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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Religious Sentiment, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Religious Sentiment
+       Its Source and Aim: A Contribution to the Science and
+       Philosophy of Religion
+
+Author: Daniel G. Brinton
+
+Release Date: September 22, 2009 [EBook #30061]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
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+
+Transcriber’s Note
+
+A number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of
+this book. They have been marked with a [TN-#], which refers to a
+description in the complete list found at the end of the text.
+
+The following less common character is used. If it doesn't display
+properly, please try changing your font.
+
+  √  square root sign
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+
+
+_BY THE SAME AUTHOR._
+
+  THE MYTHS OF THE NEW WORLD: A Treatise on the Symbolism and Mythology
+    of the Red Race of America. _Second edition, revised._ Large 12mo,
+    $2.50.
+
+  THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT: Its Source and Aim. A Contribution to the
+    Science and Philosophy of Religion. Large 12mo, $2.50.
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+
+  RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT
+
+  ITS SOURCE AND AIM
+
+  _A CONTRIBUTION TO THE SCIENCE AND
+  PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION._
+
+  BY
+
+  DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D.
+
+  _Member of the American Philosophical Society, the American Philological
+  Society, etc.; author of “The Myths of the New World,” etc._
+
+  [Colophon]
+
+  NEW YORK
+  HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
+  1876.
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT,
+  BY HENRY HOLT
+  1876.
+
+  JOHN F. TROW & SON, PRINTERS,
+  205-213 EAST 12TH ST., NEW YORK.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Mythology, since it began to receive a scientific handling at all, has
+been treated as a subordinate branch of history or of ethnology. The
+“science of religion,” as we know it in the works of Burnouf, Müller,
+and others, is a comparison of systems of worship in their historic
+development. The deeper inquiry as to what in the mind of man gave birth
+to religion in any of its forms, what spirit breathed and is ever
+breathing life into these dry bones, this, the final and highest
+question of all, has had but passing or prejudiced attention. To its
+investigation this book is devoted.
+
+The analysis of the religious sentiment I offer is an inductive one,
+whose outlines were furnished by a preliminary study of the religions of
+the native race of America, a field selected as most favorable by reason
+of the simplicity of many of its cults, and the absence of theories
+respecting them. This study was embodied in “The Myths of the New World;
+a Treatise on the Symbolism and Mythology of the Red Race of America”
+(second edition, N. Y. 1876).
+
+The results thus obtained I have in the present work expanded by
+including in the survey the historic religions of the Old World, and
+submitted the whole for solution to the Laws of Mind, regarded as
+physiological elements of growth, and to the Laws of Thought, these, as
+formal only, being held as nowise a development of those. This latter
+position, which is not conceded by the reigning school of psychology, I
+have taken pains to explain and defend as far as consistent with the
+plan of this treatise; but I am well aware that to say all that can be
+said in proof of it, would take much more space than here allowed.
+
+The main questions I have had before me in writing this volume have an
+interest beyond those which mere science propounds. What led men to
+imagine gods at all? What still prompts enlightened nations to worship?
+Is prayer of any avail, or of none? Is faith the last ground of
+adoration, or is reason? Is religion a transient phase of development,
+or is it the chief end of man? What is its warrant of continuance? If it
+overlive this day of crumbling theologies, whence will come its
+reprieve?
+
+To such inquiries as these, answers satisfactory to thinking men of this
+time can, I believe, be given only by an inductive study of religions,
+supported by a sound psychology, and conducted in a spirit which
+acknowledges as possibly rightful, the reverence which every system
+claims. Those I propose, inadequate though they may be, can at any rate
+pretend to be the result of honest labor.
+
+PHILADELPHIA, _January, 1876_.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                          PAGE.
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  THE BEARING OF THE LAWS OF MIND ON RELIGION                3
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT         47
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  THE RATIONAL POSTULATES OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT        87
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  THE PRAYER AND ITS ANSWER                                117
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  THE MYTH AND THE MYTHICAL CYCLES                         155
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+  THE CULT, ITS SYMBOLS AND RITES                          199
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+  THE MOMENTA OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT                         231
+
+
+
+
+THE BEARING OF THE LAWS OF MIND ON RELIGION
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     The distinction between the Science and the Philosophy of religion.
+     It is assumed (1) that religions are products of thought, (2) that
+     they have a unity of kind and purpose. They can be studied by the
+     methods of natural science applied to Mind.
