home and the
+home life.  Political assemblies.  General social customs.  The
+economic life.  Contributions to law.
+
+
+XVIII.  FEUDAL SOCIETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    294
+
+Feudalism a transition of social order.  There are two elementary
+sources of feudalism.  The feudal system in its developed state based
+on land-holding.  Other elements of feudalism.  The rights of
+sovereignty.  The classification of feudal society.  Progress of
+feudalism.  State of society under feudalism.  Lack of central
+authority in feudal society.  Individual development in the dominant
+group.
+
+
+XIX.  ARABIAN CONQUEST AND CULTURE . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    304
+
+The rise and expansion of the Arabian Empire.  The religious zeal of
+the Arab-Moors.  The foundations of science and art.  The beginnings of
+chemistry and medicine.  Metaphysics and exact science.  Geography and
+history.  Discoveries, inventions, and achievements.  Language and
+literature.  Art and architecture.  The government of the Arab-Moors
+was peculiarly centralized.  Arabian civilization soon reached its
+limits.
+
+
+XX.  THE CRUSADES STIR THE EUROPEAN MIND . . . . . . . . . . .    319
+
+What brought about the crusades.  Specific causes of the crusades.
+Unification of ideals and the breaking of feudalism.  The development
+of monarchy.  The crusades quickened intellectual development.  The
+commercial effects of the crusades.  General influence of the crusades
+on civilization.
+
+
+XXI.  ATTEMPTS AT POPULAR GOVERNMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . .    328
+
+The cost of popular government.  The feudal lord and the towns.  The
+rise of free cities.  The struggle for independence.  The
+affranchisement of cities developed municipal organization.  The
+Italian cities.  Government of Venice.  Government of Florence.  The
+Lombard League.  The rise of popular assemblies in France.  Rural
+communes arose in France.  The municipalities of France.  The
+States-General was the first central organization.  Failure of attempts
+at popular government in Spain.  Democracy in the Swiss cantons.  The
+ascendancy of monarchy.  Beginning of constitutional liberty in England.
+
+
+XXII.  THE INTELLECTUAL AWAKENING OF EUROPE  . . . . . . . . .    347
+
+Social evolution is dependent upon variation.  The revival of progress
+throughout Europe.  The revival of learning a central idea of progress.
+Influence of Charlemagne.  The attitude of the church was
+retrogressive.  Scholastic philosophy marks a step in progress.
+Cathedral and monastic schools.  The rise of universities.  Failure to
+grasp scientific methods.  Inventions and discoveries.  The extension
+of commerce hastened progress.
+
+
+XXIII.  HUMANISM AND THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING . . . . . . . . .    364
+
+The discovery of manuscripts.  Who were the humanists?  Relation of
+humanism to language and literature.  Art and architecture.  The effect
+of humanism on social manners.  Relation of humanism to science and
+philosophy.  The study of the classics became fundamental in education.
+General influence of humanism.
+
+
+{xi}
+
+XXIV.  THE REFORMATION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    375
+
+The character of the Reformation.  Signs of the rising storm.  Attempts
+at reform within the church.  Immediate causes of the Reformation.
+Luther was the hero of the Reformation in Germany.  Zwingli was the
+hero of the Reformation in Switzerland.  Calvin establishes the Genevan
+system.  The Reformation in England differed from the German.  Many
+phases of reformation in other countries.  Results of the Reformation
+were far-reaching.
+
+
+XXV.  CONSTITUTIONAL LIBERTY AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION . . . .    392
+
+Progress of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.  The struggle of
+monarchy with democracy.  Struggle for constitutional liberty in
+England.  The place of France in modern civilization.  The divine right
+of kings.  The power of the nobility.  The misery of the people.  The
+church.  Influence of the philosophers.  The failure of government.
+France on the eve of the revolution.  The revolution.  Results of the
+revolution.
+
+
+
+_PART V_
+
+MODERN PROGRESS
+
+XXVI.  PROGRESS OF POLITICAL LIBERTY . . . . . . . . . . . . .    413
+
+Political liberty in the eighteenth century.  The progress of popular
+government found outside of great nations.  Reform measures in England.
+The final triumph of the French republic.  Democracy in America.
+Modern political reforms.  Republicanism in other countries.  Influence
+of democracy on monarchy.
+
+
+XXVII.  INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    429
+
+Industries radiate from the land as a centre.  The early medieval
+methods of industry.  The beginnings of trade.  Expansion of trade and
+transportation.  Invention and discoveries.  The change from handcraft
+to power manufacture.  The industrial revolution.  Modern industrial
+development.  Scientific agriculture.  The building of the city.
+Industry and civilization.
+
+
+XXVIII.  SOCIAL EVOLUTION  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    443
+
+The evolutionary processes of society.  The social individual.  The
+ethnic form of society.  The territorial group.  The national group
+founded on race expansion.  The functions of new groups.  Great society
+and the social order.  Great society protects voluntary organizations.
+The widening influence of the church.  Growth of religious toleration.
+Altruism and democracy.  Modern society a machine of great complexity.
+Interrelation of different parts of society.  The progress of the race
+based on social opportunities.  The central idea of modern civilization.
+
+
+XXIX.  THE EVOLUTION OF SCIENCE  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    458
+
+Science is an attitude of mind toward life.  Scientific methods.
+Measurement in scientific research.  Science develops from centres.
+Science and democracy.  The study of the biological and physical
+sciences.  The evolutionary theory.  Science and war.  Scientific
+progress is cumulative.  The trend of scientific investigation.
+Research foundations.
+
+
+{xii}
+
+XXX.  UNIVERSAL EDUCATION AND DEMOCRACY  . . . . . . . . . . .    475
+
+Universal public education is a modern institution.  The mediaeval
+university permitted some freedom of choice.  The English and German
+universities.  Early education in the United States.  The common, or
+public, schools.  Knowledge, intelligence, and training necessary in a
+democracy.  Education has been universalized.  Research an educational
+process.  The diffusion of knowledge necessary in a democracy.
+Educational progress.  Importance of state education.  The
+printing-press and its products.  Public opinion.
+
+
+XXXI.  WORLD ECONOMICS AND POLITICS  . . . . . . . . . . . . .    486
+
+Commerce and communication.  Exchange of ideas modifies political
+organization.  Spread of political ideas.  The World War breaks down
+the barriers of thought.  Attempt to form a league for permanent peace.
+International agreement and progress.  The mutual aid of nations.
+Reorganization of international law.  The outlook for a world state.
+
+
+XXXII.  THE TREND OF CIVILIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES . . . .    495
+
+The economic outlook.  Economics of labor.  Public and corporate
+industries.  The political outlook.  Equalization of opportunity.  The
+influence of scientific thought on progress.  The relation of material
+comfort to spiritual progress.  The balance of social forces.
+Restlessness vs. happiness.  Summary of progress.
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    504
+
+INDEX  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .    509
+
+
+
+
+{3}
+
+_PART I_
+
+CIVILIZATION AND PROGRESS
+
+
+HISTORY OF HUMAN SOCIETY
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+WHAT IS CIVILIZATION?
+
+_The Human Trail_.--The trail of human life beginning in the mists of
+the past, winding through the ages and stretching away toward an
+unknown future, is a subject of perennial interest and worthy of
+profound thought.  No other great subject so invites the attention of
+the mind of man.  It is a very long trail, rough and unblazed,
+wandering over the continents of the earth.  Those who have travelled
+it came in contact with the mysteries of an unknown world.  They faced
+the terrors of the shifting forms of the earth, of volcanoes,
+earthquakes, floods, storms, and ice fields.  They witnessed the
+extinction of forests and animal groups, and the changing forms of
+lakes, rivers, and mountains, and, indeed, the boundaries of oceans.
+
+It is the trail of human events and human endeavor on which man
+developed his physical powers, enlarged his brain capacity, developed
+and enriched his mind, and became efficient through art and industry.
+Through inventions and discovery he turned the forces of nature to his
+use, making them serve his will.  In association with his fellows, man
+learned that mutual aid and co-operation were necessary to the survival
+of the race.  To learn this caused him more trouble than all the
+terrors and mysteries of the natural world around him.  Connected with
+the trail is a long chain of causes and effects, trial and error,
+success and failure, out of which has come the advancement of the race.
+The accumulated results of life on the trail are called _civilization_.
+
+_Civilization May Be Defined_.--To know what civilization is by study
+and observation is better than to rely upon a formal {4} definition.
+For, indeed, the word is used in so many different ways that it admits
+of a loose interpretation.  For instance, it may be used in a narrow
+sense to indicate the character and quality of the civil relations.
+Those tribes or nations having a well-developed social order, with
+government, laws, and other fixed social customs, are said to be
+civilized, while those peoples without these characters are assumed to
+be uncivilized.  It may also be considered in a somewhat different
+sense, when the arts, industries, sciences, and habits of life are
+stimulated--civilization being determined by the degree in which these
+are developed.  Whichever view is accepted, it involves a contrast of
+present ideals with past ideals, of an undeveloped with a developed
+state of human progress.
+
+But whatever notion we have of civilization, it is difficult to draw a
+fixed line between civilized and uncivilized peoples.  Mr. Lewis H.
+Morgan, in his _Ancient Society_, asserts that civilization began with
+the phonetic alphabet, and that all human activity prior to this could
+be classified as savagery or barbarism.  But there is a broader
+conception of civilization which recognizes all phases of human
+achievement, from the making of a stone axe to the construction of the
+airplane; from the rude hut to the magnificent palace; from crude moral
+and religious conditions to the more refined conditions of human
+association.  If we consider that civilization involves the whole
+process of human achievement, it must admit of a great variety of
+qualities and degrees of development, hence it appears to be a relative
+term applied to the variation of human life.  Thus, the Japanese are
+highly civilized along special lines of hand work, hand industry, and
+hand art, as well as being superior in some phases of family
+relationships.  So we might say of the Chinese, the East Indians, and
+the American Indians, that they each have well-established customs,
+habits of thought, and standards of life, differing from other nations,
+expressing different types of civilization.
+
+When a member of a primitive tribe invented the bow-and-arrow, or began
+to chip a flint nodule in order to make a stone {5} axe, civilization
+began.  As soon as people began to co-operate with one another in
+obtaining food, building houses, or for protection against wild animals
+and wild men, that is, when they began to treat each other civilly,
+they were becoming civilized.  We may say then in reality that
+civilization has been a continuous process from the first beginning of
+man's conquest of himself and nature to the modern complexities of
+social life with its multitude of products of industry and cultural
+arts.
+
+It is very common for one group or race to assume to be highly
+civilized and call the others barbarians or savages.  Thus the Hebrews
+assumed superiority when they called other people Gentiles, and the
+Greeks when they called others barbarians.  Indeed, it is only within
+recent years that we are beginning to recognize that the civilizations
+of China, Japan, and India have qualities worth studying and that they
+may have something worth while in life that the Western civilization
+has not.  Also there has been a tendency to confuse the terms Christian
+and heathen with civilized and uncivilized.  This idea arose in
+England, where, in the early history of Christianity, the people of the
+towns were more cultured than the people of the country.
+
+It happened, too, that the townspeople received Christianity before the
+people of the country, hence heathens were the people who dwelt out on
+the heath, away from town.  This local idea became a world idea when
+all non-Christian peoples were called uncivilized.  It is a fatal error
+for an individual, neighborhood, tribe, or nation to assume superiority
+to the extent that it fails to recognize good qualities in others.  One
+should not look with disdain upon a tribe of American Indians, calling
+them uncivilized because their material life is simple, when in reality
+in point of honor, faithfulness, and courage they excel a large
+proportion of the races assuming a higher civilization.
+
+_The Material Evidences of Civilization Are All Around Us_.--Behold
+this beautiful valley of the West, with its broad, {6} fertile fields,
+yielding rich harvests of corn and wheat, and brightened by varied
+forms of fruit and flower.  Farmhouses and schoolhouses dot the
+landscape, while towns and cities, with their marts of trade and busy
+industries, rise at intervals.  Here are churches, colleges, and
+libraries, indicative of the education of the community; courthouses,
+prisons, and jails, which speak of government, law, order, and
+protection.  Here are homes for the aged and weak, hospitals and
+schools for the defective, almshouses for the indigent, and
+reformatories for the wayward.  Railroads bind together all parts of
+the nation, making exchange possible, and bringing to our doors the
+products of every clime.  The telephone and the radio unite distant
+people with common knowledge, thought, and sentiment.  Factories and
+mills line the streams or cluster in village and city, marking the busy
+industrial life.  These and more mark the visible products of
+civilization.
+
+But civilization is something more than form, it is spirit; and its
+evidence may be more clearly discerned in the co-operation of men in
+political organization and industrial life, by their united action in
+religious worship and charitable service, in social order and
+educational advancement.  Observe, too, the happy homes, with all of
+their sweet and hallowed influences, and the social mingling of the
+people searching for pleasure or profit in their peaceful, harmonious
+association.  Witness the evidences of accumulated knowledge in
+newspapers, periodicals, and books, and the culture of painting,
+poetry, and music.  Behold, too, the achievements of the mind in the
+invention and discovery of the age; steam and electrical appliances
+that cause the whirl of bright machinery, that turn night into day, and
+make thought travel swift as the wings of the wind!  Consider the
+influence of chemistry, biology, and medicine on material welfare, and
+the discoveries of the products of the earth that subserve man's
+purpose!  And the central idea of all this is man, who walks upright in
+the dignity and grace of his own manhood, surrounded by the evidence of
+his own achievements.  His knowledge, his power of thought, {7} his
+moral character, and his capacity for living a large life, are
+evidences of the real civilization.  For individual culture is, after
+all, the flower and fruit, the beauty and strength of civilization.
+
+One hundred years ago neither dwelling, church, nor city greeted the
+eye that gazed over the broad expanse of the unfilled prairies.  Here
+were no accumulations of wealth, no signs of human habitation, except a
+few Indians wandering in groups or assembled in their wigwam villages.
+The evidences of art and industry were meagre, and of accumulated
+knowledge small, because the natives were still the children of nature
+and had gone but a little way in the mastery of physical forces or in
+the accumulation of knowledge.  The relative difference in their
+condition and that of those that followed them is the contrast between
+barbarism and civilization.
+
+Yet how rapid was the change that replaced the latter with the former.
+Behold great commonwealths built in half a century!  What is the secret
+of this great and marvellous change?  It is a transplanted
+civilization, not an indigenous one.  Men came to this fertile valley
+with the spiritual and material products of modern life, the outcome of
+centuries of progress.  They brought the results of man's struggle,
+with himself and with nature, for thousands of years.  This made it
+possible to build a commonwealth in half a century.  The first settlers
+brought with them a knowledge of the industrial arts; the theory and
+practice of social order; individual capacity, and a thirst for
+education.  It was necessary only to set up the machinery already
+created, and civilization went forward.  When they began the life of
+labor, the accumulated wealth of the whole world was to be had in
+exchange for the products of the soil.
+
+_Primitive Man Faced an Unknown World_.--But how different is the
+picture of primitive man suddenly brought face to face with an unknown
+world.  With no knowledge of nature or art, with no theory or practice
+of social order, he began to dig and to delve for the preservation of
+life.  Suffering the pangs of hunger, he obtained food; naked, he
+clothed himself; {8} buffeted by storm and wind and scorched by the
+penetrating rays of the sun, he built himself a shelter.  As he
+gradually became skilled in the industrial arts, his knowledge
+increased.  He formed a clearer estimate of how nature might serve him,
+and obtained more implements with which to work
+
+The social order of the family and the state slowly appeared.  Man
+became a co-operating creature, working with his fellows in the
+satisfaction of material wants and in protecting the rights of
+individuals.  Slow and painful was this process of development, but as
+he worked his capacity enlarged, his power increased, until he mastered
+the forces of nature and turned them to serve him; he accumulated
+knowledge and brought forth culture and learning; he marshalled the
+social forces in orderly process.  Each new mastery of nature or self
+was a power for the future, for civilization is cumulative in its
+nature; it works in a geometrical progression.  An idea once formed,
+others follow; one invention leads to another, and each material form
+of progress furnishes a basis for a more rapid progress and for a
+larger life.  The discovery and use of a new food product increased the
+power of civilization a hundredfold.  One step in social order leads to
+another, and thus is furnished a means of utilizing without waste all
+of the individual and social forces.
+
+Yet how irregular and faltering are the first steps of human progress.
+A step forward, followed by a long period of readjustment of the
+conditions of life; a movement forward here and a retarding force
+there.  Within this irregular movement we discover the true course of
+human progress.  One tribe, on account of peculiar advantages, makes a
+special discovery, which places it in the ascendancy and gives it power
+over others.  It has obtained a favorable location for protection
+against oppressors or a fertile soil, a good hunting ground or a
+superior climate.  It survives all opposing factors for a time, and,
+obtaining some idea of progress, it goes on adding strength unto
+strength, or is crowded from its favorable position by its warlike
+neighbors to perish from the earth, or to live a {9} stationary or even
+a deteriorating life.  A strong tribe, through internal development and
+the domination of other groups, finally becomes a great nation in an
+advanced state of civilization.  It passes through the course of
+infancy, youth, maturity, old age, and death.  But the products of its
+civilization are handed on to other nations.  Another rises and, when
+about to enter an advanced state of progress, perishes on account of
+internal maladies.  It is overshadowed with despotism, oppressed by
+priestcraft, or lacking industrial vitality to such a degree that it is
+forced to surrender the beginnings of civilization to other nations and
+other lives.
+
+The dominance of a group is dependent in part on the natural or
+inherent qualities of mind and body of its members, which give it power
+to achieve by adapting itself to conditions of nature and in mastering
+and utilizing natural resources.  Thus the tribe that makes new devices
+for procuring food or new weapons for defense, or learns how to sow
+seeds and till the soil, adds to its means of survival and progress and
+thus forges ahead of those tribes lacking in these means.  Also the
+social heritage or the inheritance of all of the products of industry
+and arts of life which are passed on from generation to generation, is
+essential to the rapid development of civilization.
+
+_Civilization Is Expressed in a Variety of Ways_.--Different ideals and
+the adaptation to different environment cause different types of life.
+The ideals of the Persian, the Greek, the Roman, and the Teuton varied.
+Still greater is the contrast between these and the Chinese and the
+Egyptian ideals.  China boasts of an ancient civilization that had its
+origin long before the faint beginnings of Western nations, and the
+Chinese are firm believers in their own culture and superior
+advancement.  The silent grandeur of the pyramids and temples of the
+Nile valley bespeak a civilization of great maturity, that did much for
+the world in general, but little for the Egyptian people.  Yet these
+types of civilization are far different from that of Western nations.
+Their ideas of culture are in great contrast to our own.  But even the
+Western nations are not uniform in {10} ideals of civil life nor in
+their practice of social order.  They are not identical in religious
+life, and their ideals of art and social progress vary.
+
+Moreover, the racial type varies somewhat and with it the national life
+and thought.  Compare England, Germany, France, and Spain as to the
+variability in characteristics of literature and art, in moral ideals,
+in ethical practice, in religious motive, and in social order.  Their
+differences are evident, but they tend to disappear under the influence
+of rapid transit and close intercommunication, which draw all modern
+nations nearer together.  Yet, granting the variability of ideals and
+of practice, there is a general consensus of opinion as to what
+constitutes civilization and what are the elements of progress.  Modern
+writers differ somewhat in opinion as to elements of civilization, but
+these differences are more apparent than real, as all true civilization
+must rest upon a solid foundation of common human traits.  The
+fundamental principles and chief characteristics are quite uniform for
+all nations and for all times, and writers who disagree as to general
+characteristics may not be classified by national boundaries; they
+represent the differences of philosophers.
+
+_Modern Civilization Includes Some Fundamentals_.--As applied at
+different periods of the world's progress and as a representation of
+different phases of life, civilization means more to-day than ever
+before; its ideal is higher, its conception broader.  In the modern,
+accepted sense it includes (1) _a definite knowledge of man and
+nature_.  The classified knowledge of science and philosophy and all
+phases of the history of man socially and individually are important in
+estimating his true progress.  All forms of thought and life are to be
+estimated in considering the full meaning of the term.  It also
+includes (2) _progress in art_.  While science deals with principles,
+art deals with rules of action.  Science gives classified knowledge,
+while art directs to a practical end.  Art provides definite plans how
+to operate.  If these plans are carried out, the field of practice is
+entered.  In its broadest conception art includes the making {11} and
+the doing, as well as the plan.  The fine arts and the industrial or
+practical arts, in all of their varied interests, are included in art
+as a factor in civilization.  This category should include the highest
+forms of painting, poetry, sculpture, and music, as well as the lowest
+forms of industrial implements.
+
+Civilization includes (3) _a well-developed ethical code_ quite
+universally observed by a community or nation.  The rule of conduct of
+man toward himself and toward his fellows is one of the essential
+points of discrimination between barbarism and civilization.  While
+ethical practice began at a very early period in the progress of man,
+it was a long time before any distinct ethical code became established.
+But the completed civilization does not exist until a high order of
+moral practice obtains; no civilization can long prevail without it.
+Of less importance, but of no less binding force, is (4) the _social
+code_, which represents the forms and conventionalities of society,
+built, it is true, largely upon the caprices of fashion, and varying
+greatly in different communities, yet more arbitrary, if possible, than
+the moral code.  It considers fitness and consistency in conduct, and
+as such is an important consideration in social usage and social
+progress.  In Europe it has its extreme in the court etiquette; in
+America, in the punctiliousness of the higher social classes of our
+large cities.  But it affects all communities, and its observance may
+be noted in rural districts as well as in the city population.
+
+The mores, or customs, of man began at a very early time and have been
+a persistent ruling power in human conduct.  Through tradition they are
+handed down from generation to generation, to be observed with more or
+less fidelity as a guide to the art of living.  Every community,
+whether primitive or developed, is controlled to a great extent by the
+prevailing custom.  It is common for individuals and families to do as
+their ancestors did.  This habit is frequently carried to such an
+extent that the deeds of the fathers are held sacred from which no one
+dare to depart.  Isolated communities continue year after year to do
+things because they had always done so, {12} holding strictly to the
+ruling custom founded on tradition, even when some better way was at
+hand.  A rare example of this human trait is given by Captain Donald
+MacMillan, who recently returned from Arctic Greenland.  He said: "We
+took two ultra-modern developments, motion pictures and radio, direct
+to a people who live and think as their ancestors did two thousand
+years ago."  He was asked: "What did they think?"  He replied: "I do
+not know."  Probably it was a case of wonder without thought.  While
+this is a dominant force which makes for the unity and perpetuity of
+the group, it is only by departure from established tradition that
+progress is made possible.
+
+Civilization involves (5) _government and law_.  The tribes and nations
+in a state of barbarism lived under the binding influence of custom.
+In this period people were born under _status_, or condition, not under
+law.  Gradually the old family life expanded into the state, and
+government became more formal.  Law appeared as the expression of the
+will of the people directly or indirectly through their
+representatives.  True, it may have been the arbitrary ruling of a
+king, but he represented the unity of the race and spoke with the
+authority of the nation.  Law found no expression until there was
+formed an organic community capable of having a will respecting the
+control of those who composed it.  It implies a governing body and a
+body governed; it implies an orderly movement of society according to a
+rule of action called law.  While social order is generally obtained
+through law and government, such is the practice in modern life that
+the orderly association of men in trade and commerce and in daily
+contact appears to stand alone and to rise above the control of the
+law.  Indeed, in a true civilization, the civil code, though an
+essential factor, seems to be outclassed by the higher social instincts
+based on the practice of social order.
+
+(6) _Religion_ must take a large place as a factor in the development
+of civilization.  The character of the religious belief of man is, to a
+certain extent, the true test of his progressive {13} nature.  His
+faith may prove a source of inspiration to reason and progressive life;
+it may prove the opposite, and lead to stagnation and retrogression.
+Upon the whole, it must be insisted that religious belief has subserved
+a large purpose in the economy of human progress.  It has been
+universal to all tribes, for even the lowest have some form of
+religious belief--at least, a belief in spiritual beings.  Religious
+belief thus became the primary source of abstract ideas, and it has
+always been conducive to social order.  It has, in modern times
+especially, furnished the foundation of morality.  By surrounding
+marriage with ceremonies it has purified the home life, upheld the
+authority of the family, and thus strengthened social order.  It has
+developed the individual by furnishing an ideal before science and
+positive knowledge made it possible.  It strengthened patriotic feeling
+on account of service rendered in supporting local government, and
+subjectively religion improved man by teaching him to obey a superior.
+Again, by its tradition it frequently stifled thought and retarded
+progress.
+
+Among other elements of civilization must be mentioned (7) _social
+well-being_.  The preceding conditions would be almost certain to
+insure social well-being and prosperity.  Yet it might be possible,
+through lack of harmony of these forces, on account of their improper
+distribution in a community, that the group might lack in general
+social prosperity.  Unless there is general contentment and happiness
+there cannot be said to be an ideal state of civilization.  And this
+social well-being is closely allied to (8) _material prosperity_, the
+most apparent element to be mentioned in the present analysis.  The
+amount of the accumulation of the wealth of a nation, its distribution
+among the people, and the manner in which it is obtained and expended,
+determine the state of civilization.  This material prosperity makes
+the better phases of civilization possible.  It is essential to modern
+progress, and our civilization should seek to render it possible for
+all classes to earn their bread and to have leisure and opportunity for
+self-culture.
+
+The mastery of the forces of nature is the basis for man's {14}
+material prosperity.  Touching nature here and there, by discovery,
+invention, and toil, causing her to yield her treasures for his
+service, is the key to all progress.  In this, it is not so much
+conflict with nature as co-operation with her, that yields utility and
+eventually mastery.  The discovery and use of new food products, the
+coal and other minerals of the earth, the forests, the water power and
+electric power, coupled with invention and adaptability to continually
+greater use, are the qualifying opportunity for advancement.  Without
+these the fine theories of the philosopher, exalted religious belief,
+and high ideals of life are of no avail.
+
+From the foregoing it may be said that civilization in its fulness
+means all of the acquired capabilities of man as evidenced by his
+conduct and the material products arising from his physical and mental
+exertion.  It is evident that at first the structure called
+civilization began to develop very slowly and very feebly; just when it
+began it is difficult to state.  The creation of the first utility, the
+first substantial movement to increase the food supply, the first home
+for protection, the first religious ceremony, or the first organized
+household, represents the beginnings of civilization, and these are the
+landmarks along the trail of man's ascendency.
+
+_Progress Is an Essential Characteristic of Civilization_.--The goal is
+never reached, the victory is never finally achieved.  Man must move
+on, ever on.  Intellect must develop, morals improve, liberty increase,
+social order be perfected, and social growth continue.  There must be
+no halting on the road; the nation that hesitates is lost.  Progress in
+general is marked by the development of the individual, on the one
+hand, and that of society, on the other.  In well-ordered society these
+two ideas are balanced; they seek an equilibrium.  Excessive
+individualism leads to anarchy and destruction; excessive socialism
+blights and stagnates individual activity and independence and retards
+progress.  It must be admitted here as elsewhere that the individual
+culture and the individual life are, after all, the highest aims.  But
+how can these be obtained in {15} modern life without social progress?
+How can there be freedom of action for the development of the
+individual powers without social expansion?  Truly, the social and the
+individual life are complementary elements of progress.
+
+_Diversity Is Necessary to Progress_.--If progress is an essential
+characteristic of modern civilization, it may be said that diversity is
+essential to progress.  There is much said about equality and
+fraternity.  It depends on what is meant by the terms as to whether
+these are good sayings or not.  If equality means uniformity, by it man
+is easily reduced to a state of stagnation.  Diversity of life exists
+everywhere in progressive nature, where plants or animals move forward
+in the scale of existence.  Man is not an exception to the rule,
+notwithstanding his strong will force.  Men differ in strength, in
+moral and intellectual capacity, and in co-operating ability.  Hence
+they must occupy different stations in life.  And the quality and
+quantity of progress are to be estimated in different nations according
+to the diversity of life to be observed among individuals and groups.
+
+_What Is the Goal of Civilized Man?_--And it may be well to ask, as
+civilization is progressive: What is our aim in life from our own
+standpoint?  For what do men strive?  What is the ultimate of life?
+What is the best for which humanity can live?  If it were merely to
+obtain food and clothes and nothing more, the question could be easily
+answered.  If it were merely to train a man to be a monk, that he might
+spend his time in prayer and supplication for a better future life, the
+question would be simple enough.  If to pore over books to find out the
+knowledge of the past and to spend the life in investigation of truth
+were the chief aims, it would be easy to determine the object of life.
+But frequently that which we call success in life is merely a means to
+an end.
+
+And viewed in the complex activity of society, it is difficult to say
+what is the true end of life; it is difficult to determine the true end
+of civilization.  Some have said it is found in administering the
+"greatest good to the greatest number," {16} and if we consider in this
+the generations yet unborn, it reveals the actual tendency of modern
+civilization.  If the perfection of the individual is the highest ideal
+of civilization, it stops not with one individual, but includes all.
+And this asserts that social well-being must be included in the final
+aim, for full and free individual development cannot appear without it.
+The enlarged capacity for living correctly, enjoying the best of this
+life righteously, and for associating harmoniously and justly with his
+fellows, is the highest aim of the individual.  Happiness of the
+greatest number through utility is the formula for modern civilization.
+
+_Possibilities of Civilization_.--The possibilities of reaching a still
+higher state of civilization are indeed great.  The future is not full
+of foreboding, but bright and happy with promise of individual culture
+and social progress.  If opportunities are but wisely used, the
+twentieth century will witness an advancement beyond our highest
+dreams.  Yet the whole problem hinges on the right use of knowledge.
+If the knowledge of chemistry is to be used to destroy nations and
+races with gases and high explosives, such knowledge turns civilization
+to destruction.  If all of the powers of nature under man's control
+should be turned against him, civilization would be turned back upon
+itself.  Let us have "the will to believe" that we have entered an era
+of vital progress, of social improvement, of political reforms, which
+will lead to the protection of those who need protection and the
+elevation of those who desire it.  The rapid progress in art and
+architecture, in invention and industry, the building of libraries and
+the diffusion of knowledge, the improvement of our educational system,
+all being entered upon, will force the world forward at a rapid pace,
+and on such a rational basis that the delight of living will be greatly
+enhanced for all classes.
+
+_Civilization Can Be Estimated_.--This brief presentation of the
+meaning of civilization reveals the fact that civilization can be
+recounted; that it is a question of fact and philosophy that can be
+measured.  It is the story of human progress and {17} the causes which
+made it.  It presents the generalizations of all that is valuable in
+the life of the race.  It is the epitome of the history of humanity in
+its onward sweep.  In its critical sense it cannot be called history,
+for it neglects details for general statements.  Nor is it the
+philosophy of history, for it covers a broader field.  It is not
+speculation, for it deals with fact.  It is the philosophy of man's
+life as to the results of his activity.  It shows alike the unfolding
+of the individual and of society, and it represents these in every
+phase embraced in the word "progress."  To recount this progress and to
+measure civilization is the purpose of the following pages, so far as
+it may be done in the limited space assigned.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Are people of civilized races happier now than are the uncivilized
+races?
+
+2.  Would the American Indians in time have developed a high state of
+civilization?
+
+3.  Why do we not find a high state of civilization among the African
+negroes?
+
+4.  What are the material evidences of civilization in the neighborhood
+in which you live?
+
+5.  Does increased knowledge alone insure an advanced civilization?
+
+6.  Choose an important public building in your neighborhood and trace
+the sources of architecture of the different parts.
+
+
+
+
+{18}
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE ESSENTIALS OF PROGRESS
+
+_How Mankind Goes Forward on the Trail_.--Although civilization cannot
+exist without it, progress is something different from the sum-total of
+the products of civilization.  It may be said to be the process through
+which civilization is obtained, or, perhaps more fittingly, it is the
+log of the course that marks civilization.  There can be no conception
+of progress without ideals, which are standards set up toward which
+humanity travels.  And as humanity never rises above its ideals, the
+possibilities of progress are limited by them.  If ideals are high,
+there are possibilities of a high state of culture; if they are low,
+the possibilities are lessened, and, indeed, frequently are barren of
+results.  But having established ideals as beacon lights for humanity
+to follow, the final test is whether there is sufficient knowledge,
+sufficient ability, and sufficient will-power to approximate them.  In
+other words, shall humanity complete the trail of life, go on higher
+and higher grounds where are set the standards or goals to be reached;
+or will humanity rest easily and contentedly on a low level with no
+attempt to reach a higher level, or, indeed, will humanity, failing in
+desires for betterment, initiative, and will-power, drift to lower
+levels?
+
+Groups, either tribes, races, or nations, may advance along given lines
+and be stationary or even retarded along other lines of development.
+If the accumulation of wealth is the dominant ideal, it may be so
+strenuously followed as to destroy opportunity for other phases of
+life.  If the flow of energy is all toward a religious belief that
+absorbs the time and energy of people in the building of pyramids,
+mausoleums, cathedrals, and mosques, and taboos the inquiry into nature
+{19} which might yield a large improvement in the race, religion would
+be developed at the expense of race improvement.
+
+_Change Is Not Necessarily Progress_.--It is quite common in a popular
+sense for people to identify change with progress, or indeed to accept
+the wonderful changes which take place as causes of progress, when in
+reality they should have taken more care to search out the elements of
+progress of the great moving panorama of changing life.  Changes are
+frequently violent, sudden, tremendous in their immediate effect.  They
+move rapidly and involve many complexes, but progress is a slow-going
+old tortoise that plods along irrespective of storm or sunshine, life
+or death, of the cataclysms of war or the catastrophes of earthquakes
+or volcanoes.  Progress moves slowly along through political and social
+revolutions, gaining a little here and a little there, and registering
+the things that are really worth while out of the ceaseless, changing
+humanity.
+
+Achievement may take place without betterment, but all progress must
+make a record of betterment with achievement.  A man may write a book
+or invent a machine at great labor.  So far as he is concerned it is an
+achievement, but unless it is a good book, a good invention, better
+than others, so that they may be used for the advancement of the race,
+they will not form a betterment.  Many of the changes of life represent
+the results of trial and error.  "There is a way that seemeth right" to
+a nation which may end in destruction.  The evil aroused is sometimes
+greater than the good.  The prosperity of the Roman Empire was
+destroyed because of luxury and corrupt administration.  The German
+Empire developed great powers in government, education, in the arts and
+sciences, but her military purpose nearly destroyed her.  The Spanish
+Empire that once controlled a good part of the American continent
+failed because laborers were driven out of Spain and the wealth gained
+by exploitation was used to support the nobility and royalty in luxury.
+Whether the United States will continue to carry out her high purposes
+will depend upon the right use of her immense wealth and power.
+Likewise the {20} radio, the movie, and the automobile are making
+tremendous changes.  Will the opportunities they furnish improve the
+moral and intellectual character of the people--a necessary condition
+to real progress?
+
+In considering modern progress, too frequently it is estimated by the
+greatness of things, by the stupendous changes, or by the marvellous
+achievements of the age, and we pause and wonder at what has been
+accomplished; but if we think long enough and clearly enough, we may
+get a vision of real progress, and we may find it difficult to
+determine the outcome of it all, so far as the real betterment of the
+race is concerned.  Is the millionaire of to-day any happier,
+necessarily, and any more moral or of a higher religious standard than
+the primitive man or the savage of the plains or forest of to-day?
+True, he has power to achieve in many directions, but is he any happier
+or better?  It may be said that his millions may accomplish great good.
+This is true if they are properly applied.  It is also true that they
+are capable of great harm if improperly used.
+
+As we stand and gaze at the movements of the airplane, or contemplate
+its rapid flight from ocean to ocean and from land to land around the
+world, we are impressed with this great wonder of the age, the great
+achievement of the inventive power of man.  But what of the gain to
+humanity?  If it is possible to transport the mails from New York to
+San Francisco in sixteen hours instead of in five days, is there
+advantage in that except the quickening process of transportation and
+life?  Is it not worth while to inquire what the man at the other end
+of the line is going to do by having his mail four days ahead?  He will
+hurry up somebody else and somebody else will hurry the next one, and
+we only increase the rapidity of motion.  Does it really give us more
+time for leisure, and if so, are we using that leisure time in the
+development of our reflective intellectual powers or our spiritual
+life?  It is easier to see improvement in the case of the radio,
+whereby songs and lectures can be broadcast all over the earth, and the
+{21} community of life and the community of interest are developed
+thereby, and, also, the leisure hours are devoted to a contemplation of
+high ideals, of beautiful music, of noble thoughts.  We do recognize a
+modicum of progress out of the great whirring, rapid changes in
+transportation and creative industry; but let us not be deceived by
+substituting change for progress, or making the two identical.
+
+Thus human progress is something more than achievement, and it is
+something more than the exhibition of tools.  It is determined by the
+use of the tools and involves betterment of the human race.  Hence, all
+the products of social heredity, of language, of science, of religion,
+of art, and of government are progressive in proportion as they are
+successfully used for individual and social betterment.  For if
+government is used to enslave people, or science to destroy them, or
+religion to stifle them, there can be no progress.
+
+_Progress Expresses Itself in a Variety of Ideals and Aims_.--Progress
+involves many lines of development.  It may include biological
+development of the human race, the development of man, especially his
+growth of brain power.  It may consider man's adaptation to environment
+under different phases of life.  It may consider the efficiency of
+bodily structure.  In a cultural sense, progress may refer to the
+products of the industrial arts, or to the development of fine arts, or
+the advancement of religious life and belief--in fact, to the mastery
+of the resources of nature and their service to mankind in whatever
+form they may appear or in whatever phase of life they may be
+expressed.  Progress may also be indicated in the improvement in social
+order and in government, and also the increased opportunity of the
+individual to receive culture through the process of mutual aid.  In
+fact, progress must be sought for in all phases of human activity.
+Whatever phase of progress is considered, its line of demarcation is
+carefully drawn in the process of change from the old to the new, but
+the results of these changes will be the indices of either progress or
+retardation.
+
+{22}
+
+_Progress of the Part and Progress of the Whole_.--An individual might
+through hereditary qualities have superior mental traits or physical
+powers.  These also may receive specific development under favorable
+educational environment, but the inertia of the group or the race might
+render ineffective a salutary use of his powers.  A man is sometimes
+elected mayor of a town and devotes his energies to municipal
+betterment.  But he may be surrounded by corrupt politicians and
+promoters of enterprises who hedge his way at every turn.  Also, in a
+similar way, a group or tribe may go forward, and yet the products of
+its endeavor be lost to the world.  Thus a productiveness of the part
+may be exhibited without the progress of the race.  The former moves
+with concrete limitations, the latter in sweeping, cycling changes; but
+the latter cannot exist without the former, because it is from the
+parts that the whole is created, and it is the generalization of the
+accumulated knowledge or activities of the parts that makes it possible
+for the whole to develop.
+
+The evolution of the human race includes the idea of differentiation of
+parts and a generalization that makes the whole of progress.  So it is
+not easy to determine the result of a local activity as progressive
+until its relation to other parts is determined, nor until other
+activities and the whole of life are determined.  Local colorings of
+life may be so provincial in their view-point as to be practically
+valueless in the estimation of the degree and quality of progress.
+Certain towns, especially in rural districts not acquainted with better
+things, boast that they have the best school, the best court-house, the
+best climate--in fact, everything best.  When they finally awaken from
+their local dream, they discover their own deficiencies.
+
+The great development of art, literature, philosophy, and politics
+among the ancient Greeks was inefficient in raising the great masses of
+the people to a higher plane of living, but the fruits of the lives of
+these superiors were handed on to other groups to utilize, and they are
+not without influence {23} over the whole human group of to-day.  So,
+too, the religious mystic philosophy and literature of India
+represented a high state of mental development, but the products of its
+existence left the races of India in darkness because the mystic
+philosophy was not adaptable to the practical affairs of life.  The
+Indian philosophers may have handed on ideas which caused admiration
+and wonder, but they have had very little influence of a practical
+nature on Western civilization.  So society may make progress in either
+art, religion, or government for a time, and then, for the want of
+adaptation to the conditions imposed by progress, the effects may
+disappear.  Yet not all is lost, for some achievements in the form of
+tools are passed on through social heredity and utilized by other
+races.  In the long run it is the total of the progress of the race,
+the progress of the whole, that is the final test.
+
+_Social Progress Involves Individual Development_.--If we trace
+progress backward over the trail which it has followed, there are two
+lines of development more or less clearly defined.  One is the
+improvement of the racial stock through the hereditary traits of
+individuals.  The brain is enlarged, the body developed in character
+and efficiency, and the entire physical system has changed through
+variation in accordance with the laws of heredity.  What we observe is
+development in the individual, which is its primary function.  Progress
+in this line must furnish individuals of a higher type in the
+procession of the generations.  The other line is through social
+heredity, that is the accumulated products of civilization handed down
+from generation to generation.  This gives each succeeding generation a
+new, improved kit of tools, it brings each new generation into a better
+environment and surrounds it with ready-made means to carry on the
+improvement and add something for the use of the next generation.
+Knowledge of the arts and industries, language and books, are thus
+products of social heredity.  Also buildings, machinery, roads,
+educational systems, and school buildings are inherited.
+
+Connected with these two methods of development must {24} be the
+discovery of the use of the human mind evidenced by the beginning of
+reflective thought.  It is said by some writers that we are still
+largely in the age of instincts and emotions and have just recently
+entered the age of reason.  Such positive statements should be
+considered with a wider vision of life, for one cannot conceive of
+civilization at all without the beginning of reflective mental
+processes.  Simple inventions, like the use of fire, the bow-and-arrow,
+or the flint knife, may have come about primarily through the desire to
+accomplish something by subjecting means to an end, but in the
+perfection of the use of these things, which occurred very early in
+primitive life, there must have been reflective thinking in order to
+shape the knife for its purpose, make the bow-and-arrow more effective,
+and utilize fire for cooking, heating, and smelting.  All of these must
+have come primarily through the individual initiative.
+
+Frequent advocates of social achievement would lead one to suppose that
+the tribe in need of some method of cutting should assemble and pass
+the resolution that a flint knife be made, when any one knows it was
+the reflective process of the individual mind which sought adaptation
+to environment or means to accomplish a purpose.  Of course the
+philosopher may read many generalizations into this which may confuse
+one in trying to observe the simple fact, for it is to be deplored that
+much of the philosophy of to-day is a smoke screen which obscures the
+simple truth.
+
+The difference of races in achievement and in culture is traced
+primarily to hereditary traits developed through variation, through
+intrinsic stimuli, or those originating through so-called inborn
+traits.  These traits enable some races to achieve and adapt themselves
+to their environment, and cause others to fail.  Thus, some groups or
+races have perished because of living near a swamp infested with
+malaria-carrying mosquitoes or in countries where the food supply was
+insufficient.  They lacked initiative to move to a more healthful
+region or one more bountiful in food products, or else they {25} lacked
+knowledge and skill to protect themselves against mosquitoes or to
+increase the food supply.  Moreover, they had no power within them to
+seek the better environment or to change the environment for their own
+advancement.  This does not ignore the tremendous influence of
+environment in the production of race culture.  Its influence is
+tremendous, especially because environmental conditions are more under
+the direction of intelligence than is the development of hereditary
+traits.
+
+Some writers have maintained that there is no difference in the
+dynamic, mental, or physical power of races, and that the difference of
+races which we observe to-day is based upon the fact that some have
+been retarded by poor environment, and others have advanced because of
+fortunate environment.  This argument is good as far as it goes, but it
+does not tell the whole story.  It does not show why some races under
+good environment have not succeeded, while others under poor
+environment have succeeded well.  It does not show why some races have
+the wit to change to a better environment or transform the old
+environment.
+
+There seems to be a great persistency of individual traits, of family
+traits, and, in a still larger generalization, of racial traits which
+culture fails to obliterate.  As these differences of traits seem to be
+universal, it appears that the particular combination which gives motor
+power may also be a differentiation.  At least, as all races have had
+the same earth, why, if they are so equal in the beginning, would they
+not achieve?  Had they no inventive power?  Also, when these so-called
+retarded races came in contact with the more advanced races who were
+superior in arts and industries, why did they not borrow, adapt, and
+utilize these productions?  There must have been something vitally
+lacking which neither the qualities of the individual nor the stimulus
+of his surroundings could overcome.  Some have deteriorated, others
+have perished; some have reached a stationary existence, while others
+have advanced.  Through hereditary changes, nature played the {26} game
+in her own way with the leading cards in her own hand, and some races
+lost.  Hence so with races, so with individuals.
+
+_Progress Is Enhanced by the Interaction of Groups and Races_.--The
+accumulation of civilization and the state of progress may be much
+determined by the interaction of races and groups.  Just as individual
+personality is developed by contact with others, so the actions and
+reactions of tribes and races in contact bring into play the utility of
+discoveries and inventions.  Thus, knowledge of any kind may by
+diffusion become a heritage of all races.  If one tribe should acquire
+the art of making implements by chipping flint in a certain way, other
+tribes with which it comes in contact might borrow the idea and extend
+it, and thus it becomes spread over a wide area.  However, if the
+original discoverer used the chipped flint for skinning animals, the
+one who would borrow the idea might use it to make implements of
+warfare.
+
+Thus, through borrowing, progress may be a co-operative process.  The
+reference to people in any community reveals the fact that there are
+few that lead and many that follow; that there is but one Edison, but
+there are millions that follow Edison.  Even in the educational world
+there are few inventors and many followers.  This is evidence of the
+large power of imitation and adaptation and of the universal habit of
+borrowing.  On the other hand, if one chemical laboratory should
+discover a high explosive which may be used in blasting rock for making
+the foundations for buildings, a nation might borrow the idea and use
+it in warfare for the destruction of man.
+
+Mr. Clark Wissler has shown in his book on _Man and Culture_ that there
+are culture areas originating from culture centres.  From these culture
+centres the bow-and-arrow is used over a wide area.  The domestication
+of the horse, which occurred in central Asia, has spread over the whole
+world.  So stone implements of culture centres have been borrowed and
+exchanged more or less throughout the world.  The theory is that one
+tribe or race invented one thing because of the {27} adaptability to
+good environment.  The dominant necessity of a race stimulated man's
+inventive power, while another tribe would invent or discover some
+other new thing for similar reasons.  But once created, not only could
+the products be swapped or traded, but, where this was impossible,
+ideas could be borrowed and adapted through imitation.
+
+However, one should be careful not to make too hasty generalizations
+regarding the similar products in different parts of the world, for
+there is such universality of the traits of the human mind that, with
+similar stages of advancement and similar environments, man's adaptive
+power would cause him to do the same thing in very much the same way.
+Thus, it is possible for two races that have had no contact for a
+hundred thousand years to develop indigenous products of art which are
+very similar.  To illustrate from a point of contact nearer home, it is
+possible for a person living in Wisconsin and one in Massachusetts,
+having the same general environment--physical, educational, ethnic,
+religious--and having the same general traits of mind, through
+disconnected lines of differentiation, to write two books very much
+alike or two magazine articles very much alike.  In the question of
+fundamental human traits subject to the same environmental stimuli, in
+a general way we expect similar results.
+
+With all this differentiation, progress as a whole represents a
+continuous change from primitive conditions to the present complex
+life, even though its line of travel leads it through the byways of
+differentiation.  Just as the development of races has been through the
+process of differentiation from an early parent stock, cultural changes
+have followed the same law of progressive change.  Just as there is a
+unity of the human race, there is a unity of progress that involves all
+mankind.
+
+_The Study of the Uncultured Races of To-Day_.--It is difficult to
+determine the beginnings of culture and to trace its slow development.
+In accomplishing this, there are two main methods of procedure; the
+first, to find the products or {28} remains of culture left by races
+now extinct, that is, of nations and peoples that have lived and
+flourished and passed away, leaving evidence of what they brought to
+the world; also, by considering what they did with the tools with which
+they worked, and by determining the conditions under which they lived,
+a general idea of their state of progress may be obtained.  The second
+method is to determine the state of culture of living races of to-day
+who have been retarded or whose progress shows a case of arrested
+development and compare their civilization statistically observed with
+that of the prehistoric peoples whose state of progress exhibits in a
+measure similar characteristics to those of the living races.
+
+With these two methods working together, more light is continually
+being thrown upon man's ancient culture.  To illustrate this, if a
+certain kind of tool or implement is found in the culture areas of the
+extinct Neanderthal race and a similar tool is used by a living
+Australian tribe, it may be conjectured with considerable accuracy that
+the use of this tool was for similar purposes, and the thoughts and
+beliefs that clustered around its use were the same in each tribe.
+Thus may be estimated the degree of progress of the primitive race.  Or
+if an inscription on a cave of an extinct race showed a similarity to
+an inscription used by a living race, it would seem that they had the
+same background for such expression, and that similar instincts,
+emotions, and reflections were directed to a common end.  The recent
+study of anthropologists and archaeologists has brought to light much
+knowledge of primitive man which may be judged on its own evidence and
+own merits.  The verification of these early cultures by the living
+races who have reached a similar degree of progress is of great
+importance.
+
+_The Study of Prehistoric Types_.[1]--The brain capacity of modern man
+has changed little since the time of the Cro-Magnon race, which is the
+earliest ancestral type of present European races and whose existence
+dates back many {29} thousand years.  Possibly the weight of the brain
+has increased during this period because of its development, and
+undoubtedly its power is much greater in modern man than in this
+ancient type.  Prior to that there are some evidences of extinct
+species, such as Pithecanthropus Erectus, the Grimaldi man, the
+Heidelberg man, and the Neanderthal.  Judging from the skeletal remains
+that have been found of these races, there has been a general progress
+of cranial capacity.  It is not necessary here to attempt to determine
+whether this has occurred from hereditary combinations or through
+changing environment.  Undoubtedly both of these factors have been
+potential in increasing the brain power of man, and if we were to go
+farther back by way of analogy, at least, and consider the Anthropoid
+ape, the animal most resembling man, we find a vast contrast in his
+cranial capacity as compared with the lowest of the prehistoric types,
+or, indeed, of the lowest types of the uncultured living races.
+
+Starting with the Anthropoid ape, who has a register of about 350 c.c.,
+the Pithecanthropus about 900 c.c., and Neanderthal types registering
+as high as 1,620 c.c. of brain capacity, the best measures of the
+highest types of modern man show the brain capacity of 1,650 c.c.
+Specimens of the Cro-Magnon skulls show a brain capacity equal to that
+of modern man.  There is a great variation in the brain capacity of the
+Neanderthal race as exhibited in specimens found in different centres
+of culture, ranging all the way from 1,296 c.c. to 1,620 c.c.  Size is
+only one of several traits that determine brain power.  Among others
+are the weight, convolutions, texture, and education.  A small, compact
+brain may have more power than a larger brain relatively lighter.  Also
+much depends upon the centres of development.  The development of the
+frontal area, shown by the full forehead in connection with the
+distance above the ear (auditory meatus), in contrast with the
+development of the anterior lobes is indicative of power.
+
+It is interesting to note also that the progress of man as shown in the
+remnants of arts and industry corresponds in {30} development to the
+development of brain capacity, showing that the physical power of man
+kept pace with the mental development as exhibited in his mental power
+displayed in the arts and industries.  The discoveries in recent times
+of the skeletons of prehistoric man in Europe, Africa, and America, and
+the increased collection of implements showing cultures are throwing
+new light on the science of man and indicating a continuous development
+from very primitive beginnings.
+
+_Progress Is Indicated by the Early Cultures_.--It is convenient to
+divide the early culture of man, based upon his development in art into
+the Paleolithic, or unpolished, and the Neolithic, or polished, Stone
+Ages.[2]  The former is again divided into the Eolithic, Lower
+Paleolithic, and the Upper Paleolithic.  In considering these divisions
+of relative time cultures, it must be remembered that the only way we
+have of measuring prehistoric time is through the geological method,
+based upon the Ice Ages and changes in the physical contour of the
+earth.
+
+In the strata of the earth, either in the late second inter-glacial
+period or at the beginning of the third, chipped rocks, or eoliths, are
+found used by races of which the Piltdown and Heidelberg species are
+representatives.[3]  Originally man used weapons to hammer and to cut
+already prepared by nature.  Sharp-edged flints formed by the crushing
+of rocks in the descent of the glaciers or by upheavals of earth or by
+powerful torrents were picked up as needed for the purpose of cutting.
+Wherever a sharp edge was needed, these natural implements were useful.
+Gradually man learned to carry the best specimens with him.  These he
+improved by chipping the edges, making them more serviceable, or
+chipping the eolith, so as to grasp it more easily.  This represents
+the earliest relic of the beginning of civilization through art.
+Eoliths of this kind are found in Egypt in the hills bordering the Nile
+Valley, in Asia and America, as well as in southern Europe.  Perhaps at
+the same period of development man selected stones suitable for
+crushing bones or for other purposes when hammering {31} was necessary.
+These were gradually fashioned into more serviceable hammers.  In the
+latter part of this period, known as the pre-Chellean, flint implements
+were considerably improved.
+
+In the Lower Paleolithic in the pre-Neanderthal period, including what
+is known as the Chellean, new forms of implements are added to the
+earlier beginnings.  Almond-shaped flint implements, followed later by
+long, pointed implements, indicate the future development of the stone
+spear, arrowhead, knife, and axe.  Also smaller articles of use, such
+as borers, scrapers, and ploughs, appeared.  The edges of all
+implements were rough and uneven, and the forms very imperfect.
+
+_Industrial and Social Life of Primitive Man_.--In the industry of the
+early Neanderthal races (Acheulean) implements were increased in number
+and variety, being also more perfectly formed, showing the expansive
+art of man.  At this period man was a hunter, having temporary homes in
+caves and shelters, which gradually became more or less permanent, and
+used well-fashioned implements of stone.  At the close of the third
+interglacial period the climate was mild and moist, and mankind found
+the open glades suitable places for assemblages in family groups about
+the open fires; apparently the cooking of food and the making of
+implements and clothing on a small scale were the domestic occupations
+at this time.  Hunting was the chief occupation in procuring food.  The
+bison, the horse, the reindeer, the bear, the beaver, the wild boar had
+taken the place of the rhinoceros, the sabre-tooth tiger, and the
+elephant.
+
+Judging from the stage of life existing at this time, and comparing
+this with that of the lowest living races, we may safely infer that the
+family associations existed at this time, even though the habitations
+in caves and shelters were temporary.[4]
+
+  "Yet, when at length rude huts they first devised,
+  And fires and garments; and in union sweet
+  Man wedded woman, the pure joys indulged
+
+{32}
+
+  Of chaste connubial love, and children rose,
+  The rough barbarians softened.  The warm hearth
+  Their frames so melted they no more could bear,
+  As erst, th' uncovered skies.  The nuptial bed
+  Broke their wild vigor, and the fond caress
+  Of prattling children from the bosom chased
+  Their stern, ferocious manners."
+          --LUCRETIUS, "ON THE NATURE OF THINGS."
+                  AFTER OSBORN.
+
+
+Thus the Lower Paleolithic merged into the Upper; with the appearance
+of the Mousterian, Augrignacian, Solutrian, Magdalenian, and Azilian
+cultures followed the most advanced stage of the Neanderthal race
+before its final disappearance.  The list of tools and implements
+indicates a widening scope of civilization.  For war and chase and
+fishing, for industry and domestic life, for art, sculpture, and
+engraving, and for ceremonial use, a great variety of implements of
+stone and bone survived the life of the races.
+
+Spears, daggers, knives, arrowheads, fish-hooks, and harpoons;
+hand-axes, drills, hammers, scrapers, planes, needles, pins, chisels,
+wedges, gravers, etchers, mortars, and pilasters; ceremonial staffs and
+wands--all are expressions of a fulness of industrial and social life
+not recognized in earlier races.  Indications of religious ceremonies
+represent the changing mind, and the expression of mind in art suggests
+increased mental power.
+
+_Cultures Indicate the Mental Development of the Race_.--As the art and
+industry to-day represent the mental processes of man, so did these
+primitive cultures show the inventive skill and adaptive power in the
+beginnings of progress.  Perhaps instinct, emotion, and necessity
+figured more conspicuously in the early period than reflective thought,
+while in modern times we have more design and more planning, both in
+invention and construction.  Also the primitive social order was more
+an unconscious development, and lacked purpose and directing power in
+comparison with present life.
+
+{33}
+
+But there must have been inventors and leaders in primitive times, some
+brains more fertile than others, that made change and progress
+possible.  Who these unknown geniuses were human records do not
+indicate.  In modern times we single out the superiors and call them
+great.  The inventor, the statesman, the warrior, the king, have their
+achievements heralded and recorded in history.  The records of
+achievement of the great barbarous cultures, of the Assyrians, the
+Egyptians, and the Hebrews, centre around some king whose tomb
+preserves the only records, while in reality some man unknown to us was
+the real author of such progress as was made.  The reason is that
+progress was so slow that the changes passed unnoticed, being the
+products of many minds, each adding its increment of change.  Only the
+king or ruler who could control the mass mind and the mass labor could
+make sufficient spectacular demonstration worth recording, and could
+direct others to build a tomb or record inscriptions to perpetuate his
+name.
+
+_Men of Genius Cause the Mutations Which Permit Progress_.--The toiling
+multitudes always use the products of some inventive genius.  Some
+individual with specialized mental traits plans something different
+from social usages or industrial life which changes tradition and
+modifies the customs and habits of the mass.  Whether he be statesman,
+inventor, philosopher, scientist, discoverer, or military leader, he
+usually receives credit for the great progressive mutation which he has
+originated.  There can be little progress without these few fertile
+brains, just as there could be little progress unless they were
+supported by the laborers who carry out the plans of the genius.  While
+the "unknown man" is less conspicuous in the progress of the race in
+modern complex society, he is still a factor in all progress.
+
+_The Data of Progress_.--Evolution is not necessarily progress; neither
+is development progress; yet the factors that enter into evolution and
+development are essential to progress.  The laws of differentiation
+apply to progress as well as to evolution.  In the plant and animal
+life everywhere this law {34} obtains.  In man it is subservient to the
+domination of intelligent direction, yet it is in operation all of the
+time.  Some races are superior in certain lines, other races show
+superiority in other lines.  Likewise, individuals exhibit differences
+in a similar way.  Perhaps the dynamic physical or mental power of the
+individual or the race will not improve in itself, having reached its
+maximum.  There is little hope that the brain of man will ever be
+larger or stronger, but it may become more effective through training
+and increased knowledge.  Hence in the future we must look for
+achievement along co-operative and social lines.  It is to social
+expansion and social perfection that we must look for progress in the
+future.  For here the accumulated power of all may be utilized in
+providing for the welfare of the individual, who, in turn, will by his
+inventive power cause humanity to progress.
+
+The industrial, institutional, humanitarian, and educational machinery
+represents progress in action, but increased knowledge, higher ideals
+of life, broader concepts of truth, liberty of individual action which
+is interested in human life in its entirety, are the real indices of
+progress.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Why do some races progress and others deteriorate?
+
+2.  Compare different communities to show to what extent environment
+determines progress.
+
+3.  Show how the airplane is an evidence of progress.  The radio.  The
+gasoline-engine.
+
+4.  Discuss the effects of religious belief on progress.
+
+5.  Is the mental capacity of the average American greater than the
+average of the Greeks at the time of their highest culture?
+
+6.  What are the evidences that man will not advance in physical and
+mental capacity?
+
+7.  Show that the improvement of the race will be through social
+activity.
+
+
+
+[1] See Chapter IV.
+
+[2] See Chapter III.
+
+[3] See Chapter IV.
+
+[4] See Chapter VI.
+
+
+
+
+{35}
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+METHODS OF RECOUNTING HUMAN PROGRESS
+
+_Difficulty of Measuring Progress_.--In its larger generalization,
+progress may move in a straight line, but it has such a variety of
+expression and so many tributary causes that it is difficult to reduce
+it to any classification.  Owing to the difficulties that attend an
+attempt to recite all of the details of human progress, philosophers
+and historians have approached the subject from various sides, each
+seeking to make, by means of higher generalizations, a clear course of
+reasoning through the labyrinth of materials.  By adopting certain
+methods of marking off periods of existence and pointing out the
+landmarks of civilization, they have been able to estimate more truly
+the development of the race.  Civilization cannot be readily measured
+by time; indeed, the time interval in history is of little value save
+to mark order and continuity.  It has in itself no real significance;
+it is merely an arbitrary division whose importance is greatly
+exaggerated.  But while civilization is a continuous quantity, and
+cannot be readily marked off into periods without destroying its
+movement, it is necessary to make the attempt, especially in the study
+of ancient or prehistoric society; for any method which groups and
+classifies facts in logical order is helpful to the study of human
+progress.
+
+_Progress May Be Measured by the Implements Used_.--A very common
+method, based largely upon the researches of archaeologists, is to
+divide human society into four great periods, or ages, marked by the
+progress of man in the use of implements.  The first of these periods
+is called the Stone Age, and embraces the time when man used stone for
+all {36} purposes in the industrial arts so far as they had been
+developed.  For convenience this period has been further divided into
+the age of ancient or unpolished implements and the age of modern or
+polished implements.  The former includes the period when rude
+implements were chipped out of flint or other hard stone, without much
+idea of symmetry and beauty, and with no attempt to perfect or beautify
+them by smoothing and polishing their rough surface.
+
+In the second period man learned to fashion more perfectly the
+implements, and in some instances to polish them to a high degree.
+Although the divisions are very general and very imperfect, they map
+out the great prehistoric era of man; but they must be considered as
+irregular, on account of the fact that the Stone Era of man occurred at
+different times in different tribes.  Thus the inhabitants of North
+America were in the Stone Age less than two centuries ago, while some
+of the inhabitants of the South Sea Islands are in the Stone Age during
+the present century.  It is quite remarkable that the use of stone
+implements was universal to all tribes and nations at some period of
+their existence.
+
+After the long use of stone, man gradually became acquainted with some
+of the metals, and subsequently discovered the method of combining
+copper with tin and other alloys to form bronze, which material, to a
+large extent, added to the implements already in use.  The Bronze Age
+is the most hypothetical of all these divisions, as it does not appear
+to have been as universal as the Stone, on account of the difficulty of
+obtaining metals.  The use of copper by the Indians of the Lake
+Superior region was a very marked epoch in their development, and
+corresponds to the Bronze Age of other nations, although their
+advancement in other particulars appears to be less than that of other
+tribes of European origin which used bronze freely.  Bronze implements
+have been found in great plenty in Scandinavia and Peru, and to a
+limited extent in North America.  They certainly mark a stage of
+progress in advance of that of the inhabitants of the Stone Age.
+Bronze {37} was the chief metal for implements throughout the early
+civilization of Europe.
+
+Following the age of bronze is the Iron Age, in which the advancement
+of man is especially marked.  The bronze implements were at first
+supplemented in their use by those of iron.  But gradually iron
+implements superseded the bronze.  The Iron Age still is with us.
+Possibly it has not yet reached its highest point.  Considering the
+great structures built of iron, and the excessive use of iron in
+machinery, implements, and furniture, it is easy to realize that we are
+yet in this great period.  Though we continue to use stone more than
+the ancients and more bronze for decoration and ornament than they, yet
+both are subordinate to the use of iron.  General as the above
+classification is, it helps in an indefinite way to give us a central
+idea of progress and to mark off, somewhat indefinitely, periods of
+development.
+
+_The Development of Art_.--Utility was the great purpose underlying the
+foundation of the industrial arts.  The stone axe, or celt, was first
+made for a distinct service, but, in order to perfect its usefulness,
+its lines became more perfect and its surface more highly polished.  So
+we might say for the spear-head, the knife, or the olla.  Artistic
+lines and decorative beauty always followed the purpose of use.  This
+could be applied to all of the products of man's invention to transform
+parts of nature to his use.  On account of the durability of form, the
+attempt to trace the course of civilization by means of the development
+of the fine arts has met with much success.  Though the idea of beauty
+is not essential to the preservation of man or to the making of the
+state, it has exerted a great influence in individual-building and in
+society-building.  In our higher emotional natures aesthetic ideas have
+ruled with imperial sway.
+
+But primitive ideas of beauty appear to us very crude, and even
+repulsive.  The adornment of person with bright though rudely colored
+garments, the free use of paint on the person, and the promiscuous use
+of jewelry, as {38} practised by the primitive peoples, present a great
+contrast to modern usage.  Yet it is easy to trace the changes in
+custom and, moreover, to determine the origin of present customs.  So
+also in representative art, the rude sketch of an elephant or a buffalo
+on ivory or stone and the finished picture by a Raphael are widely
+separated in genius and execution, but there is a logical connection
+between the two found in the slowly evolving human activities.  The
+rude figure of a god moulded roughly from clay and the lifelike model
+by an Angelo have the same relations to man in his different states.
+The same comparison may be made between the low, monotonous moaning of
+the savage and the rapturous music of a Patti, or between the beating
+of the tom-tom and the lofty strains of a Mozart.
+
+_Progress Is Estimated by Economic Stages_.--The progress of man is
+more clearly represented by the successive economic stages of his life.
+Thus we have first the _primal nomadic_ period, in which man was a
+wanderer, subsisting on roots and berries, and with no definite social
+organization.  This period, like all primary periods, is largely
+hypothetical.  Having learned to capture game and fish, he entered what
+might be called the _fisher-hunter_ stage, although he was still a
+nomad, and rapidly spread over a large part of the earth's surface,
+wandering from forest to forest and from stream to stream, searching
+for the means of subsistence and clothing.
+
+When man learned to domesticate animals he made a great step forward
+and entered what is known as the _pastoral_ period, in which his chief
+occupation was the care of flocks and herds.  This contributed much to
+his material support and quickened his social and intellectual
+movement.  After a time, when he remained in one place a sufficient
+time to harvest a short crop, he began agriculture in a tentative way,
+while his chief concern was yet with flocks and herds.  He soon became
+permanently settled, and learned more fully the art of agriculture, and
+then entered the permanent _agricultural_ stage.  It was during this
+period that he made the most rapid advances in {39} the industrial arts
+and in social order.  This led to more densely populated communities,
+with permanent homes and the necessary development of law and
+government.
+
+As the products of industry increased men began to exchange "the
+relatively superfluous for the relatively necessary," and trade in the
+form of barter became a permanent custom.  This led to the use of money
+and a more extended system of exchange, and man entered the
+_commercial_ era.  This gave him a wider intercourse with surrounding
+tribes and nations, and brought about a greater diversity of ideas.
+The excessive demand for exchangeable goods, the accumulation of
+wealth, and the enlarged capacity for enjoyment centred the activities
+of life in industry, and man entered the _industrial_ stage.  At first
+he employed hand power for manufacturing goods, but soon he changed to
+power manufacture, brought about by discovery and invention.  Water and
+steam were now applied to turn machinery, and the new conditions of
+production changed the whole industrial life.  A revolution in
+industrial society caused an immediate shifting of social life.
+Classes of laborers in the great industrial army became prominent, and
+production was carried on in a gigantic way.  We are still in this
+industrial world, and as electricity comes to the aid of steam we may
+be prepared for even greater changes in the future than we have
+witnessed in the past.[1]
+
+In thus presenting the course of civilization by the different periods
+of economic life, we must keep the mind free from conventional ideas.
+For, while the general course of economic progress is well indicated,
+there was a slow blending of each period into the succeeding one.
+There is no formal procedure in the progress of man.  Yet we might
+infer from the way in which some writers present this matter that
+society moved forward in regular order, column after column.  From the
+formal and forcible way in which they have presented the history of
+early society, one might imagine that a certain tribe, having become
+weary of tending cattle and goats, resolved one {40} fine morning to
+change from the pastoral life to agriculture, and that all of the
+tribes on earth immediately concluded to do the same, when, in truth,
+the change was slow and gradual, while the centuries passed away.
+
+It is well to consider that in the expanded industrial life of man the
+old was not replaced, but supplemented, by the new, and that after the
+pastoral stage was entered, man continued to hunt and fish, and that
+after formal agriculture was begun the tending of flocks and herds
+continued, and fishing was practised at intervals.  But each succeeding
+occupation became for the time the predominant one, while others were
+relatively subordinate.  Even to-day, while we have been rushing
+forward in recent years at a rapid rate, under the power of steam and
+electricity, agriculture and commerce have made marvellous improvement.
+Though we gain the new, nothing of the old is lost.  The use of flocks
+and herds, as well as fish and game, increases each year, although not
+relatively.
+
+_Progress Is Through the Food Supply_.--This is only another view of
+the economic life.  The first period is called the natural subsistence
+period, when man used such food as he found prepared for him by nature.
+It corresponds to the primal nomadic period of the last classification.
+From this state he advanced to the use of fish for food, and then
+entered the third period, when native grains were obtained through a
+limited cultivation of the soil.  After this followed a period in which
+meat and milk were the chief articles of food.  Finally the period of
+extended and permanent agriculture was reached, and farinaceous food by
+cultivation became the main support of life.  The significance of this
+classification is observed in the fact that the amount, variety, and
+quality of the food available determine the possibility of man's
+material and spiritual advancement.  As the food supply lies at the
+foundation of human existence, prosperity is measured to a large extent
+by the food products.  The character of the food affects to a great
+extent the mental and moral capabilities of man; that is, it {41}
+limits the possibilities of civilization.  Even in modern civilization
+the effect of poor food on intellect, morals, and social order is
+easily observed.
+
+_Progress Is Estimated by Different Forms of Social Order_.--It is only
+a more general way of estimating political life, and perhaps a broader
+way, for it includes the entire social development.  By this
+classification man is first represented as wandering in a solitary
+state with the smallest amount of association with his fellows
+necessary to his existence and perpetuation, and with no social
+organization.  This status of man is hypothetical, and gives only a
+starting point for the philosophy of higher development.  No savage
+tribes have yet been discovered in which there was not at least
+association of individuals in groups, although organization might not
+yet have appeared.  It is true that some of the lower tribes, like the
+Fuegians of South America, have very tentative forms of social and
+political association.  They wander in loosely constructed groups,
+which constantly shift in association, being without permanent
+organization.  Yet the purely solitary man is merely conjectural.
+
+It is common for writers to make a classification of social groups into
+primary and secondary.[2]  The primary social groups are: first, the
+family based upon biological relations, supported by the habit of
+association; second, the play group of children, in which primitive
+characters of social order appear, and a third group is the association
+of adults in a neighborhood meeting.  In the formation of these groups,
+the process of social selection is always in evidence.  Impulse,
+feeling, and emotion play the greater parts in the formation of these
+primitive groups, while choice based on rational selection seldom
+appears.
+
+The secondary groups are those which originate through the
+differentiation of social functions in which the contact of individuals
+is less intimate than in the primary group.  Such voluntary
+associations as a church, labor organization, or {42} scientific
+society may be classified as secondary in time and in importance.
+
+Next above the human horde is represented the forced association of men
+in groups, each group struggling for its own existence.  Within the
+group there was little protection and little social order, although
+there was more or less authority of leadership manifested.  This state
+finally led to the establishment of rudimentary forms of government,
+based upon blood relationship.  These groups enlarged to full national
+life.  This third stage finally passed to the larger idea of
+international usage, and is prospective of a world state.  These four
+stages of human society, so sweeping in their generalization, still
+point to the idea of the slow evolution of social order.
+
+_The Development of Family Life_.--Starting with the hypothesis that
+man at one time associated in a state of promiscuity, he passed through
+the separate stages of polyandry and polygamy, and finally reached a
+state of monogamy and the pure home life of to-day.  Those who have
+advocated this doctrine have failed to substantiate it clearly so as to
+receive from scholars the recognition of authority.  All these forms of
+family life except the first have been observed among the savage tribes
+of modern life, but there are not sufficient data to prove that the
+human race, in the order of its development, must have passed through
+these four stages.  However, it is true that the modern form of
+marriage and pure home life did not always exist, but are among the
+achievements of modern civilization.  There certainly has been a
+gradual improvement in the relations of the members of the household,
+and notwithstanding the defects of faithlessness and ignorance, the
+modern family is the social unit and the hope of modern social progress.
+
+_The Growth of Political Life_.--Many have seen in this the only true
+measure of progress, for it is affirmed that advancement in civil life
+is the essential element of civilization.  Its importance in
+determining social order makes it a central factor in all progress.
+The _primitive family_ represents the germ {43} of early political
+foundation.  It was the first organized unit of society, and contained
+all of the rudimentary forms of government.  The executive, the
+judicial, the legislative, and the administrative functions of
+government were all combined in one simple family organization.  The
+head of the family was king, lord, judge, priest, and military
+commander all in one.  As the family expanded it formed the _gens_ or
+_clan_, with an enlarged family life and more systematic family
+government.  The religious life expanded also, and a common altar and a
+common worship were instituted.
+
+A slight progress toward social order and the tendency to distribute
+the powers of government are to be observed.  Certain property was held
+in common and certain laws regulated the family life.  The family
+groups continued to enlarge by natural increase and by adoption, all
+those coming into the gens submitting to its laws, customs, and social
+usage.  Finally several gentes united into a brotherhood association
+called by the Greeks a _phratry_, by the Romans a _curia_.  This
+brotherhood was organized on a common religious basis, with a common
+deity and a central place of worship.  It also was used partially as
+the basis of military organization.  This group represents the first
+unit based upon locality.  From it spring the ward idea and the idea of
+local self-government.
+
+The _tribe_ represented a number of gentes united for religious and
+military purposes.  Although its principal power was military, there
+were a common altar and a common worship for all members of the tribe.
+The chief, or head of the tribe, was the military leader, and usually
+performed an important part in all the affairs of the tribe.  As the
+tribe became the seat of power for military operations, the gens
+remained as the foundation of political government, for it was the
+various heads of the gentes who formed the council of the chief or king
+and later laid the foundation of the senate, wherever instituted.  It
+was common for the tribe in most instances to pass into a village
+community before developing full national life.  There were exceptions
+to this, where tribes have passed directly into {44} well-organized
+groups without the formation of the village or the city.
+
+The _village community_, next in logical order, represents a group of
+closely related people located on a given territory, with a
+half-communal system of government.  There were the little group of
+houses forming the village proper and representing the different homes
+of the family group.  There were the common pasture-land, the common
+woodland, and the fertile fields for cultivation.  These were all
+owned, except perhaps the house lot, by the entire community, and every
+year the tillable land was parcelled out by the elders of the community
+to the heads of families for tillage.  Usually the tiller of the soil
+had a right to the crop, although among the early Greeks the custom
+seems to be reversed, and the individual owned the land, but was
+compelled to place its proceeds into a common granary.  The village
+community represents the transition from a nomadic to a permanent form
+of government, and was common to all of the Aryan tribes.  The
+federation of the village communities or the expansion of the tribes
+formed the Greek city-state, common to all of the Greek communities.
+It represents the real beginning of civic life among the nations.
+
+The old family organization continued to exist, although from this time
+on there was a gradual separation of the functions of government.  The
+executive, legislative, and judicial processes became more clearly
+defined, and special duties were assigned to officers chosen for a
+particular purpose.  Formal law, too, appeared as the expression of the
+will of a definitely organized community.  Government grew more
+systematic, and expanded into a well-organized municipality.  There was
+less separation of the duties of officers than now, but there was a
+constant tendency for government to unfold and for each officer to have
+his specific powers and duties defined.  A deity watched over the city,
+and a common shrine for worship was set up for all members of the
+municipality.
+
+The next attempt to enlarge government was by federation {45} and by
+conquest and domination.[3]  The city of Rome represents, first, a
+federation of tribal city groups, and, finally, the dominant city
+ruling over many other cities and much territory.  From this it was
+only a step to the empire and imperial sway.  Athens in her most
+prosperous period attempted to do the same, but was not entirely
+successful.  After the decline of the Roman power there arose from the
+ruins of the fallen empire the modern nationalities, which used all
+forms of government hitherto known.  They partook of democracy,
+aristocracy, or imperialism, and even attempted, in some instances, to
+combine the principles of all three in one government.  While the
+modern state developed some new characteristics, it included the
+elements of the Greek and Roman governments.  The relations of these
+new states developed a new code of law, based upon international
+relations.  Though treaties were made between the Greeks and the Romans
+in their first international relations, and much earlier between the
+Hebrews and the Phoenicians, international law is of practically modern
+origin.  At present modern nations have an extended and intricate code
+of laws governing their relations.  It is an extension of government
+beyond the boundaries of nationality.
+
+Through commerce, trade, and political intercourse the nations of the
+Western World are drawn more closely together, and men talk of a world
+citizenship.  A wide philanthropy, rapid and cheap transportation, the
+accompanying influences of travel, and a world market for the products
+of the earth, all tend to level the barriers of nationality and to
+develop universal citizenship.  The prophets of our day talk of the
+coming world state, which is not likely to appear so long as the
+barriers of sea and mountain remain; yet each year witnesses a closer
+blending of the commercial, industrial, and political interests of all
+nations.  Thus we see how governments have been evolved and national
+life expanded in accordance {46} with slowly developing civilization.
+Although good government and a high state of civilization are not
+wholly in the relation of cause and effect, they always accompany each
+other, and the progress of man may be readily estimated from the
+standpoint of the development of political institutions and political
+life.
+
+_Religion Important in Civilization_.--It is not easy to trace the
+development of man by a consideration of the various religious beliefs
+entertained at different periods of his existence.  Yet there is
+unmistakably a line of constant development to be observed in religion,
+and as a rule its progress is an index of the improvement of the race.
+No one can contrast the religion of the ancient nations with the modern
+Christian religion without being impressed with the vast difference in
+conception and in practice existing between them.  In the early period
+of barbarism, and even of savagery, religious belief was an important
+factor in the development of human society.
+
+It is no less important to-day, and he who recounts civilization
+without giving it a prominent place has failed to obtain a
+comprehensive view of the philosophy of human development.  From the
+family altar of the Greeks to the state religion; from the rude altar
+of Abraham in the wilderness to the magnificent temple of Solomon at
+Jerusalem; from the harsh and cruel tenets of the Oriental religions to
+the spiritual conception and ethical practice of the Christian
+religion, one observes a marked progress.  We need only go to the crude
+unorganized superstition of the savage or to the church of the Middle
+Ages to learn that the power and influence of religion is great in
+human society building.
+
+_The Progress Through Moral Evolution_.--The moral development of the
+race, although more difficult to determine than the intellectual, may
+prove an index to the progress of man.  The first formal expression of
+moral practice is the so-called race morality or group morality, based
+upon mutual aid for common defense.  This is found to-day in all
+organized groups, such as the boy gang, the Christian church, the
+political party, {47} the social set, the educational institution, and,
+indeed, the state itself; but wherever found it has its source in a
+very primitive group action.  In the primitive struggle for existence
+man had little sympathy for his fellows, the altruistic sentiment being
+very feeble.  But gradually through the influence of the family life
+sympathy widened and deepened in its onward flow until, joining with
+the group morality, it entered the larger world of ethical practice.
+
+This phase of moral culture had its foundation in the sympathy felt by
+the mother for her offspring, a sympathy that gradually extended to the
+immediate members of the household.  As the family expanded into the
+state, human sympathy expanded likewise, until it became national in
+its significance.  Through this process there finally came a world-wide
+philanthropy which recognizes the sufferings of all human beings.  This
+sympathy has been rapidly increased by the culture of the intellect,
+the higher development of the sensibilities, and the refinement of the
+emotions; thus along the track of altruism or ethical development,
+which had its foundation in primitive life, with its ever widening and
+enlarging circles, the advancement of humanity may be traced.  The old
+egoism, the savage warfare for existence, has been constantly tempered
+by altruism, which has been a saving quality in the human race.
+
+_Intellectual Development of Man_.--Some philosophers have succeeded in
+recounting human progress by tracing the intellectual development of
+the race.  This is possible, for everything of value that has been
+done, and which has left a record, bears the mark of man's intellect.
+In the early period of his existence, man had sufficient intellect to
+direct his efforts to satisfy the common wants of life.  This exercise
+of the intellectual faculty has accompanied man's every movement, but
+it is best observed in the products of his industry and the practice of
+social order.  By doing and making, the intellect grows, and it is only
+by observing the phenomena of active life that we get a hint or trace
+of the powers and capacities of the mind.  {48} But after man begins
+the process of reflective thinking, his intellectual activities become
+stronger, and it is much easier to trace his development by considering
+the condition of religion, law, philosophy, literature, sculpture, art,
+and architecture.  These represent the best products of the mind, and
+it is along this intellectual highway that the best results of
+civilization are found.  During the modern period of progressive life
+systematic education has forced the intellectual faculties through a
+more rapid course, giving predominance to intellectual life everywhere.
+The intellectual development of nations or the intellectual development
+of man in general is a theme of never-tiring interest, as it represents
+his noblest achievements.
+
+Man from the very beginning has had a desire for knowledge, to satisfy
+curiosity.  Gradually, however, he had a desire to know in order to
+increase utility, and finally he reaches the highest state of progress
+in desiring to know for the sake of knowing.  Thus he proceeds from
+mere animal curiosity to the idealistic state of discovering "truth for
+truth's sake."  These are qualities not only of the individual in his
+development but of the racial group and, indeed, in a larger way of all
+mankind; intelligence developed in the attempt of man to discover the
+nature of the results of his instinctive, impulsive, or emotional
+actions.  Later he sought causes of these results.  Here we have
+involved increased knowledge as a basis of human action and the use of
+that knowledge through discriminating intelligence.  The intellect thus
+represents the selective and directive process in the use of knowledge.
+Hence, intelligent behavior of the individual or of the group comes
+only after accumulated knowledge based on experience.  The process of
+trial and error thus gives rise to reflective thinking.  It is a
+superior use of the intellect that more than anything else
+distinguishes the adult from the child or modern man from the primitive.
+
+_Change from Savagery to Barbarism_.--Perhaps one of the broadest
+classifications of ancient society, based upon general characteristics
+of progress, makes the two general divisions of {49} savagery and
+barbarism, and subdivides each of these into three groups.  The lowest
+status of savagery represents man as little above the brute creation,
+subsisting upon roots and berries, and with no knowledge of art or of
+social order.  The second period, called the middle status of savagery,
+represents man using fire, and using fish for food, and having
+corresponding advancement in other ways.  The upper status of savagery
+begins with the use of the bow-and-arrow and extends to the period of
+the manufacture and use of pottery.
+
+At this point the period of barbarism begins.  Its lower status,
+beginning with the manufacture of pottery, extends to the time of the
+domestication of animals.  The middle status includes not only the
+domestication of animals in the East but the practice of irrigation in
+the West and the building of walls from stone and adobe brick.  The
+upper status is marked by the use of iron and extends to the
+introduction of the phonetic alphabet and literary composition.  At
+this juncture civilization is said to dawn.
+
+"Commencing," says Mr. Morgan, the author of this classification, in
+his _Ancient Society_, "with the Australians and the Polynesians,
+following with the American Indian tribes, and concluding with the
+Roman and Grecian, which afford the best exemplification of the six
+great stages of human progress, the sum of their united experiences may
+be supposed to fairly represent that of the human family from the
+middle status of savagery to the end of the ancient civilization."  By
+this classification the Australians would be placed in the middle
+status of savagery, and the early Greeks and Romans in the upper status
+of barbarism, while the Pueblo Indians of New Mexico would be placed in
+the middle status of barbarism.  This is an excellent system for
+estimating the progress of ancient society, for around these initial
+periods may be clustered all of the elements of civilization.  It is of
+especial value in the comparative study of different races and tribes.
+
+_Civilization Includes All Kinds of Human Progress_.--The above
+representation of the principal methods of recounting {50} civilization
+shows the various phases of human progress.  Although each one is
+helpful in determining the progress of man from a particular point of
+view, none is sufficient to marshal all of the qualities of
+civilization in a completed order.  For the entire field of
+civilization should include all the elements of progress, and this
+great subject must be viewed from every side before it can be fairly
+represented to the mind of the student.  The true nature of
+civilization has been more clearly presented in thus briefly
+enumerating the different methods of estimating human progress.  But we
+must remember that civilization, though continuous, is not uniform.
+The qualities of progress which are strong in one tribe or nation are
+weak in others.  It is the total of the characteristics of man and the
+products of his activity that represents his true progress.  Nations
+have arisen, developed, and passed away; tribes have been swept from
+the face of the earth before a complete development was possible; and
+races have been obliterated by the onward march of civilization.  But
+the best products of all nations have been preserved for the service of
+others.  Ancient Chaldea received help from central Asia; Egypt and
+Judea from Babylon; Greece from Egypt; Rome from Greece; and all Europe
+and America have profited from the culture of Greece and Rome and the
+religion of Judea.  There may be a natural growth, maturity, and decay
+of nations, but civilization moves ever on toward a higher and more
+diversified life.  The products of human endeavor arrange themselves on
+the side of man in his attempt to master himself and nature.
+
+
+TABLE SHOWING METHODS OF RECOUNTING HUMAN PROGRESS
+
+I.  Method of the Kind of Implements Used.
+
+         1.  Paleolithic, or Old Stone, Age.
+         2.  Neolithic, or New Stone, Age.
+         3.  Incidental use of copper, tin, and other metals.
+         4.  The making of pottery.
+         5.  The age of bronze.
+         6.  The iron age.
+
+{51}
+
+II.  Method by Art Development.
+
+         1.  Primitive drawings in caves and engraving on ivory and
+             wood.
+         2.  The use of color in decoration of objects, especially in
+             decoration of the body.
+         3.  Beginnings of sculpture and carving figures, animals,
+             gods, and men.
+         4.  Pictorial representations--the pictograph.
+         5.  Representative art in landscapes.
+         6.  Perspective drawing.
+         7.  Idealistic art.
+         8.  Industrial arts.
+
+III.  Method of Economic Stages.
+
+         1.  The Nomadic Stage.
+         2.  The Hunter-Fisher Stage.
+         3.  The Pastoral Period.
+         4.  The Agricultural Period.
+         5.  The Commercial Period.
+         6.  The Period of Industrial Organization.
+
+IV.  Progress Estimated by the Food Supply.
+
+         1.  Natural subsistence Period.
+         2.  Fish and shell fish.
+         3.  Cultivation of native grains.
+         4.  Meat and milk.
+         5.  Farinaceous foods by systematic agriculture.
+
+V.  Method of Social Order.
+
+         1.  Solitary state of man (hypothetical).
+         2.  The human horde.
+         3.  Small groups for purposes of association.
+         4.  The secret society.
+         5.  The religious cult.
+         6.  Closely integrated groups for defense.
+         7.  Amalgamated or federated groups.
+         8.  The Race.
+
+VI.  The Family Development.
+
+         1.  State of promiscuity (hypothetical).
+         2.  Polyandry.
+         3.  Polygamy.
+         4.  Patriarchal family with polygamy.
+         5.  The Monogamic family.
+
+VII.  Progress Measured by Political Organization.
+
+         1.  The organized horde about religious ideas.
+
+{52}
+
+         2.  The completed family organization.
+               _a_.  Family.
+               _b_.  Gens.
+               _c_.  The Phratry.
+               _d_.  Patriarchal family.
+               _e_.  Tribe.
+         3.  The Ethnic state.
+         4.  State formed by conflict and amalgamation.
+         5.  International relations.
+         6.  The World State (Idealistic).
+
+VIII.  Religious Development.
+
+         1.  Belief in spiritual beings.
+         2.  Recognition of the spirit of man and other spirits.
+         3.  Animism.
+         4.  Anthropomorphic religion.
+         5.  Spiritual concept of religion.
+         6.  Ethnical religions.
+         7.  Forms of religious worship and religious practice.
+
+IX.  Moral Evolution.
+
+         1.  Race morality (gang morality).
+         2.  Sympathy for fellow beings.
+         3.  Sympathy through blood relationship.
+         4.  Patriotism: love of race and country.
+         5.  World Ethics.
+
+X.  Progress Through Intellectual Development.
+
+         1.  Sensation and reflex action.
+         2.  Instinct and emotion.
+         3.  Impulse and adaptability.
+         4.  Reflective thought.
+         5.  Invention and discovery.
+         6.  Rational direction of human life.
+         7.  Philosophy.
+         8.  Science.
+
+XI.  Progress Through Savagery and Barbarism.
+
+         1.  Lower status of savagery.
+         2.  Middle status of savagery.
+         3.  Upper status of savagery.
+         4.  Lower status of barbarism.
+         5.  Middle status of barbarism.
+         6.  Upper status of barbarism.
+         7.  Civilization (?).
+
+
+{53}
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  In what other ways than those named in this chapter may we estimate
+the progress of man?
+
+2.  Discuss the evidences of man's mental and spiritual progress.
+
+3.  The relation of wealth to progress.
+
+4.  The relation of the size of population to the prosperity of a
+nation.
+
+5.  Enumerate the arguments that the next destructive war will destroy
+civilization.
+
+6.  In what ways do you think man is better off than he was one hundred
+years ago?  One thousand years ago?
+
+7.  In what ways did the suffering caused by the Great War indicate an
+increase in world ethics?
+
+
+
+[1] See Chapter XXVII.
+
+[2] See Cooley, _Social Organization_, chap. III.
+
+[3] The transition from the ethnic state to the modern civic state was
+through conflict, conquest, and race amalgamation.
+
+
+
+
+{57}
+
+_PART II_
+
+FIRST STEPS OF PROGRESS
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+PREHISTORIC MAN
+
+_The Origin of Man Has not Yet Been Determined_.--Man's origin is still
+shrouded in mystery, notwithstanding the accumulated knowledge of the
+results of scientific investigation in the field and in the laboratory.
+The earliest historical records and relics of the seats of ancient
+civilization all point backward to an earlier period of human life.
+Looking back from the earliest civilizations along the Euphrates and
+the Nile that have recorded the deeds of man so that their evidences
+could be handed down from generation to generation, the earlier
+prehistoric records of man stretch away in the dim past for more than a
+hundred thousand years.  The time that has elapsed from the earliest
+historical records to the present is only a few minutes compared to the
+centuries that preceded it.
+
+Wherever we go in the field of knowledge, we shall find evidences of
+man's great antiquity.  We know at least that he has been on earth a
+long, long period.  As to the method of his appearance, there is no
+absolutely determining evidence.  Yet science has run back into the
+field of conjecture with such strong lines that we may assume with
+practical certainty something of his early life.  He stands at the head
+of the zoological division of the animal kingdom.  The Anthropoid Ape
+is the animal that most nearly resembles man.  It might be said to
+stand next to man in the procession of species.  So far as our
+knowledge can ascertain, it appears that man was developed in the same
+manner as the higher types in the animal and vegetable world, namely,
+by the process of evolution, and by evolution we mean continuous
+progressive change according to law, from external and internal
+stimuli.  The process of evolution is not a process of creation, nor
+does evolution move in {58} a straight line, but through the process of
+differentiation.  In no other way can one account for the multitudes of
+the types and races of the human being, except by this process of
+differentiation which is one of the main factors of evolution.
+Accompanying the process of differentiation is that of specialization
+and integration.  When types become highly specialized they fail to
+adapt themselves to new environments, and other types not so highly
+specialized prevail.  So far as the human race is concerned, it seems
+to be evolved according to the law of sympodial development--that is, a
+certain specialized part of the human race develops certain traits and
+is limited in its adaptability to a specific environment.  Closely
+allied with this are some individuals or groups possessing human traits
+that are less highly specialized, and hence are adaptable to new
+conditions.  Under new conditions the main stem of development perishes
+and the budded branch survives.
+
+We have abundant pictures of this in prehistoric times, and records
+show that this also has been the common lot of man.  Modern man thus
+could not have been developed from any of the living species of the
+Anthropoid Apes, but he might have had a common origin in the physical,
+chemical, and vital forces that produced the apes.  One line of
+specialization made the ape, another line made man.  Subsequently the
+separation of man into the various races and species came about by the
+survival of some races for a time, and then to be superseded by a
+branch of the same race which differentiated in a period of development
+before high specialization had taken place.
+
+_Methods of Recounting Prehistoric Time_.[1]--Present time is measured
+in terms of centuries, years, months, weeks, days, hours, minutes, and
+seconds, but the second is the determining power of mechanical
+measurement, though it is derived mainly by the movement of the earth
+around the sun and the turning of the earth on its axis.  Mechanically
+we have derived the second as the unit.  It is easy for us to think in
+hours or days or weeks, though it may be the seconds tick off unnoticed
+{59} and the years glide by unnoticed; but it is difficult to think in
+centuries--more difficult in millions of years.  The little time that
+man has been on earth compared with the creation of the earth makes it
+difficult for us to estimate the time of creation.  The much less time
+in the historical period makes it seem but a flash in the movement of
+the creation.
+
+
+======================================================================
+
+TWENTY-FOUR-HOUR DIAL ILLUSTRATING HUMAN CHRONOLOGY[2]
+
+Twenty-five thousand years equals one hour
+
+
+[Illustration: Twenty-four hour dial]
+
+
+  Age of modern man           10,000 years = less than half an hour.
+  Age of Cro-Magnon type      25,000 years = one hour.
+  Age of Neanderthal type     50,000 years = two hours.
+  Age of Piltdown type       150,000 years = six hours.
+  Age of Heidelberg type     375,000 years = fifteen hours.
+  Age of Pithecanthropus     500,000 years = twenty hours.
+
+  Beginning of Christian era   2,000 years = 4.8 minutes.
+  Discovery of America           431 years = about 1 minute.
+  Declaration of Independence    137 years = about 21 seconds.
+
+======================================================================
+
+
+There are four main methods of determining prehistoric {60} time.[3]
+One is called the (1) _geologic method_, which is based upon the fact
+that, in a slowly cooling earth and the action of water and frost, cold
+and heat, storm and glacier and volcanic eruption, the rocks on the
+earth are of different ages.  If they had never been disturbed from
+where they were first laid down, it would be very easy to reckon time
+by geological processes.  If you had a stone column twenty feet high
+built by a machine in ten hours' time, and granting that it worked
+uniformly, it would be easy to see just at what hour of the period a
+layer of stone four feet from the bottom, or ten feet from the top, was
+laid.  If, however, in the building of the wall, it should have toppled
+over several times and had to be rebuilt, it would require considerable
+study to see just at what hour a certain stone was put in the wall.
+Studying the geology of the earth in a large way, it is easy to
+determine what strata of the earth are oldest, and this may be verified
+by a consideration of the process in which these rocks were being made.
+Chemistry and physics are thus brought to the aid of geology.  It is
+easy to determine whether a rock has been fused by a fire or whether it
+has been constructed by the slow action of water and pressure of other
+rocks.  If to-day we should find in an old river bed which had been
+left high and dry on a little mesa or plateau above the present river
+bottom, layers of earth that had been put down by water, and we could
+find how much of each layer was made in a single year, it would be easy
+to estimate the number of years it took to make the whole deposit.
+Also if we could find in the lowest layer certain relics of the human
+race, we could know that the race lived at that time.  If we should
+find relics later on of a different nature, we should be able to
+estimate the progress of civilization.
+
+The second method is of (2) _paleontology_, which is developed along
+with geology.  In this we have both the vertebrate and invertebrate
+paleontology, which are divisions of the science which treats of
+ancient forms of animal and vegetable life.  There are many other
+divisions of paleontology, some {61} devoting themselves entirely to
+animal life and others to vegetable, as, for instance, paleobotany.  As
+plants and animals have gradually developed from lower to higher forms
+and the earth has been built gradually by formations at different
+periods of existence, by a comparison of the former development with
+the latter, that is, comparison with the earth, or inorganic,
+development to the life, or organic, development, we are enabled to get
+a comparative view of duration.  Thus, if in a layer of earth,
+geological time is established and there should be found bones of an
+animal, the bones of a man, and fossilized forms of ancient plants, it
+would be easy to determine their relative ages.
+
+The third method is that of (3) _anatomy_, which is a study of the
+comparative size and shape of the bones of man and other animals as a
+method of showing relative periods of existence.  Also, just as the
+structure of the bones of a child, as compared with that of a man,
+would determine their relative ages, so the bones of the species that
+have been preserved through fossilization may show the relative ages of
+different types of animals.  The study of the skeletons of animals,
+including those of man, has led to the science of anthropometry.
+
+The fourth method is to study the procession of man by (4) _cultures_,
+or the industrial and ornamental implements that have been preserved in
+the river drift, rocks, and caves of the earth from the time that man
+used them until they were discovered.  Just as we have to-day models of
+the improvement of the sewing-machine, the reaper, or the
+flying-machine, each one a little more perfect, so we shall find in the
+relics of prehistoric times this same gradual development--first a
+stone in its natural state used for cutting, then chipped to make it
+more perfect, and finally beautified in form and perfected by polishing.
+
+Thus we shall find progress from the natural stone boulder used for
+throwing and hammering, the developed product made by chipping and
+polishing the natural boulder, making it more useful and more
+beautiful, and so for all the {62} multitude of implements used in the
+hunt and in domestic affairs.  Not only do we have here an illustration
+of continuous progress in invention and use, but also an adaptation of
+new material, for we pass from the use of stone to that of metals,
+probably in the prehistoric period, although the beginnings of the use
+of bronze and iron come mainly within the periods of historical records.
+
+It is not possible here to follow the interesting history of the
+glacial movement, but a few words of explanation seem necessary.  The
+Ice Age, or the glacial period, refers to a span of time ranging from
+500,000 years ago, at the beginning of the first glaciation, to the
+close of the post-glacial period, about 25,000 years ago.  During this
+period great ice caps, ranging in the valleys and spreading out on the
+plains over a broad area, proceeded from the north of Europe to the
+south, covering at the extreme stages nearly the entire surface of the
+continent.  This great movement consists of four distinct forward
+movements and their return movements.  There is evidence to show that
+before the south movement of the first great ice cap, a temperate
+climate extended very far toward the pole and gave opportunity for
+vegetation now extinct in that region.
+
+But as the river of ice proceeded south, plants and animals retreated
+before it, some of them changing their nature to endure the excessive
+cold.  Then came a climatic change which melted the ice and gradually
+drove the margin of the glacier farther north.  Immediately under the
+influence of the warm winds the vegetation and animals followed slowly
+at a distance the movement of the glacier.  Then followed a long
+inter-glacial period before the southerly movement of the returning ice
+cap.  This in turn retreated to the north, and thus four separate times
+this great movement, one of the greatest geological phenomena of the
+earth, occurred, leaving an opportunity to study four different glacial
+periods with three warmer interglacial and one warm post-glacial.
+
+This movement gave great opportunity for the study of {63} geology,
+paleontology, and the archeology of man.  That is, the story of the
+relationship of the earth to plant, animal, and man was revealed.  The
+regularity of these movements and the amount of material evidence found
+furnish a great opportunity for measuring geological time movements and
+hence the life of plants and animals, including man.
+
+The table on page 64 will contribute to the clearness of this brief
+statement about the glacial periods.
+
+
+======================================================================
+
+{64}
+
+THE ICE AGE IN EUROPE[5]
+
+Geological time-unit 25,000 years
+
+                            RELA-
+                            TIVE     TOTAL
+                            TIME     TIME      HUMAN         ANIMAL AND
+      GLACIERS       UNIT   YRS.     YRS.      LIFE          PLANT LIFE
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+      Post-Glacial     1    25,000   25,000    Cro-Magnon    Horse, Stag, Rein-
+        Daum                                   Azilian         deer, Musk-Ox,
+        Geschintz                              Magdalenian     Arctic Fox, Pine,
+        Buehl                                   Solutrian       Birch, Oak
+                                               Aurignacian
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+      4th Glacial      1    25,000   50,000    Mousterian    Reindeer, period of
+        Wurm Ice                               Neanderthal     Tundra, Alpine,
+                                                               Steppe, Meadow
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Q   3d Inter-        4   100,000  150,000    Pre-Neander-  Last warm Asiatic
+  U     glacial                                  thal          and African ani-
+  A                                            Piltdown        mals
+  R ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  T   3d Glacial       1    25,000  175,000                  Woolly Mammoth,
+  E     Riss                                                   Rhinoceros,
+  R                                                            Reindeer
+  N ---------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  A   2d Inter-        8   200,000  375,000    Heidelberg    African and Asiatic
+  R     glacial                                  Race          Animals, Ele-
+  Y     Mindel-Riss                                            phant, Hippo-
+                                                               potamus
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+      2d Glacial       1    25,000  400,000                  Cold weather
+        Mindel                                                 animals
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+      1st Inter-       3    75,000  475,000    Pithecan-     Hippopotamus,
+        glacial                                  thropus       Elephant, Afri-
+                                                 Erectus       can and Asiatic
+                                                               plants
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+      1st Glacial      1    25,000   500,000
+  =============================================================================
+  T
+  E
+  R
+  T
+  I
+  A
+  R
+  Y
+  -----------------------------------------------------------------------------
+
+======================================================================
+
+
+_Prehistoric Types of the Human Race_.--The earliest record of human
+life yet discovered is the _Pithecanthropus Erectus_ (Trinil), the
+apelike man who walked upright, found in Java by Du Bois, about the
+year 1892.  Enough of the skeletal remains of human beings were found
+at this time to indicate a man of rather crude form and low brain
+capacity (about 885 c.c.), with possible powers of speech but with no
+probably developed language or no assumption of the acquaintance with
+the arts of life.[4]
+
+The remains of this man associated with the remains of one other
+skeleton, probably a woman, and with the bones of extinct animals, were
+found in a geological stratum which indicates his age at about 500,000
+years.  Professor McGregor, after a careful anatomical study, has
+reproduced the head and bust of Pithecanthropus, which helps us to
+visualize this primitive species as of rather low cultural type.  The
+low forehead, massive jaw, and receding chin give us a vision of an
+undeveloped species of the human race, in some respects not much above
+the anthropoid apes, yet in other characters distinctly human.
+
+There follows a long interval of human development which is only
+conjectural until the discovery of the bones of the Heidelberg man,
+found at the south of the River Neckar.  These are the first records of
+the human race found in southern Europe.  The type of man is still
+apelike in some respects, but far in advance of the Pithecanthropus in
+structure and general appearance.  The restoration by the Belgian
+artist Mascre {65} under the direction of Professor A. Rotot, of
+Brussels, is indicative of larger brain capacity than the Trinil race.
+It had a massive jaw, distinctive nose, heavy arched brows, and still
+the receding chin.  Not many cultural remains were found in strata of
+the second interglacial period along with the remains of extinct
+animals, such as the ancient elephant, Etruscan rhinoceros, primitive
+bison, primitive ox, Auvergne bear, and lion.  A fauna and a flora as
+well as a geological structure were found which would indicate that
+this race existed at this place about 375,000 years ago.  From these
+evidences very little may be determined of the Heidelberg man's
+cultural development, but much may be inferred.  Undoubtedly, like the
+Pithecanthropus, he was a man without the tools of civilization, or at
+least had not developed far in this way.
+
+About 150,000 years ago there appeared in Europe races of mankind that
+left more relics of their civilization.[6] These were the
+Neanderthaloid races.  There is no evidence of the connection of these
+races with the Java man or the Heidelberg man.  Here, as elsewhere in
+the evolution of races and species, nature does not work in a straight
+line of descent, but by differentiation and variation.
+
+In 1856 the first discovery of a specimen of the Neanderthal man was
+found at the entrance of a small ravine on the right bank of the River
+Dussel, in Rhenish Prussia.  This was the first discovery of the
+Paleolithic man to cause serious reflection on the possibility of a
+prehistoric race in Europe.  Its age is estimated at 50,000 years.
+This was followed by other discoveries of the Mid-Pleistocene period,
+until there were a number of discoveries of similar specimens of the
+Neanderthal race, varying in some respects from each other.  The first
+had a brain capacity of 1230 c.c., while that of the average European
+is about 1500 c.c.  Some of the specimens showed a skull capacity
+larger than the first specimen, but the average is lower than that of
+any living race, unless it be that of the Australians.
+
+{66}
+
+Later were discovered human remains of a somewhat higher type, known as
+the Aurignacian, of the Cro-Magnon race.  These are probably ancestors
+of the living races of Europe existing 25,000 to 50,000 years ago.
+They represent the first races to which may be accorded definite
+relationship with the recent races.
+
+Thus we have evidences of the great antiquity of man and a series of
+remains showing continual advancement over a period of nearly 500,000
+years--the Pithecanthropus, Heidelberg, Piltdown, and Neanderthal,
+though expressing gradations of development in the order named, appear
+to be unrelated in their origin and descent, and are classed as
+separate species long since extinct.  The Cro-Magnon people seem more
+directly related to modern man.  Perhaps in the Neolithic Age they may
+have been the forebears of present races, either through direct or
+indirect lines.
+
+_The Unity of the Human Race_.--Though there are evidences, as shown
+above, that there were many branches of the human race, or species,
+some of which became extinct without leaving any records of the passing
+on of their cultures to others, there is a pretty generally concerted
+opinion that all branches of the human race are related and have sprung
+from the same ancestors.  There have been differences of opinion
+regarding this view, some holding that there are several centres of
+development in which the precursor of man assumed a human form
+(polygenesis), and others holding that according to the law of
+differentiation and zoological development there must have been at some
+time one origin of the species (monogenesis).  So far as the scientific
+investigation of mankind is concerned, it is rather immaterial which
+theory is accepted.  We know that multitudes of tribes and races differ
+in minor parts of structure, differ in mental capacity, and hence in
+qualities of civilization, and yet in general form, brain structure,
+and mental processes, it is the same human being wherever found.  So we
+may assume that there is a unity of the race.
+
+If we consider the human race to have sprung from a single {67} pair,
+or even the development of man from a single species, it must have
+taken a long time to have developed the great marks of racial
+differences that now exist.  The question of unity or plurality of race
+origins has been much discussed, and is still somewhat in controversy,
+although the predominance of evidence is much in favor of the descent
+of man from a single species and from a single place.  The elder
+Agassiz held that there were several separate species of the race,
+which accounts for the wide divergence of characteristics and
+conditions.  But it is generally admitted from a zoological standpoint
+that man originated from a single species, although it does not
+necessarily follow that he came from a single pair.  It is the
+diversity or the unity of the race from a single pair which gives rise
+to the greatest controversy.
+
+There is a wide diversity of opinion among ethnologists on this
+question.  Agassiz was followed by French writers, among whom were
+Topinard and Herve, who held firmly to the plurality of centres of
+origin and distribution.  Agassiz thought there were at least nine
+centres in which man appeared, each independent of the others.  Morton
+thought he could point out twenty-two such centres, and Nott and
+Gliddon advanced the idea that there were distinct races of people.
+But Darwin, basing his arguments upon the uniformity of physical
+structure and similarity of mental characteristics, held that man came
+from a single progenitor.  This theory is the most acceptable, and it
+is easily explained, if we admit time enough for the necessary changes
+in the structure and appearance of man.  It is the simplest hypothesis
+that is given, and explains the facts relative to the existence of man
+much more easily than does the theory in reference to diversity of
+origins.  The majority of ethnologists of America and Europe appear to
+favor the idea that man came from a single pair, arose from one place,
+and spread thence over the earth's surface.
+
+_The Primitive Home of Man May Be Determined in a General Way_.--The
+location of the cradle of the race has not {68} yet been satisfactorily
+established.  The inference drawn from the Bible story of the creation
+places it in or near the valley of the Euphrates River.  Others hold
+that the place was in Europe, and others still in America.  A theory
+has also been advanced that a continent or group of large islands
+called Lemuria, occupying the place where the Indian Ocean now lies,
+and extending from Ceylon to Madagascar, was the locality in which the
+human race originated.  The advocates of this theory hold to it chiefly
+on the ground that it is necessary to account for the peopling of
+Australia and other large islands and continents, and that it is the
+country best fitted by climate and other physical conditions for the
+primitive race.  This submerged continent would enable the races to
+migrate readily to different parts of the world, still going by dry
+land.
+
+There is little more than conjecture upon this subject, and the
+continent called Lemuria is as mythical as the Ethiopia of Ptolemy and
+the Atlantis of Plato.  It is a convenient theory, as it places the
+cradle of the race near the five great rivers, the Tigris, Euphrates,
+Indus, Ganges, and the Nile.  The supposed home also lies in a zone in
+which the animals most resembling man are found, which is an important
+consideration; as, in the development of the earth, animals appeared
+according to the conditions of climate and food supply, so the portion
+of the earth best prepared for man's early life is most likely to be
+his first home.
+
+Although it is impossible to determine the first home of man, either
+from a scientific or an historical standpoint, there are a few
+well-acknowledged theories to be observed: First, as the islands of the
+ocean were not peopled when first discovered by modern navigators, it
+is reasonable to suppose that the primitive home of man was on one of
+the continents.  As man is the highest and last development of organic
+nature, it is advocated, with considerable force of argument, that his
+first home was in a region suitable to the life of the anthropoid apes.
+As none of these, either living or fossil, are found in Australia or
+America, these continents are practically excluded from the probable
+list of places for the early home of man.
+
+{69}
+
+In considering the great changes which have taken place in the earth's
+surface, southern India and southern Africa were large islands at the
+time of man's appearance; hence, there is little probability of either
+of these being the primitive home.  None of the oldest remains of man
+have been found in the high northern latitudes of Europe or America.
+We have then left a strip of country on the southern slope of the great
+mountain chain which begins in western Europe and extends to the
+Himalaya Mountains, in Asia, which appears to be the territory in which
+was situated the early home of man.  The geological relics and the
+distribution of the race both point to the fact that in this belt man's
+life began; but it is not determined whether it was in Europe or in
+Asia, there being adherents to both theories.
+
+_The Antiquity of Man Is Shown in Racial Differentiation_.--Granted
+that the life of the human race has originated from a common biological
+origin and from a common geographical centre, it has taken a very long
+time for the races to be differentiated into the physical traits they
+possess to-day, as it has taken a long time for man to spread over the
+earth.  The generalized man wandering along the streams and through the
+forests in search of food, seeking for shelter under rocks and in caves
+and trees, was turned aside by the impassable barriers of mountains, or
+the forbidding glacier, the roaring torrent, or the limits of the ocean
+itself, and spread over the accessible parts of the earth's surface
+until he had covered the selected districts on the main portions of the
+globe.  Then came race specialization, where a group remained a long
+time in the same environment and inbred in the same stock, developing
+specialized racial characters.  These changes were very slow, and the
+wide difference to-day between the Asiatic, the African, and the
+European is indicative of the long period of years which brought them
+about.  Certainly, six thousand years would not suffice to make such
+changes.
+
+Of course one must realize that just as, in the period of childhood,
+the plastic state of life, changes of structure and appearance are more
+rapid than in the mature man, after {70} traits and characters have
+become more fixed, so by analogy we may assume that this was the way of
+the human race and that in the earlier period changes were more rapid
+than they are to-day.  Thus in the cross-fertilizations and
+amalgamation of races we would expect a slower development than under
+these earlier conditions, yet when we realize the persistence of the
+types of Irish and German, of Italian and Greek, of Japanese and
+Chinese, even though the races become amalgamated, we must infer that
+the racial types were very slow in developing.
+
+If we consider the variations in the structure and appearance of the
+several tribes and races with which we come in contact in every-day
+life, we are impressed with the amount of time necessary to make these
+changes.  Thus the Anglo-American, whom we sometimes call Caucasian,
+taken as one type of the perfection of physical structure and mental
+habit, with his brown hair, having a slight tendency to curl, his fair
+skin, high, prominent, and broad forehead, his great brain capacity,
+his long head and delicately moulded features, contrasts very strongly
+with the negro, with his black skin, long head, with flat, narrow
+forehead, thick lips, projecting jaw, broad nose, and black and woolly
+hair.  The Chinese, with his yellow skin, flat nose, black, coarse
+hair, and oblique, almond-shaped eyes, and round skull, marks another
+distinct racial type.  Other great races have different
+characteristics, and among our own race we find a further separation
+into two great types, the blonds and the brunettes.
+
+What a long period of time must have elapsed to have changed the racial
+characteristics!  From pictures made three thousand years ago in Egypt
+the differences of racial characteristics were very clearly depicted in
+the hair, the features of the face, and, indeed, the color of the skin.
+If at this period the racial differences were clearly marked, at what
+an early date must they have been wanting!  So, also, the antiquity of
+man is evinced in the fact that the oldest skeletons found show him at
+that early period to be in possession of an average {71} brain capacity
+and a well-developed frame.  If changes in structure have taken place,
+they have gradually appeared only during a long period of years.  Yet,
+when it is considered that man is a migratory creature, who can adapt
+himself to any condition of climate or other environment, and it is
+realized that in the early stage of his existence his time was occupied
+for a long period in hunting and fishing, and that from this practice
+he entered the pastoral life to continue, to a certain extent, his
+wanderings, it is evident that there is sufficient opportunity for the
+development of independent characteristics.  Also the effects of sun
+and storm, of climate and other environments have a great influence in
+the slow changes of the race which have taken place.  The change in
+racial traits is dependent largely upon biological selection, but
+environment and social selection probably had at least indirect
+influence in the evolution of racial characters.
+
+_The Evidences of Man's Ancient Life in Different Localities_.--The
+sources of the remains of the life of primitive man are (1) Caves, (2)
+Shell Mounds, (3) River and Glacial Drift, (4) Burial Mounds, (5)
+Battlefields and Village Sites, and (6) Lake Dwellings.  It is from
+these sources that most of the evidence of man's early life has come.
+
+_Caves_ (1).--It has been customary to allude to the cave man as if he
+were a distinct species or group of the human race, when in reality men
+at all times through many thousands of years dwelt in caves according
+to their convenience.  However, there was a period in European life
+when groups of the human race used caves for permanent habitations and
+thus developed certain racial types and habits.  Doubtless these were
+established long enough in permanent seats to develop a specialized
+type which might be known as the cave man, just as racial types have
+been developed in other conditions of habitation and life.  What
+concerns us most here is that the protection which the cave afforded
+this primitive man has been a means of protecting the records of his
+life, and thus added to the evidence of human progress.  Many of these
+{72} caves were of limestone with rough walls and floor, and in most
+instances rifts in the roof allowed water to percolate and drop to the
+floor.
+
+Frequently the water was impregnated with limestone solution, which
+became solidified as each drop left a deposit at the point of
+departure.  This formed rough stalactites, which might be called stone
+icicles, because their formation was similar to the formation of an
+icicle of the water dropping from the roof.  So likewise on the floor
+of the cave where the limestone solution dropped was built up from the
+bottom a covering of limestone with inverted stone icicles called
+stalagmites.  Underneath the latter were found layer after layer of
+relics from the habitation of man, encased in stone to be preserved
+forever or until broken into by some outside pressure.  Of course,
+comparatively few of all the relics around these habitations were
+preserved, because those outside of the stone encasement perished, as
+did undoubtedly large masses of remains around the mouth of the cave.
+
+In these caves of Europe are found the bones of man, flint implements,
+ornaments of bone with carvings, and the necklaces of animals' teeth,
+along with the bones of extinct animals.  In general the evidence shows
+the habits of the life of man and also the kind of animals with which
+he associated whose period of life was determined by other evidence.
+Besides this general evidence, there was a special determination of the
+progress of man, because the relics were in layers extending over a
+long period of years, giving evidence that from time to time implements
+of higher order were used, either showing progress or that different
+races may have occupied the cave at different times and left evidences
+of their industrial, economic, and social life.  In some of the caves
+skulls have been discovered showing a brain case of an average
+capacity, along with others of inferior size.  Probably the greater
+part of this cave life was in the upper part of the Paleolithic Stone
+Age.
+
+In some of these caves at the time of the Magdalenian {73} culture,
+which was a branch of the Cro-Magnon culture, there are to be found
+drawings and paintings of the horse, the cave bear, the mammoth, the
+bison, and many other animals, showing strong beginnings of
+representative art.  Also, in these caves were found bones and stone
+implements of a more highly finished product than those of the earlier
+primitive types of Europe.
+
+_Shell Mounds_ (2).--Shell mounds of Europe and America furnish
+definite records of man's life.  The shell mounds of greatest historic
+importance are found along the shores of the Baltic in Denmark.  Here
+are remains of a primitive people whose diet seems to be principally
+shell-fish obtained from the shores of the sea.  Around their kitchens
+the shells of mussels, scallops, and oysters were piled in heaps, and
+in these shell mounds, or Kitchenmiddens, as they are called
+(Kjokkenmoddings), are found implements, the bones of birds and
+mammals, as well as the remains of plants.  Also, by digging to the
+bottom of these mounds specimens of pottery are found, showing that the
+civilization belonged largely to the Neolithic period of man.
+
+There are evidences also of the succession of the varieties of trees
+corresponding to the evidences found in the peat bogs, the oak
+following the fir, which in turn gave way to the beech.  These refuse
+heaps are usually in ridgelike mounds, sometimes hundreds of yards in
+length.  The weight of the millions of shells and other refuse
+undoubtedly pressed the shells down into the soft earth and still the
+mound enlarged, the habitation being changed or raised higher, rather
+than to take the trouble to clear away the shells from the habitation.
+The variety of implements and the degrees of culture which they exhibit
+give evidence that men lived a long time in this particular locality.
+Undoubtedly it was the food quest that caused people to assemble here.
+The evidences of the coarse, dark pottery, the stone axes, clubs, and
+arrow-heads, and the bones of dogs show a state of civilization in
+which differentiation of life existed.  Shell mounds are also found
+along the {74} Pacific coast, showing the life of Indians from the time
+when they first began to use shell-fish for food.  In these mounds
+implements showing the relative stages of development have been found.
+
+_River and Glacial Drift_ (3).--The action of glaciers and glacial
+rivers and lakes has through erosion changed the surface of the soil,
+tearing out some parts of the earth's surface and depositing the soil
+elsewhere.  These river floods carried out bones of man and the
+implements in use, and deposited them, together with the bones of
+animals with which he lived.  Many of these relics have been preserved
+through thousands of years and frequently are brought to light.  The
+geological records are thus very important in throwing light upon the
+antiquity of man.  It is in the different layers or strata of the earth
+caused by these changes that we find the relics of ancient life.  The
+earth thus reveals in its rocks and gravel drift the permanent records
+of man's early life.  Historical geology shows us that the crust of the
+earth has been made by a series of layers, one above the other, and
+that the geologist determining the order of their creation has a means
+of ascertaining their relative age, and thus can measure approximately
+the life of the plants and animals connected with each separate
+layer.[7]  The relative ages of fishes, reptiles, and mammals,
+including man, are thus readily determined.
+
+It is necessary to refer to the method of classification adopted by
+geologists, who have divided the time of earth-making into three great
+periods, representing the growth of animal life, determined by the
+remains found in the strata or drift.  These periods mark general
+portions of time.  Below the first is the period of earliest rock
+formation (Archaean), in which there is no life, and which is called
+Azoic for that reason.  There is a short period above this, usually
+reckoned as outside the ancient life, on account of the few forms of
+animals found there; but the first great period (Paleozoic) represents
+non-vertebrate life, as well as the life of fishes and reptiles, and
+includes {75} also the coal measures, which represent a period of heavy
+vegetation.  The middle period (Mesozoic) includes the more completely
+developed lizards and crocodiles, and the appearance of mammals and
+birds.  The animal life of the third period (Cenozoic) resembles
+somewhat the modern species.  This period includes the Tertiary and the
+Quaternary and the recent sub-periods.  Man, the highest being in the
+order of creation, appears in the Quaternary period.  Of the immense
+ages of time represented by the geological periods the life of man
+represents but a small portion, just as the existence of man as
+recorded in history is but a modern period of his great life.  The
+changes, then, which have taken place in the animals and plants and the
+climate in the different geological periods have been instrumental in
+determining the age of man; that is, if in a given stratum human
+remains are found, and the relative age of that stratum is known, it is
+easy to estimate the relative age of man.
+
+Whether man existed prior to the glacial epoch is still in doubt.  Some
+anthropologists hold that he appeared at the latter part of the
+Tertiary, that is, in the Pliocene.  Reasons for assumption exist,
+though there is not sufficient evidence to make it conclusive.  The
+question is still in controversy, and doubtless will be until new
+discoveries bring new evidence.  If there is doubt about the finding of
+human relics in the Tertiary, there is no doubt about the evidence of
+man during the Quaternary, including the whole period of the glacial
+epoch, extending 500,000 years into the past.
+
+The relics of man which are found in the drift and elsewhere are the
+stone implements and the flakes chipped from the flint as he fashioned
+it into an axe, knife, or hatchet.  The implements commonly found are
+arrow-heads, knives, lance-heads, pestles, etc.  Human bones have been
+found imbedded in the rock or the sand.  Articles made of horn, bones
+of animals, especially the reindeer, notched or cut pieces of wood have
+been found.  Also there are evidences of rude drawings on stone, bone,
+or ivory; fragments of charcoal, which give {76} evidence of the use of
+fire in cooking or creating artificial heat, are found, and long bones
+split longitudinally to obtain marrow for food, and, finally, the
+remnants of pottery.  These represent the principal relics found in the
+Stone Age; to these may be added the implements in bronze and iron of
+later periods.
+
+A good example of the use of these relics to determine chronology is
+shown in the peat bogs of Denmark.  At the bottom are found trees of
+pine which grew on the edges of the bog and have fallen in.  Nearer the
+top are found oak and white birch-trees, and in the upper layer are
+found beech-trees closely allied to the species now covering the
+country.  The pines, oaks, and birches are not to be seen in that part
+of the country at present.  Here, then, is evidence of the successive
+replacement of different species of trees.  It is evident that it must
+have taken a long time for one species thus to replace another, but how
+long it is impossible to say.  In some of these bogs is found a
+gradation of implements, unpolished stone at the bottom, polished stone
+above, followed by bronze, and finally iron.  These are associated with
+the different forms of vegetable remains.
+
+In Europe stone implements occur in association with fossil remains of
+the cave lion, the cave hyena, the old elephant and rhinoceros--all
+extinct species.  Also the bones and horns of the reindeer are
+prominent in these remains, for at that time the reindeer came farther
+south than at present.  In southern France similar implements are
+associated with ivory and bones, with rude markings, and the bones of
+man--even a complete skeleton being found at one place.  These are all
+found in connection with the bones of the elk, ibex, aurochs, and
+reindeer.
+
+_Burial Mounds_ (4).--It is difficult to determine at just what period
+human beings began to bury their dead.  Primarily the bodies were
+disposed of the same as any other carrion that might occur--namely,
+they were left to decay wherever they dropped, or were subject to the
+disposal by wild {77} animals.  After the development of the idea of
+the perpetuation of life in another world, even though it were
+temporary or permanent, thoughts of preparing the body for its journey
+into the unknown land and for its residence thereafter caused people to
+place food and implements and clothing in the grave.  This practice
+probably occurred about the beginning of the Neolithic period of man's
+existence, and has continued on to the present date.
+
+Hence it is that in the graves of primitive man we find deposited the
+articles of daily use at the period in which he lived.  These have been
+preserved many centuries, showing something of the life of the people
+whose remains were deposited in the mounds.  Also in connection with
+this in furtherance of a religious idea were great dolmens and stone
+temples, where undoubtedly the ancients met to worship.  They give some
+evidence at least of the development of the religious and ceremonial
+life among these primitive people and to that extent they are of great
+importance.  It is evidence also, in another way, that the religious
+idea took strong hold of man at an early period of his existence.
+Evidences of man in Britain from the tumuli, or burial mounds, from
+rude stone temples like the famous Stonehenge place his existence on
+the island at a very early date.  Judging from skulls and skeletons
+there were several distinct groups of prehistoric man in Britain,
+varying from the extreme broad skulls to those of excessive length.
+They carry us back to the period of the Early Stone Age.  Relics, too,
+of the implements and mounds show something of the primitive conditions
+of the inhabitants in Britain of which we have any permanent record.
+
+_Battlefields and Village Sites_ (5).--In the later Neolithic period of
+man the tribes had been fully developed over a great part of the
+earth's surface, and fought for their existence, principally over
+territories having a food supply.  Other reasons for tribal conflict,
+such as real or imagined race differences and the ambition for race
+survival, caused constant warfare.  {78} Upon these battlefields were
+left the implements of war.  Those of stone, and, it may be said
+secondarily, of iron and bronze, were preserved.  It is not uncommon
+now in almost any part of the United States where the rains fall upon a
+ploughed field over which a battle had been fought, to find exposed a
+large number of arrow-heads and stone axes, all other perishable
+implements having long since decayed.  Or in some instances the wind
+blowing the sand exposes the implements which were long ago deposited
+during a battle.  Also, wherever the Indian villages were located for a
+period of years, the accumulations of utensils and implements occurred
+which were buried by the action of wind or water.  This represents a
+source of evidence of man's early life.
+
+_Lake Dwellings_ (6).--The idea of protection is evidenced everywhere
+in the history of primitive man; protection against the physical
+elements, protection against wild beasts and wilder men.  We find along
+the lakes and bays in both Europe and America the tendency to build the
+dwelling out in the water and approach it from the land with a narrow
+walk which could be taken up when not used, or to approach it by means
+of a rude boat.  In this way the dwellers could defend themselves
+against the onslaughts of tribal enemies.  These dwellings have been
+most numerous along the Swiss lakes, although some are found in
+Scotland, in the northern coast of South America, and elsewhere.  Their
+importance rests in the fact that, like the shell mounds
+(Kitchenmiddens), the refuse from these cabins shows large deposits of
+the implements and utensils that were in use during the period of
+tribal residence.  Here we find not only stone implements, running from
+the crude form of the Unpolished Stone Age to the highly polished, but
+also records of implements of bronze and small implements for domestic
+use of bone and polished stone.  Also there are evidences that
+different tribes or specialized races occupied these dwellings at
+different times, because of the variation of civilization implied by
+the implements in use.  The British Museum has a very large classified
+collection of {79} the implements procured from lake dwellings of
+Switzerland.  Other museums also have large collections.  A part of
+them run back into the prehistoric period of man and part extend even
+down to the historic.
+
+_Knowledge of Man's Antiquity Influences Reflective Thinking_.--The
+importance of studying the antiquity of man is the light which it
+throws upon the causes of later civilization.  In considering any phase
+of man's development it is necessary to realize he has been a long time
+on earth and that, while the law of the individual life is development,
+that of the human race is slowly evolutionary; hence, while we may look
+for immediate and rapid change, we can only be assured of a very slow
+progressive movement at all periods of man's existence.  The knowledge
+of his antiquity will give us a historical view which is of tremendous
+importance in considering the purpose and probable result of man's life
+on earth.  When we realize that we have evidence of the struggle of man
+for five hundred thousand years to get started as far as we have in
+civilization, and that more changes affecting man's progress may occur
+in a single year now than in a former thousand years, we realize
+something of the background of struggle before our present civilization
+could appear.  We realize, also, that his progress in the arts has been
+very slow and that, while there are many changes in art formation of
+to-day, we still have the evidences of the primitive in every completed
+picture, or plastic form, or structural work.  But the slow progress of
+all this shows, too, that the landmarks of civilization of the past are
+few and far between--distant mile-posts appearing at intervals of
+thousands of years.  Such a contemplation gives us food for thought and
+should invite patience when we wish in modern times for social
+transformations to become instantaneous, like the flash of the scimitar
+or the burst of an electric light.
+
+The evidence that man has been a long time on earth explodes the
+long-accepted theory of six thousand years as the age of man.  It also
+explodes the theory of instantaneous {80} creation which was expressed
+by some of the mediaeval philosophers.  Indeed, it explodes the theory
+of a special creation of man without connection with the creation of
+other living beings.  No doubt, there was a specialized creation of
+man, otherwise he never would have been greater than the anthropoids
+nor, indeed, than other mammals, but his specialization came about as
+an evolutionary process which gave him a tremendous brain-power whereby
+he was enabled to dominate all the rest of the world.  So far as
+philosophy is concerned as to man's life, purpose, and destiny, the
+influence of the study of anthropology would change the philosopher's
+vision of life to a certain extent.  The recognition that man is "part
+and parcel" of the universe, subject to cosmic law, as well as a
+specialized type, subject to the laws of evolution, and, indeed, that
+he is of a spiritual nature through which he is subjected to spiritual
+law, causes the philosopher to pause somewhat before he determines the
+purpose, the life, or the destiny of man.
+
+If we are to inquire how man came into the world, when he came, what he
+has been doing, how he developed, and whither the human trail leads, we
+shall encounter many unsolved theories.  Indeed, the facts of his life
+are suggestive of the mystery of being.  If it be suggested that he is
+"part and parcel" of nature and has slowly arisen out of lower forms,
+it should not be a humiliating thought, for his daily life is dependent
+upon the lower elements of nature.  The life of every day is dependent
+upon the dust of the earth.  The food he eats comes from the earth just
+the same as that of the hog, the rabbit, or the fish.  If, upon this
+foundation, he has by slow evolution built a more perfect form,
+developed a brain and a mind which give him the greatest flights of
+philosophy, art, and religion, is it not a thing to excite pride of
+being?  Could there be any greater miracle than evolving nature and
+developing life?  Indeed, is there any greater than the development of
+the individual man from a small germ not visible to the naked eye,
+through the egg, the embryo, infant, youth, to full-grown man?  Why not
+the working of the same law to {81} the development of man from the
+beginning.  Does it lessen the dignity of creation if this is done
+according to law?  On the other hand, does it not give credit to the
+greatness and power of the Creator if we recognize his wisdom in making
+the universe, including man, the most important factor, according to a
+universal plan worked out by far-reacting laws?
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Evidences of the great antiquity of man.
+
+2.  Physical and mental traits of the anthropoid apes.
+
+3.  The life and culture of the Neanderthal Race.
+
+4.  What are the evidences in favor of the descent of man from a single
+progenitor?
+
+5.  Explain the law of differentiation as applied to plants and animals.
+
+6.  Compare in general the arts of man in the Old Stone Age with those
+of the New Stone Age.
+
+7.  What has been the effect of the study of prehistoric man on modern
+thought as shown in the interpretation of History?  Philosophy?
+Religion?
+
+
+
+[1] See Diagram, p. 59.
+
+[2] See Haeckel, Schmidt, Ward, Robinson, Osborn, Todd.
+
+[3] See Osborn, _Men of the Old Stone Age_.
+
+[4] See Chapter II.
+
+[5] After Osborn.  Read from bottom up.
+
+[6] Estimates of Neanderthal vary from 150,000 to 50,000 years ago.
+
+[7] See p. 64.
+
+
+
+
+{82}
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+THE ECONOMIC FACTORS OF PROGRESS
+
+_The Efforts of Man to Satisfy Physical Needs_.--All knowledge of
+primitive man, whether derived from the records of cultures he has left
+or assumed from analogy of living tribes of a low order of
+civilization, discovers him wandering along the streams in the valleys
+or by the shores of lakes and oceans, searching for food and
+incidentally seeking protection in caves and trees.  The whole earth
+was his so far as he could appropriate it.  He cared nothing for
+ownership; he only wanted room to search for the food nature had
+provided.  When he failed to find sufficient food as nature left it, he
+starved.  So in his wandering life he adapted himself to nature as he
+found it.  In the different environments he acquired different customs
+and habits of life.  If he came in contact with other tribes, an
+exchange of knowledge and customs took place, and both tribes were
+richer thereby.  However, the universality of the human mind made it
+possible for two detached tribes, under similar environment and similar
+stimuli, to develop the same customs and habits of life, provided they
+had the same degree of development.  Hence, we have independent group
+development and group borrowing.
+
+When nature failed to provide him with sufficient food, he learned to
+force her to yield a larger supply.  When natural objects were
+insufficient for his purposes, he made artificial tools to supplement
+them.  Slowly he became an inventor.  Slowly he mastered the art of
+living.  Thus physical needs were gradually satisfied, and the
+foundation for the superstructure of civilization was laid.
+
+_The Attempt to Satisfy Hunger and to Protect from Cold_.--To this
+statement must be added the fact that struggle with {83} his fellows
+arose from the attempt to obtain food, and we have practically the
+whole occupation of man in a state of savagery.  At least, the simple
+activities represent the essential forces at the foundation of human
+social life.  The attempt to preserve life either through instinct,
+impulse, emotion, or rational selection is fundamental in all animal
+existence.  The other great factor at the foundation of human effort is
+the desire to perpetuate the species.  This, in fact, is the mere
+projection of the individual life into the next generation, and is
+fundamentally important to the individual and to the race alike.  All
+modern efforts can be traced to these three fundamental activities.
+But in seeking to satisfy the cravings of hunger and to avoid the pain
+of cold, man has developed a varied and active life.  About these two
+centres cluster all the simple forces of human progress.  Indeed,
+invention and discovery and the advancement of the industrial arts
+receive their initial impulses from these economic relations.
+
+We have only to turn our attention to the social life around us to
+observe evidences of the great importance of economic factors.  Even
+now it will be observed that the greater part of economic activities
+proceeds from the effort to procure food, clothing, and shelter, while
+a relatively smaller part is engaged in the pursuit of education,
+culture, and pleasure.  The excellence of educational systems, the
+highest flights of philosophy, the greatest achievement of art, and the
+best inspiration of religion cannot exist without a wholesome economic
+life at the foundation.  It should not be humiliating to man that this
+is so, for in the constitution of things, labor of body and mind, the
+struggle for existence and the accumulations of the products of
+industry yield a large return in themselves in discipline and culture;
+and while we use these economic means to reach higher ideal states,
+they represent the ladder on which man makes the first rounds of his
+ascent.
+
+_The Methods of Procuring Food in Primitive Times_.--Judging from the
+races and tribes that are more nearly in a state of nature than any
+other, it may be reasonably assumed that {84} in his first stage of
+existence, man subsisted almost wholly upon a vegetable diet, and that
+gradually he gave more and more attention to animal food.  His
+structure and physiology make it possible for him to use both animal
+and vegetable food.  Primarily, with equal satisfaction the procuring
+of food must have been rather an individual than a social function.
+Each individual sought his own breakfast wherever he might find it.  It
+was true then, as now, that people proceeded to the breakfast table in
+an aggregation, and flocked around the centres of food supply; so we
+may assume the picture of man stealing away alone, picking fruits,
+nuts, berries, gathering clams or fish, was no more common than the
+fact of present-day man getting his own breakfast alone.  The main
+difference is that in the former condition individuals obtained the
+food as nature left it, and passed it directly from the bush or tree to
+the mouth, while in modern times thousands of people have been working
+indirectly to make it possible for a man to wait on himself.
+
+Jack London, in his _Before Adam_, gives a very interesting picture of
+the tribe going out to the carrot field for its breakfast, each
+individual helping himself.  However, such an aggregation around a
+common food supply must eventually lead to co-operative economic
+methods.  But we do find even among modern living tribes of low degree
+of culture the group following the food quest, whether it be to the
+carrot patch, the nut-bearing trees, the sedgy seashore for mussels and
+clams, the lakes for wild rice, or to the forest and plains where
+abound wild game.
+
+We find it difficult to think otherwise than that the place of man's
+first appearance was one abounding in edible fruits.  This fact arises
+from the study of man's nature and evidences of the location of his
+first appearance, together with the study of climate and vegetation.
+There are a good many suggestions also that man in his primitive
+condition was prepared for a vegetable diet, and indications are that
+later he acquired use of meat as food.  Indeed, the berries and edible
+roots of {85} certain regions are in sufficient quantity to sustain
+life throughout a greater part of the year.  The weaker tribes of
+California at the time of the first European invaders, and for many
+centuries previous, found a greater part of their sustenance in edible
+roots extracted from the soil, in nuts, seeds of wild grains, and
+grasses.  It is true they captured a little wild game, and in certain
+seasons many of them made excursions to the ocean or frequented the
+streams for fish or shell-fish, but their chief diet was vegetable.  It
+must be remembered, also, that all of the cultivated fruits to-day
+formerly existed, in one variety or another, in the wild species.  Thus
+the citrous fruits, the date, the banana, breadfruit, papaw, persimmon,
+apple, cherry, plum, pear, all grew in a wild state, providing food for
+man if he were ready to take it as provided.  Rational selection has
+assisted nature in improving the quality of grains and fruits and in
+developing new varieties.
+
+In the tropical regions was found the greatest supply of edible fruits.
+Thus the Malays and the Papuans find sufficient food on trees to supply
+their wants.  Many people in some of the groups in the South Sea
+Islands live on cocoanuts.  In South America several species of trees
+are cultivated by the natives for the food they furnish.  The palm
+family contributes much food to the natives, and also furnishes a large
+supply of food to the markets of the world.  The well-known breadfruit
+tree bears during eight successive months in the year, and by burying
+the fruit in the ground it may be preserved for food for the remaining
+four months.  Thus a single plant may be made to provide a continuous
+food supply for the inhabitants of the Moluccas and Philippines.  Many
+other instances of fruits in abundance, such as the nuts from the
+araucarias of South America, and beans from the mesquite of Mexico,
+might be given to show that it is possible for man to subsist without
+the use of animal food.
+
+_The Variety of Food Was Constantly Increased_.--Undoubtedly, one of
+the chief causes of the wandering of primitive man over the earth, in
+the valleys, along stream, lake, and ocean, {86} over the plains and
+through the hills, was the quest for food to preserve life; and even
+after tribes became permanent residents in a certain territory, there
+was a constant shifting from one source of food supply to another
+throughout the seasons.  However, after tribes became more settled, the
+increase of population encroached upon the native food supply, and man
+began to use his invention for the purpose of its increase.  He learned
+how to plant seeds which were ordinarily believed to be sown by the
+gods, and to till the soil and raise fruits and vegetables for his own
+consumption.  This was a period of accidental agriculture, or hoe
+culture, whereby the ground was tilled by women with hoes of stone, or
+bone, or wood.  In the meantime, the increase of animal food became a
+necessity.  Man learned how to snare and trap animals, to fish and to
+gather shell-fish, learning by degrees to use new foods as discovered
+as nature left them.  Life become a veritable struggle for existence as
+the population increased and the lands upon which man dwelt yielded
+insufficient supply of food.  The increased variety of food allowed man
+to adapt himself to the different climates.  Thus in the colder
+climates animal food became desirable to enable him to resist more
+readily the rigors of climate.  It was not necessary, it is supposed,
+to give him physical courage or intellectual development, for there
+appear to be evidences of tribes like the Maoris of New Zealand, who on
+the diet of fish and roots became a most powerful and sagacious people.
+But the change from a vegetable diet to a meat-and-fish diet in the
+early period brought forth renewed energy of body and mind, not only on
+account of the necessary physical exertion but on account of the
+invention of devices for the capture of fish and game.
+
+_The Food Supply Was Increased by Inventions_.--Probably the first meat
+food supply was in the form of shell-fish which could be gathered near
+the shores of lakes and streams.  Probably small game was secured by
+the use of stones and sticks and by running the animal down until he
+was exhausted or until he hid in a place inaccessible to the pursuer.
+The {87} boomerang, as used by the Australians in killing game, may
+have been an early product of the people of Neolithic Europe.  In the
+latter part of the Paleolithic Age, fish-hooks of bone were used, and
+probably snares invented for small game.  The large game could not be
+secured without the use of the spear and the co-operation of a number
+of hunters.  In all probability this occurred in the New Stone Age.
+
+The invention of the bow-and-arrow was of tremendous importance in
+securing food.  It is not known what led to its invention, although the
+discovery of the flexible power of the shrub, or the small sapling,
+must have occurred to man as he struggled through the brush.  It is
+thought by some that the use of the bow fire-drill, which was for the
+purpose of striking fire by friction, might have displayed driving
+power when the drill wound up in the string of the bow flew from its
+confinement.  However, this is conjectural; but, judging from the
+inventions of known tribes, it is evident that necessity has always
+been the moving power in invention.  The bow-and-arrow was developed in
+certain centres and probably through trade and exchange extended to
+other tribes and groups until it was universally used.  It is
+interesting to note how many thousands of years this must have been the
+chief weapon for destroying animals or crippling game at a distance.
+Even as late as the Norman conquest, the bow-and-arrow was the chief
+means of defense of the Anglo-Saxon yeoman, and for many previous
+centuries in the historic period had been the chief implement in
+warfare and in the chase.  The use of the spear in fishing supplemented
+that of the hook, and is found among all low-cultured tribes of the
+present day.  The American Indian will stand on a rock in the middle of
+a stream, silently, for an hour if necessary, watching for a chance to
+spear a salmon.  These small devices were of tremendous importance in
+increasing the food supply, and the making of them became a permanent
+industry.
+
+Along with the bow and arrow were developed many kinds of spears, axes,
+and hammers, invented chiefly to be used in {88} war, but also used for
+economic reasons.  In the preparation of animal food, in the tanning of
+skins, in the making of clothing, another set of stone implements was
+developed.  So, likewise, in the grinding of seeds, the mortar and
+pestle were used, and the small hand-mill or grinder was devised.  The
+sign of the mortar and pestle at the front of drug-stores brings to
+mind the fact that its first use was not for preparing medicines, but
+for grinding grains and seeds.
+
+_The Discovery and Use of Fire_.--The use of fire was practised in the
+early history of man.  Among the earliest records in caves are found
+evidences of the use of fire.  Charcoal is practically indestructible,
+and, although it may be crushed, the small particles maintain their
+shape in the clays and sands.  In nearly all of the relics of man
+discovered in caves, the evidences of fire are to be found, and no
+living tribe has yet been discovered so low in the scale of life as to
+be without the knowledge of fire and probably its simple uses, although
+a few tribes have been for the time being without fire when first
+discovered.  This might seem to indicate that at a very early period
+man did not know how to create fire artificially, but carried it and
+preserved it in his wanderings.  There are indications that a certain
+individual was custodian of the fire, and later it was carried by the
+priest or _cacique_.  Here, as in other instances in the development of
+the human race, an economic factor soon assumes a religious
+significance, and fire becomes sacred.
+
+There are many conjectures respecting the discovery of fire.  Probably
+the two real sources are of lightning that struck forest trees and set
+them on fire and the action of volcanoes in throwing out burning lava,
+which ignited combustible material.  Either one or the other, and
+perhaps both, of these methods may have furnished man with fire.
+Others have suggested that the rubbing together of dead limbs of trees
+in the forests after they were moved by the winds, may have created
+fire by friction.  It is possible, also, that the sun's rays may have,
+when concentrated on combustible {89} material, caused spontaneous
+ignition.  The idea has been advanced that some of the forest fires of
+recent times have been ignited in this way.  However, it is evident
+that there are enough natural sources in the creation of fire to enable
+tribes to use it for the purposes of artificial heat, cooking, and
+later, in the age of metals, of smelting ores.
+
+There has always been a mystery connected with the origin and use of
+fire, which has led to many myths.  Thus, the Greeks insisted that
+Prometheus, in order to perform a great service to humanity, stole fire
+from heaven and gave it to man.  For this crime against the authority
+of the gods, he was chained to a rock to suffer the torture of the
+vulture who pecked at his vitals.  Aeschylus has made the most of this
+old legend in his great drama of _Prometheus Bound_.  Nearly every
+tribe or nation has some tradition regarding the origin of fire.
+Because of its mystery and its economic value, it was early connected
+with religion and made sacred in many instances.  It was thus preserved
+at the altar, never being allowed to become extinct without the fear of
+dire calamity.  Perhaps the economic and religious ideas combined,
+because tribes in travelling from place to place exercised great care
+to preserve it.  The use of fire in worship became almost universal
+among tribes and ancient nations.  Thus the Hebrews and the Aryans,
+including Greeks, Romans, and Persians, as well as the Chinese and
+Japanese, used fire in worship.  Among other tribes it was worshipped
+as a symbol or even as a real deity.  Even in the Christian religion,
+the use of the burning incense may have some psychological connection
+with the idea of purification through fire.  Whether its mysterious
+nature led to its connection with worship, and the superstition
+connected with its continued burning, or whether from economic reasons
+it became a sacred matter, has never been determined.  The custom that
+a fire should never go out upon the altar, and that it should be
+carried in migrations from place to place, would seem to indicate that
+these two motives were closely allied, if not related in cause and
+effect.
+
+{90}
+
+Evidently, fire was used for centuries before man invented methods of
+reproducing it.  Simple as the process involved, it was a great
+invention; or it may be stated that many devices were resorted to for
+the creation of artificial fire.  Perhaps the earliest was that of
+rubbing two pieces of dry wood together, producing fire by friction.
+This could be accomplished by persistent friction of two ordinary
+pieces of dry wood, or by drilling a hole in a dry piece of wood with a
+pointed stick until heat was developed and a spark produced to ignite
+pieces of dry bark or grass.  Another way was to make a groove in a
+block of wood and run the end of a stick rapidly back and forth through
+the groove.  An invention called the fire-drill was simply a method of
+twirling rapidly in the hand a wooden drill which was in contact with
+dry wood, or by winding a string of the bow several times around the
+drill and moving the bow back and forth horizontally, giving rapid
+motion to the drill.
+
+As tribes became more advanced, they used two pieces of flint with
+which to strike fire, and after the discovery of iron, the flint and
+iron were used.  How many centuries these simple devices were essential
+to the progress and even to the life of tribes, is not known; but when
+we realize that but a few short years ago our fathers lighted the fire
+with flint and steel, and that before the percussion cap was invented,
+the powder in the musket was ignited by flint and hammer, we see how
+important to civilization were these simple devices of producing fire
+artificially.  So simple an invention as the discovery of the friction
+match saved hours of labor and permitted hours of leisure to be used in
+other ways.  It is one of the vagaries of human progress that a simple
+device remains in use for thousands of years before its clumsy method
+gives way to a new invention only one step in advance of the old.
+
+_Cooking Added to the Economy of the Food Supply_.--Primitive man
+doubtless consumed his food raw.  The transition of the custom of
+uncooked food to cooked food must have been gradual.  We only know that
+many of the backward tribes of {91} to-day are using primitive methods
+of cooking, and the man of the Stone Ages had methods of cooking the
+meat of animals.  In all probability, the suggestion came as people
+were grouped around the fire for artificial heat, and then, either by
+intention or desire, the experiment of cooking began.  After man had
+learned to make water-tight baskets, a common device of cooking was to
+put water in the basket and, after heating stones on a fire, put them
+in the basket to heat the water and then place the food in the basket
+to be cooked.  This method is carried on by the Indians in some parts
+of Alaska to this day, where they use a water-tight basket for this
+purpose.  Probably this method of cooking food was a later development
+than the roasting of food on coals or in the ashes, or in the use of
+the wooden spit.  Catlin, in his _North American Indians_, relates that
+certain tribes of Indians dig a hole in the ground and line it with
+hide filled with water, then place hot stones in the water, in which
+they place their fish, game, or meat for cooking.  This is interesting,
+because it carries out a more or less universal idea of adaptation to
+environment.  Probably the plains Indians had no baskets or other
+vessels to use for this purpose, but they are found to have used
+similar methods of cooking grasshoppers.  They dig a hole in the
+ground, build a fire in the hole, and take the fire out and put in the
+grasshoppers.  Thus, they have an exhibition of the first fireless
+cooker.
+
+It is thought by some that the need of vessels which would endure the
+heat was the cause of the invention of pottery.  While there seems to
+be little evidence of this, it is easy to conjecture that when water
+was needed to be heated in a basket, a mass of clay would be put on the
+bottom of the basket before it was put over the coals of fire.  After
+the cooking was done, the basket could easily be detached from the
+clay, leaving a hard-baked bowl.  This led to the suggestion of making
+bowls of clay and baking them for common use.  Others suggest that the
+fact of making holes in the ground for cooking purposes gave the
+suggestion that by the use of clay a portable vessel might be made for
+similar purposes.
+
+{92}
+
+The economic value of cooking rests in the fact that a larger utility
+comes from the cooked than from the raw food.  Though the phenomena of
+physical development of tribes and nations cannot be explained by the
+chemical constituents of food, although they are not without a positive
+influence.  Evidently the preparation of food has much to do with man's
+progress, and the art of cooking was a great step in advance.  The
+better utilization of food was a time-saving process--and, indeed, in
+many instances may have been a life-saving affair.
+
+_The Domestication of Animals_.--The time and place of the
+domestication of animals are not satisfactorily determined.  We know
+that Paleolithic man had domesticated the dog, and probably for
+centuries this was the only animal domesticated; but it is known that
+low forest tribes have tamed monkeys and parrots for pets, and savage
+tribes frequently have a band of dogs for hunting game or guarding the
+hut.  While it may be supposed that domestication of animals may have
+occurred in the prehistoric period, the use of such animals has been in
+the historic period.  There are many evidences of the domesticated dog
+at the beginning of the Neolithic period.  However, these animals may
+have still been nearly half wild.  It is not until the period of the
+Lake Dwellings of Switzerland that we can discriminate between the wild
+animals and those that have been tamed.  In the Lake Dwelling debris
+are found the bones of the wild bull, or _urus_, of Europe.  Probably
+this large, long-horned animal was then in a wild state, and had been
+hunted for food.  Alongside of these remains are those of a small,
+short-horned animal, supposed to have been domesticated.  Later, though
+still in the Neolithic period, remains of short-horned tame cattle
+appear in the refuse of the Lake Dwellings.  It is thought by some that
+these two varieties--the long-horned _urus_ and the short-horned
+domesticated animal brought from the south--were crossed, which gave
+rise to the origin of the present stock of modern cattle in central
+Europe.  Pigs and sheep were probably domesticated in Asia {93} and
+brought into Europe during the later Neolithic or early Bronze period.
+
+The horse was domesticated in Asia, and Clark Wissler[1] shows that to
+be one great centre of cultural distribution for this animal.  It
+spread from Asia into Europe, and from Europe into America.  The llama
+was early domesticated in South America.  The American turkey had its
+native home in Mexico, the hen in Asia.  The dog, though domesticated
+very early in Asia, has gone wherever the human race has migrated, as
+the constant companion of man.  The horse, while domesticated in Asia,
+depends upon the culture of Europe for his large and extended use, and
+has spread over the world.  We find that in the historic period the
+Aryan people everywhere made use of the domesticated goat, horse, and
+dog.  In the northern part of Europe, the reindeer early became of
+great service to the inhabitants for milk, meat, and clothing.  The
+great supply of milk and meat from domesticated animals added
+tremendously to the food supply of the race, and made it possible for
+it to develop in other lines.  Along with the food supply has been the
+use of these animals for increasing the clothing supply through hides,
+furs, skins, and wool.  The domestication of animals laid the
+foundation for great economic advancement.
+
+_The Beginnings of Agriculture Were Very Meagre_.--Man had gathered
+seeds and fruit and berries for many years before he conceived the
+notion of planting seeds and cultivating crops.  It appears to be a
+long time before he knew enough to gather seeds and plant them for a
+harvest.  Having discovered this, it was only necessary to have the
+will and energy to prepare the soil, sow the seed, and harvest a crop
+in order to enter upon agriculture.  But to learn this simple act must
+have required many crude experiments.  In the migrations of mankind
+they adopted a little intermittent agriculture, planting the grains
+while the tribe paused for pasture of flocks and herds, and resting
+long enough for a crop to be harvested.  {94} They gradually began to
+supplement the work of the pastoral with temporary agriculture, which
+was used as a means of supplementing the food supply.  It was not until
+people settled in permanent habitations and ceased their pastoral
+wanderings that real agriculture became established.  Even then it was
+a crude process, and, like every other economic industry of ancient
+times, its development was excessively slow.
+
+The wandering tribes of North America at the time of the discovery had
+reached the state of raising an occasional crop of corn.  Indeed, some
+tribes were quite constant in limited agriculture.  The sedentary
+Indians of New Mexico, old Mexico, and Peru also cultivated corn and
+other plants, as did those of Central America.  The first tillage of
+the soil was meagre, and the invention of agricultural implements
+proceeded slowly.  At first wandering savages carried a pointed stick
+to dig up the roots and tubers used for food.  The first agriculturists
+used sticks for stirring the soil, which finally became flattened in
+the form of a paddle or rude spade.  The hoe was evolved from the stone
+pick or hatchet.  It is said that the women of the North American
+tribes used a hoe made of an elk's shoulder-blade and a handle of wood.
+In Sweden the earliest records of tillage represent a huge hoe made
+from a stout limb of spruce with the sharpened root.  This was finally
+made heavier, and men dragged it through the soil in the manner of
+ploughing.  Subsequently the plough was made in two pieces, a handle
+having been added.  Finally a pair of cows yoked together were
+compelled to drag the plough.  Probably this is a fair illustration of
+the manner of the evolution of the plough in other countries.  It is
+also typical of the evolution of all modern agricultural implements.
+
+We need only refer to our own day to see how changes take place.  The
+writer has cut grain with the old-fashioned sickle, the scythe, the
+cradle, and the reaper, and has lived to see the harvester cut and
+thresh the grain in the field.  The Egyptians use until this day wooden
+ploughs of an ancient type formed from limbs of trees, having a share
+pointed with metal.  {95} The old Spanish colonists used a similar
+plough in California and Mexico as late as the nineteenth century.
+From these ploughs, which merely stirred the soil imperfectly, there
+has been a slow evolution to the complete steel plough and disk of
+modern times.  A glance at the collection of perfected farm machinery
+at any modern agricultural fair reveals what man has accomplished since
+the beginning of the agricultural art.  In forest countries the
+beginning of agriculture was in the open places, or else the natives
+cut and burned the brush and timber, and frequently, after one or two
+crops, moved on to other places.  The early settlers of new territories
+pursue the same method with their first fields, while the turning of
+the prairie sod of the Western plains was frequently preceded by the
+burning of the prairie grass and brush.
+
+The method of attachment to the soil determined economic progress.  Man
+in his early wanderings had no notion of ownership of the land.  All he
+wished was to have room to go wherever the food quest directed him, and
+apparently he had no reflections on the subject.  The matters of fact
+regarding mountain, sea, river, ocean, and glacier which influenced his
+movements were practically no different from the fact of other tribes
+that barred his progress or interfered with his methods of life.  In
+the hunter-fisher stage of existence, human contacts became frequent,
+and led to contention and warfare over customary hunting grounds.  Even
+in the pastoral period the land was occupied by moving upon it, and
+held as long as the tribe could maintain itself against other tribes
+that wished the land for pasture.  Gradually, however, even in
+temporary locations, a more permanent attachment to the soil came
+through clusters of dwellings and villages, and the habit of using
+territory from year to year for pastorage led to a claim of the tribe
+for that territory.  So the idea of possession grew into the idea of
+permanent ownership and the idea of rights to certain parts of the
+territory became continually stronger.  This method of settlement had
+much to do with not only the economic life of people, but in
+determining the nature of their {96} social organizations and
+consequently the efficiency of their social activity.  Evidently, the
+occupation of a certain territory as a dwelling-place was the source of
+the idea of ownership in land.
+
+Nearly all of Europe, at least, came into permanent cultivation through
+the village community.[2]  A tribe settled in a given valley and held
+the soil in common.  There was at a central place an irregular
+collection of rude huts, called the village.  Each head of the family
+owned and permanently occupied one of these.  The fertile or tillable
+land was laid out in lots, each family being allowed the use of a lot
+for one or more years, but the whole land was the common property of
+the tribe, and was under the direction of the village elders.  The
+regulation of the affairs of the agricultural community developed
+government, law, and social cohesion.  The social advancement after the
+introduction of permanent agriculture was great in every way.  The
+increased food supply was an untold blessing; the closer association
+necessary for the new kind of life, the building of distinct homes, and
+the necessity of a more general citizenship and a code of public law
+brought forth the social or community idea of progress.  Side by side
+with the village community system there was a separate development of
+individual ownership and tillage, which developed into the manorial
+system.  It is not necessary to discuss this method here except to say
+that this, together with the permanent occupation of the house-lot in
+the village, gave rise to the private ownership of property in land.
+As to how private ownership of personal property began, it is easy to
+suppose that, having made an implement or tool, the person claimed the
+right of perpetual possession or ownership; also, that in the chase the
+captured game belonged to the one who made the capture; the clothing to
+the maker.  In some instances where game was captured by the group,
+each was given a share in proportion to his station in life, or again
+in proportion to the service each performed in the capture.  Yet, in
+this {97} early period possessory right was frequently determined on
+the basis that might makes right.
+
+_The Manufacture of Clothing_.--The motive of clothing has been that of
+ornament and protection from the pain of cold.  The ornamentation of
+the body was earlier in its appearance in human progress than the
+making of clothing for the protection of the body; and after the latter
+came into use, ornamentation continued, thus making clothing more and
+more artistic.  As to how man protected his body before he began to
+kill wild animals for food, is conjectural.  Probably he dwelt in a
+warm climate, where very little clothing was needed, but, undoubtedly,
+the cave man and, in fact, all of the groups of the race occurring in
+Europe and Asia in the latter part of the Old Stone Age and during the
+New Stone Age used the skins of animals for clothing.  Later, after
+weaving had begun, grasses and fibres taken from plants in a rude way
+were plaited for making clothing.  Subsequently these fibres were
+prepared, twisted into thread, and woven regularly into garments.  The
+main source of supply came from reeds, rushes, wild flax, cotton,
+fibres of the century plant, the inner bark of trees, and other sources
+according to the environment.
+
+Nothing can be more interesting than the progress made in clothing,
+combining as it does the objects of protection from cold, the adornment
+of the person, and the preservation of modesty.  Indians of the forests
+of the tropical regions and on the Pacific coast, when first
+discovered, have been found entirely naked.  These were usually without
+modesty.  That is, they felt no need of clothing on account of the
+presence of others.  There are many evidences to show that the first
+clothing was for ornament and for personal attraction rather than for
+protection.  The painting of the body, the dressing of the hair, the
+wearing of rings in the nose, ears, and lips, the tattooing of the
+body, all are to be associated with the first clothing, which may be
+merely a narrow belt or an ornamental piece of cloth--all merely for
+show, for adornment and attraction.
+
+{98}
+
+There are relics of ornaments found in caves of early man, and, as
+before mentioned, relics of paints.  The clothing of early man can be
+conjectured by the implements with which he was accustomed to dress the
+skins of animals.  Among living tribes the bark of trees represents the
+lowest form of clothing.  In Brazil there is found what is known as the
+"shirt tree," which provides covering for the body.  When a man wants a
+new garment he pulls the bark from a tree of a suitable size, making a
+complete girdle.  This he soaks and beats until it is soft, and,
+cutting holes for the arms, dons his tailor-made garment.  In some
+countries, particularly India, aprons are made of leaves.  But the
+garment made of the skins of animals is the most universal among living
+savage and barbarous tribes, even after the latter have learned to spin
+and weave fabrics.  The tanning of skins is carried on with a great
+deal of skill, and rich and expensive garments are worn by the
+wealthier members of savage tribes.
+
+The making of garments from threads, strings, or fibres was an art
+discovered a little later.  At first rude aprons were woven from long
+strips of bark.  The South Sea Islanders made short gowns of plaited
+rushes, and the New Zealanders wore rude garments from strings made of
+native flax.  These early products were made by the process of working
+the fibres by hand into a string or thread.  The use of a simple
+spindle, composed of a stone like a large button, with a stick run
+through a hole in the centre, facilitated the making of thread and the
+construction of rude looms.  It was but a step from these to the
+spinning-wheels and looms of the Middle Ages.  When the Spaniards
+discovered the Pueblo Indians, they were wearing garments of their own
+weaving from cotton and wood fibres.  Strong cords attached to the
+limbs of trees and to a piece of wood on the ground formed the
+framework of the loom, and the native sat down to weave the garment.
+With slight improvements on this old style, the Navajos continue to
+weave their celebrated blankets.  What an effort it must have cost,
+what a necessity must have crowded man to have compelled him to resort
+to this method of procuring clothing!
+
+{99}
+
+The artistic taste in dress has always accompanied the development of
+the useful, although dress has always been used more or less for
+ornament, and taste has changed by slow degrees.  The primitive races
+everywhere delighted in bright colors, and in most instances these
+border on the grotesque in arrangement and combination.  But many
+people not far advanced in barbarism have colors artistically arranged
+and dress with considerable skill.  Ornaments change in the progress of
+civilization from coarse, ungainly shells, pieces of wood, or bits of
+metal, to more finely wrought articles of gold and silver.
+
+_Primitive Shelters and Houses_.--The shelters of primitive man were
+more or less temporary, for wherever he happened to be in his
+migrations he sought shelter from storm or cold in the way most
+adaptable to his circumstances.  There was in this connection, also,
+the precaution taken to protect against predatory animals and wild men.
+As his stay in a given territory became more permanent, the home or
+shelter gradually grew more permanent.  So far as we can ascertain, man
+has always been known to build some sort of shelter.  As apes build
+their shelters in trees, birds build their nests, and beavers dam water
+to make their homes, it is impossible to suppose that man, with
+superior intelligence, was ever simple enough to continue long without
+some sort of shelter constructed with his own hands.  At first the
+shelter of trees, rocks, and caves served his purpose wherever
+available.  Subsequently, when he had learned to build houses, their
+structure was usually dependent more upon environment than upon his
+inventive genius.  Whether he built a platform house or nest in a tree,
+or provided a temporary brush shelter, or bark hut, or stone or adobe
+building, depended a good deal upon the material at hand and the
+necessity of protection.  The main thing was to protect against cold or
+storm, wild animals, and, eventually, wild men.
+
+The progress in architecture among the nations of ancient civilization
+was quite rapid.  Massive structures were built for capacity and
+strength, which the natives soon learned to {100} decorate within and
+without.  The buildings were made of large blocks of hewn stone, fitted
+together mechanically by the means of cement, which made secure
+foundations for ages.  When in the course of time the arch was
+discovered, it alone became a power to advance the progress of
+architecture.  We have seen pass before our eyes a sudden transition in
+dwelling houses.
+
+The first inhabitants of some parts of the Western prairies dwelt in
+tents.  These were next exchanged for the "dugout," and this for a rude
+hut.  Subsequently the rude hut was made into a barn or pig-pen, and a
+respectable farmhouse was built; and finally this, too, has been
+replaced by a house of modern style and conveniences.  If we could
+consider this change to have extended over thousands of years, from the
+first shelter of man to the finished modern building, it would be a
+picture of the progress of man in the art of building.  In this slow
+process man struggled without means and with crude notions of life in
+every form.  The aim, first, was for protection, then comfort and
+durability, and finally for beauty.  The artistic in building has kept
+pace with other forms of civilization evinced in other ways.
+
+One of the most interesting exhibits of house-building for protection
+is found in the cliff dwellings, whose ruins are to be seen in Arizona
+and New Mexico.  Tradition and other evidences point to the conclusion
+that certain tribes had developed a state of civilization as high as a
+middle period of barbarism, on the plains, where they had made a
+beginning of systematic agriculture, and that they were afterward
+driven out by wilder tribes and withdrew, seeking the cliffs for
+protection.  There they built under the projecting cliffs the large
+communal houses, where they dwelt for a long period of time.
+Subsequently their descendants went into the valleys and developed the
+Pueblo villages, with their large communal houses of _adobe_.
+
+_Discovery and Use of Metals_.--It is not known just when the human
+race first discovered and used any one of the metals {101} now known to
+commerce and industry, but it can be assumed that their discovery
+occurred at a very early period and their use followed quickly.
+Reasoning back from the nature and condition of the wild tribes of
+to-day, who are curiously attracted by bright colors, whether in metals
+or beads or clothing, and realizing how universally they used the
+minerals and plants for coloring, it would be safe to assume that the
+satisfaction of the curiosity of primitive man led to the discovery of
+bright metals at a very early time.  Pieces of copper, gold, and iron
+would easily have been found in a free state in metal-bearing soil, and
+treasured as articles of value.  Copper undoubtedly was used by the
+American Indians, and probably by the inhabitants of Europe during the
+Neolithic Age--it being found in a native state in sufficient
+quantities to be hammered into implements.
+
+Thus copper has been found in large pieces in its native state, not
+only in Europe but in Mexico and other parts of North America,
+particularly in the Lake Superior region; but as the soft hematite iron
+was found in larger quantities in a free state, it would seem that the
+use of iron in a small degree must have occurred at about the same
+time, or perhaps a little later.  The process of smelting must have
+been suggested by the action of fire built on or near ore beds, where a
+crude process of accidental smelting took place.  Combined with tin
+ore, the copper was made into bronze in Peru and Mexico at the time of
+the discovery.  In Europe there are abundant remains to show the early
+use of metals.  Probably copper and tin were in use before iron,
+although iron may have been discovered first.  There are numerous tin
+mines in Asia and copper mines in Cyprus.  At first, metals were
+probably worked while cold through hammering, the softest metals
+doubtless being used before others.
+
+It is difficult to tell how smelting was discovered, although the
+making and use of bronze implements is an indication of the first
+process of smelting ores and combining metals.  When tin was first
+discovered is not known, but we know that bronze {102} implements made
+from an alloy of copper, tin, and usually other metals were used by the
+Greeks and other Aryan peoples in the early historic period, about six
+thousand years ago.  In Egypt and Babylon many of the inscriptions make
+mention of the use of iron as well as bronze, although the extended use
+of the former must have come about some time after the latter.  At
+first all war instruments were stone and wood and later bronze, which
+were largely replaced by iron at a still later period.  The making of
+spears, swords, pikes, battle-axes, and other implements of war had
+much to do with the development of ingenious work in metals.  The final
+perfection of metal work could only be attained by the manufacture of
+finely treated steel.  Probably the tempering of steel began at the
+time iron came prominently into use.
+
+Other metals, such as silver, quicksilver, gold, and lead, came into
+common use in the early stages of civilization, all of which added
+greatly to the arts and industries.  Nearly all of the metals were used
+for money at various times.  The aids to trade and commerce which these
+metals gave on account of their universal use and constant measure of
+value cannot be overestimated.
+
+_Transportation as a Means of Economic Development_.--Early methods of
+carrying goods from one place to another were on the backs of human
+beings.  Many devices were made for economy of service and strength in
+carrying.  Bands over the shoulders and over the head were devised for
+the purpose of securing the pack on the back.  An Indian woman of the
+Southwest would carry a large basket, or _keiho_, on her back, secured
+by a band around her head for the support of the load.  A Pueblo woman
+will carry a large bowl filled with water or other material, on the top
+of her head, balancing it by walking erect.  Indeed, in more recent
+times washerwomen in Europe, and of the colored race in America, carry
+baskets of clothes and pails of water on their heads.  The whole
+process of the development of transportation came about through
+invention to be relieved from this bodily service.
+
+{103}
+
+As the dog was the first animal domesticated, he was early used to help
+in transportation by harnessing him to a rude sled, or drag, by means
+of which he pulled articles from one place to another.  The Eskimos
+have used dogs and the sled to a greater extent than any other race.
+The use of the camel, the llama, the horse, and the ass for packing
+became very common after their domestication.  Huge packs were strapped
+upon the backs of these animals, and goods thus transported from one
+place to another.  To such an extent was the camel used, even in the
+historic period, for transportation in the Orient that he has been
+called the "ship of the desert."  The plains Indians had a method of
+attaching two poles, one at each side of an Indian pony, which extended
+backward, dragging on the ground.  Upon these poles was built a little
+platform, on which goods were deposited and thus transported from one
+camp to another.
+
+It must have been a long time before water transportation performed any
+considerable economic service.  It is thought by some that primitive
+man conceived the idea of the use of water for transportation through
+his experience of floating logs, or drifts, or his own process of
+swimming and floating.  Jack London pictures two primitives playing on
+the logs near the shore of a stream.  Subsequently the logs cast loose,
+and the primitives were floated away from the shore.  They learned by
+putting their hands in the water and paddling that they could make the
+logs move in the direction which they wished to go.  Perhaps this
+explanation is as good as any, inasmuch as the beginnings of modern
+transportation still dwell in the mist of the past.  However, in
+support of the log theory is the fact that modern races use primitive
+boats made of long reeds tied together, forming a loglike structure.
+The _balsa_ of the Indians of the north coasts of South America is a
+very good representation of this kind of boat.
+
+Evidently, the first canoes were made by hollowing logs and sharpening
+the ends at bow and stern.  This form of boat-making has been carried
+to a high degree of skill by the {104} Indians of the northwest coast
+of America and by the natives of the Hawaiian Islands.  The birch-bark
+canoe, made for lighter work and overland transportation, is more
+suggestive of the light reed boat than of the log canoe.  Also, the
+boats made of a framework covered with the skins of animals were
+prominent at certain periods of the development of races who lived on
+animal food.  But later the development of boats with frames covered
+with strips of board and coated with pitch became the great vehicle of
+commerce through hundreds of years.  It certainly is a long journey
+from the floating log to the modern floating passenger palace, freight
+leviathan, or armed dreadnought, but the journey was accomplished by
+thousands of steps, some short and some long, through thousands of
+years of progress.
+
+_Trade, or Exchange of Goods_.--In Mr. Clark Wissler's book on _Man and
+Culture_, he has shown quite conclusively that there are certain
+culture areas whereby certain inventions, discoveries, or customs have
+originated and spread over a given territory.  This recognition of a
+centre of origin of custom or invention is in accordance with the whole
+process of social development.  For instance, in a given area occupied
+by modern civilized people, there are a very few who invent or
+originate things, and others follow through imitation or suggestion.
+So it was with the discoveries and inventions of primitive man.  For
+example, we know that in Oklahoma and Arkansas, as well as in other
+places in the United States, certain stone quarries or mines are found
+that produce a certain kind of flint or chert used in making
+arrow-heads or spearheads and axes.  Tribes that developed these traded
+with other tribes that did not have them, so that from these centres
+implements were scattered all over the West.  A person may pick up on a
+single village site or battle-ground different implements coming from a
+dozen or more different quarries or centres and made by different
+tribes hundreds of miles apart in residence.
+
+This diffusion of knowledge and things of material {105} workmanship,
+or of methods of life, is through a system of borrowing, trading, or
+swapping--or perhaps sometimes through conquest and robbery; but as
+soon as an article of any kind could be made which could be subjected
+to general use of different tribes in different localities, it began to
+travel from a centre and to be used over a wide area.  Certain tribes
+became special workers in specialized lines.  Thus some were
+bead-makers, others expert tanners of hides, others makers of bows and
+arrows of peculiar quality, and others makers of stone implements.  The
+incidental swapping of goods by tribes finally led to a systematic
+method of a travelling trader who brought goods from one tribe to
+another, exchanging as he went.  This early trade had an effect in more
+rapid extension of culture, because in that case one tribe could have
+the invention, discovery, and art of all tribes.  In connection with
+this is to be noted the slow change of custom regarding religious
+belief and ceremony or tribal consciousness.  The pride of family and
+race development, the assumption of superiority leading to race
+aversion, interfered with intelligence and the spread of ideas and
+customs; but most economic processes that were not bound up with
+religious ceremonies or tribal customs were easily exchanged and
+readily accepted between the tribes.
+
+Exchange of goods and transportation went hand in hand in their
+development, very slowly and surely.  After trade had become pretty
+well established, it became necessary to have a medium of exchange.
+Some well-known article whose value was very well recognized among the
+people who were trading became the standard for fixing prices in
+exchange.  Thus, in early Anglo-Saxon times the cow was the unit of the
+measure of value.  Sometimes a shell, as a _cowrie_ of India or the
+wampum of the American Indian, was used for this purpose.  Wheat has
+been at one time in America, and tobacco in another, a measure of
+exchange because of the scarcity of money.
+
+Gradually, as the discovery and use of precious metals became common
+and desirable because of their brightness {106} and service in
+implement and ornament, they became the medium of exchange.  Thus,
+copper and gold, iron and bronze have been used as metallic means of
+exchange--that is, as money.  So from the beginning of trade and
+swapping article for article, it came to be common eventually to swap
+an article for something called money and then use the money for the
+purchase of other desirable articles.  This made it possible for the
+individual to carry about in a small compass the means of obtaining any
+article in the market within the range of the purchasing power of his
+money.  Trade, transportation, and exchange not only had a vast deal to
+do with economic progress but were of tremendous importance in social
+development.  They were powerful in diffusion, extension, and promotion
+of culture.
+
+_The Struggle for Existence Develops the Individual and the Race_.--The
+remnants and relics of the arts and industries of man give us a fair
+estimate of the process of man's mind and the accomplishment of his
+physical labor.  It is through the effort involved in the struggle for
+existence that he has made his various steps forward.  Truly the actual
+life of primitive man tends to verify the adage that "necessity is the
+mother of invention."  It was this tremendous demand on him for the
+means of existence that caused him to create the things that protected
+and improved his life.  It was the insistent struggle which forced him
+to devise means of taking advantage of nature and thus led to invention
+and discovery.  Every new invention and every new discovery showed the
+expansion of his mind, as well as gave him the means of material
+improvement.  It also added to his bodily vigor and added much to the
+development of his physical powers.  Upon this economic foundation has
+been built a superstructure of intellectual power, of moral worth and
+social improvement, for these in their highest phases of existence may
+be traced back to the early beginnings of life, where man was put to
+his utmost effort to supply the simplest of human wants.
+
+
+{107}
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  The change in social life caused by the cultivation of the soil.
+
+2.  The effect of the discovery and use of fire on civilization.
+
+3.  What was the social effect of the exchange of economic products?
+
+4.  What influence had systematic labor on individual development?
+
+5.  Show how the discovery and use of a new food advances civilization.
+
+6.  Compare primitive man's food supply with that of a modern city
+dweller.
+
+7.  Trace a cup of coffee to its original source and show the different
+classes of people engaged in its production.
+
+
+
+[1] _Man and Culture_.
+
+[2] See Chapter III.
+
+
+
+
+{108}
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+PRIMITIVE SOCIAL LIFE
+
+_The Character of Primitive Social Life_.--Judging from the cultures of
+prehistoric man in Europe and from analogies of living races that
+appear to have the same state of culture, strong inferences may be
+drawn as to the nature of the beginnings of human association.  The
+hypothesis that man started as an individual and developed social life
+through mutual aid as he came in contact with his fellows does not
+cover the whole subject.  It is not easy to conceive man in a state of
+isolation at any period of his life, but it appears true that his early
+associations were simple and limited to a few functions.  The evidence
+of assemblage in caves, the kind of implements used, and the drawings
+on the walls of caves would appear to indicate that an early group life
+existed from the time of the first human cultures.  The search for food
+caused men to locate at the same place.  The number that could be
+supplied with food from natural subsistence in a given territory must
+have been small.  Hence, it would appear that the early groups
+consisted of small bands.  They moved on if the population encroached
+upon the food supply.
+
+Also, the blood-related individuals formed the nucleus of the group.
+The dependency of the child on the mother led to the first permanent
+location as the seat of the home and the foundation of the family.  As
+the family continued to develop and became the most permanent of all
+social institutions, it is easy to believe as a necessity that it had a
+very early existence.  It came out of savagery into barbarism and
+became one of the principal bulwarks of civilization.
+
+It may be accepted as a hypothesis that there was a time in the history
+of every branch of the human race when social order was indefinite and
+that out of this incoherence came by {109} degrees a complex organized
+society.  It was in such a rude state that the relations of individuals
+to each other were not clearly defined by custom, but were temporary
+and incidental.  Family ties were loose and irregular, custom had not
+become fixed, law was unheard of, government was unknown unless it was
+a case of temporary leadership, and unity of purpose and reciprocal
+social life were wanting.  Indeed, it is a picture of a human horde but
+little above the animal herd in its nature and composition.  Living
+tribes such as the Fuegians and Australians, and the extinct
+Tasmanians, represent very nearly the status of the horde--a sort of
+social protoplasm.  They wander in groups, incidentally through the
+influence of temporary advantage or on account of a fitful social
+instinct.  Co-operation, mutual aid, and reciprocal mental action were
+so faint that in many cases life was practically non-social.
+Nevertheless, even these groups had aggregated, communicated, and had
+language and other evidences of social heredity.
+
+_The Family Is the Most Persistent of Social Origins_.--The relation of
+parent and child was the most potent influence in establishing
+coherency of the group, and next to it, though of later development,
+was the relation of man and woman--that is, the sex relation.  While
+the family is a universal social unit, it appears in many different
+forms in different tribes and, indeed, exhibits many changes in its
+development in the same tribe.  There is no probability that mankind
+existed in a complete state of promiscuity in sex relations, yet these
+relations varied in different tribes.  Mating was always a habit of the
+race and early became regulated by custom.  The variety of forms of
+mating leads us to think the early sex life of man was not of a
+degraded nature.  Granted that matrimony had not reached the high state
+of spiritual life contemplated in modern ideals, there are instances of
+monogamic marriage and pure, dignified rites in primitive peoples.
+Polygamy and polyandry were of later development.
+
+A study of family life within the historic period, especially of
+Greeks, Romans, and Teutons, and possibly the Hebrews, {110} compared
+with the family life of the Australian and some of the North American
+Indian tribes, reveals great contrasts in the prevailing customs of
+matrimony.  All forms of marriage conceivable may be observed from rank
+animalism to high spiritual union; of numerous ideals, customs, and
+usages and ceremonies, as well as great confusion of purpose.  It may
+be assumed, therefore, that there was a time in the history of every
+branch of the human race when family customs were indefinite and family
+coherence was lacking.  Also that society was in a rude state in which
+the relations of individuals to each other and to the general social
+group were not clearly defined.  There are found to-day among the lower
+races, in the Pacific islands, Africa, and South America, evidences of
+lack of cohesive life.  They represent groups of people without
+permanent organization, held together by temporary advantage, with
+crude, purposeless customs, with the exercise of fitful social instinct.
+
+However, it is out of such conditions that the tribes, races, and
+nations of the early historic period have evolved into barbaric
+organization.  Reasoning backward by the comparative method, one may
+trace the survivals of ancient customs.  Following the social heredity
+of the oldest civilized tribes, such as the Egyptians, Babylonians,
+Greeks, Romans, and Teutonic peoples, there is evidence of the rise
+from a rude state of savagery to a higher social life.  Historical
+records indicate the passage from the middle state of barbarism to
+advanced civil life, even though the earlier phases of social life of
+primitive man remain obscure.  The study of tradition and a comparison
+of customs and language of races yield a definite knowledge of the
+evolution of society.
+
+_Kinship Is a Strong Factor in Social Organization_.--Of all causes
+that held people in coherent union, perhaps kinship, natural and
+artificial, was the most potent.  All of the direct and indirect
+offspring of a single pair settled in the same family group.  This
+enlarged family took its place as the only organ of social order.  Not
+only did all the relatives settle and {111} become members of one body,
+but also strangers who needed protection were admitted to the family by
+subscribing to their customs and religion.  Thus the father of the
+family had a numerous following, composed of relatives by birth and by
+adoption.  He was the ruler of this enlarged household, declaring the
+customs of his fathers, leading the armed men in war, directing the
+control of property, for he alone was the owner of all their
+possessions, acting as priest in the administration of religious
+ceremonies--a service performed only by him--and acting as judge in
+matters of dispute or discipline.  Thus the family was a compact
+organization with a central authority, in which both chief and people
+were bound by custom.
+
+Individuals were born under status and must submit to whatever was
+customary in the rule of the family or tribe.  There was no law other
+than custom to determine the relation of individuals to one another.
+Each must abide in the sphere of activity into which he was born.  He
+could not rise above it, but must submit to the arbitrary rule of
+traditional usage.  The only position an individual had was in the
+family, and he must observe what custom had taught.  This made family
+life arbitrary and conventional.
+
+_The Earliest Form of Social Order_.--The family is sometimes called
+the unit of society.  The best historical records of the family are
+found in the Aryan people, such as the Greeks, the Romans, and the
+Teutons.  Outside of this there are many historical references to the
+Aryans in their primitive home in Asia, and the story of the Hebrew
+people, a branch of the Semitic race, shows many phases of tribal and
+family life.  The ancient family differed from the modern in
+organization and composition.  The first historical family was the
+patriarchal, by which we mean a family group in which descent was
+traced in the male line, and in which authority was vested in the
+eldest living male inhabitant.  It is held by some that this is the
+original family type, and that the forms which we find among savage
+races are degenerate forms of the above.  Some have {112} advocated
+that the patriarchal family was the developed form of the family, and
+only occurred after a long evolution through states of promiscuity,
+polygamy, and polyandry.  There is much evidence that the latter
+assumption is true.  But there is evidence that the patriarchal family
+was the first political unit of all the Aryan races, and also of the
+Semitic as well, and that monogamic marriage was developed in these
+ancient societies so far as historical evidence can determine.  The
+ancient Aryans in their old home, those who came into India, Greece,
+Rome, and the northern countries of Europe, whether Celt or Teuton, all
+give evidence of the permanency of early family organization.
+
+_The Reign of Custom_.--For a long period custom reigned supreme, and
+arbitrary social life became conventionalized, and the change from
+precedent became more and more difficult.  The family was despotic,
+exacting, unyielding in its nature, and individual activity was
+absorbed in it.  So powerful was this early sway of customary law that
+many tribes never freed themselves from its bondage.  Others by degrees
+slowly evolved from its crystallizing influences.  Changes in custom
+came about largely through the migration of tribes, which brought new
+scenes and new conditions, the intercourse of one tribe with another in
+trade and war, and the gradual shifting of the internal life of the
+social unit.  Those tribes that were isolated were left behind in the
+progress of the race, and to many of them still clung the customs
+practised thousands of years before.  Those that went forward from this
+first status grew by practice rather than by change of ideals.  It is
+the law of all progress that ideals are conservative, and that they can
+be broken away from only by the procedure of actual practice.
+Gradually the reign of customary law gave way to the laws framed by the
+people.  The family government gave way to the political; the
+individual eventually became the political unit, and freedom of action
+prevailed in the entire social body.
+
+_The Greek and Roman Family Was Strongly Organized_.--In Greece and
+Rome the family enlarged and formed the gens, {113} the gentes united
+into a tribe, and the tribe passed into the nation.  In all of this
+formulated government the individual was represented by his family and
+received no recognition except as a member of such.  The tribal chief
+became the king, or, as he is sometimes called, the patriarchal
+president, because he presided over a band of equals in power, namely,
+the assembled elders of the tribe.  The heads of noble families were
+called together to consider the affairs of government, and at a common
+meal the affairs of the nation were discussed over viands and wine.
+The king thus gathered the elders about him for the purpose of
+considering measures to be laid before the people.  The popular
+assembly, composed of all the citizens, was called to sanction what the
+king and the elders had decreed.  Slowly the binding forms of
+traditional usage were broken down, and the king and his people were
+permitted to enact those laws which best served the immediate ends of
+government.  True, the old formal life of the family continued to
+exist.  There were the gentes, tribes, and phratries, or brotherhoods,
+that still existed, and the individual entered the state in civil
+capacity through his family.  But by degrees the old family regime gave
+way to the new political life, and sovereign power was vested in
+monarchy, democracy, or aristocracy, according to the nature of the
+sovereignty.
+
+The functions or activities and powers of governments, which were
+formerly vested in the patriarchal chief, or king, and later in king,
+people, and council, gradually became separated and were delegated to
+different authorities, though the sharp division of legislative,
+judicial, and executive functions which characterizes our modern
+governments did not exist.  These forms of government were more or less
+blended, and it required centuries to distribute the various powers of
+government into special departments and develop modern forms.
+
+_In Primitive Society Religion Occupied a Prominent Place_.--While
+kinship was first in order in the foundation of units of social
+organization, religion was second to it in importance.  {114} Indeed,
+it is considered by able writers as the foundation of the family and,
+as the ethnic state is but the expanded family, the vital power in the
+formation of the state.  Among the Aryan tribes religion was a
+prominent feature of association.  In the Greek household stood the
+family altar, resting upon the first soil in possession of the family.
+Only members of the household could worship at this shrine, and only
+the eldest male members of the family in good standing could conduct
+religious service.  When the family grew into the gens it also had a
+separate altar and a separate worship.  Likewise, the tribe had its own
+worship, and when the city was formed it had its own temple and a
+particular deity, whom the citizens worshipped.  In the ancient family
+the worship of the house spirit or a deified ancestor was the common
+practice.  This practice of the worship of departed heroes and
+ancestors, which prevailed in all of the various departments of old
+Greek society, tended to develop unity and purity of family and tribe.
+As family forms passed into political, the religion changed from a
+family to a national religion.
+
+Among the lower tribes the religious life is still most powerful in
+influencing their early life.  Mr. Tylor, in his valuable work on
+_Primitive Culture_, has devoted a good part of two large volumes to
+the treatment of early religious belief.  While recognizing that there
+is no complete definition of religion, he holds that "belief in
+spiritual beings" is a minimum definition which will apply to all
+religions, and, indeed, about the only one that will.  The lower races
+each had simple notions of the spiritual world.  They believed in a
+soul and its existence after death.  Nearly all believed in both good
+and evil spirits, and in one or more greater gods or spirits who ruled
+and managed the universe.  In this early stage of religious belief
+philosophy and religion were one.  The belief in the after life of the
+spirit is evidenced by implements which were placed in the grave for
+the use of the departed, and by food which was placed at the grave for
+his subsistence on the journey.  Indeed, some even set aside food at
+each meal for the departed; others, as {115} instanced by the Greeks,
+placed tables in the burying ground for the dead.  Many views were
+entertained by the early people concerning the origin of the soul and
+its course after death.  But in all of the rude conditions of life
+religion was indefinite and uncultured.  From lower simple forms it
+arose to more complex systems and to higher generalizations.
+
+Religious influence on progress has been very great.  There are those
+who have neglected the subject of religion in the discussion of the
+history of civilization.  Other writers have considered it of little
+importance, and still others believe it to have been a positive
+hindrance to the development of the race.  Religion, in general, as
+practised by savage and barbarous races, based, as it is largely, on
+superstition, must of a necessity be conservative and non-progressive.
+Yet the service which it performs in making the tribe or family
+cohesive and in giving an impetus to the development of the mind before
+the introduction of science and art as special studies is, indeed,
+great.  The early forms of culture are found almost wholly in religious
+belief and practice.
+
+The religious ceremonies at the grave of a departed companion, around
+the family altar or in the congregation, whether in the temple or in
+the open air, tended to social cohesion and social activity.  The
+exercise of religious belief in a superior being and a recognition of
+his authority, had a tendency to bring the actions of individuals into
+orderly arrangement and to develop unity of life.  It also had a strong
+tendency to prepare the simple mind of the primitive man for later
+intellectual development.  It gave the mind something to contemplate,
+something to reason about, before it reached a stage of scientific
+investigation.  Its moral influence is unquestioned.  While some of the
+early religions are barbarous in the extreme in their degenerate state,
+as a whole they teach man to consider himself and his fellows, and
+develop an ethical relationship.  And while altruism as a great factor
+in religious and in social progress appeared at a comparatively recent
+period, it has been in existence from the earliest associations of men
+to {116} the present time, and usually makes its strongest appeal
+through religious belief.  Religion thus becomes a great
+society-builder, as well as a means of individual culture.
+
+_Spirit Worship_.--The recognition of the continued journey of the
+spirit after death was in itself an altruistic practice.  Much of the
+worship of the controlling spirit was conducted to secure especial
+favor to the departed soul.  The burial service in early religious
+practice became a central idea in permanent religious rites.  Perhaps
+the earliest phase of religious belief arises out of the idea that the
+spirit or soul of man has control over the body.  It gives rise to the
+notion of spirit and the idea of continued existence.  Considering the
+universe as material existence, according to primitive belief, it is
+the working of the superior spirit over the physical elements that
+gives rise to natural phenomena.
+
+One of the early stages of religious progress is to attempt to form a
+meeting-place with the spirit.  This desire is seen in the lowest
+tribes and in the highest civilization of to-day.  When Cabrillo came
+to the coast of southern California he found natives that had never
+before come in contact with civilized people.  He describes a rude
+temple made by driving stakes in the ground in a circular form, and
+partitioning the enclosure by similar rows of stakes.  At the centre
+was a rude platform, on which were placed the feathers of certain birds
+pleasing to the spirit.  The natives came to this temple occasionally,
+and, circling around it, went through many antics of worship.  This
+represents the primitive idea of location in worship.  Not different in
+its fundamental conception from the rude altar of stones built by
+Abraham at Bethel, the Greek altar, or the mighty columns of St.
+Peter's, it was the simple meeting-place of man and the spirit.  For
+all of these represent location in worship, and just as the modern
+worshipper enters the church or cathedral to meet God, so did the
+primitive savage fix locations for the meeting of the spirit.
+
+Man finally attempted to control the spirit for his own advantage.  A
+rude form of religion was reached, found in {117} certain stages of the
+development of all religions, in which man sought to manipulate or
+exorcise the spirits who existed in the air or were located in trees,
+stones, and other material forms.  Out of this came a genuine worship
+of the powerful, and supplication for help and support.  Seeking aid
+and favor became the fundamental ideas in religious worship.  Simple in
+the beginning, it sought to appease the wrath of the evil spirit and
+gain the favor of the good.  But finally it sought to worship on
+account of the sublimity and power possessed by the object of worship.
+With the advancement of religious practice, religious beliefs and
+religious ceremonies became more complex.  Great systems of mythology
+sprang up among nations about to enter the precincts of civilization,
+and polytheism predominated.  Purely ethical religions were of a later
+development, for the notion of the will of the gods concerning the
+treatment of man by his fellows belongs to an advanced stage of
+religious belief.  The ethical importance of religion reaches its
+culmination in the religion of Jesus Christ.
+
+_Moral Conditions_.--The slow development of altruistic notions
+presages a deficiency of moral action in the early stages of human
+progress.  True it is that moral conditions seem never to be entirely
+wanting in this early period.  There are many conflicting accounts of
+the moral practice of different savage and barbarous tribes when first
+discovered by civilized man.  Tribes differ much in this respect, and
+travellers have seen them from different standpoints.  Wherever a
+definite moral practice cannot be observed, it may be assumed that the
+standard is very low.  Moral progress seems to consist in the
+constantly shifting standards of right and wrong, of justice and
+injustice.  Perhaps the moral action of the savage should be viewed
+from two standpoints--namely, the position of the average savage of the
+tribe, and from the vantage of modern ethical standards.  It is only by
+considering it from these two views that we have the true estimation of
+his moral status.  There must be a difference between conventionality
+and morality, and many who have judged the moral status of {118} the
+savage have done so more from a conventional than from a moral
+standard.  True that morality must be judged from the individual motive
+and from social effects of individual action.  Hence it is that the
+observance of conventional rules must be a phase of morality; yet it is
+not all of morality.  Where conventionality does not exist, the motive
+of action must be the true moral test.
+
+The actions of some savages and of barbarous people are revolting in
+the extreme, and so devoid of sympathy for the sufferings of their
+fellow-beings as to lead us to assume that they are entirely without
+moral sentiment.  The repulsive spectacle of human sacrifice is
+frequently brought about by religious fervor, while the people have
+more or less altruistic practice in other ways.  This practice was
+common to very many tribes, and indeed to some nations entering the
+pale of civilization.  Cannibalism, revolting as it may seem, may be
+practised by a group of people which, in every other respect, shows
+moral qualities.  It is composed of kind husbands, mothers, brothers,
+and sisters, who look after each other's welfare.  The treatment of
+infants, not only by savage tribes but by the Greek and Roman nations
+after their entrance into civilized life, represents a low status of
+morality, for it was the common custom to expose infants, even in these
+proud nations.  The degraded condition of woman, as slave and tool of
+man in the savage state, and indeed in the ancient civilization, does
+not speak well for the high standard of morality of the past.  More
+than this, the disregard of the rights of property and person and the
+common practice of revolting brutality, are conclusive evidence of the
+low moral status of early mankind.
+
+Speaking of the Sioux Indians, a writer says: "They regard most of the
+vices as virtues.  Theft, arson, rape, and murder are among them
+regarded with distinction, and the young Indian from childhood is
+taught to regard killing as the highest of virtues."  And a writer who
+had spent many years among the natives of the Pacific coast said that
+"whatever is {119} falsehood in the European is truth in the Indian,
+and vice versa."  Whether we consider the savages or barbarians of
+modern times, or the ancient nations that laid claim to civilization,
+we find a gradual evolution of the moral practice and a gradual change
+of the standard of right.  This standard has constantly advanced until
+it rests to-day on the Golden Rule and other altruistic principles of
+Christian teaching.
+
+_Warfare and Social Progress_.--The constant warfare of savages and
+barbarians was not without its effects in developing the individual and
+social life.  Cruel and objectionable as it is, the study and practice
+of war was an element of strength.  It developed physical courage, and
+taught man to endure suffering and hardships.  It developed
+intellectual power in the struggle to circumvent and overcome enemies.
+It led to the device and construction of arms, machines, engines, guns,
+and bridges, for facilitating the carrying on of successful warfare;
+all of this was instrumental in developing the inventive genius and
+engineering skill of man.
+
+In a political way warfare developed tribal or national unity, and
+bound more closely together the different groups in sympathy and common
+interest.  It thus became useful in the preparation for successful
+civil government.  It prepared some to rule and others to obey, and
+divided the governing from the governed, an essential characteristic of
+all forms of government.  Military organization frequently accompanied
+or preceded the formation of the modern state.  Sparta and Rome, and in
+more modern times Prussia, were built upon military foundations.
+
+The effect of war in depopulating countries has proved a detriment to
+civilization by disturbing economic and social development and by
+destroying thousands of lives.  Looking back over the track which the
+human race has made in its persistent advance, it is easy to see that
+the ravages of war are terrible.  While ethical considerations have
+entered into warfare and made its effects less terrible, it still is
+deplorable.  It is not a necessity to modern civilization for the {120}
+development of intellectual or physical strength, nor for the
+development of either patriotism or courage.  Modern warfare is a relic
+of barbarism, and the sooner we can avoid it the better.  Social
+progress means the checking of war in every way and the development of
+the arts of peace.  It is high time that the ethical process between
+nations should take the place of the art of war.
+
+_Mutual Aid Developed Slowly_.--Owing to ignorance and to the instinct
+for self-preservation, man starts on his journey toward progress on an
+individualistic and selfish basis.  Gradually he learns to associate
+with his fellows on a co-operative basis.  The elements which enter
+into this formal association are the exercise of a general blood
+relationship, religion, economic life, social and political
+organization.  With the development of each of these, social order
+progresses.  Yet, in the clashing interests of individuals and tribes,
+in the clumsy methods adopted in the mastery of nature, what a waste of
+human energy; what a loss of human life!  How long it has taken mankind
+to associate on rational principles, to develop a pure home life, to
+bring about toleration in religion, to develop economic co-operation,
+to establish liberality in government, and to promote equality and
+justice!  By the rude master, experience, has man been taught all this
+at an immense cost.  Yet there was no other way possible.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Study your community to determine that society is formed by the
+interactions of individuals.
+
+2.  Discuss the earliest forms of mutual aid.
+
+3.  Why is the family called the unit of social organization?
+
+4.  Why did religion occupy such an important place in primitive
+society?
+
+5.  To what extent and in what manner did the patriarchal family take
+the place of the state?
+
+6.  What is the relation of morals to religion?
+
+7.  What are the primary social groups?  What the secondary?
+
+
+
+
+{121}
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+LANGUAGE AND ART AS A MEANS OF CULTURE AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
+
+_The Origin of Language Has Been a Subject of Controversy_.--Since man
+began to philosophize on the causes of things, tribes and races and,
+indeed, philosophers of all times have attempted to determine the
+origin of language and to define its nature.  In early times language
+was a mystery, and for lack of better explanation it was frequently
+attributed to the direct gift of the Deity.  The ancient Aryans deified
+language, and represented it by a goddess "which rushes onward like the
+wind, which bursts through heaven and earth, and, awe-inspiring to each
+one that it loves, makes him a Brahmin, a poet, and a sage."  Men used
+language many centuries before they seriously began to inquire into its
+origin and structure.  The ancient Hindu philosophers, the Greeks, and
+all early nations that had begun a speculative philosophy, wonderingly
+tried to ascertain whence language came.  Modern philologists have
+carried their researches so far as to ascertain with tolerable accuracy
+the history and life of language and to determine with the help of
+other scientists the facts and phenomena of its origin.
+
+Language, in its broadest sense, includes any form of expression by
+which thoughts and feelings are communicated from one individual to
+another.  Words may be spoken, gestures made, cries uttered, pictures
+or characters drawn, or letters made as means of expression.  The
+deaf-mute converses with his fingers and his lips; the savage
+communicates by means of gesticulation.  It is easy to conceive of a
+community in which all communication is carried on in sign language.
+It is said that the Grebos of Africa carry this mode of expression
+{122} to such an extent that the persons and tenses of the mood are
+indicated with the hands alone.
+
+It has been advocated by some that man first learned to talk by
+imitating the sounds of nature.  It is sometimes called the "bow-wow"
+theory of the origin of language.  Words are used to express the
+meaning of nature.  Thus the purling of the brook, the lowing of the
+cow, the barking of the dog, the moaning of the wind, the rushing of
+water, the cry of animals, and other expressions of nature were
+imitated, and thus formed the root words of language.  This theory was
+very commonly upheld by the philosophers of the eighteenth century, but
+is now regarded as an entirely inadequate explanation of the process of
+the development of language.  It is true that every language has words
+formed by the imitation of sound, but these are comparatively few, and
+as languages are traced toward their origin, such words seem to have
+continually less importance.  Nothing conclusive has been proved
+concerning the origin of any language by adopting this theory.
+
+Another theory is that the exclamations and interjections suddenly made
+have been the formation of root words, which in turn give rise to the
+complex forms of language.  This can scarcely be considered of much
+force, for the difference between sudden explosive utterance and words
+expressing full ideas is so great as to be of little value in
+determining the real formation of language.  These sudden interjections
+are more of the nature of gesture than of real speech.
+
+The theologians insisted for many years that language was a gift of
+God, but failed to show how man could learn the language after it was
+given him.  They tried to show that man was created with his full
+powers of speech, thought, and action, and that a vocabulary was given
+him to use on the supposition that he would know how to use it.  But,
+in fact, nothing yet has been proved concerning the first beginnings of
+language.  There is no reason why man should be fully equipped in
+language any more than in intellect, moral quality, or economic
+condition, and it is shown conclusively that in all these {123}
+characteristics he has made a slow evolution.  Likewise the further
+back towards its origin we trace any language or any group of languages
+the simpler we find it, coming nearer and yet nearer to the root
+speech.  If we could have the whole record of man, back through that
+period into which historical records cannot go, and into which
+comparative philology throws but a few rays of light, doubtless we
+should find that at one time man used gesture, facial expression, and
+signs, interspersed with sounds at intervals, as his chief means of
+expression.  Upon this foundation mankind has built the superstructure
+of language.
+
+Some philosophers hold that the first words used were names applied to
+familiar objects.  Around these first names clustered ideas, and
+gradually new words appeared.  With the names and gestures it was easy
+to convey thought.  Others, refuting this idea, have held that the
+first words represented general notions and not names.  From these
+general notions there were gradually instituted the specific words
+representing separate ideas.  Others have held that language is a gift,
+and springs spontaneously in the nature of man, arising from his own
+inherent qualities.  Possibly from different standpoints there is a
+grain of truth in each one of these theories, although all combined are
+insufficient to explain the whole truth.
+
+No theory yet devised answers all the questions concerning the origin
+of language.  It may be truly asserted that language is an acquisition,
+starting with the original capacity for imperfect speech found in the
+physiological structure of man.  This is accompanied by certain
+tendencies of thought and life which furnish the psychical notion of
+language-formation.  These represent the foundations of language, and
+upon this, through action and experience, the superstructure of
+language has been built.  There has been a continuous evolution from
+simple to complex forms.
+
+_Language Is an Important Social Function_.--Whatever conjectures may
+be made by philosophers or definite knowledge determined by
+philologists, it is certain that language has been {124} built up by
+human association.  Granted that the physiological function of speech
+was a characteristic of the first beings to bear the human form, it is
+true that its development has come about by the mental interactions of
+individuals.  No matter to what extent language was used by a given
+generation, it was handed on through social heredity to the next
+generation.  Thus, language represents a continuous stream of
+word-bearing thought, moving from the beginning of human association to
+the present time.  It is through it that we have a knowledge of the
+past and frame the thoughts of the present.  While it is easy to
+concede that language was built up in the attempt of man to communicate
+his feelings, emotions, and thoughts to others, it in turn has been a
+powerful coercive influence and a direct social creation.  Only those
+people who could understand one another could be brought into close
+relationships, and for this purpose some generally accepted system of
+communicating ideas became essential.  Moreover, the tribes and
+assimilated nations found the force of common language in the coherency
+of group life.  Thus it became a powerful instrument in developing
+tribal, racial, or national independence.  If the primal force of early
+family or tribal organization was that of sex and blood relationship,
+language became a most powerful ally in forcing the group into formal
+social action, and in furnishing a means of defense against the social
+encroachments of other tribes and nations.
+
+It must be observed, however, that the social boundaries of races are
+not coincident with the divisions of language.  In general the tendency
+is for a race to develop an independent language, for racial
+development was dependent upon isolation from other groups.  But from
+the very earliest associations to the present time there has been a
+tendency for assimilation of groups even to the extent of direct
+amalgamation of those occupying contiguous territory, or through
+conquest.  In the latter event, the conquered group usually took the
+language of the conquerors, although this has not always followed, as
+eventually the stronger language becomes the more important {125}
+through use.  For instance, for a time after the Norman Conquest,
+Norman French became, in the centres of government and culture at
+least, the dominant language, but eventually was thrown aside by a more
+useful language as English institutions came to the front.  As race and
+language may not represent identical groups, it is evident that a
+classification of language cannot be taken as conclusive evidence in
+the classification of races.  However, in the main it is true.  A
+classification of all of the languages of the Indians of North America
+would be a classification of all the tribes that have been
+differentiated in physical structure and other racial traits, as well
+as of habits and customs.  Yet a tribe using a common language may be
+composed of a number of racial elements.
+
+When it comes to the modern state, language does not coincide with
+natural boundaries.  Thus, in Switzerland German is spoken in the north
+and northeast, French in the southwest, and Italian in the southeast.
+However, in this case, German is the dominant language taught in
+schools and used largely in literature.  Also, in Belgium, where one
+part of the people speak Flemish and the other French, they are living
+under the same national unity so far as government is concerned,
+although there have always remained distinctive racial types.  In
+Mexico there are a number of tribes that, though using the dominant
+Spanish language, called Mexican, are in their closer associations
+speaking the primitive languages of their race or tribe which have come
+down to them through long ages of development.  Sometimes, however, a
+tribe shows to be a mosaic of racial traits and languages, brought
+about by the complete amalgamation of tribes.  A very good example of
+this complete amalgamation would be that of the Hopi Indians of New
+Mexico, where distinctive group words and racial traits may be traced
+to three different tribes.  But to refer to a more complete
+civilization, where the Spanish language is spoken in Spain, we find
+the elements of Latin, Teutonic, Arabic, and Old Iberian speech, which
+are suggestive of different racial traits pointing to different racial
+origins.
+
+{126}
+
+Regardless of origin and tradition, language gradually conforms to the
+type of civilization in existence.  A strong, vigorous industrial
+nation would through a period of years develop a tendency for a
+vigorous language which would express the spirit and life of the
+people, while a dreamy, conservative nation would find little change in
+the language.  Likewise, periods of romance or of war have a tendency
+to make changes in the form of speech in conformity to ideals of life.
+On the other hand, social and intellectual progress is frequently
+dependent upon the character of the language used to the extent that it
+may be said that language is an indication of the progress of a people
+in the arts of civilized life.  It is evident in comparing the Chinese
+language with the French, great contrasts are shown in the ease in
+which ideas are represented and the stream of thought borne on its way.
+The Chinese language is a clumsy machine as compared with the flexible
+and smooth-gliding French.  It appears that if it were possible for the
+Chinese to change their language for a more flexible, smooth-running
+instrument, it would greatly facilitate their progress in art, science,
+and social life.
+
+_Written Language Followed Speech in Order of Development_.--Many
+centuries elapsed before any systematic writing or engraving recorded
+human events.  The deeds of the past were handed on through tradition,
+in the cave, around the campfire, and in the primitive family.  Stories
+of the past, being rehearsed over and over, became a permanent
+heritage, passing on from generation to generation.  But this method of
+descent of knowledge was very indefinite, because story-tellers,
+influenced by their environment, continually built the present into the
+past, and so the truth was not clearly expressed.
+
+Slowly man began to make a permanent record of deeds and events, the
+first beginnings of which were very feeble, and were included in
+drawings on the walls of caves, inscriptions on bone, stone, and ivory,
+and symbols woven in garments.  All represented the first beginnings of
+the representative art of language.
+
+{127}
+
+Gradually picture-writing became so systematized that an expression of
+continuous thought might be recorded and transferred from one to
+another through the observation of the symbols universally recognized.
+But these pictures on rocks and ivory, and later on tablets, have been
+preserved, and are expressive of the first steps of man in the art of
+written language.  The picture-writing so common to savages and
+barbarians finally passes from a simple _rebus_ to a very complex
+written language, as in the case of the Egyptian or Mexican.  The North
+American Indians used picture-writing in describing battles, or an
+expedition across a lake, or an army on a march, or a buffalo hunt.  A
+simple picture shows that fifty-one warriors, led by a chief and his
+assistant, in five canoes, took three days to cross a lake and land
+their forces on the other side.
+
+The use of pictographs is the next step in the process of written
+language.  It represents a generalized form of symbols which may be put
+together in such a way as to express complete thoughts.  Originally
+they were merely symbols or signs of ideas, which by being slightly
+changed in form or position led to the expression of a complete thought.
+
+Following the pictograph is the ideograph, which is but one more step
+in the progress of systematic writing.  Here the symbol has become so
+generalized that it has a significance quite independent of its origin.
+In other words, it becomes idealized and conventionalized, so that a
+specific symbol stood for a universal idea.  It could be made specific
+by changing its form or position.  All that was necessary now was to
+have a sufficient number of general symbols representing ideas, to
+build up a constructive language.  The American Indian and the Chinese
+have apparently passed through all stages of the picture-writing, the
+use of the pictograph and of the ideograph.  In fact, the Chinese
+language is but an extension of these three methods of expression.  The
+objects were originally designated by a rude drawing, and then, to
+modify the meaning, different characters were attached to the picture.
+Thus a monosyllabic {128} language was built up, and the root word had
+many meanings by the modification of its form and sometimes by the
+change of its position.  The hieroglyphic writings of the Egyptians,
+Moabites, Persians, and Assyrians went through these methods of
+language development, as their records show to this day.
+
+_Phonetic Writing Was a Step in Advance of the Ideograph_.--The
+difference between the phonetic writing and the picture-writing rests
+in the fact that the symbol representing the object is expressive of an
+idea or a complete thought, while in phonetic writing the symbol
+represents a sound which combined with other sounds expresses an idea
+called a word and complete thoughts through combination of words.  The
+discovery and use of a phonetic alphabet represent the key to modern
+civilization.  The invention of writing elevated man from a state of
+barbarism to a state of civilization.  About the tenth century before
+Christ the Phoenicians, Hebrews, and other allied Semitic races began
+to use the alphabet.  Each letter was named from a word beginning with
+it.  The Greeks learned the alphabet from the Phoenicians, and the
+Greeks, in turn, passed it to the Romans.  The alphabet continually
+changed from time to time.  The old Phoenician was weak in vowel
+sounds, but the defect was remedied in the Greek and Roman alphabets
+and in the alphabets of the Teutonic nations.  Fully equipped with
+written and spoken speech, the nations of the world were prepared for
+the interchange of thought and ideas and for the preservation of
+knowledge in an accurate manner.  History could be recorded, laws
+written and preserved, and the beginnings of science elaborated.
+
+_The Use of Manuscripts and Books Made Permanent Records_.--At first
+all records were made by pen, pencil, or stylus, and manuscripts were
+represented on papyrus paper or parchment, and could only be duplicated
+by copying.  In Alexandria before the Christian era one could buy a
+copy of the manuscript of a great author, but it was at a high price.
+It finally became customary for monks, in their secluded retreats, to
+spend a good part of their lives in copying and preserving {129} the
+manuscript writings of great authors.  But it was not until printing
+was invented that the world of letters rapidly moved forward.  Probably
+about the sixth century A.D. the Chinese began to print a group of
+characters from blocks, and by the tenth century they were engaged in
+keeping their records in this way.  Gutenberg, Faust, and others
+improved upon the Chinese method by a system of movable type.  But what
+a wonderful change since the fourteenth century printing!  Now, with
+modern type-machines, fine grades of paper made by improved machinery,
+and the use of immense steam presses, the making of an ordinary book is
+very little trouble.  Looking back over the course of events incident
+to the development of the modern complex and flexible language we
+observe, first, the rude picture scrawled on horn or rock.  This was
+followed by the representation of the sound of the name of the picture,
+which passed into the mere sound sign.  Finally, the relation between
+the figure and the sound becomes so arbitrary that the child learns the
+a, b, c as pure signs representing sounds which, in combination, make
+words which stand for ideas.