+
+     Mind is co-extensive with organism. Sensation and Emotion are
+     prominent marks of it. These are either pleasurable or painful; the
+     latter _diminish_ vital motions, the former _increase_ them. This
+     is a product of natural selection. A mis-reading of these facts is
+     the fallacy of Buddhism and other pessimistic systems. Pleasure
+     comes from continuous action. This is illustrated by the esthetic
+     emotions, volition and consciousness.
+
+     The climax of mind is Intellect. Physical changes accompany thought
+     but cannot measure it. Relations of thought and feeling. _Truth_ is
+     its only measure. Truth, like pleasure, is desired for its
+     preservative powers. It is reached through the laws of thought.
+
+     These laws are: (1) the natural order of the association of ideas,
+     (2) the methods of applied logic, (3) the forms of correct
+     reasoning. The last allow of mathematical expression. They are
+     three in number, called those of Determination, Limitation and
+     Excluded Middle.
+
+     The last is the key-stone of religious philosophy. Its diverse
+     interpretations. Its mathematical expres ion[TN-1] shows that it
+     does not relate to contradictories. But certain concrete analytic
+     propositions, relating to contraries, do have this form. The
+     contrary as distinguished from the privative. The Conditioned and
+     Unconditioned, the Knowable and Unknowable are not true
+     contradictions. The synthesis of contraries is theoretic only.
+
+     Errors as to the limits of possible explanation corrected by these
+     distinctions. The formal law is the last and complete explanation.
+     The relations of thought, belief and being.
+
+
+
+
+THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE BEARING OF THE LAWS OF MIND ON RELIGION.
+
+
+The Science of Religion is one of the branches of general historical
+science. It embraces, as the domain of its investigation, all recorded
+facts relating to the displays of the Religious Sentiment. Its limits
+are defined by those facts, and the legitimate inferences from them. Its
+aim is to ascertain the constitutive laws of the origin and spread of
+religions, and to depict the influence they have exerted on the general
+life of mankind.
+
+The question whether a given religion is true or false cannot present
+itself in this form as a proper subject of scientific inquiry. The most
+that can be asked is, whether some one system is best suited to a
+specified condition of the individual or the community.
+
+The higher inquiry is the object of the Philosophy of Religion. This
+branch of study aims to pass beyond recorded facts and local adjustments
+in order to weigh the theoretical claims of religions, and measure their
+greater or less conformity with abstract truth. The formal or regulative
+laws of religious thought occupy it.
+
+Theology, dogmatic or polemic, is an explanatory defence of some
+particular faith. Together with mythology and symbolism, it furnishes
+the material from which the Science and Philosophy of Religion seek to
+educe the laws and frame the generalizations which will explain the
+source and aim of religion in general.
+
+The common source of all devotional displays is the Religious Sentiment,
+a complex feeling, a thorough understanding of which is an essential
+preliminary to the study of religious systems.
+
+Such a study proceeds on the assumption that all religions are products
+of thought, commenced and continued in accordance with the laws of the
+human mind, and, therefore, comprehensible to the extent to which these
+laws are known. No one disputes this, except in reference to his own
+religion. This, he is apt to assert, had something “supernatural” about
+its origin. If this word be correctly used, it may stand without cavil.
+The “natural” is that of which we know in whole or in part the laws; the
+“supernatural” means that of which we do not at present know in any
+degree the laws. The domain of the supernatural diminishes in the ratio
+of the increase of knowledge; and the inference that it also is
+absolutely under the control of law, is not only allowable but
+obligatory.
+
+A second assumption must be that there is a unity of kind and purpose in
+all religions. Without this, no common law can exist for them. Such a
+law must hold good in all ages, in every condition of society, and in
+each instance. Hence those who explain religious systems as forms of
+government, or as systems of ethics, or as misconceived history, or as
+theories of natural philosophy, must be prepared to make their view good
+when it is universally applied, or else renounce the possibility of a
+Science of Religion; while those who would except their own system from
+what they grant is the law of all others, violate the principles of
+investigation and thereby the canons of truth.
+
+The methods of science are everywhere alike. Has the naturalist to
+explain an organism, he begins with its elements or proximate principles
+as obtained by analysis; he thence passes to the tissues and fluids
+which compose its members; these he considers first in a state of
+repose, their structure and their connections; then he examines their
+functions, the laws of their growth and action; and finally he has
+recourse to the doctrine of relations, _la théorie des milieux_, to
+define the conditions of its existence. Were such a method applied to a
+religion, it would lead us first to study its psychological elements,
+then the various expressions in word and act to which these give
+occasion, next the record of its growth and decay, and finally from
+these to gather the circumstantials of human life and culture which led
+to its historic existence.