+
+_Language Is an Instrument of Culture_.--Culture areas always spread
+beyond the territory of language groups.  Culture depends upon the
+discovery and utilization of the forces of nature through invention and
+adaptation.  It may spread through imitation over very large human
+territory.  Man has universal mental traits, with certain powers and
+capacities that are developed in a relative order and in a degree of
+efficiency; but there are many languages and many civilizations of high
+and low degree.  Through human speech the life of the past may be
+handed on to others and the life of the present communicated to one
+another.  The physiological power of speech which exists in all permits
+every human group to develop a language in accordance with its needs
+and as influenced by its environment.  Thus language advanced very
+rapidly as an instrument of communication even at a very early period
+of cultural development.  A recent study of the {130} languages of the
+American Indians has shown the high degree of the art of expression
+among people of the Neolithic culture.  This would seem to indicate
+that primitive peoples are more definite in thought and more observant
+in the relation of cause and effect than is usually supposed.  Thus,
+definite language permits more precise thought, and definite thought,
+in turn, insists on more exact expression in language.  The two aid
+each other in development of cultural ideas, and invention and language
+move along together in the development of the human race.  It becomes a
+great human invention, and as such it not only preserves the thoughts
+of the past but unlocks the knowledge of the present.
+
+Not only is language the means of communication, and the great racial
+as well as social bond of union, but it represents knowledge, culture,
+and refinement.  The strength and beauty of genuine artistic expression
+have an elevating influence on human life and become a means of social
+progress.  The drama and the choicest forms of prose and poetry in
+their literary aspects furnish means of presenting great thoughts and
+high ideals, and, thus combined with the beauty of expression, not only
+furnish the best evidence of moral and intellectual progress but make a
+perennial source of information in modern social life.  Hence it is
+that language and culture in all of their forms go hand in hand so
+closely that a high degree of culture is not attained without a
+dignified and expressive language.
+
+_Art as a Language of Aesthetic Ideas_.--The development of aesthetic
+ideas and aesthetic representations has kept pace with progress in
+other phases of civilization.  The notion of beauty as entertained by
+the savage is crude, and its representation is grotesque.  Its first
+expression is observed in the adornment of the body, either by paint,
+tattooing, or by ornaments.  The coarse, glaring colors placed upon the
+face or body, with no regard for the harmony of color, may attract
+attention, but has little expression of beauty from a modern standard.
+The first adornment in many savage tribes consisted in tattooing the
+body, an art which was finally rendered {131} useless after clothing
+was fully adopted, except as a totemic design representing the unity of
+the tribe.  This custom was followed by the use of rude jewelry for
+arms, neck, ears, nose, or lips.  Other objects of clothing and
+ornament were added from time to time, the bright colors nearly always
+prevailing.  There must have been in all tribes a certain standard of
+artistic taste, yet so low in many instances as to suggest only the
+grotesque.  The taste displayed in the costumes of savages within the
+range of our own observation is remarkable for its variety.  It ranges
+all the way from a small piece of cloth to the elaborate robes made of
+highly colored cotton and woollen goods.  The Celts were noted for
+their highly colored garments and the artistic arrangement of the same.
+The Greeks displayed a grace and simplicity in dress never yet
+surpassed by any other nation.  Yet the dress of early Greeks, Romans,
+and Teutons was meagre in comparison with modern elaborate costumes.
+All of this is a method of expression of the emotions and ideas and, in
+one sense, is a language of the aesthetic.
+
+Representative art, even among primitive peoples, carries with it a
+distinctive language.  It is a representation of ideas, as well as an
+attempt at beauty of expression.  The figures on pottery and basketry
+frequently carry with them religious ideas for the expression and
+perpetuation of religious emotion and belief.  Even rude drawings
+attempt to record the history of the deeds of the race.  Progress is
+shown in better lines, in better form, and a more exquisite blending of
+colors.  That many primitive people display a high degree of art and a
+low degree of general culture is one of the insoluble problems of the
+race.  Perhaps it may be attributed primarily to the fact that all
+artistic expression originally sprang from the emotional side of life,
+and, in addition, may be in part attributed to the early training in
+the acute observation of the forms of nature by primitive people upon
+which depended their existence.
+
+_Music Is a Form of Language_.--Early poetry was a recital of deeds,
+and a monotonous chant, which finally became recorded as language
+developed.  The sagas and the war songs {132} were the earliest
+expressions which later were combined with dramatic action.  The poetry
+of primitive races has no distinguishing characteristics except metre
+or rhythm.  It is usually an oft-recurring expression of the same idea.
+Yet there are many fragmentary examples of lyric poetry, though it is
+mostly egoistic, the individual reciting his deeds or his desires.
+From the natives of Greenland we have the following about the hovering
+of the clouds about the mountain:
+
+  "The great Koonak mountain, over there--
+  I see it;
+  The great Koonak mountain, over there--
+  I am looking at it;
+  The bright shining in the South, over there--
+  I admire it;
+  The other side of Koonak--
+  It stretches out--
+  That which Koonak--
+  Seaward encloses.
+  See how they in the South
+  Move and change--
+  See how in the South
+  They beautify one another;
+  While it toward the sea
+  Is veiled--by changing clouds
+  Veiled toward the sea
+  Beautifying one another."
+
+
+The emotional nature of savages varies greatly in different tribes.
+The lives of some seem to be moved wholly through the emotions, while
+others are stolid or dull.  The variations in musical ability and
+practice of savage and barbarous races are good evidence of this.  Many
+of the tribes in Africa have their rude musical instruments, and chant
+their simple, monotonous music.  The South Sea Islanders beat hollow
+logs with clubs, marking time and creating melody by these notes.  The
+Dahomans use a reed fife, on which they play music of several notes.
+In all primitive music, time is the chief element, and this is not
+always kept with any degree of accuracy.  The {133} chanting of war
+songs, the moaning of the funeral dirge, or the sprightly singing with
+the dance, shows the varied expression of the emotional nature.
+
+No better illustration of the arts of pleasure may be observed than the
+practices of the Zuni Indians and other Pueblo Indians of New Mexico.
+The Zuni melodies are sung on various festival occasions.  Some are
+sacred melodies, used in worship; others are on the occasion of the
+celebration of the rabbit hunt, the rain dances, and the corn dances.
+Among the Pueblo Indians the cachina dance is for the purpose of
+invoking bountiful rains and good harvests.  In all of their feasts,
+games, plays, and dances there are connected ceremonies of a religious
+nature.  Religion occupies a very strong position in the minds of the
+people.  Possessed of a superstitious nature, it was inevitable that
+all the arts of pleasure should partake somewhat of the religious
+ceremony.  The song and the dance and the beating of the drums always
+accompanied every festival.
+
+_The Dance as a Means of Dramatic Expression_.--Among primitive peoples
+the dance, poetry, and music were generally introduced together, and
+were parts of one drama.  As such it was a social institution, with the
+religious, war, or play element fully represented.  Most primitive
+dances were conducted by men only.  In the celebrated _Corroboree_ of
+the Australians, men danced and the women formed the orchestra.[1]
+This gymnastic dance was common to many tribes.  The dances of the
+Moros and Igorrotes at the St. Louis Exposition partook, in a similar
+way, of the nature of the gymnastic dance.  The war dances of the
+plains Indians of America are celebrated for their grotesqueness.  The
+green-corn dance and the cachina of the Pueblos and the snake dance of
+the Moqui all have an economic foundation.  In all, however, the play
+element in man and the desire for dramatic expression and the art of
+mimicry are evident.  The chief feature of the dance of the primitive
+people is the regular time beat.  This is more prominent than the grace
+of movement.  Yet this agrees with {134} the nature of their music, for
+in this the time element is more prominent than the tune.  Rhythm is
+the strong element in the primitive art of poetry, music, or the dance,
+but all have an immense socializing influence.  The modern dance has
+added to rhythm the grace of expression and developed the social
+tendencies.  In it love is a more prominent feature than war or
+religion.
+
+Catlin, in his _North American Indians_, describes the buffalo dance of
+the Mandan Indians, which appears to be more of a service toward an
+economic end than an art of pleasure.  After an unsuccessful hunt the
+returned warriors bring out their buffalo masks, made of the head and
+horns and tail of the buffalo.  These they don, and continue to dance
+until worn out.  Ten or fifteen dancers form a ring and, accompanied by
+drumming, yelling, and rattling, dance until the first exhausted one
+goes through the pantomime of being shot with the bow and arrow,
+skinned, and cut up; but the dance does not lag, for another masked
+dancer takes the place of the fallen one.  The dance continues day and
+night, without cessation, sometimes for two or three weeks, or until a
+herd of buffaloes appears in sight; then the warriors change the dance
+for the hunt.
+
+The dancing of people of lower culture was carried on in many instances
+to express feelings and wishes.  Many of the dances of Egypt, Greece,
+and other early civilizations were of this nature.  Sacred hymns to the
+gods were chanted in connection with the dancing; but the sacred dance
+has become obsolete, in Western civilization its place being taken by
+modern church music.
+
+_The Fine Arts Follow the Development of Language_.--While art varied
+in different tribes, we may assume in general that there was a
+continuity of culture development from the rude clay idol of primitive
+folk to the Venus de Milo or the Winged Victory; from the pictures on
+rocks and in caves to the Sistine Madonna; from the uncouth cooking
+bowl of clay to the highest form of earthenware vase; and from the
+monotonous {135} strain of African music to the lofty conception of
+Mozart.  But this is a continuity of ideas covering the whole human
+race as a unit, rather than the progressive development of a single
+branch of the race.
+
+Consider for a moment the mental and physical environment of the
+ancient cave or forest dweller.  The skies to him were marked only as
+they affected his bodily comfort in sunshine or storm; the trees
+invited his attention as they furnished him food or shelter; the
+roaring torrent was nothing to him except as it obstructed his journey;
+the sun and the moon and the stars in the heavens filled him with
+portentous awe, and the spirits in the invisible world worked for his
+good or for his evil.  Beyond his utilitarian senses no art emotion
+stirred in these signs of creation.  Perhaps the first art emotion was
+aroused in contemplation of the human body.  Through vanity, fear, or
+love he began to decorate it.  He scarifies or tattoos his naked body
+with figures upon his back, arms, legs, and face to represent an idea
+of beauty.  While the tribal or totemic design may have originated the
+custom, he wishes to be attractive to others, and his first emotions of
+beauty are thus expressed.  The second step is to paint his face and
+body to express love, fear, hate, war, or religious emotions.  This
+leads on to the art of decorating the body with ornaments, and
+subsequently to the ornamentation of clothing.
+
+The art of representation at first possessed little artistic beauty,
+though the decorations on walls of caves show skill in lines and color.
+The first representations sought only intelligence in communicating
+thought.  The bas-reliefs of the ancients showed skill in
+representation.  The ideal was finally developed until the aesthetic
+taste was improved, and the Greek sculpture shows a high development of
+artistic taste.  In it beauty and truth were harmoniously combined.
+The arts of sculpture and painting are based upon the imagination.
+Through its perfect development, and the improvement in the art of
+execution, have been secured the aesthetic products of man.  Yet there
+is always a mingling of the emotional nature {136} in the development
+of fine arts.  The growth of the fine arts consists in intensifying the
+pleasurable sensations of eye and ear.  This is done by enlarging the
+capacity for pleasure and increasing the opportunity for its
+satisfaction.  The beginnings of the fine arts were small, and the
+capacity to enjoy must have been slowly developed.  Of the arts that
+appeal to the eye there may be enumerated sculpture, painting, drawing,
+landscape-gardening, and architecture.  The pleasure from all except
+the last comes from an attempt to represent nature.  Architecture is
+founded upon the useful, and combines the industrial and the fine arts
+in one.  The attempt to imitate nature is to satisfy the emotions
+aroused in its contemplation.
+
+_The Love of the Beautiful Slowly Develops_.--There must have developed
+in man the desire to make a more perfect arrow-head, axe, or celt for
+the efficiency of service, and later for beauty of expression.  There
+must early have developed an idea of good form and bright colors in
+clothing.  So, too, in the mixing of colors for the purpose of
+expressing the emotions there gradually came about a refinement in
+blending.  Nor could man's attention be called constantly to the
+beautiful plants and flowers, to the bright-colored stones, metals, and
+gems found in the earth without developing something more than mere
+curiosity concerning them.  He must early have discovered the
+difference between objects which aroused desire for possession and
+those that did not.  Ultimately he preferred a more beautifully
+finished stone implement than one crudely constructed--a more beautiful
+and showy flower than one that was imperfect, and likewise more
+beautiful human beings than those that were crude and ugly.
+
+The pleasure of sound manifested itself at an earlier stage than the
+pleasure of form, although the degree of advancement in music varies in
+different tribes.  Thus the inhabitants of Africa have a much larger
+capacity for recognizing and enjoying the effect of harmonious sounds
+than the aborigines of America.  While all nations have the faculty of
+obtaining pleasure from harmonious sounds, it varies greatly, yet not
+more {137} widely than between separate individuals.  It may be
+considered quite a universal faculty.  The love of the beautiful in
+form, color, and in harmonious sound, is a permanent social force, and
+has much to do in the progress of civilization.  Yet it is not an
+essential force, for the beginnings of civilization could have been
+made without it.  However, it gives relief to the cold business world;
+the formal association of men is softened and embellished by painting,
+poetry, and music.  Thus considered, it represents an important part of
+the modern social development.  Art culture, which represents the
+highest expression of our civilization, has its softening influences on
+human life.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  The importance of language in the development of culture.
+
+2.  Does language always originate the same way in different localities?
+
+3.  Does language develop from a common centre or from many centres?
+
+4.  What bearing has the development of language upon the culture of
+religion, music, poetry, and art?
+
+5.  Which were the more important impulses, clothing for protection or
+for adornment?
+
+6.  Show that play is an important factor in society-building.
+
+7.  Compare pictograph, ideograph, and phonetic writing.
+
+
+
+[1] Keane, _The World's Peoples_, p. 49.
+
+
+
+
+{141}
+
+_PART III_
+
+THE SEATS OF EARLY CIVILIZATIONS
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE INFLUENCE OF PHYSICAL NATURE ON HUMAN PROGRESS
+
+_Man Is a Part of Universal Nature_.--He is an integral part of the
+universe, and as such he must ever be subject to the physical laws
+which control it.  Yet, as an active, thinking being, conscious of his
+existence, it is necessary to consider him in regard to the relations
+which he sustains to the laws and forces of physical nature external to
+himself.  He is but a particle when compared to a planet or a sun, but
+he is greater than a planet because he is conscious of his own
+existence, and the planet is not.  Yet his whole life and being, so far
+as it can be reasoned about, is dependent upon his contact with
+external nature.  By adaptation to physical environment he may live;
+without adaptation he cannot live.
+
+As a part of evolved nature, man comes into the world ignorant of his
+surroundings.  He is ever subject to laws which tend to sweep him
+onward with the remaining portions of the system of which he is a part,
+but his slowly awakening senses cause him to examine his surroundings.
+First, he has a curiosity to know what the world about him is like, and
+he begins a simple inquiry which leads to investigation.  The knowledge
+he acquires is adapted to his use day by day as his vision extends.
+Through these two processes he harmonizes his life with the world about
+him.  By degrees he endeavors to bring the materials and the forces of
+nature into subjection to his will.  Thus he progresses from the
+student to the master.  External nature is unconscious, submitting
+passively to the laws that control it, but man, ever conscious of
+himself and his effort, attempts to dominate the forces surrounding him
+and this struggle to overcome environment has characterized his {142}
+progress.  But in this struggle, nature has reciprocated its influence
+on man in modifying his development and leaving her impress on him.
+Limited he has ever been and ever will be by his environment.  Yet
+within the limits set by nature he is master of his own destiny and
+develops by his own persistent endeavor.
+
+Indeed, the epitome of civilization is a struggle of nature and
+thought, the triumph of the psychical over the physical; and while he
+slowly but surely overcomes the external physical forces and makes them
+subordinate to his own will and genius, civilization must run along
+natural courses even though its products are artificial.  In many
+instances nature appears bountiful and kind to man, but again she
+appears mean and niggardly.  It is man's province to take advantage of
+her bounty and by toil and invention force her to yield her coveted
+treasures.  Yet the final outcome of it all is determined by the extent
+to which man masters himself.
+
+_Favorable Location Is Necessary for Permanent Civilization_.--In the
+beginning only those races have made progress that have sought and
+obtained favorable location.  Reflect upon the early civilizations of
+the world and notice that every one was begun in a favorable location.
+Observe the geographical position of Egypt, in a narrow, fertile valley
+bounded by the desert and the sea, cut off from contact with other
+races.  There was an opportunity for the Egyptians to develop
+continuity of life sufficient to permit the beginnings of civilization.
+Later, when wealth and art had developed, Egypt became the prey of
+covetous invading nations.  So ancient Chaldea, for a time far removed
+from contact with other tribes, and protected by desert, mountain, and
+sea, was able to begin a civilization.
+
+But far more favorable, not only for a beginning of civilization but
+for a high state of development, was the territory occupied by the
+Grecian tribes.  Shut in from the north by a mountain range, surrounded
+on every other side by the sea, a fertile and well-watered land, of
+mild climate, it was protected {143} from the encroachments of
+"barbarians."  The influence of geographical contour is strongly marked
+in the development of the separate states of Greece.  The small groups
+that settled down on a family basis were separated from each other by
+ranges of hills, causing each community to develop its own
+characteristic life.  These communities had a common language,
+differing somewhat in dialect, and the foundation of a common religion,
+but there never could exist sufficient similarity of character or unity
+of sentiment to permit them to unite into a strong central nation.  A
+variety of life is evinced everywhere.  Those who came in contact with
+the ocean differed from those who dwelt in the interior, shut in by the
+mountains.  The contact with the sea gives breadth of thought,
+largeness of life, while those who are enclosed by mountains lead a
+narrow life, intense in thought and feeling.  Without the protection of
+nature, the Grecian states probably would never have developed the high
+state of civilization which they reached.
+
+Rome presents a similar example.  It is true that the Italian tribes
+that entered the peninsula had considerable force of character and
+thorough development as they were about to enter upon a period of
+civilization.  Like the Greeks, the discipline of their early Aryan
+ancestors had given them much of strength and character.  Yet the
+favorable location of Italy, bounded on the north by a high mountain
+range and enclosed by the sea, gave abundant opportunity for the
+national germs to thrive and grow.  Left thus to themselves, dwelling
+under the protection of the snow-capped Alps, and surrounded by the
+beneficent sea, national life expanded, government and law developed
+and thrived, and the arts of civilized life were practised.  The
+national greatness of the Romans may in part be attributed to the
+period of repose in which they pursued unmolested the arts of peace
+before their era of conquest began.
+
+Among the mountains of Switzerland are people who claim never to have
+been conquered.  In the wild rush of the {144} barbarian hordes into
+the Roman Empire they were not overrun.  They retain to this day their
+early sentiments of liberty; their greatness is in freedom and
+equality.  The mountains alone protected them from the assaults of the
+enemy and the crush of moving tribes.
+
+Other nations might be mentioned that owe much to geographical
+position.  More than once in the early part of her history it protected
+Spain from destruction.  The United States, in a large measure, owes
+her independent existence to the fact that the ocean rolls between her
+and the mother country.  On the other hand, Ireland has been hampered
+in her struggle for independent government on account of her proximity
+to England.  The natural defense against enemies, the protection of
+mountains and forests, the proximity to the ocean, all have had their
+influence in the origin and development of nations.  Yet races, tribes,
+and nations, once having opportunity to develop and become strong, may
+flourish without the protecting conditions of nature.  They may defy
+the mountains, seas, and the streams, and the onslaughts of the wild
+tribes.
+
+_The Nature of the Soil an Essential Condition of Progress_.--But
+geography alone, although a great factor in progress, is powerless
+without a fertile soil to yield a food supply for a large population.
+The first great impetus of all early civilizations occurred through
+agriculture.  Not until this had developed so as to give a steady food
+supply were people able to have sufficient leisure to develop the other
+arts of life.  The abundant food supply furnished by the fertility of
+the Nile valley was the key to the Egyptian civilization.  The valley
+was overflowed annually by the river, which left a fertilizing sediment
+upon the land already prepared for cultivation.  Thus annually without
+excessive labor the soil was watered, fertilized, and prepared for the
+seed.  Even when irrigation was introduced, in order to obtain a larger
+supply of food, the cultivation of the soil was a very easy matter.
+Agriculture consisted primarily in sowing seed on ready prepared ground
+and {145} reaping the harvest.  The certainty of the crop assured a
+living.  The result of cheap food was to rapidly multiply the race,
+which existed on a low plane.  It created a mass of inferior people
+ruled by a few despots.
+
+What is true of Egypt is true of all of the early civilizations, as
+they each started where a fertile soil could easily be tilled.  The
+inhabitants of ancient Chaldea developed their civilization on a
+fertile soil.  The great cities of Nineveh and Babylon were surrounded
+by rich valleys, and the yield of agricultural products made
+civilization possible.  The earliest signs of progress in India were
+along the valleys of the Ganges and the Indus.  Likewise, in the New
+World, the tribes that approached the nearest to civilization were
+situated in fertile districts in Peru, Central America, Mexico, and New
+Mexico.
+
+_The Use of Land the Foundation of Social Order_.--The manner in which
+tribes and nations have attached themselves to the soil has determined
+the type of social organization.  Before the land was treated as
+property of individuals or regarded as a permanent possession by
+tribes, the method in which the land was held and its use determined
+the quality of civilization, and the land factor became more important
+as a determiner of social order as civilization progressed.  It was
+exceedingly important in determining the quality of the Greek life, and
+the entire structure of Roman civilization was based on the land
+question.  Master the land tenure of Rome and you have laid the
+foundation of Roman history.  The desire for more land and for more
+room was the chief cause of the barbarian invasion of the empire.  All
+feudal society, including lords and vassals, government and courts, was
+based upon the plan of feudal land-holding.
+
+In modern times in England the land question has been at times the
+burning political and economic question of the nation, and is a
+disturbing factor in recent times.  In the United States, rapid
+progress is due more to the bounteous supply of free, fertile lands
+than to any other single cause.  Broad, fertile valleys are more
+pertinent as the foundation {146} of nation-building than men are
+accustomed to believe; and now that nearly all the public domain has
+been apportioned among the citizens, intense desire for land remains
+unabated, and its method of treatment through landlord and tenant is
+rapidly becoming a troublesome question.  The relation of the soil to
+the population presents new problems, and the easy-going civilization
+will be put to a new test.
+
+_Climate Has Much to Do with the Possibilities of Progress_.--The early
+seats of civilization mentioned above were all located in warm
+climates.  Leisure is essential to all progress.  Where it takes man
+all of his time to earn a bare subsistence there is not much room for
+improvement.  A warm climate is conducive to leisure, because its
+requirements of food and clothing are less imperative than in cold
+countries.  The same quantity of food will support more people in warm
+than in cold climates.  This, coupled with the fact that nature is more
+spontaneous in furnishing a bountiful supply in warm climates than in
+cold, renders the first steps in progress much more possible.  The food
+in warm climates is of a light vegetable character, which is easily
+prepared for use; indeed, in many instances it is already prepared.  In
+cold countries, where it is necessary to consume large amounts of fatty
+food to sustain life, the food supply is meagre, because this can only
+be obtained from wild animals.  In this region it costs immense labor
+to obtain sufficient food for the support of life; likewise, in a cold
+climate it takes much time to tame animals for use and to build huts to
+protect from the storm and the cold.  The result is that the
+propagation of the race is slow, and progress in social and individual
+life is retarded.
+
+We should expect, therefore, all of the earliest civilization to be in
+warm regions.  In this we are not disappointed, in noting Egypt,
+Babylon, Mexico, and Peru.  Soil and climate co-operate in furnishing
+man a suitable place for his first permanent development.  There is,
+however, in this connection, one danger to be pointed out, arising from
+the conditions of cheap food--namely, a rapid propagation of the race,
+which {147} entails misery through generations.  In these early
+populous nations, great want and misery frequently prevailed among the
+masses of the people.  Thousands of laborers, competing for sustenance,
+reduce the earning capacity to a very small amount, and this reduces
+the standard of life.  Yet because food and shelter cost little, they
+are able to live at a low standard and to multiply rapidly.  Human life
+becomes cheap, is valued little by despotic rulers, who enslave their
+fellows.  Another danger in warm climates which counteracts the
+tendency of nations to progress, is the fact that warm climates
+enervate man and make him less active; hence it occurs that in colder
+climates with unfavorable surroundings great progress is made on
+account of the excessive energy and strong will-force of the
+inhabitants.
+
+In temperate climates man has reached the highest state of progress.
+In this zone the combination of a moderately cheap food supply and the
+necessity of excessive energy to supply food, clothing, and protection
+has been most conducive to the highest forms of progress.  While,
+therefore, the civilization of warm climates has led to despotism,
+inertia, and the degradation of the masses, the civilization of
+temperate climates has led to freedom, elevation of humanity, and
+progress in the arts.  This illustrates how essential is individual
+energy in taking advantage of what nature has provided.
+
+_The General Aspects of Nature Determine the Type of
+Civilization_.--While the general characteristics of nature have much
+to do with the development of the races of the earth, it is only a
+single factor in the great complex of influences.  People living in the
+mountain fastnesses, those living at the ocean side, and those living
+on great interior plains vary considerably as to mental characteristics
+and views of life in general.  Buckle has expanded this idea at some
+length in his comparison of India and Greece.  He has endeavored to
+show that "the history of the human mind can only be understood by
+connecting with it the history and aspects of the material universe."
+He holds that everything in India tended to depress the {148} dignity
+of man, while everything in Greece tended to exalt it.  After comparing
+these two countries of ancient civilization in respect to the
+development of the imagination, he says: "To sum up the whole, it may
+be said that the Greeks had more respect for human powers; the Hindus
+for superhuman.  The first dealt with the known and available, the
+second with the unknown and mysterious."  He attributes this difference
+largely to the fact that the imagination was excessively developed in
+India, while the reason predominated in Greece.  The cause attributed
+to the development of the imagination in India is the aspect of nature.
+
+Everything in India is overshadowed with the immensity of nature.  Vast
+plains, lofty mountains, mighty, turbulent rivers, terrible storms, and
+demonstrations of natural forces abound to awe and terrify.  The causes
+of all are so far beyond the conception of man that his imagination is
+brought into play to furnish images for his excited and terrified mind.
+Hence religion is extravagant, abstract, terrible.  Literature is full
+of extravagant poetic images.  The individual is lost in the system of
+religion, figures but little in literature, and is swallowed up in the
+immensity of the universe.  While, on the other hand, the fact that
+Greece had no lofty mountains, no great plains; had small rivulets in
+the place of rivers, and few destructive storms, was conducive to the
+development of calm reflection and reason.  Hence, in Greece man
+predominated over nature; in India, nature overpowered man.[1]
+
+There is much of truth in this line of argument, but it must not be
+carried too far.  For individual and racial characteristics have much
+to do with the development of imagination, reason, and religion.  The
+difference, too, in the time of development, must also be considered,
+for Greece was a later product, and had the advantage of much that had
+preceded in human progress.  And so far as can be determined, the
+characteristics of the Greek colonists were quite well established
+{149} before they left Asia.  The supposition, also, that man is
+subject entirely to the influence of physical nature for his entire
+progress, must be taken with modification.  His mind-force, his
+individual will-force, must be accounted for, and these occupy a large
+place in the history of his progress.  No doubt the thunders of Niagara
+and the spectacle of the volume of water inspire poetic admiration in
+the minds of the thousands who have gazed on this striking physical
+phenomenon of nature.  It is awe-inspiring; it arouses the emotions; it
+creates poetic imagination.  But the final result of contact with the
+will of man is to turn part of that force from its channels, to move
+the bright machinery engaged in creating things useful and beautiful
+which contribute to the larger well-being of man.
+
+Granting that climate, soil, geographical position, and the aspects of
+nature have a vast influence in limiting the possibilities of man's
+progress, and in directing his mental as well as physical
+characteristics, it must not be forgotten that in the contact with
+these it is his mastery over them which constitutes progress, and this
+involves the activity of his will-power.  Man is not a slave to his
+environment.  He is not a passive creature acted upon by sun and storm
+and subjected to the powers of the elements.  True, that there are set
+about him limitations within which he must ever act.  Yet from
+generation to generation he forces back these limits, enlarges the
+boundary of his activities, increases the scope of his knowledge, and
+brings a larger number of the forces of nature in subjection to his
+will.
+
+_Physical Nature Influences Social Order_.--Not only is civilization
+primarily based upon the physical powers and resources of nature, but
+the quality of social order is determined thereby.  Thus, people
+following the streams, plains, and forests would develop a different
+type of social order from those who would settle down to permanent
+seats of agriculture.  The Bedouin Arabs of the desert, although among
+the oldest of organized groups, have changed very little through the
+passing centuries, because their mode of life permits only a {150}
+simple organization.  Likewise, it is greatly in contrast with the
+modern nations, built upon industrial and commercial life, with all of
+the machinery run by the powers of nature.  When Rome developed her
+aristocratic proprietors to whom the land was apportioned in great
+estates, the old free farming population disappeared and slavery became
+a useful adjunct in the methods adopted for cultivating the soil.  On
+the other hand, the old village community where land was held in common
+developed a small co-operative group closely united on the basis of
+mutual aid.  The great landed estates of England and Germany must, so
+long as they continue, influence the type of social order and of
+government that will exist in those countries.
+
+As the individual is in a measure subservient to the external laws
+about him, so must the social group of which he forms a part be so
+controlled.  The flexibility and variability of human nature, with its
+power of adaptation, make it possible to develop different forms of
+social order.  The subjective side of social development, wherein the
+individual seeks to supply his own wants and follow the directions of
+his own will, must ever be a modifying power acting upon the social
+organization.  Thus society becomes a great complex of variabilities
+which cannot be reduced to exact laws similar to those found in
+physical nature.  Nevertheless, if society in its development is not
+dependent upon immutable laws similar to those discovered in the forces
+of nature, yet as part of the great scheme of nature it is directly
+dependent upon the physical forces that permit it to exist the same as
+the individual.  This would give rise to laws of human association
+which are modified by the laws of external nature.  Thus, while society
+is psychical in its nature, it is ever dependent upon the material and
+the physical for its existence.  However, through co-operation, man is
+able to more completely master his environment than by working
+individually.  It is only by mutual aid and social organization that he
+is able to survive and conquer.
+
+
+{151}
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Give examples coming within your own observation of the influence
+of soil and climate on the character of society.
+
+2.  Does the character of the people in Central America depend more on
+climate than on race?
+
+3.  In what ways does the use of land determine the character of social
+order?
+
+4.  Are the ideals and habits of thought of the people living along the
+Atlantic Coast different from those of the Middle West?  If so, in what
+respect?
+
+5.  Is the attitude toward life of the people of the Dakota wheat belt
+different from those of New York City?
+
+6.  Compare a mining community with an agricultural community and
+record the differences in social order and attitude toward life.
+
+
+
+[1] Henry Thomas Buckle, _History of Civilization in England_.  General
+Introduction.
+
+
+
+
+{152}
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+CIVILIZATION OF THE ORIENT
+
+_The First Nations with Historical Records in Asia and Africa_.--The
+seats of the most ancient civilizations are found in the fertile
+valleys of the Euphrates and the Nile.  These centres of civilization
+were founded on the fertility of the river valleys and the fact of
+their easy cultivation.  Just when the people began to develop these
+civilizations and whence they came are not determined.  It is out of
+the kaleidoscopic picture of wandering humanity seeking food and
+shelter, the stronger tribes pushing and crowding the weaker, that
+these permanent seats of culture became established.  Ceasing to wander
+after food, they settled down to make the soil yield its products for
+the sustenance of life.  Doubtless they found other tribes and races
+had been there before them, though not for permanent habitation.  But
+the culture of any one group of people fades away toward its origins,
+mingling its customs and life with those who preceded them.  Sometimes,
+indeed, when a tribe settled down to permanent achievement, its whole
+civilization is swept away by more savage conquerors.  Sometimes,
+however, the blood of the invaders mingled with the conquered, and the
+elements of art, religion, and language of both groups have built up a
+new type of civilization.
+
+The geography of the section comprising the nations where the earliest
+achievements have left permanent records, indicates a land extending
+from a territory east of the Tigris and Euphrates westward to the
+eastern shore of the Mediterranean and southward into Egypt.
+Doubtless, this region was one much traversed by tribes of various
+languages and cultures.  Emerging from the Stone Age, we find the
+civilization ranging from northern Africa and skirting Arabia through
+Palestine {153} and Assyria down into the valley of the Tigris and the
+Euphrates.  Doubtless, the civilization that existed in this region was
+more or less closely related in general type, but had derived its
+character from many primitive sources.  As history dawns on the
+achievements of these early nations, it is interesting to note that
+there was a varied rainfall within this territory.  Some parts were
+well watered, others having long seasonal periods of drought followed
+by periodical rains.  It would appear, too, the uncertainty of rainfall
+seemed to increase rather than diminish, for in the valley of the
+Euphrates, as well as in the valley of the Nile, the inhabitants were
+forced to resort to artificial irrigation for the cultivation of their
+crops.
+
+It is not known at what time the Chaldeans began to build their
+artificial systems of irrigation, but it must have been brought about
+by the gain of the population on the food supply, or perhaps an
+increased uncertainty of rainfall.  At any rate, the irrigation works
+became a systematic part of their industry, and were of great size and
+variety.  It took a great deal of engineering skill to construct
+immense ditches necessary to control the violent floods of the
+Euphrates and the Tigris.  So far as evidence goes, the irrigation was
+carried on by the gravity system, by which canals were built from
+intakes from the river and extended throughout the cultivated district.
+In Egypt for a long time the periodical overflow of the Nile brought in
+the silt for fertilizer and water for moisture.  When the flood
+subsided, seed was planted and the crop raised and harvested.  As the
+population spread, the use of water for irrigation became more general,
+and attempts were made to distribute its use not only over a wider
+range of territory but more regularly throughout the seasons, thus
+making it possible to harvest more than one crop a year, or to develop
+diversified agriculture.  The Egyptians used nearly all the modern
+methods of procuring, storing, and distributing water.  Hence, in these
+centres of warm climate, fertile land, and plenty of moisture, the
+earth was made to yield an immense harvest, which made it possible to
+support a large population.  {154} The food supply having been
+established, the inhabitants could devote themselves to other things,
+and slowly developed the arts and industries.
+
+_Civilization in Mesopotamia_.--The Tigris and Euphrates, two great
+rivers having their sources in mountain regions, pouring their floods
+for centuries into the Persian Gulf, made a broad, fertile valley along
+their lower courses.  The soil was of inexhaustible fertility and easy
+of cultivation.  The climate was almost rainless, and agriculture was
+dependent upon artificial irrigation.  The upper portion of this great
+river valley was formed of undulating plains stretching away to the
+north, where, almost treeless, they furnished great pasture ranges for
+flocks and herds, which also added to the permanency of the food supply
+and helped to develop the wealth and prosperity of the country.  It was
+in this climate, so favorable for the development of early man, and
+with this fertile soil yielding such bountiful productions, that the
+ancient Chaldean civilization started, which was followed by the
+Babylonian and Assyrian civilizations, each of which developed a great
+empire.  These empires, ruling in turn, not only represented centres of
+civilization and wealth, but they acquired the overlordship of
+territories far and wide, their monarchs ruling eastward toward India
+and westward toward Phoenicia.  In early times ancient Chaldea, located
+on the lower Euphrates, was divided into two parts, the lower portion
+known as Sumer, and the other, the upper, known as Akkad.  While in the
+full development of these civilizations the Semitic race was dominant,
+there is every appearance that much of the culture of these primitive
+peoples came from farther east.
+
+_Influences Coming from the Far East_.--The early inhabitants of this
+country have sometimes been called Turanian to distinguish them from
+Aryans, Semites, and other races sometimes called Hamitic.  They seem
+to have been closely allied to the Mongolian type of people who
+developed centres of culture in the Far East and early learned the use
+of metals and developed a high degree of skill in handicraft.  The
+Akkadians, {155} or Sumer-Akkadians, appear to have come from the
+mountain districts north and east, and entered this fertile valley to
+begin the work of civilization at a very early period.  Their rude
+villages and primitive systems of life were to be superseded by
+civilizations of other races that, utilizing the arts and industries of
+the Akkadians, carried their culture to a much higher standard.  The
+Akkadians are credited with bringing into this country the methods of
+making various articles from gold and iron which have been found in
+their oldest tombs.  They are credited with having laid the foundation
+of the industrial arts which were manifested at an early time in
+ancient Chaldea, Egypt, and later in Babylonia and Phoenicia.  Whatever
+foundation there may be for this theory, the subsequent history of the
+civilizations which have developed from Thibet as a centre would seem
+to attribute the early skill in handiwork in the metals and in
+porcelain and glass to these people.  They also early learned to make
+inscriptions for permanent record in a crude way and to construct
+buildings made of brick.
+
+The Akkadians brought with them a religious system which is shown in a
+collection of prayers and sacred texts found recorded in the ruins at
+the great library at Nineveh.  Their religion seemed to be a complex of
+animism and nature-worship.  To them the universe was peopled with
+spirits who occupied different spheres and performed different
+services.  Scores of evil spirits working in groups of seven controlled
+the earth and man.  Besides these there were numberless demons which
+assailed man in countless forms, which worked daily and hourly to do
+him harm, to control his spirit, to bring confusion to his work, to
+steal the child from the father's knee, to drive the son from the
+father's house, or to withhold from the wife the blessings of children.
+They brought evil days.  They brought ill-luck and misfortune.  Nothing
+could prevent their destructiveness.  These spirits, falling like rain
+from the skies to the earth, could leap from house to house,
+penetrating the doors like serpents.  Their dwelling-places were
+scattered in {156} the marshes by the sea, where sickly pestilence
+arose, and in the deserts, where the hot winds drifted the sands.
+Sickness and disease were represented by the demons of pestilence and
+of fever, which bring destruction upon man.  It was a religion of
+fatalism, which held that man was ever attacked by unseen enemies
+against whom there was no means of defense.  There was little hope in
+life and none after death.  There was no immortality and no eternal
+life.  These spirits were supposed to be under the control of sorcerers
+and magicians or priests, resembling somewhat the medicine men of the
+wild tribes of North America, who had power to compel them, and to
+inflict death or disaster upon the objects of their censure and wrath.
+Thus, these primitive peoples of early Chaldea were terrorized by the
+spirits of the earth and by the wickedness of those who manipulated the
+spirits.
+
+The only bright side of this picture was the creation of other spirits
+conceived to be essentially good and beneficial, and to whom prayers
+were directed for protection and help.  Such beings were superior to
+all evil spirits, provided their support could be invoked.  So the
+spirit of heaven and the spirit of earth both appealed to the
+imagination of these primitive people, who thought that these unseen
+creatures called gods possessed all knowledge and wisdom, which was
+used to befriend and protect.  Especially would they look to the spirit
+of earth as their particular protector, who had power to break the
+spell of the spirits, compel obedience, and bring terror into the
+hearts of the wicked ones.  Such, in brief, was the religious system
+which these people created for themselves.  Later, after the Semitic
+invasion, a system of religion developed more colossal in its
+imagination and yet not less cruel in its final decrees regarding human
+life and destiny.  It passed into the purely imaginative religion, and
+the worship of the sun and moon and the stars gave man's imagination a
+broader vision, even if it did not lift him to a higher standard of
+moral conduct.
+
+It is not known at what date these early civilizations began, {157} but
+there is some evidence that the Akkadians appeared in the valley not
+less than four thousand years before Christ, and that subsequently they
+were conquered by the Elamites in the east, who obtained the supremacy
+for a season, and then were reinforced by the Semitic peoples, who
+ranged northeast, and, from northern Africa through Arabia, eastward to
+the Euphrates.[1]
+
+_Egypt Becomes a Centre of Civilization_.--The men of Egypt are
+supposed to be related racially to the Caucasian people who dwelt in
+the northern part of Africa, from whom they separated at a very early
+period, and went into the Nile valley to settle.  Their present racial
+connection makes them related to the well-known Berber type, which has
+a wide range in northern Africa.  Some time after the departure of the
+Hamitic branch of the Caucasian race into Egypt, it is supposed that
+another people passed on beyond, entering Arabia, later spreading over
+Assyria, Babylon, Palestine, and Phoenicia.  These were called the
+Semites.  Doubtless, this passage was long continued and irregular, and
+there are many intermixtures of the races now distinctly Berber and
+Arabic, so that in some parts of Egypt, and north of Egypt, we find an
+Arab-Berber mongrel type.  Doubtless, when the Egyptian stock of the
+Berber type came into Egypt they found other races whose life dates
+back to the early Paleolithic, as the stone implements found in the
+hills and caves and graves showed not only Neolithic but Paleolithic
+culture.  Also, the wavering line of Sudan negro types extended across
+Africa from east to west and came in contact with the Caucasian stock
+of northern Africa, and we find many negroid intermixtures.
+
+The Egyptians, however, left to themselves for a number of centuries,
+began rapid ascendency.  First, as before stated, their food supply was
+permanent and abundant.  Second, there were inducements also for the
+development of the art of measurement of land which later led to the
+development of general principles of measurement.  There was
+observation of {158} the sun and moon and the stars, and a development
+of the art of building of stone and brick, out of which the vast
+pyramid tombs of kings were built.  The artificers, too, had learned to
+work in precious stones and metals and weave garments, also to write
+inscriptions on tombs and also on the papyrus.  It would seem as if the
+civilization once started through so many centuries had become
+sufficiently substantial to remain permanent or to become progressive,
+but Egypt was subject to a great many drawbacks.  The nation that has
+the food supply of the world is sooner or later bound to come into
+trouble.  So it appears in the case of Egypt, with her vast food
+resources and accumulation of wealth; she was eventually doomed to the
+attacks of jealous and envious nations.
+
+The history of Egypt is represented by dynasties of kings and changes
+of government through a long period interrupted by the invasion of
+tribes from the west and the north, which interfered with the
+uniformity of development.  It is divided into two great centres of
+development, Lower Egypt, or the Delta, and Upper Egypt, frequently
+differing widely in the character of civilization.  Yet, in the latter
+part of her supremacy Egypt went to war with the Semitic peoples of
+Babylon and Assyria for a thousand years.  It was the great granary of
+the world and a centre of wealth and culture.
+
+The kings of Egypt were despots who were regarded by the people as
+gods.  They were the head not only of the state but of the religious
+system, and consequently through this double headship were enabled to
+rule with absolute sway.  The priesthood, together with a few nobles,
+represented the intellectual and social aristocracy of the country.
+Next to them were the warriors, who were an exclusive class.  Below
+these came the shepherds and farmers, and finally the slaves.  While
+the caste system did not prevail with as much rigidity here as in
+India, all groups of people were bound by the influence of class
+environment, from which they were unable to extricate themselves.
+Poorer classes became so degraded that in times of famine they were
+obliged to sell their liberty, their lives, or {159} their labor to
+kings for food.  They became merely toiling animals, forced for the
+want of bread to build the monuments of kings.  The records of Egyptian
+civilization through art, writing, painting, sculpture, architecture,
+and the great pyramids, obelisks, and sphinxes were but the records of
+the glory of kings, built upon the shame of humanity.  True, indeed,
+there was some advance in the art of writing, in the science of
+astronomy and geometry, and the manufacture of glass, pottery, linens,
+and silk in the industrial arts.  The revelations brought forth in
+recent years from the tombs of these kings, where were stored the art
+treasures representing the civilization of the time, exhibit something
+of the splendors of royalty and give some idea of the luxuries of the
+civilization of the higher classes.  Here were stored the finest
+products of the art of the times.
+
+The wonders of Egypt were manifested in the structure of the pyramids,
+which were merely tombs of kings, which millions of laborers spent
+their lives in building.  They represent the most stupendous structures
+of ancient civilization whose records remain.  Old as they appear, as
+we look backward to the beginning of history, they represent a
+culminating period of Egyptian art.  Sixty-seven of these great
+structures extended for about sixty miles above the city of Cairo,
+along the edge of the Libyan Desert.  They are placed along the great
+Egyptian natural burying place in the western side of the Nile valley,
+as a sort of boulevard of the tombs of kings and nobles.  Most of them
+are constructed of stone, although several are of adobe or sun-dried
+brick.  The latter have crumbled into great conical mountains, like
+those of the pyramid temples of Babylon.
+
+The largest pyramid, Cheops, rises to a height of 480 feet, having a
+base covering 13 acres.  The historian Herodotus relates that 120,000
+men were employed for 20 years in the erection of this great structure.
+It has never been explained how these people, not yet well developed in
+practical mechanics, and not having discovered the use of steam and
+with no {160} use of iron, could have reared these vast structures.
+Besides the pyramids, great palaces and temples of the kings of Thebes
+in Upper Egypt rivalled in grandeur the lonely pyramids of Memphis.
+Age after age, century after century, witnessed the building of these
+temples, palaces, and tombs.  It is said that the palace of Karnak, the
+most wonderful structure of ancient or modern times, was more than five
+hundred years in the process of building, and it is unknown how many
+hundreds of thousands of men spent their lives for this purpose.
+
+So, too, the mighty sphinxes and colossal statues excite the wonder and
+admiration of the world.  Especially to be mentioned in this connection
+are the colossi of Thebes, which are forty-seven feet high, each hewn
+from a single block of granite.  Upon the solitary plain these mute
+figures sat, serene and vigilant, keeping their untiring watch through
+the passage of the centuries.
+
+_The Coming of the Semites_.--While the ancient civilization at the
+mouth of the Euphrates had its origin in primitive peoples from the
+mountains eastward beyond the Euphrates, and the ancient Egyptian
+civilization received its impetus from a Caucasian tribe of northern
+Africa, the great civilization from the Mediterranean Sea to the Indus
+River was developed by the Semites.  Westward from the Euphrates, over
+Arabia, and through Syria to the Mediterranean coast were wandering
+tribes of Arabs.  Perhaps the most typical ancient type of the Semitic
+race is found in Arabia.  In these desert lands swarms of people have
+passed from time to time over the known world.  Their early life was
+pastoral and nomadic; hence they necessarily occupied a large territory
+and were continually on the move.  The country appears to have been,
+from the earliest historic records, gradually growing drier--having
+less regular rainfall.
+
+So these people were forced at times to the mountain valleys and the
+grasslands of the north, and as far as the agricultural lands in the
+river valleys, hovering around the settled districts for food supplies
+for themselves and their herds.  After {161} the early settlement of
+Sumer and Akkad, these Semitic tribes moved into the valley of the
+Euphrates, and under Sargon I conquered ancient Babylonia at Akkad and
+afterward extended the conquest south over Sumer.  They found two main
+cities to the west of the Euphrates, Ur and Eridu.  Having invaded this
+territory, they adopted the arts and industries already established,
+but brought in the dominant power and language of the conquerors.  Four
+successive invasions of these people into this territory eventually
+changed the whole life into Semitic civilization.
+
+Later a branch moved north and settled higher up on the Tigris,
+founding the city of Nineveh.  The Elamites, another Semitic tribe on
+the east of the Euphrates, founded the great cities of Susa and
+Ecbatana.  Far to the northwest were the Armenian group of Semites, and
+directly east on the shores of the Mediterranean were the Phoenicians.
+This whole territory eventually became Semitic in type of civilization.
+Also, the Hixos, or shepherd kings, invaded Egypt and dominated that
+territory for two hundred years.  Later the Phoenicians became the
+great sea-going people of the world and extended their colonies along
+the coasts through Greece, Italy, northern Africa, and Spain.  So there
+was the Semitic influence from the Pillars of Hercules far east to the
+River Indus, in India.
+
+Strange to say, the mighty empires of Babylon and Nineveh and Phoenicia
+and Elam failed, while a little territory including the valley of the
+Jordan, called Palestine, containing a small and insignificant branch
+of the Semitic race, called Hebrews, developed a literature, language,
+and religion which exercised a most powerful influence in all
+civilizations even to the present time.
+
+_The Phoenicians Became the Great Navigators_.--While the Phoenicians
+are given credit for establishing the first great sea power, they were
+not the first navigators.  Long before they developed, boats plied up
+and down the Euphrates River, and in the island of Crete and elsewhere
+the ancient Aegeans carried on their trade in ships with Egypt and the
+eastern {162} Mediterranean.  The Aegean civilization preceded the
+Greeks and existed at a time when Egypt and Babylon were young.  The
+principal city of Cnossus exhibited also a high state of civilization,
+as shown in the ruins discovered by recent explorers in the island of
+Crete.  It is known that they had trade with early Egypt, but whether
+their city was destroyed by an earthquake or by the savage Greek
+pirates of a later day is undetermined.  The Phoenicians, however,
+developed a strip of territory along the east shore of the
+Mediterranean, and built the great cities of Tyre and Sidon.  From
+these parent cities they extended their trade down through the
+Mediterranean and out through the Pillars of Hercules, and founded
+their colonies in Africa, Greece, Italy, and Spain.  Long after Tyre
+and Sidon, the parent states, had declined, Carthage developed one of
+the most powerful cities and governments of ancient times.  No doubt,
+the Phoenicians deserve great credit for advancing shipbuilding, trade,
+and commerce, and in extending their explorations over a wide range of
+the known earth.  To them, also, we give credit for the perfection of
+the alphabet and the manufacture of glass, precious stones, and dyes;
+but their prominence in history appears in the long struggle between
+the Carthaginians and the Romans.
+
+_A Comparison of the Egyptian and Babylonian Civilizations_.--Taken as
+a whole, there is a similarity in some respects between the Egyptian
+and the Babylonian civilizations.  Coming from different racial groups,
+from different centres, there must necessarily be contrasts in many of
+the arts of life.  Egypt was an isolated country with a long river
+flowing through its entire length, which brought from the mountains the
+detritus which kept its valleys fertile.  Communication was established
+through the whole length by boats, which had a tendency to promote
+social intercourse and establish national life.  With the Mediterranean
+on the north, the Red Sea on the east, and the Libyan Desert to the
+west, it was tolerably well protected even though not shut in by high
+mountain ranges.  Yet it was open at all times for the hardy invaders
+who sought food for {163} flocks and herds and people.  There was
+always "corn in Egypt" to those people suffering from drought in the
+semi-arid districts of Africa and Arabia.
+
+Nevertheless, while Egypt suffered many invasions, she maintained with
+considerable constancy the ancient racial traits, and had a continuity
+of development through the passing centuries which retained many of the
+primitive characteristics.  The valley of the Euphrates was kept
+fertile by the flow of the great rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates,
+which, having a large watershed in the mountains, brought floods down
+through the valleys bearing the silt which made the land fertile.  But
+in both countries at an early period the population encroached upon the
+natural supply of food, and methods of irrigation were introduced to
+increase the food supply.  The attempts to build palaces, monuments,
+and tombs were characteristic of both peoples.  On account of the
+dryness of the climate, these great monuments have been preserved with
+a freshness through thousands of years.  In the valley of the Euphrates
+many of the cities that were reduced to ruin were covered with the
+drifting sands and floods until they are buried beneath the surface.
+
+In sculpture, painting, and in art, as well as in permanency of her
+mighty pyramids, sphinxes, and tombs, Egypt stands far ahead of
+Babylonia.  The difference is mainly expressed in action, for in Egypt
+there is an expression of calm, solemnity, and peace in the largest
+portions of the architectural works, while in Babylonia there is less
+skill and more action.  The evidences of the type of civilization are
+similar in one respect, namely, that during the thousand years of
+development the great monuments were left to show the grandeur of
+kings, monarchs, and priests, built by thousands of slaves suffering
+from the neglect of their superiors through ages of toil.  Undoubtedly,
+this failure to recognize the rights of suffering humanity gradually
+brought destruction upon these great nations.  If the strength of a
+great nation was spent in building up the mighty representations of the
+glory and power of kings {164} to the neglect of the improvement of the
+race as a whole, it could mean nothing else but final destruction.
+
+While we contemplate with wonder the greatness of the monuments of the
+pyramids and the sphinxes of Egypt and the winged bulls of Assyria, it
+is a sad reflection on the cost of material and life which it took to
+build them.  No wonder, then, that to-day, where once people lived and
+thought and toiled, where nations grew and flourished, where fields
+were tilled and harvests were abundant, and where the whole earth was
+filled with national life, there is nothing remaining but a barren
+waste and drifting sands, all because men failed to fully estimate real
+human values and worth.  Marvellous as many of the products of these
+ancient civilizations appear, there is comparatively little to show
+when it is considered that four thousand years elapsed to bring them
+about.  Mighty as the accomplishments were, the slow process of
+development shows a lack of vital progress.  We cannot escape the idea
+that the despotism existing in Oriental nations must have crushed out
+the best life and vigor of a people.  It is mournful to contemplate the
+destruction of these mighty civilizations, yet we may thoughtfully
+question what excuse could be advanced for their continuance.
+
+It is true that Egypt had an influence on Greece, which later became so
+powerful in her influences on Western civilizations; and doubtless
+Babylon contributed much to the Hebrews, who in turn have left a
+lasting impression upon the world.  The method of dispersion of
+cultures of a given centre shows that all races have been great
+borrowers, and usually when one art, industry, or custom has been
+thoroughly established, it may continue to influence other races after
+the race that gave the product has passed away, or other nations, while
+the original nation has perished.
+
+_The Hebrews Made a Permanent Contribution to World
+Civilization_.--Tradition, pretty well supported by history, shows that
+Abraham came out of Ur of Chaldea about 1,900 years before Christ, and
+with his family moved northward into {165} Haran for larger pasture for
+his flocks on the grassy plains of Mesopotamia.  Thence he proceeded
+westward to Palestine, made a trip to Egypt, and returned to the upper
+reaches of the Jordan.  Here his tribe grew and flourished, and
+finally, after the manner of pastoral peoples, moved into Egypt for
+corn in time of drought.  There his people lived for several hundred
+years, attached to the Egyptian nation, and adopting many phases of the
+Egyptian civilization.  When he turned his back upon his people in
+Babylon, he left polytheism behind.  He obtained conception of one
+supreme being, ruler and creator of the universe, who could not be
+shown in the form of an image made by man.
+
+This was not the first time in the history of the human race when
+nations had approximated the idea of one supreme God above all gods and
+men, but it was the first time the conception that He was the only God
+and pure monotheism obtained the supremacy.  No doubt, in the history
+of the Hebrew development this idea came as a gradual growth rather
+than as an instantaneous inspiration.  In fact, all nations who have
+reached any advanced degree of religious development have approached
+the idea of monotheism, but it remained for the Hebrews to put it in
+practice in their social life and civil polity.  It became the great
+central controlling thought of national life.
+
+Compared with the great empires of Babylon and Nineveh and Egypt, the
+Hebrew nation was small, crude, barbarous, insignificant, but the idea
+of one god controlling all, who passed in conception from a god of
+authority, imminence, and revenge, to a god of justice and
+righteousness, who controlled the affairs of men, developed the Hebrew
+concept of human relations.  It led them to develop a legal-ethical
+system which became the foundation of the Hebrew commonwealth and
+established a code of laws for the government of the nation, which has
+been used by all subsequent nations as the foundation of the moral
+element in their civil code.  Moses was not the first lawgiver of the
+world of nations.  Indeed, before {166} Abraham left his ancient home
+in Chaldea there was ruling in Babylon King Hammurabi, who formulated a
+wise code of laws, said to be the first of which we have any record in
+the history of the human race.  The Hebrew nation was always
+subordinate to other nations, but after its tribes developed into a
+kingdom and their king, Saul, was succeeded by David and Solomon, it
+reached a high state of civilization in certain lines.  Yet, at its
+best, under the reign of David and Solomon, it was upon the whole a
+barbarous nation.  When the Hebrews were finally conquered and led into
+captivity in Babylon, they reflected upon their ancient life, their
+laws, their literature, and there was compiled a greater part of the
+Bible.  This instrument has been greater than the palaces of Babylon or
+the pyramids of Egypt, or great conquests of military hosts in the
+perpetuation of the life of a nation.  Its history, its religion, its
+literature in proverbs and songs, its laws, its moral code, all have
+been enduring monuments that have lasted and will last as long as the
+human race continues its attempt to establish justice among men.
+
+_The Civilizations of India and China_.--Before leaving the subject of
+the Oriental civilizations, at least brief mention must be made of the
+development of the Hindu philosophy and religion.  In the valleys of
+the great rivers of India, in the shadow of the largest mountains
+rising to the skies, there developed a great people of great learning
+and wonderful philosophy.  In their abstract conceptions they built up
+the most wonderful and complex theogony and theology ever invented by
+men.  This system, represented by elements of law, theology, philosophy
+and language, literature and learning, is found in the Vedas and the
+great literary remnants of the poets.  They reveal to us the intensity
+of learning at the time of the highest development of the Indian
+philosophy.  However, its influence, wrapped up in the Brahminical
+religion of fatalism, was largely non-progressive.
+
+Later, about 500 years before Christ, when Gautama Buddha developed his
+ethical philosophy of life, new hope came {167} into the world.  But
+this did not stay for the regeneration of India, but, rather, declined
+and passed on into China and Japan.  The influence of Indian
+civilization on Western civilization has been very slight, owing to the
+great separation between the two, and largely because their objectives
+have been different.  The former devoted itself to the reflection of
+life, the latter resolved itself into action.  Nevertheless, we shall
+find in the Greek philosophy and Greek religion shadows of the learning
+of the Orient.  But the Hindu civilization, while developing much that
+is grand and noble, like many Oriental civilizations, left the great
+masses of the people unaided and unhelped.  When it is considered what
+might have been accomplished in India, it is well characterized as a
+"land of regrets."
+
+In the dispersion of the human race over the earth, one of the first
+great centres of culture was found in Thibet, in Asia.  Here is
+supposed to be the origin of the Mongolian peoples, and the Chinese
+represent one of the chief branches of the Mongolian race.  At a very
+early period they developed an advanced stage of civilization with many
+commendable features.  Their art, the form of pottery and porcelain,
+their traditional codes of law, were influential in the Far East.
+Their philosophy culminated in Confucius, who lived about 500 years
+before Christ, and their religion was founded by Tao Tse, who existed
+many centuries before.  He was the founder of the Taoan religion of
+China.  But the civilization of China extended throughout the Far East,
+spread into Korea, and then into Japan.  It has had very little contact
+with the Western civilization, and its history is still obscure, but
+there are many marvellous things done in China which are now in more
+recent years being faithfully studied and recorded.  Their art in
+porcelain and metals had its influence on other nations and has been of
+a lasting nature.
+
+_The Coming of the Aryans_.--The third great branch of the Caucasian
+people, whose primitive home seems to have been in central Asia, is the
+Aryan.  Somewhere north of the great {168} territory of the Semites,
+there came gradually down into Nineveh and Babylon and through Armenia
+a people of different type from the Semites and from the Egyptians.
+They lived on the great grassy plains of central Asia, wandering with
+their flocks and herds, and settling down long enough to raise a crop,
+and then move on.  They lived a simple life, but were a vigorous,
+thrifty, and family-loving people; and while the great civilization of
+Babylon, Assyria, and Egypt was developing, they were pushing down from
+the north.  They finally developed in Persia a great national life.
+
+Subsequently, under Darius I, a great Aryan empire was established in
+the seats of the old civilization which he had conquered, whose extent
+was greater than the world had hitherto known.  It extended over the
+old Assyrian and Babylonian empires, Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria, in
+Caucasian and Caspian regions; covered Media and Persia, and extended
+into India as far as the Indus.  The old Semitic civilizations were
+passing away, and the control of the Aryan race was appearing.  Later
+these Persians found themselves at war with the Greeks, who were of the
+same racial stock.  The Persian Empire was no great improvement over
+the later Babylonian and Assyrian Empires.  It had become more
+specifically a world empire, which set out to conquer and plunder other
+nations.  It might have been enlightened to a certain extent, but it
+had received the idea of militarism and conquest.  It was the first
+great empire of the Orient to come in contact with a rising Western
+civilization, then centering in Greece.
+
+This Aryan stock, when considered in Europe or Western civilization, is
+known as the Nordic race.  In the consideration of Western civilization
+further discussion will be given of the origin and dispersion of this
+race.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Study the economic foundation of Egypt.  Babylon.  Arabia.
+
+2.  Why did Oriental nations go to war?  Show by example.
+
+3.  What did Egypt and Babylon contribute of lasting value to
+civilization?
+
+{169}
+
+4.  What was the Hebrew contribution?
+
+5.  Why did these ancient empires decline and disappear?
+
+6.  Study the points of difference between the civilization of Babylon
+and Egypt and Western civilization.
+
+7.  Contrast the civilization of India and China with Western
+civilization.
+
+
+
+[1] L. W. King, _History of Sumer and Akkad_.  _History of Babylon_.
+
+
+
+
+{170}
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE ORIENTAL TYPE OF CIVILIZATION
+
+_The Governments of the Early Oriental Civilizations_.--In comparing
+the Oriental civilizations which sprang up almost independently in
+different parts of Asia and Africa with European civilizations, we
+shall be impressed with the despotism of these ancient governments.  It
+is not easy to determine why this feature should have been so
+universal, unless it could be attributed to human traits inherent in
+man at this particular stage of his development.  Perhaps, also, in
+emerging from a patriarchal state of society, where small, independent
+groups were closely united with the oldest male member as leader and
+governor of all, absolute authority under these conditions was
+necessary for the preservation of the tribe or group, and it became a
+fixed custom which no one questioned.
+
+Subsequently, when the population increased around a common centre and
+various tribes and groups were subjected to a central organization, the
+custom of absolute rule was transferred from the small group to the
+king, who ruled over all.  Also, the nature of most of these
+governments may have been influenced by the type of religion which
+prevailed.  It became systematized under the direction of priests, who
+stood between the people and the great unknown, holding absolute sway
+but working on the emotion of fear.  Perhaps, also, a large group of
+people with a limited food supply were easily reduced to a state of
+slavery and dwelt in a territory as a mass of unorganized humanity,
+subservient only to the superior directing power.  It appears to be a
+lack of organized popular will.  The religions, too, looked intensely
+to the authority of the past, developing fixity of customs, habits,
+laws, {171} and social usages.  These conditions were conducive to the
+exercise of the despotism of those in power.
+
+_War Existed for Conquest and Plunder_.--The kings of these Oriental
+despotisms seemed to be possessed with inordinate vanity, and when once
+raised to power used not only all the resources of the nation and of
+the people for magnifying that power, but also used the masses of the
+people at home at labor, and abroad in war, for the glory of the
+rulers.  Hence, wars of conquest were frequent, always accompanied with
+the desire for plunder of territory, the wealth of temples, and the
+coffers of the rulers.  Many times wars were based upon whims of kings
+and rulers and trivial matters, which can only be explained through
+excessive egoism and vanity; yet in nearly every instance the idea of
+conquest was to increase the wealth of the nation and power of the king
+by going to war.  There was, of course, jealousy of nations and rivalry
+for supremacy, as the thousand years of war between Egypt and Babylonia
+illustrates, or as the conquest of Babylon by Assyria, or, indeed, the
+later conquest of the whole East by the Persian monarchs, testifies.
+These great wars were characterized by the crude struggle and slaughter
+of hordes of people.  Not until the horse and chariot came into use was
+there any great improvement in methods of warfare.  Bronze weapons and,
+later, iron were used in most of these wars.  It was merely barbarism
+going to war with barbarism in order to increase barbaric splendor.
+
+_Religious Belief Was an Important Factor in Despotic Government_.--In
+the beginning we shall find that animism, or the belief in spirits, was
+common to all nations and tribes.  There was in the early religious
+life of people a wild, unorganized superstition, which brought them in
+subjection to the control of the spirits of the world.  In the slow
+development of the masses, these ideas always remained prominent, and
+however highly developed religious life became, however pure the system
+of religious philosophy and religious worship, as represented by the
+most intelligent and farthest advanced of the {172} people, it yet
+remains true that the masses of the people were mastered and ruled by a
+gross superstition; and possibly this answers the question to a large
+extent as to why the religion of the Orient could, on the one hand,
+reach such heights of purity of spirit and worship and, on the other,
+such a degradation in thought, conception, and practice.  It could
+reach to the skies with one arm and into the grossest phases of
+nature-worship with the other.
+
+It appears the time came when, as a matter of self-defense, man must
+manipulate and control spirits to save himself from destruction, and
+there were persons particularly adapted to this process, who formed the
+germs of the great system of priesthood.  They stood between the masses
+and the spirits, and as the system developed and the number of priests
+increased, they became the ones who ruled the masses in place of the
+spirits.  The priesthood, then, wherever it has developed a great
+system, has exercised an almost superhuman power over the ignorant, the
+debased, and the superstitious.  It was the policy of kings to
+cultivate and protect this priesthood, and it was largely this which
+enabled them to have power over the masses.  Having once obtained this
+power, and the military spirit having arisen in opposition to foreign
+tribes, the priests were at the head of the military, religious, and
+civil systems of the nation.  Indeed, the early king was the high
+priest of the tribe, and he inherited through long generations the
+particular function of leader of religious worship.
+
+It will be easy to conceive that where the art of embalming was carried
+on, people believed in the future life of the soul.  The religious
+system of the Egyptians was, indeed, of very remarkable character.  The
+central idea in their doctrine was the unity of God, whom they
+recognized as the one Supreme Being, who was given the name of Creator,
+Eternal Father, to indicate the various characters in which he
+appeared.  This pure monotheism was seldom grasped by the great masses
+of the people; indeed, it is to be supposed that many of the priestly
+order scarcely rose to its pure conceptions.  But there {173} were
+other groups or dynasties of gods which were worshipped throughout
+Egypt.  These were mostly mythical beings, who were supposed to perform
+especial functions in the creation and control of the universe.  Among
+these Osiris and Isis, his wife and sister, were important, and their
+worship common throughout all Egypt.  Osiris came upon the earth in the
+interests of mankind, to manifest the true and the good in life.  He
+was put to death by the machinations of the evil spirit, was buried and
+rose, and became afterward the judge of the dead.  In this we find the
+greatest mystery in the Egyptian religion.  Typhon was the god of the
+evil spirits, a wicked, rebellious devil, who held in his grasp all the
+terrors of disease and of the desert.  Sometimes he was in the form of
+a frightful serpent, again in the form of a crocodile or hippopotamus.
+
+Seeking through the light of religious mystery to explain all the
+natural phenomena observed in physical nature, the Egyptians fell into
+the habit of coarse animal worship.  The cat, the snake, the crocodile,
+and the bull became sacred animals, to kill which was the vilest
+sacrilege.  Even if one was so unfortunate as to kill one of these
+sacred animals by accident, he was in danger of his life at the hands
+of the infuriated mob.  It is related that a Roman soldier, having
+killed a sacred cat, was saved from destruction by the multitude only
+by the intercession of the great ruler Ptolemy.  The taking of the life
+of one of these sacred creatures caused the deepest mourning, and
+frequently the wildest terror, while every member of the family shaved
+his head at the death of a dog.
+
+There was symbolism, too, in all this worship.  Thus the scarabeus, or
+beetle, which was held to be especially sacred, was considered as the
+emblem of the sun.  Thousands of these relics may be found in the
+different museums, having been preserved to the present time.  The
+bull, Apis, not only was a sacred creature, but was held to be a real
+god.  It was thought that the soul of Osiris pervaded the spirit of the
+bull, and at the bull's death it passed on into that of his successor.
+The worship of the lower forms of life led to a coarseness in religious
+{174} belief and practice.  How it came about is difficult to
+ascertain.  It is supposed by some scholars that the animal worship had
+its origin in the low form of worship belonging to the indigenous
+tribes of Egypt, and that the higher order was introduced by the
+Hamites, or perhaps by the Semites who mingled with and overcame the
+original inhabitants of the Nile valley.  In all probability, the
+advanced ideas of religious belief and thought were the essential
+outcome of the learning and speculative philosophy of the Egyptians,
+while the old animal worship became the most convenient for the great
+masses of low and degraded beings who spent their lives in building
+tombs for the great.
+
+The religious life of the Egyptians was protected and guarded by an
+elaborate priesthood.  It formed a perfect hierarchy of priest, high
+priest, scribes, keepers of the sacred robes and animals, sculptors,
+embalmers, besides all the attendants upon the services of worship and
+religion.  Not only was this class privileged among all the castes of
+Egypt as representing the highest class of individuals, but it enjoyed
+immunity from taxation and had the privilege of administering the
+products of one-third of the land to carry on the expenses of the
+temple and religious worship.  The ceremonial life of the priests was
+almost perfect.  Scrupulous in the care of their person, they bathed
+twice each day and frequently at night, and every third day shaved the
+entire body.  Their linen was painfully neat, and they lived on plain,
+simple food, as conducive to the service of religion.  They exerted a
+great power not only over the religious life of the Egyptians but, on
+account of the peculiar relation of religion to government, over the
+entire development of Egypt.
+
+The religion of Oriental nations was non-progressive in its nature.  It
+had a tendency to repress freedom of thought and freedom of action.
+Connected as it was with the binding influence of caste, man could not
+free himself from the dictates of religion.  The awful sublimity of
+nature found its counterpart in the terrors of religion; and that
+religion attempted to {175} answer all the questions that might arise
+concerning external nature.  It rested upon the basis of authority
+built through ages of tradition, and through a continuous domineering
+priest-craft.  The human mind struggling within its own narrow bounds
+could not overcome the stultifying and sterilizing influence of such a
+religion.  The lower forms of religion were "of the earth, earthy."
+The higher forms consisted of such abstract conceptions concerning the
+creation of the earth, and the manipulation of all the forces of nature
+and the control of all the powers of man, as to be entirely
+non-progressive.  There could be no independent scientific
+investigation.  There could be no rational development of the mind.
+The religion of the Orient brought gloom to the masses and cut off hope
+forever.  The people became subject to the grinding forces of fate.
+How, then, could there be intellectual development based upon freedom
+of action?  How could there be any higher life of the soul, any moral
+culture, any great advancement in the arts and sciences, or any popular
+expression regarding war and government?
+
+_Social Organization Was Incomplete_.--All social organization tended
+toward the common centre, the king, and there was very little local
+organization except as it was necessary to bring the people under
+control of official rule.  There were apparently very few voluntary
+associations.  Among the nobility, the priests, and ladies of rank, we
+find frequently elaborate costumes of dress, manifold ornaments,
+necklaces, rings, and earrings; but whatever went to the rich seemed to
+be a deprivation of the poor.  Indeed, when we consider that it cost
+only a few shillings at most to rear a child to the age of twenty-one
+years in Egypt, we can imagine how meagre and stinted that life must
+have been.  The poorer classes of people dressed in a very simple
+style, wearing a single linen shirt and over it a woollen mantle; while
+among the very poor much less was worn.
+
+However, it seems that there was time for some of the population to
+engage in sports such as laying snares for birds, {176} angling for
+fish, popular hunts, wrestling, playing checkers, chess, and ball, and
+it appears that many of these people were gifted in these sports.  Just
+what classes of people engaged in this leisure is difficult to
+determine.  Especially in the case of Egypt, most of the people were
+condemned to hard and toilsome labor.  Probably the nobility and people
+of wealth were the only classes who had time for sports.  The great
+temples and palaces were built with solid masonry of stone and brick,
+but the dwelling-houses were constructed in a light, graceful style,
+surrounded with long galleries and terraces common at this period of
+development in Oriental civilization.  The gardening was symmetrical
+and accurate, the walks led in well-defined lines and were carefully
+conventional.  The rooms of the houses, too, were well arranged and
+tastefully decorated, and members of the household distributed in its
+generous apartments, each individual finding his special place for
+position and service.
+
+For the comparatively small number of prosperous and influential
+people, life was refined and luxurious so far as the inventions and
+conveniences for comfort would permit.  They had well-constructed and
+well-appointed houses, and, judging from the relics discovered in tombs
+and from the records and inscriptions, people wore richly decorated
+clothing and lovely jewels.  They had numerous feasts with music and
+dancing and servants to wait upon them in every phase of life.  It is
+related, too, that excursions were common in summer on the great
+rivers.  But even though there was a life of ease among the wealthy,
+they were without many comforts known to modern times.  They had cotton
+and woollen fabrics for clothing, but no silk.  They had dentists and
+doctors in those days, and teeth were filled with gold as in modern
+times.  Their articles of food consisted of meat and vegetables, but
+there were no hens and no eggs.  They used the camel in Mesopotamia and
+walked mostly in Egypt, or went by boat on the river.  However, when we
+consider the change of ancient Babylon to Nineveh, and the Egyptian
+civilization of old Thebes to that {177} which developed later, there
+is evidence of progress.  The religious life lost a good many of its
+crudities, abolished human sacrifice, and developed a refined mysticism
+which was more elevating than the crude nature-worship.
+
+The rule of caste which settled down over the community in this early
+period relegated every individual to his particular place.  From this
+place there could be no escape.  The common laborers moving the great
+blocks of stone to build the mighty pyramids of the valley of the Nile
+could be nothing but common laborers.  And their sons and their
+daughters for generation after generation must keep the same sphere of
+life.  And though the warriors fared much better, they, too, were
+confined to their own group.  The shepherd class must remain a shepherd
+class forever; they could never rise superior to their own
+surroundings.  So, too, in Babylon and India.  There was, indeed, a
+slight variation from the caste system in Egypt and in Babylon, but in
+India it settled down from the earliest times, and the people and their
+customs were crystallized; they were bound by the chain of fate in the
+caste system forever.  We shall see, then, that the relation of the
+population to the soil and the binding influences of early custom
+tended to develop despotism in Oriental civilization.
+
+The result of all this was that there was no freedom or liberty of the
+individual anywhere.  With caste and despotism and degradation men
+moved forward in political and religious life as on a plane which
+inclined so slightly that, except as we look over its surface through
+the passing centuries, little change can be observed.  The king was a
+god; the government possessed supernatural power; its authority was not
+to be questioned.  The rule of the army was final.  The cruelty of
+kings and the oppression of government were customary, and thus crushed
+and oppressed, the ordinary individual had no opportunity to arise and
+walk in the dignity of his manhood.  The government, if traced to its
+source at all, was of divine origin, and though those who ruled might
+stop to consider for an instant their own despotic actions, and in
+special cases yield {178} in clemency to their subjects, from the
+subject's standpoint there could be nothing but to yield to the
+despotism of kings and the unrelenting rule of government.
+
+We shall find, then, that with all of the efforts put forth the greater
+part was wasted.  Millions of people were born, lived, and died,
+leaving scarcely a mark of their existence.  No wonder that, as the
+great kings of Egypt saw the wasting elements of time, the waste of
+labor in its dreary rounds, having employed the millions in building
+the mighty temples dedicated to the worship of the gods; or having
+built great canals and aqueducts to develop irrigation that greater
+food supply might be assured, thus observing the majesty of their
+condition in relation to other human beings, they should have employed
+these millions of serfs in building their own tombs and monuments to
+remain the only lasting vestige of the civilization long since passed
+away.  Everywhere in the Oriental civilization, then, are lack of
+freedom and the appearance of despotism.  Everywhere is evidence of
+waste of individual life.  No deep conception can be found in either
+the philosophy or the practice of the Egyptians or the Babylonians of
+the real object of human life.  And yet the few meagre products of art
+and of learning handed down to European civilization from these
+Oriental countries must have had a vast influence in laying the
+foundations of modern civilized life.
+
+_Economic Influences_.--In the first place, the warm climate of these
+countries required but little clothing; for a few cents a year a person
+could be clothed sufficiently to protect himself from the climate and
+to observe the rules of modesty so far as they existed in those times.
+In the second place, in hot climates less food is required than in
+cold.  In cold countries people need a large quantity of heavy, oily
+foods, while in hot climates they need a lighter food and, indeed, less
+of it.  Thus we have in these fertile valleys of the Orient the
+conditions which supply sustenance for millions at a very small amount
+of exertion or labor.  Now, it is a well-established fact that cheap
+food among classes of people who have not developed {179} a high state
+of civilization favors a rapid increase of population.  The records
+show in Babylon and Egypt, as well as in Palestine, that the population
+multiplied at a very rapid rate.  And this principle is enhanced by the
+fact that in tropical climates, where less pressure of want and cold is
+brought to bear, the conditions for successful propagation of the human
+race are present.  And this is one reason why the earliest
+civilizations have always been found in tropical climates, and it was
+not until man had more vigor of constitution and higher development of
+physical and mental powers that he could undertake the mastery of
+himself and nature under less favorable circumstances.
+
+The result was that human life became cheap.  The great mass of men
+became so abundant as to press upon the food supply to its utmost
+limit.  And they who had the control of this food supply controlled the
+bodies and souls of the great poverty-stricken mass who toiled for
+daily bread.  Here we find the picture of abject slavery of the masses.
+The rulers, through the government, strengthened by the priests, who
+held over the masses of the lower people in superstitious awe the
+tenets of their faith, forced them into subjection.  There was no value
+placed upon a human life; why, then, should there be upon the masses of
+individuals?
+
+We shall find, too, as the result of all this, that the civilization
+became more or less stationary.  True, there must have been a slow
+development of religious ideas, a slow development of art, a slow
+development of government, and yet when the type was once set there was
+but little change from century to century in the relation of human
+beings to one another, and their relation to the products of nature.
+When we consider the accomplishments of these people we must not forget
+the length of time it took to produce them.  Reckon back from the
+present time 6,000 years, and then consider what has been accomplished
+in America in the last century.  Think back 2,000 years, and see what
+had been accomplished in Rome from the year of the founding of the
+imperial city until the Caesars lived {180} in their mighty palaces, a
+period of seven and a half centuries.  Observe, too, what was
+accomplished in Greece from the time of Homer until the time of
+Aristotle, a period of about six and a half centuries; then observe the
+length of time it took to develop the Egyptian civilization, and we
+shall see its slow progress.  It is also to be observed that the
+Egyptian civilization had reached its culmination when Greece began,
+and had begun its slow decline.  After considering this we shall
+understand that the civilization of Egypt finally became stationary,
+conventionalized, non-progressive; that it was only a question of time
+when other nations should rule the land of the Pharaohs, and that sands
+should drift where once were populous cities, covering the relics of
+this ancient civilization far beneath the surface.
+
+The progress in industrial arts and the use of implements was, of
+necessity, very slow.  Where the laboring man was considered of little
+value, treated as a mere physical machine, to be fed and used for
+mechanical purposes alone, it mattered little with what tools he
+worked.  In the building of the pyramids we find no mighty engines for
+the movement of the great stones, we find no evidence of mechanical
+genius to provide labor-saving machines.  The inclined plane and
+rollers, the simplest of all contrivances, were about the only
+inventions.  Also, in the buildings of Babylon, the tools with which
+men worked must of necessity have been very poor.  It is remarkable to
+what extent modern invention depends upon the elevation of the standard
+of life of labor, and how man through intelligence continually makes
+certain contrivances for the perfection of human industry.  However, if
+we consider the ornaments used to adorn the person, or for the service
+of the rich, or the elaborate clothing of the wealthy, we shall find
+quite a high state of development in these lines, showing the greatest
+contrast between the condition of the laboring multitudes on the one
+hand and the luxurious few on the other.  Along this line of the rapid
+development of ornaments we find evidence of luxury and ease, and, in
+the slow development of {181} industrial arts, the sacrifice of labor.
+And all of the advancement in the mighty works of art and industry was
+made at the sacrifice of human labor.
+
+To sum this up, we find, then, that the influence of despotic
+government, of the binding power of caste, of the prevalence of custom,
+of the influence of priestcraft, the retarding power of a
+non-progressive religion, concentration of intelligence in a privileged
+class that seeks its own ease, the slow development of industrial
+implements, and the rapid development of ornaments, brought decay.  We
+see in all of this a retarding of improvement, a stagnation of
+organizing effort, and the crystallization of ancient civilization
+about old forms, to be handed down from generation to generation
+without progress.
+
+_Records, Writing, and Paper_.--At an early period papyrus, a paper
+made of a reed that grows along the Nile valley, was among the first
+inventions.  It was the earliest artificial writing material discovered
+by any nation of which we have a record; and we are likely to remember
+it from its two names, _biblos_ and _papyrus_, for from these come two
+of our most common words, bible and paper.  Frequently, however,
+leather, pottery, tiles, and stone, and even wooden tablets, were used
+as substitutes for the papyrus.  In the early period the Egyptians used
+the hieroglyphic form of writing, which consisted of rude pictures of
+objects which had a peculiar significance.  Finally the hieratic
+simplified this form by symbolizing and conventionalizing to a large
+extent the hieroglyphic characters.  Later came the demotic, which was
+a further departure from the old concrete form of representation, and
+had the advantage of being more readily written than either of the
+others.[1]  These characters were used to inscribe the deeds of kings
+on monuments and tablets, and when in 1798 the key to the Egyptian
+writing was obtained through means of the Rosetta stone, the
+opportunity for a large addition to the history of Egypt was made.
+Strange as it may seem, these ancient people had written romances and
+fairy tales; one especially to be mentioned {182} is the common
+_Cinderella and the Glass Slipper_, written more than thirteen
+centuries B.C.  But in addition to these were published documents,
+private letters, fables, epics, and autobiographies, and treatises on
+astronomy, medicine, history, and scientific subjects.
+
+The Babylonians and Assyrians developed the cuneiform method of
+writing.  They had no paper, but made their inscriptions on clay
+tablets and cylinders.  These were set away in rooms called libraries.
+The discovery of the great library of Ashur-bani-pal, of Nineveh,
+revealed the highest perfection of this ancient method of recording
+events.
+
+The art of Egypt was manifested in the dressing of precious stones, the
+weaving of fine fabrics, and fine work in gold ornaments.  Sculpture
+and painting were practically unknown as arts, although the use of
+colors was practised to a considerable extent.  Artistic energy was
+worked out in the making of the tombs of kings, the obelisks, the
+monuments, the sphinxes, and the pyramids.  It was a conception of the
+massive in artistic expression.  In Babylon and Nineveh, especially the
+latter, the work of sculpture in carving the celebrated winged bulls
+gives evidence of the attempt to picture power and strength rather than
+beauty.  Doubtless the Babylonians developed artistic taste in the
+manufacture of jewelry out of precious stones and gold.
+
+_The Beginnings of Science Were Strong in Egypt, Weak in Babylon_.--The
+greatest expression of the Egyptian learning was found in science.  The
+work in astronomy began at a very early date from a practical
+standpoint.  The rising of the Nile occurred at a certain time
+annually, coinciding with the time of the rise of the Dog-star, which
+led these people to imagine that they stood in the relation of effect
+and cause, and from these simple data began the study of astronomy.
+The Egyptians, by the study of the movement of the stars, were enabled
+to determine the length of the sidereal year, which they divided into
+twelve months, of thirty days each, adding five days to complete the
+year.  This is the calendar which was {183} introduced from Egypt into
+the Roman Empire by Julius Caesar.  It was revised by Pope Gregory XIII
+in 1582, and has since been the universal system for the Western
+civilized world.  Having reached their limit of fact in regard to the
+movement of the heavenly bodies, their imagination related the stars to
+human conduct, and astrology became an essential outcome.  It was easy
+to believe that the heavenly bodies, which, apparently, had such great
+influence in the rise of the river and in the movement of the tides,
+would have either a good influence or a baneful influence, not only
+over the vegetable world but upon human life and human destiny as well.
+Hence, astrology, in Egypt as in Babylonia, became one of the important
+arts.
+
+From the measurement of the Nile and the calculation of the lands,
+which must be redistributed after each annual overflow, came the system
+of concrete measurement which later developed into the science of
+geometry.  Proceeding from the simple measurement of land, step by step
+were developed the universal abstract problems of geometry, and the
+foundation for this great branch of mathematics was laid.  The use of
+arithmetic in furnishing numerical expressions in the solution of
+geometrical and arithmetical problems became common.
+
+The Egyptians had considerable knowledge of many drugs and medicines,
+and the physicians of Egypt had a great reputation among the ancients;
+for every doctor was a specialist and pursued his subject and his
+practice to the utmost limit of fact and theory.  But the physician
+must treat cases according to customs already established in the past.
+There was but little opportunity for the advancement of his art.  Yet
+it became very much systematized and conventionalized.  The study of
+anatomy developed also the art of embalming, one of the most
+distinctive features of Egyptian civilization.  This art was carried on
+by the regular physicians, who made use of resins, oils, bitumens, and
+various gums.  It was customary to embalm the bodies of wealthy persons
+by filling them with resinous substances and wrapping them closely in
+linen {184} bandages.  The poorer classes were cured very much as beef
+is cured before drying, and then wrapped in coarse garments preparatory
+to burial.  The number of individuals who were thus disposed of after
+death is estimated at not less than 420,000,000 between 2000 B.C. and
+700 A.D.
+
+_The Contribution to Civilization_.--The building of the great empires
+on the Tigris and Euphrates had a tendency to collect the products of
+civilization so far as they existed, and to distribute them over a
+large area.  Thus, the industries that began in early Sumer and Akkad,
+coming from farther east, were passed on to Egypt and Phoenicia and
+were further distributed over the world.  Especially is this true in
+the work of metals, the manufacture of glass, and the development of
+the alphabet, which probably originated in Babylon and was improved by
+the Phoenicians, and, through them as traders, had a wide dispersion.
+Perhaps one ought to consider that the study of the stars and the
+heavenly bodies, although it led no farther than astrology and the
+development of magic, was at least a beginning, although in a crude
+way, of an inquiry into nature.
+
+In Egypt, however, we find that there was more or less scientific study
+and invention and development of reflective thinking.  Moreover, the
+advancement in the arts of life, especially industrial, had great
+influence over the Greeks, whose early philosophers were students of
+the Egyptian system.  Also, the contact of the Hebrews and Phoenicians
+with Egypt gave a strong coloring to their civilization.  Especially is
+this true of the Hebrews, who dwelt so long in the shadow of the
+Egyptian civilization.  The Hebrews, after their captivity in Babylon,
+contributed the Bible, with its sacred literature, to the world, which
+with its influence through the legal-ethicalism, or moral code, its
+monotheistic doctrines, and its attempted development of a commonwealth
+based on justice, had a lasting influence on civilization.  But in the
+life of the Hebrew people in Palestine its influence on surrounding
+nations was not so great as in the later times when the Jews were
+scattered over the {185} world.  The Bible has been a tremendous
+civilizer of the world.  Hebrewism became a universal state of mind,
+which influenced all nations that came in contact with it.
+
+But what did this civilization leave to the world?  The influence of
+Egypt on Greece and Greek philosophy must indeed have been great, for
+the greatest of the Greeks looked upon the Egyptian philosophy as the
+expression of the highest wisdom.  Nor can we hesitate in claiming that
+the influence of the Egyptians upon the Hebrews was considerable.
+There is a similarity in many respects between the Egyptian and the
+Hebrew code of learning; but the art and the architecture, the learning
+and the philosophy, had their influence likewise on all surrounding
+nations as soon as Egypt was opened up to communication with other
+parts of the world.  A careful study of the Greek philosophy brings
+clearly before us the influence of the Egyptian learning.  Thus Thales,
+the first of the philosophers to break away from the Grecian religion
+and mythology to inquire into the natural cause of the universe, was a
+student of Egyptian life and philosophy.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What are the evidences of civilization discovered in
+Tut-Ankh-Amen's tomb?
+
+2.  Give an outline of the chief characteristics of Egyptian
+civilization?
+
+3.  What caused the decline of Egyptian civilization?
+
+4.  What did Oriental civilization contribute to the subsequent welfare
+of the world?
+
+5.  The influence of climate on industry in Egypt and Babylon.
+
+6.  Why did the Egyptian religion fail to improve the lot of the common
+man?
+
+7.  Retarding influence of the caste system in India and Egypt.
+
+
+
+[1] See Chapter VII.
+
+
+
+
+{186}
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+BEGINNINGS OF CIVILIZATION IN AMERICA
+
+_America Was Peopled from the Old World_.--The origin of the people of
+America has been the subject of perennial controversy.  Gradually,
+however, as the studies of the human race and their migrations have
+increased, it is pretty well established that the one stream of
+migration came from Asia across a land connection along the Aleutian
+Islands, which extended to Alaska.  At an early period, probably from
+15,000 to 20,000 years age, people of the Mongoloid type crossed into
+America and gradually passed southward, some along the coast line,
+others through the interior of Alaska and thence south.  This stream of
+migration continued down through Mexico, Central America, South
+America, and even to Patagonia.  It also had a reflex movement eastward
+toward the great plains and the Mississippi valley.  There is a
+reasonable conjecture, however, that another stream of migration passed
+from Europe at a time when the British Islands were joined to the
+mainland, and the great ice cap made a solid bridge to Iceland,
+Greenland, and possibly to Labrador.  It would have been possible for
+these people to have come during the third glacial period, at the close
+of the Old Stone Age, or soon after in the Neolithic period.  The
+traditions of the people on the west coast all state their geographical
+origin in the northwest.  The traditions of the Indians of the Atlantic
+coast trace their origins to the northeast.
+
+The people of the west coast are mostly of the round-headed type
+(brachycephalic), while those of the east coast have been of the
+long-headed type (dolichocephalic).  The two types have mingled in
+their migration southward until we have the long heads and the round or
+broad heads extending the whole {187} length of the two continents.
+Intermingled with these are those of the middle derivative type, or
+mesocephalic.  From these sources there have developed on the soil of
+America, the so-called American Indians of numerous tribes, each with
+its own language and with specialized physical and mental types.  While
+the color of the skin has various shades, the coarse, straight black
+hair and brown eyes are almost general features of the whole Indian
+race.
+
+At different centres in both North and South America, tribes have
+become more or less settled and developed permanent phases of early
+civilization, strongly marked by the later Neolithic cultures.  In some
+exceptional cases, the uses of copper, bronze, and gold are to be
+noted.  Perhaps the most important centres are those of the Incas in
+Peru, the Mayas, Aztecs, and Terra-humares of Mexico, the
+cliff-dwellers and Pueblos of southwestern United States, the
+mound-builders of the Mississippi valley, and the Iroquois nation of
+northeastern United States and Canada.  At the time of the coming of
+the Europeans to America, the Indian population in general was nomadic,
+in the hunter-fisher stage of progress; but many of the tribes had
+tentatively engaged in agriculture, cultivating maize, squashes, and in
+some cases fruits.  Probably the larger supply of food was from
+animals, birds, fish, and shell-fish, edible roots and grains, such as
+the wild rice, and fruits from the native trees in the temperate and
+tropical countries.  The social organization was based upon the family
+and the tribe, and, in a few instances, a federation of tribes like
+that of the Iroquois nation.
+
+_The Incas of Peru_.--When the Spaniards under Pizarro undertook the
+conquest of the Peruvians, they found the Inca civilization at its
+highest state of development.  However, subsequent investigations
+discovered other and older seats of civilization of a race in some ways
+more highly developed than those with whom they came in contact.  Among
+the evidences of this ancient civilization were great temples built of
+stone, used as public buildings for the administration of religious
+{188} rights [Transcriber's note: rites?], private buildings of
+substantial order, and paved roads with numerous bridges.  There were
+likewise ruins of edifices apparently unfinished, and traditions of an
+ascendent race which had passed away before the development of the
+Incas of Pizarro's time.  In the massive architecture of their
+buildings there was an attempt to use sculpture on an elaborate scale.
+They showed some skill in the arts and industries, such as ornamental
+work in gold, copper, and tin, and the construction of pottery on a
+large scale.  They had learned to weave and spin, and their clothing
+showed some advancement in artistic design.
+
+In agriculture they raised corn and other grains, and developed a state
+of pastoral life, although the llama was the only domesticated animal
+of service.  Great aqueducts were built and fertilizers were used to
+increase the productive value of the soil.  The dry climate of this
+territory necessitated the use of water by irrigation, and the limited
+amount of tillable soil had forced them to use fertilizers to get the
+largest possible return per acre.
+
+The Peruvians, or Incas, were called the children of the sun.  They had
+a sacred feeling for the heavenly bodies, and worshipped the sun as the
+creator and ruler of the universe.  They had made some progress in
+astronomy, by a characterization of the sun and moon and chief planets,
+mostly for a religious purpose.  However, they had used a calendar to
+represent the months, the year, and the changing seasons.  Here, as
+elsewhere in primitive civilization, religion becomes an important
+factor in social control.  The priest comes in as the interpreter and
+controller of mysteries, and hence an important member of the
+community.  Religious sacrifices among the Peruvians were commonly of
+an immaculate nature, being mostly of fruits and flowers.  This
+relieved them of the terrors of human sacrifices so prevalent in early
+beginnings of civilization where religion became the dominant factor of
+life.  Hence their religious life was more moderate than that of many
+nations where religious control was more powerful.  Yet in governmental
+{189} affairs and in social life, here as in other places, religion was
+made the means of enslaving the masses of the people.
+
+The government of the Incas was despotic.  It was developed through the
+old family and tribal life to a status of hereditary aristocracy.
+Individuals of the oldest families became permanent in government, and
+these were aided and supported by the priestly order.  Caste prevailed
+to a large extent, making a great difference between the situation of
+the nobility and the peasants and slaves.  Individuals born into a
+certain group must live and die within that group.  Hence the people
+were essentially peaceable, quiet, and not actively progressive.  But
+we find that the social life, in spite of the prominence of the priest
+and the nobility, was not necessarily burdensome.  Docile and passive
+in nature, they were ready to accept what appeared to them a
+well-ordered fate.  If food, clothing, and shelter be furnished, and
+other desires remain undeveloped, and life made easy, what occasion was
+there for them to be moved by nobler aspirations?  Without higher
+ideals, awakened ambition, and the multiplication of new desires, there
+was no hope of progress.  The people seemed to possess considerable
+nobility of character, and were happy, peaceful, and well disposed
+toward one another, even though non-progressive conditions gave
+evidence that they had probably reached the terminal bud of progress of
+their branch of the human race.
+
+As to what would have been the outcome of this civilization had not the
+ruthless hand of the Spaniard destroyed it, is a matter of conjecture.
+How interesting it would have been if these people could have remained
+unmolested for 400 years as an example of progress or retardation of a
+race.  Students then could, through observation, have learned a great
+lesson concerning the development of the human race.  Is it possible
+when a branch of the human race has only so much potential power based
+upon hereditary development, upon attitude toward life, and upon
+influence of environmental conditions, that after working out its
+normal existence it grows old and decays and dies, just as even the
+sturdy oak has its normal life {190} and decay?  At any rate, it seems
+that the history of the human race repeats itself over and over again
+with thousands of examples of this kind.  When races become highly
+specialized along certain lines and are unadaptable along other lines,
+changes in climate, soil, food supply, or conflict with other races
+cause them to perish.
+
+If we admit this to be the universal fate of tribes and races, there is
+one condition in which the normal life of the race can be prolonged,
+and that is by contact with other races which bring in new elements,
+and make new accommodations, not only through biological heredity, but
+through social heredity which causes a new lease of life to the tribe.
+Of course the deteriorating effects of a race of less culture would
+have a tendency to shorten the spiritual if not the physical life of
+the race.  Whatever conjecture we may have as to the past and the
+probable future of such a race, it is evident that the Peruvians had
+made a strong and vigorous attempt at civilization.  Their limited
+environment and simple life were not conducive to progressive ideas,
+and gave little inducement for inventive genius to lead the race
+forward.  But even as we find them, the sum-total of their civilization
+compares very favorably with the sum-total of the civilization of the
+Spaniards, who engaged to complete their destruction.  Different were
+these Spaniards in culture and learning, it is true, but their great
+difference is in the fact that the Spaniards had the tools and
+equipment for war and perhaps a higher state of military organization
+than the peace-loving Peruvians.
+
+_Aztec Civilization in Mexico_.--When Cortez in 1525 began his conquest
+of Mexico, he found a strong political organization under the Emperor
+Montezuma, who had through conquest, diplomacy, and assumption of power
+united all of the tribes in and around Mexico City in a strong
+federation.  These people were made up of many different tribes.  At
+this period they did not show marked development in any particular
+line, except that of social organization.  The people that occupied
+this great empire ruled by Montezuma, with the seat of power {191} at
+Mexico City, were called Aztecs.  The empire extended over all of lower
+Mexico and Yucatan.  As rapidly as possible Montezuma brought adjacent
+tribes into subjection, and at the time of the Spanish conquest he
+exercised lordship over a wide country.  So far as can be ascertained,
+arts and industries practised by most of these tribes were handed down
+from extinct races that had a greater inventive genius and a higher
+state of progress.  The conquering tribes absorbed and used the arts of
+the conquered, as the Greeks did those of the conquered Aegeans.
+
+The practice of agriculture, of the industrial arts, such as clothing,
+pottery, and implements of use and ornaments for adornment, showed
+advancement in industrial life.  They built large temples and erected
+great buildings for the worship of their gods.  There was something in
+their worship bordering on sun-worship, although not as distinctive as
+the sun-worship of the Peruvians.  They were highly developed in the
+use of gold and copper, and produced a good quality of pottery.  They
+had learned the art of decorating the pottery, and their temples also
+were done in colors and in bas-relief.  They had developed a language
+of merit and had a hieroglyphic expression of the same.  They had a
+distinct mythology, comprising myths of the sun and of the origin of
+various tribes, the origin of the earth and of man.  They had developed
+the idea of charity, and had a system of caring for the poor, with
+hospitals for the sick.  Notwithstanding this altruistic expression,
+they offered human sacrifices of maidens to their most terrible god.
+
+As before stated, there were many tribes, consequently many languages,
+although some of them were near enough alike that members of different
+tribes could be readily understood.  Also the characteristic traits
+varied in different tribes.  It is not known whence they came, although
+their tradition points to the origin of the northwest.  Undoubtedly,
+each tribe had a myth of its own origin, but, generally speaking, they
+all came from the northwest.  Without doubt, at the time of the coming
+of the Spaniards, the tribes were non-progressive except in {192}
+government.  The coming of the Spaniards was a rude shock to their
+civilization, and with a disintegration of the empire, the spirit of
+thrift and endeavor was quenched.  They became, as it were, slaves to a
+people with so-called higher civilization, who at least had the tools
+with which to conquer if they had not higher qualities of human
+character than those of the conquered.
+
+_The Earliest Centres of Civilization in Mexico_.--Prior to the
+formation of the empire of the Aztecs, conquered by the Spaniards,
+there existed in Mexico centres of development of much greater
+antiquity.  The more important among these were Yucatan and Mitla.  A
+large number of the ruins of these ancient villages have been
+discovered and recorded.  The groups of people who developed these
+contemporary civilizations were generally known as Toltecs.  The Maya
+race, the important branch of the Toltecs, which had its highest
+development in Yucatan, was supposed to have come from a territory
+northeast of Mexico City, and traces of its migrations are discovered
+leading south and east into Yucatan.  It is not known at what period
+these developments began, but probably their beginnings might have been
+traced back to 15,000 years, although the oldest known tablet found
+gives a record of 202 years B.C.  Other information places their coming
+much later, at about 387 A.D.
+
+All through Central America and southern Mexico ruins of these ancient
+villages have been discovered.  While the civilizations of all were
+contemporaneous, different centres show different lines of development.
+There is nothing certain concerning the origin of the Toltecs, and they
+seemed to have practically disappeared so far as independent tribal
+life existed after their conquest by the Aztecs, although the products
+of their civilization were used by many other tribes that were living
+under the Aztec rule, and, indeed, traces of their civilization exist
+to-day in the living races of southern and central Mexico.  Tradition
+states that the Toltecs reached their highest state of power between
+the seventh and the twelfth {193} centuries, but progress in the
+interpretation of their hieroglyphics gives us but few permanent
+records.  The development of their art was along the line of heavy
+buildings with bas-reliefs and walls covered with inscriptions
+recording history and religious symbols.  One bas-relief represents the
+human head, with the facial angle shown at forty-five degrees.  It was
+carved in stone of the hardest composition and was left unpainted.
+
+Ethnologists have tried repeatedly and in vain to show there was a
+resemblance of this American life to the Egyptian civilization.  In
+art, architecture, and industry, in worship and the elements of
+knowledge, there may be some resemblance to Egyptian models, but there
+is no direct evidence sufficient to connect these art products with
+those of Egypt or to assume that they must have come from the same
+centre.  The construction of pyramids and terraces on a large scale
+does remind us of the tendency of the Oriental type of civilization.
+In all of their art, however, there was a symmetrical or conventional
+system which demonstrated that the indigenous development must have
+been from a common centre.  Out of the fifty-two cities that have been
+explored which exhibit the habitations of the Toltec civilization, many
+exhibit ruins of art and architecture worthy of study.
+
+In the construction of articles for use and ornament, copper and gold
+constituted the chief materials, and there was also a great deal of
+pottery.  The art of weaving was practised, and the soil cultivated to
+a considerable extent.  The family life was well developed, though
+polygamy appears to have been practised as a universal custom.  The
+form of government was the developed family of the patriarchal type,
+and, where union of tribes had taken place, an absolute monarchy
+prevailed.  War and conquest here, as in all other places where contact
+of tribes appeared, led to slavery.  The higher classes had a large
+number of slaves, probably taken as prisoners of war.  This indicates a
+degree of social progress in which enemies were preserved for slavery
+rather than exterminated in war.  Their laws and regulations indicate a
+high sense of {194} justice in establishing the relationship of
+individuals within the tribe or nation.  These people were still in the
+later Neolithic Age, but with signs of departure from this degree of
+civilization in the larger use of the metals.  There were some
+indications that bronze might have been used in making ornaments.
+Perhaps they should be classified in the later Neolithic Age of the
+upper status of barbarism.  Recent excavations in Central America,
+Yucatan, and more recently in the valley near Mexico City, have brought
+to light many new discoveries.  Representations of early and later
+cultures show a gradual progress in the use of the arts, some of the
+oldest of which show a great resemblance to the early Mongolian culture
+of Asia.
+
+_The Pueblo Indians of the Southwest_.--In northern Mexico and Arizona
+there are remains of ancient buildings which seem to indicate that at
+one time a civilization existed here that has long since become
+extinct.  Long before the arrival of the Spaniards, irrigation was
+practised in this dry territory.  Indeed, in the Salt River valley of
+Arizona, old irrigation ditches were discovered on the lines of which
+now flow the waters that irrigate the modern orchards and vineyards.
+The discoveries in recent years in the southwest territory indicate
+that this ancient civilization had been destroyed by the warlike tribes
+that were ever ready to take possession of centres of culture and
+possess or destroy the accumulation of wealth of the people who toiled.
+If one could fill in the missing links of history with his imagination,
+it would be easy to conjecture that the descendants of these people
+fled to the mountains, and became the Cliff-Dwellers of the Southwest.
+These people built their homes high on the cliffs, in caves or on
+projecting prominences.  Here they constructed great communal
+dwellings, where they could defend themselves against all enemies.
+They were obliged to procure their food and water from the valley, and
+to range over the surrounding _mesas_ in the hunt.  Gradually they
+stole down out of the cliffs to live in the valleys and built large
+communal houses, many of which now are in existence in this territory.
+
+{195}
+
+These people have several centres of civilization which are similar in
+general, but differ in many particulars.  They are classed as Pueblo
+Indians.  Among these centres are the Hopi Indians, the Zunian, Taoan,
+Shoshonean, and many others.[1]  The pre-history of these widely
+extended groups of Indians is not known, but in all probability they
+have been crowded into this southwest arid region by warlike tribes,
+and for the shelter and protection of the whole tribe have built large
+houses of stone or adobe.  The idea of protection seems to have been
+the dominant one in building the cliff houses and the adobe houses of
+the plain.  The latter were entered by means of ladders placed upon the
+wall, so that they could ascend from one story to another.  The first
+story had no doors or windows, but could be entered by means of a
+trap-door.
+
+The Pueblos were, as a rule, people of low stature, but of an
+intelligent and pleasing appearance.  They dressed in cotton goods or
+garments woven from the fibre of the yucca plant, or from coarse bark,
+and later, under Spanish rule, from specially prepared wool.  Their
+feet were protected by sandals made from the yucca, or moccasins from
+deer or rabbit skins.  Leggings coming above the knee were formed by
+wrapping long strips of buckskin around the leg.  The women and men
+dressed very much alike.  The women banged their hair to the eyebrows,
+allowing it to hang loosely behind, although in some instances maidens
+dressed their hair with two large whirls above the ears.  The Zuni
+Indians practised this custom after the coming of the Spaniards.
+
+The Pueblos were well organized into clans, and descent in the female
+line was recognized.  The clans were divided usually into the north,
+south, east, and west clans by way of designation, showing that the
+communal idea had been established with recognition of government by
+locality.  Here, as elsewhere among the American aborigines, the clans
+were named after the animals chosen as their totem, but there were in
+addition {196} to these ordinary clans, the Sun clan, the Live Oak, the
+Turquoise, or others named from objects of nature.  Each group of clans
+was governed by a priest chief, who had authority in all religious
+matters and, consequently, through religious influences, had large
+control in affairs pertaining to household government, and to social
+and political life in general.  The duties and powers of these chiefs
+were carefully defined.  The communal houses in which the people lived
+were divided into apartments for different clans and families.  In some
+instances there was a common dining-hall for the members of the tribe.
+The men usually resided outside of the communal house, but came to the
+common dining-hall for their meals.
+
+There were many secret societies among these people which seemed to
+mingle religious and political sentiments.  The members of these
+societies dwelt to a large extent in the Estufa, or Kiva, a large
+half-subterranean club-house where they could meet in secret.  In every
+large tribe there were four to seven of these secret orders, and they
+were recognized as representing the various organizations.  These "cult
+societies," so called by Mr. Powell, had charge of the mythical rites,
+the spirit lore, the mysteries, and the medicines of the part of the
+tribe which they represented.  They conducted the ceremonies at all
+festivals and celebrations.  It is difficult to determine the exact
+nature of their religion.  It was a worship full of superstition,
+recognizing totemism and direct connection with the spirits of nature.
+Their religion was of a joyous nature, and always was associated with
+their games and feasts.  The games were usually given in the
+celebration of some great event, or for some economic purpose, and were
+accompanied with dancing, music, pantomime, and symbolism.  Perhaps of
+all of the North American Indians, the Pueblos showed the greatest
+fondness for music and had made some advancement in the arts of poetry
+and song.  The noted snake dance, the green-corn dance, and the cachina
+all had at foundation an economic purpose.  They were done ostensibly
+to gain the favor of the gods of nature.
+
+{197}
+
+When discovered by the Spaniards, the Pueblos had made good beginnings
+in agriculture and the industrial arts, were living in a state of peace
+and apparently contented, there seeming to be little war between the
+tribes.  Their political organization in connection with the secret
+societies and their shamanistic religion gave them a good development
+of social order.  After nearly 400 years of Spanish and American rule,
+they appear to have retained many of their original traits and
+characteristics, and cherish their ancient customs.  Apparently the
+Spanish and the American civilization is merely a gloss over their
+ancient life which they seek every opportunity to express.  They are
+to-day practically non-assimilative and live to a large extent their
+own life in their own way, although they have adopted a few of the
+American customs.  While quite a large number of these villages are now
+to be seen very much in their primitive style of architecture and life,
+more than 3,000 architectural ruins in the Southwest, chiefly in
+Arizona and New Mexico, have been discovered.  Many of them are
+partially obscured in the drifting sands, but they show attempts at
+different periods by different people to build homes.  The devastation
+of flood and famine and the destruction of warlike tribes retarded
+their progress and caused their extinction.  The Pueblo Indians were in
+the middle status of barbarism when the Spaniards arrived, and there
+they would have remained forever or become extinct had not the Spanish
+and American civilizations overtaken them.  Even now self-determined
+progress seems not to possess them.  However, through education the
+younger generations are being slowly assimilated into American life.
+But it appears that many generations will pass before their tribal life
+is entirely absorbed into a common democracy.
+
+_The Mound-Builders of the Mississippi Valley_.--At the coming of the
+Europeans this ancient people had nearly all disappeared.  Only a few
+descendants in the southern part of the great valley of the Mississippi
+represented living traces of the Mound-Builders.  They had left in
+their burial mounds {198} and monuments many relics of a high type of
+the Neolithic civilization which they possessed.  As to their origin,
+history has no direct evidence.  However, they undoubtedly were part of
+that great stream of early European migration to America which
+gradually spread down the Ohio valley and the upper Mississippi.  At
+what time they flourished is not known, although their civilization was
+prehistoric when compared with that of the Algonquins, Athabascans, and
+Iroquois tribes that were in existence at the time of the coming of the
+Europeans.  Although the tradition of these Indians traces them to the
+Southwest, and that they became extinct by being driven out by more
+savage and more warlike people, whence they came and whither they went
+are both alike open to conjecture.
+
+Their civilization was not very different from that of many other
+tribes of North American Indians.  Their chief characteristic consisted
+in the building of extensive earth mounds as symbolical of their
+religious and tribal life.  They also built immense enclosures for the
+purpose of fortification.  Undoubtedly on the large mounds were
+originally built public houses or dwellings or temples for worship or
+burial.  Those in the form of a truncated pyramid were used for the
+purposes of building sites for temples and dwellings, and those having
+circular bases and a conical shape were used as burial places.
+
+Besides these two kinds was another, called effigy mounds, which
+represented the form of some animal or bird, which undoubtedly was the
+totem of the tribe.  These latter mounds were seldom more than three or
+four feet high, but were of great extent.  They indicated the unity of
+the gens, either by representing it through the totem or a mythical
+ancestry.  Other mounds of less importance were used in religious
+worship, namely, for the location of the altar to be used for
+sacrificial purposes.  All were used to some extent as burial mounds.
+Large numbers of their implements made of quartz, chert, bone, and
+slate for the household and for the hunt have been found.  They used
+copper to some extent, which was obtained in a free or native state and
+hammered into implements and ornaments.
+
+{199}
+
+Undoubtedly, the centre of the distribution of copper was the Lake
+Superior region, which showed that there was a diffusion of cultures
+from this centre at this early period.  They made some progress in
+agriculture, cultivating maize and tobacco.  Apparently their commerce
+with surrounding tribes was great, which no doubt gave them a variety
+of means of life.  The pottery, judging from specimens that have been
+preserved, was inferior to that of the Mexicans or the Arizona Indians,
+but, nevertheless, in the lower Mississippi fine collections of pottery
+showing beautiful lines and a large number of designs were found.  It
+fills one with wonder that a tribe of such power should have begun the
+arts of civilization and developed a powerful organization, and then
+have been so suddenly destroyed--why or how is not known.  In all
+probability it is the old story of a sedentary group being destroyed by
+the more hardy, savage, and warlike conquerors.
+
+_Other Types of Indian Life_.--While the great centres of culture were
+found in Peru, Central America, Mexico, southwest United States, and
+the Mississippi valley, there were other cultures of a less pronounced
+nature worthy of mention.  On the Pacific coast, in the region around
+Santa Barbara, are the relics of a very ancient tribe of Indians who
+had developed some skill in the making of pottery and exhibit other
+forms of industrial life.  Recently an ancient skeleton has been
+discovered which seems to indicate a life of great antiquity.
+Nevertheless, it is a lower state of civilization than those of the
+larger centres already mentioned.  Yet it is worthy of note that there
+was here started a people who had adopted village habits and attained a
+considerable degree of progress.  Probably they were contemporary with
+other people of the most ancient civilizations of America.
+
+So far as the advancement of government is concerned, the Iroquois
+Indians of Canada and New York showed considerable advancement.  As
+represented by Mr. Lewis H. Morgan, who made a careful study of the
+Iroquois, their tribal divisions and their federation of tribes show an
+advancement along {200} governmental lines extending beyond the mere
+family or tribal life.  Their social order showed civil progress, and
+their industrial arts, in agriculture especially, were notable.
+
+_Why Did the Civilization of America Fail?_--There is a popular theory
+that the normal advancement of the Indian races of America was arrested
+or destroyed by the coming of the Europeans.  Undoubtedly the contact
+of the higher civilization with the latter had much to do with the
+hastening of the decay of the former.  The civilizations were so widely
+apart that it was not easy for the primitive or retarded race to adopt
+the civilization of the more advanced.  But when it is assumed that if
+the Europeans had never come to the American continent, native tribes
+and races would eventually, of their own initiative, develop a high
+state of civilization, such an assumption is not well founded, because
+at the time of the coming of the Europeans there was no great show of
+progress.  It seems as if no branch of the race could go forward very
+far without being destroyed by more warlike tribes.  Or, if let alone,
+they seemed to develop a stationary civilization, reaching their limit,
+beyond which they could not go.  As the races of Europe by
+specialization along certain lines became inadaptable to new conditions
+and passed away to give place to others, so it appears that this was
+characteristic of the civilization of America.  Evidently the
+prehistoric Peruvians, Mexicans, Pueblos, and Mound-Builders had
+elements of civilization greater than the living warring Indian tribes
+which came in contact with the early European settlers in America.
+
+It may not be wise to enter a plea that all tribes and races have their
+infancy, youth, age, and decay, with extinction as their final lot, but
+it has been repeated so often in the history of the human race that one
+may assume it to be almost, if not quite, universal.  The momentum of
+racial power gained by biological heredity and social achievement,
+reaches its limit when it can no longer adapt itself to new conditions,
+with the final end and inevitable result of extinction.
+
+The Nordic race, with all of its vigor and persistency, has {201} had a
+long and continuous life on account of its roving disposition and its
+perpetual contact with new conditions of its own choice.  It has always
+had power to overcome, and its vigor has kept it exploiting and
+inventing and borrowing of others the elements of civilization, which
+have continually forced it forward.  When it, too, reaches a state when
+it cannot adapt itself to new conditions, perhaps it will give way to
+some other branch of the human race, which, gathering new strength or
+new vigor from sources not available to the Nordic, will be able to
+overpower it; but the development of science and art with the power
+over nature, is greater in this race than in any other, and the
+maladies which destroy racial life are less marked than in other races.
+It would seem, then, that it still has great power of continuance and
+through science can adapt itself to nature and live on.
+
+But what would the American Indian have contributed to civilization?
+Would modern civilization have been as far advanced as now, had the
+Europeans found no human life at all on the American continent?  True,
+the Europeans learned many things of the Indians regarding cultivation
+of maize and tobacco, and thus increased their food supply, but would
+they not have learned this by their own investigations, had there been
+no Indians to teach?  The arts of pottery have been more highly
+developed by the Etruscans, the Aegeans, and the Greeks than by the
+American Indians.  The Europeans had long since passed the Stone Age
+and entered the Iron Age, which they brought to the American Indians.
+But the studies of ethnology have been greatly enlarged by the fact of
+these peculiar and wonderful people, who exhibited so many traits of
+nobility of character in life.  Perhaps it would not be liberal to say
+the world would have been just as well off had they never existed.  At
+any rate, we are glad of the opportunity to study what their life was
+and what it was worth to them, and also its influence on the life and
+character of the Europeans.
+
+The most marked phases of this civilization are found in the
+development of basketry and pottery, and the exquisite work {202} in
+stone implements.  Every conceivable shape of the arrow-head, the
+spear, the stone axe and hammer, the grinding board for grains, the
+bow-and-arrow, is evidence of the skill in handiwork of these primitive
+peoples.  Also, the skill in curing and tanning hides for clothing, and
+the methods of hunting and trapping game are evidences of great skill.
+Perhaps, also, there is something in the primitive music of these
+people which not only is worthy of study but has added something to the
+music culture of more advanced peoples.  At least, if pressed to learn
+the real character of man, we must go to primitive peoples and
+primitive life and customs.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What contributions did the American Indians make to European
+civilization?
+
+2.  What are the chief physical and mental traits of the Indian?
+
+3.  What is the result of education of the Indian?
+
+4.  How many Indians are there in the United States?  (_a_) Where are
+they located?  (_b_) How many children in school?  Where?
+
+5.  If the Europeans made a better use of the territory than did the
+Indians, had the Europeans the right to dispossess them?  Did they use
+the right means to gain possession?
+
+6.  Study an Indian tribe of your own selection regarding customs,
+habits, government, religion, art, etc.
+
+
+
+[1] Recent discoveries in Nevada and Utah indicate a wide territorial
+extension of the Pueblo type.
+
+
+
+
+{205}
+
+_PART IV_
+
+WESTERN CIVILIZATION
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+THE OLD GREEK LIFE
+
+_The Old Greek Life Was the Starting Point of Western
+Civilization_.--Civilization is a continuous movement--hence there is a
+gradual transition from the Oriental civilization to the Western.  The
+former finally merges into the latter.  Although the line of
+demarcation is not clearly drawn, some striking differences are
+apparent when the two are placed in juxtaposition.  Perhaps the most
+evident contrast is observed in the gradual freedom of the mind from
+the influences of tradition and religious superstition.  Connected with
+this, also, is the struggle for freedom from despotism in government.
+It has been observed how the ancient civilizations were characterized
+by the despotism of priests and kings.  It was the early privilege of
+European life to gradually break away from this form of human
+degradation and establish individual rights and individual development.
+Kings and princes, indeed, ruled in the Western world, but they learned
+to do so with a fuller recognition of the rights of the governed.
+There came to be recognized, also, free discussion as the right of
+people in the processes of government.  It is admitted that the
+despotic governments of the Old World existed for the few and neglected
+the many.  While despotism was not wanting in European civilization,
+the struggle to be free from it was the ruling spirit of the age.  The
+history of Europe centres around this struggle to be free from
+despotism and traditional learning, and to develop freedom of thought
+and action.
+
+Among Oriental people the idea of progress was wanting in their
+philosophy.  True, they had some notion of changes that take place in
+the conditions of political and social life, and in individual
+accomplishments, yet there was nothing hopeful in their presentation of
+the theory of life or in their practices {206} of religion; and the few
+philosophers who recognized changes that were taking place saw not in
+them a persistent progress and growth.  Their eyes were turned toward
+the past.  Their thoughts centred on traditions and things that were
+fixed.  Life was reduced to a dull, monotonous round by the great
+masses of the people.  If at any time a ray of light penetrated the
+gloom, it was turned to illuminate the accumulated philosophies of the
+past.  On the other hand, in European civilization we find the idea of
+progress becoming more and more predominant.  The early Greeks and
+Romans were bound to a certain extent by the authority of tradition on
+one side and the fixity of purpose on the other.  At times there was
+little that was hopeful in their philosophy, for they, too, recognized
+the decline in the affairs of men.  But through trial and error, new
+discoveries of truth were made which persisted until the revival of
+learning in the Middle Ages, at the time of the formation of new
+nations, when the ideas of progress became fully recognized in the
+minds of the thoughtful, and subsequently in the full triumph of
+Western civilization came the recognition of the possibility of
+continuous progress.
+
+Another great distinction in the development of European civilization
+was the recognition of humanity.  In ancient times humanitarian spirit
+appeared not in the heart of man nor in the philosophy of government.
+Even the old tribal government was for the few.  The national
+government was for selected citizens only.  Specific gods, a special
+religion, the privilege of rights and duties were available to a few,
+while all others were deprived of them.  This invoked a selfishness in
+practical life and developed a selfish system even among the leaders of
+ancient culture.  The broad principle of the rights of an individual
+because he was human was not taken into serious consideration even
+among the more thoughtful.  If he was friendly to the recognized god he
+was permitted to exist.  If he was an enemy, he was to be crushed.  On
+the other hand, the triumph of Western civilization is the recognition
+of the value of a human being and his right to engage in all human
+associations {207} for which he is fitted.  While the Greeks came into
+contact with the older civilizations of Egypt and Asia, and were
+influenced by their thought and custom, they brought a vigorous new
+life which gradually dominated and mastered the Oriental influences.
+They had sufficient vigor and independence to break with tradition,
+wherever it seemed necessary to accomplish their purpose of life.
+
+_The Aegean Culture Preceded the Coming of the Greeks_.--Spreading over
+the islands of the Aegean Sea was a pre-Greek civilization known as
+Minoan.  Its highest centre of development was in the Island of Crete,
+whose principal city was Cnossos.  Whence these people came and what
+their ethnological classification are still unsettled.[1]  They had a
+number of centres of development, which varied somewhat in type of
+culture.  They were a dark-haired people, who probably came from Africa
+or Asia Minor, settling in Crete about 5,000 years B.C.  It is thought
+by some that the Etruscans of Italy were of Aegean origin.  Prior to
+the Minoans there existed a Neolithic culture throughout the islands of
+Greece.
+
+In the great city of Cnossos, which was sacked and burned about the
+fourteenth century B.C., were found ruins which show a culture of
+relatively high degree.  By the excavations in Crete at this point a
+stratum of earth twenty feet thick was discovered, in which were found
+evidences of all grades of civilization, from the Neolithic implements
+to the highest Minoan culture.  Palaces with frescoes and carvings,
+ornaments formed of metal and skilfully wrought vases with significant
+colorings, all evinced a civilization worthy of intensive study.  These
+people had developed commerce and trade with Egypt, and their boats
+passed along the shores of the Mediterranean, carrying their
+civilization to Italy, northern Africa, and everywhere among the
+islands of Greece, as well as on the mainland.  The cause of the
+decline of their civilization is {208} not known, unless it could be
+attributed to the Greek pirates who invaded their territory, and
+possibly, like all nations that decline, they were beset by internal
+maladies which marked their future destiny.  Possibly, high
+specialization along certain lines of life rendered them unadaptable to
+new conditions, and they passed away because of this lack.
+
+_The Greeks Were of Aryan Stock_.--Many thousand years ago there
+appeared along the shores of the Baltic, at the beginning of the
+Neolithic period of culture, a group of people who seem to have come
+from central Asia.  It is thought by some that these were at least the
+forerunners of the great Nordic race.  Whatever conjectures there may
+be as to their origin, it is known that about 2,000 years before
+Christ, wandering tribes extended from the Baltic region far eastward
+to the Caspian Sea, to the north of Persia, down to the borderland of
+India.  These people were of Caucasian features, with fair hair and
+blue eyes--a type of the Nordic race.  They were known as the Aryan
+branch of the Caucasian race.  Whether this was their primitive abode,
+or whether their ancestors had come at a much earlier time from a
+central home in northern Africa, which is considered by ethnologists as
+the centre from which developed the Caucasian race, is not known.
+
+They were not a highly cultured people, but were living a nomadic life,
+engaged in hunting, fishing, piratical exploits, and carrying on
+agriculture intermittently.  They had also become acquainted with the
+use of metals, having passed during this period from the Neolithic into
+the Bronze Age.  About the year 1500 B.C. they had become acquainted
+with iron, and about the same time had come into possession of the
+horse, probably through their contact with central Asia.
+
+The social life of these people was very simple.  While they
+undoubtedly met and mingled with many tribes, they had a language
+sufficiently common for ordinary intercourse.  They had no writing or
+means of records at all, but depended upon the recital of deeds of
+warriors and nations and tribes.  Wherever the Aryan people have been
+found, whether in Greece, {209} Italy, Germany, along the Danube,
+central Asia, or India, they have been noted for their epics, sagas,
+and vedas, which told the tales of historic deeds and exploits of the
+tribal or national life.  It is thought that this was the reason they
+developed such a strong and beautiful language.
+
+They came in contact with Semitic civilization in northern Persia, with
+the primitive tribes in Italy, with the Dravidian peoples of India, and
+represented the vigorous fighting power of the Scythians, Medes, and
+Persians.  They or their kindred later moved up the Danube into Spain
+and France, with branches into Germany and Russia, and others finally
+into the British Islands.  It was a branch of these people that came
+into the Grecian peninsula and overthrew and supplanted the Aegean
+civilization--where they were known as the Greeks.
+
+_The Coming of the Greeks_.--It is not known when they came down
+through Asia Minor.  Not earlier than 2000 B.C. nor later than 1500
+B.C. the invasion began.  In successive waves came the Phrygians,
+Aeolians, the Ionians, and the Dorians--different divisions of the same
+race.  Soon they spread over the mainland of Greece and all the
+surrounding islands, and established their trading cities along the
+borders of the Mediterranean Sea.  These people, though uncultured,
+seemed to absorb culture wherever they went.  They learned the methods
+of the civilization that had been established in the Orient wherever
+they came in contact with other peoples, and also in the Aegean
+country.  In fact, though they conquered and occupied the Aegean
+country, they took on the best of the Minoan civilization.[2]  As
+marauders, pirates, and conquerors, they were masterful, but they came
+in conflict with the ideas developed among the Semitic people of Asia
+and the Hamitic of Egypt.  Undoubtedly, this conquest of the Minoan
+civilization furnished the origin of many of the tales or folklore that
+afterward were woven into the _Iliad_ and the _Odyssey_ by {210} Homer.
+It is not known how early in Greek life these songs originated, but it
+is a known fact that in the eighth century the Greeks were in
+possession of their epics, and at this period not only had conquered
+the Minoan civilization but had absorbed it so far as they had use for
+it.
+
+They came into this territory in the form of the old tribal government,
+with their primitive social customs, and as they settled in different
+parts of the territory in tribes, they developed independent
+communities of a primitive sort.  They had what was known in modern
+historical literature as the village community, which was always found
+in the primitive life of the Aryans.  Their mode of life tended to
+develop individualism, and when the group life was established, it
+became independent and was lacking in co-operation--that is, it became
+a self-sufficient social order.  Later in the development of the Greek
+life the individual, so far as political organization goes, was
+absorbed in the larger state, after it had developed from the old Greek
+family life.  These primitive Greeks soon had a well-developed
+language.  They began systematic agriculture, became skilled in the
+industrial arts, domesticated animals, and had a pure home life with
+religious sentiments of a high order.  Wherever they went they carried
+with them the characteristics of nation-building and progressive life.
+They mastered the earth and its contents by living it down with force
+and vigor.
+
+The Greek peninsula was favorably situated for development.  Protected
+on the north by a mountain range from the rigors of a northern climate
+and from the predatory tribes, with a range of mountains through the
+centre, with its short spurs cutting the entire country into valleys,
+in which were developed independent community states, circumstances
+were favorable to local self-government of the several tribes.  This
+independent social life was of great importance in the development of
+Greek thought.  In the north the grains and cereals were grown, and in
+the south the citrus and the orange.  This wide range from a temperate
+to a semi-tropical climate {211} furnished a variety of fruits and
+diversity of life which gave great opportunity for development.  The
+variety of scenery caused by mountain and valley and proximity to the
+sea, the thousand islands washed by the Aegean Sea, brought a new life
+which tended to impress the sensitive mind of the Greek and to develop
+his imagination and to advance culture in art.
+
+_Character of the Primitive Greeks_.--The magnificent development of
+the Greeks in art, literature, philosophy, and learning, together with
+the fortunate circumstance of having powerful writers, gives us rather
+an exaggerated notion of the Greeks, if we attempt to apply a lofty
+manner and a magnificent culture to the Homeric period.  They had a
+good deal of piratical boldness, and, after the formation of their
+small states, gave examples of spurts of courage such as that at
+Marathon and Thermopylae.  Yet these evidences were rare exceptions
+rather than the rule, for even the Spartan, trained on a military
+basis, seldom evinced any great degree of bravery.  Perhaps the gloomy
+forebodings of the future, characteristic of the Greeks, made them fear
+death, and consequently caused them to lack in courage.  However, this
+is a disputed point.  Pages of the earlier records are full of the
+sanction of deception of enemies, friends, and strangers.  Evidently,
+there was a low moral sense regarding truth.  While the Greek might be
+loyal to his family and possibly to his tribe, there are many examples
+of disloyalty to one another, and, in the later development, a
+disloyalty of one state toward another.  Excessive egoism seems to have
+prevailed, and this principle was extended to the family and local
+government group.  Each group appeared to look out for its own
+interests, irrespective of the welfare of others.  How much a united
+Greece might have done to have continued the splendors and the service
+of a magnificent civilization is open to conjecture.
+
+The Greeks were not sympathetic with children nor with the aged.  Far
+from being anxious to preserve the life of the aged, their greatest
+trouble was in disposing of them.  The honor and rights of women were
+not observed.  In war women {212} were the property of their captors.
+Yet the home life of the Greeks seems to have been in its purity and
+loyalty an advance on the Oriental home life.  In their treatment of
+servants and slaves, in the care of the aged and helpless, the Greeks
+were cold and without compassion.  While the poets, historians, and
+philosophers have been portraying with such efficiency the character of
+the higher classes; while they have presented such a beautiful exterior
+of the old Greek life; the Greeks, in common with other primitive
+peoples, were not lacking in coarseness, injustice, and cruelty in
+their internal life.  Here, as elsewhere in the beginnings of
+civilization, only the best of the real and the ideal of life was
+represented, while the lower classes were suffering a degraded life.
+
+The family was closely organized in Greece.  Monogamic marriage and the
+exclusive home life prevailed at an early time.  The patriarchal
+family, in which the oldest male member was chief and ruler, was the
+unit of society.  Within this group were the house families, formed
+whenever a separate marriage took place and a separate altar was
+erected.  The house religion was one of the characteristic features of
+Greek life.  Each family had its own household gods, its own worship,
+its private shrine.  This tended to unify the family and promote a
+sacred family life.  A special form of ancestral worship, from the
+early Aryan house-spirit worship, prevailed to a certain extent.  The
+worship of the family expanded with the expansion of social life.  Thus
+the gens, and the tribe, and the city when founded, had each its
+separate worship.  Religion formed a strong cement to bind the
+different social units of a tribe together.  The worship of the Greeks
+was associated with the common meal and the pouring of libations to the
+gods.
+
+As religion became more general, it united to make a more common social
+practice, and in the later period of Greek life was made the basis of
+the games and general social gatherings.  Religion brought the Greeks
+together in a social way, and finally led to the mutual advantage of
+members of society.  {213} Later, mutual advantage superseded religion
+in its practice.  The Greeks, at an early period, attempted to explain
+the origin of the earth and unknown phenomena by referring it to the
+supernatural powers.  Every island had its myth, every phenomenon its
+god, and every mountain was the residence of some deity.  They sought
+to find out the causes of the creation of the universe, and developed a
+theogony.  There was the origin of the Greeks to be accounted for, and
+then the origin of the earth, and the relation of man to the deities.
+Everything must be explained, but as the imagination was especially
+strong, it was easier to create a god as a first cause than to
+ascertain the development of the earth by scientific study.
+
+_Influence of Old Greek Life_.--In all of the traditions and writings
+descriptive of the old Greek social life, with the exception of the
+_Works and Days_ of Hesiod, the aristocratic class appears uppermost.
+Hesiod "pictures a hopeless and miserable existence, in which care and
+the despair of better things tended to make men hard and selfish and to
+blot out those fairer features which cannot be denied to the courts and
+palaces of the _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_."  It appears that the foundation
+of aristocracy--living in comparative luxury, in devotion to art and
+the culture of life--was early laid by the side of the foundation of
+poverty and wretchedness of the great mass of the people.  While, then,
+the Greeks derived from their ancestry the beautiful pictures of heroic
+Greece, they inherited the evils of imperfect social conditions.  As we
+pass to the historical period of Greece, these different phases of life
+appear and reappear in changeable forms.  If to the nobleman life was
+full of inspiration; if poetry, religion, art, and politics gave him
+lofty thoughts and noble aspirations; to the peasant and the slave,
+life was full of misery and degradation.  If one picture is to be drawn
+in glowing colors, let not the other be omitted.
+
+The freedom from great centralized government, the development of the
+individual life, the influences of the early ideas of art and life, and
+the religious conceptions, were of great importance in shaping the
+Greek philosophy and the Greek {214} national character.  They had a
+tendency to develop men who could think and act.  It is not surprising,
+therefore, that the first real historical period was characterized by
+struggles of citizens within the town for supremacy.  Fierce quarrels
+between the upper and the lower classes prevailed everywhere, and
+resulted in developing an intense hatred of the former for the latter.
+This hatred and selfishness became the uppermost causes of action in
+the development of Greek social polity.  Strife led to compromise, and
+this in turn to the recognition of the rights and privileges of
+different classes.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  The Aegean culture.
+
+2.  The relation of Greek to Egyptian culture.
+
+3.  What were the great Greek masterpieces of (_a_) Literature, (_b_)
+Sculpture, (_c_) Architecture, (_d_) Art, (_e_) Philosophy?
+
+4.  Compare Greek democracy with American democracy.
+
+5.  What historical significance have Thermopylae, Marathon,
+Alexandria, Crete, and Delphi?
+
+
+
+[1] Sergi, in his _Mediterranean Race_, says that they came from N. E.
+Africa.  Beginning about 5000 years B.C., they gradually infiltrated
+the whole Mediterranean region.  This is becoming the general belief
+among ethnologists, archaeologists, and historians.
+
+[2] Recent studies indicate that some of the Cretan inscriptions are
+prototypes of the Greece-Phoenician alphabet.  The Phoenicians
+evidently derived the original characters of their alphabet from a
+number of sources.  The Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet about
+800-1000 B.C.
+
+
+
+
+{215}
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+GREEK PHILOSOPHY
+
+_The Transition from Theology to Inquiry_.--The Greek theology prepared
+the way for the Ionian philosophy.  The religious opinions led directly
+up to the philosophy of the early inquirers.  The Greeks passed slowly
+from accepting everything with a blind faith to the rational inquiry
+into the development of nature.  The beginnings of knowing the
+scientific causes were very small, and sometimes ridiculous, yet they
+were of immense importance.  To take a single step from the "age of
+credulity" toward the "age of reason" was of great importance to Greek
+progress.  To cease to accept on faith the statements that the world
+was created by the gods, and ordered by the gods, and that all
+mysteries were in their hands, and to endeavor to find out by
+observation of natural phenomena something of the elements of nature,
+was to gradually break from the mythology of the past as explanatory of
+the creation.  The first feeble attempt at this was to seek in a crude
+way the material structure and source of the universe.
+
+_Explanation of the Universe by Observation and Inquiry_.--The Greek
+mind had settled down to the fact that there was absolute knowledge of
+truth, and that cosmogony had established the method of creation; that
+theogony had accounted for the creation of gods, heroes, and men, and
+that theology had foretold their relations.  A blind faith had accepted
+what the imagination had pictured.  But as geographical study began to
+increase, doubts arose as to the preconceived constitution of the
+earth.  As travel increased and it was found that none of the terrible
+creatures that tradition had created inhabited the islands of the sea
+or coasts of the mainland, earth lost its terrors and disbelief in the
+system of established {216} knowledge prevailed.  Free inquiry was
+slowly substituted for blind credulity.
+
+This freedom of inquiry had great influence on the intellectual
+development of man.  It was the discovery of truth through the relation
+of cause and effect, which he might observe by opening his eyes and
+using his reason.  The development of theories of the universe through
+tradition and the imagination gave exercise to the emotions and
+beliefs; but change from faith in the fixity of the past to the future
+by observation led to intellectual development.  The exercise of faith
+and the imagination even in unproductive ways prepared the way for
+broader service of investigation.  But these standing alone could
+permit nothing more than a childish conception of the universe.  They
+could not discover the reign of law.  They could not advance the
+observing and reflecting powers of man; they could not develop the
+stronger qualities of his intellect.  Individual action would be
+continually stultified by the process of accepting through credulity
+the trite sayings of the ancients.  The attempt to find out how things
+were made was an acknowledgment of the powers of the individual mind.
+It was a recognition that man has a mind to use, and that there is
+truth around him to be discovered.  This was no small beginning in
+intellectual development.
+
+_The Ionian Philosophy Turned the Mind Toward Nature_.--Greek
+philosophy began in the seventh century before Christ.  The first
+philosopher of note was Thales, born at Miletus, in Asia Minor, about
+640 B.C.  Thales sought to establish the idea that water is the first
+principle and cause of the universe.  He held that water is filled with
+life and soul, the essential element in the foundation of all nature.
+Thales had great learning for his time, being well versed in geometry,
+arithmetic, and astronomy.  He travelled in Egypt and the Orient, and
+became acquainted with ancient lore.  It is said that being impressed
+with the importance of water in Egypt, where the Nile is the source of
+all life, he was led to assert the importance of water in animate
+nature.  In his attempts to break away from the {217} old cosmogony, he
+still exhibits traces of the old superstitions, for he regarded the sun
+and stars as living beings, who received their warmth and life from the
+ocean, in which they bathed at the time of setting.  He held that the
+whole world was full of soul, manifested in individual daemons, or
+spirits.  Puerile as his philosophy appears in comparison with the
+later development of Greek philosophy, it created violent antagonism
+with mythical theology and led the way to further investigation and
+speculation.
+
+Anaximander, born at Miletus 611 B.C., an astronomer and geographer,
+following Thales chronologically, wrote a book on "Nature," the first
+written on the subject in the philosophy of Greece.  He held that all
+things arose from the "infinite," a primordial chaos in which was an
+internal energy.  From a universal mixture things arose by separation,
+the parts once formed remaining unchanged.  The earth was cylindrical
+in shape, suspended in the air in the centre of the universe, and the
+stars and planets revolved around it, each fastened in a crystalline
+ring; the moon and sun revolved in the same manner, only at a farther
+distance.  The generation of the universe was by the action of
+contraries, by heat and cold, the moist and the dry.  From the moisture
+all things were originally generated by heat.  Animals and men came
+from fishes by a process of evolution.  There is evidence in his
+philosophy of a belief in the development of the universe by the action
+of heat and cold on matter.  It is also evident that the principles of
+biology and the theory of evolution are hinted at by this philosopher.
+Also, he was the first to observe the obliquity of the ecliptic; he
+taught that the moon received its light from the sun and that the earth
+is round.
+
+Anaximenes, born at Miletus 588 B.C., asserted that air was the first
+principle of the universe; indeed, he held that on it "the very earth
+floats like a broad leaf."  He held that air was infinite in extent;
+that it touched all things, and was the source of life of all.  The
+human soul was nothing but air, since life consists in inhaling and
+exhaling, and when this is no longer {218} continued death ensues.
+Warmth and cold arose from rarefaction and condensation, and probably
+the origin of the sun and planets was caused by the rarefaction of air;
+but when air underwent great condensation, snow, water, and hail
+appeared, and, indeed, with sufficient condensation, the earth itself
+was formed.  It was only a step further to suppose that the infinite
+air was the source of life, the god of the universe.
+
+Somewhat later Diogenes of Apollonia asserted that all things
+originated from one essence, and that air was the soul of the world,
+eternal and endowed with consciousness.  This was an attempt to explain
+the development of the universe by a conscious power.  It led to the
+suggestion of psychology, as the mind of man was conscious air.  "But
+that which has knowledge is what men call air; it is it that regulates
+all and governs all, and hence it is the use of air to pervade all, and
+to dispose all, and to be in all, for there is nothing that has not
+part in it."
+
+Other philosophers of this school reasoned or speculated upon the
+probable first causes in the creation.  In a similar manner Heraclitus
+asserted that fire was the first principle, and states as the
+fundamental maxim of his philosophy that "all is convertible into fire,
+and fire into all."  There was so much confusion in his doctrines as to
+give him the name of "The Obscure."  "The moral system of Heraclitus
+was based on the physical.  He held that heat developed morality,
+moisture immorality.  He accounted for the wickedness of the drunkard
+by his having a moist soul, and inferred that a warm, dry soul was
+noblest and best."
+
+Anaxagoras taught the mechanical processes of the universe, and
+advanced many theories of the origin of animal life and of material
+objects.  Anaxagoras was a man of wealth, who devoted all of his time
+and means to philosophy.  He recognized two principles, one material
+and the other spiritual, but failed to connect the two, and in
+determining causes he came into open conflict with the religion of the
+times, and asserted that the "divine miracles" were nothing more than
+natural {219} causes.  He was condemned for his atheism and thrown into
+prison, but, escaping, he was obliged to end his days in exile.
+
+Another notable example of the early Greek philosophy is found in
+Pythagoras, who asserted that number was the first principle.  He and
+his followers found that the "whole heaven was a harmony of number."
+The Pythagoreans taught that all comes from one, but that the odd
+number is finite, the even infinite; that ten was a perfect number.
+They sought for a criterion of truth in the relation of numbers.
+Nothing could exist or be formed without harmony, and this harmony
+depended upon number, that is, upon the union of contrary elements.
+The musical octave was their best example to illustrate their meaning.
+The union of the atoms in modern chemistry illustrates in full the
+principle of number after which they were striving.  It emphasized the
+importance of measurements in investigation.  Much more might be said
+about the elaborate system of the Pythagoreans; but the main principle
+herein stated must suffice.
+
+_The Weakness of Ionian Philosophy_.--Viewed from the modern standpoint
+of scientific research, the early philosophers of Greece appear puerile
+and insignificant.  They directed their thoughts largely toward nature,
+but instead of systematic observation and comparison they used the
+speculative and hypothetical methods to ascertain truth.  They had
+turned from the credulity of ancient tradition to simple faith in the
+mind to determine the nature and cause of the universe.  But this was
+followed by a scepticism as to the sense perception, a scepticism which
+could only be overcome by a larger observation of facts.  Simple as it
+appears, this process was an essential transition from the theology of
+the Greeks to the perfected philosophy built upon reason.  The attitude
+of the mind was of great value, and the attention directed to external
+nature was sure to turn again to man, and the supernatural.  While
+there is a mixture of the physical, metaphysical, and mystical, the
+final lesson to be learned is the recognition of reality of nature as
+external to mind.
+
+{220}
+
+_The Eleatic Philosophers_.--About 500 B.C., and nearly contemporary
+with the Pythagoreans, flourished the Eleatic philosophers, among whom
+Xenophanes, Parmenides, Zeno, and Melissus were the principal leaders.
+They speculated about the nature of the mind, or soul, and departed
+from the speculations respecting the origin of the earth.  The nature
+of the infinite and the philosophy of being suggested by the Ionian
+philosophers were themes that occupied the attention of this new
+school.  Parmenides believed in the knowledge of an absolute being, and
+affirmed the unity of thought and being.  He won the distinction of
+being the first logical philosopher among the Greeks, and was called
+the father of idealism.
+
+Zeno is said to have been the most remarkable of this school.  He held
+that if there was a distinction between _being_ and _not being_, only
+_being_ existed.  This led him to the final assumption that the laws of
+nature are unchangeable and God remains permanent.  His method of
+reasoning was to reduce the opposite to absurdity.
+
+Upon the whole, the Eleatic philosophy is one relating to knowledge and
+being, which considered thought primarily as dependent upon being.  It
+holds closely to monism, that is, that nature and mind are of the same
+substance; yet there is a slight distinction, for there is really a
+dualism expressed in knowledge and being.  Many other philosophers
+followed, who discoursed upon nature, mind, and being, but they arrived
+at no definite conclusions.  The central idea in the early philosophy
+up to this time was to account for the existence and substance of
+nature.  It gave little consideration to man in himself, and said
+little of the supernatural.  Everything was speculative in nature,
+hypothetical in proposition, and deductive in argument.  The Greek
+mind, departing from its dependence upon mythology, began boldly to
+assert its ability to find out nature, but ended in a scepticism as to
+its power to ascertain certainty.  There was a final determination as
+to the distinction of reality as external to mind, and this represents
+the best product of the early philosophers.
+
+{221}
+
+_The Sophists_.--Following the Eleatics was a group of philosophers
+whose principle characteristic was scepticism.  Man, not nature, was
+the central idea in their philosophy, and they changed the point of
+view from objective to subjective contemplation.  They accomplished
+very little in their speculation except to shift the entire attitude of
+philosophy from external nature to man.  They were interested in the
+culture of the individual, yet, in their psychological treatment of
+man, they relied entirely upon sense perception.  In the consideration
+of man's ethical nature they were individualistic, considering private
+right and private judgment the standards of truth.  They led the way to
+greater speculation in this subject and to a higher philosophy.
+
+_Socrates the First Moral Philosopher (b. 469 B.C.)_.--Following the
+sophists in the progressive development of philosophy, Socrates turned
+his attention almost exclusively to human nature.  He questioned all
+things, political, ethical, and theological, and insisted upon the
+moral worth of the individual man.  While he cast aside the nature
+studies of the early philosophy and repudiated the pseudo-wisdom of the
+sophists, he was not without his own interpretation of nature.  He was
+interested in questions pertaining to the order of nature and the wise
+adaptation of means to an end.  Nature is animated by a soul, yet it is
+considered as a wise contrivance for man's benefit rather than a
+living, self-determining organism.  In the subordination of all nature
+to the good, Socrates lays the foundation of natural theology.
+
+But the ethical philosophy of Socrates is more prominent and positive.
+He asserted that scientific knowledge is the sole condition to virtue;
+that vice is ignorance.  Hence virtue will always follow knowledge
+because they are a unity.  His ethical principles are founded on
+utility, the good of which he speaks is useful, and is the end of
+individual acts and aims.  Wisdom is the foundation of all virtues;
+indeed, every virtue is wisdom.
+
+Socrates made much of friendship and love, and thought temperance to be
+the fundamental virtue.  Without {222} temperance, men were not useful
+to themselves or to others, and temperance meant the complete mastery
+of self.  Friendship and love were cardinal points in the doctrine of
+ethical life.  The proper conduct of life, justice in the treatment of
+man by his fellow-man, and the observance of the duties of citizenship,
+were part of the ethical philosophy of Socrates.
+
+Beauty is only another name for goodness, but it is only a harmony or
+adaptation of means to an end.  The Socratic method of ascertaining
+truth by the art of suggestive questioning was a logical mode of
+procedure.  The meeting of individuals in conversation was a method of
+arriving at the truth of ethical conduct and ethical relations.  It was
+made up of induction and definition.  No doubt the spirit of his
+teaching was sceptical in the extreme.  While having a deeper sense of
+the reality of life than others, he realized that he did not know much.
+He criticized freely the prevailing beliefs, customs, and religious
+practice.  For this he was accused of impiety, and forced to drink the
+hemlock.  With an irony in manner and thought, Socrates introduced the
+problem of self-knowledge; he hastened the study of man and reason; he
+instituted the doctrine of true manhood as an essential part in the
+philosophy of life.  Conscience was enthroned, and the moral life of
+man began with Socrates.
+
+_Platonic Philosophy Develops the Ideal_.--Plato was the pupil of
+Socrates and the teacher of Aristotle.  These three represent the
+culmination of Greek philosophy.  In its fundamental principles the
+Platonic philosophy represents the highest flight of the mind in its
+conception of being and of the nature of mind and matter, entertained
+by the philosophers.  The doctrine of Plato consisted of three primary
+principles: matter, ideas, and God.  While matter is co-eternal with
+God, he created all animate and inanimate things from matter.  Plato
+maintained that there was a unity in design.  And as God was an
+independent and individual creator of the world, who fashioned the
+universe, and is father to all creatures, there was unity in God.
+Plato advanced the doctrine of reminiscences, {223} in which he
+accounted for what had otherwise been termed innate ideas.  Plato also
+taught, to a certain extent, the transmigration of souls.  He was
+evidently influenced in many ways by the Indian philosophy; but the
+special doctrine of Plato made ideas the most permanent of all things.
+Visible things are only fleeting shadows, which soon pass away; only
+ideas remain.  The universal concept, or notion, is the only real
+thing.  Thus the perfect globe is the concept held in the mind; the
+marble, ball, or sphere of material is only an imperfect representation
+of the same.  The horse is a type to which all individual horses tend
+to conform; they pass away, but the type remains.  His work was purely
+deductive.  His major premise was accepted on faith rather than
+determined by his reason.  Yet in philosophical speculations the
+immortality of the soul, future rewards and punishments, the unity of
+the creation and the unity of the creator, and an all-wise ruler of the
+universe, were among the most important points of doctrine.
+
+_Aristotle the Master Mind of the Greeks_.--While Aristotle and Plato
+sought to prove the same things, and agreed with each other on many
+principles of philosophy, the method employed by the former was exactly
+the reverse of that of the latter.  Plato founded his doctrine on the
+unity of all being, and observed the particular only through the
+universal.  For proof he relied on the intuitive and the synthetic.
+Aristotle, on the contrary, found it necessary to consider the
+particular in order that the universal might be established.  He
+therefore gathered facts, analyzed material, and discoursed upon the
+results.  He was patient and persistent in his investigations, and not
+only gave the world a great lesson by his example, but he obtained
+better results than any other philosopher of antiquity.  It is
+generally conceded that he showed the greatest strength of intellect,
+the deepest insight, the greatest breadth of speculative thought, and
+the clearest judgment of all philosophers, either ancient or modern.
+
+Perhaps his doctrine of the necessity of a final cause, or sufficient
+reason, which gives a rational explanation of individual {224} things,
+is Aristotle's greatest contribution to pure philosophy.  The doctrine
+of empiricism has been ascribed to Aristotle, but he fully recognized
+the universal, and thought it connected with the individual, and not
+separated from it, as represented by Plato.  The universal is
+self-determining in its individualization, and is, therefore, a process
+of identification rather than of differentiation.  The attention which
+Aristotle gave to fact as opposed to theory, to investigation as
+opposed to speculation, and to final cause, led men from a condition of
+necessity to that of freedom, and taught philosophers to substantiate
+their theories by reason and by fact.  There is no better illustration
+of his painstaking investigation than his writing 250 constitutional
+histories as the foundation of his work on "Politics."  In this
+masterly work will be found an exposition of political theories and
+practice worthy the attention of all modern political philosophers.
+The service given by Aristotle to the learning of the Middle Ages, and,
+in fact, to modern philosophy, was very great.
+
+Aristotle was of a more practical turn of mind than Plato.  While he
+introduced the formal syllogism in logic, he also introduced the
+inductive method.  Perhaps Aristotle represented the wisest and most
+learned of the Greeks, because he advanced beyond the speculative
+philosophy to a point where he attempted to substantiate theory by
+facts, and thus laid the foundation for comparative study.
+
+_Other Schools_.--The Epicureans taught a philosophy based upon
+pleasure-seeking--or, as it may be stated, making happiness the highest
+aim of life.  They said that to seek happiness was to seek the highest
+good.  This philosophy in its pure state had no evil ethical tendency,
+but under the bad influences of remote followers of Epicurus it led to
+the degeneration of ethical practice.  "Beware of excesses," says
+Epicurus, "for they will lead to unhappiness."  Beware of folly and
+sin, for they lead to wretchedness.  Nothing could have been better
+than this, until people began to follow sensuality as the immediate
+return of efforts to secure happiness.  Then it led to {225}
+corruption, and was one of the causes of the downfall of Greek as well
+as the Roman civilization.
+
+The Stoics were a group of philosophers who placed great emphasis upon
+ethics in comparison with logic and physics.  They looked on the world
+from the pessimistic side and made themselves happy by becoming
+martyrs.  They taught that suffering, the endurance of pain without
+complaint, was the highest virtue.  To them logic was the science of
+thought and of expression, physics was the science of nature, and
+ethics the science of the good.  All ideas originated from sensation,
+and perception was the only criterion of truth.  "We know only what we
+perceive (by sense); only those ideas contain certain knowledge for us
+which are ideas of real objects."  The soul of man was corporeal and
+material, hence physics and metaphysics were almost identical.  There
+is much incoherency in their philosophy; it abounds in paradoxes.  For
+instance, it recognizes sense as the criterion and source of knowledge,
+and asserts that reason is universal and knowable.  Yet it asserts that
+there is no rational element in sense that is universal.  It confuses
+individual human nature and universal nature, though its final result
+was to unite both in one concept.  The result of their entire
+philosophy was to create confusion, although they had much influence on
+the practical life.
+
+The Sceptics doubted all knowledge obtained by the senses.  There was
+no criterion of truth in the intellect, consequently no knowledge.  If
+truth existed it was in conduct, and thus the judgment must be
+suspended.  They held that there was nothing that could be determined
+of specific nature, nothing that could be of certainty.  Eventually the
+whole Greek philosophy went out in scepticism.  The three schools, the
+sceptic, the Epicurean, and the stoic, though widely differing in many
+ways, agreed upon one thing, in basing their philosophy on
+subjectivity, on mind rather than on objective nature.
+
+_Results Obtained in Greek Philosophy_.--The philosophical conclusions
+aimed at by the Greeks related to the origin and destiny of the world.
+The world is an emanation from God, {226} and in due time it will
+return to Him.  It may be considered as a part of the substance of God,
+or it may be considered as something objective proceeding from him.
+The visible world around us becomes thus but an expression of the God
+mind.  But as it came forth a thing of beauty, so it will return again
+to Him after its mission is fulfilled.  On the existence and attributes
+of God the Greeks dwelt with great force.  There is established first a
+unity of God, and this unity is the first cause in the creation.  To
+what extent this unity is independent and separate in existence from
+nature, is left in great doubt.  It was held that God is present
+everywhere in nature, though His being is not limited by time or space.
+Much of the philosophy bordered upon, if it did not openly avow, a
+belief in pantheism.  The highest conception recognizes design in
+creation, which would give an individual existence to the Creator.  Yet
+the most acute mind did not depart from the assumption of the idea of
+an all-pervading being of God extending throughout the universe,
+mingling with nature and to a certain extent inseparable from it.  In
+their highest conception the most favored of the Greeks were not free
+from pantheistic notions.
+
+The nature of the soul occupied much of the attention of the Greeks.
+They began by giving material characteristics to the mind.  They soon
+separated it in concept from material nature and placed it as a part of
+God himself, who existed apart from material form.  The soul has a past
+life, a present, and a future, as a final outcome of philosophical
+speculations.  The attributes of the soul were confused with the
+attributes of the Supreme Being.  These conceptions of the Divine Being
+and of the soul border on the Hindu philosophy.
+
+Perhaps the subject which caused the most discussion was the attempt to
+determine a criterion of truth.  Soon after the time when they broke
+away from the ancient religious faith, the thinkers of Greece began to
+doubt the ability of the mind to ascertain absolute truth.  This arose
+out of the imperfections of knowledge obtained through the senses.
+Sense perception {227} was held in much doubt.  The world is full of
+delusions.  Man thinks he sees when he does not.  The rainbow is but an
+illusion when we attempt to analyze it.  The eye deceives, the ear
+hears what does not exist; even touch and taste frequently deceive us.
+What, then, can be relied upon as accurate in determining knowledge?
+To this the Greek mind answers, "Nothing"; it reaches no definite
+conclusion, and this is the cardinal weakness of the philosophy.
+Indeed, the great weakness of the entire age of philosophy was want of
+data.  It was a time of intense activity of the mind, but the lack of
+data led to much worthless speculation.  The systematic method of
+scientific observation had not yet been discovered.
+
+But how could this philosophical speculation affect civilization?  It
+determined the views of life entertained by the Greeks, and human
+progress depended upon this.  The progress of the world depends upon
+the attitude of the human mind toward nature, toward man and his life.
+The study of philosophy developed the mental capacity of man, gave him
+power to cope with nature, and enhanced his possibility of right
+living.  More than this, it taught man to rely upon himself in
+explaining the origin and growth of the universe and the development of
+human life.  Though these points were gained only by the few and soon
+lost sight of by all, yet they were revived in after years, and placed
+man upon the right basis for improvement.
+
+The quickening impulse of philosophy had its influence on art and
+language.  The language of the Greeks stands as their most powerful
+creation.  The development of philosophy enlarged the scope of language
+and increased its already rich vocabulary.  Art was a representation of
+nature.  The predominance given to man in life, the study of heroes and
+gods, gave ideal creations and led to the expression of beauty.
+Philosophy, literature, language, and art, including architecture,
+represent the products of Greek civilization, and as such have been the
+lasting heritage of the nations that have followed.  The philosophy and
+practice of social life and government {228} received a high
+development in Greece.  They will be treated in a separate chapter.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What was the importance of Socrates' teaching?  Why was he put to
+death?
+
+2.  What has been the influence of Plato's teaching on modern life?
+
+3.  Why is Aristotle considered the greatest of the Greeks?
+
+4.  What was the influence of the library at Alexandria?
+
+5.  What caused the decline in Greek philosophy?
+
+6.  What was the influence on civilization of the Greek attitudes of
+mind toward nature?
+
+7.  Compare the use of Greek philosophy with modern science as to their
+value in education.
+
+
+
+
+{229}
+
+CHAPTER XIV
+
+THE GREEK SOCIAL POLITY
+
+_The Struggle for Greek Equality and Liberty_.--The greater part of the
+activity of Western nations has been a struggle for social equality and
+for political and religious liberty.  These phases of European social
+life are clearly discerned in the development of the Greek states.  The
+Greeks were recognized as having the highest intellectual culture and
+the largest mental endowments of all the ancients, characteristics
+which gave them great prestige in the development of political life and
+social philosophy.  The problem of how communities of people should
+live together, their relations to one another, and their rights,
+privileges, and duties, early concerned the philosophers of Greece; but
+more potent than all the philosophies that have been uttered, than all
+of the theories concerning man's social relation, is the vivid
+portrayal of the actual struggle of men to live together in community
+life, pictured in the course of Grecian history.
+
+In the presentation of this life, writers have differed much in many
+ways.  Some have eulogized the Greeks as a liberty-loving people, who
+sought to grant rights and duties to every one on an altruistic basis;
+others have pictured them as entirely egoistic, with a morality of a
+narrow nature, and with no sublime conception of the relation of the
+rights of humanity as such.  Without entering into a discussion of the
+various views entertained by philosophers concerning the
+characteristics of the Greeks, it may be said that, with all their
+noble characteristics, the ideal pictures which are presented to us by
+the poet, the philosopher, and the historian are too frequently of the
+few, while the great mass of the people remained in a state of
+ignorance, superstition, and slavery.  With a due recognition of the
+existence of the germs of democracy, {230} we find that Greece, after
+all, was in spirit an aristocracy.  There was an aristocracy of birth,
+of wealth, of learning, and of hereditary power.  While we must
+recognize the greatness of the Greek life in comparison with that of
+Oriental nations, it must still be evident to us that the best phases
+of this life and the magnificent features of Greek learning have been
+emphasized much by writers, while the wretched and debasing conditions
+of the people of Greece have seldom been recounted.
+
+_The Greek Government an Expanded Family_.--The original family was
+ruled by the father, who acted as king, priest, and lawgiver.  As long
+as life lasted he had supreme control over all members of his family,
+whether they were so by birth or adoption.  All that they owned, all of
+the products of their hands, all the wealth of the family, belonged to
+him; even their lives were at his disposal.
+
+As the family becomes stronger and is known as a gens, it represents a
+close, compact organization, looking after its own interests, and with
+definite customs concerning its own government.  As the gentes are
+multiplied they form tribes, and the oldest male member of the tribal
+group acts as its leader and king, while the heads of the various
+gentes thus united become his counsellors and advisers in later
+development, and the senate after democratic government organization
+takes place.  As time passes the head of this family is called a king
+or chief, and rules on the ground that he has descended from the gods,
+is under the divine protection, and represents the oldest aristocratic
+family in the tribe.
+
+In the beginning this tribal chief holds unlimited sway over all of his
+subjects.  But to maintain his power well he must be a soldier who is
+able to command the forces in war; he must be able to lead in the
+councils with the chiefs and, when occasion requires, discuss matters
+with the people.  Gradually passing from the ancient hereditary power,
+he reaches a stage when it becomes a custom to consult with all the
+chiefs of the tribe in the management of the affairs.  The earliest
+picture of Greek government represents a king who is equal in birth
+with {231} other heads of the gentes, presiding over a group of elders
+deliberating upon the affairs of the state.  The influence of the
+nobles over whom he presided must have been great.  It appears that the
+king or chief must convince his associates in council before any
+decision could be considered a success.
+
+The second phase of Greek government represents this same king as
+appearing in the assembly of all the people and presenting for their
+consideration the affairs of the state.  It is evident from this that,
+although he was a hereditary monarch, deriving his power from
+aristocratic lineage traced even to the gods themselves, he was
+responsible to the people for his government, and this principle
+extends all the way through the development of Greek social and
+political life.
+
+The right to free discussion of affairs in open council, the right to
+object to methods of procedure, were cardinal principles in Greek
+politics; but while the great mass of people were not taken into
+account in the affairs of the government, there was an equality among
+all those called citizens which had much to do with the establishment
+of the civil polity of all nations.  The whole Greek political life,
+then, represents the slow evolution from aristocratic government of
+hereditary chiefs toward a complete democracy, which unfortunately it
+failed to reach before the decline of the Greek state.
+
+As before related, the Greeks had established a large number of
+independent communities which developed into small states.  These small
+states were mostly isolated from one another, hence they developed an
+independent social and political existence.  This was of great
+consequence in the establishing of the character of the Greek
+government.  In the first place, the kings, chiefs, and rulers were
+brought closely in contact with the people.  Everybody knew them,
+understood the character of the men, realizing that they had passions
+and prejudices similar to other men, and that, notwithstanding they
+were elevated to positions of power, they nevertheless were human
+beings like the people themselves.  This led to a democratic feeling.
+
+{232}
+
+Again, the development of these separate small states led to great
+diversity of government.  All kinds of government were exercised in
+Greece, from the democracy to the hereditary monarchy.  Many of these
+governments passed in their history through all stages of government to
+be conceived of--the monarchy, absolute and constitutional, the
+aristocracy, the oligarchy, the tyranny, the democracy, and the polity.
+All phases of politics had their representation in the development of
+the Greek life.
+
+In a far larger way the development of these isolated communities made
+local self-government the primary basis of the state.  When the Greek
+had developed his own small state he had done his duty so far as
+government was concerned.  He might be on friendly terms with the
+neighboring states, especially as they might use the same language as
+his own and belonged to the same race, but he could in no way be
+responsible for the success or the failure of men outside of his
+community.  This was many times a detriment to the development of the
+Greek race, as the time arrived when it should stand as a unit against
+the encroachments of foreign nations.  No unity of national life found
+expression in the repulsion of the Persians, no unity in the
+Peloponnesian war, no unity in the defense against the Romans; indeed,
+the Macedonians found a divided people, which made conquering easy.
+
+There was another phase of this Greek life worthy of notice: the fact
+that it developed extreme selfishness and egoism respecting government.
+We shall find in this development, in spite of the pretensions for the
+interests of the many, that government existed for the few;
+notwithstanding the professions of an enlarged social life, we shall
+find a narrowness almost beyond belief in the treatment of Greeks by
+one another in the social life.  It is true that the recognition of
+citizenship was much wider than in the Orient, and that the individual
+life of man received more marked attention than in any ancient
+despotism; yet, after all, when we recognize the multitudes of slaves,
+who were considered not worthy to take part in {233} government
+affairs, the numbers of the freedmen and non-citizens, and realize that
+the few who had power or privilege of government looked with disdain
+upon all others, it gives us no great enthusiasm for Greek democracy
+when compared with the modern conception of that term.
+
+As Mr. Freeman says in his _Federal Government_, the citizen "looked
+down upon the vulgar herd of slaves, the freedmen and unqualified
+residents, as his own plebeian fathers had been looked down upon by the
+old Eupatrides in the days of Cleisthenes and Solon."  Whatever phase
+of this Greek society we discuss, we must not forget that there was a
+large class excluded from rights of government, and that the few sought
+always to maintain their own rights and privileges supported by the
+many, and the pretensions of an enlarged privilege of citizenship had
+little effect in changing the actual conditions of the aristocratic
+government.
+
+_The Athenian Government a Type of Grecian Democracy_.--Indeed, it was
+the only completed government in Greece.  The civilization of Athens
+shows the character of the Greek race in its richest and most beautiful
+development.  Here art, learning, culture, and government reached their
+highest development.  It was a small territory that surrounded the city
+of Athens, containing a little over 850 English square miles, possibly
+less, as some authorities say.  The soil was poor, but the climate was
+superb.  It was impossible for the Athenian to support a high
+civilization from the soil of Attica, hence trade sprang up and Athens
+grew wealthy on account of its great maritime commerce.
+
+The population of all Attica in the most flourishing times was about
+500,000 people, 150,000 of whom were slaves, 45,000 settlers, or
+unqualified people, while the free citizens did not exceed 90,000--so
+that the equality so much spoken of in Grecian democracies belonged to
+only 90,000 out of 500,000, leaving 410,000 disfranchised.  The
+district was thickly populous for Greece, and the stock of the Athenian
+had little mixture of foreign blood in it.  The city itself was formed
+of {234} villages or cantons, united into one central government.
+These appear to be survivals of the old village communities united
+under the title of city-state.  It was the perfection of this
+city-state that occupied the chief thought of the Athenian political
+philosophers.
+
+The ancient kingship of Athens passed, on deposition of the last of the
+Medoutidae, about 712 B.C., into the hands of the nobles.  This was the
+first step in the passage from monarchy toward democracy; it was the
+beginning of the foundation of the republican constitution.  In 682
+B.C. the government passed into the hands of nine archons, chosen from
+all the rest of the nobles.  It was a movement on the part of the
+nobles to obtain a partition of the government, while the common people
+were not improved at all by the process.  The kings, indeed, in the
+ancient time made a better government for the people than did the
+nobles.  The people at this period were in great trouble.  The nobles
+had loaned money to their wretched neighbors and, as the law was very
+strict, the creditor might take possession of the property and even of
+the person of the debtor, making of him a slave.
+
+In this way the small proprietors had become serfs, and the masters
+took from them five-sixths of the products of the soil, and would, no
+doubt, have taken their lands had these not been inalienable.
+Sometimes the debtors were sold into foreign countries as slaves, and
+at other times their children were taken as slaves according to the
+law.  On account of the oppression of the poor by the nobility, there
+sprang up a hatred between these two classes.
+
+A few changes were made by the laws of Draco and others, but nothing
+gave decided relief to the people.  The nine archons, representing the
+power of the state, managed nearly all of its affairs, and retained
+likewise their seats in the council of nobles.  The old national
+council formed by the aristocratic members of the community still
+retained its hold, and the council of archons, though it divided the
+country into administrative districts and sought to secure more
+specific {235} management of the several districts, failed to keep down
+internal disorders or to satisfy the people.  The people were formed
+into three classes: the wealthy nobility, or land-owners of the plain,
+the peasants of the mountains districts, and the people of the coast
+country, the so-called middle classes.  The hatred of the nobility by
+the peasants of the mountains was intense.  The nobles demanded their
+complete suppression and subordination to the rule of their own class.
+The people of the coast would have been contented with moderate
+concessions from the nobility, which would give them a part in the
+government and leave them unmolested.
+
+_Constitution of Solon Seeks a Remedy_.--Such was the condition of
+affairs when Solon proposed his reforms.  He sought to remove the
+burdens of the people, first, by remitting all fines which had been
+imposed; second, by preventing the people from offering their persons
+as security against debt; and third, by depreciating the coin so as to
+make payment of debt easy.  He replaced the Pheidonian talent by that
+of the Euboic coinage, thus increasing the debt-paying capacity of
+money twenty-seven per cent, or, in other words, reduced the debt about
+that amount.  It was further provided that all debts could be paid in
+three annual instalments, thus allowing poor farmers with mortgages
+upon their farms an opportunity to pay their debts.  There was also
+granted an amnesty to all persons who had been condemned to payment of
+money penalties.  By further measures the exclusive privileges of the
+old nobility were broken down, and a new government established on the
+basis of wealth.  People were divided into classes according to their
+property, and their privileges in government, as well as their taxes,
+were based upon these classes.
+
+Revising the old council of 401, Solon established a council (Boule) of
+400, 100 from each district.  These were probably elected at first, but
+later were chosen by lot.  The duties of this council were to prepare
+all business for passage in the popular assembly.  No business could
+come before the assembly of the people except by decree of the council,
+and in nearly {236} every case the council could decide what measures
+should be brought before the assembly.  While in some instances the law
+made it obligatory for certain cases to be brought before the assembly,
+there were some measures which could be disposed of by the council
+without reference to the assembly.
+
+The administration of justice was distributed among the nine archons,
+each one of whom administered some particular department.  The archon
+as judge could dispose of matters or refer them to an arbitrator for
+decision.  In every case the dissatisfied party had a right to appeal
+to the court made up of a collective body of 6,000 citizens, called the
+Heliaea.  This body was annually chosen from the whole body of
+citizens, and acted as jurors and judges.  In civil matters the
+services of the Heliaea were slight.  They consisted in holding open
+court on certain matters appealed to them from the archons.  In
+criminal matters the Heliaea frequently acted immediately as a sole
+tribunal, whose decision was final.
+
+It is one of the remarkable things in the Greek polity that the supreme
+court or court of appeals should be elected from the common people,
+while in other courts judges should hold their offices on account of
+position.  Solon also recognized what is known as the Council of the
+Areopagus.  The functions of this body had formerly belonged to the old
+council included in the Draconian code.  The Council of the Areopagus
+was formed from the ex-archons who had held the office without blame.
+It became a sort of supreme advisory council, watching over the whole
+collective administration.  It took account of the behavior of the
+magistrates in office and of the proceedings of the public assembly,
+and could interpose in other cases when, in its judgment, it thought it
+necessary.  It could advise as to the proper conducting of affairs and
+criticise the process of administration.  It could also administer
+private discipline and call citizens to account for their individual
+acts.  In this respect it somewhat resembled the Ephors of Sparta.
+
+{237}
+
+The popular assembly would meet and consider the questions put before
+it by the council, voting yes or no, but the subject was not open for
+discussion.  However, it was possible for the assembly to bring other
+subjects up for discussion and, through motion, refer them to the
+consideration of the council.  It was also possible to attach to the
+proposition of the council a motion, called in modern terms "a rider,"
+and thus enlarge upon the work of the council; but it was so arranged
+that the preponderance of all the offices went to the nobility and that
+the council be made up of this class, and hence there was no danger
+that the government would fall into the hands of the people.  Solon
+claimed to have put into the hands of the people all the power that
+they deserved, and to have established numerous checks on government
+which made it possible for each group of people to be well represented.
+
+Thus the council limited the power of the assembly, the Areopagus
+supervised the council, while the courts of the people had the final
+decision in cases of appeal.  As is well known, Solon could not carry
+out his own reforms, but was forced to leave the country.  Had he been
+of a different nature and at once seized the government, or appealed to
+the people, as did his successor, Pisistratus, he might have made his
+measures of reform more effective.  As it was, he was obliged to leave
+their execution to others.
+
+_Cleisthenes Continues the Reforms of Solon_.--Some years later (509
+B.C.) Cleisthenes instituted other reforms, increasing the council to
+500, the members of which might be drawn from the first three classes
+rather than the first, limiting the archonship to the first class, and
+breaking up the four ancient tribes formed from the nobility.  He
+formed ten new tribes of religious and political unions, thus intending
+to break down the influence of the nobility.  Although the popular
+assembly was composed of all citizens of the four classes, the
+functions of this body in the early period were very meagre.  It gave
+them the privilege of voting on the principal affairs of the nation
+when the council desired them to assume the responsibility.  The {238}
+time for holding it was in the beginning indefinite, it being only
+occasionally convened, but in later times there were ten[1] assemblies
+in each year, when business was regularly placed before it.  Meetings
+were held in the market-place at first; later a special building was
+erected for this purpose.  Sometimes, however, special assemblies were
+held elsewhere.
+
+The assembly was convoked by the prytanes, while the right of convoking
+extraordinary assemblies fell to the lot of the strategi.  There were
+various means for the compulsion of the attendance of the crowd.  There
+was a fine for non-attendance, and police kept out people who ought not
+to appear.  Each assembly opened with religious service.  Usually
+sucking pigs were sacrificed, which were carried around to purify the
+place, and their blood was sprinkled over the floor.  This ceremony was
+followed by the offering of incense.  This having been done, the
+president stated the question to be considered and summoned the people
+to vote.
+
+As the assembly developed in the advanced stage of Athenian life, every
+member in good standing had a right to speak.  The old men were called
+upon first and then the younger men.  This discussion was generally
+upon open questions, and not upon resolutions prepared by the council,
+though amendments to these resolutions were sometimes allowed.  No
+speaker could be interrupted except by the presiding officer, and no
+member could speak more than once.  As each speaker arose, he mounted
+the rostrum and placed a wreath of myrtle upon his head, which
+signified that he was performing a duty to the state.  The Greeks
+appear to have developed considerable parliamentary usage and to have
+practised a system of voting similar to our ballot reform.  Each
+individual entered an enclosure and voted by means of pebbles.
+Subsequently the functions of the assembly grew quite large.  The
+demagogues found it to their interests to extend its powers.  They
+tried to establish the principle in Athens that the people were the
+rulers of everything by right.
+
+{239}
+
+The powers of the assembly were generally divided into four groups, the
+first including the confirmation of appointments, the accusation of
+offenders against the state, the confiscation of goods, and claims to
+succession of property.  The second group considered petitions of the
+people, the third acted upon motions for the remission of sentences,
+and the fourth had charge of dealings with foreign states and religious
+matters in general.
+
+It is observed that the Athenians represented the highest class of the
+Greeks and that government received its highest development among them.
+But the only real political liberty in Greece may be summed up in the
+principle of hearing both sides of a question and of obtaining a
+decision on the merits of the case presented.  Far different is this
+from the old methods of despotic rule, under which kings were looked
+upon as authority in themselves, whose will must be carried out without
+question.  The democracy of Athens, too, was the first instance of the
+substitution of law for force.
+
+It is true that in the beginning all of the Greek communities rested
+upon a military basis.  Their foundations were laid in military
+exploits, and they maintained their position by the force of arms for a
+long period.  But this is true of nearly all states and nations when
+they make their first attempt at permanent civilization.  But after
+they were once established they sought to rule their subjects by the
+introduction of well-regulated laws and not by the force of arms.  The
+military discipline, no doubt, was the best foundation for a state of
+primitive people, but as this passed away the newer life was regulated
+best by law and civil power.  Under this the military became
+subordinate.
+
+To Greece must be given the credit of founding the city, and, indeed,
+this is one of the chief characteristics of the Greek people.  They
+established the city-state, or polis.  It represented a full and
+complete sovereignty in itself.  When they had accomplished this idea
+of sovereignty the political organization had reached its highest aim.
+
+{240}
+
+_Athenian Democracy Failed in Obtaining Its Best and Highest
+Development_.--It is a disappointment to the reader that Athens, when
+in the height of power, when the possibilities for extending and
+promoting the best interests of humanity in social capacity were
+greatest, should end in decline and failure.  In the first place,
+extreme democracy in that early period was more open than now to
+excessive dangers.  It was in danger of control by mobs, who were
+ignorant of their own real interests and the interests of popular
+government; it was in danger of falling into the hands of tyrants, who
+would rule for their own private interests; it was in danger of falling
+into the hands of a few, which frequently happened.  And this democracy
+in the ancient time was a rule of class--class subordination was the
+essence of its constitution.  There was no universal rule by the
+majority.  The franchise was an exclusive privilege extended to a
+minority, hence it differed little from aristocracy, being a government
+of class with a rather wider extension.
+
+The ancient democracies were pure in form, in which the people governed
+immediately.  For every citizen had a right to appear in the assembly
+and vote, and he could sit in the assembly, which acted as an open
+court.  Indeed, the elective officers of the democracy were not
+considered as representatives of the people.  They were the state and
+not subject to impeachment, though they should break over all law.
+After they returned among the citizens and were no longer the state
+they could be tried for their misdemeanors in office.
+
+Now, a state of this nature and form must of necessity be small, and as
+government expanded and its functions increased, the representative
+principle should have been introduced as a mainstay to the public
+system.  The individual in the ancient democracy lived for the state,
+being subordinate to its existence as the highest form of life.  We
+find this entirely different from the modern democracy, in which
+slavery and class subordination are both excluded, as opposed to its
+theory and antagonistic to its very being.  Its citizenship is wide,
+extending to its native population, and its suffrage is universal to
+all who qualify as citizens.  The citizens, too, in {241} modern
+democracies, live for themselves, and believe that the state is made by
+them for themselves.
+
+The decline of the Athenian democracy was hastened, also, by the
+Peloponnesian war, caused first by the domineering attitude of Athens,
+which posed as an empire, and the jealousy of Sparta.  This struggle
+between Athens and Sparta amounted almost to civil war.  And although
+it brought Sparta to the front as the most powerful state in all
+Greece, she was unable to advance the higher civilization, but really
+exercised a depressing influence upon it.  It might be mentioned
+briefly, too, that the overthrow of Athens somewhat later, and the
+establishment of the 400 as rulers, soon led to political
+disintegration.  It was the beginning of the founding of Athenian
+clubs, or political factions, which attempted to control the elections
+by fear or force.  These, by their power, forced the decrees of the
+assembly to suit themselves, and thus gave the death-blow to liberty.
+There was the reaction from this to the establishment of 5,000 citizens
+as a controlling body, and restricting the constitution, which
+attempted to unite all classes into one body and approximated the
+modern democracy, or that which is represented in the "polity" of
+Aristotle.
+
+After the domination of Sparta, Lysander and the thirty tyrants rose to
+oppress the citizens, and deposed a previous council of ten made for
+the ruling of the city.  But once more after this domination democracy
+was restored, and under the Theban and Macedonian supremacies the old
+spirit of "equality of equals" was once more established.  But Athens
+could no longer maintain her ancient position; her warlike ambitions
+had passed away, her national intelligence had declined; the dangers of
+the populace, too, threatened her at every turn, and the selfishness of
+the nobility in respect to the other classes, as well as the
+selfishness of the Spartan state outside, soon led to her downfall.  At
+first, too, all the officers were not paid, it being considered a
+misdemeanor to take pay for office; but finally regular salaries were
+paid, and this forced the leaders to establish free theatres for the
+people.
+
+And finally, it may be said, that the power for good or evil {242} in
+the democracy lacking in permanent foundations is so great that it can
+never lead on to perfect success.  It will prosper to-day and decline
+to-morrow.  So the attempt of the Athenians to found a democracy led
+not to permanent success; nevertheless, it gave to the world for the
+first time the principles of government founded upon equality and
+justice, and these principles have remained unchanged in the practice
+of the more perfect republics of modern times.
+
+_The Spartan State Differs from All Others_.--If we turn our attention
+to Sparta we shall find an entirely different state--a state which may
+be represented by calling it an aristocratic republic.  Not only was it
+founded on a military basis, but its very existence was perpetuated by
+military form.  The Dorian conquest brought these people in from the
+north to settle in the Peloponnesus, and by degrees they obtained a
+foothold and conquered their surrounding neighbors.  Having established
+themselves on a small portion of the land, the Dorians, or Spartans,
+possessed themselves of superior military skill in order to obtain the
+overlordship of the surrounding territory.  Soon they had control of
+nearly all of the Peloponnesus.  Although Argos was at first the ruling
+city of the conquerors, Sparta soon obtained the supremacy, and the
+Spartan state became noted as the great military state of the Greeks.
+
+The population of Sparta was composed of the Dorians, or citizens, who
+were the conquerors, and the independent subjects, who had been
+conquered but who had no part in the government, and the serfs or
+helots, who were the lower class of the conquered ones.  The total
+population is estimated at about 380,000 to 400,000, while the serfs
+numbered at least 175,000 to 224,000.  These serfs were always a cause
+of fear and anxiety to the conquerors, and they were watched over by
+night and day by spies who kept them from rising.  The helots were
+employed in peace as well as in war, and in all occupations where
+excessive toil was needed.  The middle class (Perioeci) were subjects
+dependent upon the citizens.  They had no share in the Spartan state
+except to obey its {243} administration.  They were obliged to accept
+the obligations of military service, to pay taxes and dues when
+required.  Their occupations were largely the promotion of agriculture
+and the various trades and industries.  Their proportion to the
+citizens was about thirty to nine, or, as is commonly given, there was
+one citizen to four of the middle class and twelve of the helots,
+making the ratio of citizens to the entire population about
+one-seventeenth, or every seventeenth man was a citizen.
+
+Attempts were made to divide the lands of the rich among the poor, and
+this redistribution of lands occurred from time to time.  There were
+other semblances of pure democracy of communistic nature.  It was a
+pure military state, and all were treated as soldiers.  There was a
+common table, or "mess," for a group, called the social union.  There
+all the men were obliged to assemble at meal-time, the women remaining
+at home.  The male children were taken at the age of seven years and
+trained as soldiers.  These were then in charge of the state, and the
+home was relieved of its responsibility concerning them.
+
+The state also adopted many sumptuary laws regulating what should be
+eaten and what should be used, and what not.  All male persons were
+subjected to severe physical training, for Sparta, in her education,
+always dwelt upon physical development and military training.  The
+development of language and literature, art and sculpture, was not
+observed here as it was in Athens.  The ideal of aristocracy was the
+rule of the nobler elements of the nation and the subordination of the
+mass.  This was supposed to be the best that could be done for the
+state and hence the best for the people.  There was no opportunity for
+subjects to rise to citizenship--nor, indeed, was this true in Athens,
+except by the gradual widening force of legal privilege.  Individual
+life in Sparta was completely subordinate to the state life, and here
+the citizen existed more fully for the state than in Athens in her
+worst days.
+
+Finally abuses grew.  It was the old story of the few rich {244}
+dominating and oppressing the many poor.  The minority had grown
+insolent and overbearing, and attempted to rule a hopeless and
+discontented majority.  The reforms of Lycurgus led to some
+improvements, by the institution of new divisions of citizens and
+territory and the division of the land, not only among citizens but the
+half-citizens and dependents.  Nevertheless, it appears that in spite
+of these attempted reforms, in spite of the establishment of the
+council, the public assembly, and the judicial process, Sparta still
+remained an arbitrary military power.  Yet the government continued to
+expand in form and function until it had obtained a complex existence.
+But there was a non-progressive element in it all.  The denial of
+rights of marriage between citizens and other groups limited the
+increase of the number of citizens, and while powers were gradually
+extended to those outside of the pale of citizenship, they were given
+so niggardly, and in such a manner, as to fail to establish the great
+principle of civil government on the basis of a free democracy.
+
+The military regime was non-progressive in its nature.  It could lead
+to conquest of enemies, but could not lead to the perpetuation of the
+rights and privileges of citizens; it could lead to domination of
+others, but could not bring about the subordination of universal
+citizenship to law and order, nor permit the expansion and growth of
+individual life under benevolent institutions of government.
+
+So the Greek government, the democracy with all of its great promises
+and glorious prospects, declined certainly from the height which was
+great in contrast to the Oriental despotisms.  It declined at a time
+when, as we look back from the present, it ought apparently to have
+gone on to the completion of the modern representative government.
+Probably, had the Greeks adopted the representative principle and
+enlarged their citizenship, their government would have been more
+lasting.  It is quite evident, also, that had they adopted the
+principle of federation and, instead of allowing the operation of
+government to cease when one small state had been perfected, united
+{245} these small states into a great nation throbbing with patriotism
+for the entire country, Greece might have withstood the warlike shocks
+of foreign nations.  But, thus unprepared alike to resist internal
+dissension and foreign oppression, the Greek states, notwithstanding
+all of their valuable contributions to government and society, were
+forced to yield their position of establishing a permanent government
+for the people.
+
+Some attempts were made to unify and organize Greek national life, not
+entirely without good results.  The first instance of this arose out of
+temple worship, where members of different states met about a common
+shrine erected to a special deity.  This led to temporary organization
+and mutual aid.  Important among these centres was the shrine of Apollo
+at Delphi.  This assemblage was governed by a council of general
+representation.  Important customs were established, such as the
+keeping of roads in repair which led to the shrine, and providing that
+pilgrims should have safe conduct and be free from tolls and taxes on
+their way to and from the shrine.  The members of the league were sworn
+not to destroy a city member or to cut off running water from the city.
+This latter rule was the foundation of the law of riparian rights--one
+of the oldest and most continuous in Western civilization.  The
+inspiration for the great national Olympic Games came from these early
+assemblages about shrines.[2]
+
+Also the Aetolian and Achaean leagues, which occurred in the later
+development of Greece, after the Macedonian conquest, were serious
+attempts for federal unity.  Although they were meritorious and
+partially successful, they came too late to make a unified nation of
+Greece.  In form and purpose these federal leagues are suggestive of
+the early federation of the colonies of America.
+
+_Greek Colonization Spreads Knowledge_.--The colonies of Greece,
+established on the different islands and along the shores of the
+Mediterranean, were among the important {246} civilizers of this early
+period.  Its colonies were established for the purpose of relieving the
+population of congested districts, on the one hand, and for the purpose
+of increasing trade, on the other.  They were always independent in
+government of the mother country, but were in sympathy with her in
+language, in customs, and in laws and religion.  As the ships plied
+their trade between the central government and these distant colonies,
+they carried with them the fundamentals of civilization--the language,
+the laws, the customs, the art, the architecture, the philosophy and
+thought of the Greeks.
+
+There was a tendency, then, to spread abroad over a large territory the
+Grecian philosophy and life.  More potent, indeed, than war is the
+civilizing influence of maritime trade.  It brings with it exchange of
+ideas, inspiration, and new life; it enables the planting of new
+countries with the best products.  No better evidence of this can be
+seen than in the planting of modern English colonies, which has spread
+the civilization of England around the world.  This was begun by the
+Greeks in that early period, and in the dissemination of knowledge it
+represents a wide influence.
+
+_The Conquests of Alexander_.--Another means of the dissemination of
+Greek thought, philosophy, and learning was the Alexandrian conquest
+and domination.  The ambitious Alexander, extending the plan of Philip
+of Macedon, who attempted to conquer the Greeks and the surrounding
+countries, desired to master the whole known world.  And so into Egypt
+and Asia Minor, into Central Asia, and even to the banks of the Ganges,
+he carried his conquests, and with them the products of Greek learning
+and literature.  And most potent of all these influences was the
+founding of Alexandria in Egypt, which he hoped to make the central
+city of the world.  Into this place flowed the products of learning,
+not only of Greece but of the Orient, and developed a mighty city with
+its schools and libraries, with its philosophy and doctrines and
+strange religious influences.  And for many years the learning of the
+world centred about Alexandria, forming a great rival to Athens, which,
+{247} though never losing its prominence in certain lines of culture,
+was dominated by the greater Alexandria.
+
+_The Age of Pericles_.--In considering all phases of life the splendors
+of Greece culminated in a period of 50 years immediately following the
+close of the Persian wars.  This period is known as the Age of
+Pericles.  Although the rule of Pericles was about thirty years
+(466-429), his influence extended long after.  The important part
+Athens performed in the Persian wars gave her the political ascendancy
+in Greece and enabled her to assume the beginning of the states; in
+fact, enabled her to establish an empire.  Pericles rebuilt Athens
+after the destructive work of the Persians.  The public buildings, the
+Parthenon and the Acropolis, were among the noted structures of the
+world.  A symmetrical city was planned on a magnificent scale hitherto
+unknown.  Pericles gathered about him architects, sculptors, poets,
+dramatists, teachers, and philosophers.
+
+The age represents a galaxy of great men: Aeschylus, Sophocles,
+Euripides, Herodotus, Socrates, Thucydides, Phidias, Ictinus, and
+others.  Greek government reached its culmination and society had its
+fullest life in this age.  The glory of the period extended on through
+the Peloponnesian war, and after the Macedonian conquest it gradually
+waned and the splendor gradually passed from Athens to Alexandria.
+
+_Contributions of Greece to Civilization_.--It is difficult to
+enumerate all of the influences of Greece on modern civilization.
+First of all, we might mention the language of Greece, which became so
+powerful in the development of the Roman literature and Roman
+civilization and, in the later Renaissance, a powerful engine of
+progress.  Associated with the language is the literature of the
+Greeks.  The epic poems of Homer, the later lyrics, the drama, the
+history, and the polemic, all had their highest types presented in the
+Greek literature.  Latin and modern German, English and French owe to
+these great originators a debt of gratitude for every form of modern
+literature.  The architecture of Greece was broad enough to lay the
+foundation of the future, and so we find, even in our {248} modern
+life, the Grecian elements combined in all of our great buildings.
+
+Painting and frescoing were well established in principle, though not
+carried to a high state until the mediaeval period; but in sculpture
+nothing yet has exceeded the perfection of the Greek art.  It stands a
+monument of the love of the beauty of the human form and the power to
+represent it in marble.
+
+The Greek philosophy finds its best results not only in developing the
+human mind to a high state but in giving to us the freedom of thought
+which belongs by right to every individual.  An attempt to find out
+things as they are, to rest all philosophy upon observation, and to
+determine by the human reason the real essence of truth, is of such
+stupendous magnitude in the development of the human mind that it has
+entered into the philosophy of every educational system presented since
+by any people or any individual.  The philosophers of modern times,
+while they may not adopt the principles of the ancient philosophy,
+still recognize their power, their forms of thought, and their
+activities, and their great influence on the intellectual development
+of the world.
+
+Last, but not least, are the great lessons recounted of the foundations
+of civil liberty.  Incomplete as the ancient democracies were, they
+pointed to the world the great lessons of the duties of man to man and
+the relations of mankind in social life.  When we consider the
+greatness of the social function and the prominence of social
+organization in modern life, we shall see how essential it is that,
+though the development of the individual may be the highest aim of
+civilization, the social organization must be established upon a right
+basis to promote individual interests.  Freedom, liberty,
+righteousness, justice, free discussion, all these were given to us by
+the Greeks, and more--the forms of government, the assembly, the
+senate, the judiciary, the constitutional government, although in their
+imperfect forms, are represented in the Greek government.  These
+represent the chief contributions of the Greeks to civilization.
+
+{249}
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What were the achievements of the Age of Pericles?
+
+2.  Which are more important to civilization, Greek ideals or Greek
+practice?
+
+3.  The ownership of land in Greece.
+
+4.  The characteristics of the city-state of Athens.
+
+5.  Alexandria as an educational centre.
+
+6.  Why did the Greeks fail to make a strong central nation?
+
+7.  The causes of the decline of Greek civilization.
+
+8.  Give a summary of the most important contributions of Greece to
+modern civilization.
+
+
+
+[1] Some authorities state forty assemblies were held each year.
+
+[2] The Confederation of Delos, the Athenian Empire, and the
+Peloponnesian League were attempts to federalize Greece.  They were
+successful only in part.
+
+
+
+
+{250}
+
+CHAPTER XV
+
+ROMAN CIVILIZATION
+
+_The Romans Differed in Nature from the Greeks_.--Instead of being of a
+philosophic, speculative nature, the Romans were a practical, even a
+stoical, people of great achievement.  They turned their ideas always
+toward the concrete, and when they desired to use the abstract they
+borrowed the principles and theories established by other nations.
+They were poor theorizers, both in philosophy and in religion, but were
+intensely interested in that which they could turn to immediate and
+practical benefit.  They were great borrowers of the products of other
+people's imagination.  In the very early period they borrowed the gods
+of the Greeks and somewhat of their forms of religion!
+
+Later they borrowed forms of art from other nations and developed them
+to suit their own, and, still later, they used the literary language of
+the Greeks to enrich their own.  This method of borrowing the best
+products of others and putting them to practical service led to immense
+consequences in the development of civilization.  The Romans lacked not
+in originality, for practical application leads to original creation,
+but their best efforts in civilization were wrought out from this
+practical standpoint.  Thus, in the improvement of agriculture, in the
+perfection of the art of war, in the development of law and of
+government, their work was masterly in the extreme; and to this extent
+it was worked out rather than thought out.  Indeed, their whole
+civilization was evolved from the practical standpoint.
+
+_The Social Structure of Early Rome and That of Early Greece_.--Rome
+started, like Greece, with the early patriarchal kings, who ruled over
+the expanded family, but with this difference, that these kings, from
+the earliest historical records, were {251} elected by the people.
+Nevertheless there is no evidence that the democratic spirit was
+greater in early Rome than in early Greece, except in form.  In the
+early period all Italy was filled with tribes, mostly of Aryan descent,
+and in the regal period the small territory of Latium was filled with
+independent city communities; but all these cities were federated on a
+religious basis and met at Alba Longa as a centre, where they conducted
+their worship and duly instituted certain regulations concerning the
+government of all.  Later, after the decline of Alba Longa, the seat of
+this federal government was removed to Rome, which was another of the
+federated cities.  Subsequently this territory was invaded by the
+Sabines, who settled at Rome, and, as an independent community, allied
+themselves with the Romans.
+
+And, finally, the invasion of the Etruscans gave the last of three
+separate communities, which were federated into one state and laid the
+foundation of the imperial city.  But if some leader founded Rome in
+the early period, it is quite natural that he should be called Romulus,
+after the name of Rome.  Considering the nature of the Romans and the
+tendency to the old ancestral worship among them, it does not seem
+strange that they should deify this founder and worship him.
+Subsequently, we find that this priestly monarchy was changed to a
+military monarchy, in which everything was based upon property and
+military service.  Whatever may be the stories of early Rome, so much
+may be mentioned as historical fact.
+
+The foundation was laid in three great tribes, composed of the ancient
+families, or patricians, who formed the body of the league.  Those who
+settled at Rome at an early period became the aristocracy; they were
+members of the tribes of immemorial foundation.  At first the old
+tribal exclusiveness prevailed, and people who came later into Rome
+were treated as unequal to those who long had a right to the soil.
+This led to a division among the people based on hereditary right,
+which lasted in its effect as long as Rome endured.  It became the
+{252} custom to call those persons belonging to the first families
+patricians, and all who were not patricians plebeians, representing
+that class who did not belong to the first families.  The plebeians
+were composed of foreigners, who had only commercial rights, of the
+clients who attached themselves to these ancient families, but who
+gradually passed into the plebeian rank, and of land-holders,
+craftsmen, and laborers.  The plebeians were free inhabitants, without
+political rights.  As there was no great opportunity for the patricians
+to increase in number, the plebeians, in the regal period, soon grew to
+outnumber them.  They were increased by those conquered ones who were
+permitted to come to Rome and dwell.  Also the tradesmen and immigrants
+who dwelt at Rome increased rapidly, for they could have the protection
+of the Roman state without having the responsibility of Roman soldiers.
+It was of great significance in the development of the Roman government
+that these two great classes existed.
+
+_Civil Organization of Rome_.--The organization of the government of
+early Rome rested in a peculiar sense upon the family group.  The first
+tribes that settled in the territory were governed upon a family basis,
+and their land was held by family holdings.  No other nation appears to
+have perpetuated such a power of the family in the affairs of the
+state.  The father, as the head of the family, had absolute power over
+all; the son never became of age so far as the rights of property are
+considered as long as the father lived.  The father was priest, king,
+and legislator for all in the family group.  Parental authority was
+arbitrary, and when the head of the family passed away the oldest male
+member of the family took his place, and ruled as his father had ruled.
+
+A group of these families constituted a clan, and a group of clans made
+a tribe, and three tribes, according to the formula for the formation
+of Rome, made a state.  Whether this formal process was carried out
+exactly remains to be proved, but the families related to one another
+by ties of blood were united in distinct groups, which were again
+reorganized into larger {253} groups, and the formula at the time of
+the organization of the state was that there were 30 cantons formed by
+300 clans, and these clans averaged about 10 families each.  This is
+based upon the number of representatives which afterward formed the
+senate, and upon the number of soldiers furnished by the various
+families.  The state became then an enlarged family, with a king at the
+head, whose prerogatives were somewhat limited by his position.  There
+were also a popular assembly, consisting of all the freeholders of the
+state, and the senate, formed by the heads of all the most influential
+families, for the government of Rome.  These ancient hereditary forms
+of government extended with various changes in the progress of Rome.
+
+_The Struggle for Liberty_.--The members of the Roman senate were
+chosen from the noble families of Rome, and were elected for life,
+which made the senate of Rome a perpetual body.  Having no legal
+declaration of legislative, judicial, executive, or administrative
+authority, it was, nevertheless, the most powerful body of its kind
+ever in existence.  Representing the power of intellect, and having
+within its ranks men of the foremost character and ability of the city,
+this aristocracy overpowered and ruled the affairs of Rome until the
+close of the republic, and afterward became a service to the imperial
+government of the Caesars.
+
+From a very early period in the history of the Roman nation the people
+struggled for their rights and privileges against this aristocracy of
+wealth and hereditary power.  At the expulsion of the kings, in 500
+B.C., the senate lived on, as did the old popular assembly of the
+people, the former gaining strength, the latter becoming weakened.
+Realizing what they had lost in political power, having lost their
+farms by borrowing money of the rich patricians, and suffered
+imprisonment and distress on that account, the plebeians, resolved to
+endure no longer, marched out upon the hill, Mons Sacer, and demanded
+redress by way of tribunes and other officers.
+
+This was the beginning of an earnest struggle for 50 years {254} for
+mere protection, to be followed by a struggle of 150 years for equality
+of power and rights.  The result of this was that a compromise was made
+with the senate, which allowed the people to have tribunes chosen from
+the plebeians, and a law was passed giving them the right of protection
+against the oppression of any official, and subsequently the right of
+intercession against any administrative or judicial act, except in the
+case when a dictator was appointed.  This gave the plebeians some
+representation in the government of Rome.  They worked at first for
+protection, and also for the privilege of intermarriage among the
+patricians.  After this they began to struggle for equal rights and
+privileges.
+
+A few years after the revolt in 486 B.C. Spurius Cassius brought
+forward the first agrarian law.  The lands of the original Roman
+territory belonged at first to the great families, and were divided and
+subdivided among the various family groups.  But a large part of the
+land obtained by conquest of the Italians became the public domain, the
+property of the entire people of Rome.  It became necessary for these
+lands to be leased by the Roman patricians, and as these same Roman
+patricians were members of the senate, they became careless about
+collecting rent of themselves, and so the lands were occupied year
+after year, and, indeed, century after century, by the Roman families,
+who were led to claim them as their own without rental.  Cassius
+proposed to divide a part of these lands among the needy plebeians and
+the Latins as well, and to lease the rest for the profit of the public
+treasury.  The patricians fought against Cassius because he was to take
+away their lands, and the plebeians were discontented with him because
+he had favored the Latins.  The result was that at the close of his
+office he was sentenced and executed for the mere attempt to do justice
+to humanity.
+
+The tribunes of the people finally gained more power, and a resolution
+was introduced in the senate providing that a body of ten men should be
+selected to reduce the laws of the state to a written code.  In 451
+B.C. the ten men were chosen {255} from the patricians, who formed ten
+tables of laws, had them engraved on copper plates, and placed them
+where everybody could read them.  The following year ten men were again
+appointed, three of whom were plebeians, who added two more tables; the
+whole body became known as the Laws of the Twelve Tables.  It was a
+great step in advance when the laws of a community could be thus
+published.  Soon after this the laws of Valerius and Horatius made the
+acts of the assembly of the tribunes of equal force with those of the
+assembly of the centuries, and established that every magistrate,
+including the dictator, was obliged in the future to allow appeals from
+his decision.  They also recognized the inviolability of the tribunes
+of the people and of the aediles who represented them.  But in order to
+circumvent the plebeians, two quaestors were appointed in charge of the
+military treasury.
+
+Indeed, at every step forward which the people made for equality and
+justice, the senate, representing the aristocracy, passed laws to
+circumvent the plebeians.  In 445 B.C. the tribune Canuleius introduced
+a law legalizing marriage between the patricians and plebeians.  The
+children were to inherit the rank of their father.  This tribune
+further attempted to pass a law allowing consuls to be chosen from the
+plebeians.  To this a fierce opposition sprang up, and a compromise
+measure was adopted which allowed military tribunes to be elected from
+the plebeians, who had consular power.  But again the senate sought to
+circumvent the plebeians, and created the new patrician office of
+censor, to take the census, make lists of citizens and taxes, appoint
+senators, prepare the publication of the budget, manage the state
+property, farm out the taxes, and superintend public buildings; also he
+might supervise the public morality.
+
+With the year 587 B.C. came the invasion of the Gauls from the north
+and the famous battle of the Allia, in which the Romans suffered defeat
+and were forced to the right bank of the Tiber, leaving the city of
+Rome defenseless.  Abandoned by the citizens, the city was taken,
+plundered, and burned by {256} the Gauls.  Senators were slaughtered,
+though the capitol was not taken.  Finally, surprised and overcome by a
+contingent of the Roman army, the enemy was forced to retire and the
+inhabitants again returned.  But no sooner had they returned than the
+peaceful struggle of the plebeians against the patricians began again.
+
+First, there were the poor, indebted plebeians, who sought the reform
+of the laws relating to debtor and creditor and desired a share in the
+public lands.  Second, the whole body of the plebeians were engaged in
+an attempt to open the consulate to their ranks.  In 367 B.C. the
+Licinian laws were passed, which gave relief to the debtors by
+deducting the interest already accrued from the principal, and allowing
+the rest to be paid in three annual instalments; and a second law
+forbade that any one should possess more than 500 jugera of the public
+lands.  This was to prevent the wealthy patricians from holding lands
+in large tracts and keeping them from the plebeians.  This law also
+abolished the military tribuneship and insisted that one at least of
+the two consuls should be chosen from the plebeians--giving a
+possibility of two.  The patricians, in order to counteract undue
+influence in this respect, established the praetorship, the praetor
+having jurisdiction and vicegerence of the consuls during their absence.
+
+There also sprang up about this time the new nobility (_optimates_),
+composed of the plebeians and patricians who had held office for a long
+time, and representing the aristocracy of the community.  From this
+time on all the Roman citizens tended to go into two classes, the
+_optimates_ and, exclusive of these, the great Roman populace.  In the
+former all the wealth and power were combined; in the latter the
+poverty, wretchedness, and dependence.  Various other changes in the
+constitution succeeded, until the great wars of the Samnites and those
+of the Carthaginians directed the attention of the people to foreign
+conquest.  After the close of these great wars and the firm
+establishment of the universal power of Rome abroad, there sprang up a
+great civil war, induced largely by the disturbance {257} of the
+Gracchi, who sought to carry out the will of the people in regard to
+popular democracy and the division of the public lands.
+
+Thus, step by step, the plebeians, by a peaceful civil struggle, had
+obtained the consulship, and, indeed, the right to all other civil
+offices.  They had obtained a right to sit in the senate, had obtained
+the declaration of social equality, had settled the great land
+question; and yet the will of the people never prevailed.  The great
+Roman senate, made up of the aristocracy of Rome, an aristocracy of
+both plebeians and patricians, ruled with unyielding sway, and the
+common people never obtained full possession of their rights and
+privileges.  Civil strife continued; the gulf between the rich and the
+poor, the nobility and the proletariat representing a few rich
+political manipulators, on the one side, and the half-fed, half-mad
+populace, on the other, grew wider and wider, finally ending in civil
+war.  In the midst of the strife the republic passed away, and only the
+coming of the imperial power of the Caesars perpetuated Roman
+institutions.
+
+_Rome Becomes a Dominant City_.--In all of this struggle at home and
+abroad, foreign conquest led to the establishment of Rome as the
+central city.  The constitution of Rome was the typical constitution
+for all provincial cities, and from this one centre all provinces were
+ruled.  No example heretofore had existed of the centralization of
+government similar to this.  The overlordship of the Persians was only
+for the purpose of collecting tribute; there was little attempt to
+carry abroad the Persian institutions or to amalgamate the conquered
+provinces in one great homogeneous nation.
+
+The empire of Athens was but a temporary hegemony over tributary
+states.  But the Roman government conquered and absorbed.  Wherever
+went the Roman arms, there the Roman laws and the Roman government
+followed; there followed the Roman language, architecture, art,
+institutions, and civilization.  Great highways passed from the Eternal
+City to all parts of the territory, binding together the separate
+elements of {258} national life, and levelling down the barriers
+between all nations.  Every colony planted by Rome in the new provinces
+was a type of the old Roman life, and the provincial government
+everywhere became the type of this central city.  Here was reached a
+state in the development of government which no nation had hitherto
+attained--the dominant city and the rule of a mighty empire from
+central authority.
+
+_The Development of Government_.--The remarkable development of Rome in
+government from the old hereditary nobility, in which priest-kings
+ruled the people, to a military king who was leader, subsequently into
+a republic which stood the test for several centuries of a fierce
+struggle for the rights of the people, finally into an imperial
+government to last for 450 years, represents the growth of one of the
+most remarkable governments in the world's history.  The fundamental
+idea in government was the ruling of an entire state from the central
+city, and out of this idea grew imperialism as a later development,
+vesting all authority in a single monarch.  The governments of
+conquered provinces were gradually made over into the Roman system.
+The Roman municipal government was found in all the cities of the
+provinces, and the provincial government became an integral part of the
+Roman system.  The provinces were under the supervision of imperial
+officers appointed by the emperor.  Thus the tendency was to bind the
+whole government into one unified system, with its power and authority
+at Rome.  So long as this central authority remained and had its full
+sway there was little danger of the decline of Roman power, but when
+disintegration began in the central government the whole structure was
+doomed.
+
+One of the remarkable characteristics of the Roman government was a
+system of checks of one part by every other part.  Thus, in the
+republic, the consuls were checked by the senate, the senate by the
+consular power, the various assemblies, such as the Curiata, Tributa,
+and Centuriata, each having its own particular powers, were checks upon
+each other and upon other departments of the government.  The whole
+system of {259} magistrates was subject to the same checks or limits in
+authority.  And while impeachment was not introduced, each officer, at
+the close of his term, was accountable for his actions while in office.
+But under imperialism the tendency was to break down the power of each
+separate form of government and to absorb it in the imperial power.
+Thus Augustus soon attributed to himself the power of the chief
+magistrates and obtained a dominating power in the senate until the
+functions of government were all centralized in the emperor.  While
+this made a strong government, in many phases it was open to great
+dangers, and in due time it failed, as a result of the corruption that
+clustered around the despotism of a single ruler unchecked by
+constitutional power.
+
+_The Development of Law Is the Most Remarkable Phase of the Roman
+Civilization_.--Perhaps the most lasting effect of the Roman
+civilization is observed in the contribution of law to the nations
+which arose at the time of the decline of the imperial sway.  From the
+time of the posting of the Twelve Tables in a public place, where they
+could be read by all the citizens of Rome, there was a steady growth of
+the Roman law.  The decrees of the senate, as well as the influence of
+judicial decisions, gradually developed a system of jurisprudence.
+There sprang up, also, interpreters of the law, who had much influence
+in shaping its course.  Also, in the early period of the republic, the
+acts of the popular assemblies became laws.  This was before the senate
+became the supreme lawmaking body of the state.
+
+During the imperial period the emperor acted somewhat through the
+senate, but the latter body was more or less under his control, for he
+frequently dictated its actions.  Having assumed the powers of a
+magistrate, he could issue an edict; as a judge he could give decrees
+and issue commands to his own officials, all of which tended to
+increase the body of Roman law.  In the selection of jurists for the
+interpretation of the law the emperor also had great control over its
+character.  The great accomplishment of the lawmaking methods of {260}
+the Romans was, in the first place, to allow laws to be made by popular
+assemblies and the senate, according to the needs of a developing
+social organization.  This having once been established, the foundation
+of lawmaking was laid for all nations to follow.  The Roman law soon
+passed into a complex system of jurisprudence which has formed a large
+element in the structure, principles, and practice of all modern legal
+systems.  The character of the law in itself was superior and masterly,
+and its universality was accomplished through the universal rule of the
+empire.
+
+The later emperors performed a great service to the world by collecting
+and codifying Roman laws.  The Theodosian code (Theodosius II, 408-450
+A.D.) was a very important one on account of the influence it exercised
+over the various Teutonic systems of law practised by the different
+barbarian tribes that came within the borders of the Roman Empire.  The
+jurists who gave the law a great development had by the close of the
+fourth century placed on record all the principal legal acts of the
+empire.  They had collected and edited all the sources of law and made
+extensive commentaries of great importance upon them, but it remained
+for Theodosius to arrange the digests of these jurists and to codify
+the later imperial decrees.  But the Theodosian code went but a little
+way in the process of digesting the laws.
+
+The Justinian code, however, gave a complete codification of the law in
+four distinct parts, known as (1) "the Pandects, or digest of the
+scientific law literature; (2) the Codex, or summary of imperial
+legislation; (3) the Institutes, a general review or text-book, founded
+upon the digest and code, an introductory restatement of the law; and
+(4) the Novels, or new imperial legislation issued after the
+codification, to fill the gaps and cure the inconsistencies discovered
+in the course of the work of codification and manifest in its published
+results."[1]  Thus the whole body of the civil law was incorporated.