+
+Some have urged that such a method should not be summoned to questions
+in mental philosophy. To do so, say they, is to confound things
+distinct, requiring distinct plans of study. Such a criticism might have
+had weight in the days when the mind was supposed to inhabit the body as
+a tenant a house, and have no relation to it other than that of a casual
+occupant. But that opinion is antiquated. More than three-fourths of a
+century ago the far-seeing thinker, Wilhelm von Humboldt, laid down the
+maxim that the phenomena of mind and matter obey laws identical in
+kind;[6-1] and a recent historian of science sums up the result of the
+latest research in these words:
+
+“The old dualism of mind and body, which for centuries struggled in vain
+for reconciliation, finds it now, not indeed in the unity of substance,
+but in the unity of laws.”[6-2]
+
+It is, therefore, as a question in mental philosophy to be treated by
+the methods of natural science, that I shall approach the discussion of
+the religious sentiment. As it is a part, or at least a manifestation of
+mind, I must preface its more particular consideration with some words
+on the mind in general, words which I shall make as few and as clear as
+possible.
+
+At the beginning of this century, the naturalist Oken hazarded the
+assertion: “The human mind is a memberment of infusorial
+sensation,”[7-1] a phrase which has been the guiding principle of
+scientific psychology ever since. That in the course of this memberment
+or growth wholly new faculties are acquired, is conceded. As the union
+of two inorganic substances may yield a third different in every respect
+from either; or, as in the transition of inorganic to organic matter,
+the power of reproduction is attained; so, positively new powers may
+attend the development of mind. From sensations it progresses to
+emotions, from emotions to reason. The one is the psychical climax of
+the other. “We have still to do with the one mind,whose[TN-2] action
+developes itself with perception, through discrimination, till it
+arrives at notions, wherein its most general scheme, ‘truth and error,’
+serves as the principle.”[8-1]
+
+Extravagant as Oken’s expression seemed to many when it was published,
+it now falls short of the legitimate demands of science, and I may add,
+of religion. _Mind is co-extensive with organism_; in the language of
+logic, one “connotes” the other; this statement, and nothing short of
+it, satisfies the conditions of the problem. Wherever we see Form
+preserved amid the change of substance, _there_ is mind; it alone can
+work that miracle; only it gives Life. Matter suffers no increase;
+therefore the new is but a redistribution of the old; it is new in
+_form_ only; and the maintenance of form under changes of substance is
+the one distinguishing mark of organism. To it is added the yet more
+wonderful power of transmitting form by reproduction. Wherever these
+are, are also the rudiments of mind. The distinction between the animal
+and the vegetable worlds, between the reasoning and unreasoning animals,
+is one of degree only. Whether, in a somewhat different sense, we should
+not go yet further, and say that mind is co-extensive with motion, and
+hence with phenomena, is a speculative inquiry which may have to be
+answered in the affirmative, but it does not concern us here.
+
+The first and most general mark of Mind is sensation or common feeling.
+In technical language a sensation is defined to be the result of an
+impression on an organism, producing some molecular change in its nerve
+or life centres. It is the consequence of a contact with another
+existence. Measured by its effects upon the individual the common law of
+sensation is: Every impression, however slight, either adds to or takes
+from the sum of the life-force of the system; in the former case it
+produces a pleasurable, in the latter a painful sensation. The
+exceptions to this rule, though many, are such in appearance only.[9-1]
+
+In the human race the impression can often be made quite as forcibly by
+a thought as by an act. “I am confident,” says John Hunter, the
+anatomist, “that I can fix my attention to any part, until I have a
+sensation in that part.” This is what is called the influence of the
+mind upon the body. Its extent is much greater than used to be imagined,
+and it has been a fertile source of religious delusions. Such sensations
+are called subjective; those produced by external force, objective.
+
+The immediate consequent of a sensation is _reflex action_, the object
+of which is either to avoid pain or increase pleasure, in other words,
+either to preserve or augment the individual life.
+
+The molecular changes incident to a sensation leave permanent traces,
+which are the physical bases of memory. One or several such remembered
+sensations, evoked by a present sensation, combine with it to form an
+Emotion. Characteristic of their origin is it that the emotions fall
+naturally into a dual classification, in which the one involves
+pleasurable or elevating, the other painful or depressing conditions.
+Thus we have the pairs joy and grief, hope and fear, love and hate, etc.