+
+Here, then, is seen the progress of the Roman law from the {261}
+semireligious rules governing the patricians in the early patriarchal
+period, whose practice was generally a form of arbitration, to the
+formal writing of the Twelve Tables, the development of the great body
+of the law through interpretation, the decrees of magistrates, acts of
+legislative assemblies, and finally the codification of the laws under
+the later emperors.  This accumulation of legal enactments and
+precedents formed the basis of legislation under the declining empire
+and in the new nationalities.  It also occupied an important place in
+the curriculum of the university.
+
+_Influence of the Greek Life on Rome_.--The principal influence of the
+Greeks on Roman civilization was found first in the early religion and
+its development in the Latin race at Rome.  The religion of the Romans
+was polytheistic, but far different from that of the Greeks.  The
+deification of nature was not so analytic, and their deities were not
+so human as those of the Greek religion.  There was no poetry in the
+Roman religion; it all had a practical tendency.  Their gods were for
+use, and, while they were honored and worshipped, they were clothed
+with few fancies.  The Romans seldom speculated on the origin of the
+gods and very little as to their personal character, and failed to
+develop an independent theogony.  They were behind the Greeks in their
+mental effort in this respect, and hence we find all the early religion
+was influenced by the ideas of the Latins, the Etruscans, and the
+Greeks, the last largely through the colonies which were established in
+Italy.  Archaeology points conclusively to the fact of early Greek
+influence.
+
+In later development the conquest of the Greeks brought to Rome the
+religion, art, paintings, and philosophy of the conquered.  The Romans
+were shrewd and acute in the appreciation of all which they had found
+that was good in the Greeks.  From the time of this contact there was a
+constant and continued adoption of Grecian models in Rome.  The first
+Roman writers, Fabius Pictor and Quintus Ennius, both wrote in Greek.
+All the early Roman writers considered Greek the {262} finished style.
+The influence of the Greek language was felt at Rome on the first
+acquaintance of the Italians with it, through trade and commerce and
+through the introduction of Greek forms of religion.
+
+The early influence of language was less than the influence of art.
+While the Phoenicians and Etruscans furnished some of the models, they
+were usually unproductive and barren types, and not to be compared with
+those furnished by Greece.  The young Romans who devoted themselves to
+the state and its service were from the fifth century B.C. well versed
+in the Greek language.  No education was considered complete in the
+latter days of the republic, and under the imperial power, until it had
+been finished at Athens or Alexandria.  The effect on literature,
+particularly poetry and the drama, was great in the first period of
+Roman literature, and even Horace, the most original of all Latin
+poets, began his career by writing Greek verse, and no doubt his
+beautiful style was acquired by his ardent study of the Greek language.
+The plays of Plautus and Terence deal also with the products of Athens,
+and, indeed, every Roman comedy was to a certain extent a copy, either
+in form or spirit, of the Greek.  In tragedy, the spirit of Euripides,
+the master, came into Rome.
+
+The influence of the Greek philosophy was more marked than that of
+language.  Its first contact with Rome was antagonistic.  The
+philosophers and rhetoricians, because of the disturbance they created,
+were expelled from Rome in the second century.  As early as 161 A.D.
+those who pursued the study of philosophy always read and disputed in
+Greek.  Many Greek schools of philosophy of an elementary nature were
+established temporarily at Rome, while the large number of students of
+philosophy went to Athens, and those of rhetoric to Rhodes, for the
+completion of their education.  The philosophy of Greece that came into
+Rome was something of a degenerate Epicureanism, fragments of a
+broken-down system, which created an unwholesome atmosphere.
+
+The only science which Rome developed was that of {263} jurisprudence,
+and the scientific writings of the Greeks had comparatively little
+influence upon Roman culture.  Mr. Duruy, in speaking of the influence
+of the Greeks on Rome, particularly in the days of its decline, says:
+"In conclusion, we find in certain sciences, for which Rome cared
+nothing, great splendor, but in art and poetry no mighty inspiration;
+in eloquence, vain chatter of words and images (the rhetoricians),
+habits but no faith; in philosophy, the materialism which came from the
+school of Aristotle, the doubt born of Plato, the atheism of Theodorus,
+the sensualism of Epicurus vainly combated by the moral protests of
+Zeno; and lastly, in the public life, the enfeeblement or the total
+loss of all of those virtues which make the man and the citizen; such
+were the Greeks at the time.  And now we say, with Cato, Polybius,
+Livy, Pliny, Justinian, and Plutarch, that all this passed into the
+Eternal City.  The conquest of Greece by Rome was followed by the
+conquest of Rome by Greece.  _Graecia capta ferum victorem cepit_."
+
+_Latin Literature and Language_.--The importance of the Latin language
+and literature in the later history of the Romans and throughout the
+Middle Ages is a matter of common knowledge.  The language of the Latin
+tribes congregating at Rome finally predominated over all Italy and
+followed the Roman arms through all the provinces.  It became to a
+great extent the language of the common people and subsequently the
+literary language of the empire.  It became finally the great vehicle
+of thought in all civil and ecclesiastical proceedings in the Middle
+Ages and at the beginning of the modern era.  As such it has performed
+a great service to the world.  Cato wrote in Latin, and so did the
+annalists of the early period of Latin literature.  Livy became a
+master of his own language, and Cicero presents the improved and
+elevated speech.  The study of these masterpieces, full of thought and
+beauty of expression, has had a mighty influence in the education of
+the youth of modern times.  It must be conceded, however, that in Rome
+the productions of the great masters were not as universally {264}
+known or as widely celebrated as one would suppose.  But, like all
+great works of art, they have lived on to bear their influence through
+succeeding ages.
+
+_Development of Roman Art_.--The elements of art and architecture were
+largely borrowed from the Greeks.  We find, however, a distinctive
+style of architecture called Roman, which varies from that of the
+Greek, although the influence of Greek form is seen not only in the
+decorations but in the massive structure of the buildings.  Without
+doubt, in architecture the Romans perfected the arch as their chief
+characteristic and contribution to art progress.  But this in itself
+was a great step in advance and laid the foundation of a new style.  As
+might be expected from the Romans, it became a great economic advantage
+in building.  In artistic decoration they made but little advancement
+until the time of the Greek influence.
+
+_Decline of the Roman Empire_.--The evolution of the Roman nation from
+a few federated tribes with archaic forms of government to a fully
+developed republic with a complex system of government, and the passage
+of the republic into an imperialism, magnificent and powerful in its
+sway, are subjects worthy of our most profound contemplation; and the
+gradual decline and decay of this great superstructure is a subject of
+great interest and wonder.  In the contemplation of the progress of
+human civilization, it is indeed a mournful subject.  It seems to be
+the common lot of man to build and destroy in order to build again.
+But the Roman government declined on account of causes which were
+apparent to every one.  It was an impossibility to build up such a
+great system without its accompanying evils, and it was impossible for
+such a system to remain when such glaring evils were allowed to
+continue.
+
+If it should be asked what caused the decline of this great
+civilization, it may be said that the causes were many.  In the first
+place, the laws of labor were despised and capital was consumed without
+any adequate return.  There was consequently nothing left of an
+economic nature to withstand the rude {265} shocks of pestilence and
+war.  The few home industries, when Rome ceased to obtain support from
+the plunder of war, were not sufficient to supply the needs of a great
+nation.  The industrial condition of Rome had become deplorable.  In
+all the large cities there were a few wealthy and luxurious families, a
+small number of foreigners and freedmen who were superintending a large
+number of slaves, and a large number of free citizens who were too
+proud to work and yet willing to be fed by the government.  The
+industrial conditions of the rural districts and small cities were no
+better.
+
+There were a few non-residents who cultivated the soil by means of
+slaves, or by _coloni_, or serfs who were bound to the soil.  These
+classes were recruited from the conquered provinces.  Farming had
+fallen into disrepute.  The small farmers, through the introduction of
+slavery, were crowded from their holdings and were compelled to join
+the great unfed populace of the city.  Taxation fell heavily and
+unjustly upon the people.  The method of raising taxes by farming them
+out was a pernicious system that led to gross abuse.  All enterprise
+and all investments were discouraged.  There was no inducement for men
+to enter business, as labor had been dishonored and industry crippled.
+The great body of Roman people were divided into two classes, those who
+formed the lower classes of laborers and those who had concentrated the
+wealth of the country in their own hands and held the power of the
+nation in their own control.  The mainstay of the nation had fallen
+with the disappearance of the sterling middle class.  The lower classes
+were reduced to a mob by the unjust and unsympathetic treatment
+received at the hands of the governing class.
+
+In the civil administration there was a division of citizens into two
+classes: those who had influence in the local affairs of their towns or
+neighborhood, and those who were simply interested in the central
+organization.  During the days of the republic these people were
+closely related, because all citizens were forced to come to Rome in
+order to have a voice in the political interests of the government.
+But during the empire {266} there came about a change, and the citizens
+of a distant province were interested only in the management of their
+own local affairs and lost their interest in the general government, so
+that when the central government weakened there was a tendency for the
+local interests to destroy the central.
+
+After the close of Constantine's reign very great evils threatened the
+Roman administration.  First of these was the barbarians; second, the
+populace; and third, the soldiers.  The barbarians continually made
+inroads upon the territory, broke down the governmental system, and
+established their own, not so much for the sake of destruction and
+plunder, as is usually supposed, but to seek the betterment of their
+condition as immigrants into a new territory.  That they were in some
+instances detrimental to the Roman institutions is true, but in others
+they gave new life to the declining empire.  The populace was a rude,
+clamorous mass of people, seeking to satisfy their hunger in the
+easiest possible way.  These were fed by the politicians for the sake
+of their influence.  The soldiery of Rome had changed.  Formerly made
+up of patriots who marched out to defend their own country or to
+conquer surrounding provinces in the name of the Eternal City, the
+ranks were filled with mercenary soldiers taken from the barbarians,
+who had little interest in the perpetuation of the Roman institutions.
+They had finally obtained so much power that they set up an emperor, or
+dethroned him, at their will.
+
+And finally it may be said that of all these internal maladies and
+external dangers, the decline in moral worth of the Roman nation is the
+most appalling.  Influenced by a broken-down philosophy, degenerated in
+morals, corrupt in family and social life, the whole system decayed,
+and could not withstand the shock of external influence.
+
+_Summary of Roman Civilization_.--The Roman contribution, then, to
+civilization is largely embraced in the development of a system of
+government with forms and functions which have been perpetuated to this
+day; the development of a system of law which has found its place in
+all modern legal {267} codes; a beautiful and rich language and
+literature; a few elements of art and architecture; the development of
+agriculture on a systematic basis; the tendency to unify separate races
+in one national life; the practice of the art of war on a humane basis,
+and the development of the municipal system of government which has had
+its influence on every town of modern life.  These are among the chief
+contributions of the Roman system to the progress of humanity.
+
+While it is common to talk of the fall of the Roman Empire, Rome is
+greater to-day in the perpetuity of her institutions than during the
+glorious days of the republic or of the magnificent rule of the
+Caesars.  Rome also left a questionable inheritance to the posterity of
+nations.  The idea of imperialism revived in the empire of Charlemagne,
+and later in the Holy Roman Empire, and, cropping out again and again
+in the monarchies of new nations, has not become extinct to this day.
+The recent World War gave a great shock to the idea of czarism.  The
+imperial crowns of the Hohenzollerns, the Hapsburgs, the Romanoffs, and
+the royal crowns of minor nations fell from the heads of great rulers,
+because the Emperor of Germany overworked the idea of czarism after the
+type of imperial Rome.  But the idea is not dead.  In shattered Europe,
+the authority and infallibility of the state divorced from the
+participation of the people, though put in question, is yet a
+smouldering power to be reckoned with.  It is difficult to erase Rome's
+impress upon the world.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  How were the Greeks and Romans related racially?
+
+2.  Difference between the Greek and the Roman attitude toward life.
+
+3.  What were the land reforms of the Gracchi?
+
+4.  What advancement did the Romans make in architecture?
+
+5.  What were the internal causes of the decline of Rome?
+
+6.  Why did the Celts and the Germans invade Rome?
+
+7.  Enumerate the permanent contributions of Rome to subsequent
+civilization.
+
+
+
+[1] Hadley, _Introduction to Roman Law_.
+
+
+
+
+{268}
+
+CHAPTER XVI
+
+THE CHRISTIAN RELIGION
+
+_Important Factors in the Foundation of Western Civilization_.--When
+the European world entered the period of the Middle Ages, there were a
+few factors more important than others that influenced civilization.[1]
+(1) The Oriental cultures, not inspiring as a whole, left by-products
+from Mesopotamia, Palestine, and Egypt.  These were widely spread
+through the influence of world wars and world empires.  (2) The Greek
+cultures in the form of art, architecture, philosophy, and literature,
+and newer forms of political and social organization were widely
+diffused.  (3) The Romans had established agriculture, universal
+centralized government and citizenship, and developed a magnificent
+body of law; moreover, they had formed a standing army which was used
+in the support of monarchy, added some new features to architecture and
+industrial structures, and developed the Latin language, which was to
+be the carrier of thought for many centuries.  (4) The Christian
+religion with a new philosophy of life was to penetrate and modify all
+society, all thought, government, law, art, and, in fact, all phases of
+human conduct.  (5) The barbarian invasion carried with it the Teutonic
+idea of individual liberty and established a new practice of human
+relationships.  It was vigor of life against tradition and convention.
+With these contributions, the European world was to start out with the
+venture of mediaeval civilization, after the decline of the Roman
+Empire.
+
+_The Social Contacts of the Christian Religion_.--Of the factors
+enumerated above, none was more powerful than the teaching of the
+Christians.  For it came in direct contrast and opposition to
+established opinions and old systems.  It was also constructive, for it
+furnished a definite plan of social order different from all existing
+ones, which it opposed.  The {269} religions of the Orient centred
+society around the temple.  Among all the Semitic races, Babylonian,
+Assyrian, and Hebrew, temple worship was an expression of religious and
+national unity.  National gods, national worship, and a priesthood were
+the rule.  Egypt was similar in many respects, and the Greeks used the
+temple worship in a limited degree, though no less real in its
+influences.
+
+The Romans, though they had national gods, yet during the empire had
+liberalized the right of nations to worship whom they pleased, provided
+nothing was done to militate against the Roman government, which was
+committed to the worship of certain gods, in which the worship of the
+emperor became a more or less distinctive feature.  The Christian
+teaching recognized no national gods, no national religion, but a world
+god who was a father of all men.  Furthermore, it recognized that all
+men, of whatsoever race and country, were brethren.  So this doctrine
+of love crossed boundaries of all nations and races, penetrated systems
+of religion and philosophy, and established the idea of international
+and universal brotherhood.
+
+_Social Conditions at the Beginning of the Christian Era_.--The
+philosophy of the Greeks and Romans had reached a state of degeneracy
+at the time of the coming of Christ.  Thought had become weak and
+illogical.  Trusting to the influence of the senses, which were at
+first believed to be infallible, scepticism of the worst nature
+influenced all classes of the people.  Epicureanism, not very bad in
+the beginning, had come to a stage of decrepitude.  To seek immediate
+pleasure regardless of consequences was far different from avoiding
+extravagance and intemperance, in order to make a higher happiness.
+Licentiousness, debauchery, the demoralized condition of the home and
+family ties, made all society corrupt.  Stoicism had been taken up by
+the Romans; it agreed with their nature, and, coupled with
+Epicureanism, led to the extinction of faith.  There was no clear
+vision of life; no hope, no high and worthy aspirations, no inspiration
+for a noble life.
+
+{270}
+
+The character of worship of the Romans of their various gods led to a
+non-religious attitude of mind.  Religion, like everything else, had
+become a commercial matter, to be used temporarily for the benefit of
+all parties who indulged.  While each separate nationality had its own
+shrine in the temple, and while the emperor was deified, all worship
+was carried on in a selfish manner.  There was no reverence, no devout
+attitude of worship, and consequently no real benefit derived from the
+religious life.  The Roman merchant went to the temple to offer
+petitions for the safety of his ship on the seas, laden with
+merchandise.  After its safe entrance, the affair troubled him no more;
+his religious emotion was satisfied.  Moral degeneration could be the
+only outcome of following a broken-down philosophy and an empty
+religion.  Men had no faith in one another, and consequently felt no
+obligation to moral actions.  Dishonesty in all business transactions
+was the rule.  Injustice in the administration of the law was worked by
+the influence of factions and cliques.  The Roman world was politically
+corrupt.  Men were struggling for office regardless of the effect of
+their methods on the social welfare.  The marriage relation became
+indefinite and unholy.  The home life lost its hallowed influence as a
+support to general, social, and political life.
+
+The result of a superficial religion, an empty philosophy, and a low
+grade of morality, was to drive men to scepticism, to a doubt in all
+things, or to a stoic indifference to all things, or perhaps in a
+minority of cases to a search for light.  To nearly all there was
+nothing in the world to give permanent satisfaction to the sensual
+nature, or nothing to call out the higher qualities of the soul.  Men
+turned with loathing from their own revels and immoral practices and
+recognized nothing worthy of their thoughts in life.  Those who held to
+a moral plane at all found no inspiration in living, had no enthusiasm
+for anything or any person.  It were as well that man did not exist;
+that there was no earth, no starry firmament, no heaven, no hell, no
+present, no future.  The few who sought for the {271} light did so from
+their inner consciousness or through reflection.  Desiring a better
+life, they advocated higher aspirations of the soul and an elevated,
+moral life, and sought consolation in the wisdom of the sages.  Their
+life bordered on the monastic.
+
+_The Contact of Christianity with Social Life_.--The most striking
+contrast to be observed in comparing the state of the world with
+Christianity is the novelty of its teachings.  No doctrine like the
+fatherhood of God had hitherto been taught in the European world.
+Plato reached, in his philosophy, a conception of a universal creator
+and father of all, but his doctrine was influenced by dualism.  There
+was no conception of the fatherly care which Christians supposed God to
+exercise over all of his creatures.  It also taught the brotherhood of
+man, that all people of every nation are brethren, with a common
+father, a doctrine that had never been forcibly advanced before.  The
+Jehovah of the Jews watched over their especial affairs and was
+considered in no sense the God of the Gentiles.  For how could Jehovah
+favor Jews and also their enemies at the same time?  So, too, for the
+Greek and the barbarian, the Roman and the Teuton, the jurisdiction of
+deities was limited by national boundaries, or, in case of family
+worship, by the tribe, for the household god belonged only to a limited
+number of worshippers.  A common brotherhood of all men on a basis of
+religious equality of right and privilege was decidedly new.
+
+Christianity taught of the nature and punishment of sin.  This, too,
+was unknown to the degenerate days of the Roman life.  To sin against
+the Creator and Father was new in their conception, and to consider
+such as worthy of punishment was also beyond their philosophy.
+Christianity clearly pointed out what sin is, and asserted boldly that
+there is a just retribution to all lawbreakers.  It taught of
+righteousness and justice, and that acts were to be performed because
+they were right.  Individuals were to be treated justly by their
+fellows, regardless of birth or position.  And finally, making marriage
+a {272} divine institution, Christianity introduced a pure moral code
+in the home.
+
+While a few philosophers, following after Plato, conjectured respecting
+the immortality of the soul, Christianity was the first religious
+system to teach eternal life as a fundamental doctrine.  Coupled with
+this was the doctrine of the future judgment, at which man should give
+an account of his actions on this side of the grave.  This was a new
+doctrine to the people of the world.
+
+The Christians introduced a new phase of social life by making their
+practice agree with their profession.  It had been the fault of the
+moral sentiments of the ancient sages that they were never carried out
+in practice.  Many fine precepts respecting right conduct had been
+uttered, but these were not realized by the great mass of humanity, and
+were put in practice by very few people.  They had seldom been
+vitalized by humanizing use.  Hence Christianity appeared in strong
+relief in the presence of the artificial system with which it came in
+contact.  It had a faith and genuineness which were vigorous and
+refreshing.
+
+The Christians practised true benevolence, which was a great point in
+these latter days of selfishness and indifference.  They systematically
+looked after their own poor and cared for the stranger at the gates.
+Later the church built hospitals and refuges and prepared for the care
+of all the oppressed.  Thousands who were careworn, oppressed, or
+disgusted with the ways of the world turned instinctively to
+Christianity for relief, and were not disappointed.  The Greeks and the
+Romans had never practised systematic charity until taught by the
+Christians.  The Romans gave away large sums for political reasons, to
+appease the populace, but with no spirit of charity.
+
+But one of the most important of the teachings of the early church was
+to dignify labor.  There was a new dignity lent to service.  Prior to
+the dominion of the church, labor had become degrading, for slavery had
+supplanted free labor to such an extent that all labor appeared
+dishonorable.  Another {273} potent cause of the demoralization of
+labor was the entrance of a large amount of products from the conquered
+nations.  The introduction of these supplies, won by conquest,
+paralyzed home industries and developed a spirit of pauperism.  The
+actions of the nobility intensified the evils.  They spent their time
+in politics, and purchased the favor of the populace for the right of
+manipulating the wealth and power of the community.  The Christians
+taught that labor was honorable, and they labored with their own hands,
+built monasteries, developed agriculture, and in many other ways taught
+that it is noble to labor.
+
+_Christianity Influenced the Legislation of the Times_.--At first
+Christians were a weak and despised group of individuals.  Later they
+obtained sufficient force to become partners with the empire and in a
+measure dictate some of the laws of the community.  The most
+significant of these were to abolish the inhuman treatment of
+criminals, who were considered not so well as the beasts of the field.
+Organized Christianity secured human treatment of prisoners while they
+were in confinement, and the abolition of punishment by crucifixion.
+Gladiatorial shows were suppressed, and laws permitting the freer
+manumission of slaves were passed.  The exposure of children, common to
+both Greeks and Romans, was finally forbidden by law.  The laws of
+marriage were modified so that the sanctity of the home was secured;
+and, finally, a law was passed securing Sunday as a day of rest to be
+observed by the whole nation.  This all came about gradually as the
+church came into power.  This early influence of the Christian religion
+on the legislation of the Roman government presaged a time when, in the
+decline of the empire, the church would exercise the greatest power of
+any organization, political or religious, in western Europe.
+
+_Christians Come Into Conflict with Civil Authority_.--It was
+impossible that a movement so antagonistic to the usual condition of
+affairs as Christianity should not come into conflict with the civil
+authority.  Its insignificant beginning, although {274} it excited the
+hatred and the contempt of the jealous and the discontented, gave no
+promise of a formidable power sufficient to contend with the imperial
+authority.  But as it gained power it excited the alarm of rulers, as
+they beheld it opposing cherished institutions.  Nearly all of the
+persecutions came about through the attitude of the church toward the
+temporal rulers.  The Roman religion was a part of the civil system,
+and he who would not subscribe to it was in opposition to the state.
+
+The Christians would not worship the emperor, nor indeed would they, in
+common with other nations, set up an image or shrine in the temple at
+Rome and worship according to the privilege granted.  They recognized
+One higher in power than the emperor.  The Romans in their practical
+view of life could not discriminate between spiritual and temporal
+affairs, and a recognition of a higher spiritual being as giving
+authority was in their sight the acknowledgment of allegiance to a
+foreign power.  The fact that the Christians met in secret excited the
+suspicions of many, and it became customary to accuse them on account
+of any mishap or evil that came upon the people.  Thus it happened at
+the burning of Rome that the Christians were accused of setting it on
+fire, and many suffered persecution on account of these suspicions.
+
+Christians also despised civic virtues, or made light of their
+importance.  In this they were greatly mistaken in their practical
+service, for they could have wielded more power had they given more
+attention to civic life.  Like many good people of modern times, they
+observed the corruption of government, and held themselves aloof from
+it rather than to enter in and attempt to make it better.  The result
+of this indifference of the Christians was to make the Romans believe
+that they were antagonistic to the best interests of the community.
+
+The persecution of the Christians continued at intervals with greater
+or less intensity for more than two centuries; the Christians were
+early persecuted by the Jews, later by the Romans.  In the first
+century they were persecuted under Nero and Domitian, through personal
+spite or selfish interests.  After {275} this their persecution was
+political; there was a desire to suppress a religion that was held to
+be contrary to law.  The persecution under Hadrian arose on account of
+the supposition that the Christians were the cause of plagues and
+troubles on account of their impiety.  Among later emperors it became
+customary to attribute to them any unusual occurrence or strange
+phenomenon which was destructive of life or property.
+
+Organized Christianity grew so strong that it came in direct contact
+with the empire, and the latter had need of real apprehension, for the
+conflict brought about by the divergence of belief suddenly
+precipitated a great struggle within the empire.  The strong and
+growing power of the Christians was observed everywhere.  It was no
+insignificant opponent, and it attacked the imperial system at all
+points.
+
+Finally Constantine, who was a wise ruler as well as an astute
+politician, saw that it would be good policy to recognize the church as
+an important body in the empire and to turn this growing social force
+to his own account.  From this time on the church may be said to have
+become a part of the imperial system, which greatly influenced its
+subsequent history.  While in a measure it brought an element of
+strength into the social and political world, it rapidly undermined the
+system of government, and was a potent force in the decline of the
+empire by rendering obsolete many phases of the Roman government.
+
+_The Wealth of the Church Accumulates_.--As Rome declined and new
+governments arose, the church grew rapidly in the accumulation of
+wealth, particularly in church edifices and lands.  It is always a sign
+of growing power when large ownership of property is obtained.  The
+favors of Constantine, the gifts of Pepin and Charlemagne, and the
+large number of private gifts of property brought the church into the
+Middle Ages with large feudal possessions.  This gave it prestige and
+power, which it could not otherwise have held, and hastened the
+development of a system of government which was powerful in many ways.
+
+{276}
+
+_Development of the Hierarchy_.--The clergy finally assumed powers of
+control of the church separate from the laity.  Consequently there was
+a gradual decline in the power of lay members to have a voice in the
+affairs of the church.  While the early church appeared as a simple
+democratic association, the organization had developed into a formal
+system or hierarchy, which extended from pope to simple lay members.
+The power of control falling into the hands of high officials, there
+soon became a distinction between the ordinary membership and the
+machinery of government.  Moreover, the clergy were exempt from
+taxation and any control or discipline similar to that imposed on
+ordinary lay members.
+
+These conditions soon led to the exercise of undue authority of the
+hierarchy over the lay membership.  This dominating principle became
+dogmatic, until the members of the church became slaves to an arbitrary
+government.  The only saving quality in this was the fact that the
+members of the clergy were chosen from the laity, which kept up the
+connection between the higher and lower members of the church.  The
+separation of the governors from the governed proceeded slowly but
+surely until the higher officers were appointed from the central
+authority of the church, and all, even to the clergy, were directly
+under the imperial control of the papacy.  Moreover, the clergy assumed
+legal powers and attempted to regulate the conduct of the laymen.
+There finally grew up a great body of canon law, according to which the
+clergy ruled the entire church and, to a certain extent, civil life.
+
+But the church, under the canon law, must add a penalty to its
+enforcement and must assume the punishment of offenders within its own
+jurisdiction.  This led to the assumption that all crime is sin, and as
+its particular function was to punish sin, the church claimed
+jurisdiction over all sinners and the right to apprehend and sentence
+criminals; but the actual punishment of the more grievous offenses was
+usually given over to the civil authority.
+
+{277}
+
+_Attempt to Dominate the Temporal Powers_.--Having developed a strong
+hierarchy which completely dominated the laity, from which it had
+separated, having amassed wealth and gained power, and having invaded
+the temporal power in the apprehension and punishment of crime, the
+church was prepared to go a step farther and set its authority above
+kings and princes in the management of all temporal affairs.  In this
+it almost succeeded, for its power of excommunication was so great as
+to make the civil authorities tremble and bow down before it.  The
+struggle of church and empire in the Middle Ages, and, indeed, into the
+so-called modern era, represents one of the important phases of
+history.  The idea of a world empire had long dominated the minds of
+the people, who looked to the Roman imperialism as the final solution
+of all government.  But as this gradually declined and was replaced by
+the Christian church, the idea of a world religion finally became
+prevalent.  Hence the ideas of a world religion and a world empire were
+joined in the Holy Roman Empire, begun by Charlemagne and established
+by Otto the Great.  In this combination the church assumed first place
+as representing the eternal God, as the head of all things temporal and
+spiritual.
+
+In this respect the church easily overreached itself in the employment
+of force to carry out its plans.  Assuming to control by love, it had
+entered the lists to contend with force and intrigue, and it became
+subject to all forms of degradation arising from political corruption.
+In this respect its high object became degraded to the mere attempt to
+dominate.  The greed for power and force was very great, and this again
+and again led the church into error and lessened its influence in the
+actual regeneration of man and society.
+
+_Dogmatism_.--The progress of the imperial power of the church finally
+settled into the condition of absolute authority over the thoughts and
+minds of the people.  The church assumed to be absolutely correct in
+its theory of authority, and assumed to be infallible in regard to
+matters of right and wrong.  It went farther, and prescribed what men
+should {278} believe, and insisted that they should accept that dictum
+without question, on the authority of the church.  This monopoly of
+religious belief assumed by the church had a tendency to stifle free
+inquiry and to retard progress.  It more than once led to
+irregularities of practice on the part of the church in order to
+maintain its position, and on the part of the members to avoid the
+harsh treatment of the church.  Religious progress, except in
+government-building, was not rapid, spirituality declined, and the
+fervent zeal for the right and for justice passed into fanaticism for
+purity.
+
+This caused the church to fail to utilize the means of progress.  It
+might have advanced its own interest more rapidly by encouraging free
+inquiry and developing a struggle for the truth.  By exercising
+liberality it could have ingratiated itself into the government of all
+nations as a helpful adviser, and thus have conserved morality and
+justice; but by its illiberality it retarded the progress of the mind
+and the development of spirituality.  While it lowered the conception
+of religion, on the one hand, it lowered the estimate of knowledge, on
+the other, and in all suppressed truth through dogmatic belief.  This
+course not only affected the character and quality of the clergy, and
+created discontent in the laymen, but finally lessened respect for the
+church, and consequently for the gospel, in the minds of men.
+
+_The Church Becomes the Conservator of Knowledge_.--Very early in the
+days of the decline of the Roman Empire, when the inroads of the
+barbarian had destroyed reverence for knowledge, and, indeed, when
+within the tottering empire all philosophy and learning had fallen into
+contempt, the church possessed the learning of the times.  Through its
+monasteries and its schools all the learning of the period was found.
+It sought in a measure to preserve, by copying, the manuscripts of many
+of the ancient and those of later times.  Thus the church preserved the
+knowledge which otherwise must have passed away through Roman
+degeneration and barbarian influences.
+
+{279}
+
+_Service of Christianity_.[2]--The service of Christianity to European
+civilization consists chiefly in: (1) the respect paid to woman; (2)
+the establishment of the home and the enthronement of the home
+relation; (3) the advancement of the idea of humanity; (4) the
+development of morality; (5) the conservation of spiritual power; (6)
+the conservation of knowledge during the Dark Ages; (7) the development
+of faith; (8) the introduction of a new social order founded on
+brotherhood, which manifested itself in many ways in the development of
+community life.
+
+If the church fell into evil habits it was on account of the conditions
+under which it existed.  Its struggle with Oriental despotism, as well
+as with Oriental mysticism, a degenerate philosophy, corrupt social and
+political conditions, could not leave it unscathed.  If evil at times,
+it was better than the temporal government.  If its rulers were
+dogmatic, arbitrary, and inconsistent, they were better, nevertheless,
+than the ruling temporal princes.  The church represented the only
+light there was in the Dark Ages.  It was far superior in morality and
+justice to all other institutions.  If it assumed too much power it
+must be remembered that it came naturally to this assumption by
+attending specifically to its apparent duty in exercising the power
+that the civil authority failed to exercise.  The development of faith
+in itself is a great factor in civilization.  It must not be ignored,
+although it is in great danger of passing into dogmatism.  A world
+burdened with dogmatism is a dead world; a world without faith is a
+corrupt world leading on to death.
+
+The Christian religion taught the value of the individual, but also
+taught of the Kingdom of God, which involved a community spirit--the
+universal citizenship of the Romans prepared the way, and the
+individual liberty of the Germans strengthened it.  Whenever the church
+adhered to the teachings of the four gospels, it made for liberty of
+thought, freedom of life, progress in knowledge and in the arts of
+right living.  {280} Whenever it ceased to follow these and put
+institutionalism first, it retarded progress, in learning, science, and
+philosophy, and likewise in justice and righteousness.
+
+To the church organization as an institution are due the preservation,
+perpetuation, and propagation of the teachings of Jesus, which
+otherwise might have been lost or passed into legend.  All the way
+through the development of the Christian doctrine in Europe, under the
+direction of the church there are two conflicting forces--the rule by
+dogma and the freedom of individual belief.  The former comes from the
+Greeks and Latins, the latter from the Nordic idea of personal liberty.
+Both have been essential to the development of the Christian religion
+and the political life alike.  The dominant force in the religious
+dogma of the church was necessary to a people untutored in spiritual
+development.  Its error was to insist that the individual had no right
+to personal belief.  Yet the former established rules of faith and
+prevented the dissipation of the treasured teachings of Jesus.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  In what ways was the Christian religion antagonistic to other
+religions?
+
+2.  What new elements did it add to human progress?
+
+3.  How did the fall of Rome contribute to the power of the church?
+
+4.  What particular service did the church contribute to social order
+during the decline of the Roman Empire?
+
+5.  How did the church conserve learning and at the same time suppress
+freedom of thought?
+
+6.  How do you discriminate between Christianity as a religious culture
+and the church as an institution?
+
+
+
+[1] Adams, _Civilization During the Middle Ages_.
+
+[2] Adams, _Civilization During the Middle Ages_, chap. I.
+
+
+
+
+{281}
+
+CHAPTER XVII
+
+TEUTONIC INFLUENCE ON CIVILIZATION
+
+_The Coming of the Barbarians_.--The picture usually presented by the
+historical story-tellers of the barbarian hordes that invaded the Roman
+Empire is that of bold pirates, plunderers of civilization, and
+destroyers of property.  No doubt, as compared with the Roman system of
+warfare and plunder, their conduct was somewhat irregular.  They were
+wandering groups or tribes, who lived rudely, seeking new territory for
+exploitation after the manner of their lives.  They were largely a
+pastoral people with cattle as the chief source of industry with
+intermittent agriculture.  Doubtless, they were attracted by the
+splendor of Rome, its wealth and its luxury, but primarily they were
+seeking a chance to live.  It was the old luring food quest, which is
+the foundation of most migrations, that was the impelling force of
+their invasion.  In accordance with their methods of life, the northern
+territory was over-crowded, and tribe pressed upon tribe in the
+struggle for existence.  Moreover, the pressure of the Asiatic
+populations drove one tribe upon another and forced those of northern
+Europe south and east.
+
+All of the invaders, except the Huns who settled in Pannonia, were of
+the Aryan branch of the Caucasian race.  They were nearly all of the
+Nordic branch of the Aryan stock and were similar in racial
+characteristics and social life to the Greeks, who conquered the
+ancient Aegean races of Greece, and to those others who conquered the
+primitive inhabitants of Italy prior to the founding of the Roman
+nation.  The Celts were of Aryan stock but not of Nordic race.  They
+appeared at an early time along the Danube, moved westward into France,
+Spain, and Britain, and took side excursions into Italy, the most
+notable of which was the invasion of Rome {282} 390 B.C.  Wherever the
+Nordic people have gone, they have brought vigor of life and achieved
+much after they had acquired the tools of civilization.  If they were
+pirates of property, they also were appropriators of the civilization
+of other nations, into which they projected the vigor of their own life.
+
+_Importance of Teutonic Influence_.--Various estimates have been made
+as to the actual influence of the Teutonic races in shaping the
+civilization of western Europe.  Mr. Guizot insists that this influence
+is entirely overestimated, and also, to a certain extent,
+misrepresented: that much has been done in their name which does not
+rightfully belong to them.  He freely admits that the idea of law came
+from the Romans, morality from the Christian church, and the principle
+of liberty from the Germans.  Yet he fails to emphasize the result of
+the union of liberty with the law, with morality, and with the church.
+It is just this leaven of liberty introduced into the various elements
+of civilization that gave it a new life and brought about progress, the
+primary element of civilization.
+
+France, in the early period of European history, had an immense
+prestige in the advancement of civilization.  There was a large
+population in a compact territory, with a closely organized government,
+both civil and ecclesiastical, and a large use of the Roman products of
+language, government, law, and other institutions.  Consequently,
+France took the lead in progress, and Mr. Guizot is quite right in
+assuming that every element of progress passed through France to give
+it form, before it became recognized.  Yet, in the later development of
+political liberty, law, and education, the Teutonic element becomes
+more prominent, until it would seem that the native and acquired
+qualities of the Teutonic life have the stronger representation in
+modern civilization.  In stating this, due acknowledgment must be made
+to the Roman influence through law and government.  But the spirit of
+progress is Teutonic, although the form, in many instances, may be
+Roman.  It must be observed, too, that the foundation of local
+government in Germany, England, and the United States was of Teutonic
+{283} origin; that the road from imperialism to democracy is lined with
+Teutonic institutions and lighted with Teutonic liberty, and that the
+whole system of individual rights and popular government has been
+influenced by the attitude of the Teutonic spirit toward government and
+law.
+
+_Teutonic Liberty_.--All writers recognize that the Germanic tribes
+contributed the quality of personal liberty to the civilization of the
+West.  The Roman writers, in setting forth their own institutions, have
+left a fair record of the customs and habits of the so-called
+barbarians.  Titus said of them: "Their bodies are, indeed, great, but
+their souls are greater."  Caesar had a remarkable method of eulogizing
+his own generalship by praising the valor and strength of the
+vanquished foes.  "Liberty," wrote Lucanus, "is the German's
+birthright."  And Florus, speaking of liberty, said: "It is a privilege
+which nature has granted to the Germans, and which the Greeks, with all
+of their arts, knew not how to obtain."  At a later period Montesquieu
+was led to exclaim: "Liberty, that lovely thing, was discovered in the
+wild forests of Germany."  While Hume, viewing the results of this
+discovery, said: "If our part of the world maintains sentiments of
+liberty, honor, equity, and valor superior to the rest of mankind, it
+owes these advantages to the seeds implanted by the generous
+barbarians."
+
+More forcible than all these expressions of sentiment are the results
+of the study of modern historians of the laws and customs of the early
+Teutons, and the tracing of these laws in the later civilization.  This
+shows facts of the vitalizing process of the Teutonic element.  The
+various nations to-day which speak the Teutonic languages, of which the
+English is the most important, are carrying the burden of civilization.
+These, rather than those overcome by a preponderance of Roman
+influences, are forwarding the progress of the world.
+
+_Tribal Life_.--Referring to the period of Germanic history prior to
+the influence of the Romans on the customs, laws, and institutions of
+the people, which transformed them from {284} wandering tribes into
+settled nationalities, it is easy to observe, even at this time, the
+Teutonic character.  The tribes had come in contact with Roman
+civilization, and many of them were already being influenced by the
+contact.  Their social life and habits were becoming somewhat fixed,
+and the elements of feudalism were already prominent as the foundation
+of the great institution of the Middle Ages.  This period also embraces
+the time when the tribes were about to take on the influence of the
+Christian religion, and when there was a constant mingling of the
+Christian spirit with the spirit of heathenism.  In fact, the subject
+should cover all that is known of the Germanic tribes prior to the
+Roman contact and after it, down to the full entrance of the Middle
+Ages and the rise of new nationalities.  In this period we shall miss
+the full interest of the society of the Middle Ages after the feudal
+system had transformed Europe or, rather, after Europe had entered into
+a great period of transformation from the indefinite, broken-down
+tribal life into the new life of modern nations.
+
+Tribal society has its limitations and types distinctive from every
+other.  The very name "tribe" suggests to us something different from
+the conditions of a modern nation.  Caesar and Tacitus were accustomed
+to speak of the Germanic tribes as _nationes_, although with no such
+fulness of meaning as we attach to our modern nations.  The Germanic,
+like the Grecian, tribe is founded upon two cardinal principles, and is
+a natural and not an artificial assemblage of people.  These two
+principles are religion and kinship, or consanguinity.  In addition to
+this there is a growth of the tribe by adoption, largely through the
+means of matrimony and the desire for protection.
+
+These principles in the formation of the tribe are universal with the
+Aryan people, and, probably, with all other races.  There is a
+clustering of the relatives around the eldest parent, who becomes the
+natural leader of the tribe and who has great power over the members of
+the expanded family.  There is no state, there are no citizens,
+consequently the social life must be far different from that which we
+are accustomed to see.  At {285} the time of our first knowledge of the
+Germans, the family had departed a step from the conditions which bound
+the old families of Greece and Rome into such compact and firmly
+organized bodies.  There was a tendency toward individualism, freedom,
+and the private ownership of land.  All of these points, and more, must
+be taken into consideration, as we take a brief survey of the
+characteristics of the early Teutonic society.  What has been said in
+reference to the tribe, points at once to the fact that there must have
+been different ranks of society, according to the manner in which a
+person became a member of the tribe.
+
+_Classes of Society_.--The classes of people were the freemen of noble
+blood, or the nobility, the common freemen, the freedmen, or half-free,
+and the slaves.
+
+The class of the nobility was based largely upon ancient lineage, some
+of whom could trace their ancestry to such a distance that they made
+tenable the claim that they were descended from the gods.  The position
+of a noble was so important in the community that he found no
+difficulty in making good his claim to pure blood and a title of
+reverence, but this in no way gave him any especial political
+privilege.  It assured a consideration which put him in the way of
+winning offices of preferment by his wealth and influence, but he must
+submit to the decision of the people for his power rather than depend
+upon the virtues of his ancestry.  This is why, in a later period, the
+formation of the new kingship left out the idea of nobility and placed
+the right of government upon personal service.  The second class
+represented the rank and file of the German freemen, the long-haired
+and free-necked men, who had never felt the yoke of bondage.  Those
+were the churls of society, but upon them fell the burden of service
+and the power of leadership.  Out of this rank came the honest yeomen
+of England.
+
+The third class represented those who held lands of the freemen as
+serfs, and in the later period of feudal society they became attached
+to the soil and were bought with the land and {286} sold with the land,
+though not slaves in the common acceptation of the term.  The fourth
+class were those who were reduced to the personal service of others.
+They were either captives taken in war or those who had lost their
+freedom by gambling.  This body was not large in the early society,
+although it tended to increase as society developed.
+
+It will be seen at once that in the primitive life of a people like the
+one we are studying, there is a mingling of the political, religious,
+and social elements of society.  There are no careful lines of
+distinction to be drawn as in present society, and more than
+this--there was a tendency to consolidate and simplify all of the forms
+of political and social life.  There was a simplicity of forms and a
+lack of conventional usage, with a complexity of functions.
+
+_The Home and the Home Life_.--The family of the Germans, like the
+family of all other Aryan races, was the social, political, and
+religious unit of the larger organization.  As compared with the
+Oriental nations, the family was monogamic and noted for purity and
+virtue.  Add to this the idea of reverence for women that characterized
+the early German people, and we may infer that the home life, though of
+a somewhat rude nature, was genuine, and that the home circle was not
+without a salutary influence in those times of wandering and war.  The
+mother, as we may well surmise, was the ruler of the home, had the care
+of the household, deliberated with the husband in the affairs of the
+tribe, and even took her place by his side in the field of battle when
+it seemed necessary.  In truth, if we may believe the chroniclers,
+woman was supposed to be the equal of man.
+
+But returning to the tribal life, we find that the houses were of the
+rudest kind, made of undressed lumber or logs, with a hole in the roof
+for the smoke to pass out, with but one door and sometimes no window.
+There were no cities among the Germans until they were taught by
+contact with Rome to build them.  The villages were, as a rule, an
+irregular collection of houses, more or less scattered, as is customary
+where land is {287} plentiful and of no particular value.  There were
+no regularly laid out streets, the villagers being a group of kinsmen
+of the same tribe, grouped together for convenience.  Around the
+village was constructed a ditch and a hedge as a rampart for
+protection.  This was called a "tun" (German _Zoun_), from which word
+we derive our name "town."  The house generally had but one room, which
+was used for all purposes.
+
+There was another class of houses, belonging to the nobility and the
+chiefs, called halls.  They consisted of one long room, which sometimes
+had transepts or alcoves for the women, partitioned off by curtains
+from the main hall.  This large room was the place where the lord and
+his companions were accustomed to sit at the great feasts after their
+return from a successful expedition.  This is the "beer hall" that we
+read so much about in song, epic, and legend.  Here the beer and the
+mead were passed; here arose the songs and the mirth of the warriors.
+On the walls of the hall might be seen the rude arms of the warrior,
+the shield and the spear, or decorations composed of the heads and the
+skins of wild beasts--all of which bring us to the early type of the
+hall of the great baron of the feudal age.
+
+Until the age of chivalry, women were not present at these rude feasts.
+The religious life of the early Germans was tribal rather than personal
+or of the simple family.  There were certain times at which members of
+the same tribe were wont to assemble and sacrifice to the gods.  There
+was a common meeting-place from year to year.  As it has been related,
+this had a tendency to cement the tribe together and enhance political
+unity.  This custom must have had its influence on social order and
+must have, in a measure, arrested the tendency of the people to an
+unsocial and selfish life.
+
+_Political Assemblies_.--The political assemblies, where all of the
+freemen met to discuss the affairs of the community, must have been
+powerful factors in the establishment of social customs and usage.  The
+kinsmen or fellow tribesmen were grouped in villages, and each village
+maintained its privilege {288} of self-government, and consequently the
+freemen met in the village assembly to consider the affairs of the
+community.  We find combined in the political representation the ideas
+of tribal unity and individuality, or at least family independence.  As
+the tribes federated, there was a tendency to make the assemblies more
+general, and thus the family exclusiveness tended to give way in favor
+of the development of the individual as a member of the tribal state.
+It was a slow transition from an ethnic to a democratic type of society.
+
+This association created a feeling of common interest akin to
+patriotism.  Mr. Freeman has given us a graphic representation of the
+survival of the early assembly in the Swiss cantons.[1]  In the forest
+cantons the freemen met in the open field on stated occasions to enact
+the laws and transact the duties of legislators and judges.  But
+although there was a tendency to sectional and clannish relations in
+society, this became much improved by the communal associations for
+political and economic life.  But society, as such, could not advance
+very far when the larger part of the occupation of the freemen was that
+of war.  The youth were educated in the field, and the warriors spent
+much of their time fighting with neighboring tribes.
+
+The entire social structure, resting as it did upon kinship, found its
+changes in developing economic, political, and religious life.
+Especially is this seen in the pursuit of the common industries.  As
+soon as the tribes obtained permanent seats and had given themselves
+mostly to agriculture, the state of society became more settled, and
+new customs were gradually introduced.  At the same time society became
+better organized, and each man had his proper place, not only in the
+social scale but also in the industrial and political life of the tribe.
+
+_General Social Customs_.--In the summer-time the clothing was very
+light.  The men came frequently to the Roman camp clad in a short
+jacket and a mantle; the more wealthy ones {289} wore a woollen or
+linen undergarment.  But in the cold weather sheepskins and the pelts
+of wild animals, as well as hose for the legs and shoes made of leather
+for the feet, were worn.  The mantle was fastened with a buckle, or
+with a thorn and a belt.  In the belt were carried shears and knives
+for daily use.  The women were not as a general thing dressed
+differently from the men.  After the contact with the Romans the
+methods of dress changed, and there was a greater difference in the
+garments worn by men and women.
+
+Marriage was a prominent social institution among the tribes, as it
+always is where the monogamic family prevails.  There were doubtless
+traces of the old custom, common to most races, of wife capture, a
+custom which long continued as a mere fiction to some extent among the
+peasantry of certain localities in Germany.  In this survival the bride
+makes feint to escape, and is chased and captured by the bridegroom.
+Some modern authorities have tried to show that there is a survival of
+this old custom of courtship, whereby the advances are supposed to be
+made by the men.  The engagement to be married meant a great deal more
+in those days than at present.  It was more than half of the marriage
+ceremony.  Just as among the Hebrews, the engagement was the real
+marriage contract, and the latter ceremony only a form, so among the
+Germans the same custom prevailed.  After engagement, until marriage
+they were called the Braeut and Braeutigam, but when wedded they ceased
+to be thus entitled.  The betrothal contained the essential bonds of
+matrimony, and was far more important before the law than the later
+ceremony.  In modern usage the opposite custom prevails.
+
+The woman was always under wardship; her father was her natural
+guardian and made the marriage contract or the engagement.  When a
+woman married, she brought with her a dower, furnished by her parents.
+This consisted of all house furnishings, clothes, and jewelry, and a
+more substantial dower in lands, money, or live stock.  On the morning
+of the day after marriage the husband gave to the wife the
+"Morgengabe," {290} which thereafter was her own property.  It was the
+wedding-present of the groom.  This is but a survival of the time when
+marriage among the Germans meant a simple purchase of a wife.  It is
+said that "ein Weib zu kaufen" (to buy a wife) was the common term for
+getting engaged, and that this phrase was so used as late as the
+eleventh century.  The wardship was called the _mundium_, and when the
+maid left her father's house for another home, her _mundium_ was
+transferred from her father to her husband.  This dower began, indeed,
+with the engagement, and the price of the _mundium_ was paid over to
+the guardian at the time of the contract.  From this time suit for
+breach of promise could be brought.  These are the primitive customs of
+the marriage ceremony, but they were changed from time to time.
+Through the influence of Christianity, the woman finally attained
+prominence in the matter of choosing a husband, and learned, much to
+her satisfaction, to make her own contracts in matrimony.
+
+_The Economic Life_.--The economic life was of the most meagre kind in
+the earlier stages of society.  We find that Tacitus, writing 150 years
+after Caesar, shows that there had been some changes in the people.  In
+the time of Caesar, the tribes were just making their transition from
+the pastoral-nomadic to the pastoral-agricultural state, and by the
+time of Tacitus this transition was so general that most of the tribes
+had settled to a more or less permanent agricultural life.  It must be
+observed that the development of the tribes was not symmetrical, and
+that which reads very pleasantly on paper represents a very confused
+state of society.  However much the tribes practised agriculture, they
+had but little peace, for warfare continued to be one of their chief
+occupations.  It was in the battle that a youth received his chief
+education, and in the chase that he occupied much of his spare time.
+
+But the ground was tilled, and barley, wheat, oats, and rye were
+raised.  Flax was cultivated, and the good housewife did the spinning
+and weaving--all that was done--for the household.  Greens, or herbage,
+were also cultivated, but {291} fruit-trees seldom were cultivated.
+With the products of the soil, of the chase, and of the herds, the
+Teutons lived well.  They had bread and meat, milk, butter and cheese,
+beer and mead, as well as fish and wild game.  The superintending of
+the fields frequently fell to the lot of the hausfrau, and the labor
+was done by serfs.  The tending of the fields, the pursuit of wild
+animals or the catching of fish, the care of the cattle or herds, and
+the making of butter and cheese, the building of houses, the bringing
+of salt from the sea, the making of garments, and the construction of
+weapons of war and utensils of convenience--these represent the chief
+industries of the people.  Later, the beginnings of commerce sprang up
+between the separate tribes, and gradually extended to other
+nationalities.
+
+_Contributions to Law_.--The principle of the trial by jury, which was
+developed in the English common law, was undoubtedly of Teutonic
+origin.  That a man should be tried by his peers for any misdemeanor
+was considered to be a natural right.  The idea of personal liberty
+made a personal law, which gradually gave way to civil law, although
+the personal element was never entirely obliterated.  The Teutonic
+tribes had no written law, yet they had a distinct legal system.  The
+comparison of this legal system with the Roman or with our modern
+system brings to light the individual character of the early Germanic
+laws.  The Teuton claimed rights on account of his own personality and
+his relation to a family, not because he was a member of a state.
+
+When the Teutons came in contact with the Romans they mingled their
+principles of law with those of the latter, and thus made law more
+formal.  Nearly all of the tribes, after this contact, had their laws
+codified and written in Latin, by Roman scholars, chiefly of the
+clergy, who incorporated not only many elements of Roman law but also
+more or less of the elements of Christian usage.  Those tribes which
+had been the longer time in contact with the Romans had a greater body
+of laws, more systematized and of more Roman {292} characteristics.
+Finally, as modern nationality arose, the laws were codified, combining
+the Roman and the Teutonic practice.
+
+The forms of judicial procedure remained much the same on account of
+the character of Teutonic social organization.  The personal element
+was so strong in the Teutonic system as to yield a wide influence in
+the development of judicial affairs.  The trial by combat and the early
+ordeals, the latter having been instituted largely through the church
+discipline, and the idea of local courts based upon a trial of peers,
+had much to do with shaping the course of judicial practice.  The time
+came, however, when nearly every barbarian judicial process was
+modified by the influence of the Roman law, until the predominance of
+the state, in judicial usage, was recognized in place of the personal
+element which so long prevailed in the early Teutonic customs.
+
+But in the evolution of the judicial systems of the various countries
+the Teutonic element of individual liberty and individual offenses
+never lost its influences.  These simple elements of life indicate the
+origin of popular government, individual and social liberty, and the
+foundation of local self-government.  Wherever the generous barbarians
+have gone they have carried the torch of liberty.  In Italy, Greece,
+England, Germany, Spain, and the northern nations, wherever the lurid
+flames of revolt against arbitrary and conventional government have
+burst forth, it can be traced to the Teutonic spirit of freedom.  This
+was the greatest contribution of the Teutonic people to civilization.[2]
+
+{293}
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  The vital elements of modern civilization contributed by the
+Germans.
+
+2.  Teutonic influence on Roman civilization.
+
+3.  Compare the social order of the Teutons with that of the early
+Greeks.
+
+4.  Causes of the invasion of Rome by the Teutonic tribes.
+
+5.  What were the racial relations of Romans, Greeks, Germans, Celts,
+and English?
+
+6.  Modern contributions to civilization by Germany.
+
+
+
+[1] See Chapter XXI.
+
+[2] The modern Prussian military state was a departure from the main
+trend of Teutonic life.  It represented a combination of later
+feudalism and the Roman imperialism.  It was a perversion of normal
+development, a fungous growth upon institutions of freedom and justice.
+
+
+
+
+{294}
+
+CHAPTER XVIII
+
+FEUDAL SOCIETY
+
+_Feudalism a Transition of Social Order_.--Feudalism represents a
+change from the ancient form of imperialism to the newer forms of
+European government.  It arose out of the ruins of the Roman system as
+an essential form of social order.  It appears to be the only system
+fitted to bring order out of the chaotic conditions of society, but by
+the very nature of affairs it could not long continue as an established
+system.  It is rather surprising, indeed, that it became so universal,
+for every territory in Europe was subjected to its control in a greater
+or less degree.  Frequently those who were forced to adopt its form
+condemned its principle, and those who sought to maintain the doctrine
+of Roman imperialism were subjected to its sway.  The church itself,
+seeking to maintain its autocracy, came into direct contact with feudal
+theory and opposed it bitterly.  The people who submitted to the yoke
+of personal bondage which it entailed hated the system.  Yet the whole
+European world passed under feudalism.  But notwithstanding its
+universality, feudalism could offer nothing permanent, for in the
+development of social order it was forced to yield to monarchy,
+although it made a lasting influence on social life and political and
+economic usage.
+
+_There Are Two Elementary Sources of Feudalism_.--The spirit of
+feudalism arises out of the early form of Teutonic social life.  It
+sprang from the personal obligation of the comitatus, which was
+composed of a military leader and his followers or companions.  The
+self-constituted assembly elected the leader who was most noted for
+courage and prowess in battle.  To him was consigned the task of
+leading in battle the host, which was composed of all the freemen in
+arms.  Usually {295} these chiefs were chosen for a single campaign,
+but it not infrequently happened that their leadership was continuous,
+with all the force of hereditary selection.
+
+Another phase of the comitatus is represented by the leader's setting
+forth in time of peace with his companions to engage in fighting,
+exploiting, and plunder on his own account.  The courageous young men
+of the tribe, thirsting for adventure in arms, gathered about their
+leader, whom they sought to excel in valor.  He who was bravest and
+strongest in battle was considered most honorable.  The principal
+feature to be noted is the personal allegiance of the companions to
+their leader, for they were bound to him with the closest ties.  For
+the service which they rendered, the leader gave them sustenance and
+also reward for personal valor.  They sat at his table and became his
+companions, and thus continually increased his power in the community.
+
+This custom represents the germ of the feudal system.  The leader
+became the lord, the companions his vassals.  When the lord became a
+tribal chief or king, the royal vassals became the king's thegns, or
+represented the nobility of the realm.  The whole system was based upon
+service and personal allegiance.  As conquest of territory was made,
+the land was parcelled out among the followers, who received it from
+the leader as allodial grants and, later, as feudal grants.  The
+allodial grant resembled the title in fee simple, the feudal grant was
+made on condition of future service.
+
+The Roman element of feudalism finds its representation in clientage.
+This was a well-known institution at the time of the contact of the
+Romans with their invaders.  The client was attached to the lord, on
+whom he depended for support and for representation in the community.
+Two of the well-known feudal aids, namely, the ransom of the lord from
+captivity and the gift of dowry money on the marriage of his eldest
+daughter, are similar to the services rendered by the Roman client to
+his lord.
+
+The personal tie of clientage resembled the personal {296} allegiance
+in the comitatus, with the difference that the client stood at a great
+distance from the patron, while in the comitatus the companions were
+nearly equal to their chief.  The Roman influence tended finally to
+make the wide difference which existed between the lord and vassal in
+feudal relations.  Other forms of Roman usage, such as the institution
+of the _coloni_, or half-slaves of the soil, and the custom of granting
+land for use without actual ownership, seem to have influenced the
+development of feudalism.  Without doubt the Roman institutions here
+gave form and system to feudalism, as they did in other forms of
+government.
+
+_The Feudal System in Its Developed State Based on Land-Holding_.--In
+the early period in France, where feudalism received its most perfect
+development, several methods of granting land were in vogue.  First,
+the lands in the immediate possession of the conquered were retained by
+them on condition that they pay tribute to the conquerors; the wealthy
+Romans were allowed to hold all or part of their large estates.
+Second, many lands were granted in fee simple to the followers of the
+chiefs.  Third was the beneficiary grant, most common to feudal tenure
+in its developed state.  By this method land was granted as a reward
+for services past or prospective.  The last method to be named is that
+of commendation, by which the small holder of land needing protection
+gave his land to a powerful lord, who in turn regranted it to the
+original owner on condition that the latter became his vassal.  Thus
+the lands conquered by a chief or lord were parcelled out to his
+principal supporters, who in turn regranted them to those under them,
+so that all society was formed in a gradation of classes based on the
+ownership of land.  Each lord had his vassal, every vassal his lord.
+Each man swore allegiance to the one next above him, and this one to
+his superior, until the king was reached, who himself was but a
+powerful feudal lord.
+
+As the other forms and functions of state life developed, feudalism
+became the ruling principle, from which many strove in vain to free
+themselves.  There were in France, in the time {297} of Hugh Capet,
+according to Kitchen, "about a million of souls living on and taking
+their names from about 70,000 separate fiefs or properties; of these
+about 3,000 carried titles with them.  Of these again, no less than a
+hundred were sovereign states, greater or smaller, whose lords could
+coin money, levy taxes, make laws, and administer their own
+justice."[1]  Thus the effect of feudal tenure was to arrange society
+into these small, compact social groups, each of which must really
+retain its power by force of arms.  The method gave color to monarchy,
+which later became universal.
+
+_Other Elements of Feudalism_.--Prominent among the characteristics of
+feudalism was the existence of a close personal bond between the
+grantor and the receiver of an estate.  The receiver did homage to the
+grantor in the form of oath, and also took the oath of fealty.  In the
+former he knelt before the lord and promised to become his man on
+account of the land which he held, and to be faithful to him in defense
+of life and limb against all people.  The oath of fealty was only a
+stronger oath of the same tenor, in which the vassal, standing before
+the lord, appealed to God as a witness.  These two oaths, at first
+entirely separate, became merged into one, which passed by the name of
+the oath of fealty.  When the lord desired to raise an army he had only
+to call his leading vassals, and they in turn called those under them.
+When he needed help to harvest his grain the vassals were called upon
+for service.
+
+Besides the service rendered, there were feudal aids to be paid on
+certain occasions.  The chief of these were the ransom of the lord when
+captured, the amount paid when the eldest son was knighted, and the
+dowry on the marriage of the eldest daughter.  There were lesser feudal
+taxes called reliefs.  Of these the more important were the payment of
+a tax by the heir of a deceased vassal upon succession to property,
+one-half year's profit paid when a ward became of age, and the right to
+escheated lands of the vassal.  The lord also had the right to land
+forfeited on account of certain heinous crimes.  {298} Wardship
+entitled the lord to the use of lands during the minority of the ward.
+The lord also had a right to choose a husband for the female ward at
+the age of fourteen; if she refused to accept the one chosen, the lord
+had the use of her services and property until she was twenty-one.
+Then he could dispose of her lands as he chose and refuse consent for
+her to marry.  These aids and reliefs made a system of slavery for
+serfs and vassals.
+
+_The Rights of Sovereignty_.--The feudal lord had the right of
+sovereignty over all of his own vassal domain.  Not only did he have
+military sovereignty on account of allegiance of vassals, but political
+sovereignty also, as he ruled the assemblies in his own way.  He had
+legal jurisdiction, for all the courts were conducted by him or else
+under his jurisdiction, and this brought his own territory completely
+under his control as proprietor, and subordinated everything to his
+will.  In this is found the spirit of modern absolute monarchy.
+
+_The Classification of Feudal Society_.--In France, according to Duruy,
+under the perfection of feudalism, the people were grouped in the
+following classes: First, there was a group of Gallic or Frankish
+freemen, who were obliged to give military service to the king and give
+aids when called upon.  Second, the vassals, who rendered service to
+those from whom they held their lands.  Third, the royal vassals, from
+whom the king usually chose his dukes and counts to lead the army or to
+rule over provinces and cities.  Fourth, the _liti_, who, like the
+Roman _coloni_, were bound to the soil, which they cultivated as
+farmers, and for which they paid a small rent.  Finally, there were the
+ordinary slaves.  The character of the _liti_, or _glebe_, serfs varied
+according to the degree of liberty with which they were privileged.
+They might have emancipation by charter or by the grant of the king or
+the church, but they were never free.  The feudal custom was binding on
+all, and no one escaped from its control.  Even the clergy became
+feudal, there being lords and vassals within the church.  Yet the
+ministry, in their preaching, recognized the opportunity of {299}
+advancement, for they claimed that even a serf might become a bishop,
+although there was no great probability of this.
+
+_Progress of Feudalism_.--The development of feudalism was slow in all
+countries, and it varied in character in accordance with the condition
+of the country.  In England the Normans in the eleventh century found
+feudalism in an elementary state, and gave formality to the system.  In
+Germany feudalism was less homogeneous than in France.  It lacked the
+symmetrical finish of the Roman institutions, although it was
+introduced from French soil through overlordship and proceeded from the
+sovereign to the serf, rather than springing from the serf to the
+sovereign.  It varied somewhat in characteristics from French
+feudalism, although the essentials of the system were not wanting.  In
+the Scandinavian provinces the Teutonic element was too strong, and in
+Spain and Italy the Romanic, to develop in these countries perfect
+feudalism.  But in France there was a regular, progressive development.
+The formative period began in Caesar's time and ended with the ninth
+century.
+
+This was followed by the period of complete domination and full power,
+extending to the end of the thirteenth century, at the close of which
+offices and benefices were in the hands of the great vassals of Charles
+the Bald.  Then followed a period of transformation of feudalism, which
+extended to the close of the sixteenth century.  Finally came the
+period of the decay of feudalism, beginning with the seventeenth
+century and extending to the present time.  There are found now, both
+in Europe and America, laws and usages which are vestiges of the
+ancient forms of feudalism, which the formal organization of the state
+has failed to eradicate.
+
+The autocratic practice of the feudal lord survived in the new monarch,
+and, except in the few cases of constitutional limitation, became
+imperialistic.  The Prussian state, built upon a military basis,
+exercised the rights of feudal conquest over neighboring states.  After
+the war with Austria, Prussia exercised an overlordship over part of
+the smaller German {300} states, with a show of constitutional liberty.
+After the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, the German Empire was formed,
+still with a show of constitutional liberty, but with the feudal idea
+of overlordship dominant.  Having feudalized the other states of
+Germany, Prussia sought to extend the feudal idea to the whole world,
+but was checked by the World War of 1914.
+
+_State of Society Under Feudalism_.--In searching for the effects of
+feudalism on human progress, the family deserves our first
+consideration.  The wife of the feudal lord and her equal associates
+were placed on a higher plane.  The family in no wise represented the
+ancient patriarchal family nor the modern family.  The head of the
+family stood alone, independent of every form of government.  He was
+absolute proprietor of himself and of all positions under him.  He was
+neither magistrate, priest, nor king, nor subordinate to any system
+except as he permitted.  His position developed arbitrary power and
+made him proud and aristocratic.  With a few members of his family, he
+lived in his castle, far removed from serfs and vassals.  He spent his
+life alternately in feats of arms or in systematic idleness.  Away from
+home much of the time, fighting to defend his castle or obtain new
+territory, or engaging in hunting, while the wife and mother cared for
+the home, he developed strength and power.
+
+It was in the feudal family that woman obtained her position of honor
+and power in the home.  It was this position that developed the
+chivalry of the Middle Ages.  The improvement of domestic manners and
+the preponderance of home society among the few produced the moral
+qualities of the home.  Coupled with this was the idea of nobility on
+one side, and the idea of inheritance on the other, which had a
+tendency to unify the family under one defender and to perpetuate the
+right and title to property of future generations.  It was that benign
+spirit which comes from the household in more modern life, giving
+strength and permanence to character.
+
+While there was a relation of common interest between the {301}
+villagers clustered around the feudal castle, the union was not
+sufficient to make a compact organization.  Their rights were not
+common, as there was a recognized superiority on one hand and a
+recognized inferiority on the other.  This grew into a common hatred of
+the lower classes for the upper, which has been a thousand times
+detrimental to human progress.  The little group of people had their
+own church, their own society.  Those who had a fellow-feeling for them
+had much influence directly, but not in bridging over the chasm between
+them and the feudal lord.  Feudalism gave every man a place, but
+developed the inequalities of humanity to such an extent that it could
+not be lasting as a system.  Society became irregular, in which extreme
+aristocracy was divorced from extreme democracy.  Relief came slowly,
+through the development of monarchy and the citizenship of the modern
+state.  It was a rude attempt to find the secret of social
+organization.  The spirit of revolt of the oppressed lived on
+suppressed by a galling tyranny.
+
+To maintain his position as proprietor of the soil and ruler over a
+class of people treated as serfs required careful diplomacy on the part
+of the lord, or else intolerant despotism.  He usually chose the
+latter, and sought to secure his power by force of arms.  He cared
+little for the wants or needs of his people.  He did not associate with
+them on terms of equality, and only came in contact with them as a
+master meets a servant.  Consulting his own selfish interest, he made
+his rule despotic, and all opposition was suppressed with a high hand.
+The only check upon this despotism was the warlike attitude of other
+similar despotic lords, who always sought to advance their own
+interests by the force of arms.  Feudalism in form of government was
+the antithesis of imperialism, yet in effect something the same.  It
+substituted a horde of petty despots for one and it developed a petty
+local tyranny in the place of a general despotism.
+
+_Lack of Central Authority in Feudal Society_.--So many feudal lords,
+each master of his own domain, contending with one {302} another for
+the mastery, each resting his course on the hereditary gift of his
+ancestors, or, more probably, on his force of armed men and the
+strength of his castle, made it impossible that there should be any
+recognized authority in government, or any legal determination of the
+rights of the ruler and his subjects.  Feudal law was the law of force;
+feudal justice the right of might.  Among all of these feudal lords
+there was not one to force by will all others into submission, and thus
+create a central authority.  There was no permanent legislative body,
+no permanent judicial machinery, no standing army, no uniform and
+regular system of taxation.  There could be no guaranty to permanent
+political power under such circumstances.
+
+There was little progress in social order under the rule of feudalism.
+Although we recognize that it was an essential form of government
+necessary to control the excesses of individualism; although we realize
+that a monarchy was impossible until it was created by an evolutionary
+process, that a republic could not exist under the irregularity of
+political forces, yet it must be maintained that social progress did
+not exist under the feudal regime.  There was no unity of social
+action, no co-operation of classes in government.  The line between the
+governed and the governing, though clearly marked at times, was an
+irregular, wavering line.  Outside of the family life--which was
+limited in scope--and of the power of the church--which failed to unify
+society--there was no vital social growth.
+
+_Individual Development in the Dominant Group_.--Feudalism established
+a strong individualism among leaders, a strong personality based on
+sterling intellectual qualities.  It is evident that this excessive
+individual development became very prominent in the later evolution of
+social order, and is recognized as a gain in social advancement.
+Individual culture is essential to social advancement.  To develop
+strong, independent, self-reliant individuals might tend to produce
+anarchy rather than social order, yet it must eventually lead to the
+latter; and so it proved in the case of feudalism, for its very {303}
+chaotic state brought about, as a necessity, social order.  But it came
+about through survival of the fittest, in conquest and defense.  Nor
+did the most worthy always succeed, but rather those who had the
+greatest power in ruthless conquest.  Unity came about through the
+unbridled exercise of the predatory spirit, accompanied by power to
+take and to hold.
+
+This chaotic state of individualistic people was the means of bringing
+about an improvement in intellectual development.  The strong
+individual character with position and leisure becomes strong
+intellectually in planning defense and in meditating upon the
+philosophy of life.  The notes of song and of literature came from the
+feudal times.  The determination of the mind to intellectual pursuits
+appeared in the feudal regime, and individual culture and independent
+intellectual life, though of the few and at the expense of the
+majority, were among the important contributions to civilization.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What was the basis of feudal society?
+
+2.  What elements of feudalism were Roman and what Teutonic?
+
+3.  What service did feudalism render civilization?
+
+4.  Show that feudalism was transition from empire to modern
+nationality.
+
+5.  How did feudal lords obtain titles to their land?  Give examples.
+
+6.  What survivals of feudalism may be observed in modern governments?
+
+7.  When King John of England wrote after his signature "King of
+_England_," what was its significance?
+
+8.  How did feudalism determine the character of monarchy in modern
+nations?
+
+
+
+[1] _History of France_.
+
+
+
+
+{304}
+
+CHAPTER XIX
+
+ARABIAN CONQUEST AND CULTURE
+
+The dissemination of knowledge, customs, habits, and laws from common
+centres of culture has been greatly augmented by population movements
+or migrations, by great empires established, by wars of conquest, and
+systems of intercommunication and transportation.  The Babylonian,
+Assyrian, Persian, Alexandrian, and Roman empires are striking examples
+of the diffusion of knowledge and the spread of ideas over different
+geographical boundaries and through tribal and national organizations;
+and, indeed, the contact of the barbarian hordes with improved systems
+of culture was but a process of interchange and intermingling of
+qualities of strength and vigor with the conventionalized forms of
+human society.
+
+One of the most remarkable movements was that of the rise and expansion
+of the Arabian Empire, which was centred about religious ideals of
+Mohammed and the Koran.  Having accepted the idea of one God universal,
+which had been so strongly emphasized by the Hebrews, and having
+accepted in part the doctrine of the teachings of Jesus regarding the
+brotherhood of man, Mohammed was able through the mysticism of his
+teaching, in the Koran, to excite his followers to a wild fanaticism.
+Nor did his successors hesitate to use force, for most of their
+conquests were accomplished by the power of the sword.  At any rate,
+nation after nation was forced to bow to Mohammedanism and the Koran,
+in a spectacular whirlwind of conquest such as the world had not
+previously known.
+
+It is remarkable that after the decline of the old Semitic
+civilization, as exhibited in the Babylonian and Assyrian empires, the
+practical extinction of the Phoenicians, the conquest of Jerusalem, and
+the spread of the Jews over the whole world, there should have risen a
+new Semitic movement to disrupt {305} and disorganize the world.  It is
+interesting to note in this connection, also, that wherever the Arabs
+went they came in contact with learned Jews of high mentality, who
+co-operated with them in advancing learning.
+
+_The Rise and Expansion of the Arabian Empire_.--Mohammedanism, which
+arose in the beginning of the seventh century, spread rapidly over the
+East and through northern Africa, and extended into Spain.  All Arabia
+was converted to the Koran, and Persia and Egypt soon after came under
+its influence.  In the period 623-640, Syria was conquered by the
+Mohammedans, upper Asia in 707, and Spain in 711.  They established a
+great caliphate, extending from beyond the Euphrates through Egypt and
+northern Africa to the Pyrenees in Spain.  They burned the great
+library at Alexandria, founded by Ptolemy, destroying the manuscripts
+and books in a relentless zeal to blot out all vestiges of Christian
+learning.  In their passage westward they mingled with the Moors of
+northern Africa, whom they had subdued after various struggles, the
+last one ending in 709.  In this year they crossed the Strait of
+Gibraltar and encountered the barbarians of the north.
+
+The Visigothic monarchy was in a ruined condition.  Frequent internal
+quarrels had led to the dismemberment of the government and the decay
+of all fortifications, hence there was little organized resistance to
+the incoming of the Arabs.  All Spain, except in the far north in the
+mountains of the Asturias, was quickly reduced to the sway of the
+Arabs.  They crossed the Pyrenees, and the broad territory of Gaul
+opened before them, awaiting their conquest.  But on the plains between
+Tours and Poitiers they met Charles Martel with a strong army, who
+turned the tide of invasion back upon itself and set the limits of
+Mohammedan dominion in Europe.
+
+In the tenth century the great Arabian Empire began to disintegrate.
+One after another of the great caliphates declined.  The caliphate of
+Bagdad, which had existed so long in Oriental splendor, was first
+dismembered by the loss of Africa.  The fatimate caliphate of northern
+Africa next lost its power, {306} and the caliphate of Cordova, in
+Spain, brilliant in its ascendancy, followed the course of the other
+two.  The Arabian conquest of Spain left the country in a state of
+tolerable freedom, but Cordova, like the others, was doomed to be
+destroyed by anarchy and confusion.  All the principal cities became in
+the early part of the eleventh century independent principalities.
+
+Thus the Mohammedan conquest, which built an extensive Arabian Empire,
+ruling first in Asia, then Africa, and finally Europe, spreading abroad
+with sudden and irresistible expansion, suddenly declined through
+internal dissensions and decay, having lasted but a few centuries.  The
+peculiar tribal nature of the Arabian social order had not developed a
+strong central organization, nor permitted the practice of organized
+political effort on a large scale, so that the sudden transition from
+the small tribe, with its peculiar government, to that of the
+organization and management of a great empire was sufficient to cause
+the disintegration and downfall of the empire.  So far as political
+power was concerned, the passion for conquest was the great impelling
+motive of the Mohammedans.
+
+_The Religious Zeal of the Arab-Moors_.--The central idea of the
+Mohammedan conquest seems to have been a sort of religious zeal or
+fanaticism.  The whole history of their conquest shows a continual
+strife to propagate their religious doctrine.  The Arabians were a
+sober people, of vivid imagination and excessive idealism, with
+religious natures of a lofty and peculiar character.  Their religious
+life in itself was awe-inspiring.  Originally dwelling on the plains of
+Arabia, where nature manifested itself in strong characteristics,
+living in one sense a narrow life, the imagination had its full play,
+and the mystery of life had centred in a sort of wisdom and lore, which
+had accumulated through long generations of reflection.  There always
+dwelt in the minds of this branch of the Semitic people a conception of
+the unity of God, and when the revelation of God came to them through
+Mohammed, when they realized "Allah is Allah, and Mohammed is his
+prophet," they were swept entirely away by this religious conception.
+When once {307} this idea took firm hold upon the Arabian mind, it
+remained there a permanent part of life.  Under military organization
+the conquest was rapidly extended over surrounding disintegrated
+tribes, and the strong unity of government built on the basis of
+religious zeal.
+
+So strong was this religious zeal that it dominated their entire life.
+It turned a reflective and imaginative people, who had sought out the
+hidden mysteries of life by the acuteness of their own perception, to
+base their entire operations upon faith.  Faith dominated the reason to
+such an extent that the deep and permanent foundations of progress
+could not be laid, and the vast opportunities granted to them by
+position and conquest gradually declined for the lack of vital
+principles of social order.
+
+Not only had the Arabians laid the foundations of culture and learning
+through their own evolution, but they had borrowed much from other
+Oriental countries.  Their contact with learning of the Far East, of
+Palestine, of Egypt, of the Greeks, and of the Italians, had given them
+an opportunity to absorb most of the elements of ancient culture.
+Having borrowed these products, they were able to combine them and use
+them in building an empire of learning in Spain.  If their own subtle
+genius was not wanting in the combination of the knowledge of the
+ancients, and in its use in building up a system, neither lacked they
+in original conception, and on the early foundation they built up a
+superstructure of original knowledge.  They advanced learning in
+various forms, and furnished means for the advancement of civilization
+in the west.
+
+_The Foundations of Science and Art_.--In the old caliphates of Bagdad
+and Damascus there had developed great interest in learning.  The
+foundation of this knowledge, as has been related, was derived from the
+Greeks and the Orientals.  It is true that the Koran, which had been
+accepted by them as gospel and law, had aroused and inspired the
+Arabian mind to greater desires for knowledge.  Their knowledge,
+however, could not be set by the limitations of the Koran, and the
+desire {308} for achievement in learning was so great that scarcely a
+century had passed after the burning of the libraries of Alexandria
+before all branches of knowledge were eagerly cultivated by the
+Arabians.  They ran a rapid course from the predominance of physical
+strength and courage, through blind adherence to faith, to the position
+of superior learning.  The time soon came when the scholar was as much
+revered as the warrior.
+
+In every conquered country the first duty of the conquerors was to
+build a mosque in which Allah might be worshipped and his prophet
+honored.  Attached to this mosque was a school, where people were first
+taught to read and write and study the Koran.  From this initial point
+they enlarged the study of science, literature, and art, which they
+pursued with great eagerness.  Through the appreciation of these things
+they collected the treasures of art and learning wherever they could be
+found, and, dwelling upon these, they obtained the results of the
+culture of other nations and other generations.  From imitation they
+passed to the field of creation, and advances were made in the
+contributions to the sum of human knowledge.  In Spain schools were
+founded, great universities established, and libraries built which laid
+the permanent foundation of knowledge and art and enabled the
+Arab-Moors to advance in science, art, invention, and discovery.
+
+_The Beginnings of Chemistry and Medicine_.--In chemistry the careful
+study of the elements of substances and the agents in composition was
+pursued by the Arab-Moors in Spain, but it must be remembered that the
+chemistry of their day is now known as alchemy.  Chemistry then was in
+its formative period and not a science as viewed in the modern sense.
+Yet when we consider that the science of modern chemistry is but a
+little over a century old, we find the achievements of the Arabians in
+their own time, as compared with the changes which took place in the
+following seven centuries, to be worthy of note.
+
+In the eleventh century a philosopher named Geber knew the chemical
+affinities of quicksilver, tin, lead, copper, iron, {309} gold, and
+silver, and to each one was given a name of the planet which was
+supposed to have special influence over it.  Thus silver was named for
+the moon, gold for the sun, copper for Venus, tin for Jupiter, iron for
+Vulcan, quicksilver for Mercury, and lead for Saturn.  The influences
+of the elements were supposed to be similar to the influence of the
+heavenly bodies over men.  This same chemist was acquainted with
+oxidizing and calcining processes, and knew methods of obtaining soda
+and potash salts, and the properties of saltpetre.  Also nitric acid
+was obtained from the nitrate of potassium.  These and other similar
+examples represent something of the achievements of the Arabians in
+chemical knowledge.  Still, their lack of knowledge is shown in their
+continued search for the philosopher's stone and the attempt to create
+the precious metals.
+
+The art of medicine was practised to a large extent in the Orient, and
+this knowledge was transferred to Spain.  The entire knowledge of these
+early physicians, however, was limited to the superficial diagnosis of
+cases and to a knowledge of medicinal plants.  By the very law of their
+religion, anatomy was forbidden to them, and, indeed, the Arabians had
+a superstitious horror of dissection.  By ignorance of anatomy their
+practice of surgery was very imperfect.  But their physicians,
+nevertheless, became renowned throughout the world by their use of
+medicines and by their wonderful cures.  They plainly led the world in
+the art of healing.  It is true their superstition and their astrology
+constantly interfered with their better judgment in many things, but
+notwithstanding these drawbacks they were enabled to develop great
+interest in the study of medicine and to accomplish a great work in the
+advancement of the science.  In _Al Makkari_ it is stated "that disease
+could be more effectively checked by diet than by medicine, and that
+when medicine became necessary, simples were far preferable to compound
+medicaments, and when these latter were required, as few drugs as
+possible ought to enter into their composition."  This exhibits the
+thoughtful reflection that was {310} given to the administration of
+drugs in this early period, and might prove a lesson to many a modern
+physician.
+
+Toward the close of their career, the Arabian doctors began the
+practice of dissecting and the closer study of anatomy and physiology,
+which added much to the power of the science.  Yet they still believed
+in the "elixir of life," and tried to work miracle cures, which in many
+respects may have been successful.  It is a question whether they went
+any farther into the practice of miracle cures than the quacks and
+charlatans and faith doctors of modern times have gone.  The influence
+of their study of medicine was seen in the great universities, and
+especially in the foundation of the University at Salerno at a later
+time, which was largely under the Arabian influence.
+
+_Metaphysics and Exact Science_.--It would seem that the Arab-Moors
+were well calculated to develop psychological science.  Their minds
+seemed to be in a special measure metaphysical.  They laid the
+foundation of their metaphysical speculations on the philosophy of the
+Greeks, particularly that of Aristotle, but later they attempted to
+develop originality, although they succeeded in doing little more, as a
+rule, than borrowing from others.  In the early period of Arabian
+development the Koran stood in the way of any advancement in
+philosophy.  It was only at intervals that philosophy could gain any
+advancement.  Indeed, the philosophers were driven away from their
+homes, but they carried with them many followers into a larger field.
+The long list of philosophers who, after the manner of the Greeks, each
+attempted to develop his own separate system, might be mentioned,
+showing the zeal with which they carried on inquiry into metaphysical
+science.  As may be supposed, they added little to the sum of human
+knowledge, but developed a degree of culture by their philosophical
+speculations.
+
+But it is in the exact sciences that the Arabs seem to have met with
+the greatest success.  The Arabic numerals, probably brought from India
+to Bagdad, led to a new and larger use of arithmetic.  The decimal
+system and the art of figures were {311} introduced into Spain in the
+ninth century, and gave great advancement in learning.  But, strange to
+relate, these numerals, though used so early by the Arabs in Spain,
+were not common in Germany until the fifteenth century.  The importance
+of their use cannot be overestimated, for by means of them the Arabians
+easily led the world in astronomy, mechanics, and mathematics.
+
+The science of algebra is generally attributed to the Arabians.  Its
+name is derived from gabara, to bind parts together, and yet the origin
+of this science is not certain.  It is thought that the Arabs derived
+their knowledge from the Greeks, but in all probability algebra had its
+first origin among the philosophers of India.
+
+The Arabians used geometry, although they added little to its
+advancement.  Geometry had reached at this period an advanced stage of
+progress in the problems of Euclid.  It was to the honor of the
+Arabians that they were the first of any of the Western peoples to
+translate Euclid and use it, for it was not until the sixteenth century
+that it was freely translated into the modern languages.
+
+But in trigonometry the Arabians, by the introduction of the use of the
+sine, or half-chord, of the double arc in the place of the arc itself,
+made great advancement, especially in the calculations of surveying and
+astronomy.  In the universities and colleges of Spain under Arabian
+dominion we find, then, that students had an opportunity of mastering
+nearly all of the useful elementary mathematics.  Great attention was
+paid to the study of astronomy.  Here, as before, they used the Greek
+knowledge, but they advanced the study of the science greatly by the
+introduction of instruments, such as those for measuring time by the
+movement of the pendulum and the measurement of the heavenly bodies by
+the astrolabe.
+
+Likewise they employed the word "azimuth" and many other terms which
+show a more definite knowledge of the relation of the heavenly bodies.
+They were enabled, also, to {312} measure approximately a degree of
+latitude.  They knew that the earth was of spheroid form.  But we find
+astrology accompanying all this knowledge of astronomy.  While the
+exact knowledge of the heavenly bodies had been developed to a certain
+degree, the science of star influence, or astrology, was cultivated to
+a still greater extent.  Thus they sought to show the control of mind
+forces on earth, and, indeed, of all natural forces by the heavenly
+bodies.  This placed mystical lore in the front rank of their
+philosophical speculations.
+
+_Geography and History_.--In the study of the earth the Arabians showed
+themselves to be practical and accurate geographers.  They applied
+their mathematical and astronomical knowledge to the study of the
+earth, and thus gave an impulse to exploration.  While their theories
+of the origin of the earth were crude and untenable, their practical
+writings on the subject derived from real knowledge, and the practical
+instruction in schools by the use of globes and maps, were of immense
+practical value.
+
+Their history was made up chiefly of the histories of cities and the
+lives of prominent men.  There was no national history of the rise and
+development of the Arabian kingdom, for historical writing and study
+were in an undeveloped state.
+
+_Discoveries, Inventions, and Achievements_.--It cannot be successfully
+claimed that the Arabians exhibited very much originality in the
+advancement of the civilized arts, yet they had the ability to take
+what they found elsewhere developed by other scholars, improve upon it,
+and apply it to the practical affairs of life.  Thus, although the
+Chinese discovered gunpowder over 3,000 years ago, it remained for the
+Arabs to bring it into use in the siege of Mecca in the year 690, and
+introduce it into Spain some years later.  The Persians called it
+Chinese salt, the Arabians Indian snow, indicating that it might have
+originated in different countries.  The Arab-Moors used it in their
+wars with the Christians as early as the middle of the thirteenth
+century.  They excelled also in making paper from flax, or cotton,
+which was probably an imitation {313} of the paper made by the Chinese
+from silk.  We find also that the Arabs had learned to print from
+movable type, and the introduction of paper made the printing-press
+possible.  Linen paper made from old clothes was said to be in use as
+early as 1106.
+
+Without doubt the Arab-Moors introduced into Spain the use of the
+magnet in connection with the mariner's compass.  But owing to the fact
+that it was not needed in the short voyages along the coast of the
+Mediterranean, it did not come into a large use until the great voyages
+on the ocean, in the beginning of the fourteenth century.  Yet the
+invention of the mariner's compass, so frequently attributed to Flavio
+Giorgio, may be as well attributed to the Arab-Moors.
+
+Knives and swords of superior make, leather, silk, and glass, as well
+as large collections of delicate jewelry, show marked advancement in
+Arabian industrial art and mechanical skill.
+
+One of the achievements of the Arab-Moors in Spain was the introduction
+of agriculture, and its advancement to an important position among the
+industries by means of irrigation.  The great, fertile valleys of Spain
+were thus, through agricultural skill, made "to blossom as the rose."
+Seeds were imported from different parts of the world, and much
+attention was given to the culture of all plants which could be readily
+raised in this country.  Rice and cotton and sugar-cane were cultivated
+through the process of irrigation.  Thus Spain was indebted to the
+Arab-Moors not only for the introduction of industrial arts and skilled
+mechanics, but the establishment of agriculture on a firm foundation.
+
+_Language and Literature_.--The language of the Arabians is said to be
+peculiarly rich in synonyms.  For instance, it is said there are 1,000
+expressions for the word "camel," and the same number for the word
+"sword," while there are 4,000 for the word "misfortune."  Very few
+remnants of the Arabic remain in the modern European languages.  Quite
+a number of words in the Spanish language, fewer in English and in
+{314} other modern languages, are the only remnants of the use of this
+highly developed Arabian speech.  It represents the southern branch of
+the Semitic language, and is closely related to the Hebrew and the
+Aramaic.  The unity and compactness of the language are very much in
+evidence.  Coming little in contact with other languages, it remained
+somewhat exclusive, and retained its original form.
+
+When it came into Spain the Arabic language reigned almost supreme, on
+account of the special domination of Arabic influences.  Far in the
+north of Spain, however, among the Christians who had adopted the Low
+Latin, was the formation of the Spanish language.  The hatred of the
+Spaniards for the Arabs led these people to refuse to use the language
+of the conquerors.  Nevertheless, the Arabic had some influence in the
+formation of the Spanish language.  The isolated geographic terms, and
+especial names of things, as well as idioms of speech, show still that
+the Arabian influence may be traced in the Spanish language.
+
+In literature the Arabians had a marked development.  The Arabian
+poetry, though light in its character, became prominent.  There were
+among these Arabians in Spain ardent and ready writers, with fertile
+fancy and lively perception, who recited their songs to eager
+listeners.  The poet became a universal teacher.  He went about from
+place to place singing his songs, and the troubadours of the south of
+France received in later years much of their impulse indirectly from
+the Arabic poets.  While the poetry was not of a high order, it was
+wide-reaching in its influence, and extended in later days to Italy,
+Sicily, and southern France, and had a quickening influence in the
+development of the light songs of the troubadours.  The influence of
+this lighter literature through Italy, Sicily, and southern France on
+the literature of Europe and of England in later periods is well marked
+by the historians.  In the great schools rhetoric and grammar were also
+taught to a considerable extent.  In the universities these formed one
+of the great branches of special culture.  We find, then, on the
+linguistic {315} side that the Arabians accomplished a great deal in
+the advancement of the language and literature of Europe.
+
+_Art and Architecture_.--Perhaps the Arabians in Spain are known more
+by their architecture than any other phase of their culture.  Not that
+there was anything especially original in it, except in the combination
+which they made of the architecture of other nations.  In the building
+of their great mosques, like that of Cordova and of the Alhambra, they
+perpetuated the magnificence and splendor of the East.  Even the actual
+materials with which they constructed these magnificent buildings were
+obtained from Greece and the Orient, and placed in their positions in a
+new combination.  The great original feature of the Mooresque
+architecture is found in the famous horseshoe arch, which was used so
+extensively in their mosques and palaces.  It represented the Roman
+arch, slightly bent into the form of a horseshoe.  Yet from
+architectural strength it must be considered that the real support
+resting on the pillar was merely the half-circle of the Roman arch,
+while the horseshoe was a continuation for ornamental purposes.
+
+The Arab-Moors were forbidden the use of sculpture, which they never
+practised, and hence the artistic features were limited to
+architectural and art decorations.  Many of the interior decorations of
+the walls of these great buildings show advanced skill.  Upon the
+whole, their buildings are remarkable mainly in the perpetuation of
+Oriental architecture rather than in the development of any originality
+except in skill of decoration and combination.
+
+_The Government of the Arab-Moors Was Peculiarly Centralized_.--The
+caliph was at the head as an absolute monarch.  He appointed viceroys
+in the different provinces for their control.  The only thing that
+limited the actual power of the caliph was the fact that he was a
+theocratic governor.  Otherwise he was supreme in power.  There was no
+constitutional government, and, indeed, but little precedent in law.
+The government depended somewhat upon the whims and caprices {316} of a
+single individual.  It was said that in the beginning the caliph was
+elected by the people, but in a later period the office became
+hereditary.  It is true the caliph, who was called the "vicar of God,"
+or "the shadow of God," had his various ministers appointed from the
+wise men to carry out his will.  Yet, such was the power of the people
+what when in Spain they were displeased with the rulings of the judges,
+they would pelt the officers or storm the palace, thus in a way
+limiting the power of these absolute rulers.
+
+The government, however, was in a precarious condition.  There could be
+nothing permanent under such a regime, for permanency of government is
+necessary to the advancement of civilization.  The government was
+non-progressive.  It allowed no freedom of the people and gave no
+incentive to advancement, and it was a detriment many times to the
+progressive spirit.  Closely connected with a religion which in itself
+was non-progressive, we find limitations set upon the advancement of
+the civilization of the Arab-Moors in Spain.
+
+_Arabian Civilization Soon Reached Its Limits_.--One views with wonder
+and astonishment the brilliant achievements of the Arabian
+civilization, extending from the Tagus to the Indus.  But brilliant as
+it was, one is impressed at every turn with the instability of the
+civilization and with its peculiar limitations.  It reached its
+culmination long before the Christian conquest.  What the Arabians have
+given to the European world was formulated rapidly and given quickly,
+and the results were left to be used by a more slowly developing
+people, who rested their civilization upon a permanent basis.  Much
+stress has been laid by Mr. Draper and others upon the great
+civilization of the Arabians, comparing it favorably with the
+civilization of Christian Europe.  But it must be remembered that the
+Arab-Moors, especially in Spain, had come so directly in contact with
+Oriental nations that they were enabled to borrow and utilize for a
+time the elements of civilization advanced by these more mature
+peoples.  However, built as it was upon borrowed materials, the
+structure once completed, {317} there was no opportunity for growth or
+original development.  It reached its culmination, and would have
+progressed no further in Spain, even had not the Christians under
+Ferdinand and Isabella conquered the Arab-Moors and eventually overcome
+and destroyed their civilization.  In this conquest, in which the two
+leading faiths of the Western world were fighting for supremacy,
+doubtless the Christian world could not fully appreciate what the
+Arab-Moors accomplished, nor estimate their value to the economic
+system of Spain.
+
+Subsequent facts of history show that, the Christian religion once
+having a dominant power in Spain, the church became less liberal in its
+views and its rule than that exhibited by the government of the
+Arab-Moors.  Admitting that the spirit of liberty had burst forth in
+old Asturias, a seat of Nordic culture, it soon became obscure in the
+arbitrary domination of monarchy, and of the church through the
+instrumentality of Torquemada and the Inquisition.  Nevertheless, the
+civilization of the Arab-Moors cannot be pictured as an ideal one,
+because it was lacking in the fundamentals of continuous progress.
+Knowledge had not yet become widely disseminated, nor truth free enough
+to arouse vigorous qualities of life which make for permanency in
+civilization.  With all of its borrowed art and learning and its
+adaptation to new conditions, still the civilization was sufficiently
+non-progressive to be unsuited to carry the burden of the development
+of the human race.  Nevertheless, in the contemplation of human
+progress, the Arab-Moors of Spain are deserving of attention because of
+their universities and their studies, which influenced other parts of
+mediaeval Europe at a time when they were breaking away from scholastic
+philosophy and assuming a scientific attitude of mind.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What contributions to art and architecture did the Arab-Moors make
+in Spain?
+
+2.  The nature of their government.
+
+{318}
+
+3.  How did their religion differ from the Christian religion in
+principle and in practice?
+
+4.  The educational contribution of the universities of the Arab-Moors.
+
+5.  What contributions to science and learning came from the Arabian
+civilization?
+
+6.  Why and by whom were the Arab-Moors driven from Spain?  What were
+the economic and political results?
+
+7.  What was the influence of the Arabs on European civilization?
+
+
+
+
+{319}
+
+CHAPTER XX
+
+THE CRUSADES STIR THE EUROPEAN MIND
+
+_What Brought About the Crusades_.--We have learned from the former
+chapters that the Arabs had spread their empire from the Euphrates to
+the Strait of Gibraltar, and that the Christian and Mohammedan
+religions had compassed and absorbed the entire religious life over
+this whole territory.  As Christianity had become the great reforming
+religion of the western part of Europe, so Mohammedanism had become the
+reforming religion of Asia.  The latter was more exacting in its
+demands and more absolute in its sway than the former, spreading its
+doctrines mainly by force, while the former sought more to extend its
+doctrine by a leavening process.  Nevertheless, when the two came in
+contact, a fierce struggle for supremacy ensued.  The meteorlike rise
+of Mohammedanism had created consternation and alarm in the Christian
+world as early as the eighth century.  There sprang up not only fear of
+Islamism, but a hatred of its followers.
+
+After the Arabian Empire had become fully established, there arose to
+the northeast of Bagdad, the Moslem capital, a number of Turkish tribes
+that were among the more recent converts to Mohammedanism.  Apparently
+they took the Mohammedan religion as embodied in the Koran literally
+and fanatically, and, considering nothing beyond these, sought to
+propagate the doctrine through conquest by sword.  They are frequently
+known as Seljuks.  It is to the credit of the Arabs, whether in
+Mesopotamia, Africa, or Spain, that their minds reached beyond the
+Koran into the wider ranges of knowledge, a fact which tempered their
+fanatical zeal, but the Seljuk Turks swept forward with their armies
+until they conquered the Byzantine Empire of the East, the last branch
+of the great Roman Empire.  They had also conquered Jerusalem and {320}
+taken possession of the holy sepulchre, to which pilgrimages of
+Christians were made annually, and aroused the righteous indignation of
+the Christians of the Western world.  The ostensible purpose of the
+crusades was to free Palestine, the oppressed Christians, and the holy
+sepulchre from the domination of the Turks.
+
+It must be remembered that the period of the Middle Ages was
+represented by fancies and theories and an evanescent idealism which
+controlled the movements of the people to a large extent.  Born of
+religious sentiment, there dwelt in the minds of Christian people a
+reverence for the land of the birth of Christ, to which pilgrims passed
+every year to show their adoration for the Saviour and patriotism for
+the land of his birth.  These pilgrims were interfered with by the
+Mohammedans and especially by the Seljuk Turks.
+
+The Turks in their blind zeal for Mohammedanism could see nothing in
+the Christian belief worthy of respect or even civil treatment.  The
+persecution of Christians awakened the sympathy of all Europe and
+filled the minds of people with resentment against the occupation of
+Jerusalem by the Turks.  This is one of the earliest indications of the
+development of religious toleration, which heralded the development of
+a feeling that people should worship whom they pleased unmolested,
+though it was like a voice crying in the wilderness, for many centuries
+passed before religious toleration could be acknowledged.
+
+There were other considerations which made occasion for the crusades.
+Gregory VII preached a crusade to protect Constantinople and unify the
+church under one head.  But trouble with Henry IV of Germany caused him
+to abandon the enterprise.  There still dwelt in the minds of the
+people an ideal monarchy, as represented by the Roman Empire.  It was
+considered the type of all good government, the one expression of the
+unity of all people.  Many dreamed of the return of this empire to its
+full temporal sway.  It was a species of idealism which lived on
+through the Middle Ages long after the {321} Western Empire had passed
+into virtual decay.  In connection with this idea of a universal empire
+controlling the whole world was the idea of a universal religion which
+should unite all religious bodies under one common organization.  The
+centre of this organization was to be the papal authority at Rome.
+
+There dwelt then in the minds of all ecclesiastics this common desire
+for the unity of all religious people in one body regardless of
+national boundaries.  And it must be said that these two ideas had much
+to do with giving Europe unity of thought and sentiment.  Disintegrated
+as it was, deflected and disturbed by a hundred forces, thoughts of a
+common religion and of universal empire nevertheless had much to do to
+harmonize and unify the people of Europe.  Hence, it was when Urban II,
+who had inherited all of the great religious improvements instituted by
+Gregory VII, preached a crusade to protect Constantinople, on the one
+hand, and to deliver Jerusalem, on the other, and made enthusiastic
+inflammatory speeches, that Europe awoke like an electric flash.  Peter
+the Hermit, on the occasion of the first crusade, was employed to
+travel throughout Europe to arouse enthusiasm in the minds of the
+people.
+
+The crusades so suddenly inaugurated extended over a period of nearly
+two hundred years, in which all Europe was in a restless condition.
+The feudal life which had settled down and crystallized all forms of
+human society throughout Europe had failed to give that variety and
+excitement which it entertained in former days.  Thousands of knights
+in every nation were longing for the battle-field.  Many who thought
+life at home not worth living, and other thousands of people seeking
+opportunities for change, sought diversion abroad.  All Europe was
+ready to exclaim "God wills it!" and "On to Jerusalem!" to defend the
+Holy City against the Turk.
+
+_Specific Causes of the Crusades_.--If we examine more specifically
+into the real causes of the crusades we shall find, as Mr. Guizot has
+said, that there were two causes, the one moral, the other social.  The
+moral cause is represented in the {322} desire to relieve suffering
+humanity and fight against the injustice of the Turks.  Both the
+Mohammedan and the Christian, the two most modern of all great
+religions, were placed upon a moral basis.  Morality was one of the
+chief phases of both religions; yet they had different conceptions of
+morality, and no toleration for each other.  Although prior to the
+Turkish invasion the Mohammedans, through policy, had tolerated the
+visitations of the Christians, the two classes of believers had never
+gained much respect for each other, and after the Turkish invasion the
+enmity between them became intense.  It was the struggle of these two
+systems of moral order that was the great occasion and one of the
+causes of the crusades.
+
+The social cause, however, was that already referred to--the desire of
+individuals for a change from the monotony which had settled down over
+Europe under the feudal regime.  It was the mind of man, the enthusiasm
+of the individual, over-leaping the narrow bounds of his surroundings,
+and looking for fields of exploitation and new opportunities for
+action.  The social cause represents, then, the spontaneous outburst of
+long-pent-up desires, a return to the freedom of earlier years, when
+wandering and plundering were among the chief occupations of the
+Teutonic tribes.  To state the causes more specifically, perhaps it may
+be said that the ambition of temporal and spiritual princes and the
+feudal aristocracy for power, the general poverty of the community on
+account of overpopulation leading the multitudes to seek relief through
+change, and a distinct passion for pilgrimages were influential in
+precipitating this movement.
+
+_Unification of Ideals and the Breaking of Feudalism_.--It is to be
+observed that the herald of the crusades thrilled all Europe, and that,
+on the basis of ideals of empire and church, there were a common
+sentiment or feeling and a common ground for action.  All Europe soon
+placed itself on a common plane in the interest of a common cause.  At
+first it would seem that this universal movement would have tended to
+{323} develop a unity of Western nations.  To the extent of breaking
+down formal custom, destroying the sterner aspects of feudalism, and
+levelling the barriers of classes, it was a unifier of European thought
+and life.
+
+But a more careful consideration reveals the fact that although all
+groups and classes of people ranged themselves on one side of the great
+and common cause, the effect was not merely to break down feudalism
+but, in addition, to build up nationality.  There was a tendency toward
+national unity.  The crusades in the latter part of the period became
+national affairs, rather than universal or European affairs, even
+though the old spirit of feudalism, whereby each individual followed by
+his own group of retainers sought his own power and prestige, still
+remained.  The expansion of this spirit to larger groups invoked the
+national spirit and national life.  While, in the beginning, the papacy
+and the church were all-powerful in their controlling influence on the
+crusades, in the later period we find different nationalities,
+especially England, France, and Germany, struggling for predominance,
+the French nation being more strongly represented than any other.
+
+Among the important results of the crusades, then, were the breaking
+down of feudalism and the building up of national life.  The causes of
+this result are evident.  Many of the nobility were slain in battle or
+perished through famine and suffering, or else had taken up their abode
+under the new government that had been established at Jerusalem.  This
+left a larger sway to those who were at home in the management of the
+affairs of the territory.  Moreover, in the later period, the stronger
+national lines had been developed, which caused the subordination of
+the weaker feudal lords to the more powerful.  Many, too, of the strong
+feudal lords had lost their wealth, as well as their position, in
+carrying on the expenses of the crusades.  There was, consequently, the
+beginning of the remaking of all Europe upon a national basis.  First,
+the enlarged ideas of life broke the bounds of feudalism; second, the
+failure to unite the nations in the common sentiment of a Western {324}
+Empire had left the political forces to cluster around new
+nationalities which sprang up in different sections of Europe.
+
+_The Development of Monarchy_.--The result of this centralization was
+to develop monarchy, an institution which became universal in the
+process of the development of government in Europe.  It became the
+essential form of government and the type of national unity.  Through
+no other known process of the time could the chaotic state of the
+feudal regime be reduced to a system.  Constitutional liberty could not
+have survived under these conditions.  The monarchy was not only a
+permanent form of government, but it was possessed of great
+flexibility, and could adapt itself to almost any conditions of the
+social life.  While it may, primarily, have rested on force and the
+predominance of power of certain individuals, in a secondary sense it
+represented not only the unity of the race from which it had gained
+great strength, but also the moral power of the tribe, as the
+expression of their will and sentiments of justice and righteousness.
+It is true that it drew a sharp line between the governing and the
+governed; it made the one all-powerful and the other all-subordinate;
+yet in many instances the one man represented the collective will of
+the people, and through him and his administration centred the wisdom
+of a nation.
+
+Among the Teutonic peoples, too, there was something more than
+sentiment in this form of government.  It was an old custom that the
+barbarian monarch was elected by the people and represented them; and
+whether he came through hereditary rank, from choice of nobles, or from
+the election of the people, this idea of monarchy was never lost sight
+of in Europe in the earliest stages of existence, and it was perverted
+to a great extent only by the Louis's of France and the Stuarts of
+England, in the modern era.  Monarchy, then, as an institution, was
+advanced by the crusades; for a national life was developed and
+centralization took place, the king expressed the unity of it all, and
+so everywhere throughout Europe it became the universal type.
+
+{325}
+
+_The Crusades Quickened Intellectual Development_.--The intense
+activity of Europe in a common cause could not do otherwise than
+stimulate intellectual life.  In a measure, it was an emancipation of
+mind, the establishment of large and liberal ideas.  This freedom of
+the mind arose, not so much from any product of thought contributed by
+the Orientals to the Christians, although in truth the former were in
+many ways far more cultured than the latter, but rather from the
+development which comes from observation and travel.  A habit of
+observing the manners and customs, the government, the laws, the life
+of different nations, and the action and reaction of the different
+elements of human life, tended to develop intellectual activity.  Both
+Greek and Mohammedan had their influence on the minds of those with
+whom they came in contact, and Christians returned to their former
+homes possessed of new information and new ideas, and quickened with
+new impulses.
+
+The crusades also furnished material for poetic imagination and for
+literary products.  It was the development of the old saga hero under
+new conditions, those of Christianity and humanity, and this led to
+greater and more profound sentiments concerning life.  The crusades
+also took men out from their narrow surroundings and the belief that
+the Christian religion, supported by the monasteries, or cloisters,
+embodied all that was worth living in this life and a preparation for a
+passage into a newer, happier future life beyond.  Humanity, according
+to the doctrine of the church, had not been worth the attention of the
+thoughtful.  Life, as life, was not worth living.  But the mingling of
+humanity on a broader basis and under new circumstances quickened the
+thoughts and sentiments of man in favor of his fellows.  It gave an
+enlarged view of the life of man as a human creature.  There was a
+thought engendered, feeble though it was at first, that the life on
+earth was really important and that it could be enlarged and broadened
+in many ways, and hence it was worth saving here for its own sake.  The
+culmination of this idea appeared in the period of the Renaissance, a
+century later.
+
+{326}
+
+_The Commercial Effects of the Crusades_.--A new opportunity for trade
+was offered, luxuries were imported from the East in exchange for money
+or for minerals and fish of the West.  Cotton, wine, dyestuffs,
+glassware, grain, spice, fruits, silk, and jewelry, as well as weapons
+and horses, came pouring in from the Orient to enlarge and enrich the
+life of the Europeans.  For, with all the noble spirit manifested in
+government and in social life, western Europe was semibarbaric in the
+meagreness of the articles of material wealth there represented.  The
+Italian cities, seizing the opportunity of the contact of the West with
+the East, developed a surprising trade with the Oriental cities and
+with the northwest of Europe, and thus enhanced their power.[1]  From
+this impulse of trade that carried on commerce with the Orient largely
+through the Italian cities, there sprang up a group of Hanse towns in
+the north of Europe.  From a financial standpoint we find that money
+was brought into use and became from this time on a necessity.
+Money-lending became a business, and those who had treasure instead of
+keeping it lying idle and unfruitful were now able to develop wealth,
+not only for the borrower but also for the lender.  This tended to
+increase the rapid movement of wealth and to stimulate productive
+industry and trade in every direction.
+
+_General Influence of the Crusades on Civilization_.--We see, then,
+that it mattered little whether Jerusalem was taken by the Turks or the
+Christians, or whether thousands of Christians lost their lives in a
+great and holy cause, or whether the Mohammedans triumphed or were
+defeated at Jerusalem--the great result of the crusades was one of
+education of the people of Europe.  The boundaries of life were
+enlarged, the power of thought increased, the opportunities for doing
+and living multiplied.  It was the breaking away from the narrow shell
+of its own existence to the newly discovered life of the Orient that
+gave Europe its first impulse toward a larger life.  And to this extent
+the crusades may be said to have been a {327} great civilizer.  Many
+regard them as merely accidental phenomena difficult to explain, and
+yet, by tracing the various unobserved influences at work in their
+preparation, we shall see it was merely one phase of a great
+transitional movement in the progress of human life, just as we have
+seen that the feudal system was transitional between one form of
+government and another.  The influence of the crusades on civilization
+was immense in giving it an impulse forward.
+
+Under the general intellectual awakening, commercial enterprise was
+quickened, industry developed, and new ideas of government and art
+obtained.  The boundaries of Christian influences were extended and new
+nationalities were strengthened.  Feudalism was undermined by means of
+the consolidation of fiefs, the association of lord and vassal, the
+introduction of a new military system, the transfer of estates, and the
+promotion of the study and use of Roman jurisprudence.  Ecclesiasticism
+was greatly strengthened at Rome, through the power of the pope and the
+authority of his legates, the development of monastic orders, by the
+introduction of force and the use of the engine of excommunication.
+But something was gained for the common people, for serfs could be
+readily emancipated and there was a freer movement among all people.
+Ideas of equality began to be disseminated, which had their effect on
+the relation of affairs.  Upon the whole it may be stated in conclusion
+that the emancipation of the mind had begun.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Show how the crusades helped to break down feudalism and prepare
+for monarchy.
+
+2.  What intellectual benefit were the crusades to Europe?
+
+3.  Were there humanitarian and democratic elements of progress in the
+crusades?
+
+4.  What was the effect of the crusades on the power of the church?
+
+5.  What was the general influence of the crusades on civilization?
+
+6.  How did the crusades stimulate commerce?
+
+
+
+[1] See Chapter XXI.
+
+
+
+
+{328}
+
+CHAPTER XXI
+
+ATTEMPTS AT POPULAR GOVERNMENT
+
+_The Cost of Popular Government_.--The early forms of government were
+for the most part based upon hereditary authority or upon force.  The
+theories of government first advanced seldom had reference to the rule
+of the popular will.  The practice of civil affairs, enforcing theories
+of hereditary government or the rule of force, interfered with the
+rights of self-government of the people.  Hence every attempt to assume
+popular government was a struggle against old systems and old ideas.
+Freedom has been purchased by money or blood.  Men point with interest
+to the early assemblies of the Teutonic people to show the germs of
+democratic government, afterward to be overshadowed by imperialism, but
+a careful consideration would show that even this early stage of pure
+democracy was only a developed state from the earlier hereditary
+nobility.  The Goddess of Liberty is ideally a creature of beautiful
+form, but really her face is scarred and worn, her figure gnarled and
+warped with time, and her garments besprinkled with blood.  The
+selfishness of man, the struggle for survival, and the momentum of
+governmental machinery, have prevented the exercise of justice and of
+political equality.
+
+The liberty that has been gained is an expensive luxury.  It has cost
+those who have tried to gain it the treasures of accumulated wealth and
+the flower of youth.  When it has once been gained, the social forces
+have rendered the popular will non-expressive of the best government.
+Popular government, although ideally correct, is difficult to
+approximate, and frequently when obtained in name is far from real
+attainment.  After long oppression and subservience to monarchy or
+aristocracy, when the people, suddenly gaining power through great
+expense of treasure and blood, assume self-government, they find to
+their distress that they are incapable of it when {329} struggling
+against unfavorable conditions.  The result is a mismanaged government
+and an extra expense to the people.  There has been through many
+centuries a continual struggle for popular government.  The end of each
+conflict has seen something gained, yet the final solution of the
+problem has not been reached.  Nevertheless, imperfect as government by
+the people may be, it is, in the long run, the safest and best, and it
+undoubtedly will triumph in the end.  The democratic government of
+great nations is the most difficult of all forms to maintain, and it is
+only through the increased wisdom of the people that its final success
+may be achieved.  The great problem now confronting it arises from
+purely economic considerations.
+
+_The Feudal Lord and the Towns_.--Feudalism made its stronghold in
+country life.  The baronial castle was built away from cities and
+towns--in a locality favorable for defense.  This increased the
+importance of country life to a great extent, and placed the feudal
+lord in command of large tracts of territory.  Many of the cities and
+towns were for a time accorded the municipal privileges that had been
+granted them under Roman rule; but in time these wore away, and the
+towns, with a few exceptions, became included in large feudal tracts,
+and were held, with other territory, as feudatories.  In Italy, where
+feudalism was less powerful, the greater barons were obliged to build
+their castles in the towns, or, indeed, to unite with the towns in
+government.  But in France and Germany, and even to a certain extent in
+England, the feudal lord kept aloof from the town.
+
+There was, consequently, no sympathy existing between the feudal lord
+and the people of the cities.  It was his privilege to collect feudal
+dues and aids from the cities, and beyond this he cared nothing for
+their welfare.  It became his duty and privilege to hold the baronial
+court in the towns at intervals and to regulate their internal affairs,
+but he did this through a subordinate, and troubled himself little
+about any regulation or administration except to further his own ends.
+
+{330}
+
+_The Rise of Free Cities_.--Many of the towns were practically run by
+the surviving machinery of the old Roman municipal system, while many
+were practically without government except the overlordship of the
+feudal chief by his representative officer.  The Romans had established
+a complete system of municipal government in all their provinces.  Each
+town or city of any importance had a complete municipal machinery
+copied after the government of the imperial city.  When the Roman
+system began to decay, the central government failed first, and the
+towns found themselves severed from any central imperial government,
+yet in possession of machinery for local self-government.  When the
+barbarians invaded the Roman territory, and, avoiding the towns,
+settled in the country, the towns fell into the habit of managing their
+own affairs as far as feudal regime would permit.
+
+It appears, therefore, that the first attempts at local self-government
+were made in the cities and towns.  In fact, liberty of government was
+preserved in the towns, through the old Roman municipal life, which
+lived on, and, being shorn of the imperial idea, took on the spirit of
+Roman republicanism.  It was thus that the principles of Roman
+municipal government were kept through the Middle Ages and became
+useful in the modern period, not only in developing independent
+nationality but in perpetuating the rights of a people to govern
+themselves.
+
+The people of the towns organized themselves into municipal guilds to
+withstand the encroachments of the barons on their rights and
+privileges.  This gave a continued coherence to the city population,
+which it would not otherwise have had or perpetuated.  In thus
+perpetuating the idea of self-government, this cohesive organization,
+infused with a common sentiment of defense, made it possible to wrest
+liberty from the feudal baron.  When he desired to obtain money or
+supplies in order to carry on a war, or to meet other expenditures, he
+found it convenient to levy on the cities for this purpose.  His
+exactions, coming frequently and irregularly, aroused the {331}
+citizens to opposition.  A bloody struggle ensued, which usually ended
+in compromise and the purchase of liberty by the citizens by the
+payment of an annual tax to the feudal lord for permission to govern
+themselves in regard to all internal affairs.  It was thus that many of
+the cities gained their independence of feudal authority, and that
+some, in the rise of national life, gained their independence as
+separate states, such, for instance, as Hamburg, Venice, Luebeck, and
+Bremen.
+
+_The Struggle for Independence_.--In this struggle for independent life
+the cities first strove for just treatment.  In many instances this was
+accorded the citizens, and their friendly relations with the feudal
+lord continued.  When monarchy arose through the overpowering influence
+of some feudal lord, the city remained in subjection to the king, but
+in most instances the free burgesses of the towns were accorded due
+representation in the public assembly wherever one existed.  Many
+cities, failing to get justice, struggled with more or less success for
+independence.  The result of the whole contest was to develop the right
+of self-government and finally to preserve the principle of
+representation.  It was under these conditions that the theory of
+"taxation without representation is tyranny" was developed.  A
+practical outcome of this struggle for freedom has been the converse of
+this principle--namely, that representation without taxation is
+impossible.  Taxation, therefore, is the badge of liberty--of a liberty
+obtained through blood and treasure.
+
+_The Affranchisement of Cities Developed Municipal Organization_.--The
+effect of the affranchisement of cities was to develop an internal
+organization, usually on the representative plan.  There was not, as a
+rule, a pure democracy, for the influences of the Roman system and the
+feudal surroundings, rapidly tending toward monarchy, rendered it
+impossible that the citizens of the so-called free cities should have
+the privileges of a pure democracy, hence the representative plan
+prevailed.  There was not sufficient unity of purpose, nor common
+sentiment of the ideal government, sufficient to maintain {332}
+permanently the principles and practice of popular government.  Yet
+there was a popular assembly, in which the voice of the people was
+manifested in the election of magistrates, the voting of taxes, and the
+declaration of war.  In the mediaeval period, however, the municipal
+government was, in its real character, a business corporation, and the
+business affairs of the town were uppermost after defense against
+external forces was secured, hence it occurred that the wealthy
+merchants and the nobles who dwelt within the town became the most
+influential citizens in the management of municipal affairs.
+
+There sprang up, as an essential outcome of these conditions, an
+aristocracy within the city.  In many instances this aristocracy was
+reduced to an oligarchy, and the town was controlled by a few men; and
+in extreme cases the control fell into the hands of a tyrant, who for a
+time dominated the affairs of the town.  Whatever the form of the
+municipal government, the liberties of the people were little more than
+a mere name, recognized as a right not to be denied.  Having obtained
+their independence of foreign powers, the towns fell victims to
+internal tyranny, yet they were the means of preserving to the world
+the principles of local self-government, even though they were not
+permitted to enjoy to a great extent the privileges of exercising them.
+It remained for more favorable circumstances to make this possible.
+
+_The Italian Cities_.--The first cities to become prominent after the
+perpetuation of the Roman system by the introduction of barbarian blood
+were those of northern Italy.  These cities were less influenced by the
+barbarian invasion than others, on account of, first, their substantial
+city organization; second, the comparatively small number of invaders
+that surrounded them; and, third, the opportunity for trade presented
+by the crusades, which they eagerly seized.  Their power was increased
+because, as stated above, the feudal nobility, unable to maintain their
+position in the country, were forced to live in the cities.  The
+Italian cities were, therefore, less interfered with by barbarian and
+feudal influences, and continued to {333} develop strength.  The
+opportunity for immense trade and commerce opened up through the
+crusades made them wealthy.  Another potent cause of the rapid
+advancement of the Italian cities was their early contact with the
+Greeks and the Saracens, for they imbibed the culture of these peoples,
+which stimulated their own culture and learning.  Also, the invasions
+of the Saracens on the south and of the Hungarians on the north caused
+them to strengthen their fortifications.  They enclosed their towns
+with walls, and thus made opportunity for the formation of small,
+independent states within the walls.
+
+Comparatively little is known of the practice of popular government,
+although most of these cities were in the beginning republican and had
+popular elections.  In the twelfth century freedom was granted, in most
+instances, to the peasantry.  There were a parliament, a republican
+constitution, and a secret council (_credenza_) that assisted the
+consuls.  There was also a great council called a senate, consisting of
+about a hundred representatives of the people.  The chief duty of the
+senate was to discuss important public measures and refer them to the
+parliament for their approval.  In this respect it resembled the Greek
+senate (_boule_).  The secret council superintended the public works
+and administered the public finance.  These forms of government were
+not in universal use, but are as nearly typical as can be found, as the
+cities varied much in governmental practice.  It is easy to see that
+the framework of the government is Roman, while the spirit of the
+institutions, especially in the earlier part of their history, is
+affected by Teutonic influence.  There was a large number of these free
+towns in Italy from the close of the twelfth to the beginning of the
+fourteenth century.  At the close of this period, the republican phase
+of their government declined, and each was ruled by a succession of
+tyrants, or despots (_podestas_).
+
+In vain did the people attempt to regain their former privileges; they
+succeeded only in introducing a new kind of despotism in the captains
+of the people.  The cities had fallen {334} into the control of the
+wealthy families, and it mattered not what was the form of government,
+despotism prevailed.  In many of the cities the excessive power of the
+despots made their reign a prolonged terror.  As long as enlightened
+absolutism prevailed, government was administered by upright rulers and
+judges in the interests of the people; but when the power fell into the
+hands of unscrupulous men, the privileges and rights of the people were
+lost.  It is said that absolutism, descending from father to son, never
+improves in the descent; in the case of some of the Italian cities it
+produced monsters.  As the historian says: "The last Visconti, the last
+La Scalas, the last Sforzas, the last Farnesi, the last
+Medici--magnificent promoters of the humanities as their ancestors had
+been--were the worst specimens of the human race."  The situation of
+government was partially relieved by the introduction at a later period
+of the trade guilds.  All the industrial elements were organized into
+guilds, each one of which had its representation in the government.
+This was of service to the people, but nothing could erase the blot of
+despotism.
+
+The despots were of different classes, according to the method by which
+they obtained power.  First, there were nobles, who were
+representatives of the emperor, and governed parts of Lombardy while it
+was under the federated government, a position which enabled them to
+obtain power as captains of the people.  Again, there were some who
+held feudal rights over towns and by this means became rulers or
+captains.  There were others who, having been raised to office by the
+popular vote, had in turn used the office as a means to enslave the
+people and defeat the popular will.  The popes, also, appointed their
+nephews and friends to office and by this means obtained supremacy.
+Merchant princes, who had become wealthy, used their money to obtain
+and hold power.  Finally, there were the famous _condottieri_, who
+captured towns and made them principalities.  Into the hands of such
+classes as these the rights and privileges of the people were
+continually falling, and the result was disastrous to free government.
+
+{335}
+
+_Government of Venice_.--Florence and Venice represent the two typical
+towns of the group of Italian cities.  Wealthy, populous, and
+aggressive, they represent the greatest power, the highest intellectual
+development, becoming cities of culture and learning.  In 1494 the
+inhabitants of Florence numbered 90,000, of whom only 3,200 were
+burghers, or full citizens, while Venice had 100,000 inhabitants and
+only 5,000 burghers.  This shows what a low state popular government
+had reached--only one inhabitant in twenty was allowed the rights of
+citizens.
+
+Venice was established on the islands and morasses of the Adriatic
+Coast by a few remnants of the Beneti, who sought refuge upon them from
+the ravages of the Huns.  These people were early engaged in fishing,
+and later began a coast trade which, in time, enlarged into an
+extensive commerce.  In early times it had a municipal constitution,
+and the little villages had their own assemblies, discussed their own
+affairs, and elected their own magistrates.  Occasionally the
+representatives of the several tribal villages met to discuss the
+affairs of the whole city.  This led to a central government, which, in
+697 A.D., elected a doge for life.  The doges possessed most of the
+attributes of kings, became despotic and arbitrary, and finally ruled
+with absolute sway, so that the destinies of the republic were
+subjected to the rule of one man.  Aristocracy established itself, and
+the first families struggled for supremacy.
+
+Venice was the oldest republic of modern times, and continued the
+longest.  "It was older by 700 years than the Lombard republics, and it
+survived them for three centuries.  It witnessed the fall of the Roman
+Empire; it saw Italy occupied by Odoacer, by Charlemagne, and by
+Napoleon."  Its material prosperity was very great, and great buildings
+remain to this day as monuments of an art and architecture the
+foundations of which were mostly laid before the despots were at the
+height of their power.
+
+_Government of Florence_.--There was a resemblance between Florence and
+Athens.  Indeed, the former has been called the {336} Athens of the
+West, for in it the old Greek idea was first revived; in it the love
+for the artistic survived.  Both cities were devoted to the
+accumulating of wealth, and both were interested in the struggles over
+freedom and general politics.  Situated in the valley of the Arno,
+under the shadow of the Apennines, Florence lacked the charm of Venice,
+situated on the sea.  It was early conquered by Sulla and made into a
+military city of the Romans, and by a truce the Roman government and
+the Roman spirit prevailed in the city.  It was destroyed by the Goths
+and rebuilt by the Franks, but still retained the Roman spirit.  It was
+then a city of considerable importance, surrounded by a wall six miles
+in circumference, having seventy towers.
+
+After it was rebuilt, the city was governed by a senate, but finally
+the first families predominated.  Then there arose, in 1215, the great
+struggle between the papal and the imperial parties, the Ghibellines
+and the Guelphs--internal dissensions which were not quieted until
+these two opposing factions were driven out and a popular government
+established, with twelve _seignors_, or rulers, as the chief officers.
+Soon after this the art guilds obtained considerable power.  They
+elected _priors_ of trades every two months.  At first there were seven
+guilds that held control in Florence; they were the lawyers, who were
+excluded from all offices, the physicians, the bankers, the mercers,
+the woollen-drapers, the dealers in foreign cloths, and the dealers in
+pelts from the north.  Subsequently, men following the baser
+arts--butchers, retailers of cloth, blacksmiths, bakers, shoemakers,
+builders--were admitted to the circle of arts, until there were
+twenty-one.
+
+After having a general representative council, it was finally (1266)
+determined that each of the seven greater arts should have a council of
+its own.  The next step in government was the appointment of a
+_gonfalconier_ of justice by the companies of arts that had especial
+command of citizens.  But soon a struggle began between the commons and
+the nobility, in which for a long time the former were successful.
+Under the {337} leadership of Giano della Bella they enacted ordinances
+of justice destroying the power of the nobles, making them ineligible
+to the office of _prior_, and fining each noble 13,000 pounds for any
+offense against the law.  The testimony of two credible persons was
+sufficient to convict a person if their testimony agreed; hence it
+became easy to convict persons of noble blood.  Yet the commons were in
+the end obliged to succumb to the power of the nobility and
+aristocracy, and the light of popular government went out.
+
+_The Lombard League_.--The Lombard cities of the north of Italy were
+established subsequent to the invasion of the Lombards, chiefly through
+the peculiar settlement of the Lombard dukes over different territories
+in a loose confederation.  But the Lombards found cities already
+existing, and became the feudal proprietors of these and the territory.
+There were many attempts to unite these cities into a strong
+confederation, but owing to the nature of the feudal system and the
+general independence and selfishness of each separate city, they proved
+futile.  We find here the same desire for local self-government that
+existed in the Greek cities, the indulgence of which was highly
+detrimental to their interests in time of invasion or pressure from
+external power.  There were selfishness and rivalry between all these
+cities, not only in the attempt to outdo each other in political power,
+but by reason of commercial jealousy.  "Venice first, Christians next,
+and Italy afterward" was the celebrated maxim of Venice.
+
+To the distressing causes which kept the towns apart, the strife
+between the Guelphs and the Ghibellines increased the trouble.  Nor had
+the pope any desire to see a strong, unified government so near him.
+In those days popes were usually not honored in their own country, and,
+moreover, had enough to do to control their refractory subjects to the
+north of the Alps.  Unity was impossible among cities so blindly and
+selfishly opposed to one another, and it was, besides, especially
+prevented by jealous sovereigns from without, who wished rather to see
+these cities acting independently and separately {338} than
+effectively, in a strong, united government.  Under these circumstances
+it was impossible there should be a strong and unified government; yet,
+could they have been properly utilized, all the materials were at hand
+for developing a national life which would have withstood the shock of
+opposing nationalities through centuries.  The attempt to make a great
+confederation, a representative republic, failed, however, and with it
+failed the real hopes of republicanism in Italy.
+
+_The Rise of Popular Assemblies in France_.--In the early history of
+France, while feudalism yet prevailed, it became customary for the
+provinces to have their popular assemblies.  These assemblies usually
+were composed of all classes of the people, and probably had their
+origin in the calls made by feudal lords to unite all those persons
+within their feudatories who might have something to say respecting the
+administration of the government and the law.  In them the three
+estates were assembled--the clergy, the nobility, and the commons.
+Many of these old provincial assemblies continued for a long time, for
+instance, in Brittany and Languedoc, where they remained until the
+period of the revolution.
+
+It appears that every one of these provinces had its own provincial
+assembly, and a few of these assemblies survived until modern times, so
+that we know somewhat of their nature.  Although their powers were very
+much curtailed on the rise of monarchy, especially in the time of the
+Louis's, yet the provinces in which they continued had advantages over
+those provinces which had lost the provincial assemblies.  They had
+purchased of the crown the privilege of collecting all taxes demanded
+by the central government, and they retained the right to tax
+themselves for the expenses of their local administration and to carry
+on improvements, such as roads and water-courses, without any
+administration of the central government.  Notwithstanding much
+restriction upon their power within their own domain, they moved with a
+certain freedom which other provinces did not possess.
+
+_Rural Communes Arose in France_.--Although feudalism had prevailed
+over the entire country, there was a continual growth {339} of local
+self-government at the time when feudalism was gradually passing into
+monarchial power.  It was to the interest of the kings to favor
+somewhat the development of local self-government, especially the
+development of the cities while the struggle for dominion over
+feudalism was going on; but when the kings had once obtained power they
+found themselves confronted with the uprising spirit of local
+government.  The struggle between king and people went on for some
+centuries, until the time when everything ran to monarchy and all the
+rights of the people were wrested from them; indeed, the perfection of
+the centralized government of the French monarch left no opportunity
+for the voice of the people to be heard.
+
+The rural communes existed by rights obtained from feudal lords who had
+granted them charters and given them self-government over a certain
+territory.  These charters allowed the inhabitants of a commune to
+regulate citizenship and the administration of property, and to define
+feudal rights and duties.  Their organ of government was a general
+assembly of all the inhabitants, which either regulated the affairs of
+a commune directly or else delegated especial functions to communal
+officers who had power to execute laws already passed or to convoke the
+general assembly of the people on new affairs.  The collection of taxes
+for both the central and the local government, the management of the
+property of the commune, and the direction of the police system
+represented the chief powers of the commune.  The exercise of these
+privileges led into insistence upon the right of every man, whether
+peasant, freeman, or noble, to be tried by his peers.
+
+_The Municipalities of France_.--As elsewhere related, the barbarians
+found the cities and towns of France well advanced in their own
+municipal system.  This system they modified but little, only giving
+somewhat of the spirit of political freedom.  In the struggle waged
+later against the feudal nobility these towns gradually obtained their
+rights, by purchase or agreement, and became self-governing.  In this
+struggle we find the Christian church, represented by the bishop,
+always arraying itself on the side of the commons against the nobility,
+{340} and thus establishing democracy.  Among the municipal privileges
+which were wrested from the nobility was included the right to make all
+laws that might concern the people; to raise their own taxes, both
+local and for the central government; to administer justice in their
+own way, and to manage their own police system.  The relations of the
+municipality to the central government or the feudal lord forced them
+to pay a certain tribute, which gave them a legal right to manage
+themselves.
+
+Their pathway was not always smooth, however, but, on the contrary,
+full of contention and struggle against overbearing lords who sought to
+usurp authority.  Their internal management generally consisted of two
+assemblies--one a general assembly of citizens, in which they were all
+well represented, the other an assembly of notables.  The former
+elected the magistrates, and performed all legislative actions; the
+latter acted as a sort of advisory council to assist the magistrates.
+Sometimes the cities had but one assembly of citizens, which merely
+elected magistrates and exercised supervision over them.  The
+magistracy generally consisted of aldermen, presided over by a mayor,
+and acted as a general executive council for the city.
+
+Municipal freedom gradually declined through adverse circumstances.
+Within the city limits tyranny, aristocracy, or oligarchy sometimes
+prevailed, wresting from the people the rights which they had purchased
+or fought for.  Without was the pressure of the feudal lord, which
+gradually passed into the general fight of the king for royal
+supremacy.  The king, it is true, found the towns very strong allies in
+his struggle against the nobility.  They too had commenced a struggle
+against the feudal lords, and there was a common bond of sympathy
+between them.  But when the feudal lords were once mastered, the king
+must turn his attention to reducing the liberties of the people, and
+gradually, through the influence of monarchy and centralization of
+government, the rights and privileges of the people of the towns of
+France passed away.
+
+{341}
+
+_The States-General Was the First Central Organization_.--It ought to
+be mentioned here that after the monarchy was moderately well
+established, Philip the Fair (1285-1314) called the representatives of
+the nation together.  He called in the burghers of the towns, the
+nobility, and the clergy and formed a parliament for the discussion of
+the affairs of the realm.  It appeared that the constitutional
+development which began so early in England was about to obtain in
+France.  But it was not to be realized, for in the three centuries that
+followed--namely, the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth--the
+monarchs of France managed to keep this body barely in existence,
+without giving it any real power.  When the king was secure upon his
+throne and imperialism had received its full power, the nobility, the
+clergy, and the commons were no longer needed to support the throne of
+France, and, consequently, the will of the people was not consulted.
+It is true that each estate of nobility, clergy, and commons met
+separately from time to time and made out its own particular grievances
+to the king, but the representative power of the people passed away and
+was not revived again until, on the eve of the revolution, Louis XVI,
+shaken with terror, once more called together the three estates in the
+last representative body held before the political deluge burst upon
+the French nation.
+
+_Failure of Attempts at Popular Government in Spain_.--There are signs
+of popular representation in Spain at a very early date, through the
+independent towns.  This representation was never universal or regular.
+Many of the early towns had charter rights which they claimed as
+ancient privileges granted by the Roman government.  These cities were
+represented for a time in the popular assembly, or Cortes, but under
+the reign of Ferdinand and Isabella the Cortes were seldom called, and
+when they were, it was for the advantage of the sovereign rather than
+of the people.  Many attempts were made in Spain, from time to time, to
+fan into flame this enthusiasm for popular representation, but the
+predominance of monarchy and the dogmatic centralized power of the
+church tended to {342} repress all real liberty.  Even in these later
+days sudden bursts of enthusiasm for constitutional liberty and
+constitutional privilege are heard from the southern peninsula; but the
+transition into monarchy was so sudden that the rights of the people
+were forever curtailed.  The frequent outbursts for liberty and popular
+government came from the centres where persisted the ideas of freedom
+planted by the northern barbarians.
+
+_Democracy in the Swiss Cantons_.--It is the boast of some of the rural
+districts of Switzerland, that they never submitted to the feudal
+regime, that they have never worn the yoke of bondage, and, indeed,
+that they were never conquered.  It is probable that several of the
+rural communes of Switzerland have never known anything other than a
+free peasantry.  They have continually practised the pure democracy
+exemplified by the entire body of citizens meeting in the open field to
+make the laws and to elect their officers.  Although it is true that in
+these rural communities of Switzerland freedom has been a continuous
+quantity, yet during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries Switzerland,
+as a whole, was dominated by feudalism.  This feudalism differed
+somewhat from the French feudalism, for it represented a sort of
+overlordship of absentee feudal chiefs, which, leaving the people more
+to themselves, made vassalage less irksome.
+
+At the beginning of the fourteenth century, in the year 1309, the
+cantons, Schwyz, Uri, and Unterwalden, lying near Lake Lucerne, gained,
+through the emperor, Henry VII, the recognition of their independence
+in all things except allegiance to the empire.  Each of these small
+states had its own government, varying somewhat from that of its
+neighbors.  Yet the rural cantons evinced a strong spirit of pure
+democracy, for they had already, about half a century previous, formed
+themselves into a league which proved the germ of confederacy, which
+perpetuated republican institutions in the Middle Ages.  The spirit of
+freedom prevailing throughout diverse communities brought the remainder
+of the Swiss cantons into the confederation.
+
+{343}
+
+The first liberties possessed by the various cantons were indigenous to
+the soil.  From time immemorial they had clung to the ancient right of
+self-government, and had developed in their midst a local system which
+feudalism never succeeded in eradicating.  It mattered not how diverse
+their systems of local government, they had a common cause against
+feudal domination, and this brought them into a close union in the
+attempt to throw off such domination.  It is one of the remarkable
+phenomena of political history, that proud, aristocratic cities with
+monarchial tendencies could be united with humble and rude communes
+which held expressly to pure democracy.  It is but another illustration
+of the truth that a particular form of government is not necessary to
+the development of liberty, but it is the spirit, bravery,
+independence, and unity of the people that make democracy possible.
+Another important truth, also, is illustrated here--that Italian,
+German, and French people who respect each other's liberty and have a
+common cause may dwell together on a basis of unity and mutual support.
+
+Switzerland stands, then, for the perpetuation of the early local
+liberties of the people.  It has always been the synonym of freedom and
+the haven of refuge for the politically oppressed of all nations, and
+its freedom has always had a tendency to advance civilization, not only
+within the boundaries of the Swiss government, but throughout all
+Europe.  Progressive ideas of religion and education have ever
+accompanied liberty in political affairs.  The long struggle with the
+feudal lords and the monarchs of European governments, and with the
+Emperor of Germany, united the Swiss people on a basis of common
+interests and developed a spirit of independence.  At the same time, it
+had a tendency to warp their judgments respecting the religious rights
+and liberties of a people, and more than once the Swiss have shown how
+narrow in conception of government a republic can be.  Yet, upon the
+whole, it must be conceded that the watch-fires of liberty have never
+been extinguished in Switzerland, and that the light they {344} have
+shed has illumined many dark places in Europe and America.
+
+_The Ascendancy of Monarchy_.--Outside of Switzerland the faint
+beginning of popular representation was gradually overcome by the
+ascendancy of monarchy.  Feudalism, after its decline, was rapidly
+followed by the development of monarchy throughout Europe.  The
+centralization of power became a universal principle, uniting in one
+individual the government of an entire nation.  It was an expression of
+unity, and was essential to the redemption of Europe from the chaotic
+state in which it had been left by declining feudalism.
+
+Monarchy is not necessarily the rule of a single individual.  It may be
+merely the proclamation of the will of the people through one man, the
+expression of the voice of the people from a single point.  Of all
+forms of government a monarchy is best adapted to a nation or people
+needing a strong central government able to act with precision and
+power.  As illustrative of this, it is a noteworthy fact that the old
+Lombard league of confederated states could get along very well until
+threatened with foreign invasion; then they needed a king.  The Roman
+republic, with consuls and senate, moved on very well in times of
+peace, but in times of war it was necessary to have a dictator, whose
+voice should have the authority of law.  The President of the United
+States is commander-in-chief of the army, which position in time of war
+gives him a power almost resembling imperialism.  Could Greece have
+presented against her invaders a strong monarchy which could unite all
+her heroes in one common command, her enemies would not so easily have
+prevailed against her.
+
+Monarchy, then, in the development of European life seemed merely a
+stage of progress not unlike that of feudalism itself--a stage of
+progressive government; and it was only when it was carried to a
+ridiculous extreme in France and in England--in France under the
+Louis's and in England under the Stuarts--that it finally appeared
+detrimental to the highest interests of the people.  On the other hand,
+the weak {345} republicanism of the Middle Ages had not sufficient
+unity or sufficient aggressiveness to maintain itself, and gave way to
+what was then a form of government better adapted to conditions and
+surroundings.  But the fires of liberty, having been once lighted, were
+to burst forth again in a later period and burn with sufficient heat to
+purify the governments of the world.
+
+_Beginning of Constitutional Liberty in England_.--When the Normans
+entered England, feudalism was in its infancy and wanted yet the form
+of the Roman system.  The kings of the English people soon became the
+kings of England, and the feudal system spread over the entire island.
+But this feudalism was already in the grasp of monarchy which prevailed
+much more easily in England than in France.  There came a time in
+England, as elsewhere, when the people, seeking their liberties, were
+to be united with the king to suppress the feudal nobility, and there
+sprang up at this time some elements of popular representative
+government, most plainly visible in the parliament of Simon de Montfort
+(1265) and the "perfect parliament" of 1295, the first under the reign
+of Henry III, and the second under Edward I.  In one or two instances
+prior to this, county representation was summoned in parliament in
+order to facilitate the method of assessing and collecting taxes, but
+these two parliaments marked the real beginnings of constitutional
+liberty in England, so far as local representation is concerned.
+
+Prior to this, in 1215, the nobles and the commons, working together,
+had wrested the concession of the great _Magna Charta_ from King John,
+and thus had established a precedent of the right of each class of
+individuals to have its share in the government of the realm; under its
+declaration king, nobility, and commons, each a check upon the other,
+each struggling for power, and all developing through the succeeding
+generations the liberty of the people under the constitution.  This
+long, slow process of development, reminding one somewhat of the
+struggle of the plebeians of Rome against the patricians, {346} finally
+made the lower house of parliament, which represents the people of the
+realm, the most prominent factor in the government of the English
+people--and at last, without a cataclysm like the French Revolution,
+established liberty of speech, popular representation, and religious
+liberty.
+
+We find, then, that in England and in other parts of Europe a
+liberalizing tendency set in after monarchy had been established and
+become predominant, which limited the actions of kings and declared for
+the liberties of the people.  Imperialism in monarchy was limited by
+the constitution of the people.  England laid the foundations of
+democracy in recognizing the rights of representation of all classes.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What phases of popular government are to be noted in the Italian
+cities?
+
+2.  What is the relation of "enlightened absolutism" to social progress?
+
+3.  The characteristics of mediaeval guilds.
+
+4.  Why were the guilds discontinued?
+
+5.  The rise and decline of popular assemblies and rural communes of
+France.
+
+6.  The nature of the government of the Swiss cantons.
+
+7.  The transition from feudalism to monarchy.
+
+8.  In what ways was the idea of popular government perpetuated in
+Europe?
+
+
+
+
+{347}
+
+CHAPTER XXII
+
+THE INTELLECTUAL AWAKENING OF EUROPE
+
+_Social Evolution Is Dependent Upon Variation_.--The process by which
+ideas are born and propagated in human society is strangely analogous
+to the methods of biological evolution.  The laws of survival, of
+adaptation, of variation and mutation prevail, and the evidence of
+conspicuous waste is ever present.  The grinding and shifting of human
+nature under social law is similar to the grinding and shifting of
+physical nature under organic law.  When we consider the length of time
+it takes physical nature to accomplish the ultimate of fixed values,
+seventy millions of years or more to produce an oak-tree, millions of
+years to produce a horse or a man, we should not be impatient with the
+slow processes of human society nor the waste of energy in the process.
+For human society arises out of the confusion of ideas and progresses
+according to the law of survival.
+
+New ideas must be accepted, diffused, used, and adapted to new
+conditions.  It would seem that Europe had sufficient knowledge of life
+contributed by the Orient, by Greek, Roman, and barbarian to go
+forward; but first must come a period of readjustment of old truth to
+new environment and the discovery of new truth.  For several centuries,
+in the Dark Ages, the intellectual life of man lay dormant.  Then must
+come a quickening of the spirit before the world could advance.
+However, in considering human progress, the day of small things must
+"not be despised."  For in the days of confusion and low tide of
+regression there are being established new modes of life and thought
+which through right adaptation will flow on into the full tide of
+progress.  Revivals come which gather up and utilize the scattered and
+confused ideas of life, adapting and utilizing them by setting new
+standards and imparting new impulses of progress.
+
+{348}
+
+_The Revival of Progress Throughout Europe_.--Human society, as a world
+of ideas, is a continuous quantity, and therefore it is difficult to
+mark off any definite period of time to show social causation.  Roughly
+speaking, the period from the beginning of the eighth century to the
+close of the fifteenth is a period of intellectual ferment, the climax
+of which extended from the eleventh to the close of the fifteenth
+century.  It was in this period that the forces were gathering in
+preparation for the achievements of the modern era of progress.  There
+was one general movement, an awakening along the whole line of human
+endeavor in the process of transition from the old world to the new.
+It was a revival of art, language, literature, philosophy, theology,
+politics, law, trade, commerce, and the additions of invention and
+discovery.  It was the period of establishing schools and laying the
+foundation of universities.  In this there was a more or less
+continuous progress of the freedom of the mind, which permitted
+reflective thought, which subsequently led on to the religious
+reformation that permitted freedom of belief, and the French
+Revolution, which permitted freedom of political action.  It was the
+rediscovery of the human mind, a quickening of intellectual liberty, a
+desire of alert minds for something new.  It was a call for humanity to
+move forward.
+
+_The Revival of Learning a Central Idea of Progress_.--As previously
+stated, the church had taken to itself by force of circumstances the
+power in the Western world relinquished by the fallen Roman Empire.  In
+fighting the battles against unbelief, ignorance, and political
+corruption, it had become a powerful hierarchy.  As the conservator of
+learning, it eventually began to settle the limits of knowledge and
+belief on its own interpretation and to force this upon the world.  It
+saved the elements of knowledge from the destruction of the barbarians,
+but in turn sought to lock up within its own precincts of belief the
+thoughts of the ages, presuming to do the thinking for the world.  It
+became dogmatic, arbitrary, conservative, and conventional.  Moreover,
+this had become the {349} attitude of all inert Europe.  The several
+movements that sought to overcome this stifling condition of the mind
+are called the "revival of learning."
+
+A more specific use of the term renaissance, or revival of learning,
+refers especially to the restoration of the intellectual continuity of
+Europe, or the rebirth of the human mind.  It is generally applied to
+what is known as humanism, or the revival of classical learning.
+Important as this phase of general progress is, it can be considered
+only as a part of the great revival of progress.  Humanism, or the
+revival of classical learning, having its origin and first great
+impulse in Italy, it has become customary to use humanism and the
+Italian renaissance interchangeably, yet without careful consideration;
+for although the Italian renaissance is made up largely of humanism, it
+had such wide-reaching consequences on the progress of all Europe as
+not to be limited by the single influence of the revival of the
+classical learning.
+
+_Influence of Charlemagne_.--Clovis founded the Frankish kingdom, which
+included the territory now occupied by France and the Netherlands.
+Subsequently this kingdom was enlarged under the rule of Charles
+Martel, who turned back the Moslem invasion at Poitiers in 732, and
+became ruler of Europe north of the Alps.  His son Pepin enlarged and
+strengthened the kingdom, so that when his successor Charlemagne came
+into power in 768 he found himself in control of a vast inland empire.
+He conquered Rome and all north Italy and assumed the title of Roman
+emperor.  The movement of Charlemagne was a slight and even a doubtful
+beginning of the revival.  Possibly his reform was a faint flickering
+of the watch-fires of intellectual and civil activity, but they went
+out and darkness obscured the horizon until the breaking of the morn of
+liberty.  Yet in the darkness of the ages that followed new forces were
+forming unobserved by the contemporary historian--forces which should
+give a new awakening to the mind of all Europe.
+
+Charlemagne re-established the unity of government which {350} had been
+lost in the decline of the old Roman government; he enlarged the
+boundary of the empire, established an extensive system of
+administration, and promoted law and order.  He did more than this: he
+promoted religion by favoring the church in the advancement of its work
+throughout the realm.  But unfortunately, in the attempt to break down
+feudalism, he increased it by giving large donations to the church, and
+so helped to develop ecclesiastical feudalism, and laid the foundation
+of subsequent evils.  He was a strong warrior, a great king, and a
+master of civil government.
+
+Charlemagne believed in education, and insisted that the clergy should
+be educated, and he established schools for the education of his
+subjects.  He promoted learning among his civil officers by
+establishing a school all the graduates of which were to receive civil
+appointments.  It was the beginning of the civil service method in
+Europe.  Charlemagne was desirous, too, of promoting learning of all
+kinds, and gathered together the scattered fragments of the German
+language, and tried to advance the educational interests of his
+subjects in every direction.  But the attempts to make learning
+possible, apparently, passed for naught in later days when the iron
+rule of Charlemagne had passed away, and the weaker monarchs who came
+after him were unable to sustain his system.  Darkness again spread
+over Europe, to be dispelled finally by other agencies.
+
+_The Attitude of the Church Was Retrogressive_.--The attitude of the
+Christian church toward learning in the Middle Ages was entirely
+arbitrary.  It had become thoroughly institutionalized and was not in
+sympathy with the changes that were taking place outside of its own
+policy.  It assumed an attitude of hostility to everything that tended
+toward the development of free and independent thought outside the
+dictates of the authorities of the church.  It found itself, therefore,
+in an attitude of bitter opposition to the revival of learning which
+had spread through Europe.  It was unfortunate that the church appeared
+so diametrically opposed to freedom of {351} thought and independent
+activity of mind.  Even in England, when the new learning was first
+introduced, although Henry VIII favored it, the church in its blind
+policy opposed it, and when the renaissance in Germany had passed
+continuously into the Reformation, Luther opposed the new learning with
+as much vigor as did the papalists themselves.
+
+But from the fact of the church's assuming this attitude toward the new
+learning, it must not be inferred that there was no learning within the
+church, for there were scholars in theology, logic, and law, astute and
+learned.  Yet the church assumed that it had a sort of proprietorship
+or monopoly of learning, and that only what it might see fit to
+designate was to receive attention, and then only in the church's own
+way; all other knowledge was to be opposed.  The ecclesiastical
+discussions gave evidence of intense mental activity within the church,
+but, having little knowledge of the outside world to invigorate it or
+to give it something tangible upon which to operate, the mind passed
+into speculative fields that were productive of little permanent
+culture.  Dwelling only upon a few fundamental conceptions at first, it
+soon tired itself out with its own weary round.
+
+The church recognized in all secular advocates of literature and
+learning its own enemies, and consequently began to expunge from the
+literary world as far as possible the remains of the declining Roman
+and Greek culture.  It became hostile to Greek and Latin literature and
+art and sought to repress them.  In the rise of new languages and
+literature in new nationalities every attempt was made by the church to
+destroy the effects of the pagan life.  The poems and sagas treating of
+the religion and mythologies of these young, rising nationalities were
+destroyed.  The monuments of the first beginnings of literature, the
+products of a period so hard to compass by the historian, were served
+in the same way as were the Greek and Latin masterpieces.
+
+The church said, if men will persist in study, let them ponder the
+precepts of the gospels as interpreted by the church.  {352} For those
+who inquired about the problems of life, the churchmen pointed to the
+creeds and the dogmas of the church, which had settled all things.  If
+men were too persistent in inquiring about the nature of this world,
+they were told that it is of little importance, only a prelude to the
+world to come; that they should spend their time in preparation for the
+future.  Even as great a man as Gregory of Tours said: "Let us shun the
+lying fables of the poets and forego the wisdom of the sages at enmity
+with God, lest we incur the condemnation of endless death by the
+sentence of our Lord."  Saint Augustine deplored the waste of time
+spent in reading Virgil, while Alcuin regretted that in his boyhood he
+had preferred Virgil to the legends of the saints.  With the monks such
+considerations gave excuse for laziness and disregard of rhetoric.
+
+But in this movement of hostility to the new learning, the church went
+too far, and soon found the entire ecclesiastical system face to face
+with a gross ignorance, which must be eradicated or the superstructure
+would fall.  As Latin was the only vehicle of thought in those days, it
+became a necessity that the priests should study Virgil and the other
+Latin authors, consequently the churches passed from their opposition
+to pagan authors to a careful utilization of them, until the whole
+papal court fell under the influence of the revival of learning, and
+popes and prelates became zealous in the promotion and, indeed, in the
+display of learning.  When the son of Lorenzo the Magnificent became
+Pope Leo X, the splendor of the ducal court of Florence passed to the
+papal throne, and no one was more zealous in the patronage of learning
+than he.  He encouraged learning and art of every kind, and built a
+magnificent library.  It was merely the transferrence of the pomp of
+the secular court to the papacy.
+
+Such was the attitude of the church toward the new learning--first, a
+bitter opposition; second, a forced toleration; and third, the
+absorption of its best products.  Yet in all this the spirit of the
+church was not for the freedom of mind nor independence of thought.  It
+could not recognize this freedom nor {353} the freedom of religious
+belief until it had been humiliated by the spirit of the Reformation.
+
+_Scholastic Philosophy Marks a Step in Progress_.--There arose in the
+ninth century a speculative philosophy which sought to harmonize the
+doctrine of the church with the philosophy of Neo-Platonism and the
+logic of Aristotle.  The scholastic philosophy may be said to have had
+its origin with John Scotus Erigena, who has been called "the morning
+star of scholasticism."  He was the first bold thinker to assert the
+supremacy of reason and openly to rebel against the dogma of the
+church.  In laying the foundation of his doctrine, he starts with a
+philosophical explanation of the universe.  His writings and
+translations were forerunners of mysticism and set forth a peculiar
+pantheistic conception.  His doctrine appears to ignore the pretentious
+authority of the church of his time and to refer to the earlier church
+for authority.  In so doing he incorporated the doctrine of emanation
+advanced by the Neo-Platonists, which held that out of God, the supreme
+unity, evolve the particular forms of goodness, and that eventually all
+things will return to God.  In like manner, in the creation of the
+universe the species comes from the genera by a process of unfolding.
+
+The complete development and extension of scholastic philosophy did not
+come until the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.  The term
+"scholastics" was first applied to those who taught in the cloister
+schools founded by Charlemagne.  It was at a later period applied to
+the teachers of the seven liberal arts--grammar, rhetoric, and
+dialectic, in the _Trivium,_ and arithmetic, geometry, music, and
+astronomy, in the _Quadrivium_.  Finally it was applied to all persons
+who occupied themselves with science or philosophy.  Scholastic
+philosophy in its completed state represents an attempt to harmonize
+the doctrines of the church with Aristotelian philosophy.
+
+There were three especial doctrines developed in the scholastic
+philosophy, called respectively nominalism, realism, and conceptualism.
+The first asserted that there are no generic {354} types, and
+consequently no abstract concepts.  The formula used to express the
+vital point in nominalism is "_Universalia post rem_."  Its advocates
+asserted that universals are but names.  Roscellinus was the most
+important advocate of this doctrine.  In the fourteenth century William
+of Occam revived the subject of nominalism, and this had much to do
+with the downfall of scholasticism, for its inductive method suggested
+the acquiring of knowledge through observation.
+
+Realism was a revival of the Platonic doctrine that ideas are the only
+real things.  The formula for it was "_Universalia ante rem_."  By it
+the general name preceded that of the species.  Universal concepts
+represent the real; all else is merely illustrative of the real.  The
+only real sphere is the one held in the mind, mathematically correct in
+every way.  Balls and globes and other actual things are but the
+illustrations of the genus.  Perhaps Anselm was the strongest advocate
+of this method of reasoning.
+
+It remained for Abelard to unite these two theories of philosophical
+reasoning into one, called conceptualism.  He held that universals are
+not ideals, but that they exist in the things themselves.  The formula
+given was "_Universalia in re_." This was a step in advance, and laid
+something of a foundation for the philosophy of classification in
+modern science.
+
+The scholastic philosophers did much to sharpen reason and to develop
+the mind, but they failed for want of data.  Indeed, this has been the
+common failure of man, for in the height of civilization men speculate
+without sufficient knowledge.  Even in the beginning of scientific
+thought, for lack of facts, men spent much of their time in
+speculation.  The scholastic philosophers were led to consider many
+unimportant questions which could not be well settled.  They asked the
+church authorities why the sacramental wine and bread turned into blood
+and flesh, and what was the necessity of the atonement?  And in
+considering the nature of pure being they asked: "How many angels can
+dance at once on the point of a needle?" and "In moving from point to
+point, do angels pass through {355} intervening space?"  They asked
+seriously whether "angels had stomachs," and "if a starving ass were
+placed exactly midway between two stacks of hay would he ever move?"
+But it must not be inferred that these people were as ridiculous as
+they appear, for each question had its serious side.  Having no
+assistance from science, they fell single-handed upon dogmatism; yet
+many times they busied themselves with unprofitable discussions, and
+some of them became the advocates of numerous doctrines and dogmas
+which had a tendency to confuse knowledge, although in defense of which
+wits were sharpened.
+
+Lord Bacon, in a remarkable passage, has characterized the scholastic
+philosophers as follows:
+
+"This kind of degenerate learning did chiefly reign among the
+schoolmen, who--having sharp and strong wits and abundance of leisure
+and small variety of reading, but their wits being shut up in the cells
+of a few authors (chiefly Aristotle, their dictator) as their persons
+were shut up in the cells of monasteries and colleges, and having
+little history, either of nature or of time--did, out of no great
+quantity of matter and infinite agitation of wit, spin out unto us
+those laborious webs of learning which are extant in their books.  For
+the wit and mind of man, if it work upon matter which is the
+contemplation of the creatures of God, worketh according to the stuff
+and is limited thereby; but if it work upon itself, as the spider
+worketh its web, then it is endless, and brings forth indeed cobwebs of
+learning, admirable for the fineness of thread and work, but of no
+substance or profit."[1]
+
+Scholasticism, as the first phase of the revival of learning, though
+overshadowed by tradition and mediaeval dogmatism, showed great
+earnestness of purpose in ascertaining the truth by working "the wit
+and mind of man"; but it worked not "according to the stuff," and,
+having little to feed upon, it produced only speculations of truth and
+indications of future possibilities.  There were many bright men among
+the scholastic {356} philosophers, especially in the thirteenth
+century, who left their impress upon the age; yet scholasticism itself
+was affected by dogmatism and short-sightedness, and failed to utilize
+the means at its hand for the improvement of learning.  It exercised a
+tyranny over all mental endeavor, for the reason that it was obliged in
+all of its efforts to carry through all of its reasoning the heavy
+weight of dogmatic theology.  Whatever else it attempted, it could not
+shake itself free from this incubus of learning, through a great system
+of organized knowledge, which hung upon the thoughts and lives of men
+and attempted to explain all things in every conceivable way.
+
+But to show that independent thinking was a crime one has only to refer
+to the results of the knowledge of Roger Bacon, who advanced his own
+methods of observation and criticism.  Had the scholastics been able to
+accept what he clearly pointed out to them, namely, that reason can
+advance only by finding, through observation, new material upon which
+to work, science might have been active a full century in advance of
+what it was.  He laid the foundation of experimental science, and
+pointed out the only way in which the revival of learning could be made
+permanent, but his voice was unheeded by those around him, and it
+remained for the philosophers of succeeding generations to estimate his
+real worth.
+
+_Cathedral and Monastic Schools_.--There were two groups of schools
+under the management of the church, known as the cathedral and monastic
+schools.  The first represented the schools that had developed in the
+cathedrals for the sons of lay members of the church; the second, those
+in the monasteries that were devoted largely to the education of the
+ministry.  To understand fully the position of these schools it is
+necessary to go back a little and refer to the educational forces of
+Europe.  For a long period after Alexandria had become established as a
+great centre of learning, Athens was really the centre of education in
+the East, and this city held her sway in educational affairs down to
+the second century.  The influence of the traditions of great teachers
+and the encouragement and {357} endowments given by emperors kept up a
+school at Athens, to which flocked the youth of the land who desired a
+superior education.
+
+Finally, when the great Roman Empire joined to itself the Greek
+culture, there sprang up what was known as the Greek and Roman schools,
+or Graeco-Roman schools, although Rome was not without its centre of
+education at the famous Athenaeum.  In these Graeco-Roman schools were
+taught grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic, music, arithmetic, geometry,
+and astronomy.  The grammar of that day frequently included language,
+criticism, history, literature, metre; the dialectic considered logic,
+metaphysics, and ethics; while rhetoric contemplated the fitting of the
+youth for public life and for the law.
+
+But these schools, though dealing in real knowledge for a time,
+gradually declined, chiefly on account of the declining moral powers of
+the empire and the relaxation of intellectual activity, people thinking
+more of ease and luxury and the power of wealth than of actual
+accomplishment.  The internal disorganization, unjust taxation, and
+unjust rule of the empire had also a tendency to undermine education.
+The coming of the barbarians, with their honest, illiterate natures,
+had its influence, likewise, in overthrowing the few schools that
+remained.
+
+The rise of Christianity, which supposed that all pagan literature and
+pagan knowledge were of the devil, and hence to be suppressed, opposed
+secular teaching, and tended to dethrone these schools.  Constantine's
+effort to unite the church and state tended for a while to perpetuate
+secular institutions.  But the pagan schools passed away; the
+philosophy of the age had run its course until it had become a hollow
+assumption, a desert of words, a weary round of speculation without
+vitality of expression; and the activity of the sophists in these later
+times narrowed all literary courses until they dwindled into mere
+matters of form.  Perhaps, owing to its force, power, and dignity, the
+Roman law retained a vital {358} position in the educational
+curriculum.  The school at Athens was suppressed in 529 by Justinian,
+because, as it had been claimed, it was tainted with Oriental
+philosophy and allied with Egyptian magic, and hence could not develop
+ethical standards.
+
+It is easy to observe how the ideas of Christian learning came into
+direct competition with the arrogant self-assumption and the hollowness
+of the selfish teachings of the old Graeco-Roman schools.  The
+Christian doctrine, advocating the development of the individual life,
+intimate relations with God, the widening of social functions, with its
+teachings of humility, and humanity, could not tolerate the instruction
+given in these schools.  Moreover, the Christian doctrine of education
+consisted, on the one hand, in preparing for the future life, and on
+the other, in the preparation of Christian ministers to teach this
+future life.  As might be expected, when narrowed to this limit,
+Christian education had its dwarfing influence.  If salvation were an
+important thing and salvation were to be obtained only by the denial of
+the life of this world, then there would be no object in perpetuating
+learning, no attempt to cultivate the mind, no tendency to develop the
+whole man on account of his moral and intellectual worth.  The use of
+secular books was everywhere discouraged.  As a result the instruction
+of the religious schools was of a very meagre nature.
+
+Within the monasteries devotional exercises and the study of the
+Scriptures represented the chief intellectual development of the monks.
+The Western monks required a daily service and a systematic training,
+but the practice of the Eastern monks was not educational in its nature
+at all.  After a while persons who were not studying for religious vows
+were admitted to the schools that they might understand the Bible and
+the services of the church.  They were taught to write, that they might
+copy the manuscripts of the church fathers, the sacred books, and the
+psalter; they were taught arithmetic, that they might be able to
+calculate the return of Easter and the other festivals; they were
+taught music, that they might {359} be able to chant well.  But the
+education in any line was in itself superficial and narrow.
+
+The Benedictine order was exceptional in the establishment of better
+schools and in promoting better educational influences.  Their
+curriculum consisted of the Old and New Testaments, the exposition of
+the Scriptures by learned theologians, and the discourses, or
+conversations, of Cassianus; yet, as a rule, the monks cared little for
+knowledge as such, not even for theological knowledge.  The
+monasteries, however, constituted the great clerical societies, where
+many prepared for secular pursuits.  The monasteries of Ireland
+furnished many learned scholars to England, Scotland, and Germany, as
+well as to Ireland; yet it was only a monastic education which they
+exported.
+
+Finally it became customary to found schools within the monasteries,
+and this was the beginning of the church schools of the Middle Ages.
+Formal and meagre as the instruction of these schools was, it
+represents a beginning in church education.  But in the seventh and
+eighth centuries they again declined, and learning retrograded very
+much; literature was forgotten; the monks and friars boasted of their
+ignorance.  The reforms of Charlemagne restored somewhat the
+educational status of the new empire, and not only developed the church
+schools and cathedral schools but also founded some secular schools.
+The cathedral schools became in many instances centres of learning
+apart from monasticism.  The textbooks, however, of the Middle Ages
+were chiefly those of Boethius, Isidor, and Capella, and were of the
+most meagre content and character.  That of Capella, as an
+illustration, was merely an allegory, which showed the seven liberal
+arts in a peculiar representation.  The logic taught in the schools was
+that given by Alcuin; the arithmetic was limited to the reckoning of
+holidays and festivals; astronomy was limited to a knowledge of the
+names and courses of the stars; geometry was composed of the first four
+books of Euclid, and supplemented with a large amount of geography.
+
+{360}
+
+But all this learning was valued merely as a support to the church and
+the church authorities, and for little else.  Yet there had been
+schools of importance founded at Paris, Bologna, and Padua, and at
+other places which, although they were not the historical foundations
+of the universities, no doubt became the means, the traditional means,
+of the establishment of universities at these places.  Also, many of
+the scholars, such as Theodore of Tarsus, Adalbert, Bede, and Alcuin,
+who studied Latin and Greek and also became learned in other subjects,
+were not without their influence.
+
+_The Rise of Universities_.[2]--An important phase of this period of
+mediaeval development was the rise of universities.  Many causes led to
+their establishment.  In the eleventh century the development of
+independent municipal power brought the noble and the burgher upon the
+same level, and developed a common sentiment for education.  The
+activity of the crusades, already referred to, developed a thirst for
+knowledge.  There was also a gradual growth of traditional learning, an
+accumulation of knowledge of a certain kind, which needed
+classification, arrangement, and development.  By degrees the schools
+of Arabia, which had been prominent in their development, not only of
+Oriental learning but of original investigation, had given a quickening
+impulse to learning throughout southern Europe.  The great division of
+the church between the governed and governing had led to the
+development of a strong lay feeling as opposed to monasticism or
+ecclesiasticism.  Perhaps the growth of local representative government
+had something to do with this.
+
+But the time came when great institutions were chartered at these
+centres of learning.  Students flocked to Bologna, where law was
+taught; to Salerno, where medicine was the chief subject; and to Paris,
+where philosophy and theology predominated.  At first these schools
+were open to all, without special rules.  Subsequently they were
+organized, and finally were chartered.  In those days students elected
+their own {361} instructors and built up their own organization.  The
+schools were usually called _universitas magistrorum et scholarium_.
+They were merely assemblages of students and instructors, a sort of
+scholastic guild or combination of teachers and scholars, formed first
+for the protection of their members, and later allowed by pope and
+emperor the privilege of teaching, and finally given the power by these
+same authorities to grant degrees.  The result of these schools was the
+widening of the influence of education.
+
+The universities proposed to teach what was found in a new and revived
+literature and to adopt a new method of presenting truth.  Yet, with
+all these widening foundations, there was a tendency to be bound by
+traditional learning.  The scholastic philosophy itself invaded the
+universities and had its influence in breaking down the scientific
+spirit.  Not only was this true of the universities of the continent,
+but of those of England as well.  The German universities, however,
+were less affected by this tendency of scholasticism.  Founded at a
+later period, when the Renaissance was about to be merged into the
+Reformation, there was a wider foundation of knowledge, a more earnest
+zeal in its pursuit, and also a tendency for the freedom and activity
+of the mind which was not observed elsewhere.
+
+The universities may be said to mark an era in the development of
+intellectual life.  They became centres where scholars congregated,
+centres for the collection of knowledge; and when the humanistic idea
+fully prevailed, in many instances they encouraged the revival of
+classical literature and the study of those things pertaining to human
+life.  The universities entertained and practised free discussion of
+all subjects, which made an important landmark of progress.  They
+encouraged people to give a reason for philosophy and faith, and
+prepared the way for scientific investigation and experiment.
+
+_Failure to Grasp Scientific Methods_.--Perhaps the greatest wonder in
+all this accumulation of knowledge, quickening of the mind, philosophy,
+and speculation, is that men of so much {362} learning failed to grasp
+scientific methods.  Could they but have turned their attention to
+systematic methods of investigation based upon facts logically stated,
+the vast intellectual energy of the Middle Ages might have been turned
+to more permanent account.  It is idle, however, to deplore their
+ignorance of these conditions or to ridicule their want of learning.
+When we consider the ignorance that overshadowed the land, the breaking
+down of the old established systems of Greece and Rome, the struggle of
+the church, which grew naturally into its power and made conservatism
+an essential part of its life; indeed, when we consider that the whole
+medieval system was so impregnated with dogmatism and guided by
+tradition, it is a marvel that so many men of intellect and power
+raised their voices in the defense of truth, and that so much
+advancement was made in the earnest desire for truth.
+
+_Inventions and Discoveries_.--The quickening influence of discovery
+was of great moment in giving enlarged views of life.  The widening of
+the geographical horizon tended to take men out of their narrow
+boundaries and their limited conceptions of the world, into a larger
+sphere of mental activity, and to teach them that there was much beyond
+their narrow conceptions to be learned.  The use of gunpowder changed
+the method of warfare and revolutionized the financial system of
+nations.  The perfection of the mariner's compass reformed navigation
+and made great sea voyages possible; the introduction of printing
+increased the dissemination of knowledge; the building of great
+cathedrals had a tendency to develop architecture, and the contact with
+Oriental learning developed art.  These phases tended to assist the
+mind in the attempt to free itself from bondage.
+
+_The Extension of Commerce Hastened Progress_.--But more especially
+were men's ideas enlarged and their needs supplied by the widening
+reach of commerce.  Through its exchanges it distributed the
+food-supply, and thus not only preserved thousands from want but
+furnished leisure for others to study.  It had a tendency to distribute
+the luxuries of manufactured {363} articles, and to quicken the
+activity of the mind by giving exchange of ideas.  Little by little the
+mariners, plying their trade, pushed farther and farther into unknown
+seas, and at last brought the products of every clime in exchange for
+those of Europe.
+
+The manner in which commerce developed the cities of Italy and of the
+north has already been referred to.  Through this development the
+foundations of local government were laid.  The manner in which it
+broke down the feudal system after receiving the quickening impulse of
+the crusades has also been dealt with.  In addition to its influence in
+these changes, it brought about an increased circulation of
+money--which also struck at the root of feudalism, in destroying the
+mediaeval manor and serfdom, for men could buy their freedom from
+serfdom with money--which also made taxation possible; and the
+possibility of taxation had a vast deal to do with the building up of
+new nations and stimulating national life.  Moreover, as a distributer
+of habits and customs, commerce developed uniformity of political and
+social life and made for national solidarity.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What is meant by Renaissance, Revival of Learning, Revival of
+Progress and Humanism, as applied to the mediaeval period?
+
+2.  The causes of the Revival of Progress.
+
+3.  The direct influence of humanism.
+
+4.  The attitude of the church toward freedom of thought.
+
+5.  The scholastic philosophy, its merits and its defects.
+
+6.  What did the following persons stand for in human progress: Dante,
+Savonarola, Charlemagne, John Scotus Erigena, Thomas Aquinas, Abelard,
+William of Occam, Roger Bacon?
+
+7.  Rise of universities.  How did they differ from modern universities?
+
+
+
+[1] _Advancement of Learning_, iv, 5.
+
+[2] See Chapter XXIX.
+
+
+
+
+{364}
+
+CHAPTER XXIII
+
+HUMANISM AND THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING
+
+Perhaps the most important branch of the revival of learning is that
+which is called humanism, or the revival of the study of the
+masterpieces of Greek and Latin literature.  The promoters of this
+movement are called humanists, because they held that the study of the
+classics, or _litterae humaniores_, is the best humanizing agent.  It
+has already been shown how scholasticism developed as one of the
+important phases of the renaissance, and how, close upon its track, the
+universities rose as powerful aids to the revival of learning, and that
+the cathedral and monastic schools were the traditional forerunners of
+the great universities.
+
+Primarily, then, were taught in the universities scholastic philosophy,
+theology, the Roman and the canon law, with slight attention to Greek
+and Hebrew, the real value of the treasures of antiquity being unknown
+to the Western world.  The Arabic or Saracen schools of Spain had taken
+high rank in learning, and through their efforts the scientific works
+of Aristotle were presented to the mediaeval world.  There were many
+men of importance, such as Roger Bacon, Albertus Magnus, who were
+leaders in universities and who lent their influence to the development
+of learning in Europe.  The translation of the scientific works of
+Aristotle into Latin at the beginning of the thirteenth century by
+Thomas Aquinas had its influence.  But, after all, scholasticism had
+settled down to speculative ideas within the universities and without,
+and little attention was paid to the old classical authors.
+
+_The Discovery of Manuscripts_.--The real return to the study of Greek
+literature and art finally came through the fortunate discoveries of
+ancient sculpture and ancient manuscripts on the occasion of the
+turning of the mind of Europe {365} toward the Eastern learning.  The
+fall of the Eastern Empire accelerated the transfer of learning and
+culture to the West.  The discovery and use of old manuscripts brought
+a survival of classical literature and of the learning of antiquity.
+The bringing of this literature to light gave food for thought and
+means of study, and turned the mind from its weary round of speculative
+philosophy to a large body of literature containing the views of the
+ancients respecting the progress and development of man.  As has been
+heretofore shown, the Greeks, seeking to explain things by the human
+reason, although not advanced far in experimental science, had
+accomplished much by way of logical thought based upon actual facts.
+They had turned from credulity to inquiry.
+
+_Who Were the Humanists?_--Dante was not a humanist, but he may be said
+to have been the forerunner of the Italian humanists, for he furnished
+inspiration to Petrarch, the so-called founder of humanism.  His
+magnificent creation of _The Divine Comedy_, his service in the
+foundation of the Italian language, and his presentation of the
+religious influence of the church in a liberal manner made him a great
+factor in the humanizing of Europe.  Dante was neither modern nor
+ancient.  He stood at the parting of the ways controlling the learning
+of the past and looking toward the open door of the future, and
+directed thought everywhere to the Latin.  His masterpiece was well
+received through all Italy, and gave an impulse to learning in many
+ways.
+
+Petrarch was the natural successor of Dante.  The latter immortalized
+the past; the former invoked the spirit of the future.  He showed great
+enthusiasm in the discovery of old manuscripts, and brought into power
+more fully the Latin language.  He also attempted to introduce Greek
+into the Western world, but in this he was only partially successful.
+But in his wide search for manuscripts, monasteries and cathedrals were
+ransacked and the literary treasures which the monks had copied and
+preserved through centuries, the products of the classical writers of
+the early times, were brought to {366} light.  Petrarch was an
+enthusiast, even a sentimentalist.  But he was bold in his expression
+of the full and free play of the intellect, in his denunciation of
+formalism and slavery to tradition.  The whole outcome of his life,
+too, was a tendency toward moral and aesthetic aggrandizement.
+Inconsistent in many things, his life may be summed up as a bold
+remonstrance against the binding influences of tradition and an
+enthusiasm for something new.
+
+"We are, therefore," says Symonds,[1] "justified in hailing Petrarch as
+the Columbus of a new spiritual hemisphere, the discoverer of modern
+culture.  That he knew no Greek, that his Latin verse was lifeless and
+his prose style far from pure, that his contributions to history and
+ethics have been superseded, and that his epistles are now read only by
+antiquaries, cannot impair his claim to this title.  From him the
+inspiration needed to quicken curiosity and stimulate zeal for
+knowledge proceeded.  But for his intervention in the fourteenth
+century it is possible that the revival of learning, and all that it
+implies, might have been delayed until too late."
+
+His influence was especially felt by those who followed him, and his
+enthusiasm made him a successful promoter of the new learning.
+
+But it remained for Boccaccio, who was of a more practical turn of mind
+than Petrarch, to systematize the classical knowledge of antiquity.  If
+Petrarch was an enthusiastic collector, Boccaccio was a practical
+worker.  With the aid of Petrarch, he was the first to introduce a
+professor of Greek language and literature into Italy, and through this
+influence he secured a partial translation of Homer.  Boccaccio began
+at an early age to read the classical authors and to repent the years
+he had spent in the study of law and in commercial pursuits.  It was
+Petrarch's example, more than anything else, which caused Boccaccio to
+turn his attention to literature.  By persistence and vigor in study,
+he was enabled to accomplish much by his own hand in the translation of
+the authors, and in middle life {367} he began a persistent and
+successful study of Greek.  His contributions to learning were great,
+and his turn toward naturalism was of immense value in the foundation
+of modern literature.  He infused a new spirit in the common literature
+of the times.  He turned away from asceticism, and frankly and openly
+sought to justify the pleasures of life.  Although his teaching may not
+be of the most wholesome kind, it was far-reaching in its influence in
+turning the mind toward the importance and desirability of the things
+of this life.  Stories of "beautiful gardens and sunny skies, fair
+women and luxurious lovers" may not have been the most healthful diet
+for universal consumption; they introduced a new element into the
+literature of the period and turned the thoughts of men from the
+speculative to the natural.
+
+A long line of Italian writers followed these three great master
+spirits and continued to develop the desire for classical literature.
+For such power and force did these men have that they turned the whole
+tide of thought toward the masterpieces of the Greeks and Romans.
+
+_Relation of Humanism to Language and Literature_.--When the zeal for
+the classical learning declined somewhat, there sprang up in Italy a
+group of Italian poets who were the founders of an Italian literature.
+They received their impulse from the classical learning, and, turning
+their attention to the affairs which surrounded them, developed a new
+literature.  The inspiration which humanism had given to scholars of
+the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries had a tendency to develop a
+literary spirit among all classes of students.  The products of the
+Italian literature, however, brought out through the inspiration of
+humanistic studies, were not great masterpieces.  While the number and
+variety were considerable, the quality was inferior when the
+intellectual power of the times is considered.  The great force of
+Italian intellect had been directed toward classical manuscripts, and
+hence failed to develop a literature that had real originality.
+
+Perhaps among the few great Italian writers of these times {368} may be
+mentioned Guicciardini and Machiavelli.  The former wrote a history of
+Italy, and the latter is rendered immortal by his _Prince_.
+Guicciardini was a native of Florence, who had an important position in
+the service of Leo X.  As professor of jurisprudence, ambassador to
+Spain, and subsequently minister of Leo X, governor of Modena,
+lieutenant-general of the pope in the campaign against the French,
+president of the Romagna and governor of Bologna, he had abundant
+opportunity for the study of the political conditions of Italy.  He is
+memorable for his admirable history of Italy, as a talented Florentine
+and as a member of the Medicean party.
+
+Machiavelli, in his _Prince_, desired to picture the type of rulers
+needed to meet the demands of Italy at the time he wrote.  It is a
+picture of imperialism and, indeed, of despotism.  The prince or ruler
+was in no way obliged to consider the feelings and rights of
+individuals.  Machiavelli said it was not necessary that a prince
+should be moral, humane, religious, or just; indeed, that if he had
+these qualities and displayed them they would harm him, but if he were
+new to his place in the principality he might seem to have them.  It
+would be as useful to him to keep the path of rectitude when this was
+not too inconvenient as to know how to deviate from it when
+circumstances dictate.  In other words, a prudent prince cannot and
+ought not really to keep his word except when he can do it without
+injury to himself.
+
+Among other Italian writers may be mentioned Boiardo, on account of his
+_Orlando Innamorato_, and Ariosto, who wrote _Orlando Furioso_.  Upon
+the whole, the writings of the period were not worthy of its
+intellectual development, although Torquato Tasso, in his _Jerusalem
+Delivered_, presents the first crusade as Homer presented the Trojan
+War.  The small amount of really worthy literature of this age has been
+attributed to the lack of moral worth.
+
+_Art and Architecture_.--Perhaps the renaissance art exceeded that
+which it replaced in beauty, variety, and naturalness, as well as in
+exuberance.  There was an attempt to make {369} all things beautiful,
+and no attempt to follow the spirit of asceticism in degrading the
+human body, but rather to try to delineate every feature as noble in
+itself.  The movement, life, and grace of the human form, the beauty of
+landscape, all were enjoyed and presented by the artists of the
+renaissance.  The beauty of this life is magnified, and the artists
+represented in joyous mood the best qualities that are important in the
+world.  They turned the attention from asceticism to the importance of
+the present life.
+
+Perhaps the Italians reached the highest point of development in
+painting, for the Madonnas of Italy have given her celebrity in art
+through all succeeding generations.  Cimabue was the first to paint the
+Madonna as a beautiful woman.  Giotto followed next, and a multitude of
+succeeding Madonnas have given Italy renown.  Raphael excelled all
+others in the representation of the Madonna, and was not only the
+greatest painter of all Italy, but a master artist of all ages.
+
+Architecture, however, appears to be the first branch of art that
+defied the arbitrary power of tradition.  It could break away more
+readily than any other form of art, because of the great variety which
+existed in different parts of the Roman Empire--the Byzantine in the
+south of Italy, the Gothic in the north, and Romanesque in Rome and the
+provinces.  There was no conventional law for architectural style,
+hence innovations could be made with very little opposition.  In the
+search for classical remains, a large number of buildings had already
+become known, and many more were uncovered as the searching continued.
+These gave types of architecture which had great influence in building
+the renaissance art.  The changes, beginning with Brunelleschi, were
+continued until nearly all buildings were completely Romanized.  Then
+came Michael Angelo, who excelled in both architecture and sculpture at
+Rome, and Palladio, who worked at Venice and Verona.  In the larger
+buildings the Basilica of Rome became the model, or at least the
+principles of its construction became the prevailing element in
+architectural design.
+
+{370}
+
+Florence became the centre of art and letters in the Italian
+renaissance.[2]  Though resembling Athens in many respects, and bearing
+the same relations to surrounding cities that Athens did to cities in
+the classic times, her scholars were more modern than those of Greece
+or Rome, and, indeed, more modern than the scholars who followed after
+the Florentines, two centuries later.  It was an important city, on the
+Arno, surrounded by hills, a city of flowers, interesting to-day to the
+modern scholar and student of history.  Surrounded by walls, having
+magnificent gates, with all the modern improvements of paved streets,
+of sewers, gardens, and spacious parks, it represented in this early
+period the ideal city life.  Even to-day the traveller finds the
+Palazzo Vecchio, or ancient official residence of the city fathers, and
+very near this the Loggia dei Lanzi, now filled with the works of
+precious art, and the Palazzo del Podesta, now used as a national
+museum, the great cathedral, planned in 1294 by Arnolfo, ready for
+consecration in 1498, and not yet completed, and many other remarkable
+relics of this wonderful era.
+
+The typical idea in building the cathedral was to make it so beautiful
+that no other in the world could ever surpass it.  Opposite the main
+door were the gates of Ghiberti, which Michael Angelo, for their great
+beauty, thought worthy to be the gates of paradise.  They close the
+entrance of the temple of Saint John the Baptist, the city's patron
+saint.  More than a hundred other churches, among them the Santa Croce
+and the Santa Maria Novella, the latter the resting-place of the
+Medici, were built in this magnificent city.  The churches were not
+only used for religious worship, but were important for meeting-places
+of the Florentines.  The Arno was crossed by four bridges, of which the
+Ponte Vecchio, built in the middle of the fourteenth century, alone
+remains in its original form.  Upon it rest two rows of houses, each
+three stories high, and over this is the passageway from the Palazzo
+Pitti to the Palazzo Vecchio.  In addition to the public buildings of
+{371} Florence, there were many private residences and palaces of
+magnificence and splendor.
+
+_The Effect of Humanism on Social Manners_.--By the intellectual
+development of Italy, fresh ideas of culture were infused into common
+society.  To be a gentleman meant to be conversant with poetry,
+painting, and art, intelligent in conversation and refined in manners.
+The gentleman must be acquainted with antiquity sufficiently to admire
+the great men of the past and to reverence the saints of the church.
+He must understand archaeology in order to speak intelligently of the
+ancient achievements of the classical people.  But this refinement was
+to a large extent conventional, for there was a lack of genuine moral
+culture throughout the entire renaissance.
+
+These moral defects of Italy in this period have often been the
+occasion of dissertations by philosophers, and there is a question as
+to whether this moral condition was caused by the revival of classical
+learning or the decline of morality in the church.  It ought to be
+considered, without doubt, as an excessive development of certain lines
+of intellectual supremacy without the accustomed moral guide.  The
+church had for years assumed to be the only moral conservator, indeed
+the only one morally responsible for the conduct of the world.  Yet its
+teachings at this time led to no self-developed morality; helped no one
+to walk alone, independent, in the dignity of manhood, for all of its
+instructions were superimposed and not vital.  At last the church fell
+into flagrant discord under the rule of worldly popes, and this gave a
+great blow to Italy through the loss of the one great moral control.
+
+But the renaissance had in its day a wide-spread influence throughout
+Europe, and gave us as its result a vitalizing influence to the whole
+world for centuries to come, although Italy suffered a decline largely
+on account of its lack of the stable moral character of society.  The
+awakening of the mind from lethargy, the turning away from dogmatism to
+broader views of life, enlarged duties, and new surroundings causing
+{372} the most Intense activity of thought, needed some moral stay to
+make the achievements permanent and enduring.
+
+_Relation of Humanism to Science and Philosophy_.--The revival of the
+freedom of thought of the Greeks brought an antagonism to the logic and
+the materialistic views of the times.  It set itself firmly against
+tradition of whatsoever sort.  The body of man had not been considered
+with care until anatomy began to be studied in the period of the
+Italian renaissance.  The visionary notions of the world which the
+people had accepted for a long time began gradually to give way to
+careful consideration of the exact facts.  Patience and loving
+admiration in the study of man and nature yielded immense returns to
+the scholars of Italy.  It changed the attitude of the thoughtful mind
+toward life, and prepared the way for new lines of thought and new
+accomplishments in the world of philosophy and science.  Through the
+scientific discoveries of Galileo and Copernicus and exploration of
+Columbus, brought about largely by the influence of humanistic studies,
+were wrought far-reaching consequences in the thought of the age.  And
+finally the scholars of Italy not only threw off scholasticism but also
+disengaged themselves from the domineering influence of the classical
+studies and laid the foundation of modern freedom of inquiry.
+
+_The Study of the Classics Became Fundamental in Education_.--The
+modern classical education received its first impulse from the Italian
+renaissance.  As before stated, it was customary for the universities
+to teach, with some vigor,[3] physics, medicine, law, and philosophy,
+largely after the manner of the medieval period, though somewhat
+modified and broadened in the process of thought.  But in the fifteenth
+and sixteenth centuries, those who taught the ancient languages and
+literature were much celebrated.  Under the title of rhetoric we find
+progress not only in the study of the Greek and Roman masterpieces, but
+in a large number of subjects which had a tendency to widen the views
+of students and to change {373} the trend of the education in
+universities.  It became customary for the towns and cities to have
+each a public place, an academy, a university, or a hall, for the means
+of studying the humanistic branches.  The professors of the classics
+passed from town to town, giving instruction where the highest pay was
+offered.  The direct influence of the renaissance on the Italian
+education, and, indeed, on the English classical education, introduced
+somewhat later, has continued until this day.
+
+Closely connected with the educational influences of the renaissance
+was the introduction of literary criticism.  There was a tendency among
+the early humanists to be uncritical, but as intelligence advanced and
+scholarship developed, we find the critical spirit introduced.  Form,
+substance, and character of art and letters were carefully examined.
+This was the essential outcome of the previous sharp criticism of
+dogmatic theology and philosophy.
+
+_General Influence of Humanism_.--The development of new intellectual
+ideals was the most important result of this phase of the renaissance.
+Nor did this extend in any particular direction.  A better thought came
+to be held of God and man's relation to him.  Instead of being an
+arbitrary, domineering creature, he had become in the minds of the
+people rational and law-loving; instead of being vindictive and fickle,
+as he was wont to be pictured, he had been endowed with benevolence
+toward his creatures.  The result of all this was that religion itself
+became more spiritual and the conscience more operative.  There was
+less of formality and conventionality in religion and more of real,
+devout feeling and consciousness of worthy motive in life, but the
+church must have more strenuous lessons before spiritual freedom could
+be fulfilled.
+
+Life, too, came to be viewed as something more than merely a temporary
+expedient, a thing to be viewed as a necessary evil.  It had come to be
+regarded as a noble expression worthy of the thought and the best
+attention of every individual.  This world, too, was meant to be of use
+and to make people happy.  It was to be enjoyed and used as best it
+might be.  {374} The old guild classes finally broke down, and where
+formerly men thought in groups, a strong individuality developed and
+man became an independent, thinking being in himself, bound by neither
+religion nor philosophy.  He was larger than either philosophy or
+religion made him.  He was a being of capacity and strength, and
+enabled to take the best of this life in order to enhance the delight
+of living.  There came, also, with this a large belief in the law and
+order of the universe.  Old beliefs had become obsolete because the
+people could no longer depend on them.  And when these dogmatic
+formulas ceased to give satisfaction to the human mind, it sought for
+order in the universe and the laws which controlled it, and the
+intellectual world then entered the field of research for truth--the
+field of experiment.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  How did the Revival of Learning prepare the way for modern science?
+
+2.  What contributions to progress were made by Petrarch, Boccaccio,
+Michael Angelo, Justinian, Galileo, Copernicus, Columbus?
+
+3.  The nature of Machiavelli's political philosophy.
+
+4.  Compare Gothic, Romanesque, and Arabian architecture.
+
+5.  The status of morals during the period of the intellectual
+development of Europe.
+
+6.  The great weakness of the philosophy of this period.
+
+7.  What was the state of organized society and what was the "common
+man" doing?
+
+
+
+[1] _Revival of Learning_.
+
+[2] See Chapter XXI.
+
+[3] See preceding chapter.
+
+
+
+
+{375}
+
+CHAPTER XXIV
+
+THE REFORMATION
+
+_The Character of the Reformation_.--The Reformation, or Protestant
+Revolution, as it is sometimes called, was a movement of such extended
+relations as to be difficult to define.  In general, it was the
+liberalizing movement of the revival of learning applied to the church.
+As the church had attempted to be all things to all men, the movement
+was necessarily far-reaching in its results, affecting not only the
+religious but the social, educational, and political affairs of Europe.
+In its religious aspect it shows an attempt to reform the church.  This
+failing, the revolution followed, resulting in the independence of
+certain parts of the church, which were then organized under separate
+constitutions and governments.  Then followed a partial reform within
+the Catholic Church.  The whole movement may be characterized as a
+revolt against papal authority and ecclesiastical usurpation of power.
+It was an assertion of independence of the mind respecting religious
+beliefs and a cry for a consistent life of righteousness and purity.
+
+The church had assumed an attitude which made either a speedy
+reformation or else a revolution necessary.  The "reforming councils"
+of Pisa, Constance, and Basel failed to adopt adequate reform measures.
+The result of these councils was merely to confirm the absolutism of
+papal authority.  At the same time there were a very large number of
+adherents to the church who were anxiously seeking a reform in church
+government, as well as a reform in the conduct of the papacy, the
+clergy, and the lay membership.  The papal party succeeded in
+suppressing all attempts of this nature, the voice of the people being
+silenced by a denial of constitutional government; nor was assurance
+given that the intrigues of the papacy, and of the church in general,
+would be removed.
+
+{376}
+
+The people had lost faith in the assumptions of infallibility of the
+papacy.  The great schism in the church, in which three popes, each
+claiming to be the rightful successor of Saint Peter, each one having
+the "keys," each one calling the others impostors, and seeking by all
+possible means to dethrone them, was a great shock to the claims of
+infallible authority.  For many years, to maintain their position as a
+ruling power, the popes had engaged in political squabbles with the
+princes of Europe.  While the popes at times were victorious, the
+result of their course was to cause a feeling of contempt for their
+conduct, as well as of fear of their power.
+
+The quarrel of Henry IV and Gregory VII, of Innocent III and John of
+England, of Boniface and Philip the Fair, the Babylonian captivity, and
+many lesser difficulties, had placed the papacy in a disreputable
+light.  Distrust, fear, and contempt for the infallible assumptions
+were growing.  The papacy had been turned into a political engine to
+maintain the temporal possessions of the church and to increase its
+temporal power.  The selfishness of the ruling prince became uppermost
+in all papal affairs, which was so different from the teachings of the
+Christ who founded his kingdom on love that the contrast became
+observable, and even painful, to many devout people.  Added to this,
+the corruption of the members of religious orders, who had departed
+from their vows of chastity, was so evident to the people with whom
+they came in daily contact as to bring shame and disgrace upon the
+cause of religion.  Consequently, from these and other irregularities
+there developed a strong belief that the church needed reforming from
+the lowest to the highest offices.
+
+_Signs of the Rising Storm_.--For several centuries before the
+religious revolution broke out there were signs of its coming.  In the
+first place, the rise of the laical spirit was to be observed,
+especially after the establishment of local self-government in the free
+cities.  The desire for representative government had extended to the
+lay members of the church.  There was a growing feeling that the
+clergy, headed by the papacy, had {377} no right to usurp all the
+governing power of the church.  Many bold laymen asserted that the lay
+members of the church should have a voice in its government, but every
+such plea was silenced, every aspiration for democratic government
+suppressed, by a jealous papacy.
+
+There arose a number of religious sects which opposed the subordination
+to dogma, and returned to the teachings of the Bible for authority.
+Prominent among these were the Albigenses, who became the victims of
+the cruel crusade instigated by the pope and led by Simon de Montfort.
+They were a peaceable, religious people who dwelt far and wide in the
+south of France, who refused to obey implicitly the harsh and arbitrary
+mandates of the pope.
+
+The Waldenses were another society, composed of the followers of Peter
+Waldo, known at first as the "Poor Man of Lyons," believing in a return
+to the Scriptures, which they persistently read.  Like the Albigenses,
+they were zealous for purity of life, and bitterly opposed to the
+usurpation and profligacy of the clergy.  They, too, suffered bitter
+persecution, which indicated to many that a day of retribution was
+coming.  There were also praying societies, formed in the church to
+read the Scriptures and to promote a holy life.  All these had their
+influence in preparing for a general reformation.
+
+The revival of learning had specific influences in bringing about the
+Reformation.  The two movements were blended in one in several
+countries, but the revival of learning in Germany was overtaken by the
+Reformation.  The former sought freedom of the mind respecting
+philosophy and learning, the latter sought liberty of conscience
+respecting religious belief.  The revival of learning broke down
+scholasticism, and thus freed the mind from dogmatic philosophy.
+Seeking for the truth, the works of the church fathers were brought
+forth and read, and the texts of the Old and the New Testament were
+also used, as a criterion of authority.  They showed to what extent the
+papacy had gone in its assumption of power, and making more prominent
+the fact that the church, particularly {378} the clergy, had departed
+from a life of purity.  The result of the quickening thought of the
+revival was to develop independent characteristics of mind, placing it
+in the attitude of revolt against ecclesiastical dogmatism.
+
+_Attempts at Reform Within the Church_.--Many attempts were made,
+chiefly on the part of individuals, to work a reform of abuses within
+the church.  Many devout men, scholars engaged in theological research
+and living lives of purity, sought by precept and example to bring
+about better spiritual and moral conditions.  Others sought to bring
+about changes in ecclesiastical government, not only in the "reforming
+councils" but through efforts at the papal court and in the strong
+bishoprics.  Had the church listened to these cries of the laity and
+zealously availed itself of the many opportunities presented, possibly
+the religious revolution would not have come.  Although it is difficult
+to say what would have been the result had the church listened to the
+voice of reform, yet it is certain that the revolution would at least
+have taken a different course, and the position of the church before
+the world would have been greatly changed.
+
+Powerful individual reformers exercised great influence in bringing on
+the religious revolution.  The voices of John Wyclif, John Huss, John
+Tauler, and John Wessel, like the voice of John the Baptist, cried out
+for repentance and a return to God.  These reformers desired among
+other things a change in the constitutional government of the church.
+They sought a representation of the laity and the re-establishment of
+the authority of the general councils.  Through influence such as
+theirs the revolution was precipitated.  Others in a different way,
+like Savonarola, hastened the coming of the revolution by preaching
+liberty of thought and attacking the abuses of the church and its
+methods of government.
+
+Wyclif in England advocated a simple form of church worship, rebelled
+against the arbitrary power of popes and priests, preached against
+transubstantiation, and advocated the practice of morality.  He was
+greatly influenced by William of {379} Occam, who asserted that the
+pope, or even a general council, might err in declaring the truth, and
+that the hierarchy might be given up if the good of the church demanded
+it.  Wyclif, in England, started a movement for freedom and purity
+which never died out.  His translation of the Bible was the most
+valuable of all his work.  Though he preceded the religious revolution
+by nearly two centuries, his influence was of such great importance
+that his enemies, who failed to burn him at the stake in life, ordered
+his grave to be desecrated.
+
+At first Wyclif had the support of the king and of the university, as
+well as the protection of the Prince of Wales.  But when, in 1381, he
+lectured at Oxford against transubstantiation, he lost the royal
+protection, and by a senate of twelve doctors was forbidden longer to
+lecture at the university, although he continued preaching until his
+death.  As his opinions agreed very nearly with those of Calvin and
+Luther, he has been called "the morning star of the Reformation."  The
+Council of Constance, before burning John Huss and Jerome of Prague at
+the stake, condemned the doctrines of Wyclif in forty-five articles,
+declared him a heretic, and ordered his body to be removed from
+consecrated ground and thrown upon a dunghill.  Thirteen years later
+Clement VIII, hyena-like, ordered his bones to be burned and the ashes
+thrown into the Swift.  Thus his short-sighted enemies thought to stay
+the tide of a great reformation.
+
+John Huss, a Bohemian reformer, followed closely after the doctrine of
+Wyclif, although he disagreed with him in his opposition to
+transubstantiation.  He preached for constitutional reform of the
+church, reformative administration, and morality.  He urged a return to
+the Bible as a criterion for belief and a guide to action.  Finally he
+was summoned to the Council of Constance to answer for his heresy, and
+guaranteed safe-conduct by the Emperor Sigismund, who presided; but,
+notwithstanding this promise, the council declared him a heretic and
+burned him at the stake with Jerome of Prague.  This was one of the
+results of the so-called reforming Council of {380} Constance--its
+reform consisted in silencing the opponents of papal authority and
+corruption.
+
+John Tauler belonged to a group of people called mystic philosophers,
+who, though remaining within the church, opposed dogmatism and
+formalism and advocated spiritual religion.  Their doctrine was to
+leave formality and return to God.  Many other societies, calling
+themselves "Friends of God," sprang up in the Netherlands and in the
+south and west of Germany.  John Tauler was the most prominent of all
+their preachers.  He held that man is justified by faith alone, and
+Luther, who republished Tauler's book on German theology,[1] asserted
+that it had more influence over him than any other books, except the
+Bible and the works of Saint Augustine.
+
+Savonarola, a most powerful orator and great scholar of Italy, lifted
+his voice in favor of reform in the church administration and in favor
+of the correction of abuses.  He transcended the teachings of the
+schools of philosophy, departed from the dogma of the church, and
+preached in the name of God and His Son.  He was shocked at the signs
+of immorality which he saw in common society.  As a preacher of
+righteousness, he prophesied a judgment speedily to come unless men
+turned from the error of their ways.  But in the ways of the world he
+paid for his boldness and his enthusiasm, for the pope excommunicated
+him, and his enemies created distrust of him in the hearts of the
+people.  He was put in prison, afterward brought to trial and condemned
+to death, and finally hanged and burned and his ashes thrown into the
+Arno--all because the pope hoped to stay the tide of religious and
+social reform.
+
+_Immediate Causes of the Reformation_.--Mr. Bryce, in his _Holy Roman
+Empire_,[2] says:
+
+"There is perhaps no event in history which has been represented in so
+great a variety of lights as the Reformation.  {381} It has been called
+a revolt of the laity against the clergy, or of the Teutonic races
+against the Italians, or of the kingdoms of Europe against the
+universal monarchy of the popes.  Some have seen in it only a burst of
+long-repressed anger at the luxury of the prelates and the manifold
+abuses of the ecclesiastical system; others a renewal of the youth of
+the church by a return to primitive forms of doctrine.  All these,
+indeed, to some extent it was; but it was also something more profound,
+and fraught with mightier consequences than any of them.  It was in its
+essence the assertion of the principle of individuality--that is to
+say, of true spiritual freedom."
+
+The primary nature of the Reformation was, first, a return to primitive
+belief and purity of worship.  This was accompanied by a protest
+against the vices and the abuses of the church and of formalism in
+practice.  It was also an open revolt against the authority of the
+church, authority not only in constitution and administration but in
+spiritual affairs.  According to Bryce, "true spiritual freedom" was
+the prime motive in the religious revolution.  And Guizot, in his
+chapter on the Reformation, clusters all statements around a single
+idea, the idea that it was freedom of the mind in religious belief and
+practice which was the chief purpose of the Reformation.[3]  But the
+immediate causes of the precipitation of the Reformation may be stated
+as follows:
+
+_First_.--The great and continued attack on the unreasonableness of the
+Roman Catholic Church, caused by the great mental awakening which had
+taken place everywhere in Europe, the persistent and shameless
+profligacy of the clergy and the various monastic orders and sects, the
+dissolute and rapacious character of many of the popes, and the
+imperial attitude of the entire papacy.
+
+_Second_.--We may consider as another cause the influence of the art of
+printing, which scattered the Bible over the land, so that it could be
+read by a large number of people, who were thus incited to independent
+belief.
+
+{382}
+
+_Finally_.--It may be said that the sale of indulgences, and
+particularly the pretensions of many of the agents of the pope as to
+their power to release from the bondage of sin, created intense disgust
+and hatred of the church, and caused the outbreak of the Reformation.[4]
+
+_Luther Was the Hero of the Reformation in Germany_.--He was not the
+cause of the Reformation, only its most powerful and efficient agency,
+for the Reformation would have taken place in time had Luther never
+appeared.  Somebody would have led the phalanx, and, indeed, Luther,
+led steadily on in his thought and researches, became a reformer and
+revolutionist almost before he was aware.
+
+He began (1517) by preaching against the sale of indulgences.  He
+claimed that works had been made a substitute for faith, while man is
+justified by faith alone.  His attack on indulgences brought him in
+direct conflict with one Tetzel, who stirred up the jealousy of other
+monks, who reported Luther to Pope Leo X.[5]  Luther, in a letter to
+the pope, proclaimed his innocence, saying that he is misrepresented
+and called heretic "and a thousand ignominious names; these things
+shock and amaze me; one thing only sustains me--the sense of my
+innocence."  He had pinned his ninety-five theses on the door of the
+church at Wittenberg.  In writing to the pope he claimed that these
+were set forth for their own local interest at the university, and that
+he knows not why they "should go forth into all the earth."  Then he
+says: "But what shall I do?  Recall them I cannot, and yet I see their
+notoriety bringeth upon me great odium."
+
+But Luther, in spite of the censure of the pope and his friends, was
+still an ardent adherent to the papal power and the authority of the
+church.  He says to the pope: "Save or slay, kill or recall, approve or
+disapprove, as it shall please you, I will acknowledge you even as the
+voice of Christ {383} presiding and speaking in you."  In writing to
+Spalatine, he says that he may err in disputation, but that he is never
+to be a heretic, that he wishes to decide no doctrine, "only I am not
+willing to be the slave of the opinions of men."
+
+Luther persisted in his course of criticism.  To Staupitz he wrote: "I
+see that attempts are made at Rome that the kingdom of truth, _i.e._,
+of Christ, be no longer the kingdom of truth."  After the pope had
+issued his first brief condemning him, Luther exclaimed: "It is
+incredible that a thing so monstrous should come from the chief
+pontiff, especially Leo X.  If in truth it be come forth from the Roman
+court, then I will show them their most licentious temerity and their
+ungodly ignorance."  These were bold words from a man who did not wish
+to become a reformer, a revolutionist, or a heretic.
+
+Now the pope regarded this whole affair as a quarrel of monks, and
+allowed Luther to give his side of the story.  He was induced to send a
+certain cardinal legate, Cajetan, to Augsburg to bring this heretic
+into submission, but the legate failed to bring Luther into subjection.
+Luther then appealed to the pope, and when the pope issued a bull
+approving of the sale of indulgences, Luther appealed to the council.
+
+Thus far Luther had only protested against the perversion of the rules
+of the church and of the papal doctrine, but there followed the public
+disputations with Doctor John Eck, the vice-chancellor of the
+University of Ingolstadt, in which the great subject under discussion
+was the primacy of the pope.  Luther held that the pope was not
+infallible that he might err in matters of doctrine, and that the
+general council, which represented the universal church, should decide
+the case.  Now Luther had already asserted that certain doctrines of
+Huss were true, but the Council of Constance had condemned these and
+burned Huss at the stake.  Luther was compelled by his shrewd opponent
+to acknowledge that a council also might err, and he had then to
+maintain his position that the pope and the council both might err and
+to commit himself to the proposition that there is no absolute
+authority on the {384} face of the earth to interpret the will of God.
+But now Luther was forced to go yet a step farther.  When the papal
+bull condemning him and excommunicating him was issued, he took the
+bull and burned it in the presence of a concourse of people, and then
+wrote his address to the German nobles.  He thus set at defiance the
+whole church government and authority.  He had become an open
+revolutionist.
+
+The Catholic Church, to defend itself from the position it had taken
+against Luther, reasoned in this way: "Where there is difference of
+opinion, there is doubt; where there is doubt, there is no certainty;
+where there is no certainty, there is no knowledge.  Therefore, if
+Luther is right, that there is room for difference of opinion about
+divine revelation, then we have no knowledge of that revelation."  In
+this way did the Roman Church attempt to suppress all freedom of
+religious belief.
+
+For the opposition which Luther made, he was summoned to appear before
+the Diet of Augsburg, which condemned him as a heretic.  Had it not
+been that Charles V, who presided, had promised him a safe-conduct to
+and from the diet, Luther would have suffered the same fate as John
+Huss.  Indeed, it is said that Charles V, when near his death,
+regretted that he had not burned Luther at the stake.  It shows how
+little the emperor knew of the real spiritual scope of the Reformation,
+that he hoped to stay its tide by the burning of one man.
+
+The safe-conduct of Luther by Charles V was decided on account of the
+existing state of European politics.  The policy followed by the
+emperor at the diet was not based upon the arguments which Luther so
+powerfully presented before the diet, but upon a preconceived policy.
+Had the Emperor of Germany been only King of Spain in seeking to keep
+the pretentious power of the pope within bounds he might have gained a
+great advantage by uniting with Luther in the Reformation.  But as
+emperor he needed the support of the pope, on account of the danger of
+invasion of Italy by Francis I of France.  He finally concluded it
+would be best to declare Luther a heretic, but he was impotent to
+enforce {385} punishment by death.  In this way he would set himself
+directly in opposition to the Reformation and save his crown.
+Apparently Charles cared less for the Reformation than he did for his
+own political preservation.[6]
+
+From this time on the Reformation in Germany became wholly political.
+Its advantages and disadvantages hung largely upon the political
+intrigues and manipulations of the European powers.  It furnished the
+means of an economic revolt, which Luther, having little sympathy with
+the common people in their political and social bondage, was called to
+suppress from the castle of Wartburg.
+
+The Reformation spread rapidly over Germany until the time of the
+organization of the Jesuits, in 1542, when fully two-thirds of all
+Germany had revolted from papal authority and had become Protestant.
+After the organization of the Jesuits, the Reformation declined, on
+account of the zeal of that organization and the dissensions which
+arose among the Protestants.
+
+_Zwingli Was the Hero of the Reformation in Switzerland_.--The
+Reformation which was begun by Zwingli at first took on a social and a
+political aspect and, being soon taken up by the state, resulted in a
+decision by the Council of Zurich that no preacher could advance any
+arguments not found in the Old or New Testament.  This position, with
+some variations, was maintained through the entire Reformation.  The
+moral and religious condition of the people of Switzerland was at a
+very low ebb, and the course of the Reformation was to preach against
+abuses.  Zwingli drew his knowledge and faith from the Bible, holding
+that for authority one ought to return to it or to the primitive
+church.  He advocated the abolition of image-worship, and, in addition,
+the abolition of enforced celibacy, nunneries, and the celebration of
+the mass.  He held, too, that there ought to be a return to local
+church government, and {386} that all of the cloisters should be
+converted into schools.  He objected to so many days being devoted to
+the festivals of the saints, because it lessened the productive power
+of the people.  The whole tenor of his preaching was that the Bible
+should be used as the basis of doctrine, and that there is no mediation
+except through Jesus Christ.  As to the doctrine of the sacrament, he
+believed that the bread and wine are merely symbols, thus approximating
+the belief as established by the Protestants of the present day.  On
+the other hand, Luther persistently held to the doctrine of
+transubstantiation, though the organized Protestant churches held to
+"consubstantiation."
+
+The Reformation in Switzerland tended to develop more strongly an
+independent political existence, to make for freedom and righteousness,
+to work practical reforms in the abuses of both church and state, and
+to promote a deeper spiritual religion among the people.
+
+_Calvin Establishes the Genevan System_.--John Calvin was driven out of
+France on account of his preaching.  He went to Geneva and there
+perfected a unique system of religious organization.  Perhaps it is the
+most complete system of applied theology developed by any of the
+reformers.  While it did not strongly unite the church and the state on
+the same foundation of government, it placed them in such a close unity
+that the religious power would be felt in every department of state
+life.  The Genevan system was well received in France, became the
+foundation of the reform party there, and subsequently extended its
+influence to Scotland, and, finally, to England.  It became the
+foundation of Presbyterianism throughout the world.  While Calvinism
+was severe and arbitrary in its doctrine, on account of its system of
+administration, it greatly advanced civil liberty and gave a strong
+impulse toward democracy.  It was the central force in the Commonwealth
+of England, and upheld the representative system of government, which
+led to the establishment of constitutional liberty.