+
+The question of pleasure and pain is thus seen to be the primary one of
+mental science. We must look to it to explain the meaning of sensation
+as a common quality of organism. What is the significance of pleasure
+and pain?
+
+The question involves that of Life. Not to stray into foreign topics, it
+may broadly be said that as all change resolves itself into motion,
+and, as Helmholtz remarks, all science merges itself into mechanics, we
+should commence by asking what vital motions these sensations stand for
+or correspond to.
+
+Every organism, and each of its parts, is the resultant of innumerable
+motions, a composition of forces. As such, each obeys the first law of
+motion, to wit, indefinite continuance of action until interfered with.
+This is a modification of Newton’s “law of continuance,” which, with the
+other primary laws of motion, must be taken as the foundation of biology
+as well as of astronomy.[11-1]
+
+The diminution or dispersion of organic motion is expressed in
+physiological terms as _waste_; we are admonished of waste by _pain_;
+and thus admonished we supply the waste or avoid the injury as far as we
+can. But this connection of pain with waste is not a necessary one, nor
+is it the work of a _Providentia particularis_, as the schoolmen said.
+It is a simple result of natural selection. Many organisms have been
+born, no doubt, in which waste did not cause pain; caused, perhaps,
+pleasure. Consequently, they indulged their preferences and soon
+perished. Only those lived to propagate their kind in whom a different
+sensation was associated with waste, and they transmitted this
+sensitiveness increased by ancestral impression to their offspring. The
+curses of the human race to-day are alcohol, opium and tobacco, and they
+are so because they cause waste, but do not immediately produce painful
+but rather pleasurable feelings.
+
+Pain, as the sensation of waste, is the precursor of death, of the part
+or system. By parity of evolution, pleasure came to be the sensation of
+continuance, of uninterrupted action, of increasing vigor and life.
+Every action, however, is accompanied by waste, and hence every pleasure
+developes pain. But it is all important to note that the latter is the
+mental correlative not of the action but of its cessation, not of the
+life of the part but of its ceasing to live. Pain, it is true, in
+certain limits excites to action; but it is by awakening the
+self-preservative tendencies, which are the real actors. This
+physiological distinction, capable of illustration from sensitive
+vegetable as well as the lowest animal organisms, has had an intimate
+connection with religious theories. The problems of suffering and death
+are precisely the ones which all religions set forth to solve in theory
+and in practice. Their creeds and myths are based on what they make of
+pain. The theory of Buddhism, which now has more followers than any
+other faith, is founded on four axioms, which are called “the four
+excellent truths.” The first and fundamental one is: “Pain is
+inseparable from existence.” This is the principle of all pessimism,
+ancient and modern. Schopenhauer, an out-and-out pessimist, lays down
+the allied maxim, “All pleasure is negative, that is, it consists in
+getting rid of a want or pain,”[13-1] a principle expressed before his
+time in the saying “the highest pleasure is the relief from pain.”
+
+Consistently with this, Buddhism holds out as the ultimate of hope the
+state of Nirvana, in which existence is not, where the soul is “blown
+out” like the flame of a candle.
+
+But physiology demolishes the corner-stone of this edifice when it shows
+that pain, so far from being inseparable from existence, has merely
+become, through transmitted experience, nearly inseparable from the
+progressive cessation of existence. While action and reaction are equal
+in inorganic nature, the principle of life modifies the operation of
+this universal law of force by bringing in _nutrition_, which, were it
+complete, would antagonize reaction. In such a case, pleasure would be
+continuous, pain null; action constant, reaction hypothetical. As,
+however, nutrition in fact never wholly and at once replaces the
+elements altered by vital action, both physicians and metaphysicians
+have observed that pleasure is the fore-runner of pain, and has the
+latter as its certain sequel.[14-1]
+
+Physiologically and practically, the definition of pleasure is, _maximum
+action with minimum waste_.
+
+This latter generalization is the explanation of the esthetic emotions.
+The modern theory of art rests not on a psychological but a
+physiological, and this in turn on a physical basis. Helmholtz’s theory
+of musical harmony depends on the experimental fact that a continued
+impression gives a pleasant, a discontinuous an unpleasant sensation.
+The mechanics of muscular structure prove that what are called graceful
+motions are those which are the mechanical resultant of the force of
+the muscle,--those which it can perform at least waste. The pleasure we
+take in curves, especially “the line of beauty,” is because our eyes can
+follow them with a minimum action of its muscles of attachment. The
+popular figure called the Grecian figure or the walls of Troy, is
+pleasant because each straight line is shorter, and at right angles to
+the preceding one, thus giving the greatest possible change of action to
+the muscles of the eye.