+
+_The Reformation in England Differed from the German_.--The work of
+John Wyclif and his followers was so remote from {387} the period of
+the Reformation as to have very little immediate influence.  Yet, in a
+general way, the influence of the teachings of Wyclif continued
+throughout the Reformation.  The religious change came about slowly in
+England and was modified by political affairs.  People gradually became
+liberal on the subject of religion, and began to exercise independent
+thought as to church government.  Yet, outwardly, at the beginning of
+the sixteenth century, the followers of John Wyclif made no impression
+upon religious affairs.  The new learning, advocated by such men as
+Erasmus, Colet, and More, was gaining ground rapidly in England.  Its
+quickening influence was observed everywhere.  It was confined to no
+particular field, but touched all departments, religious, social,
+political.  It invaded the territory of art, of education, of
+literature.  Henry VIII favored the new learning and gave it great
+impulse by his patronage.  But the new learning in England was
+antagonistic to the Reformation of Luther.  The circumstances were
+different, and Luther attacked the attitude of the English reformers,
+who desired a slow change in church administration and a gradual
+purification of the ecclesiastical atmosphere.  The difference of
+opinion called out a fierce attack by Henry VIII on Luther, which gave
+the king the title of "Defender of the Faith."
+
+The real beginning of the Reformation in England was a revolt from the
+papacy by the English king for political reasons.  England established
+a national church, with the king at its head, and made changes in the
+church government and reformed abuses.  The national, or Anglican,
+Church once formed, the struggle began, on the one hand, between it and
+the Catholic Church, and on the other, at a later date, against
+Puritanism.  The Anglican Church was not fully established until the
+reign of Elizabeth.
+
+The real spirit of the Reformation in England is best exhibited in the
+rise of Puritanism, which received its impulse largely from the
+Calvinistic branch of the Reformation.  The whole course of the
+Reformation outside of the influence of the new learning, or humanism,
+was of a political nature.  The {388} revolt from Rome was prompted by
+political motives; the Puritan movement was accompanied with political
+democracy.  The result was to give great impetus to constitutional
+liberty, stimulate intellectual activity, and to declare for freedom of
+conscience in religious matters.  Yet it was a long way from complete
+religious toleration and the full establishment of the rights and
+liberties of the people.
+
+_Many Phases of Reformation in Other Countries_.--The Reformation in
+Spain was crushed by the power of the church, which used the weapon of
+the Inquisition so effectively.  In Italy the papal power prevailed
+almost exclusively.  In the Netherlands we find almost complete
+conversion to Protestantism, and in the other northern countries we
+find Protestantism prevailing to a great extent.  Indeed, we shall find
+between the north and the south an irregular line dividing
+Protestantism from Catholicism, in the north the former predominating,
+in the south the latter.  In France a long, severe struggle between
+Catholicism and Protestantism took place.  It was combined with the
+struggle of political factions, and led to bitter, hard oppression.  In
+fact, the Reformation varied in different countries according to the
+political, social, and intellectual state of each.  Interesting as the
+history of these countries is, it is not necessary to follow it to
+determine the spirit and results of the Reformation.
+
+_Results of the Reformation Were Far-Reaching_.--The results of the
+Reformation interest us in this discussion far more than its historical
+progress.  In the first place, we shall find, as the primary result,
+that the northern nations were separated from the power of Rome and the
+great ecclesiastical power that the papacy possessed was broken.  It
+could no longer maintain its position of supremacy throughout the
+world.  Although it still was powerful, especially in Italy and
+Austria, it could no longer rest its assumption on absolute authority,
+but must demonstrate that power by intrigue and political prowess in
+order to cope with the nations of Europe.  In the second place, there
+was a development of political liberty.  The nations had freed {389}
+themselves from the domination and imperial power of the church, and
+were left alone to carry on their own affairs and develop their
+national freedom.  But there was something more in the development of
+the Reformation than those things which made for religious liberty.  To
+the desire of freedom of the mind in religious belief the desire for
+freedom in political life had joined itself, and we shall find that the
+Reformation everywhere stirred up a desire for political liberty.  The
+fires of freedom, thus lighted, never went out, but slowly burned on
+until they burst out in the great conflagration of the French
+Revolution.  Political liberty, then, was engendered and developed in
+the hearts of men and nations.
+
+Again, the foundation of religious toleration was laid by the
+Reformation, although it was not yet secured, for it must be maintained
+that even Luther was as persistent and dogmatic in his own position, as
+intolerant of the beliefs of other people, as was the papal authority
+itself.  Convinced that he was right, he recognized no one's right to
+differ from his opinion, even though he himself had revolted from the
+authority of the church.  He showed his bigotry and lack of tolerance
+in his treatment of Zwingli, of Calvin, and of Erasmus.  Most of the
+early reformers, indeed, were intolerant of the opinions of others; the
+development of religious toleration has been a very slow process, not
+only in Europe but in America.  The many and various phases of the
+Reformation nevertheless made as a whole for religious toleration.
+
+When in the Reformation in Germany it was decided at the religious
+peace of Augsburg that Catholics and Protestants should have the same
+privileges, only one division of Protestants was recognized, and that
+was the Lutheran division.  Calvinists were entirely excluded.  It was
+not until the peace of Westphalia in 1648, which closed the great
+struggle known as the Thirty Years' War, that all denominations were
+recognized upon the same basis.  The struggle for religious toleration
+in England is a history in itself, and it was not until the last
+century that it might be said that toleration really existed {390} in
+the United Kingdom, for during two centuries or more there was a state
+religion supported by revenues raised by taxing the people, although
+other churches were tolerated.
+
+Another great result of the Reformation was the advancement of
+intellectual progress.  All progress rests primarily upon freedom of
+the mind, and whatever enhances that freedom has a tendency to promote
+intellectual progress.  The advancement of language and letters, of
+philosophy and science, and of all forms of knowledge, became rapid on
+account of this intense activity of the mind.  The revival of learning
+received a new impulse in the development of man's spiritual nature--an
+impulse which was felt throughout the entire world.  In this respect
+the Reformation was far-reaching in its consequences.  The church no
+longer assumed the sole power to think for the people.
+
+Again, it may be said that the Reformation improved man's material
+progress.  The development of the independent individual life brought
+about strength of character, industry, and will force, which, in turn,
+built up material affairs and made great improvements in the economic
+conditions of man.  Everywhere that Protestantism prevailed there was a
+rapid increase of wealth and better economic conditions.  Trade and
+commerce improved rapidly, and the industrial life went through a
+process of revolution.  Freedom upon a rational basis always brings
+about this vital prosperity, while despotism suppresses the desires of
+man for a better economic life.  So we shall find that intellectual and
+material progress followed everywhere in the course of the Reformation,
+while those states and nations over which the papal authority retained
+its strongest hold began to decline in intellectual power and material
+welfare.  Such was the force of the Reformation to renovate and
+rejuvenate all which it touched.  It made possible the slow evolution
+of the independence of the common man and established the dignity of
+labor.
+
+Finally, let it be said that the Reformation caused a
+counter-reformation within the Catholic Church.  For many years {391}
+there was an earnest reform going on within the Romanist Church.
+Abuses were corrected, vices eradicated, the religious tone of church
+administration improved, and the general character of church polity
+changed in very many ways.  But once having reformed itself, the church
+became more arbitrary than before.  In the Council of Trent, in clearly
+defining its position, it declared its infallibility and absolute
+authority, thus relapsing into the old imperial regime.  But the
+Reformation, after all, was the salvation of the Roman Church, for
+through it that church was enabled to correct a sufficient number of
+abuses to regain its power and re-establish confidence in itself among
+the people.
+
+The Reformation, like the Renaissance, has been going on ever since it
+started, and we may say to-day that, so far as most of the results are
+concerned, we are yet in the midst of both.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Needed reforms in the church and why they failed.
+
+2.  Enumerate the causes that led to the Reformation prior to Luther.
+
+3.  Compare the main characteristics in the Reformation in the
+following countries: Germany, England, Switzerland, and France.
+
+4.  What were the characteristics of the Genevan system instituted by
+John Calvin?
+
+5.  The results of the Reformation on intellectual development,
+political freedom, scientific thought, and, in general, on human
+progress.
+
+6.  The effect of the Reformation on the character and policy of the
+Romanist Church (Catholic).
+
+7.  What was the nature of the quarrels of Henry IV and Gregory VII, of
+Innocent III and John of England, of Boniface and Philip the Fair?
+
+
+
+[1] _Theologia Germania_, generally accredited to Tauler, but written
+by one of his followers.
+
+[2] _The Holy Roman Empire_, p. 327.
+
+[3] _History of Civilization_, vol. I, pp. 255-257.
+
+[4] Recent writers emphasize the economic and national causes, which
+should be added to this list.
+
+[5] Luther sent his ninety-five theses to Archbishop Albert of Mainz.
+
+[6] Luther had many friends In the diet.  Also he was in his own
+country before a German national assembly.  Huss was in a foreign
+country before a church assembly.
+
+
+
+
+{392}
+
+CHAPTER XXV
+
+CONSTITUTIONAL LIBERTY AND THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
+
+_Progress in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries_.--It is not easy
+to mark in brief space the steps of progress in the complex activities
+of the great movements of society of the first centuries of the period
+of modern history.  It is not possible to relate the details of the
+great historical movements, with their many phases of life moving on
+toward great achievements.  Only a few of the salient and vital
+features may be presented, but these will be sufficient to show the
+resultant general achievements coming from the interaction of a
+multitude of forces of an expanding civilization.  The great
+determiners of this period are found in the national life of England,
+France, Germany, and America.  Out of many complex movements and causes
+the dominant factor is the struggle of monarchy and democracy.  The
+revival of learning, the Protestant revolution, and the attempts at
+popular government heralded the coming of political liberty and the
+recognition of the rights of man.  The whole complex is a vivid example
+of the processes of social evolution through the interaction of groups,
+each moving about a central idea.  Again and again when freedom of mind
+and liberty of action seem to be successful, they have been obscured by
+new social maladies or retarded by adverse environmental conditions.
+
+_The Struggle of Monarchy with Democracy_.--In a previous chapter, in
+which were recounted the early attempts at popular representation, it
+was shown that in nearly every instance the rise of popular power was
+suppressed by the rapid and universal growth of monarchy.  Having
+obtained power by combining with the people in their struggle against
+the nobility, monarchy finally denied the people the right to {393}
+participate in the government.  It was recognized nearly everywhere in
+Europe as the dominant type of government through which all nations
+must pass.  Through it the will of the people was to find expression,
+or, to use a more exact statement, monarchy proposed to express the
+will of the people without asking their permission.
+
+The intellectual revival which spread over Europe tended to free the
+mind from the binding power of tradition, prestige, and dogmatism, and
+to give it freedom in religious belief.  But while these great
+movements were taking place, monarchy was being established in Europe,
+and wherever monarchy was established without proper checks of
+constitutional government, it became powerful and arbitrary to such a
+degree as to force the people into a mighty cry for political liberty.
+In France royalty ran rapidly into imperialism; in Spain it became
+oppressive; but in England there was a decided check upon its absolute
+assumptions by way of slowly developing constitutional liberty.
+
+_Struggle for Constitutional Liberty in England_.--For a long period
+monarchy had to struggle fiercely with the feudal nobility of England,
+but finally came off conqueror, and then assumed such arbitrary powers
+as appeared necessary for the government of the realm of England.  It
+was inevitable, however, that in a people whose minds had been
+emancipated from absolute spiritual power and given freedom of thought,
+a conflict would eventually occur with monarchy which had suppressed
+municipal liberty, feudal nobility, and popular representation.  Pure
+monarchy sought at all times the suppression of political liberty.
+Hence, in England, there began a struggle against the assumptions of
+absolute monarchy and in favor of the liberty of the people.
+
+There grew up in England under the Tudors an advocacy of the inherited
+rights of kings.  There was a systematic development of arbitrary power
+until monarchy in England declared itself superior to all laws and to
+all constitutional rights and duties.  In another place it has been
+told how the English {394} Reformation was carried on by the kings as a
+political institution, how the authority of Rome was overthrown and the
+kings of England seized the opportunity to enhance their power and
+advance their own interests.  When the people realized that they had
+exchanged an arbitrary power in Rome for an arbitrary power in England,
+centred in the king, they cried out again at this latter tyranny, and
+sought for religious reform against the authority of the church.
+
+This movement was accompanied by a desire for political reform, also.
+Indeed, all civil and religious authority centred in one person, the
+king, and a reform of religious administration could not take place
+without a reform of the political.  The activity of English commerce
+and the wide-spread influence of the revival of learning, which
+developed a new and independent literary culture, made life intense and
+progress rapid.  When this spirit of political liberty sought
+expression in England, it found it in the ancient privileges and rights
+of the English people, to which they sought to return.  It was
+unfortunate that the desires for political liberty on the continent
+found no such means to which they could attach their ideas of a liberal
+government.  In England we find these old rights and privileges a ready
+support for the principles of constitutional liberty.  There were many
+precedents and examples of liberty which might be recalled for the
+purpose of quickening the zeal of the people--many, indeed, had been
+continued in local communities.
+
+Nor were the English government and law wanting in the principles of
+liberty which had been handed down from former generations.  Moreover,
+it became necessary, as a practical measure, for the kings of England,
+if they desired to maintain their position, to call a parliament of the
+people for the sake of their co-operation and help in the support of
+the government.  It is seen, therefore, that in England the spirit of
+constitutional liberty, though perhaps suppressed at times, never
+perished, though the assumption of royal power was very great, and when
+the party which was seeking to carry forward {395} religious reform
+joined itself to the party seeking political liberty, there was aroused
+a force in England which would be sure to prove a check on royalty and
+insure the rights and privileges of a free people.
+
+Though the sentiment for religious reform was general throughout
+England, this principle was viewed in many different ways by different
+parties.  Thus the pure-monarchy party saw many evils in the laws of
+England and in the administration of affairs, and sought reform, but
+without yielding anything of the high conception of the absolute power
+of the king.  They believed that the ancient laws and precedents of
+England were a check upon monarchy sufficient to reform all abuses of
+power that might arise.  They acknowledged the divine right of kings
+and thought that royalty possessed a superior power, but they held that
+it was obliged, for its own preservation and the proper government of
+the realm, to confine its activity within certain limits.  Two other
+parties, the one political and the other religious, went hand in hand,
+both for revolution.  The former denied the absolute sovereignty of the
+king and sought a great change in the form, the spirit, and the
+structure of government.  They held that the ultimate power of control
+should rest in the House of Commons as the representative of the
+people.  The latter party sought the same process within the church.
+They held that it should be controlled by assemblages of the people,
+maintained that decentralization should take place and the constitution
+of the church be changed as well as its form of administration.  It is
+easy to see that the leaders of either of these parties were also
+leaders of the other.  A fourth party sought to repudiate the
+constitution, as radically wrong, and to build up an entirely new
+political system.  It disregarded the past life of England and
+repudiated all precedents, desiring to build up a new government
+founded upon abstract theories of right and justice.
+
+The course of history under these four parties is plain.  Each one,
+struggling for power, tried to manage the government {396} upon its
+particular theory, and signally failed.  The struggle in the House of
+Commons, had it not finally brought about such great consequences,
+would be disgusting and discouraging in the extreme.  The struggle in
+England for liberty of conscience and for government of the people
+through Parliament went on through turmoil and disgrace for two
+centuries.  It was king against the people, Catholic against
+Protestant, and, within the latter group, Anglican, Presbyterian, and
+independent, each against one another.  All sorts of unjust and inhuman
+practices were indulged in.  It would seem that the spirit of Magna
+Charta and of the Christian religion was constantly outraged.
+
+When Henry VIII, in 1521, wrote his attack on Luther embodied in the
+_Assertion of the Seven Sacraments_, Pope Leo X gave him the title of
+"Defender of the Faith."  Subsequently, when he appealed to the pope to
+help him settle his marital difficulties, the pope refused to support
+him, and finally excommunicated him for divorcing his wife Catherine.
+This led to a break with Rome, and the Supremacy Act, which made the
+king protector and only supreme head of the church and clergy of
+England.  This inaugurated the long struggle between Catholic and
+Protestant, with varying fortunes to each side.  The Tudor period
+closed with the death of Elizabeth, in 1603, with a fairly
+well-established conformity to the Anglican Church; but Puritanism was
+growing slowly but surely, which meant a final disruption.  From this
+time on there was confusion of political and religious affairs for
+another century.
+
+In 1621 Parliament rebuked King James I for his high-handed proceedings
+with protestation: "That the liberties, franchises, privileges, and
+jurisdictions of Parliament are the ancient and undoubted birthright
+and inheritance of the subjects of England, and that the arduous and
+urgent affairs of the king, state, and defense of the realm ... are
+proper subjects and matters of council and debate in Parliament."  The
+king tore the page containing the resolution from the journal of
+Parliament; but this did not retard the struggle for the {397}
+recognition of ancient rights.  The strife went on throughout the reign
+of the Stuarts, until Charles I lost his head and the nation was
+plunged into a great civil war.
+
+There finally appeared on the scene of action a man of destiny.
+Cromwell, seizing the opportunity, turned everything toward democracy,
+and ruled republicans, Puritans, and royalists with such an iron hand
+that his painful democracy came to a sudden close through reaction
+under the rule of his successor.  The Stuarts again came into power,
+and, believing in the divine right of kings--a principle which seems to
+have been imbibed from the imperialism of France--sought to bring
+everything into subordination to royalty.  The people, weary of the
+irregular government caused by the attempts of the different parties to
+rule, and tired of the abuses and irregularities of the administration,
+welcomed the restoration of royalty as an advantage to the realm.  But
+the Stuarts sought not only to rule with high hand, regardless of the
+wants, desires, and will of the people, but also to bring back the
+absolute authority of the papacy.  By their arbitrary, high-handed
+proceedings, they brought the English government to a crisis which was
+ended only by the coming of William of Orange to rule upon the throne
+with constitutional right; for the people seized their opportunity to
+demand a guaranty of the rights of freemen which would thoroughly
+establish the principle of constitutional liberty in England.
+
+But the declaration of Parliament at the accession of William and Mary,
+which subsequently was enacted as a famous Bill of Rights, showed a
+great permanent gain in constitutional liberty.  It centred the power
+in Parliament, whose authority was in the Commons.  It was true the
+arbitrary power of kings came to the front during the rule of the four
+Georges, but it was without avail, and reform measures followed their
+reign.  Constitutional government had won.  It is true that the
+revolution failed to establish religious toleration, but it led the way
+with rapid strides.
+
+In the progress of civil liberty and freedom of conscience in {398}
+England, the literature of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries had
+a powerful influence.  In the world of ideas, freedom of thought found
+expression through the great writers.  While few attacked the evils of
+government, they were not wanting in setting forth high ideals of life,
+liberty, and justice.  Such men as John Milton, John Locke, John
+Bunyan, and Shakespeare turned the thinking world toward better things
+in government and life.
+
+Thus England had a check on the growth of monarchy, while freedom of
+investigation led to an inquiry about the rights of the people; hence,
+the seeds of popular liberty were growing at the time monarchy was
+making its greatest assumption.  The people never yielded, in theory at
+least, their ancient rights to the absolute control of royalty.
+Kingship in England was developed through service, and while the
+English were strong for monarchy because it expressed a unity of the
+nation, they expected the king to consider the rights of the people,
+which gave rise to a complex movement in England, making for religious
+and political liberty, in which all classes were engaged in some degree
+at different times.
+
+In France, however, it was different.  At first the feudal nobility
+ruled with absolute sway.  It continued in power long enough to direct
+the thoughts of the people toward it and to establish itself as a
+complete system.  It had little opposition in the height of its power.
+When monarchy arose it, too, had the field all to itself.  People
+recognized this as the only legitimate form of government.  Again, when
+monarchy failed, people rushed enthusiastically to democracy, and in
+their wild enthusiasm made of it a government of terror.  How different
+were the results.  In England there was a slow evolution of
+constitutional government in which the rights of the people, the king,
+the nobility, and the clergy were respected, and each class fell into
+its proper place in the government.  In France, each separate power
+made its attempt to govern, and failed.  Its history points to a truth,
+namely, that no kind of government is safe without a system of checks.
+
+{399}
+
+_The Place of France in Modern Civilization_.--Guizot tries to show
+that in the seventeenth century France led the civilization of the
+world; that while Louis XIV was carrying absolute government to its
+greatest height, philosophy, art, and letters flourished; that France,
+by furnishing unique and completed systems, has led the European world
+in civilization.  To a great extent this is true, for France had better
+opportunities to develop an advanced civilization than any other
+European nation.  It must be remembered that France, at an early
+period, was completely Romanized, and never lost the force and example
+of the Roman civilization; and, also, that in the invasion of the
+Norman, the northern spirit gave France vigor, while its crude forms
+were overcome by the more cultured forms of French life.
+
+While other nations were still in turmoil France developed a distinct
+and separate nationality.  At an early period she cast off the power of
+Rome and maintained a separate ecclesiastical system which tended to
+develop an independent spirit and further increase nationality.  Her
+population was far greater than that of any other nation, and her
+wealth and national resources were vastly superior to those of others.
+These elements gave France great prestige and great power, and fitted
+her to lead in civil progress.  They permitted her to develop a high
+state of civilization.  If the genius of the French people gave them
+adaptability in communicating their culture to others, it certainly was
+of service to Europe.  Yet the service of France must not be too highly
+estimated.  If, working in the dark, other nations, not so far advanced
+as France on account of material causes, were laying a foundation of
+the elements of civilization, which were to be of vast importance in
+the development of the race, it would appear that as great credit
+should be given them as to the French manners, genius, and culture
+which gave so little permanent benefit to the world.  Guizot wisely
+refrains from elaborating the vices of the French monarchy, and fails
+to point out the failure of the French system of government.
+
+{400}
+
+_The Divine Right of Kings_.--From the advent of the Capetian dynasty
+of French kings royalty continually increased its power until it
+culminated under Louis XIV.  The court, the clergy, and, in fact, the
+greater number of the preachers of France, advocated the divine origin
+and right of kings.  If God be above all and over all, his temporal
+rulers as well as his spiritual rulers receive their power from him;
+hence the king receives his right to rule from God.  Who, then, has the
+right to oppose the king?  Upon this theory the court preachers adored
+him and in some instances deified him.  People sought to touch the hem
+of his garment, or receive from his divine majesty even a touch of the
+hand, that they might be healed of their infirmities.  In literature
+Louis was praised and deified.  The "Grand Monarch" was lauded and
+worshipped by the courtiers and nobles who circled around him.  He
+maintained an extravagant court and an elaborate etiquette, so
+extravagant that it depleted the rural districts of money, and drew the
+most powerful families to revolve around the king.
+
+The extravagant life paralyzed the energies of kings and ministers, who
+built a government for the advantage of the governing and not the
+governed.  "I am the state!" said the Grand Monarch.  Although showing
+in many ways an enlightened absolutism, his rule plunged French royalty
+into despotism.  Louis XV held strongly to absolutism, but lacked the
+power to render it attractive and magnificent.  Louis XVI attempted to
+stem the rising tide, but it was too late.  The evils were too deeply
+seated; they could not be changed by any temporary expedient.  French
+royalty reached a logical outcome from all power to no power.  Louis
+XIV had built a strong, compact administration under the direction of
+able men, but it was wanting in liberty, it was wanting in justice, and
+it is only a matter of time when these deficiencies in a nation lead to
+destruction.
+
+_The Power of the Nobility_.--The French nobility had been mastered by
+the king, but to keep them subservient, to make them circle around
+royalty and chant its praises, they were {401} given a large extension
+of rights and privileges.  They were exempt from the responsibilities
+for crime; they occupied all of the important places in church and
+state; they were exempt from taxation; many who dwelt at the court with
+the king lived off the government; many were pensioned by the
+government, their chief recommendation apparently being idleness and
+worthlessness.  There was a great gulf between the peasantry and the
+nobility.  The latter had control of all the game of the forests and
+the fish in the rivers; one-sixth of all the grain grown in the realm
+went to the nobility, as did also one-sixth of all the land sold, and
+all confiscated property fell to them.  The peasants had no rights
+which the nobility were bound to respect.  The nobility, with all of
+the emoluments of office, owned, with the clergy, two-thirds of all the
+land.  Yet this unproductive class numbered only about 83,000 families.
+
+_The Misery of the People_.--If the nobility despised the lower classes
+and ignored their rights, they in turn were hated intensely by those
+whom they sought to degrade.  The third estate in France was divided
+into the bourgeoisie and the peasantry and small artisans.  The former
+gradually deteriorated in character and tended toward the condition of
+the lowest classes.  By the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, a large
+number of the bourgeoisie, or middle class, was driven from France.
+This deprived France of the class that would have stood by the nation
+when it needed support, and would have stood for moderate
+constitutional government against the radical democrats like
+Robespierre and Marat.
+
+The lowest class, composed of small peasant farmers, laborers, and
+artisans, were improved a little under the reign of Louis XIV, but this
+made them feel more keenly the degradation in succeeding years, from
+which there was no relief.  The condition of the people indicated that
+a revolution was on its way.  In the evolution of European society the
+common man was crowded down toward the condition of serfdom.  The
+extravagances and luxuries of life, the power of kings, bishops, and
+nobles bore like a burden of heavy weight upon his {402} shoulders.  He
+was the common fodder that fed civilization, and because of this more
+than anything else, artificial systems of society were always running
+for a fall, for the time must come when the burdens destroy the
+foundation and the superstructure comes tumbling down.
+
+_The Church_.--The church earned an important position in France soon
+after the conquest by the Romans; seizing opportunities, it came into
+power by right of service.  It brought the softening influences of
+religion; it established government where there was no government; it
+furnished a home for the vanquished and the oppressed; it preserved
+learning from the barbarians; it conquered and controlled the warlike
+spirit of the Germans; it provided the hungry with food, and by
+teaching agriculture added to the economic wealth of the community; and
+finally, it became learned, and thus brought order out of chaos.
+Surely the church earned its great position, and reaped its reward.
+Taine says:
+
+"Its popes for two hundred years were the dictators of Europe.  It
+organized crusades, dethroned monarchs, and distributed kingdoms.  Its
+bishops and abbots became here sovereign princes and there veritable
+founders of dynasties.  It held in its grasp a third of the territory,
+one-half the revenue, and two-thirds of the capital of Europe."
+
+The church was especially strong in France.  It was closely allied to
+the state, and opposed everything that opposed the state.  When the
+king became the state, the church upheld the king.  The church of
+France, prior to the revolution, was rich and aristocratic.  In 1789
+its property was valued at 4,000,000,000 francs, and its income at
+200,000,000 francs; to obtain a correct estimate according to our
+modern measure of value, these amounts should be doubled.  In some
+territories the clergy owned one-half the soil, in others
+three-fourths, and in one, at least, fourteen-seventeenths of the land.
+The Abbey of St.-Germain-des-Pres possessed 900,000 acres.  Yet within
+the church were found both the wealthy and the poverty-stricken.  In
+one community was a bishop rolling in luxury {403} and ease, in another
+a wretched, half-starved country curate trying to carry the gospel to
+half-starved people.  Such extremes were shocking commentaries upon a
+church founded on democracy.
+
+The church persecuted the literary men who expressed freedom of thought
+and opinion.  It ignored facts and the people distrusted it.  The
+religious reformation in France became identified with political
+factions, which brought the church into a prominent place in the
+government and made it take an important place in the revolution.  It
+had succeeded in suppressing all who sought liberty, either political
+or religious, and because of its prominence in affairs, it was the
+first institution to feel the storm of the revolution.  The church in
+France was attacked fully forty years before the king and the nobility
+were arraigned by the enraged populace.
+
+_Influence of the Philosophers_.--There appeared in France in the reign
+of Louis XV what was known as "the new literature," in contrast with
+the classic literature of the previous reign.  The king and the church
+combined fought this new literature, because it had a tendency to
+endanger absolutism.  It was made by such brilliant men as Helvetius,
+Montesquieu, Voltaire, Condillac, and Rousseau.  Perhaps the writings
+of these men had more to do with the precipitation of the revolution
+than the arbitrary assumptions of royalty, the wretchedness of the
+people, the supercilious abuses of the nobility, and the corruption of
+the church.
+
+Without presenting the various philosophies of these writers, it may be
+said that they attacked the systems of government, religion, and
+philosophy prevailing in France, and each succeeding writer more boldly
+proclaimed the evils of the day.  Condillac finally convinced the
+people that they owed their evil conditions to the institutions of
+church and state under which they lived, and showed that, if they
+desired a change, all it was necessary to do was to sweep those
+institutions away.  Other philosophers speculated on the best means of
+improving the government.  Presenting ideal forms of {404} government
+and advocating principles not altogether certain in practice, they made
+it seem, through these speculative theories, that a perfect government
+is possible.
+
+Of the great writers of France prior to the revolution who had a
+tremendous power in hastening the downfall of the royal regime, three
+stand out more prominently than others, namely, Voltaire, Montesquieu,
+and Rousseau.  Voltaire, keen critic and satirist, attacked the evils
+of society, the maladministration of courts and government, the
+dogmatism of the church, and aided and defended the victims of the
+system.  He was a student of Shakespeare, Locke, and Newton, and of
+English government.  He was highly critical but not constructive.
+Montesquieu, more philosophical, in his _Spirit of the Laws_ pointed
+out the cause of evils, expounded the nature of governments, and upheld
+English liberty as worthy the consideration of France.  Rousseau,
+although he attacked civilization, depicting its miseries and
+inconsistencies, was more constructive, for in his _Social Contract_ he
+advocated universal suffrage and government by the people through the
+principles of natural rights and mutual aid.  These writers aroused a
+spirit of liberty among the thoughtful which could not do otherwise
+than prove destructive to existing institutions.
+
+_The Failure of Government_.--It soon became evident to all that a
+failure of the government from a practical standpoint was certain.  The
+burdens of unequal taxation could no longer be borne; the treasury was
+empty; there was no means of raising revenue to support the government
+as it was run; there was no one who could manage the finances of the
+nation; the administration of justice had fallen into disrepute; even
+if there had been an earnest desire to help the various classes of
+people in distress, there were no opportunities to do so.  Louis XVI,
+in his weakness, called the States-General for counsel and advice.  It
+was the first time the people had been called in council for more than
+200 years; monarchy had said it could run the government without the
+people, and now, on the verge of destruction, called upon the people to
+save it from the {405} wreck.  The well-intended king invoked a storm;
+his predecessors had sown the wind, he reaped the whirlwind.
+
+_France on the Eve of the Revolution_.--The causes of the revolution
+were dependent, in part, upon the peculiarity of the character of the
+French people, for in no other way can the sudden outburst or the
+course of the revolution be accounted for.  Yet a glimpse at the
+condition of France before the storm burst will cause one to wonder,
+not that it came, but that it was so long delayed.
+
+A careful examination of the facts removes all mystery respecting the
+greatest political phenomenon of all history, and makes of it an
+essential outcome of previous conditions.  The French people were
+grossly ignorant of government.  The long period of misrule had
+distorted every form of legitimate government.  One school of political
+philosophers gave their attention to pointing out the evils of the
+system; another to presenting bright pictures of ideal systems of
+government which had never been put in practice.  The people found no
+difficulty in realizing the abuses of government, for they were intense
+sufferers from them, and, having no expression in the management of
+affairs, they readily adopted ideal theories for the improvement of
+social conditions.  Moreover, there was no national unity, no coherence
+of classes such as in former days brought strength to the government.
+Monarchy was divided against itself; the lay nobility had no loyalty,
+but were disintegrated by internal feuds; the people were divided into
+opposing classes; the clergy were rent asunder.
+
+Monarchy, though harsh, arbitrary, and unjust, did not have sufficient
+coercive force to give a strong rule.  The church had lost its moral
+influence--indeed, morality was lacking within its organization.  It
+could persecute heretics and burn books which it declared to be
+obnoxious to its doctrines, but it could not work a moral reform, much
+less stem the tide that was carrying away its ancient prerogatives.
+The nobility had no power in the government, and the dissension between
+the crown, the nobility, and the church was continuous and {406}
+destructive of all authority.  Continuous and disreputable quarrels,
+profligacy, extravagance, and idleness characterized each group.
+
+Worst of all was the condition of the peasantry.  The commons of
+France, numbering twenty-five millions of people, had, let it be said
+in their favor, no part in the iniquitous and oppressive government.
+They were never given a thought by the rulers except as a means of
+revenue.  There had grown up another, a middle class, especially in
+towns, who had grown wealthy by honest toil, and were living in ease
+and luxury, possessed of some degree of culture.  They disliked the
+nobles, on the one hand, and the peasants, on the other; hated and
+opposed the nobility and ignored the common people.  This class did not
+represent the sterling middle class of England or of modern life, but
+were the product of feudalism.
+
+The condition of the rural peasantry is almost beyond description.
+Suffering from rack-rents, excessive taxation, and the abuses of the
+nobility, they presented a squalor and wretchedness worse than that of
+the lowest vassals of the feudal regime.  In the large cities collected
+the dangerous classes who hated the rich.  Ignorant, superstitious,
+half-starved, they were ready at a moment's notice to attack the
+wealthy and to destroy property.
+
+The economic and financial conditions of the nation were deplorable,
+for the yield of wealth decreased under the poorly organized state.
+The laborers received such wages as left them at the verge of
+starvation and prepared them for open revolution.  The revenues
+reserved for the support of the government were insufficient for the
+common needs, and an empty treasury was the result.  The extravagance
+of king, court, and nobility had led to excessive expenditures and
+gross waste.  There were no able ministers to manage the affairs of the
+realm on an economic basis.  Add to these evils lack of faith, raillery
+at decency and virtue, and the poisonous effects of a weak and
+irresponsible philosophy, and there are represented sufficient evils to
+make a revolution whenever there is sufficient vigor to start it.
+
+{407}
+
+_The Revolution_.--The revolution comes with all of its horrors.  The
+church is humbled and crushed, the government razed to the ground,
+monarchy is beheaded, and the flower of nobility cut off.  The wild mob
+at first seeks only to destroy; later it seeks to build a new structure
+on the ruins.  The weak monarch, attempting to stem the tide, is swept
+away by its force.  He summons the States-General, and the commons
+declare themselves the national assembly.  Stupendous events follow in
+rapid succession--the revolt in Paris, the insubordination of the army,
+the commune of Paris, and the storming of the Bastile.  The legislative
+assembly brings about the constitutional assembly, and laws are enacted
+for the relief of the people.
+
+Intoxicated with increasing liberty, the populace goes mad, and the
+legislators pass weak and harmful laws.  The law-making and
+constitutional bodies cannot make laws fast enough to regulate the
+affairs of the state.  Lawlessness and violence increase until the
+"reign of terror" appears with all its indescribable horrors.  The rest
+is plain.  Having levelled all government to the ground, having
+destroyed all authority, having shown themselves incapable of
+self-government, the French people are ready for Napoleon.  Under his
+command and pretense they march forth to liberate humanity from
+oppression in other nations, but in reality to a world conquest.
+
+_Results of the Revolution_.--The French Revolution was by far the most
+stupendous event of modern history.  It settled forever in the Western
+world the relation of man to government.  It taught that absolutism of
+any class, if unchecked, must lead sooner or later to the destruction
+of all authority.  It taught that men, to be capable of
+self-government, must be educated in its principles through a long
+period, yet proclaimed to the Western world the freedom of man, and
+asserted his right to participate in government.  While France
+temporarily failed to bring about this participation, it awoke the cry
+for independence, equality, and fraternity around the world.
+
+The results of the revolution became the common property {408} of all
+nations, and a universal sentiment arising from it pervaded every
+country, shaping its destiny.  The severe blow given to absolutism and
+exclusive privilege in church and state settled forever the theory of
+the divine right of kings and prelates to govern.  The revolution
+asserted that the precedent in religious and political affairs must
+yield to the necessities of the people; that there is no fixed
+principle in government except the right of man to govern himself.
+
+The establishment of the theory of the natural right of man to
+participate in government had great influence on succeeding legislation
+and modified the policy of surrounding nations.  The social-contract
+theory was little understood and gave an incorrect notion of the nature
+of government.  In its historical creation, government was a growth,
+continually suiting itself to the changing needs of a people.  Its
+practice rested upon convenience and precedent, but the real test for
+participation in government was capability.  But the French Revolution
+startled the monarchs of Europe with the assumption of the natural
+right of people to self-government.  Possibly it is incorrect when
+carried to extremes, for the doctrine of natural right must be merged
+into the practice of social rights, duties, and privileges.  But it was
+a check on despotism.
+
+The revolution had an influence on economic life also.  It was only a
+step from freedom of intellectual opinion to freedom of religious
+belief, and only a step from religious freedom to political liberty.
+Carried to its legitimate outcome, the growing sentiment of freedom
+asserted industrial liberty and economic equality.  Its influence in
+the emancipation of labor was far-reaching.  Many of the theories
+advanced in the French Revolution were impracticable; sentiments
+engendered were untrue, which in the long run would lead to injustice.
+Many of its promises remain unfulfilled, yet its lessons are still
+before us, its influence for good or evil continues unabated.
+
+{409}
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  The progress in constitutional government was made in England
+during the Commonwealth.
+
+2.  Changes in the social and economic condition of England from 1603
+to 1760.
+
+3.  When did the Industrial Revolution begin?  What were its causes?
+What its results?
+
+4.  The rise of British commerce.
+
+5.  Effect of commerce on English economic and social life.
+
+6.  Of what use to England were her American colonies?
+
+7.  The effect of the American Revolution on the French Revolution.
+
+8.  The effect of the French Revolution on American liberty.
+
+
+
+
+{413}
+
+_PART V_
+
+MODERN PROGRESS
+
+
+CHAPTER XXVI
+
+PROGRESS OF POLITICAL LIBERTY
+
+_Political Liberty in the Eighteenth Century_.--Looking backward from
+the standpoint of the close of the eighteenth century and following the
+chain of events in the previous century, the real achievement in social
+order is highly disappointing.  The French Revolution, which had
+levelled the monarchy, the church, and the nobility, and brought the
+proletariat in power for a brief season and lifted the hopes of the
+people toward a government of equality, was hurrying on from the
+directorate to the consulate to the empire, and finally returning to
+the old monarchy somewhat worn and dilapidated, indeed, but sufficient
+in power to smother the hopes of the people for the time being.
+Numerous French writers, advocating anarchy, communism, and socialism,
+set up ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity which were not to be
+realized as the immediate result of the revolution.  Babeuf,
+Saint-Simon, Cabet, and Louis Blanc set forth new ideals of government,
+which were diametrically opposed to the practices of the French
+government in preceding centuries.  Though some of their ideals were
+lofty, the writers were critical and destructive rather than
+constructive.
+
+England, after the coming of William and Mary and the passing of the
+Bill of Rights in 1689, witnessed very little progress in political
+rights and liberty until the reform measures of the nineteenth century.
+On the continent, Prussia had risen to a tremendous power as a military
+state and developed an autocratic government with some pretenses to
+political liberty.  But the dominant force of Prussia working on the
+basis of the ancient feudalism was finally to crush out the liberties
+of the German people and establish autocratic government.  {414} The
+Holy Roman Empire, which had continued so long under the union of
+Austria and Italy, backed by the papacy, had reached its height of
+arbitrary power, and was destroyed by the Napoleonic wars.  In the
+whole period there were political struggles and intrigues within the
+various states, and political struggles and intrigues and wars between
+the nations.  It was a period of the expression of national selfishness
+which sought enlarged territory and the control of commerce and trade.
+Taken as a whole, there is little that is inspiring in the movement of
+nations in this period.  Indeed, it is highly disappointing when we
+consider the materials at their hand for political advancement.
+
+The political game at home played by cliques and factions and
+politicians struggling for power frequently led to disgraces abroad,
+such as the war against the American colonies and the extension of
+power and domination in India.  There is scarcely a war, if any, in
+this whole period that should not have been settled without difficulty,
+provided nations were honest with each other and could exercise, if not
+reason, common sense.  The early great movements, such as the revival
+of learning and progress centring in Italy and extending to other
+nations, the religious revolution which brought freedom of belief, the
+revolution of England and the Commonwealth, the French Revolution with
+its projections of new ideals of liberty on the horizon of political
+life, promised better things.  Also, during this period the development
+of literature and the arts and sciences should have been an enlightened
+aid to political liberty.
+
+Nevertheless, the higher ideals of life and liberty which were set
+forth during these lucid intervals of the warring nations of the world
+were never lost.  The seeds of liberty, once having been sown, were to
+spring up in future years and develop through a normal growth.
+
+_The Progress of Popular Government Found Outside of the Great
+Nations_.--The rise of democracy in Switzerland and the Netherlands and
+its development in America, although {415} moving indirectly and by
+reaction, had a lasting influence on the powerful nations like Germany,
+England, France, and Austria.  In these smaller countries the warfare
+against tyranny, despotism, and ignorance was waged with success.
+Great gain was made in the overthrow of the accumulated power of
+traditional usage and the political monopoly of groups of people who
+had seized and held the power.  Through trial and error, success and
+failure, these people, not noted for their brilliant warfare but for
+their love of peace, succeeded in establishing within their boundaries
+a clear definition of human rights and recognizing the right of the
+people to have a better government.
+
+_Reform Measures in England_.--The famous Bill of Rights of 1689 in
+England has always been intact in theory.  It laid the foundation for
+popular government in which privileges and rights of the people were
+guaranteed.  It may have been a good expedient to have declared that no
+papist should sit upon the throne of England, thus declaring for
+Protestantism, but it was far from an expression of religious
+toleration.  The prestige of the House of Lords, an old and
+well-established aristocratic body, built upon ancient privilege and
+the power of the monarchy which too frequently acknowledged
+constitutional rights and then proceeded to trample upon them, made the
+progress in popular government very slow.
+
+One great gain had been made when the nation agreed to fight its
+political battles in Parliament and at elections.  The freedom of the
+press and the freedom of speech gradually became established facts.
+Among the more noted acts for the benefit of popular government was the
+Reform Bill of 1832, which enlarged the elective franchise.  This was
+bitterly opposed by the Lords, but the persistency of the Commons won
+the day and the king signed the bill.  Again in 1867 the second Reform
+Bill enlarged the franchise, and more modern acts of Parliament have
+given greater liberties to the English people.
+
+England opposed independent local government of Scotland and Ireland
+and of her colonies.  Ireland had been oppressed {416} by the malady of
+English landlordism, which had always been a bone of contention in the
+way of any amicable adjustment of the relations between England and
+Ireland.  Throughout the whole century had waged this struggle.
+England at times had sought through a series of acts to relieve the
+country, but the conservative element in Parliament had usually
+thwarted any rational system like that proposed by Mr. Gladstone.  On
+the other hand, the Irish people themselves desired absolute freedom
+and independence and were restive under any form of restraint.
+
+Nothing short of entire independence from the English nation or the
+establishment of home rule on some practical basis could insure peace
+and contentment in Ireland.  Nor in the past could one be assured at
+any time that Ireland would have been contented for any length of time
+had she been given or acquired what she asked for.  Being forced to
+support a large population on an infertile soil where landlordism
+dominated was a cause of a continual source of discontent, and the lack
+of practice of the Irish people in the art of local government always
+gave rise to doubts in the minds of her friends as to whether she could
+succeed as an independent nation or not.  But the final triumph of
+Ireland in establishing a free state with the nominal control of the
+British Empire shows that Ireland has power to govern herself under
+fair treatment.
+
+What a great gain it would have been if many years ago England had
+yielded to the desire of Ireland for an independent constitutional
+government similar to that of Canada!  Tremendous changes have taken
+place in recent years in the liberalizing movement in England.  The
+state church still exists, but religious toleration is complete.  Women
+have been allowed the right to vote and are taking deep interest in
+political affairs, three women already having seats in Parliament.  The
+labor movement, which has always been strong and independent in
+England, by the exercise of its right at the polls finally gained
+control of the government and, for the first time {417} in the history
+of England, a leading labor-union man and a socialist became premier of
+England.
+
+_The Final Triumph of the French Republic_.--On account of ignorance of
+the true theories of government, as well as on account of lack of
+practical exercise in administration, for several decades the
+government which the French people established after the destruction of
+the monarchy of Louis XVI failed.  The democracy of the French
+Revolution was iconoclastic, not creative.  It could tear down, but
+could not rebuild.  There were required an increased intelligence and
+the slow process of thought, a meditation upon the principles for which
+the people had fought and bled, and an enlarged view of the principles
+of government, before a republic could be established in France.
+Napoleon, catching the spirit of the times, gratified his ambition by
+obtaining the mastery of national affairs and leading the French people
+against foreign nations under the pretext of overthrowing despotism in
+Europe.  In so doing he established absolutism once more in France.  He
+became the imperial monarch of the old type, with the exceptions that
+intelligence took the place of bigotry and the welfare of the people
+took the place of the laudation of kings.  But in attempting to become
+the dictator of all Europe, he caused other nations to combine against
+him, and finally he closed his great career with a Waterloo.
+
+The monarchy, on its restoration, became constitutional; the government
+was composed of two chambers--the peers, nominated by the king, and the
+lower house, elected by the people.  A system of responsible ministers
+was established, and of judges, who were not removable.  Much had been
+gained in religious and civil liberty and the freedom of the press.
+But monarchy began to grow again, urged by the middle class of France,
+until in July, 1830, another revolution broke out on account of
+election troubles.  The charter was violated in the prohibition of the
+publication of newspapers and pamphlets, and the elective system
+arbitrarily changed so as to restrict the suffrage to the landowners.
+The reaction {418} from this was to gain something more for democratic
+government.  In the meantime there had been a growth of socialism, the
+direct product of the revolution.
+
+The king finally abdicated in favor of his grandson, and then a
+provisional government was established, and finally a republic, the
+second republic of France.  Louis Napoleon, who became president of the
+republic under the constitution, gradually absorbed all powers to
+himself and proclaimed himself emperor.  After the close of the
+Franco-German War, in 1871, France became a republic for the third
+time.  A constitution was formed, under which the legislative power was
+exercised by two chambers--the Chamber of Deputies, elected by direct
+vote and manhood suffrage for four years, and the Senate, consisting of
+300 senators, 75 of whom were elected for life by the national
+assembly, the rest for nine years, by electoral colleges.  These latter
+were composed of deputies, councils of the departments, and delegates
+of communes.  The executive power was vested in a president, who was
+assisted by a responsible ministry.  Republicanism was at last secured
+to France.  Many changes have taken place in the application of the
+constitution to popular government since then, and much progress has
+been made in the practice of free government.  The whole composition of
+the government reminds one of constitutional monarchy, with the
+exception that the monarch is chosen by the people for a short period
+of time.
+
+_Democracy in America_.--The progress of democracy in America has been
+rapid.  The first colonists were oppressed by the authority of European
+nations and bound by unyielding precedent.  While the principle of
+local self-government obtained to a large extent in many of them, they
+partook more of aristocracies, or of governments based on class
+legislation, than of pure democracies.  When independence from foreign
+countries was won by the united efforts of all the colonies, the real
+struggle for universal liberty began.  A government was founded, so far
+as it was possible, on the principles of the Declaration of
+Independence, which asserted "that all men {419} are created equal;
+that they are endowed by their Creator with certain inalienable
+rights"; and that "for securing these rights, governments are
+instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of
+the governed."  The creation of a federal constitution and the
+formation of a perfect union guaranteed these rights to every citizen.
+
+Yet in the various states forming a part of the Union, and, indeed, in
+the national government itself, it took a long time to approximate, in
+practice, the liberty and justice which were set forth in the
+Declaration of Independence and the Constitution.  Still, in the past
+century, the people have become more and more closely connected with
+the state, and a "government of the people, for the people, and by the
+people" is a certainty.  The laws which have been made under the
+Constitution increase in specific declarations of the rights of the
+people.  Justice is more nearly meted out to all classes at present
+than in any decade for a century.  The political powers of citizens
+have constantly enlarged.  The elective franchise has been extended to
+all citizens of both sexes.  The requirements as to naturalization of
+foreigners are exceedingly lenient, and thus free government is offered
+to all people.
+
+Of necessity the central government has been strengthened on account of
+the enlargement of territory and the great extension of national
+governmental powers.  It has been necessary that the central forces
+which bind the separate parts of the nation together in a common union
+should be strengthened.  The result has been a decline in the
+importance and power of the state governments.  On the other hand, the
+large increase of population in the great cities has tended to enhance
+the power and importance of local government.  The government of a
+single large city now becomes more difficult and of greater vital
+importance to the people than that of a state.
+
+The enlarged territory and increased population, and the enormous
+amount of legislative machinery, have tended to extend to its utmost
+limit the principle of representative government.  Congress represents
+the people of the whole nation, {420} but committees represent Congress
+and subcommittees represent committees.  There is a constant tendency
+to delegate powers to others.  Pure democracy has no place in the great
+American republic, except as it is seen in the local government unit.
+Here the people always have a part in the caucus, in the primary or the
+town meeting, in the election of local officers and representatives for
+higher offices, in the opportunity to exercise their will and raise
+their voice in the affairs of the nation.  To some extent the supposed
+greater importance of the national government has led the people to
+underestimate the opportunities granted them for exercising their
+influence as citizens within the precinct in which they live.  But
+there is to-day a tendency to estimate justly the importance of local
+government as the source of all reforms and the means of the
+preservation of civil liberty.
+
+It has been pointed out frequently by the enemies of democracy that the
+practice of the people in self-government has not always been of the
+highest type.  In many instances this criticism is true, for experience
+is always a dear teacher.  The principles of democracy have come to
+people through conviction and determination, but the practices of
+self-government come through rough experiences, sometimes marked by a
+long series of blunders.  The cost of a republican form of government
+to the people has frequently been very expensive on account of their
+ignorance, their apathy, and their unwillingness to take upon
+themselves the responsibilities of government.  Consider, for instance,
+the thousands of laws that are made and placed upon the statute-books
+which have been of no value, possibly of detriment, to the
+community--laws made through the impulse of half-informed, ill-prepared
+legislators.  Consider also the constitutions, constitutional
+amendments, and other important acts upon which the people express
+their opinion.
+
+The smallness of the vote of a people who are jealous of their own
+rights and privileges is frequently surprising.  Notice, too, how
+frequently popular power has voted against its {421} own rights and
+interests.  See the clumsy manner by which people have voted away their
+birthrights or, failing to vote at all, have enslaved themselves to
+political or financial monopoly.  Observe, too, the expenses of the
+management of democratic governments, the waste on account of imperfect
+administration, and the failure of the laws to operate.
+
+Consideration of these points brings us to the conclusion that the
+perfection of democracy or republican government has not been reached,
+and that while liberty may be an expensive affair, it is so on account
+of the negligence of the people in qualifying for self-government.  If
+a democratic form of government is to prevail, if popular government is
+to succeed, if the freedom of the people is to be guaranteed, there
+must be persistent effort on the part of the people to prepare
+themselves for their own government; a willingness to sacrifice for
+liberty, for liberty will endure only so long as people are willing to
+pay the price it costs.  They must govern themselves, or government
+will pass from them to others.  Eternal vigilance is the price of good
+government.
+
+_Modern Political Reforms_.--Political reform has been proceeding
+recently in many particular ways.  Perhaps the most noticeable in
+America is that of civil service reform.  Strong partisanship has been
+a ruling factor in American politics, often to the detriment of the
+financial and political interests of the country.  Jealous of their
+prerogative, the people have insisted that changes in government shall
+occur often, and that the ruling party shall have the privilege of
+appointing the officers of the government.  This has made it the almost
+universal practice for the incoming party to remove the officers of the
+old administration and replace them with its own appointments.  To such
+an extent has this prevailed that it has come to be known as the
+"spoils system."
+
+But there is now a general tendency for the principles of civil service
+to prevail in all parts of the national government, and a growing
+feeling that they should be instituted in the various states and
+municipalities of the Union.  The {422} federal government has made
+rapid progress in this line in recent years, and it is to be hoped that
+before long the large proportion of appointive offices will be put upon
+a merit basis and the persons who are best qualified to fill these
+places retained from administration to administration.  Attempts are
+being made in nearly all of our cities for business efficiency in
+government, though there is much room for improvement.
+
+The government of the United States is especially weak in
+administration, and is far behind many of the governments of the Old
+World in this respect.  With a thoroughly established civil service
+system, the effectiveness of the administration would be increased
+fully fifty per cent.  Under the present party system the waste is
+enormous, and as the people must ultimately pay for this waste, the
+burden thrown upon them is great.  In the first place, the partisan
+system necessarily introduces large numbers of inexperienced,
+inefficient officers who must spend some years in actual practice
+before they are really fitted for the positions which they occupy.  In
+the second place, the time spent by congressmen and other high
+officials in attention to applicants for office and in urging of
+appointments, prevents them from improving their best opportunity for
+real service to the people.
+
+The practice of civil service reform is being rapidly adopted in the
+nations of the world which have undertaken the practice of
+self-government, and in those nations where monarchy or imperialism
+still prevails, persons in high authority feel more and more impelled
+to appoint efficient officers to carry out the plans of administrative
+government.  It is likely that the time will soon come when all offices
+requiring peculiar skill or especial training will be filled on the
+basis of efficiency, determined by competitive examination or other
+tests of ability.
+
+Another important reform, which has already been begun in the United
+States, and which, in its latest movement, originated in Australia, is
+ballot reform.  There has been everywhere in democratic government a
+tendency for fraud to increase on election days.  The manipulation of
+the votes of {423} individuals through improper methods has been the
+cause of fraud and a means of thwarting the will of the people.  It is
+well that the various states and cities have observed this and set
+themselves to the task of making laws to guard properly the ballot-box
+and give free, untrammelled expression to the will of the people.
+Though nearly all the states in the Union have adopted some system of
+balloting (based largely upon the Australian system), many of them are
+far from perfection in their systems.  Yet the progress in this line is
+encouraging when the gains in recent years are observed.
+
+Since the decline of the old feudal times, in which our modern tax
+system had its origin, there has been a constant improvement in the
+system of taxation.  Yet this has been very slow and apparently has
+been carried on in a bungling way.  The tendency has been to tax every
+form of property that could be observed or described.  And so our own
+nation, like many others, has gone on, step by step, adding one tax
+after another, without carefully considering the fundamental principles
+of taxation or the burdens laid upon particular classes.  To-day we
+have a complex system, full of irregularities and imperfections.  Our
+taxes are poorly and unjustly assessed, and the burdens fall heavily
+upon some, while others have an opportunity of escaping.  We have just
+entered an era of careful study of our tax systems, and the various
+reports from the different states and the writings of economists are
+arousing great interest on these points.  When once the imperfections
+are clearly understood and defined, there may be some hope of a remedy
+of present abuses.  To be more specific, it may be said that the
+assessments of the property in counties of the same state vary between
+seventeen and sixty per cent of the market valuation.  Sometimes this
+discrepancy is between the assessments of adjacent counties, and so
+great is the variation that seldom two counties have the same standard
+for assessing valuation.
+
+The personal-property tax shows greater irregularity than this,
+especially in our large cities.  The tax on imports, though {424}
+apparently meeting the approval of a majority of the American people,
+makes, upon the whole, a rather expensive system of taxation, and it is
+questionable whether sufficient revenue can be raised from this source
+properly to support the government without seriously interfering with
+our foreign commerce.  The internal revenue has many unsatisfactory
+phases.  The income tax has been added to an imperfect system of
+taxation, instead of being substituted for the antiquated
+personal-property tax.  Taxes on franchises, corporations, and
+inheritances are among those more recently introduced in attempts to
+reform the tax system.
+
+The various attempts to obtain sufficient revenue to support the
+government or to reform an unjust and unequal tax have led to double
+taxation, and hence have laid the burden upon persons holding a
+specific class of property.  There are to-day no less than five methods
+in which double taxation occurs in the present system of taxation of
+corporations.  The taxation of mortgages, because it may be shifted to
+the borrower, is virtually a double tax.  The great question of the
+incidence of taxation, or the determination upon whom the tax
+ultimately falls, has not received sufficient care in the consideration
+of improved systems of taxation.  Until it has, and until statesmen use
+more care in tax legislation and the regulation of the system, and
+officers are more conscientious in carrying it out, we need not hope
+for any rapid movement in tax reform.  The tendency here, as in all
+other reforms, especially where needed, is for some person to suggest a
+certain political nostrum--like the single tax--for the immediate and
+complete reform of the system and the entire renovation and
+purification of society.  But scientific knowledge, clear insight, and
+wisdom are especially necessary for any improvement, and even then
+improvement will come through a long period of practice, more or less
+painful on account of the shifting of methods of procedure.
+
+The most appalling example of the results of modern government is to be
+found in the municipal management of our {425} large cities.  It has
+become proverbial that the American cities are the worst ruled of any
+in the world.  In European countries the evils of city government were
+discovered many years ago, and in most of the nations there have been
+begun and carried out wisely considered reforms, until many of the
+cities of the Old World present examples of tolerably correct municipal
+government.
+
+In America there is now a general awakening in every city, but to such
+an extent have people, by their indifference or their wickedness, sold
+their birthrights to politicians and demagogues and the power of
+wealth, that it seems almost impossible to work any speedy radical
+reform.  Yet many changes are being instituted in our best cities, and
+the persistent effort to manage the city as a business corporation
+rather than as a political engine is producing many good results.  The
+large and growing urban population has thrown the burden of government
+upon the city--a burden which it was entirely unprepared for--and there
+have sprung up sudden evils which are difficult to eradicate.  Only
+persistent effort, loyalty, sacrifice, and service, all combined with
+wisdom, can finally accomplish the reforms needed in cities.  There is
+a tendency everywhere for people to get closer to the government, and
+to become more and more a part of it.[1]  Our representative system has
+enabled us to delegate authority to such an extent that people have
+felt themselves irresponsible for all government, except one day in the
+year, when they vote at the polls; we need, instead, a determination to
+govern 365 days in the year, and nothing short of this perpetual
+interest of the people will secure to them the rights of
+self-government.  Even then it is necessary that every citizen shall
+vote at every election.
+
+_Republicanism in Other Countries_.--The remarkable spread of forms of
+republican government in the different nations of the world within the
+present century has been unprecedented.  {426} Every independent nation
+in South America to-day has a republican form of government.  The
+Republic of Mexico has made some progress in the government of the
+people, and the dependencies of Great Britain all over the world have
+made rapid progress in local self-government.  In Australia, New
+Zealand, and Canada, we find many of the most advanced principles and
+practices of free government.
+
+It is true that many of these nations calling themselves republics have
+not yet guaranteed the rights and privileges of a people to any greater
+extent than they would have done had they been only constitutional
+monarchies; for it must be maintained at all times that it depends more
+upon the characteristics of the people--upon their intelligence, their
+social conditions and classes, their ideas of government, and their
+character--what the nature of their government shall be, than upon the
+mere form of government, whether that be aristocracy, monarchy, or
+democracy.
+
+Many of the evils which have been attributed to monarchy ought more
+truly to have been attributed to the vital conditions of society.
+Vital social and political conditions are far more important to the
+welfare of the people than any mere form of government.  Among the
+remarkable expressions of liberal government in modern times has been
+the development of the Philippine Islands under the protecting care of
+the United States, the establishment of republicanism in Porto Rico and
+Hawaii, now parts of the territory of the United States, and the
+development of an independent and democratic government in Cuba through
+the assistance of the United States.  These expressions of an extended
+democracy have had far-reaching consequences on the democratic idealism
+of the world.
+
+_Influence of Democracy on Monarchy_.--But the evidences of the
+progress of popular government are not all to be observed in republics.
+It would be difficult to estimate the influence of the rise of popular
+government in some countries upon the monarchial institutions of
+others.  This can never be {427} properly determined, because we know
+not what would have taken place in these monarchies had republicanism
+never prevailed anywhere.  When republicanism arose in France and
+America, monarchy was alarmed everywhere; and again, when the
+revolutionary wave swept over Europe in 1848, monarchy trembled.
+Wherever, indeed, the waves of democracy have swept onward they have
+found monarchy raising breakwaters against them.  Yet with all this
+opposition there has been a liberalizing tendency in these same
+monarchial governments.  Monarchy has been less absolute and less
+despotic; the people have had more constitutional rights granted them,
+greater privileges to enjoy; and monarchies have been more careful as
+to their acts, believing that the people hold in their hands the means
+of retribution.  The reforming influence of democratic ideas has been
+universal and uninterrupted.
+
+The World War has been iconoclastic in breaking up old forms of
+government and has given freedom to the democratic spirit and in many
+cases has developed practical democracy.  Along with this, forces of
+radicalism have come to the front as an expression of long-pent
+feelings of injustice, now for the first time given opportunity to
+assert and express themselves.  The ideal of democracy historically
+prevalent in Europe has been the rule of the "lower classes" at the
+expense of the "upper classes."  This theory has been enhanced by the
+spread of Marxian socialism, which advocates the dominance and rule of
+the wage-earning class.  The most serious attempt to put this idea in
+practice occurred in Russia with disastrous results.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Why did the French Revolution fail to establish liberty?
+
+2.  What were the lasting effects of the English Commonwealth?
+
+3.  What were the causes of liberal government in the Netherlands?
+
+4.  The reform acts in 1832 and in 1867 in England.
+
+5.  The chief causes of trouble between England and Ireland.
+
+6.  The growth of democracy in the United States.
+
+{428}
+
+7.  Enumerate the most important modern political reforms.  What are
+some needed political reforms?
+
+8.  England's influence on American law and government.
+
+9.  Investigate the population in your community to determine the
+extent of human equality.
+
+10.  City government under the municipal manager plan; also commission
+plan.
+
+
+
+[1] Consider the commission form of city government and the municipal
+manager plan.
+
+
+
+
+{429}
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS
+
+_Industries Radiate from the Land as a Centre_.--In primitive
+civilizations industry was more or less incidental to life.  The food
+quest, protection of the body from storm and sun by improvised
+habitation and the use of skins, furs, bark, and rushes for clothing,
+together with the idea of human association for the perpetuation of the
+species, are the fundamental notions regarding life.  Under such
+conditions industry was fitful and uncertain.  Hunting for vegetable
+products and for animals to sustain life, the protection of the life of
+individuals from the elements and, incidentally, from the predatory
+activities of human beings, were the objectives of primitive man.
+
+As the land is the primary source of all economic life, systematic
+industry has always begun in its control and cultivation.  Not until
+man settled more or less permanently with the idea of getting his
+sustenance from the soil did industrial activities become prominent.
+In the development of civilization one must recognize the ever-present
+fact that the method of treatment of the land is a determining factor
+in its fundamental characteristics, for it must needs be always that
+the products that we utilize come from the action of man on nature and
+its reaction on him.  While the land is the primary source of wealth,
+and its cultivation a primal industry, it does not include the whole
+category of industrial enterprises, for tools must be made, art
+developed, implements provided, and machinery constructed.  Likewise,
+clothing and ornaments were manufactured, and habitations constructed,
+and eventually transportation begun to carry people and goods from one
+place to another.  These all together make an enlarged group of
+activities, all radiating from the soil as a common centre.
+
+{430}
+
+We have already referred to the cultivation of the valleys of the
+Euphrates and the Nile by systems of irrigation and the tilling of the
+soil in the valleys of Greece in the crude and semibarbarous methods
+introduced by the barbarians from the north.  We have referred to the
+fact that the Romans were the first to develop systematic agriculture,
+and even the Teutonic people, the invaders of Rome, were rude
+cultivators of the soil.
+
+Social organization is dependent to a large extent upon the method of
+attachment to the soil--whether people wander over a large area in the
+hunter-fisher and the nomadic stages, or whether they become attached
+to the soil permanently.  Thus, the village community developed a
+united, neighborly community, built on the basis of mutual aid.  The
+feudal system was built upon predatory tribal warfare, where possession
+was determined by might to have and to hold.  In the mediaeval period
+the manorial system of landholding developed, whereby the lord and his
+retainers claimed the land by their right of occupation and the power
+to hold, whether this came through conquest, force of arms, or
+agreement.
+
+This manorial system prevailed to a large extent in England, France,
+and parts of Germany.  These early methods of landholding were brought
+about by people attempting to make their social adjustments, primarily
+in relation to survival, and subsequently in relation to the justice
+among individuals within the group, or in relation to the reactions
+between the groups themselves.  After the breaking down of the Roman
+Empire, the well-established systems of landholding in the empire and
+the older nations of the Orient in the Middle Ages developed into the
+feudal system, which forced all society into groups or classes, from
+the lord to the serf.  Subsequently there sprang up the individual
+system of landholding, which again readjusted the relation of society
+to the land system and changed the social structure.
+
+_The Early Mediaeval Methods of Industry_.--Outside of the tilling of
+the soil, the early industries were centred in the home, which gave
+rise to the well-known house system of {431} culture.  "Housework" has
+primary relation to goods which are created for the needs of the
+household.  Much of the early manufacturing industry was carried on
+within the household.  Gradually this has disappeared to a large extent
+through the multiplication of industries outside the home, power
+manufacture, and the organization of labor and capital.
+
+In many instances house culture preceded that of systematic
+agriculture.  The natural order was the house culture rising out of the
+pursuits of fishing, hunting, and tending flocks and herds, and the
+incidental hoe culture which represented the first tilling of the soil
+about the tent or hut.  The Indians of North America are good examples
+of the development of the house culture in the making of garments from
+the skins of animals or from weeds and rushes, the weaving of baskets,
+the making of pottery and of boats, and the tanning of hides.  During
+all this period, agriculture was of slow growth, it being the
+incidental and tentative process of life, while the house culture
+represented the permanent industry.
+
+Industries varied in different tribes, one being skilled in
+basket-making, another in stone implements for warfare and domestic
+use, another in pottery, another in boats, and still another in certain
+kinds of clothing--especially the ornaments made from precious stones
+or bone.  This made it possible to spread the culture of one group to
+other groups, and later there developed the wandering peddler who went
+from tribe to tribe trading and swapping goods.  This is somewhat
+analogous to the first wage-work system of England, where the
+individual went from house to house to perform services for which he
+received pay in goods, or, as we say, in kind.  Subsequently the
+wage-earner had his own shop, where raw material was sent to him for
+finishing.
+
+All through Europe these customs prevailed and, indeed, in some parts
+of America exist to the present day.  We see survivals of these customs
+which formerly were permanent, in the people who go from house to house
+performing certain types of work or bringing certain kinds of goods for
+sale, and, {432} indeed, in the small shop of modern times where goods
+are repaired or manufactured.  They represent customs which now are
+irregular, but which formerly were permanent methods.  It was a simple
+system, requiring no capital, no undertaker or manager, no middleman.
+Gradually these customs were replaced by many varied methods, such as
+the establishment of the laborer in his individual shop, who at first
+only made the raw material, which people brought him, into the finished
+product; later he was required to provide his own raw material, taking
+orders for certain classes of goods.
+
+After the handcraft system was well established, there was a division
+between the manufacturer of goods and those who produced the raw
+material, a marked distinction in the division of labor.  The expansion
+of systems of industry developed the towns and town life, and as the
+manor had been self-sufficient in the manufacture of goods, so now the
+town becomes the unit of production, and independent town economy
+springs up.  Later we find the towns beginning to trade with each
+other, and with this expanded industry the division of labor came about
+and the separation of laborers into classes.  First, the merchant and
+the manufacturer were united.  It was common for the manufacturer of
+goods to have his shop in his own home and, after he had made the
+goods, to put them on the shelf until called for by customers.  Later
+he had systems of distribution and trade with people in the immediate
+locality.  Soon weavers, spinners, bricklayers, packers, tanners, and
+other classes became distinctive.  It was some time before
+manufacturers and traders, however, became separate groups, and a
+longer time before the manufacturer was separated from the merchant,
+because the manufacturer must market his own goods.  Industries by
+degrees thus became specialized, and trades became clearly defined in
+their scope.  This led, of course, to a distinct division of
+occupation, and later to a division of labor within the occupation.
+The introduction of money after the development of town economy brought
+about the wage system, whereby people were paid in money rather than
+{433} kind.  This was a great step forward in facilitating trade and
+industry.
+
+One of the earliest methods of developing organized industrial society
+was through the various guilds of the Middle Ages.  They represented
+the organization of the industries of a given town, with the purpose of
+establishing a monopoly in trade of certain kinds of goods, and
+secondarily to develop fraternal organization, association, and
+co-operation among groups of people engaged in the same industry.
+Perhaps it should be mentioned that the first in order of development
+of the guilds was known as the "guild-merchant," which was an
+organization of all of the inhabitants of the town engaged in trading
+or selling.  This was a town monopoly of certain forms of industry
+controlled by the members of that industry.  It partook of the nature
+of monopoly of trade, and had a vast deal to do with the social
+organization of the town.  Its power was exercised in the place of more
+systematic political town government.  However, after the political
+town government became more thoroughly established, the guild-merchant
+declined, but following the decline of the guild-merchant, the craft
+guild developed, which was an organization of all of the manufacturers
+and traders in a given craft.  This seemed to herald the coming of the
+trade-union after the industrial machinery of society had made a number
+of changes.  English industrial society became finally completely
+dominated, as did societies in countries on the Continent, by the craft
+guilds.
+
+All the payments in the handcraft system were at first in kind.  When
+the laborer had finished his piece of goods, his pay consisted in
+taking a certain part of what he had created in the day or the week.
+Also, when he worked by the day he received his pay in kind.  This
+system prevailed until money became sufficiently plentiful to enable
+the payment of wages for piecework and by the day.  The payment in
+kind, of course, was a very clumsy and wasteful method of carrying on
+industry.  Many methods of payment in kind prevailed for centuries,
+even down to recent times in America.  Before the great {434}
+flour-mills were developed, the farmer took his wheat to the mill, out
+of which the miller took a certain percentage for toll in payment for
+grinding.  The farmer took the remainder home with him in the form of
+flour.  So, too, we have in agriculture the working of land on shares,
+a certain percentage of the crops going to the owner and the remainder
+to the tiller of the soil.  Fruit is frequently picked on shares, which
+is nothing more than payment for services in kind.
+
+_The Beginnings of Trade_.--While these simple changes were slowly
+taking place in the towns and villages of Europe, there were larger
+movements of trade being developed, not only between local towns, but
+between the towns of one country and those of another, which led later
+to international trade and commerce.  Formerly trade had become of
+world importance in the early Byzantine trade with the Orient and
+Phoenicia.  After the crusades, the trade of the Italian cities with
+the Orient and northwest Europe was of tremendous importance.[1] In
+connection with this, the establishment of the Hanseatic League, of
+which Hamburg was a centre, developed trade between the east and the
+west and the south.  These three great mediaeval trade movements
+represent powerful agencies in the development of Europe.  They carried
+with them an exchange of goods and an exchange of ideas as well.  This
+interchange stimulated thought and industrial activity throughout
+Europe.
+
+_Expansion of Trade and Transportation_.--The great discoveries in the
+fifteenth and sixteenth centuries had a vast deal to do with the
+expansion of trade.  The discovery of America, the establishment of
+routes to the Philippines around South America and to India around
+South Africa opened up wide vistas, not only for exploration but for
+the exchange of goods.  Also, this brought about national trade, and
+with it national competition.  From this time on the struggle for the
+supremacy of the sea was as important as the struggle of the various
+nations for extended territory.  Portugal, the {435} Netherlands,
+England, and Spain were competing especially for the trade routes of
+the world.  France and England were drawn into sharp competition
+because of the expansion of English trade and commerce.  Portugal
+became a great emporium for the distribution of Oriental goods after
+she became a maritime power, with a commercial supremacy in India and
+China.  Subsequently she declined and was forced to unite with Spain,
+and even after she obtained her freedom, in the seventeenth century,
+her war with the Netherlands caused her to lose commercial supremacy.
+
+The rise of the Dutch put the Netherlands to the front and Antwerp and
+Amsterdam became the centres of trade for the Orient.  Dutch trade
+continued to lead the world until the formation of the English East and
+West India companies, which, with their powerful monopoly on trade,
+brought England to the front.  Under the monopolies of these great
+companies and other private monopolies, England forged ahead in trade
+and commerce.  But the private monopolies became so powerful that
+Cromwell, by the celebrated Navigation Acts of 1651, made a gigantic
+trade monopoly of the English nation.  The development of agricultural
+products and manufactures in England, together with her immense
+carrying trade, made her mistress of the seas.  The results of this
+trade development were to bring the products of every clime in exchange
+for the manufactured goods of Europe, and to bring about a change of
+ideas which stimulated thought and life, not only in material lines but
+along educational and spiritual lines as well.
+
+_Invention and Discoveries_.--One of the most remarkable eras of
+progress in the whole range of modern civilization appeared at the
+close of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth,
+especially in England.  The expanded trade and commerce of England had
+made such a demand for economic goods that it stimulated invention of
+new processes of production.  The spinning of yarn became an important
+industry.  It was a slow process, and could not supply the {436}
+weavers so that they could keep their looms in operation.  Moreover,
+Kay introduced what is known as the drop-box and flying shuttle in
+1738, which favored weaving to the detriment of spinning, making the
+trouble worse.
+
+In the extremity of trade the Royal Society offered a prize to any
+person who would invent a machine to spin a number of threads at the
+same time.  As a result of this demand, James Hargreaves in 1764
+invented the spinning-jenny, which was followed by Arkwright's
+invention of spinning by rollers, which was patented in 1769.
+Combining Arkwright's and Hargreaves's inventions, Crompton in 1779
+invented the spinning-"mule."  This quickened the process of spinning
+and greatly increased the production of the weavers.  But one necessity
+satisfied leads to another in invention, and Cartwright's powerloom,
+which was introduced in 1784, came into general use at the beginning of
+the nineteenth century.
+
+During this period America had become a producer of cotton, and Eli
+Whitney's cotton-gin, invented in 1792, which separated the seeds from
+the cotton fibre in the boll, greatly stimulated the production of
+cotton in the United States.  In the meanwhile the steam-engine, which
+had been perfected in 1769, was applied to power manufacture in 1785 by
+James Watt.  This was the final stroke that completed the power
+manufacture of cotton and woollen goods.
+
+Other changes were brought about by the new method of smelting ore by
+means of coal, charcoal having been hitherto used for the process, and
+the invention of the blast-furnace in 1760 by Roebuck, which brought
+the larger use of metals into the manufactures of the world.  To aid in
+the carrying trade, the building of canals between the large
+manufacturing towns in England to the ocean, and the building of
+highways over England, facilitated transportation and otherwise
+quickened industry.  Thus we have in a period of less than forty years
+the most remarkable and unprecedented change in industry, which has
+never been exceeded in importance even by the introduction of the
+gasoline-engine and electrical power.
+
+{437}
+
+_The Change of Handcraft to Power Manufacture_.--Prior to the
+development of the mechanical contrivances for spinning and weaving and
+the application of steam-power to manufacturing, nearly everything in
+Europe was made by hand.  All clothing, carpets, draperies, tools,
+implements, furniture--everything was hand-made.  In this process no
+large capital was needed, no great factories, no great assemblage of
+laborers, no great organization of industry.  The work was done in
+homes and small shops by individual enterprise, mainly, or in
+combinations of laborers and masters.  Power manufacture and the
+inventions named above changed the whole structure of industrial
+society.
+
+_The Industrial Revolution_.--The period from 1760 to about 1830 is
+generally given as that of the industrial revolution, because this
+period is marked by tremendous changes in the industrial order.  It
+might be well to remark, however, that if the industrial revolution
+began about 1760, it has really never ended, for new inventions and new
+discoveries have continually come--a larger use of steam-power, the
+introduction of transportation by railroads and steamship-lines, the
+modern processes of agriculture, the large use of electricity, with
+many inventions, have constantly increased power manufacture and drawn
+the line more clearly between the laborers on one side and the
+capitalists or managers on the other.
+
+In the first place, because the home and the small shop could not
+contain the necessary machinery, large factories equipped with great
+power-machines became necessary, and into the factories flocked the
+laborers, who formerly were independent handcraft manufacturers or
+merchants.  It was necessary to have people to organize this labor and
+to oversee its work--that is, "bosses" were necessary.  Under these
+circumstances the capitalistic managers were using labor with as little
+consideration or, indeed, less than they used raw material in the
+manufacture of goods.  The laborers must seek employment in the great
+factories.  The managers forced them down to the lowest rate of wage,
+caused them to live in {438} ill-ventilated factories in danger of life
+and health from the machinery, and to work long hours.  They employed
+women and children, who suffered untold miseries.  The production of
+goods demanded more and more coal, and women went into the coal-mines
+and worked fourteen to sixteen hours a day.
+
+Society was not ready for the great and sudden change and could not
+easily adjust itself to new conditions.  Capital was necessary, and
+must have its reward.  Factories were necessary to give the laborers a
+chance to labor.  Labor was necessary, but it did not seem necessary to
+give any consideration to the justice of the laborer nor to his
+suffering.  The wage system and the capitalistic system
+developed--systems that the socialists have been fighting against for
+more than a century.  Labor, pressed down and suffering, arose in its
+own defense and organized.  It was successively denied the right to
+assemble, to organize, to strike, but in each separate case the law
+prevailed in its favor.
+
+All through the development of European history the ordinary laborer
+never received full consideration regarding his value and his rights.
+It is true at times that he was happy and contented without
+improvement, but upon the whole the history of Europe has been the
+history of kings, queens, princes, and nobility, and wars for national
+aggrandizement, increased territory, or the gratification of the whims
+of the dominant classes.  The laborer has endured the toil, fought the
+battles, and paid the taxes.  Here we find the introduction of
+machinery, which in the long run will make the world more prosperous,
+happier, and advance it in civilization, yet the poor laborer must be
+the burden-bearer.
+
+Gradually, however, partly by his own demands, partly by the growing
+humanity of capitalistic employers, and partly because of the interest
+of outside philanthropic statesmen, labor has been protected by laws.
+In the first place, all trades are organized, and nearly all
+organizations are co-operating sympathetically with one another.  Labor
+has been able thus to demand things and to obtain them, not only by the
+persistency {439} of demand, but by the force of the strike which
+compels people to yield.  To-day the laborer has eight hours a day of
+work in a factory well ventilated and well lighted, protected from
+danger and accident, insured by law, better wages than he has ever had,
+better opportunities for life and the pursuit of happiness, better fed,
+better clothed, and better housed than ever before in the history of
+the world.
+
+Yet the whole problem is far from being settled, because it is not easy
+to define the rights, privileges, and duties of organized labor.  Some
+things we know, and one is that the right to strike does not carry with
+it the right to destroy, or the right to organize the right to oppress
+others.  But let us make the lesson universal and apply the same to
+capitalistic organizations and the employers' associations.  And while
+we make the latter responsible for their deeds, let us make the
+organization of the former also responsible, and let the larger
+community called the state determine justice between groups and insure
+freedom and protection to all.
+
+_Modern Industrial Development_.--It was stated above that the
+industrial revolution is still going on.  One need only to glance at
+the transformation caused by the introduction of railway transportation
+and steam navigation in the nineteenth century, to the uses of the
+telegraph, the telephone, the gasoline-engine, and later the radio and
+the airplane, to see that the introduction of these great factors in
+civilization must continue to make changes in the social order.  They
+have brought about quantity transportation, rapidity of manufacture,
+and rapidity of trade, and stimulated the activities of life
+everywhere.  This stimulation, which has brought more things for
+material improvement, has caused people to want paved streets, electric
+lights, and modern buildings, which have added to the cost of living
+through increased taxation.  The whole movement has been characterized
+by the accumulated stress of life, which demands greater activity, more
+goods consumed, new desires awakened, and greater efforts to satisfy
+them.  The quickening process goes on unabated.
+
+{440}
+
+In order to carry out these great enterprises, the industrial
+organization is complex in the extreme and tremendous in its magnitude.
+Great corporations capitalized by millions, great masses of laborers
+assembled which are organized from the highest to the lowest in the
+great industrial army, represent the spectacular display.  And to be
+mentioned above all is the great steam-press that sends the daily paper
+to every home and the great public-school system that puts the book in
+every hand.
+
+_Scientific Agriculture_.--It has often been repeated that man's wealth
+comes originally from the soil, and that therefore the condition of
+agriculture is an index of the opportunity offered for progress.  What
+has been done in recent years, especially in England and America, in
+the development of a higher grade stock, so different from the old
+scrub stock of the Colonial period; in the introduction of new grains,
+new fertilizers, improved soils, and the adaptability of the crop to
+the soil in accordance with the nature of both; the development of new
+fruits and flowers by scientific culture--all have brought to the door
+of man an increased food-supply of great variety and of improved
+quality.  This is conducive to the health and longevity of the race, as
+well as to the happiness and comfort of everybody.  Moreover, the
+introduction of agricultural machinery has changed the slow, plodding
+life of the farmer to that of the master of the steam-tractor,
+thresher, and automobile, changed the demand from a slow, inactive mind
+to the keenest, most alert, best-educated man of the nation, who must
+study the highest arts of production, the greatest economy, and the
+best methods of marketing.  Truly, the industrial revolution applies
+not to factories alone.
+
+_The Building of the City_.--The modern industrial development has
+forced upon the landscape the great city.  No one particularly wanted
+it.  No one called it into being--it just came at the behest of the
+conditions of rapid transportation, necessity of centralization of
+factories where cheap distribution could be had, not only for the raw
+material but for the {441} finished product, and where labor could be
+furnished with little trouble--all of these things have developed a
+city into which rush the great products of raw material, and out of
+which pour the millions of manufactured articles and machinery; into
+which pours the great food-supply to keep the laborers from starving.
+Into the city flows much of the best blood of the country, which seeks
+opportunity for achievement.  The great city is inevitable so long as
+great society insists on gigantic production and as great consumption,
+but the city idea is overwrought beyond its natural condition.  If some
+power could equalize the transportation question, so that a factory
+might be built in a smaller town, where raw material could be furnished
+as cheaply as in the large city, and the distribution of goods be as
+convenient, there is no reason why the population might not be more
+evenly distributed, to its own great improvement.
+
+_Industry and Civilization_.--But what does this mean so far as human
+progress is concerned?  We have increased the material production of
+wealth and added to the material comfort of the inhabitants of the
+world.  We have extended the area of wealth to the dark places of the
+world, giving means of improvement and enlightenment.  We have
+quickened the intellect of man until all he needs to do is to direct
+the machinery of his own invention.  Steam, electricity, and
+water-power have worked for him.  It has given people leisure to study,
+investigate, and develop scientific discoveries for the improvement of
+the race, protecting them from danger and disease and adding to their
+comfort.  It has given opportunity for the development of the higher
+spiritual power in art, music, architecture, religion, and science.
+
+Industrial progress is something more than the means of heaping up
+wealth.  It has to do with the well-being of humanity.  It is true we
+have not yet been able to carry out our ideals in this matter, but
+slowly and surely industrial liberty and justice are following in the
+wake of the freedom of the mind to think, the freedom of religious
+belief, and the {442} political freedom of self-government.  We are
+to-day in the fourth great period of modern development, the
+development of justice in industrial relations.
+
+Moreover, all of this quickening of industry has brought people
+together from all over the world.  London is nearer New York than was
+Philadelphia in revolutionary times.  Not only has it brought people
+closer together in industry, but in thought and sympathy.  There have
+been developed a world ethics, a world trade, and a world interchange
+of science and improved ideas of life.  It has given an increased
+opportunity for material comforts and an increased opportunity for the
+achievement of the ordinary man who seeks to develop all the capacities
+and powers granted him by nature.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Show that land is the foundation of all industry.
+
+2.  Compare condition of laborers now with conditions before the
+industrial revolution.
+
+3.  Are great organizations of business necessary to progress?
+
+4.  Do railroads create wealth?
+
+5.  Does the introduction of machinery benefit the wage-earner?
+
+6.  How does rapid ocean-steamship transportation help the United
+States?
+
+7.  If England should decline in wealth and commerce, would the United
+States be benefited thereby?
+
+8.  How does the use of electricity benefit industry?
+
+9.  To what extent do you think the government should control or manage
+industry?
+
+10.  Is Industrial Democracy possible?
+
+11.  Cutting and hammering two processes of primitive civilization.
+What mechanical inventions take the place of the stone hammer and the
+stone knife?
+
+
+
+[1] See Chapter XXI.
+
+
+
+
+{443}
+
+CHAPTER XXVII
+
+SOCIAL EVOLUTION
+
+_The Evolutionary Processes of Society_.--Social activity is primarily
+group activity.  Consequently the kind and nature of the group, the
+methods which brought its members together, its organization and
+purpose, indicate the type of civilization and the possibility of
+achievement.  As group activity means mutual aid of members, and
+involves processes of co-operation in achievement, the type of society
+is symbolic of the status of progress.  The function of the group is to
+establish social order of its members, protect them from external foes,
+as well as internal maladies, and to bring into existence a new force
+by which greater achievement is possible than when individuals are
+working separately.
+
+_The Social Individual_.--While society is made of physio-psychic
+individuals, as a matter of fact the social individual is made by
+interactions and reactions arising from human association.  Society on
+one hand and the social individual on the other are both developed at
+the same time through the process of living together in co-operation
+and mutual aid.  Society once created, no matter how imperfect, begins
+its work for the good of all its members.  It begins to provide against
+cold and hunger and to protect from wild animals and wild men.  It
+becomes a feeling, thinking, willing group seeking the best for all.
+It is in the fully developed society that the social process appears of
+providing a water-supply, sanitation through sewer systems,
+preventative medicine and health measures, public education, means of
+establishing its members in rights, duties, and privileges, and
+protecting them in the pursuit of industry.
+
+_The Ethnic Society_.--Just at what period society became well
+established is not known, but there are indications that some forms of
+primitive family life and social activities were {444} in existence
+among the men of the Old Stone Age, and certainly in the Neolithic
+period.  After races had reached a stage of permanent historical
+records, or had even handed down traditions from generation to
+generation, there are evidences of family life and tribal or national
+achievements.  Though there are evidences of religious group activities
+prior to formal tribal life, it may be stated in general that the first
+permanent organization was on a family or ethnic basis.  Blood
+relationship was the central idea of cohesion, which was early aided by
+religious superstition and belief.  Following this idea, all of the
+ancient monarchies and empires were based on the ethnic group or race.
+All of this indicates that society was based on natural law, and from
+that were gradually evolved the general and political elements which
+foreshadowed the enlarged functions of the more complex society of
+modern times.
+
+_The Territorial Group_.--Before the early tribal groups had settled
+down to permanent habitations, they had developed many social
+activities, but when they became permanently settled they passed from
+the ethnic to the demographic form of social order--that is, they
+developed a territorial group that performed all of its functions
+within a given boundary which they called their own.  From this time on
+population increased and occupied territory expanded, and the group
+became self-sufficient and independent in character.  Then it could
+co-operate with other groups and differentiate functions within.
+Industrial, religious, and political groups, sacred orders, and
+voluntary associations became prominent, all under the protection of
+the general social order.
+
+_The National Group Founded on Race Expansion_.--Through conquest,
+amalgamation, and assimilation, various independent groups were united
+in national life.  All of the interior forces united in the
+perpetuation of the nation, which became strong and domineering in its
+attitude toward others.  This led to warfare, conquest, or plunder, the
+union of the conquered with the conquerors, and imperialism came into
+being.  Growth of wealth and population led to the demand for more
+territory {445} and the continuation of strife and warfare.  The rise
+and fall of nations, the formation and dissolving of empires under the
+constant shadow of war continued through the ages.  While some progress
+was made, it was in the face of conspicuous waste of life and energy,
+and the process of national protection of humanity has been of doubtful
+utility.  Yet the development of hereditary leadership, the dominance
+of privileged classes, and the formation of traditions, laws, and forms
+of government went on unabated, during which the division of industrial
+and social functions within, causing numerous classes to continually
+differentiate, took place.
+
+_The Functions of New Groups_.--In all social groupings the function
+always precedes the form or structure of the social order.  Society
+follows the method of organic evolution in growing by differentiation.
+New organs or parts are formed, which in time become strengthened and
+developed.  The organs or parts become more closely articulated with
+each other and with the whole social body, and finally over all is the
+great society, which defends, shields, protects, and fights for all.
+The individual may report for life service in many departments, through
+which his relation to great society must be manifested.  He no longer
+can go alone in his relation to the whole mass.  He may co-operate in a
+general way, it is true, with all, but must have a particularly active
+co-operation in the smaller groups on which his life service and life
+sustenance depend.  The multiplication of functions leads to increased
+division of service and to increased co-operation.  In the industrial
+life the division of labor and formation of special groups are more
+clearly manifested.
+
+_Great Society and the Social Order_.--This is manifested chiefly in
+the modern state and the powerful expression of public opinion.  No
+matter how traditional, autocratic, and arbitrary the centralized
+government becomes, there is continually arising modifying power from
+local conditions.  There are things that the czar or the king does not
+do if he wishes to continue in permanent authority.  From the masses of
+the {446} people there arises opposition to arbitrary power, through
+expressed discontent, public opinion, or revolution.  The whole social
+field of Europe has been a seething turmoil of action and reaction, of
+autocracy and the demand for human rights.  Thirst for national
+aggrandizement and power and the lust of the privileged classes have
+been modified by the distressing cry of the suffering people.  What a
+slow process is social evolution and what a long struggle has been
+waged for human rights!
+
+_Great Society Protects Voluntary Organizations_.--Freedom of assembly,
+debate, and organization is one of the important traits of social
+organization.  With the ideal of democracy comes also freedom of speech
+and the press.  Voluntary organizations for the good of the members or
+for a distinctive agency for general good may be made and receive
+protection in society at large through law, the courts, and public
+opinion; but the right to organize does not carry with it the right to
+destroy, and all such organizations must conform to the general good as
+expressed in the laws of the land.  Sometimes organizations interested
+in their own institutions have been detrimental to the general good.
+Even though they have law and public opinion with them, in their zeal
+for propaganda they have overstepped the rules of progress.  But such
+conditions cannot last; progress will cause them to change their
+attitude or they meet a social death.
+
+_The Widening Service of the Church_.--The importance of the religious
+life in the progress of humanity is acknowledged by all careful
+scholars.  Sometimes, it is true, this religious belief has been
+detrimental to the highest interests of social welfare.  Religion
+itself is necessarily conservative, and when overcome by superstition,
+tradition, and dogmatism, it may stifle the intellect and retard
+progress.  The history of the world records many instances of this.
+
+The modern religious life, however, has taken upon it, as a part of its
+legitimate function, the ethical relations of mankind.  Ethics has been
+prominent in the doctrine and service of the church.  When the church
+turned its attention to the {447} future life, with undue neglect of
+the present, it became non-progressive and worked against the best
+interests of social progress.  When it based its operation entirely
+upon faith, at the expense of reason and judgment, it tended to enslave
+the intellect and to rob mankind of much of its best service.  But when
+it turned its attention to sweetening and purifying the present,
+holding to the future by faith, that man might have a larger and better
+life, it opened the way for social progress.  Its motto has been, in
+recent years, the salvation of this life that the future may be
+assured.  Its aim is to seize the best that this life furnishes and to
+utilize it for the elevation of man, individually and socially.  Its
+endeavor is to save this life as the best and holiest reality yet
+offered to man.  Faith properly exercised leads to invention,
+discovery, social activity, and general culture.  It gives an impulse
+not only to religious life, but to all forms of social activity.  But
+it must work with the full sanction of intelligence and allow a
+continual widening activity of reason and judgment.
+
+The church has shown a determination to take hold of all classes of
+human society and all means of reform and regeneration.  It has evinced
+a tendency to seize all the products of culture, all the improvements
+of science, all the revelations of truth, and turn them to account in
+the upbuilding of mankind on earth, in perfecting character and
+relieving mankind, in developing the individual and improving social
+conditions.  The church has thus entered the educational world, the
+missionary field, the substratum of society, the political life, and
+the field of social order, everywhere becoming a true servant of the
+people.
+
+_Growth of Religious Toleration_.--There is no greater evidence of the
+progress of human society than the growth of religious toleration.  In
+the first hundred years of the Reformation, religious toleration was
+practically unknown.  Indeed, the last fifty years has seen a more
+rapid growth in this respect than in the previous three hundred.
+Luther and his followers could not tolerate Calvinists any more than
+they could {448} Catholics, and Calvinists, on the other hand, could
+tolerate no other religious opinion.
+
+The slow evolution of religious toleration in England is one of the
+most remarkable things in history.  Henry VIII, "Defender of the
+Faith," was opposed to religious liberty.  Queen Mary persecuted all
+except Catholics.  Elizabeth completed the establishment of the
+Anglican Church, though, forced by political reasons, she gave more or
+less toleration to all parties.  But Cromwell advocated unrelenting
+Puritanism by legislation and by the sword.  James I, though a
+Protestant wedded to imperialism in government, permitted oppression.
+The Bill of Rights, which secured to the English people the privileges
+of constitutional government, insisted that no person who should
+profess the "popish" religion or marry a "papist" should be qualified
+to wear the crown of England.
+
+At the close of the sixteenth century it was a common principle of
+belief that any person who adhered to heterodox opinions in religion
+should be burned alive or otherwise put to death.  Each church adhered
+to this sentiment, though, it is true, many persons believed
+differently, and at the close of the seventeenth century Bossuet, the
+great French ecclesiastic, maintained with close argument that the
+right of the civil magistrate to punish religious errors was a point on
+which nearly all churches agreed, and asserted that only two bodies of
+Christians, the Socinians and the Anabaptists, denied it.
+
+In 1673 all persons holding office under the government of England were
+compelled to take the oath of supremacy and of allegiance, to declare
+against transubstantiation, and to take the sacrament according to the
+ritual of the established church.  In 1689 the Toleration Act was
+passed, exempting dissenters from the Church of England from the
+penalties of non-attendance on the service of the established church.
+This was followed by a bill abolishing episcopacy in Scotland.  In 1703
+severe laws were passed in Ireland against those who professed the
+Roman Catholic religion.  The Test Act was not repealed until 1828,
+when the oath was taken "on the true {449} faith of a Christian," which
+was substituted for the sacrament test.
+
+From this time on Protestant dissenters might hold office.  In the year
+following, the Catholic Relief Act extended toleration to the
+Catholics, permitting them to hold any offices except those of regent,
+lord chancellor of England or Ireland, and of viceroy of Ireland.  In
+1858, by act of Parliament, Jews were for the first time admitted to
+that body.  In 1868 the Irish church was disestablished and disendowed,
+and a portion of its funds devoted to education.  But it was not until
+1871 that persons could lecture in the universities of Oxford and
+Cambridge without taking the sacrament of the established church and
+adhering to its principles.
+
+The growth of toleration in America has been evinced in the struggle of
+the different denominations for power.  The church and the state,
+though more or less closely connected in the colonies of America, have
+been entirely separated under the Constitution, and therefore the
+struggle for liberal views has been between the different denominations
+themselves.  In Europe and in America one of the few great events of
+the century has been the entire separation of church and state.  It has
+gone so far in America that most of the states have ceased to aid any
+private or denominational institutions.
+
+There is a tendency, also, not to support Indian schools carried on by
+religious denominations, or else to have them under the especial
+control of the United States government.  There has been, too, a
+liberalizing tendency among the different denominations themselves.  In
+some rural districts, and among ignorant classes, bigotry and
+intolerance, of course, break out occasionally, but upon the whole
+there is a closer union of the various denominations upon a
+co-operative basis of redeeming men from error, and a growing tendency
+to tolerate differing beliefs.
+
+_Altruism and Democracy_.--The law of evolution that involves the
+survival of the fittest of organic life when applied to humanity was
+modified by social action.  But as man must {450} always figure as an
+individual and his development is caused by intrinsic and extrinsic
+stimuli, he has never been free from the exercise of the individual
+struggle for existence, no matter how highly society is developed nor
+to what extent group activity prevails.  The same law continues in
+relation to the survival of the group along with other groups, and as
+individual self-interest, the normal function of the individual, may
+pass into selfishness, so group interest may pass into group
+selfishness, and the dominant idea of the group may be its own
+survival.  This develops institutionalism, which has been evidenced in
+every changing phase of social organization.
+
+Along with this have grown altruistic principles based on the law of
+love, which in its essentials is antagonistic to the law of the
+survival of the fittest.  It has been developed from two sources--one
+which originally was founded on race morality, that is, the protection
+of individuals for the good of the order, and the other that of
+sympathy with suffering of the weak and unprotected.  In the progress
+of modern society the application of Christian principles to life has
+kept pace with the application of democratic principles in establishing
+the rights of man.
+
+Gradually the duty of society to protect and care for the weak has
+become generally recognized.  This idea has been entirely
+overemphasized in many cases, on the misapplication of the theory that
+one individual is as good as another and entitled to equality of
+treatment by all.  At least it is possible for the normal progress of
+society to be retarded if the strong become weakened by excessive care
+of the weak.  The law of love must be so exercised that it will not
+increase weakness on the part of those being helped, nor lessen the
+opportunities of the strong to survive and manifest their strength.
+The history of the English Poor Law is an account of the systematic
+care of pauperism to the extent that paupers were multiplied so that
+those who were bearing the burden of taxation for their support found
+it easier and, indeed, sometimes necessary to join the pauper ranks in
+order to live at all.
+
+{451}
+
+Many are alarmed to-day at the multiplication of the number of insane,
+weak-minded, imbeciles, and paupers who must be supported by the
+taxation of the people and helped in a thousand ways by the altruism of
+individuals and groups.  Unless along with this excessive altruistic
+care, scientific principles of breeding, of prevention, and of care can
+be introduced, the dependent, defective, and delinquent classes of the
+world will eventually become a burden to civilization.  Society cannot
+shirk its duty to care for these groups, but it would be a misfortune
+if they reach a status where they can demand support and protection of
+society.  It is a question whether we have not already approached in a
+measure this condition.  Fortunately there is enough knowledge in the
+world of science regarding man and society to prevent any such
+catastrophe, if it could only be applied.
+
+Hence, since one of the great ideals of life is to develop a perfect
+society built upon rational principles, the study of social pathology
+has become important.  The care of the weak and the broken-down classes
+of humanity has something more than altruism as a foundation.  Upon it
+rest the preservation of the individual and the perpetuation of a
+healthy social organism.  The care of the insane, of imbeciles, of
+criminals, and of paupers is exercised more nearly on a scientific
+basis each succeeding year.  Prevention and reform are the fundamental
+ideas in connection with the management of these classes.  Altruism may
+be an initial motive power, prompting people to care for the needy and
+the suffering, but necessity for the preservation of society is more
+powerful in its final influences.
+
+To care for paupers without increasing pauperism is a great question,
+and is rapidly putting all charity upon a scientific basis.  To care
+for imbeciles without increasing imbecility, and to care for criminals
+on the basis of the prevention and decrease of crime, are among the
+most vital questions of modern social life.  As the conditions of human
+misery become more clearly revealed to humanity, and their evil effects
+on the social system become more apparent, greater efforts will be
+{452} put forward--greater than ever before--in the care of dependents,
+defectives, and delinquents.  Not only must the pathology of the
+individual be studied, for the preservation of his physical system, but
+the pathology of human society must receive scientific investigation in
+order to perpetuate the social organism.
+
+_Modern Society a Machine of Great Complexity_.--While the family
+remains as the most persistent primary unit of social organization out
+of which differentiated the great social functions of to-day, it now
+expresses but a very small part of the social complex.  It is true it
+is still a conserving, co-operating, propagating group of individuals,
+in which appear many of the elemental functions of society.  While it
+represents a group based on blood relationship, as in the old dominant
+family drawn together by psychical influences and preserved on account
+of the protection of the different members of the group and the various
+complex relations between them, still within its precincts are found
+the elementary practices of economic life, the rights of property, and
+the beginnings of education and religion.  Outside of this family
+nucleus there have been influences of common nationality and common
+ancestry or race, which are natural foundations of an expanded society.
+
+Along with this are the secondary influences, the memories and
+associations of a common birthplace or a common territorial community,
+and by local habitation of village, town, city, or country.  But the
+differentiation of industrial functions or activities has been most
+potent in developing social complexity.  The multiplication of
+activities, the choice of occupation, and the division of labor have
+multiplied the economic groups by the thousand.  Following this,
+natural voluntary social groups spring up on every hand.
+
+Again, partly by choice and partly by environment, we find society
+drawn together in other groups, more or less influenced by those just
+enumerated.  From the earliest forms of social existence we find men
+are grouped together on the basis of wealth.  The interests of the rich
+are common, as are also the {453} interests of the poor and those of
+the well-to-do.  Nor is it alone a matter of interest, but in part of
+choice, that these groupings occur.  This community of interests brings
+about social coherence.
+
+Again, the trades, professions, and occupations of men draw them
+together in associated groups.  It is not infrequent that men engaged
+in the same profession are thrown together in daily contact, have the
+same interests, sentiments, and thought, and form in this way a group
+which stands almost aloof from other groups in social life; tradesmen
+dealing in a certain line of goods are thrown together in the same way.
+But the lines in these groupings must not be too firmly drawn, for
+groups formed on the basis of friendship may cover a field partaking in
+part of all these different groups.  Again, we shall find that the
+school lays the foundation of early associations, and continues to have
+an influence in creating social aggregates.  Fraternal societies and
+political parties in the same way form associated groups.
+
+The church at large forms a great organizing centre, the influence of
+which in political and social life enlarges every day.  The church body
+arranges itself in different groups on the basis of the different sects
+and denominations, and within the individual church organization there
+are small groups or societies, which again segregate religious social
+life.  But over and above all these various social groups and classes
+is the state, binding and making all cohere in a common unity.
+
+The tendency of this social life is to differentiate into more and more
+groups, positive in character, which renders our social existence
+complex and difficult to analyze.  The social groups overlap one
+another, and are interdependent in all their relations.  In one way the
+individual becomes more and more self-constituted and independent in
+his activity; in another way he is dependent on all his fellows for
+room or opportunity for action.
+
+This complexity of social life renders it difficult to estimate the
+real progress of society; yet, taking any one of these {454} individual
+groups, it will be found to be improving continually.  School life and
+school associations show a marked improvement; family life,
+notwithstanding the various evidences of the divorce courts, shows
+likewise an improved state as intelligence increases; the social life
+of the church becomes larger and broader.  The spread of literature and
+learning, the increase of education, renders each social group more
+self-sustaining and brings about a higher life, with a better code of
+morals.  Even political groups have their reactions, in which,
+notwithstanding the great room for improvement, they stand for morality
+and justice.  The relations of man to man are becoming better
+understood every day.  His fickleness and selfishness are more readily
+observed in recent than in former times, and as a result the evils of
+the present are magnified, because they are better understood; in
+reality, social conditions are improving, and the fact that social
+conditions are understood and evils clearly observed promises a great
+improvement for the future.
+
+_Interrelation of Different Parts of Society_.--The various social
+aggregates are closely interrelated and mutually dependent upon one
+another.  The state itself, though expressing the unity of society, is
+a highly complex organization, consisting of forms of local and central
+government.  These parts, having independent functions, are
+co-ordinated to the general whole.  Voluntary organizations have their
+specific relation to the state, which fosters and protects them on an
+independent basis.  The school, likewise, has its relation to the
+social life, having an independent function, yet touching all parts of
+the social life.
+
+We find the closest interdependence of individuals in the economic
+life.  Each man performs a certain service which he exchanges for the
+services of others.  The wealth which he creates with his own hand,
+limited in kind, must be exchanged for all the other commodities which
+he would have.  More than this, all people are ranged in economic
+groups, each group dependent upon all the others--the farmers dependent
+upon {455} the manufacturers of implements and goods, upon bankers,
+lawyers, ministers, and teachers; the manufacturers dependent upon the
+farmers and all the other classes; and so with every class.
+
+This interdependent relation renders it impossible to improve one group
+without improving the others, or to work a great detriment to one group
+without injuring the others.  If civilization is to be perpetuated and
+improved, the banker must be interested in the welfare of the farmer,
+the farmer in the welfare of the banker, both in the prosperity of
+manufacturers, and all in the welfare of the common laborer.  The
+tendency for this mutual interest to increase is evinced in all human
+social relations, and speaks well for the future of civilization.
+
+_The Progress of the Race Based on Social
+Opportunities_.--Anthropologists tell us that no great change in the
+physical capacity of man has taken place for many centuries.  The
+maximum brain capacity has probably not exceeded that of the Cro-Magnon
+race in the Paleolithic period of European culture.  Undoubtedly,
+however, there has been some change in the quality of the brain,
+increasing its storage batteries of power and through education the
+utilization of that power.  We would scarcely expect, however, with all
+of our education and scientific development, to increase the stature of
+man or to enlarge his brain.  Much is being done, however, in getting
+the effective service of the brain not only through natural selective
+processes, but through education.  The improvement of human society has
+been brought about largely by training and the increased knowledge
+which it has brought to us through invention and discovery, and their
+application to the practical and theoretical arts.
+
+All these would have been buried had it not been for the protection of
+co-operative society and the increased power derived therefrom.  Even
+though we exercise the selective power of humanity under the direction
+of our best intelligence, the individual must find his future
+opportunity in the better {456} conditions furnished by society.
+Granted that individual and racial powers are essential through
+hereditary development, progress can only be obtained by the expression
+of these powers through social activity.  For it is only through social
+co-operation that a new power is brought into existence, namely,
+achievement by mutual aid.  This assertion does not ignore the fact
+that the mutations of progress arise from the brain centres of
+geniuses, and that by following up these mutations by social action
+they may become productive and furnish opportunity for progress.
+
+_The Central Idea of Modern Civilization_.--The object of life is not
+to build a perfect social mechanism.  It is only a means to a greater
+end, namely, that the individual shall have opportunity to develop and
+exercise the powers which nature has given him.  This involves an
+opportunity for the expression of his whole nature, physical and
+mental, for the satisfaction of his normal desires for home, happiness,
+prosperity, and achievement.  It involves, too, the question of
+individual rights, privileges, and duties.
+
+The history of man reveals to us somewhat of his progress.  There is
+ever before us the journey which he has taken in reaching his present
+status.  The road has been very long, very rough, very crooked.  What
+he has accomplished has been at fearful expense.  Thousands have
+perished, millions have been swept away, that a single idea for the
+elevation and culture of the race might remain.  Deplore it as we may,
+the end could be reached only thus.  The suffering of humanity is
+gradually lessening, and destruction and waste being stayed, yet we
+must recognize, in looking to the future, that all means of improvement
+will be retarded by the imperfection of human life and human conditions.
+
+The central principle, however, the great nucleus of civilization,
+becomes more clearly defined, in turn revealing that man's happiness on
+earth, based upon duty and service, is the end of progress.  If the
+achievements of science, the vast accumulations of wealth, the
+perfection of social organization, {457} the increased power of
+individual life--if all these do not yield better social conditions, if
+they do not give to humanity at large greater contentment, greater
+happiness, a larger number of things to know and enjoy, they must fail
+in their service.  But they will not fail.  Man is now a larger
+creature in every way than ever before.  He has better religion; a
+greater God in the heavens, ruling with beneficence and wisdom; a
+larger number of means for improvement everywhere; and the desire and
+determination to master these things and turn them to his own benefit.
+The pursuit of truth reveals man to himself and God to him.  The
+promotion of justice and righteousness makes his social life more
+complete and happy.  The investigations of science and the advances of
+invention and discovery increase his material resources, furnishing him
+means with which to work; and with increasing intelligence he will
+understand more clearly his destiny--the highest culture of mind and
+body and the keenest enjoyment of the soul.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What were the chief causes of aggregation of people?
+
+2.  Are there evidences of groups without the beginning of social
+organization?
+
+3.  What is the relation of the individual to society?
+
+4.  The basis of national groups.
+
+5.  Factors in the progress of the human race.
+
+6.  Growth of religious toleration in the world.
+
+7.  Name ten "American institutions" that should be perpetuated.
+
+8.  Race and democracy.
+
+9.  What per cent of the voters of your town take a vital interest in
+government?
+
+10.  The growth of democratic ideas in Europe.  In Asia.
+
+11.  Study the welfare organizations in your town, comparing objects
+and results.
+
+12.  The trend of population from country to city and its influence on
+social organization.
+
+13.  Explain why people follow the fashions.
+
+
+
+
+{458}
+
+CHAPTER XXIX
+
+THE EVOLUTION OF SCIENCE
+
+_Science Is an Attitude of Mind Toward Life_.--As usually defined,
+science represents a classified body of knowledge logically arranged
+with the purpose of arriving at definite principles or truths by
+processes of investigation and comparison.  But the largest part of
+science is found in its method of approaching the truth as compared
+with religion, philosophy, or disconnected knowledge obtained by casual
+observation.  In many ways it is in strong contrast with speculative
+philosophy and with dogmatic theology, both of which lack sufficient
+data for scientific development.  The former has a tendency to
+interpret what is assumed to have already been established.  With the
+latter the laboratory of investigation of truth has been closed.  The
+laboratory of science is always open.
+
+While scientists work with hypotheses, use the imagination, and even
+become dogmatic in their assertions, the degree of certainty is always
+tested in the laboratory.  If a truth is discovered to-day, it must be
+verified in the laboratory or shown to be incorrect or only a partial
+truth.  Science has been built up on the basis of the inquiry into
+nature's processes.  It is all the time inquiring: "What do we find
+under the microscope, through the telescope, in the chemical and
+physical reactions, in the examination of the earth and its products,
+in the observation of the functions of animals and plants, or in the
+structure of the brain of man and the laws of his mental functioning?"
+If it establishes an hypothesis as a means of procedure, it must be
+determined true or abandoned.  If the imagination ventures to be
+far-seeing, observation, experimentation, and the discovery of fact
+must all come to its support before it can be called scientific.
+
+_Scientific Methods_.--We have already referred to the turning of the
+minds of the Greeks from the power of the gods to {459} a look into
+nature's processes.  We have seen how they lacked a scientific method
+and also scientific data sufficient to verify their assumptions.  We
+have observed how, while they took a great step forward, their
+conclusions were lost in the Dark Ages and in the early mediaeval
+period, and how they were brought to light in the later medieval period
+and helped to form the scholastic philosophy and to stimulate free
+inquiry, and how the weakness of all systems was manifested in all
+these periods of human life by failure to use the simple process of
+observing the facts of nature, getting them and classifying them so as
+to demonstrate truth.  It will not be possible to recount in this
+chapter a full description of the development of science and scientific
+thought.  Not more can be done than to mention the turning-points in
+its development and expansion.
+
+Though other influences of minor importance might be mentioned, it is
+well to note that Roger Bacon (1214-1294) stands out prominently as the
+first philosopher of the mediaeval period who turned his attitude of
+mind earnestly toward nature.  It is true that he was not free from the
+taint of dogmatic theology and scholastic philosophy which were so
+strongly prevailing at the time, but he advocated the discovery of
+truth by observation and experiment, which was a bold assumption at
+that time.  He established as one of his main principles that
+experimental science "investigates the secrets of nature by its own
+competency and out of its own qualities, irrespective of any connection
+with the other sciences."  Thus he did not universalize his method as
+applicable to all sciences.
+
+Doubtless Roger Bacon received his inspiration from the Greek and
+Arabian scientists with whom he was familiar.  It is interesting that,
+following the lines of observation and discovery in a very primitive
+way, he let his imagination run on into the future, predicting many
+things that have happened already.  Thus he says: "Machines for
+navigation are possible without rowers, like great ships suited to
+river or ocean, going with greater velocity than if they were full of
+rowers; likewise {460} wagons may be moved _cum impetu inaestimabili_,
+as we deem the chariots of antiquity to have been.  And there may be
+flying-machines, so made that a man may sit in the middle of the
+machine and direct it by some device; and again, machines for raising
+great weights."[1]
+
+In continuity with the ideas of Roger Bacon, Francis Bacon (1561-1626)
+gave a classification of human learning and laid the real foundation on
+which the superstructure of science has been built.  Between the two
+lives much had been done by Copernicus, who taught that the earth was
+not the centre of the universe, and that it revolved on its axis from
+west to east.  This gave the traditions of fourteen centuries a severe
+jolt, and laid the foundation for the development of the heliocentric
+system of astronomy.  Bacon's classification of all knowledge showed
+the relationship of the branches to a comprehensive whole.  His
+fundamental theory was that nature was controlled and modified by man.
+He recognized the influence of natural philosophy, but insisted that
+the "history mechanical" was a strong support to it.
+
+His usefulness seems to have been in the presentation of a wide range
+of knowledge distinctly connected, the demonstration of the utility of
+knowledge, and the suggestion of unsolved problems which should be
+investigated by observation and experiment.  Without giving his
+complete classification of human learning, it may be well to state his
+most interesting classification of physical science to show the middle
+ground which he occupied between mediaeval thought and our modern
+conception of science.  This classification is as follows:
+
+  1.  Celestial phenomena.
+  2.  Atmosphere.
+  3.  Globe.
+  4.  Substance of earth, air, fire, and water.
+  5.  Genera, species, etc.[2]
+
+{461}
+
+Descartes, following Bacon, had much to do with the establishment of
+method, although he laid more stress upon deduction than upon
+induction.  With Bacon he believed that there was need of a better
+method of finding out the truth than that of logic.  He was strong in
+his refusal to recognize anything as true that he did not understand,
+and had no faith in the mere assumption of truth, insisting upon
+absolute proof derived through an intelligent order.  Perhaps, too, his
+idea was to establish universal mathematics, for he recognized
+measurements and lines everywhere in the universe, and recognized the
+universality of all natural phenomena, laying great stress on the
+solution of problems by measurement.  He was a fore runner of Newton
+and many other scientists, and as such represents an epoch-making
+period in scientific development.
+
+The trend of thought by a few leaders having been directed to the
+observation of nature and the experimentation with natural phenomena,
+the way was open for the shifting of the centre of thought of the
+entire world.  It only remained now for each scientist to work out in
+his own way his own experiments.  The differentiation of knowledge
+brought about many phases of thought and built up separate divisions of
+science.  While each one has had an evolution of its own, all together
+they have worked out a larger progress of the whole.  Thus Gilbert
+(1540-1603) carried on practical experiments and observations with the
+lodestone, or magnet, and thus made a faint beginning of the study of
+electrical phenomena which in recent years has played such an important
+part in the progress of the world.  Harvey (1578-1657) by his careful
+study of the blood determined its circulation through the heart by
+means of the arterial and venous systems.  This was an important step
+in leading to anatomical studies and set the world far ahead of the
+medical studies of the Arabians.
+
+Galileo (1564-1642), in his study of the heavenly bodies and the
+universe, carried out the suggestion of Copernicus a century before of
+the revolution of the earth on its axis, to {462} take the place of the
+old theory that the sun revolved around the earth.  Indeed, this was
+such a disturbing factor among churchmen, theologians, and
+pseudo-philosophers that Galileo was forced to recant his statements.
+In 1632 he published at Florence his _Dialogue on the Ptolemaic and
+Copernican Systems of the World_.  For this he was cited to Rome, his
+book ordered to be burned, and he was sentenced to be imprisoned, to
+make a recantation of his errors, and by way of penance to recite the
+seven penitential psalms once a week.
+
+It seems very strange that a man who could make a telescope to study
+the heavenly bodies and carry on experiments with such skill that he
+has been called the founder of experimental science could be forced to
+recant the things which he was convinced by experiment and observation
+to be true.  However, it must be remembered that the mediaeval doctrine
+of authority had taken possession of the minds of the world of thinkers
+to such an extent that to oppose it openly seemed not only sacrilege
+but the tearing down of the walls of faith and destroying the permanent
+structure of society.  Moreover, the minds of all thinkers were trying
+to hold on to the old while they developed the new, and not one could
+think of destroying the faith of the church.  But the church did not so
+view this, and took every opportunity to suppress everything new as
+being destructive of the church.
+
+No one could contemplate the tremendous changes that might have been
+made in the history of the world if the church could have abandoned its
+theological dogmas far enough to welcome all new truth that was
+discovered in God's workshop.  To us in the twentieth century who have
+such freedom of expressing both truth and untruth, it is difficult to
+realize to what extent the authorities of the Middle Ages tried to seal
+the fountains of truth.  Picture a man kneeling before the authorities
+at Rome and stating: "With a sincere heart and unfeigned faith I
+abjure, curse, and detest the said errors and heresies.  I swear that
+for the future I will never say nor assert anything verbally or in
+writing which may give rise to a {463} similar suspicion against
+me."[3]  Thus he was compelled to recant and deny his theory that the
+earth moves around the sun.
+
+_Measurement in Scientific Research_.--All scientific research involves
+the recounting of recurring phenomena within a given time and within a
+given space.  In order, therefore, to carry on systematic research,
+methods of measuring are necessary.  We can thus see how mathematics,
+although developed largely through the study of astronomy, has been
+necessary to all investigation.  Ticho Brahe and Kepler may be said to
+have accentuated the phase of accurate measurement in investigation.
+They specialized in chemistry and astronomy, all measurements being
+applied to the heavenly bodies.  Their main service was found in
+accurate records of data.  Kepler maintained "that every planet moved
+in an ellipse of which the sun occupied one focus."  He also held "that
+the square of the periodic time of any planet is proportional to the
+cube of its mean distance from the sun," and "that the area swept by
+the radius vector from the planet to the sun is proportional to the
+time."[4]  He was much aided in his measurements by the use of a system
+of logarithms invented by John Napier (1614).  Many measurements were
+established regarding heat, pressure of air, and the relation of solids
+and liquids.
+
+Isaac Newton, by connecting up a single phenomenon of a body falling a
+distance of a few feet on the earth with all similar phenomena, through
+the law of gravitation discovered the unity of the universe.  Though
+Newton carried on important investigations in astronomy, studied the
+refraction of light through optic glasses, was president of the Royal
+Society, his chief contribution to the sciences was the tying together
+of the sun, the planets, and the moons of the solar system by the
+attraction of gravitation.  Newton was able to carry along with his
+scientific investigations a profound reverence for Christianity.  That
+he was not attacked shows that there had {464} been considerable
+progress made in toleration of new ideas.  With all of his greatness of
+vision, he had the humbleness of a true scientist.  A short time before
+his death he said: "I know not what I may appear to the world; but to
+myself I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the seashore, and
+diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble, or a
+prettier shell, than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all
+undiscovered before me."
+
+_Science Develops from Centres_.--Bodies of truth in the world are all
+related one to another.  Hence, when a scientist investigates and
+experiments along a particular line, he must come in contact more or
+less with other lines.  And while there is a great differentiation in
+the discovery of knowledge by investigation, no single truth can ever
+be established without more or less relation to all other truths.
+Likewise, scientists, although working from different centres, are each
+contributing in his own way to the establishment of universal truth.
+Even in the sixteenth century scientists began to co-operate and
+interchange views, and as soon as their works were published, each fed
+upon the others as he needed in advancing his own particular branch of
+knowledge.
+
+It is said that Bacon in his _New Atlantis_ gave such a magnificent
+dream of an opportunity for the development of science and learning
+that it was the means of forming the Royal Society in England.  That
+association was the means of disseminating scientific truth and
+encouraging investigation and publication of results.  It was a
+tremendous advancement of the cause of science, and has been a type for
+the formation of hundreds of other organizations for the promotion of
+scientific truth.
+
+_Science and Democracy_.--While seeking to extend knowledge to all
+classes of people, science paves the way for recognition of equal
+rights and privileges.  Science is working all the time to be free from
+the slavery of nature, and the result of its operations is to cause
+mankind to be free from the slavery of man.  Therefore, liberty and
+science go hand in hand in {465} their development.  It is interesting
+to note in this connection that so many scientists have come from
+groups forming the ordinary occupations of life rather than, as we
+might expect, from the privileged classes who have had leisure and
+opportunity for development.  Thus, "Pasteur was the son of a tanner,
+Priestley of a cloth-maker, Dalton of a weaver, Lambert of a tailor,
+Kant of a saddler, Watt of a ship-builder, Smith of a farmer, and John
+Ray was, like Faraday, the son of a blacksmith.  Joule was a brewer.
+Davy, Scheele, Dumas, Balard, Liebig, Woehler, and a number of other
+distinguished chemists were apothecaries' apprentices."[5]
+
+Science also is a great leveller because all scientists are bowing down
+to the same truth discovered by experimentation or observation, and,
+moreover, scientists are at work in the laboratories and cannot be
+dogmatic for any length of time.  But scientists arise from all classes
+of people, so far as religious or political belief is concerned.  Many
+of the foremost scientists have been distributed among the Roman
+Catholics, Anglicans, Calvinists, Quakers, Unitarians, and Agnostics.
+The only test act that science knows is that of the recognition of
+truth.
+
+Benjamin Franklin was a printer whose scientific investigations were
+closely intermingled with the problems of human rights.  His
+experiments in science were subordinate to the experiments of human
+society.  His great contribution to science was the identification of
+lightning and the spark from a Leyden jar.  For the identification and
+control of lightning he received a medal from the Royal Society.  The
+discussion of liberty and the part he took in the independence of the
+colonies of America represent his greatest contribution to the world.
+To us he is important, for he embodied in one mind the expression of
+scientific and political truth, showing that science makes for
+democracy and democracy for science.  In each case it is the choice of
+the liberalized mind.
+
+_The Study of the Biological and Physical Sciences_.--The last century
+is marked by scientific development along several {466} rather distinct
+lines as follows: the study of the earth, or geology; animal and
+vegetable life, or biology; atomic analysis, or chemistry;
+biochemistry; physics, especially that part relating to electricity and
+radioactivity; and more recently it might be stated that investigations
+are carried on in psychology and sociology, while mathematics and
+astronomy have made progress.
+
+The main generalized point of research, if it could be so stated, is
+the discovery of law and order.  This has been demonstrated in the
+development of chemistry under the atomic theory; physics in the
+molecular theory; the law of electrons in electricity, and the
+evolutionary theory in the study of biology.  Great advance has been
+made in the medical sciences, including the knowledge of the nature and
+prevention of disease.  Though a great many new discoveries and, out of
+new discoveries, new inventions have appeared along specific lines and
+various sciences have advanced with accuracy and precision, perhaps the
+evolutionary theory has changed the thought of the world more than any
+other.  It has connected man with the rest of the universe and made him
+a definite part of it.
+
+_The Evolutionary Theory_.--The geography of the earth as presented by
+Lyell, the theory of population of Malthus, and the _Origin of the
+Species_ and the _Descent of Man_ by Darwin changed the preconceived
+notions of the creation of man.  Slowly and without ostentation science
+everywhere had been forcing all nature into unity controlled by
+universal laws.  Traditional belief was not prepared for the bold
+statement of Darwin that man was part of the slow development of animal
+life through the ages.
+
+For 2,000 years or more the philosophic world had been wedded to the
+idea of a special creation of man entirely independent of the creation
+of the rest of the universe.  All conceptions of God, man, and his
+destiny rested upon the recognition of a separate creation.  To deny
+this meant a reconstruction of much of the religious philosophy of the
+world.  Persons {467} were needlessly alarmed and began to attack the
+doctrine on the assumption that anything interfering with the
+long-recognized interpretation of the relation of man to creation was
+wrong and was instituted for the purpose of tearing down the ancient
+landmarks.
+
+Darwin accepted in general the Lamarckian doctrine that each succeeding
+generation would have new characters added to it by the modification of
+environmental factors and by the use and disuse of organs and
+functions.  Thus gradually under such selection the species would be
+improved.  But Darwin emphasized selection through hereditary traits.
+
+Subsequently, Weismann and others reinterpreted Darwin's theory and
+strengthened its main propositions, abandoning the Lamarckian theory of
+use and disuse.  Mendel, De Vries, and other biologists have added to
+the Darwinian theory by careful investigations into the heredity of
+plants and animals, but because Darwin was the first to give clear
+expression to the theory of evolution, "Darwinism" is used to express
+the general theory.
+
+Cosmic evolution, or the development of the universe, has been
+generally acknowledged by the acceptance of the results of the studies
+of geology, astronomy, and physics.  History of plant and animal life
+is permanently written in the rocks, and their evolutionary process so
+completely demonstrated in the laboratory that few dare to question it.
+
+Modern controversy hinges upon the assumption that man as an animal is
+not subjected to the natural laws of other animals and of plants, but
+that he had a special creation.  The maintenance of this belief has led
+to many crude and unscientific notions of the origin of man and the
+meaning of evolution.
+
+Evolution is very simple in its general traits, but very complex in its
+details.  It is a theory of process and not a theory of creation.  It
+is continuous, progressive change, brought about by natural forces and
+in accordance with natural laws.  The evolutionist studies these
+changes and records the results obtained thereby.  The scientist thus
+discovers new truths, {468} establishes the relation of one truth to
+another, enlarges the boundary of knowledge, extends the horizon of the
+unknown, and leaves the mystery of the beginning of life unsolved.  His
+laboratory is always open to retest and clarify his work and to add new
+knowledge as fast as it is acquired.
+
+Evolution as a working theory for science has correlated truths,
+unified methods, and furnished a key to modern thought.  As a
+co-operative science it has had a stimulating influence on all lines of
+research, not only in scientific study of physical nature, but also in
+the study of man, for there are natural laws as well as man-made laws
+to be observed in the development of human society.
+
+Some evolutionary scientists will be dogmatic at times, but they return
+to their laboratories and proceed to reinterpret what they have
+assumed, so that their dogmatism is of short duration.  Theological
+dogmatists are not so fortunate, because of persistence of religious
+tradition which has not yet been put fully to the laboratory test.
+Some of them are continuously and hopelessly dogmatic.  They still
+adhere to belief founded on the emotions which they refuse to put to
+scientific test.  Science makes no attempt to undermine religion, but
+is unconsciously laying a broader foundation on which religion may
+stand.  Theologians who are beginning to realize this are forced to
+re-examine the Bible and reinterpret it according to the knowledge and
+enlightenment of the time.  Thus science becomes a force to advance
+Christianity, not to destroy it.
+
+On the other hand, science becomes less dogmatic as it applies its own
+methods to religion and humanity and recognizes that there is a great
+world of spiritual truth which cannot be determined by experiments in
+the physical laboratory.  It can be estimated only in the laboratory of
+human action.  Faith, love, virtue, and spiritual vision cannot be
+explained by physical and chemical reactions.  If in the past science
+has rightly pursued its course of investigation regardless of spiritual
+truth, the future is full of promise that religion and human reactions
+and science will eventually work together in the pursuit of {469} truth
+in God's great workshop.  The unity of truth will be thus realized.
+The area of knowledge will be enlarged while the horizon of the unknown
+will be extended.  The mystery of life still remains unsolved.
+
+Galton followed along in the study of the development of race and
+culture, and brought in a new study of human life.  Pasteur and Lister
+worked out their great factors of preventive medicine and health.
+Madame Curie developed the radioactivity as a great contribution to the
+evolution of science.  All of this represents the slow evolution of
+science, each new discovery quickening the thought of the age in which
+it occurred, changing the attitude of the mind toward nature and life,
+and contributing to human comfort and human welfare.  But the greatest
+accomplishment always in the development of science is its effect on
+the mental processes of humanity, stimulating thought and changing the
+attitude of mind toward life.
+
+_Science and War_.--It is a travesty on human progress, a social
+paradox, that war and science go hand in hand.  On one side are all of
+the machines of destruction, the battleships, bombing-planes, huge
+guns, high explosives, and poisonous gases, products of scientific
+experiment and inventive genius, and on the other ambulances,
+hospitals, medical and surgical care, with the uses of all medical
+discoveries.  The one seeks destruction, the other seeks to allay
+suffering; one force destroys life, the other saves it.  And yet they
+march forth under the same flag to conquer the enemy.  It is like the
+conquest of the American Indians by the Spaniards, in which the warrior
+bore in one hand a banner of the cross of Christ and in the other the
+drawn sword.
+
+War has achieved much in forcing people into national unity, in giving
+freedom to the oppressed and protecting otherwise helpless people, but
+in the light of our ideals of peace it has never been more than a cruel
+necessity, and, more frequently, a grim, horrible monster.  Chemistry
+and physics and their discoveries underlying the vast material
+prosperity of moderns have contributed much to the mechanical and {470}
+industrial arts and increased the welfare and happiness of mankind.
+But when war is let loose, these same beneficent sciences are worked
+day and night for the rapid destruction of man.  All the wealth built
+up in the passing years is destroyed along with the lives of millions
+of people.
+
+Out of the gloom of the picture proceeds one ray of beneficent light,
+that of the service rendered by the discoveries of medical science and
+surgical art.  The discoveries arising from the study of anatomy,
+physiology, bacteriology, and neurology, with the use of anaesthetics
+and antiseptics in connection with surgery, have made war less horrible
+and suffering more endurable.  Scientists like Pasteur, Lister, Koch,
+Morton, and many others brought forth from their laboratories the
+results of their study for the alleviation of suffering.
+
+Yet it seems almost incredible that with all of the horrid experiences
+of war, an enterprise that no one desires, and which the great majority
+of the world deplore, should so long continue.  Nothing but the
+discovery and rise of a serum that will destroy the germs of national
+selfishness and avarice will prevent war.  Possibly it stimulates
+activity in invention, discovery, trade and commerce, but of what avail
+is it if the cycle returns again from peace to war and these products
+of increased activity are turned to the destruction of civilization?
+Does not the world need a baptism of common sense?  Some gain is being
+made in the changing attitude of mind toward the warrior in favor of
+the great scientists of the world.  But nothing will be assured until
+the hero-worship of the soldier gives way to the respect for the
+scholar, and ideals of truth and right become mightier than the sword.
+
+_Scientific Progress Is Cumulative_.--One discovery leads to another,
+one invention to others.  It is a law of science.  Science benefits the
+common man more than does politics or religion.  It is through science
+that he has means of use and enjoyment of nature's progress.  It is
+true this is on the side of materialistic culture, and it does not
+provide all that is needed for the completed life.  Even though the
+scientific {471} experiments and discoveries are fundamentally more
+essential, the common man cannot get along without social order,
+politics, or religion.
+
+Perhaps we can get the largest expression of the value of science to
+man through a consideration of the inventions and discoveries which he
+may use in every-day life.[6]  Prior to the nineteenth century we have
+to record the following important inventions: alphabetic writing,
+Arabic numbers, mariner's compass, printing, the telescope, the
+barometer and thermometer, and the steam-engine.  In the nineteenth
+century we have to record: railroads, steam navigation, the telegraph,
+the telephone, friction matches, gas lighting, electrical lighting,
+photography, the phonograph, electrical transmission of power, Roentgen
+rays, spectrum analysis, anaesthetics, antiseptic surgery, the
+airplane, gasoline-engine, transmission of news by radio, and
+transportation by automobile.  Also we shall find in the nineteenth
+century thirteen important theoretical discoveries as compared with
+seven in all previous centuries.
+
+It is interesting to note what may have taken place also in the last
+generation.  A man who was born in the middle of the last century might
+reflect on a good many things that have taken place.  Scientifically he
+has lived to see the development of electricity from a mere academic
+pursuit to a tremendous force of civilization.  Chemistry, although
+supposed to have been a completed science, was scarcely begun.  Herbert
+Spencer's _Synthetic Philosophy_ and Darwin's _Origin of the Species_
+had not yet been published.  Huxley and Tyndall, the great experimental
+scientists, had not published their great works.  Transportation with a
+few slow steam-propelled vessels crossing the ocean preceded the era of
+the great floating palaces.  The era of railroad-building had only just
+started in America.  Horseless carriages propelled by gas or
+electricity were in a state of conjecture.  Politically in America the
+Civil War had not been fought or the Constitution really completed.
+
+The great wealth and stupendous business organization of {472} to-day
+were unknown in 1850.  In Europe there was no German Empire, only a
+German Federation.  The Hapsburgs were still holding forth in Austria
+and the Hohenzollerns in Prussia and the Romanoffs in Russia.  The
+monarchial power of the old regime was the rule of the day.  These are
+institutions of the past.  Civilization in America, although it had
+invaded the Mississippi valley, had not spread over the great Western
+plains nor to the Pacific coast.  Tremendous changes in art and
+industries, in inventions and discoveries have been going on in this
+generation.  The flying-machine, the radio, the automobile, the
+dirigible balloon, and, more than all, the tremendous business
+organization of the factories and industries of the age have given us
+altogether a complete revolution.
+
+_Research Foundations_.--All modern universities carry on through
+instructors and advanced students many departments of scientific
+research.  The lines of research extend through a wide range of
+subjects--Chemistry, Biology, Physics, Anatomy, Physiology, Medicine,
+Geology, Agriculture, History, Sociology, and other departments of
+learning.  These investigations have led to the discovery of new
+knowledge and the extension of learning to mankind.  Outside of
+colleges and universities there have been established many foundations
+of research and many industrial laboratories.
+
+Prominent among those in the United States are The Carnegie Corporation
+and The Rockefeller Foundation, which are devoting hundreds of millions
+of dollars to the service of research, for the purpose of advancing
+science and directly benefiting humankind.  The results play an
+important part in the protection and daily welfare of mankind.  The
+Mellon Institute contributes much to the solution of problems of
+applied chemistry.[7] It is interesting to note how the investigation
+carried on by these and other foundations is contributing directly to
+human welfare by mastering disease.  The elimination of the hookworm
+disease, the fight to control malaria, the {473} mastery of yellow
+fever, the promotion of public health, and the study of medicine, the
+courageous attack on tuberculosis, and the suppression of typhoid
+fever, all are for the benefit of the public.  The war on disease and
+the promotion of public health by preventive measures have lowered the
+death-rate and lengthened the period of life.
+
+_The Trend of Scientific Investigations_.--While research is carried on
+in many lines, with many different objectives, it may be stated that
+intense study is devoted to the nature of matter and the direct
+connection of it with elemental forces.  The theories of the molecule
+and the atom are still working hypotheses, but the investigator has
+gone further and disintegrated the atom, showing it to be a complex of
+corpuscles or particles.  Scientists talk of electrons and protons as
+the two elemental forces and of the mechanics of the atom.  In
+chemistry, investigation follows the problems of applied chemistry,
+while organic chemistry or biochemistry opens continually new fields of
+research.  It appears that biology and chemistry are becoming more
+closely allied as researches continue and likewise physics and
+chemistry.  In the field of surgery the X-ray is in daily use, and
+radium and radioactivity may yet be great aids to medicine.  In medical
+investigation much is dependent upon the discoveries in neurology.
+This also will throw light upon the studies in psychology, for the
+relation of nerve functions to mind functions may be more clearly
+defined.
+
+Explorations of the earth and of the heavens continually add new
+knowledge of the extent and creation of the universe.  The study of
+anthropology and archaeology throw new light upon the origin and early
+history of man.  Experimental study of animals, food, soils, and crops
+adds increased means of sustenance for the race.  Recent investigations
+of scientific education, along with psychology, are throwing much light
+on mental conditions and progress.  And more recently serious inquiry
+into social life through the study of the social sciences is revealing
+the great problems of life.  All of knowledge, all of science, and all
+of human invention which add to material {474} comforts will be of no
+avail unless men can learn to live together harmoniously and justly.
+But the truths discovered in each department of investigation are all
+closely related.  Truly there is but one science with many divisions,
+one universe with many parts, and though man is a small particle of the
+great cosmos, it is his life and welfare that are at the centres of all
+achievements.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  In what ways has science contributed to the growth of democracy?
+
+2.  How has the study of science changed the attitude of the mind
+toward life?
+
+3. How is every-day life of the ordinary man affected by science?
+
+4.  Is science antagonistic to true Christianity?
+
+5.  What is the good influence of science on religious belief and
+practice?
+
+6.  What are the great discoveries of the last twenty-five years in
+Astronomy?  Chemistry?  Physics?  Biology?  Medicine?  Electricity?
+
+7.  What recent inventions are dependent upon science?
+
+8.  Relation between investigation in the laboratory and the modern
+automobile.
+
+9.  How does scientific knowledge tend to banish fear?
+
+10.  Give a brief history of the development of the automobile.  The
+flying-machine.
+
+11.  Would a law forbidding the teaching of science in schools advance
+the cause of Christianity?
+
+
+
+[1] Taylor, _The Mediaeval Mind_, vol. II, p. 508.
+
+[2] Libby, _History of Science_, p. 63.
+
+[3] Copernicus's view was not published until thirty-six years after
+its discovery.  A copy of his book was brought to him at his death-bed,
+but he refused to look at it.
+
+[4] Libby, p. 91.
+
+[5] Libby, _History of Science_, p. 280.
+
+[6] Libby, _Introduction to the History of Science_.
+
+[7] The newly created department at Johns Hopkins University for the
+study of international relations may assist in the abolition of war.
+
+
+
+
+{475}
+
+CHAPTER XXX
+
+UNIVERSAL EDUCATION AND DEMOCRACY
+
+_Universal Public Education Is a Modern Institution_.--The Greeks
+valued education and encouraged it, but only those could avail
+themselves of its privileges who were able to pay for it.  The training
+by the mother in the home was followed by a private tutor.  This system
+conformed to the idea of leadership and was valuable in the
+establishment of an educated class.  However, at the festivals and the
+theatres there were opportunities for the masses to learn much of
+oratory, music, and civic virtues.  The education of Athens conformed
+to the class basis of society.  Sparta as an exception trained all
+citizens for the service of state, making them subordinate to its
+welfare.  The state took charge of children at the age of seven, put
+them in barracks, and subjected them to the most severe discipline.
+But there was no free education, no free development of the ordinary
+mind.  It was in the nature of civic slavery for the preservation of
+the state in conflict with other states.
+
+During the Middle Ages Charlemagne established the only public schools
+for civic training, the first being established at Paris, although he
+planned to extend them throughout the empire.  The collapse of his
+great empire made the schools merely a tradition.  But they were a
+faint sign of the needs of a strong empire and an enlightened
+community.  The educational institutions of the Middle Ages were
+monasteries, and cathedral schools for the purpose of training men for
+the service of the church and for the propagating of religious
+doctrine.  They were all institutional in nature and far from the idea
+of public instruction for the enlightenment of the people.
+
+_The Mediaeval University Permitted Some Freedom of Choice_.--There was
+exhibited in some of them especially a desire to discover the truth
+through traditional knowledge.  They were {476} composed of groups of
+students and masters who met for free discussion, which led to the
+verification of established traditions.  But this was a step forward,
+and scholars arose who departed from dogma into new fields of learning.
+While the universities of the Middle Ages were a step in advance, full
+freedom of the mind had not yet manifested itself, nor had the idea of
+universal education appeared.  Opportunity came to a comparatively
+small number; moreover, nearly all scientific and educational
+improvement came from impulses outside of the centres of tradition.
+
+_The English and German Universities_.--The English universities,
+particularly Oxford and Cambridge, gave a broader culture in
+mathematics, philosophy, and literature, which was conducive to
+liberality in thought, but even they represented the education of a
+selected class.  The German universities, especially in the nineteenth
+century, emphasized the practical or applied side of education.  By
+establishing laboratories, they were prepared to apply all truths
+discovered, and by experimentation carry forward learning, especially
+in the chemical and other physical sciences.  The spirit of research
+was strongly invoked for new scientific discoveries.  While England was
+developing a few noted secondary schools, like Harrow and Eton, Germany
+was providing universal real _schule_, and _gymnasia_, as preparatory
+for university study and for the general education of the masses.  As a
+final outcome the Prussian system was developed, which had great
+influence on education in the United States in the latter part of the
+nineteenth century.
+
+_Early Education in the United States_.--The first colleges and
+universities in the United States were patterned after the English
+universities and the academies and high schools of England.  These
+schools were of a selected class to prepare for the ministry, law,
+statesmanship, and letters.  The growth of the American university was
+rapid, because it continually broadened its curriculum.  From the study
+of philosophy, classical languages, mathematics, literature, it
+successively {477} embraced modern languages, physical sciences,
+natural science, history, and economics, psychology, law, medicine,
+engineering, and commerce.
+
+In the present-day universities there is a wide differentiation of
+subjects.  The subjects have been multiplied to meet the demand of
+scientific development and also to fit students for the ever-increasing
+number of occupations which the modern complex society demands.  The
+result of all this expansion is democratic.  The college class is no
+longer an exclusive selection.  The plane of educational selection
+continually lowers until the college draws its students from all
+classes and prepares them for all occupations.  In the traditional
+college certain classes were selected to prepare for positions of
+learning.  There was developed a small educated class.  In the modern
+way there is no distinctive educated class.  University education has
+become democratic.
+
+_The Common, or Public, Schools_.--In the Colonial and early national
+period of the United States, education was given by a method of tutors,
+or by a select pay school taught by a regularly employed teacher under
+private contract.  Finally the sympathy for those who were not able to
+pay caused the establishing of "common schools."  This was the real
+beginning of universal education, for the practice expanded and the
+idea finally prevailed of providing schools by taxation "common" to
+all, and free to all who wish to attend.  Later, for civic purposes,
+primary education has become compulsory in most states.  Following the
+development of the primary grades, a complete system of secondary
+schools has been provided.  Beyond these are the state schools of
+higher education, universities, agricultural and mechanical schools,
+normal schools and industrial schools, so that a highway of learning is
+provided for the child, leading from the kindergarten through
+successive stages to the university.
+
+_Knowledge, Intelligence, and Training Necessary in a
+Democracy_.--Washington, after experimenting with the new nation for
+eight years, having had opportunity to observe the defects {478} and
+virtues of the republic, said in his Farewell Address: "Promote, then,
+as an object of primary importance institutions for the general
+diffusion of knowledge.  In proportion as the structure of a government
+gives force to public opinion, it is essential that public opinion
+should be enlightened."[1]  Again and again have the leaders of the
+nation who have had at heart the present welfare and future destiny of
+their country urged public education as a necessity.
+
+And right well have the people responded to these sentiments.  They
+have poured out their hard-earned money in taxation to provide adequate
+education for the youth of the land.  James Bryce, after studying in
+detail American institutions, declared that "the chief business of
+America is education."  This observation was made nearly forty years
+ago.  If it was true then, how much more evident is it now with
+wonderful advance of higher education in colleges and universities, and
+in the magnificent system of secondary education that has been built up
+in the interval.  The swarming of students in high school and college
+is evidence that they appreciate the opportunities furnished by the
+millions of wealth, largely in the form of taxes, given for the support
+of schools.
+
+_Education Has Been Universalized_.--Having made education universal,
+educators are devoting their energies to fit the education to the needs
+of the student and to assist the student in choosing the course of
+instruction which will best fit him for his chosen life-work.  The
+victory has been won to give every boy and girl an educational chance.
+To give him what he actually needs and see that he uses it for a
+definite purpose is the present problem of the educator.  This means a
+careful inquiry into mental capacity and mental traits, into
+temperament, taste, ambition, and choice of vocation.  It means further
+provision of the special education that will best prepare him for his
+chosen work, and, indeed, it means sympathetic co-operation of the
+teacher and student in determining the course to be pursued.
+
+{479}
+
+_Research an Educational Process_.--Increased knowledge comes from
+observation or systematic investigation in the laboratory.  Every child
+has by nature the primary element of research, a curiosity to know
+things.  Too often this is suppressed by conventional education instead
+of continued into systematic investigation.  One of the great defects
+of the public school is the failure to keep alive, on the part of the
+student, the desire to know things.  Undue emphasis on instruction, a
+mere imparting of knowledge, causes the student to shift the
+responsibility of his education upon the teacher, who, after all, can
+do no more than help the student to select the line of study, and
+direct him in methods of acquiring.  Together teacher and student can
+select the trail, and the teacher, because he has been over it, can
+direct the student over its rough ways, saving him time and energy.
+
+Perhaps the greatest weakness in popular government to-day is
+indifference of citizens to civic affairs.  This leads to a shifting of
+responsibility of public affairs frequently to those least competent to
+conduct them.  Perhaps a training in individual responsibility in the
+schools and more vital instruction in citizenship would prepare the
+coming generation to make democracy efficient and safe to the world.
+The results of research are of great practical benefit to the so-called
+common man in the ordinary pursuits of life.  The scientist in the
+laboratory, spending days and nights in research, finally discovers a
+new process which becomes a life-saver or a time-saver to general
+mankind.  Yet the people usually accept this as a matter of fact as
+something that just happened.  They forget the man in the laboratory
+and exploit the results of his labor for their own personal gain.
+
+How often the human mind is in error, and unobserving, not to see that
+the discovery of truth and its adaptation to ordinary life is one of
+the fundamental causes of the progress of the race.  Man has advanced
+in proportion as he has become possessed of the secrets of nature and
+has adapted them to his service.  The number of ways he touches nature
+and forces {480} her to yield her treasures, adapting them to his use,
+determines the possibility of progress.
+
+The so-called "common man," the universal type of our democracy, is
+worthy of our admiration.  He has his life of toil and his round of
+duties alternating with pleasure, bearing the burdens of life
+cheerfully, with human touch with his fellows; amid sorrow and joy,
+duty and pleasure, storm and sunshine, he lives a normal existence and
+passes on the torch of life to others.  But the man who shuts himself
+in his laboratory, lives like a monk, losing for a time the human
+touch, spends long days of toil and "nights devoid of ease" until he
+discovers a truth or makes an invention that makes millions glad, is
+entitled to our highest reverence.  The ordinary man and the
+investigator are complementary factors of progress and both essential
+to democracy.
+
+_The Diffusion of Knowledge Necessary to Democracy_.--Always in
+progress is a deflecting tendency, separating the educated class from
+the uneducated.  This is not on account of the aristocracy of learning,
+but because of group activity, the educated man following a pursuit
+different from the man of practical affairs.  Hence the effort to
+broadcast knowledge through lectures, university extension, and the
+radio is essential to the progress of the whole community.  One phase
+of enlightenment is much neglected, that of making clear that the
+object of the scholar and the object of the man of practical affairs
+should be the same--that of establishing higher ideals of life and
+providing means for approximating these ideals.  It frequently occurs
+that the individual who has centred his life on the accumulation of
+wealth ignores the educator and has a contempt for the impractical
+scholar, as he terms him.  Not infrequently state legislatures, when
+considering appropriations for education, have shown more interest in
+hogs and cattle than in the welfare of children.
+
+It would be well if the psychology of the common mind would change so
+as to grasp the importance of education and scientific investigation to
+every-day life.  Does it occur to the {481} man who seats himself in
+his car to whisk away across the country in the pursuit of ordinary
+business, to pause to inquire who discovered gasoline or who invented
+the gasoline-engine?  Does he realize that some patient investigator in
+the laboratory has made it possible for even a child to thus utilize
+the forces of nature and thus shorten time and ignore space?  Whence
+comes the improvement of live-stock in this country?  Compare the
+cattle of early New England with those on modern farms.  Was the little
+scrubby stock of our forefathers replaced by large, sleek, well-bred
+cattle through accident?  No, it was by the discovery of investigators
+and its practical adaptation by breeders.  Compare the vineyards and
+the orchards of the early history of the nation, the grains and the
+grasses, or the fruits and the flowers with those of present
+cultivation.  What else but investigation, discovery, and adaptation
+wrought the change?
+
+My common neighbor, when your child's poor body is racked with pain and
+likely to die, and the skilled surgeon places the child on the
+operating-table, administers the anaesthetic to make him insensible to
+pain, and with knowledge gained by investigation operates with such
+skill as to save the child's life and restore him to health, are you
+not ready to say that scientific investigation is a blessing to all
+mankind?  Whence comes this power to restore health?  Is it a
+dispensation from heaven?  Yes, a dispensation brought about through
+the patient toil and sacrifice of those zealous for the discovery of
+truth.  What of the knowledge that leads to the mastery of the
+yellow-fever bacillus, of the typhoid germ, to the fight against
+tuberculosis and other enemies of mankind?  Again, it is the man in the
+laboratory who is the first great cause that makes it possible for
+humanity to protect itself from disease.
+
+Could our methods of transportation by steamship, railroad, or air, our
+great manufacturing processes, our vast machinery, or our scientific
+agriculture exist without scientific research?  Nothing touches
+ordinary life with such potent force as the results of the
+investigation in the laboratory.  Clearly it is {482} understood by the
+thoughtful that education in all of its phases is a democratic process,
+and a democratic need, for its results are for everybody.  Knowledge is
+thus humanized, and the educated and the non-educated must co-operate
+to keep the human touch.
+
+Educational Progress.--One of the landmarks of the present century of
+progress will be the perfecting of educational systems.  Education is
+no longer for the exclusive few, developing an aristocracy of learning
+for the elevation of a single class; it has become universal.  The
+large number of universities throughout the world, well endowed and
+well equipped, the multitudes of secondary schools, and the
+universality of the primary schools, now render it possible for every
+individual to become intelligent and enlightened.
+
+But these conditions are comparatively recent, so that millions of
+individuals to-day, even in the midst of great educational systems,
+remain entirely unlettered.  Nevertheless, the persistent effort on the
+part of people everywhere to have good schools, with the best methods
+of instruction, certainly must have its effect in bringing the masses
+of unlearned into the realm of letters.  The practical tendency of
+modern education, by which discipline and culture may be given while at
+the same time preparing the student for the active duties of life,
+makes education more necessary for all persons and classes.  The great
+changes that have taken place in methods of instruction and in the
+materials of scientific investigation, and the tendency to develop the
+man as well as to furnish him with information, evince the masterly
+progress of educational systems, and demonstrate their great worth.
+
+_The Importance of State Education_.--So necessary has education become
+to the perpetuation of free government that the states of the world
+have deemed it advisable to provide on their own account a sufficient
+means of education.  Perpetuation of liberty can be secured only on the
+basis of intellectual progress.  From the time of the foundation of the
+universities of Europe, kings and princes and state authorities have
+{483} encouraged and developed education, but it remained for America
+to begin a complete and universal free-school system.  In the United
+States educators persistently urge upon the people the necessity of
+popular education and intelligence as the only means of securing to the
+people the benefits of a free government, and other statesmen from time
+to time have insisted upon the same principle.  The private
+institutions of America did a vast work for the education of the youth,
+but proved entirely inadequate to meet the immediate demands of
+universal education, and the public-school system sprang up as a
+necessary means of preparation for citizenship.  It found its earliest,
+largest, and best scope in the North and West, and has more recently
+been established in the South, and now is universal.
+
+The grant by the United States government at the time of the formation
+of the Ohio territory of lands for the support of universities led to
+the provision in the act of formation of each state and territory in
+the Union for the establishment of a university.  Each state, since the
+admission of Ohio, has provided for a state university, and the Act of
+1862, which granted lands to each state in the Union for the
+establishment of agricultural and mechanical colleges, has also given a
+great impulse to state education.  In the organizing acts of some of
+the newer states these two grants have been joined in one for the
+upbuilding of a university combining the ideas of the two kinds of
+schools.  The support insured to these state institutions promises
+their perpetuity.  The amount of work which they have done for the
+education of the masses in higher learning has been prodigious, and
+they stand to-day as the greatest and most perfect monument of the
+culture and learning of the Western states.
+
+The tremendous growth of state education has increased the burden of
+taxation to the extent that the question has arisen as to whether there
+is not a limit to the amount people are willing to pay for public
+education.  If it can be shown that they receive a direct benefit in
+the education of their children there {484} will be no limit within
+their means to the support of both secondary schools and universities.
+But there must be evidence that the expenditure is economically and
+wisely administered.
+
+The princely endowments of magnificent universities like the Leland
+Stanford Junior University, the University of Chicago, Johns Hopkins
+University, Harvard, Yale, and others, have not interfered with the
+growth and development of state education, for it rests upon the
+permanent foundation of a popular demand for institutions supported by
+the contributions of the whole people for the benefit of the state at
+large.  State institutions based upon permanent foundations have been
+zealous in obtaining the best quality of instruction, and the result is
+that a youth in the rural districts may receive as good undergraduate
+instruction as he can obtain in one of the older and more wealthy
+private institutions, and at very little expense.
+
+_The Printing-Press and Its Products_.--Perhaps of all of the
+inventions that occurred prior to the eighteenth century, printing has
+the most power in modern civilization.  No other one has so continued
+to expand its achievements.  Becoming a necessary adjunct of modern
+education, it continually extends its influence in the direct aid of
+every other art, industry, or other form of human achievement.  The
+dissemination of knowledge through books, periodicals, and the
+newspaper press has made it possible to keep alive the spirit of
+learning among the people and to assure that degree of intelligence
+necessary for a self-governed people.
+
+The freedom of the press is one of the cardinal principles of progress,
+for it brings into fulness the fundamental fact of freedom of
+discussion advocated by the early Greeks, which was the line of
+demarcation between despotism and dogmatism and the freedom of the mind
+and will.  In common with all human institutions, its power has
+sometimes been abused.  But its defect cannot be remedied by repression
+or by force, but by the elevation of the thought, judgment,
+intelligence, and good-will of a people by an education which causes
+them to {485} demand better things.  The press in recent years has been
+too susceptible to commercial dominance--a power, by the way, which has
+seriously affected all of our institutions.  Here, as in all other
+phases of progress, wealth should be a means rather than an end of
+civilization.
+
+_Public Opinion_.--Universal education in school and out, freedom of
+discussion, freedom of thought and will to do are necessary to social
+progress.  Public opinion is an expression of the combined judgments of
+many minds working in conscious or unconscious co-operation.  Laws,
+government, standards of right action, and the type of social order are
+dependent upon it.  The attempt to form a League of Nations or a Court
+of International Justice depends upon the support of an intelligent
+public opinion.  War cannot be ended by force of arms, for that makes
+more war, but by the force of mutually acquired opinion of all nations
+based on good-will.  Every year in the United States there are examples
+of the failure of the attempt to enforce laws which are not well
+supported by public opinion.  Such laws are made effective by a gradual
+education of those for whom they are made to the standard expressed in
+the laws, or they become obsolete.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  Show from observations in your own neighborhood the influence of
+education on social progress.
+
+2.  Imperfections of public schools and the difficulties confronting
+educators.
+
+3.  Should all children in the United States be compelled to attend the
+public schools?
+
+4.  What part do newspapers and periodicals play in education?
+
+5.  Relation of education to public opinion.
+
+6.  Should people who cannot read and write be permitted to vote?
+
+7.  Study athletics in your school and town to determine their
+educational value.
+
+8.  Show by investigation the educational value of motion-pictures and
+their misuse.
+
+9.  In what ways may social inequality be diminished?
+
+10.  Would a law compelling the reading of the Bible in public schools
+make people more religious?
+
+
+
+[1] Richardson, _Messages and Papers of the Presidents_, I, 220.
+
+
+
+
+{486}
+
+CHAPTER XXXI
+
+WORLD ECONOMICS AND POLITICS
+
+_Commerce and Communication_.--The nations of the world have been drawn
+together in thought and involuntary co-operation by the stimulating
+power of trade.  The exchange of goods always leads to the exchange of
+ideas.  By commerce each nation may profit by the products of all
+others, and thus all may enjoy the material comforts of the world.  At
+times some countries are deficient in the food-supply, but there has
+been in recent years a sufficient world supply for all, when properly
+distributed through commerce.  Some countries produce goods that cannot
+be produced by others, but by exchange all may receive the benefits of
+everything discovered, produced, or manufactured.
+
+Rapid and complete transportation facilities are necessary to
+accomplish this.  Both trade and transportation are dependent upon
+rapid communication, hence the telegraph, the cable, and the wireless
+have become prime necessities.  The more voluminous reports of trade
+relations found in printed documents, papers, and books, though they
+represent a slower method of communication, are essential to world
+trade, but the results of trade are found in the unity of thought, the
+development of a world mind, and growing similarity of customs, habits,
+usages, and ideals.  Slowly there is developing a world attitude toward
+life.
+
+_Exchange of Ideas Modifies Political Organization_.--The desire for
+liberty of action is universal among all people who have been assembled
+in mass under co-operation.  The arbitrary control by the
+self-constituted authority of kings and governments without the consent
+of the governed is opposed by all human associations, whether tribal,
+territorial, or national.  Since the world settled down to the idea of
+monarchy as a necessary form of government, men have been trying to
+{487} substitute other forms of government.  The spread of democratic
+ideas has been slowly winning the world to new methods of government.
+The American Revolution was the most epoch-making event of modern
+times.  While the French Revolution was about to burst forth, the
+example of the American colonies was fuel to the flames.
+
+In turn, after the United States had won their freedom and were well on
+their way in developing a republican government, the influence of the
+radical democracy was seen in the laws and constitutions of the states,
+particularly in the first half of the nineteenth century.  The
+Spanish-American War led to the development of democracy, not only in
+Cuba and Porto Rico but in the Philippine Islands.  But the planting of
+democracy in the Philippines had a world influence, manifested
+especially in southeastern Asia, China, Japan, and India.
+
+_Spread of Political Ideas_.--The socialism of Karl Marx has been one
+of the most universal and powerful appeals to humanity for industrial
+freedom.  His economic system is characterized by the enormous emphasis
+placed upon labor as a factor in production.  Starting from the
+hypothesis that all wealth is created by labor, and limiting all labor
+to the wage-earner, there is no other conclusion, if the premise be
+admitted, than that the product of industry belongs to labor
+exclusively.  His theories gained more or less credence in Germany and
+to a less extent in other countries, but they were never fully tested
+until the Russian revolution in connection with the Great War.  After
+the downfall of Czarism, leaders of the revolution attacked and
+overthrew capitalism, and instituted the Soviet government.  The
+proletariat came to the top, while the capitalists, nobility, and
+middle classes went to the bottom.  This was brought about by sudden
+revolution through rapid and wild propaganda.
+
+Strenuous efforts to propagate the Soviet doctrine and the war against
+capitalism in other countries have taken place, without working a
+revolution similar to that in Russia.  But the International is slowly
+developing a world idea among {488} laborers, with the ultimate end of
+destroying the capitalistic system and making it possible for organized
+wage-earners to rule the world.  It is not possible here to discuss the
+Marxian doctrine of socialism nor to recount what its practical
+application did to Russia.  Suffice it to say that the doctrine has a
+fatal fallacy in supposing that wage-earners are the only class of
+laborers necessary to rational economic production.
+
+_The World War Breaks Down the Barriers of Thought_.--The Great War
+brought to light many things that had been at least partially hidden to
+ordinary thinking people.  It revealed the national selfishness which
+was manifested in the struggle for the control of trade, the extension
+of territory, and the possession of the natural resources of the world.
+This selfishness was even more clearly revealed when, in the Treaty of
+Versailles and the formation of the League of Nations, each nation was
+unwilling to make necessary sacrifice for the purpose of establishing
+universal peace.  They all appeared to feel the need of some
+international agreement which should be permanent and each favored it,
+could it first get what it wanted.  Such was the power of tradition
+regarding the sanctity of national life and the sacredness of national
+territory and, moreover, of national prerogatives!
+
+Nevertheless, the interchange of ideas connecting with the gruelling of
+war caused change of ideas about government and developed, if not an
+international mind, new modes of national thinking.  The war brought
+new visions of peace, and developed to a certain extent a recognition
+of the rights of nations and an interest in one another's welfare.
+There was an advance in the theory at least of international justice.
+Also the world was shocked with the terror of war as well as its
+futility and terrible waste.  While national selfishness was not
+eradicated, it was in a measure subdued, and a feeling of co-operation
+started which eventually will result in unity of feeling, thought, and
+action.  The war brought into being a sentiment among the national
+peoples that they will not in the future be forced into war without
+their consent.
+
+{489}
+
+_Attempt to Form a League for Permanent Peace_.--Led by the United
+States, a League of Nations was proposed which should settle all
+disputes arising between nations without going to war.  The United
+States having suggested the plan and having helped to form the League,
+finally refused to become a party to it, owing in part to the tradition
+of exclusiveness from European politics--a tradition that has existed
+since the foundation of the nation.  Yet the United States was
+suggesting a plan that it had long believed in, and a policy which it
+had exercised for a hundred years with most nations.  It took a
+prominent part in the first peace conference called by the Czar of
+Russia in 1899.  The attempt to establish a permanent International
+Tribunal ended in forming a permanent Court of Arbitration, which was
+nothing more than an intelligence office with a body of arbitrators
+composed of not more than four men from each nation, from whom nations
+that had chosen to arbitrate a dispute might choose arbitrators.  The
+conference adjourned with the understanding that another would be
+called within a few years.
+
+The Boxer trouble in China and the war between Japan and Russia delayed
+the meeting.  Through the initiation of Theodore Roosevelt, of the
+United States, a second Hague Conference met in 1907.  Largely through
+the influence of Elihu Root a permanent court was established, with the
+exception that a plan for electing delegates could not be agreed upon.
+It was agreed to hold another conference in 1915 to finish the work.
+Thus it is seen that the League of Nations advocated by President
+Wilson was born of ideas already fructifying on American soil.
+McKinley, Roosevelt, John Hay, Elihu Root, Joseph H. Choate, James
+Brown Scott, and other statesmen had favored an International Tribunal.
+
+The League of Nations provided in its constitution among other things
+for a World Court of Nations.  In the first draft of the constitution
+of the League no mention was made of a World Court.  But through a
+cablegram of Elihu Root to Colonel E. M. House, the latter was able to
+place articles 13 {490} and 14, which provided that the League should
+take measures for forming a Court of International Justice.
+Subsequently the court was formed by the League, but national
+selfishness came to the front and crippled the court.  Article 34
+originally read: "Between states which are members of the League of
+Nations, the court shall have jurisdiction, and this without any
+convention giving it jurisdiction to hear and determine cases of legal
+nature."  It was changed to read; "The jurisdiction of the court
+comprises all cases which the parties refer to it and all matters
+specially provided for in treaties and conventions in force."
+
+It is to be observed that in the original statement, either party to a
+dispute could bring a case into court without the consent of the other,
+thus making it a real court of justice, and in the modified law both
+parties must agree to bring the case in court, thus making it a mere
+tribunal of arbitration.  The great powers--England, France, Italy, and
+Japan--were opposed to the original draft, evidently being unwilling to
+trust their disputes to a court, while the smaller nations favored the
+court as provided in the original resolution.  However, it was provided
+that such nations who desired could sign an agreement to submit all
+cases of dispute to the court with all others who similarly signed.
+Nearly all of the smaller nations have so signed, and President Harding
+urged the United States, though not a member of the League, to sign.
+
+The judges of the court, eleven in all, are nominated by the old
+Arbitration Court of the Hague Tribunal, and elected by the League of
+Nations, the Council and Assembly voting separately.  Only one judge
+may be chosen from a nation, and of course every nation may not have a
+judge.  In cases where a dispute involves a nation which has no member
+in the court, an extra judge may be appointed.  The first court was
+chosen from the following nations: Great Britain, France, Italy, United
+States, Cuba, Switzerland, Netherlands, Denmark, Japan, and Brazil.  So
+the Court of International Justice is functioning in an incomplete way,
+born of the spirit of {491} America, and the United States, though not
+a member of the League of Nations, has a member in the court sitting in
+judgment on the disputes of the nations of the world.  So likewise the
+League of Nations, which the United States would not join, is
+functioning in an incomplete way.
+
+_International Agreement and Progress_.--But who shall say that the
+spirit of international justice has not grown more rapidly than appears
+from the workings of the machinery that carries it out?  Beneath the
+selfish interests of nations is the international consciousness that
+some way must be devised and held to for the settlement of disputes
+without war; that justice between nations may be established similar to
+that practised within the boundaries of a single nation.
+
+No progress comes out of war itself, though it may force other lines of
+conduct.  Progress comes from other sources than war.  Besides, it
+brings its burdens of crime, cripples, and paupers, and its discontent
+and distrust.  It may hasten production and stimulate invention of
+destruction, but it is not constructive and always it develops an army
+of plunderers who prey upon the suffering and toil of others.  These
+home pirates are more destructive of civilization than poison gases or
+high explosives.
+
+_The Mutual Aid of Nations_.--In a previous chapter it was shown that
+mutual aid of individuals was the beginning of society.  It now is
+evident that the mutual aid of nations is their salvation.  As the
+establishment of justice between individuals through their reactions
+does not destroy their freedom nor their personalities, so the
+establishment of justice among nations does not destroy their autonomy
+nor infringe upon their rights.  It merely insists that brutal national
+selfishness shall give way to a friendly co-operation in the interest
+and welfare of all nations.  "A nation, like an individual, will become
+greater as it cherishes a high ideal and does service and helpful acts
+to its neighbors, whether great or small, and as it co-operates with
+them in working toward a common end."[1] {492} Truly "righteousness
+exalteth a nation," and it will become strong and noble as it seeks to
+develop justice among all nations and to exercise toward them fair
+dealing and friendly relations that make for peace.
+
+_Reorganization of International Law_.--The public opinion of the
+nations of the world is the only durable support of international law.
+The law represents a body of principles, usages, and rules of action
+regarding the rights of nations in peace and in war.  As a rule nations
+have a wholesome respect for international law, because they do not
+wish to incur the unfriendliness and possible hatred of their fellow
+nations nor the contempt and criticism of the world.  This fear of open
+censure has in a measure led to the baneful secret treaties, such an
+important factor in European diplomacy, whose results have been
+suspicion, distrust, and war.  Germany is the only modern nation that
+felt strong enough to defy world opinion, the laws of nations, and to
+assume an entirely independent attitude.  But not for long.  This
+attitude ended in a disastrous war, in which she lost the friendship
+and respect of the world--lost treasure and trade, lives and property.
+
+It is unfortunate that modern international law is built upon the basis
+of war rather than upon the basis of peace.  In this respect there has
+not been much advance since the time of Grotius, the father of modern
+international law.  However, there has been a remarkable advance among
+most nations in settling their difficulties by arbitration.  This has
+been accompanied by a strong desire to avoid war when possible, and a
+longing for its entire abandonment.  Slowly but surely public opinion
+realizes not only the desire but the necessity of abandoning great
+armaments and preparation for war.
+
+But the nations cannot go to a peace basis without concerted action.
+This will be brought about by growth in national righteousness and a
+modification of crude patriotism and national selfishness.  It is now
+time to codify and revise international law on a peace basis, and new
+measures adopted in accordance to the progress nations have made in
+recent {493} years toward permanent peace.  Such a move would lead to a
+better understanding and furnish a ready guide to the Court of
+International Justice and all other means whereby nations seek to
+establish justice among themselves.
+
+_The Outlook for a World State_.--If it be understood that a world
+state means the abandonment of all national governments and their
+absorption in a world government, then it may be asserted truly that
+such is an impossibility within the range of the vision of man.  Nor
+would it be desirable.  If by world state is meant a political league
+which unites all in a co-operative group for fair dealing in regard to
+trade, commerce, territory, and the command of national resources, and
+in addition a world court to decide disputes between nations, such a
+state is possible and desirable.
+
+Great society is a community of groups, each with its own life to live,
+its own independence to maintain, and its own service to perform.  To
+absorb these groups would be to disorganize society and leave the
+individual helpless before the mass.  For it is only within group
+activity that the individual can function.  So with nations, whose life
+and organization must be maintained or the individual would be left
+helpless before the world.  But nations need each other and should
+co-operate for mutual advantage.  They are drawn closer each year in
+finance, in trade and commerce, in principles of government and in
+life.  A serious injury to one is an injury to all.  The future
+progress of the world will not be assured until they cease their
+squabbles over territory, trade, and the natural resources of the
+world--not until they abandon corroding selfishness, jealousy, and
+suspicion, and covenant with each other openly to keep the peace.
+
+To accomplish this, as Mr. Walter Hines Page said: "Was there ever a
+greater need than there is now for first-class minds unselfishly
+working on world problems?  The ablest ruling minds are engaged on
+domestic tasks.  There is no world-girdling intelligence at work on
+government.  The present order must change.  It holds the Old World
+still.  It keeps all {494} parts of the world apart, in spite of the
+friendly cohesive forces of trade and travel.  It keeps back
+self-government of men."  These evils cannot be overcome by law, by
+formula, by resolution or rule of thumb, but rather by long, patient
+study, research, and work of many master-minds in co-operative
+leadership, who will create a sound international public opinion.  The
+international mind needs entire regeneration, not dominance of the
+powers.
+
+The recent war was but a stupendous breaking with the past.  It
+furnished opportunity for human society to move forward in a new
+adjustment on a larger and broader plan of life.  Whether it will or
+not depends upon the use made of the opportunity.  The smashing process
+was stupendous, horrible in its moment.  Whether society will adapt
+itself to the new conditions remains to be seen.  Peace, a highly
+desirable objective, is not the only consideration.  There are even
+more important phases of human adjustment.
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What were the results of the first (1899) and the second (1907)
+Hague Conference?
+
+2.  What is meant by "freedom of the seas"?
+
+3.  Should a commission of nations attempt to equalize the ownership
+and distribution of the natural products and raw materials, such as
+oil, coal, copper, etc.?
+
+4.  How did the World War make opportunity for democracy?
+
+5.  Believing that war should be abolished, how may it be done?
+
+6.  What are the dangers of extreme radicalism regarding government and
+social order?
+
+7.  The status of the League of Nations and the Court of International
+Justice.
+
+8.  National selfishness and the League of Nations.
+
+9.  The consolidation or co-operation of churches in your town.
+
+10.  The union of social agencies to improve social welfare.
+
+11.  Freedom of the press; freedom of speech.
+
+12.  Public opinion.
+
+
+
+[1] Cosmos, _The Basis of Durable Peace_.
+
+
+
+
+{495}
+
+CHAPTER XXXII
+
+THE TREND OF CIVILIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+_The Economic Outlook_.--The natural resources of forest, mines, and
+agriculture are gradually being depleted.  The rapidity of movement in
+the economic world, the creation of wealth by vast machinery, and the
+organization of labor and industry are drawing more and more from the
+wealth stored by nature in her treasure-houses.  There is a strong
+agitation for the conservation of these resources, but little has been
+accomplished.  The great business organizations are exploiting the
+resources, for the making of the finished products, not with the prime
+motive of adding to the material comforts and welfare of mankind, but
+to make colossal fortunes under private control.  While the progress of
+man is marked by mastery of nature, it should also be marked by
+co-operation with nature on a continued utility basis.  Exploitation of
+natural resources leads to conspicuous waste which may lead to want and
+future deterioration.
+
+The development of scientific agriculture largely through the influence
+of the Agricultural Department at Washington and the numerous
+agricultural colleges and experiment stations has done something to
+preserve and increase the productivity of the soil.  Scientific study
+and practical experiment have given improved quality of seed, a better
+grade of stock, and better quality of fruits and vegetables.  They have
+also given improved methods of cultivation and adaptability of crops to
+the land, and thus have increased the yield per acre.  The increased
+use of selected fertilizers has worked to the same end.  The use of a
+large variety of labor-saving machines has conduced to increase the
+amount of the product.  But all of this improvement is small,
+considering the amount that needs to be done.  The population is
+increasing rapidly from {496} the native stock and by immigration.
+There is need for wise conservation in the use of land to prevent
+economic waste and to provide for future generations.  The greedy
+consumers, with increasing desire for more and better things, urge,
+indirectly to be sure, for larger production and greater variety of
+finished products.
+
+_The Economics of Labor_.--In complex society there are many divisions
+or groups of laborers--laborers of body and laborers of mind.  Every
+one who is performing a legitimate service, which is sought for and
+remunerative to the laborer and serviceable to the public, is a
+laborer.  At the base of all industry and social activity are the
+industrial wage-earners, who by their toil work the mines, the
+factories, the great steel and iron industries, the railroads, the
+electric-power plants and other industries.  Since the beginning of the
+industrial revolution in the latter part of the eighteenth century,
+labor has been working its way out of slavery into freedom.
+
+As a result laborers have better wages, better conditions of life, more
+of material comforts, and a higher degree of intelligence than ever
+before.  Yet there is much improvement needed.  While the hours of
+labor have been reduced in general to eight per day, the irregularity
+of employment leads to unrest and frequently to great distress.  There
+is a growing tendency to make laborers partners in the process of
+production.  This does not mean that they shall take over the direction
+of industry, but co-operate with the managers regarding output, quality
+of goods, income, and wages, so as to give a solidarity to productive
+processes and eliminate waste of time, material, and loss by strikes.
+
+The domestic peace in industry is as important as the world peace of
+nations in the economy of the world's progress.  A direct interest of
+the wage-earner in the management of production and in the general
+income would have a tendency to equalize incomes and prevent laborers
+from believing that the product of industry as well as its management
+should be under their direct control.  Public opinion usually favors
+the {497} laborer and, while it advocates the freedom and dignity of
+labor, does not favor the right of labor to exploit industry nor
+concede the right to destroy.  But it believes that labor organizations
+should be put on the same basis as productive corporations, with equal
+degree of rights, privileges, duties, and responsibilities.
+
+_Public and Corporate Industries_.--The independent system of organized
+industry so long dominant in America, known by the socialists as
+capitalistic production, has become so thoroughly established that
+there is no great tendency to communistic production and distribution.
+There is, however, a strong tendency to limit the power of exploitation
+and to control larger industries in the interest of the public.
+Especially is this true in regard to what are known as public
+utilities, such as transportation, lighting, telephone, and telegraph
+companies, and, in fact, all companies that provide necessaries common
+to the public, that must be carried on as monopolies.  Public opinion
+demands that such corporations, conducting their operations as special
+privileges granted by the people, shall be amenable to the public so
+far as conduct and income are concerned.  They must be public service
+companies and not public exploitation companies.
+
+The great productive industries are supposed to conduct their business
+on a competitive basis, which will determine price and income.  As a
+matter of fact, this is done only in a general way, and the incomes are
+frequently out of proportion to the power of the consuming public to
+purchase.  Great industries have the power to determine the income
+which they think they ought to have, and, not receiving it, may cease
+to carry on their industry and may invest their capital in non-taxable
+securities.  While under our present system there is no way of
+preventing this, it would be a great boon to the public, and a new
+factor in progress, if they were willing to be content with a smaller
+margin of profit and a slower accumulation of wealth.  At least some
+change must take place or the people of small incomes will be obliged
+to give up many {498} of the comforts of life of which our boasted
+civilization is proud, and gradually be reduced to the most sparing
+economy, if not to poverty.  The same principle might be applied to the
+great institutions of trade.
+
+_The Political Outlook_.--In our earlier history the struggle for
+liberty of action was the vital phase of our democracy.  To-day the
+struggle is to make our ideal democracy practical.  In theory ours is a
+self-governed people; in practice this is not wholly true.  We have the
+power and the opportunity for self-government, but we are not
+practising it as we might.  There is a real danger that the people will
+fail to assume the responsibility of self-government, until the affairs
+of government are handed over to an official class of exploiters.
+
+For instance, the free ballot is the vital factor in our government,
+but there are many evidences that it is not fully exercised for the
+political welfare of the country.  It frequently occurs that men are
+sent to Congress on a small percentage of voters.  Other elective
+offices meet the same fate.  Certainly, more interest must be taken in
+selecting the right kind of men to rule over them or the people will
+barter away their liberties by indifference.  Officials should be
+brought to realize that they are to serve the public and it is largely
+a missionary job they are seeking rather than an opportunity to exploit
+the office for personal gain.
+
+The expansive process of political society makes a larger number of
+officers necessary.  The people are demanding the right to do more
+things by themselves, which leads to increased expenses in the cost of
+administration, great bonded indebtedness, and higher taxation.  It
+will be necessary to curb expansion and reduce overhead charges upon
+the government.  This may call for the reorganization of the machinery
+of government on the basis of efficiency.  At least it must be shown to
+the people that they have a full return for the money paid by taxation.
+It is possible only by study, care, civic responsibility, and interest
+in government affairs, as well as by increased intelligence, that our
+democratic idealism may be put {499} into practice.  Laboratory methods
+in self-government are a prime necessity.
+
+_The Equalization of Opportunity_.--Popular education is the greatest
+democratic factor in existence.  It is the one great institution which
+recognizes that equal opportunities should be granted to everybody.
+Yet it has its limits in establishing equal opportunities in the
+accepted meaning of the term.  There is a false idea of equality which
+asserts that one man is as good as another before he has proved himself
+to be so.  True equality means justice to all.  It does not guarantee
+that equality of power, of intellect, of wealth, and social standing
+shall obtain.  It seeks to harmonize individual development with social
+development, and to insure the individual the right to achieve
+according to his capacity and industry.  "The right to life, liberty,
+and the pursuit of happiness" is a household word, but the right to
+_pursue_ does not insure success.
+
+The excessive altruism of the times has led to the protecting care of
+all classes.  In its extreme processes it has made the weak more
+helpless.  What is needed is the cultivation of individual
+responsibility.  Society is so great, so well organized, and does so
+much that there is a tendency of the individual to shift his
+responsibility to it.  Society is composed of individuals, and its
+quality will be determined by the character and quality of the
+individual working especially for himself and generally for the good of
+all.  A little more of the law of the survival of the fittest would
+temper our altruism to more effective service.  The world is full of
+voluntary altruistic and social betterment societies, making drives for
+funds.  They should re-examine their motives and processes and
+carefully estimate what they are really accomplishing.  Is the
+institution they are supporting merely serving itself, or has it a
+working power and a margin of profit in actual service?
+
+_The Influence of Scientific Thought on Progress_.--The effect of
+scientific discovery on material welfare has been referred to
+elsewhere.  It remains to determine how scientific thought changes the
+attitude of the mind toward life.  The laboratory {500} method
+continually tests everything, and what he finds to be true the
+scientist believes.  He gradually ignores tradition and adheres to
+those things that are shown to be true by experimentation or recorded
+observation.  It is true that he uses hypotheses and works the
+imagination.  But his whole tendency is to depart from the realm of
+instinct and emotions and lay a foundation for reflective thinking.
+The scientific attitude of mind influences all philosophy and all
+religion.  "Let us examine the facts in the case" is the attitude of
+scientific thought.
+
+The study of anthropology and sociology has, on the one hand,
+discovered the natural history of man and, on the other, shown his
+normal social relations.  Both of these studies have co-operated with
+biology to show that man has come out of the past through a process of
+evolution; that all that he is individually and socially has been
+attained through long ages of development.  Even science, philosophy,
+and religion, as well as all forms of society, have had a slow, painful
+evolution.  This fact causes people to re-examine their traditional
+belief to see how far it corresponds to new knowledge.  It has helped
+men to realize on their philosophy of life and to test it out in the
+light of new truth and experience.  This has led the church to a
+broader conception of the truth and to a more direct devotion to
+service.  It is becoming an agency for visualizing truth rather than an
+institution of dogmatic belief.  The religious traditionalists yield
+slowly to the new religious liberalism.  But the influence of
+scientific thought has caused the church to realize on the investment
+which it has been preaching these many centuries.
+
+_The Relation of Material Comfort to Spiritual Progress_.--The material
+comforts which have been multiplying in recent centuries do not insure
+the highest spiritual activity.  The nations that have achieved have
+been forced into activity by distressing conditions.  In following the
+history of any nation along any line of achievement, it will be noticed
+that in its darkest, most uncomfortable days, when progress seemed
+least {501} in evidence, forces were in action which prepared for great
+advancement.  It has been so in literature, in science, in liberty, in
+social order; it is so in the sum-total of the world's achievements.
+
+Granting that the increase of material comforts, in fact, of wealth, is
+a great achievement of the age, the whole story is not told until the
+use of the wealth is determined.  If it leads to luxurious living,
+immorality, injustice, and loss of sense of duty, as in some of the
+ancient nations, it will prove the downfall of Western civilization.
+If the leisure and strength it offers are utilized in raising the
+standard of living, of establishing higher ideals, and creating a will
+to approximate them, then they will prove a blessing and an impulse to
+progress.  Likewise, the freedom of the mind and freedom in
+governmental action furnish great opportunities for progress, but the
+final result will be determined by use of such opportunities in the
+creation of a higher type of mind characterized by a well-balanced
+social attitude.
+
+_The Balance of Social Forces_.--There are two sources of the origin of
+social life, one arising out of the attitude of the individual toward
+society, and the other arising out of the attitude of society toward
+the individual.  These two attitudes seem, at first view, paradoxical
+in many instances, for both individual and society must survive.  But
+in the long run they are not antagonistic, for the good of one must be
+the good of the other.  The perfect balancing of the two forces would
+make a perfect society.  The modern social problem is to determine how
+much choice shall be left to individual initiative and how much shall
+be undertaken by the group.
+
+In recent years the people have been doing more and more for themselves
+through group action.  The result has been a multiplication of laws,
+many of them useless; the creation of a vast administrative force
+increasing overhead charges, community control or operation of
+industries, and the vast amount of public, especially municipal,
+improvements.  All of these have been of advantage to the people in
+common, but have {502} greatly increased taxation until it is felt to
+be a burden.  Were it not for the great war debts that hang heavily on
+the world, probably the increased taxation for legitimate expenses
+would not have been seriously felt.  But it seems certain that a halt
+in excessive public expenditures will be called until a social
+stock-taking ensues.  At any rate, people will demand that useless
+expenditures shall cease and that an ample return for the increased
+taxation shall be shown in a margin of profit for social betterment.  A
+balance between social enterprise and individual effort must be secured.
+
+_Restlessness Versus Happiness_.--Happiness is an active principle
+arising from the satisfaction of individual desires.  It does not
+consist in the possession of an abundance of material things.  It may
+consist in the harmony of desires with the means of satisfying them.
+Perhaps the "right to achieve" and the successful process of
+achievement are the essential factors in true happiness.  Realizing how
+wealth will furnish opportunities for achievement, and how it will
+furnish the luxuries of life as well as furnish an outlet for restless
+activity, great energy is spent in acquiring it.  Indeed, the attitude
+of mind has been centred so strongly on the possession of the dollar
+that this seems to be the end of pursuit rather than a means to higher
+states of life.  It is this wrong attitude of life that brings about so
+much restlessness and so little real happiness.  Only the utilization
+of material wealth to develop a higher spiritual life of man and
+society will insure continuous progress.
+
+The vast accumulations of material wealth in the United States and the
+wonderful provisions for material comfort are apt to obscure the vision
+of real progress.  Great as are the possible blessings of material
+progress, it is possible that eventually they may prove a menace.
+Other great civilizations have fallen because they stressed the
+importance of the material life and lost sight of the great adventure
+of the spirit.  Will the spiritual wealth rise superior, strong, and
+dominant to overcome the downward drag of material prosperity and {503}
+thus be able to support the burdens of material civilization that must
+be borne?
+
+_Summary of Progress_.--If one were to review the previous pages from
+the beginnings of human society to the present time, he would observe
+that mind is the ruling force of all human endeavor.  Its freedom of
+action, its inventive power, and its will to achieve underlie every
+material and social product of civilization.  Its evolution through
+action and reaction, from primitive instincts and emotions to the
+dominance of rational planning and reflective thinking, marks the trail
+of man's ascendancy over nature and the establishing of ideals of
+social order.  Has man individual traits, physical and mental,
+sufficiently strong to stand the strain of a highly complex social
+order?  It will depend upon the strength of his moral character, mental
+traits, and physical resistance, and whether justice among men shall
+prevail, manifested in humane and sound social action.  Future progress
+will depend upon a clearness of vision, a unity of thought, the
+standardization of the objectives of social achievement, and, moreover,
+an elevation of human conduct.  Truly, "without vision the people
+perish."
+
+
+SUBJECTS FOR FURTHER STUDY
+
+1.  What measures are being taken to conserve the natural resources?
+
+2.  What plan would you suggest for settling the labor problem so as to
+avoid strikes?
+
+3.  How shall we determine what people shall do in group activity and
+what shall be left to private initiative?
+
+4.  How may our ideals of democracy be put to effective practice?
+
+5.  To what extent does future progress of the race depend upon science?
+
+6.  Is there any limit to the amount of money that may be wisely
+expended for education?
+
+7.  Public measures for the promotion of health.
+
+8.  What is meant by the statement that "Without vision the people
+perish"?
+
+9.  Equalization of opportunity.
+
+
+
+
+{504}
+
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+
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+
+Arnold, Matthew:  Civilization in the United States.
+
+Bakewell, Chas. M.:  Source Book of Ancient Philosophy.
+
+Blackmar, F. W., and Gillin, J. L.:  Outlines of Sociology.
+
+Blummer, Hugo:  Home Life of the Ancient Greeks.
+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
+Carver, Thos. N.:  Sociology and Social Progress.
+
+Chapin, F. Stuart:  Introduction to Social Evolution.
+
+Cheney, Edward P.:  An Introduction to the Industrial and Social
+                        History of England.
+
+Church, R. W.:  The Beginnings of the Middle Ages.
+
+{505}
+
+Commons, John R.:  Industrial Democracy.
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+
+Conklin, Grant:  The Direction of Human Evolution.
+
+Cooley, Charles H.:  Social Organization.
+
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+
+Cox, G. W.:  The Crusades.
+
+Croiset, Maurice:  Hellenic Civilization.
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+
+Deniker, J.:  The Races of Men.
+
+Dewey, John:  Human Nature and Conduct.
+
+Draper, John W.:  History of the Intellectual Development of Europe.
+
+Duncan, Robert K.:  The Chemistry of Commerce.
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+
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+                History of Rome.
+
+Edman, Erwin:  Human Traits.
+
+Elliot, G. F. Scott:  Prehistoric Man and His Story.
+
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+
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+                   Mediaeval Europe.
+
+Fisher, George P.:  History of the Christian Church.
+
+Fowler, Ward:  The City State of the Greeks and Romans.
+
+Gardiner, Samuel R.:  The Puritan Revolution.
+
+Gibbon, Edward:  Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire.
+
+Goldenweiser, Alexander A.:  Early Civilization.
+
+Gordon, Childe:  The Dawn of European Civilization.
+
+Green, John Richard:  A Short History of the English People.
+
+Green, William Chase:  The Achievement of Greece.
+
+Guizot, F.:  History of Civilization.
+
+Hadley, James:  Introduction to Roman Law.
+
+Hayes, Carlton J. H.:  A Brief History of the Great War.
+                       A Political and Social History of Modern Europe.
+
+Henderson, Ernest F.:  History of Germany in the Middle Ages.
+
+Hobson, J. A.:  The Problems of the New World.
+
+Hodgkin, Thomas:  Italy and Her Invaders.
+
+Holm, Adolph:  History of Greece.
+
+Hudson, J. W.:  The College and New America.
+
+{506}
+
+Ihne, W. H.:  Early Rome.
+
+Inge, W. R.:  The Idea of Progress.
+
+Irving, Washington:  The Conquest of Granada.
+
+James, E. O.:  An Introduction to Anthropology.
+
+Kelsey, Carl:  The Physical Basis of Society.
+
+Keynes, J. M.:  The Economic Consequences of the Peace.
+
+King, L. W.:  A History of Babylon.
+              A History of Sumer and Akkad.
+
+Kirkup, Thomas:  The History of Socialism.
+
+Kitchen, G. W.:  History of France.
+
+Kroeber, A. L.:  Anthropology.
+
+Lawrence, I. J.:  The Society of Nations.
+
+Libby, Walter:  An Introduction to the History of Science.
+
+Lipton, Walter:  Drift and Mastery.
+                 Liberty and the News.
+
+Lowell, A. Lawrence:  Public Opinion and Popular Government.
+
+Lowie, Robert H.:  Culture and Ethnology.
+                   Primitive Society.
+
+Mahaffy, J. P.:  The Story of Alexander's Empire.
+
+Mason, Otis Tufton:  The Origins of Inventions.
+
+Mason, Wm. A.:  The History of the Art of Writing.
+
+May, Thos. E.:  Democracy in Europe.
+
+McCarthy, Justin:  The Epoch of Reform.
+
+McGiffert, Arthur C.:  The Rise of Modern Religious Ideas.
+
+Meyers, J. L.:  The Dawn of History.
+
+Mills, John:  Within the Atom.
+
+Monroe, Dana Carlton:  The Middle Ages.
+
+Monroe, Paul:  History of Education.
+
+Morris, Charles:  Civilization: An Historical Review of Its Elements.
+
+Morris, William O'Connor:  The French Revolution and the First Empire.
+
+Murray, Gilbert:  Ancient Greece.
+
+O'Leary, De Lacy:  Arabic Thought and Its Place in History.
+
+Osborn, Henry Fairfield:  Men of the Old Stone Age.
+
+Peet, Stephen:  The Cliff Dwellers.
+
+Plato's Republic:  Translation by Jowett.
+
+Powell, I. W.:  The Pueblo Indians.
+
+Preston and Dodge:  The Private Life of the Romans.
+
+Ragozin, Z. A.:  The Story of Chaldea.
+
+Rawlinson, George:  Ancient Monarchies.
+                    The Story of Egypt.
+
+{507}
+
+Robinson, James Harvey:  The Mind in the Making.
+
+Sayre, Francis B.:  Experiments in International Administration.
+
+Scott, J. B. (editor):  President Wilson's Foreign Policy: Messages,
+                            Addresses, and Papers.
+
+Sedgwick, W. J., and Tyler, H. W.:  A Short History of Science.
+
+Seebohm, Frederick:  The Era of the Protestant Revolt.
+
+Semple, Ellen C.:  Influences of Geographic Environment.
+
+Sloane, W. M.:  The Powers and Aims of Western Democracy.
+
+Slosson, Edwin E.:  Creative Chemistry.
+
+Smith, J. Russell:  The World and Its Food Resources.
+
+Smith, Walter R.:  Educational Sociology.
+
+Spinden, H. J.:  Ancient Civilization of Mexico.
+
+Stubbs, William:  The Early Plantagenets.
+
+Symonds, John Addington:  The Renaissance in Italy.
+
+Taylor, Edward B.:  Researches Into the Early History of Mankind.
+                    The Development of Civilization.
+
+Thwing, Charles F. and Carrie F.:  The Family.
+
+Todd, Arthur James:  Theories of Social Progress.
+
+Turner, F. J.:  The Rise of the New West.
+
+Tyler, John M.:  The New Stone Age of Northern Europe.
+
+Van Hook, La Rue:  Greek Life and Thought.
+
+Walker, Francis A.:  The Making of a Nation.
+
+Wallas, Graham:  Great Society.
+                 Principles of Western Civilization.
+
+Weber, Alfred, and R. B. Perry:  History of Philosophy.
+
+Weigall, Arthur:  The Story of the Pharaohs.
+
+White, Andrew D.:  The French Revolution and the First Empire.
+
+Whitney, Wm. Dwight:  The Life and Growth of Language.
+
+Wilder, H. H.:  Man's Prehistoric Past.
+
+Wissler, Clark:  The American Indian.
+                 Man and Culture.
+
+
+
+
+{508}
+
+INDEX
+
+
+Abelard, 354.
+
+Aegean culture, 207.
+
+Ages of culture, stone, bronze, 36.
+
+Agriculture, beginning of, 93; modern, 440.
+
+Akkadians, religion of, 155, 156.
+
+Alexander, conquests of, 246.
+
+Allia, battle of the, 387.
+
+Altruism and democracy, 449-462.
+
+America, peopling of, 185.
+
+American Indians, culture of, 200; contributions to civilization, 201.
+
+Anaxagoras, 218.
+
+Anaximander, 217.
+
+Anaximenes, 217.
+
+Ancient society, Morgan, 4, 49,
+
+Animals, domestication of, 92.
+
+Anselm, 354.
+
+Antiquity of man shown by race development, 69.
+
+Arabian empire, 305; science and art, 307.
+
+Arab-Moors in Spain, 305; cultures, 308-315; science and art, 307-310;
+discoveries, 312; language and literature, 313; architecture, 315;
+achievement, 316; decline, 317.
+
+Arab-Moors, religious zeal of, 308.
+
+Aristotle, 223.
+
+Arkwright, Richard, spinning by rollers, 436.
+
+Art, development of, 37; as a language of aesthetic ideas, 130;
+representative, 131; and architecture, 368.
+
+Aryans, coming of the, 167.
+
+Athens, Government of, 233; character of democracy, 240; decline of,
+241.
+
+Aztecs, culture of, 190.
+
+
+Babylon, 146.
+
+Bacon, Francis, 355, 460.
+
+Bacon, Roger, 459.
+
+Barbarians, 281.
+
+Beautiful, the love of, develops slowly, 135-136; a permanent social
+force, 137.
+
+Bill of Rights, 397, 413.
+
+Boccaccio, 366.
+
+Books, 128.
+
+Bow and arrow, 87.
+
+Brahe, Ticho, 463.
+
+Bryce, James, 380.
+
+Bunyan, John, 398.
+
+Burial mounds, 76.
+
+
+Cabrillo, 116.
+
+Calvin, John, and the Genevan system, 386.
+
+Canuleius, 255.
+
+Cassius, Spurius, agrarian laws, 254.
+
+Catholic Church, the, 384.
+
+Catlin, North American Indians, 134.
+
+Caves, 71.
+
+Chaldea, early civilization of, 153-156.
+
+Charlemagne, 349.
+
+Chemistry, 308.
+
+China, 166.
+
+Christian influence on Roman legislation, 273.
+
+Christian religion, social contacts of, 268.
+
+Christianity and the social life, 271; service of, 279; opposes pagan
+literature, 357; competition with Graeco-Roman schools, 357.
+
+Christians come into conflict with civil authority, 273.
+
+Church, the wealth of, 275; development of hierarchy, 270; control of
+temporal power, 277; service of, 278; retrogressive attitude, 350; in
+France, 402; widening influences of, 446; organizing centre, 453.
+
+Cities, rise of free, 330-332; modern, 440.
+
+Civilization, material evidences of, 4; fundamentals of, 10-14;
+possibilities of, 15; can be estimated, 16; modern, 456.
+
+Cleisthenes, reforms of, 237.
+
+Cliff Dwellers, 194.
+
+Clothing, manufacture of, 97.
+
+Cnossos, 207.
+
+Colonization, Greek, 246; Phoenician, 161.
+
+Commerce and communication, 486.
+
+Commerce, hastens progress, 362.
+
+Common schools, 477.
+
+Constitutional liberty in England, 393.
+
+Copernicus, 461.
+
+Crete, island of, 207.
+
+Cro-Magnon, earliest ancestral type, 28; cultures of, 72.
+
+Crompton, Samuel, spinning "mule," 436.
+
+Crusades, causes of, 319, 320, 321; results of, 322-323; effect on
+monarchy, 324; intellectual development, 325; impulse to commerce, 326;
+social effect, 327.
+
+Cultures, evidence of primitive, 28; mental development and, 32; early
+European, 32.
+
+Curie, Madame, 469.
+
+Custom, 112, 288, 295.
+
+
+Dance, the, as dramatic expression, 133; economic, religious, and
+social functions of, 134.
+
+Darius I, founded Persian Empire, 168.
+
+Darwin, Charles, 467.
+
+Democracy, 342, 392, 449.
+
+Democracy in America, 418; characteristics of, 419-421; modern
+political reforms of, 421-425.
+
+Descartes, Rene, 461.
+
+Diogenes, 218.
+
+Discovery and invention, 362.
+
+Duruy, Victor, 363.
+
+
+Economic life, 170-180, 290, 429.
+
+Economic outlook, 495.
+
+Education and democracy, 477-482.
+
+Education, universal, 475, 478; in the United States, 476.
+
+Educational progress, 482.
+
+Egypt, 145, 146; centre of civilization, 157-160; compared with
+Babylon, 162; pyramids, 160; religion, 172; economic life, 178;
+science, 182.
+
+England, beginnings of constitutional liberty in, 345.
+
+Environment, physical, determines the character of civilization, 141;
+quality of soil, 144; climate and progress, 146; social order, 149.
+
+Equalization of opportunities, 499.
+
+Euphrates valley, seat of early civilization, 152.
+
+Evidences of man's antiquity, 69; localities of, 71-78; knowledge of,
+develops reflective thinking, 77.
+
+Evolution, 467-469.
+
+
+Family, the early, 109-112; Greek and Roman, 212-213; German, 286.
+
+Feudalism, nature of, 294-299; sources of, 294, based on land tenure,
+296; social classification under, 298; conditions of society under,
+300; individual development under, 302; influence on world progress,
+303.
+
+Fire and its economy, 88.
+
+Florence, 336.
+
+Food supply, determines progress, 83-85; increased by discovery and
+invention, 86.
+
+France, free cities of, 330; rise of popular assemblies, 338; rural
+communes, 338; place in modern civilization, 399; philosophers of, 403;
+return to monarchy, 417; character of constitutional monarchy, 418.
+
+France, in modern civilization, 399; philosophers of, 403.
+
+Franklin, Benjamin, 465.
+
+Freedom of the press, 484.
+
+Freeman, E. A., 233.
+
+French republic, triumph of, 417.
+
+French Revolution, 405-407; results of, 407.
+
+
+Galileo, 461.
+
+Gabon, Francis, 469.
+
+Geography, 312.
+
+Germans, social life of, 283; classes of society, 285; home life, 286;
+political organization, 287; social customs, 288; contribution to law,
+291; judicial system, 292.
+
+Gilbert, William, 461.
+
+Glacial epoch, 62.
+
+Greece, 148, 205, 210.
+
+Greece and Rome compared, 250.
+
+Greek equality and liberty, 229.
+
+Greek federation, 245.
+
+Greek government, an expanded family, 229; diversity of, 231; admits
+free discussion, 231; local self-government, 232; independent community
+life, 231; group selfishness, 232; city state, 239.
+
+Greek influence on Rome, 261.
+
+Greek life, early, 205; influence of, 213.
+
+Greek philosophy, observation and inquiry, 215; Ionian philosophy, 216;
+weakness of, 219; Eleatic philosophy, 220; Sophists, 221; Epicureans,
+224; influence of, 225.
+
+Greek social life, 241, 243.
+
+Greeks, origin of, 209; early social life of, 208; character of
+primitive, 209; family life of, 212; religion of, 212.
+
+Guizot, 399.
+
+
+Hargreaves, James, invents the spinning jenny, 436.
+
+Harvey, William, 461.
+
+Hebrew influence, 164.
+
+Henry VIII and the papacy, 387; defender of the faith, 396.
+
+Heraclitus, 218.
+
+Hierarchy, development of, 276.
+
+History, 312.
+
+Holy Roman Empire, 414.
+
+Human chronology, 59.
+
+Humanism, 349, 364, 366; relation of language and literature to, 367;
+effect on social manners, 371; relation to science and philosophy, 372;
+advances the study of the classics, 373; general influence on life, 373.
+
+Huss, John, 378, 379.
+
+Huxley, Thomas H., 471.
+
+
+Ice ages, the, 62, 64.
+
+Incas, culture of, 187.
+
+India, 148, 166.
+
+Individual culture and social order, 150.
+
+Industrial development, 429-433, 439; revolution, 437.
+
+Industries, radiate from land as a centre, 429; early mediaeval, 430;
+public, 497; corporate, 497.
+
+Industry and civilization, 441.
+
+International law, reorganization of, 492.
+
+Invention, 86, 362, 436.
+
+Iroquois, social organization of, 198.
+
+Italian art and architecture, 368.
+
+Italian cities, 332; popular government of, 333.
+
+
+Jesuits, the, 385.
+
+Justinian Code, 260.
+
+
+Kepler, 463.
+
+Knowledge, diffusion of, 480.
+
+Koch, 470.
+
+Koran, the, 304, 310.
+
+
+Labor, social economics of, 496.
+
+Lake dwellings, 78.
+
+Lamarck, J. P., 467.
+
+Land, use of, determines social life, 145.
+
+Language, origin of, 121; a social function, 123; development of,
+126-129; an instrument of culture, 129.
+
+Latin language and literature, 261.
+
+League for permanent peace, 489-492
+
+Licinian laws, 256.
+
+Lister, 469, 470.
+
+Locke, John, 398.
+
+Lombard League, 337.
+
+Louis XIV, the divine right of kings, 400.
+
+Luther, Martin, and the German Reformation, 382-385.
+
+Lycurgus, reforms of, 244.
+
+Lysander, 241.
+
+
+Magdalenian cultures, 72.
+
+Man, origin of, 57; primitive home of, 66, antiquity of, 73-70; and
+nature, 141; not a slave to environment, 149.
+
+Manorial system, 430.
+
+Manuscripts, discovery of, 364.
+
+Marxian socialism in Russia, 427.
+
+Maya race, 192.
+
+Medicine, 308.
+
+Medontidae, 234.
+
+Men of genius, 33.
+
+Mesopotamia, 154.
+
+Metals, discovery and use of, 100.
+
+Metaphysics, 310.
+
+Mexico, 146.
+
+Michael Angelo, 370.
+
+Milton, John, 398.
+
+Minoan civilization, 207.
+
+Monarchy, a stage of progress in Europe, 344.
+
+Monarchy versus democracy, 392.
+
+Mongolian race, 167.
+
+Montesquieu, 404.
+
+Morgan, Lewis H., beginning of civilization, 4; classification of
+social development, 49.
+
+Morton, William, T. G., 470.
+
+Mound builders, 197.
+
+Music, as language, 131; as a socializing factor, 133, 137.
+
+Mutual aid, 120; of nations, 491.
+
+
+Napier, John, 463.
+
+Napoleon Bonaparte, 417.
+
+Nationality and race, 444.
+
+Nature, aspects of, determine types of social life, 147.
+
+Neanderthal man, 29, 65.
+
+Newton, Sir Isaac, 463.
+
+Nile, valley, seat of early civilization, 152.
+
+Nobility, the French, 400.
+
+
+Occam, William of, 379.
+
+Oriental civilization, character of, 170; war for conquest and plunder,
+171; religious belief, 171-174; social condition, 175; social
+organization, 176-178; economic life, 178-180; writing, 181; science,
+182; contribution to world progress, 184.
+
+
+Parliament, rebukes King James I, 396; declaration of, 397.
+
+Pasteur, Louis, 469, 470.
+
+Peloponnesian War, 241.
+
+People, the condition of, in France, 401.
+
+Pericles, age of, 247.
+
+Petrarch, 365, 366.
+
+Philosophy, Ionian, 216; Eleatic, 220; sophist, 221; stoic, 225;
+sceptic, 225; influence of Greek on civilization, 226, 228.
+
+Phoenicians, the, become great navigators, 161; colonization by, 161.
+
+Physical needs, efforts to satisfy, 82-85.
+
+Picture writing, 126.
+
+Pithecanthropus erectus, 29.
+
+Plato, 222.
+
+Political ideas, spread of, 486-488.
+
+Political liberty in XVIII century. [Transcriber's note: no page number
+in source]
+
+Polygenesis, monogenesis, 66.
+
+Popular government, expense of, 328, 414.
+
+Power manufacture, 437.
+
+Pre-historic human types, 63, 65, 66.
+
+Pre-historic man, types of, 28,
+
+Pre-historic time, 60-61.
+
+Primitive man, social life of, 31, 32; brain capacity of, 29.
+
+Progress and individual development, 23; and race development, 22;
+influence of heredity on, 24; influence of environment on, 25; race
+interactions and, 26; early cultural evidence of, 32; mutations in, 33;
+data of, 34; increased by the implements used, 35; revival of,
+throughout Europe, 348; and revival of learning, 372-373.
+
+Progress, evidence of, 456.
+
+Public opinion, 485.
+
+Pueblo Indians, culture of, 194; social life, 195; secret societies,
+196.
+
+Pythagoras, 219.
+
+
+Race and language, 124.
+
+Races, cause of decline, 201, 202.
+
+Racial characters, 70.
+
+Recounting human progress, methods of 37-52; economic development,
+39-40.
+
+Reform measures in England, 415.
+
+Reformation, the, character of, 375; events leading to, 376-380; causes
+of, 380-382; far-reaching results of, 388-391.
+
+Religion and social order, 113-116.
+
+Religious toleration, growth of, 447.
+
+Renaissance, the, 349, 370.
+
+Republicanism, spread of, 425.
+
+Research, foundations of, 472; educational process of, 479.
+
+Revival of learning, 364.
+
+River and glacial drift, 74.
+
+Roebuck, John, the blast furnace, 436.
+
+Roman civil organization, 258.
+
+Roman empire, and its decline, 264.
+
+Roman government, 258; law, 259; imperialism, 267.
+
+Roman social life, 264.
+
+Rome a dominant city, 257; development of government, 258.
+
+Rome, political organization, 252; struggle for liberty, 243; social
+conditions, 255; invasion of the Gauls, 255; Agrarian laws, 254, 256;
+plebeians and patricians, 256; optimates, 256; influence on world
+civilization, 266.
+
+Rousseau, 404.
+
+
+Savonarola, 380.
+
+Scholastic philosophy, 353.
+
+Schools, cathedral and monastic, 356; Graeco-Roman, 357.
+
+Science, in Egypt, 182; in Spain, 306; nature of, 307, 458; and
+democracy, 464, 465.
+
+Scientific classification, 460; men, 465; progress, 470; investigation,
+trend of, 473.
+
+Scientific methods, 459.
+
+Scientific research, 463.
+
+Semites, 160.
+
+Shakespeare, 398.
+
+Shell mounds, 73.
+
+Shelters, primitive, 99.
+
+Social conditions at the beginning of the Christian era, 269.
+
+Social contacts of the Christian religion, 268.
+
+Social development, 13, 23, 49, 104, 114, 347, 443.
+
+Social evolution, depends on variation, 347; character of, 443.
+
+Social forces, balance of, 501.
+
+Social groups, interrelation of, 454.
+
+Social life, 31, 133, 145, 147, 171, 178-180, 208, 241, 243, 247, 255,
+258, 283, 285, 289, 298, 300, 327, 371.
+
+Social life of primitive man, 31, 32; development of social order,
+41-45; intellectual character of, 47; religious and moral condition of,
+46, 47; character of, 108; moral status of, 117.
+
+Social opportunities, 455.
+
+Social order, 8, 41, 122, 149, 150, 176-178, 193, 196, 444, 445.
+
+Social organization, 145, 176-178, 210, 250-252, 432, 433, 444.
+
+Social unrest, 502.
+
+Society, 5, 175, 205, 255, 256, 268-273, 285, 301, 316, 443, 445, 446,
+450, 451, 452.
+
+Society, complexity of modern, 452.
+
+Socrates, 221.
+
+Solon, constitution of, 235.
+
+Spain, attempts at popular government in, 341.
+
+Sparta, domination of, 241; character of Spartan state, 242.
+
+Spencer, Herbert, 471.
+
+Spiritual progress and material comfort, 500.
+
+State education, 482.
+
+States-general, 341.
+
+Struggle for existence develops the individual and the race, 106.
+
+Summary of progress, 503.
+
+Switzerland, democracy in cantons, 342.
+
+Symonds, J. A., 366.
+
+
+Teutonic liberty, 281; influence of, 282, 291, 292; laws, 291.
+
+Theodosian Code, 260.
+
+Toltecs, 192.
+
+Towns, in the Middle Ages, 329.
+
+Trade,434.
+
+Trade and its social Influence, 104.
+
+Transportation, 102.
+
+Tylor, E. B., Primitive Culture, 114.
+
+Tyndall, John, 471.
+
+
+Unity of the human race, 66.
+
+Universities, mediaeval, 475; English, 476; German, 476; American, 476;
+endowed, 484.
+
+Universities, rise of, 360; nature of, 361; failure in scientific
+methods, 361.
+
+
+Venice, 335.
+
+Village community, 44.
+
+Village sites, 77.
+
+Voltaire, 404.
+
+
+Waldenses, 378.
+
+Warfare and social progress, 119.
+
+Watt, James, power manufacture, 436.
+
+Weissman, A., 467.
+
+Western civilisation, important factors in its foundation, 268.
+
+Whitney, Ely, the cotton gin, 436.
+
+Wissler, Clark, culture areas, 26; trade, 104.
+
+World state, 493.
+
+World war, breaks the barriers of thought, 488.
+
+World War, iconoclastic effects of, 427.
+
+Writing, 181.
+
+Wyclif, John, and the English reformation, 378, 386.
+
+
+Zeno, 220.
+
+Zenophanes, 220.
+
+Zwingli and the reformation in Switzerland, 385.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+In the Table of Contents, the "PART III" division precedes Chapter VII,
+but in the body of the book it precedes Chapter VIII.
+
+Page numbers in this book are enclosed in curly braces.  For its Index,
+a page number has been placed only at the start of that section.  In
+the HTML version of this book, page numbers are placed in the left
+margin.
+
+Footnote numbers are enclosed in square brackets.  Each chapter's
+footnotes have been renumbered sequentially and moved to the end of
+that chapter.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's History of Human Society, by Frank W. Blackmar
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