+
+Such a mechanical view of physiology presents other suggestions. The
+laws of vibratory motion lead to the inference that action in accordance
+with those laws gives maximum intensity and minimum waste. Hence the
+pleasure the mind takes in harmonies of sound, of color and of odors.
+
+The correct physiological conception of the most perfect physical life
+is that which will continue the longest in use, not that which can
+display the greatest muscular force. The ideal is one of extension, not
+of intension.
+
+Religious art indicates the gradual recognition of these principles.
+True to their ideal of inaction, the Oriental nations represent their
+gods as mighty in stature, with prominent muscles, but sitting or
+reclining, often with closed eyes or folded hands, wrapped in robes, and
+lost in meditation. The Greeks, on the other hand, portrayed their
+deities of ordinary stature, naked, awake and erect, but the limbs
+smooth and round, the muscular lines and the veins hardly visible, so
+that in every attitude an indefinite sense of repose pervades the whole
+figure. Movement without effort, action without waste, is the
+immortality these incomparable works set forth. They are meant to teach
+that the ideal life is one, not of painless ease, but of joyous action.
+
+The law of continuity to which I have alluded is not confined to simple
+motions. It is a general mathematical law, that the longer anything
+lasts the longer it is likely to last. If a die turns ace a dozen times
+handrunning, the chances are large that it will turn ace again. The
+Theory of Probabilities is founded upon this, and the value of
+statistics is based on an allied principle. Every condition opposes
+change through inertia. By this law, as the motion caused by a
+pleasurable sensation excites by the physical laws of associated motions
+the reminiscences of former pleasures and pains, a tendency to
+permanence is acquired, which gives the physical basis for Volition.
+Experience and memory are, therefore, necessary to volition, and
+practically self restraint is secured by calling numerous past
+sensations to mind, deterrent ones, “the pains which are indirect
+pleasures,” or else pleasurable ones. The Will is an exhibition under
+complex relations of the tendency to continuance which is expressed in
+the first law of motion. Its normal action is the maintenance of the
+individual life, the prolongation of the pleasurable sensations, the
+support of the forces which combat death.
+
+Whatever the action, whether conscious or reflex, its real though often
+indirect and unaccomplished object is the preservation or the
+augmentation of the individual life. Such is the dictum of natural
+science, and it coincides singularly with the famous maxim of Spinoza:
+_Unaquaeque res, quantum in se est, in suo esse perseverare conatur._
+
+The consciousness which accompanies volitional action is derived from
+the common feeling which an organism has, as the result of all its parts
+deriving their nutrition from the same centre. Rising into the sphere of
+emotions, this at first muscular sensation becomes “self-feeling.” The
+Individual is another name for the boundaries of reflex action.
+
+Through memory and consciousness we reach that function of the mind
+called the intellect or reason, the product of which is _thought_. Its
+physical accompaniments are chemical action, and an increase of
+temperature in the brain. But the sum of the physical forces thus
+evolved is not the measure of the results of intellectual action. These
+differ from other forms of force in being incommensurate with extension.
+They cannot be appraised in units of quantity, but in quality only. The
+chemico-vital forces by which a thought rises into consciousness bear
+not the slightest relation to the value of the thought itself. It is
+here as in those ancient myths where an earthly maiden brings forth a
+god. The power of the thought is dependent on another test than physical
+force, to wit, its _truth_. This is measured by its conformity to the
+laws of right reasoning, laws clearly ascertained, which are the common
+basis of all science, and to which it is the special province of the
+science of logic to give formal expression.
+
+Physical force itself, in whatever form it appears, is only known to us
+as feeling or as thought; these alone we know to be real; all else is at
+least less real.[18-1] Not only is this true of the external world, but
+also of that assumed something, the reason, the soul, the ego, or the
+intellect. For the sake of convenience these words may be used; but it
+is well to know that this introduction of something that thinks, back
+of thought itself, is a mere figure of speech. We say, “_I_ think,” as
+if the “I” was something else than the thinking. At most, it is but the
+relation of the thoughts. Pushed further, it becomes the limitation of
+thought by sensation, the higher by the lower. The Cartesian maxim,
+_cogito ergo sum_, has perpetuated this error, and the modern philosophy
+of the _ego_ and _non-ego_ has prevented its detection. A false reading
+of self-consciousness led to this assumption of “a thinking mind.” Our
+personality is but the perception of the solidarity of our thoughts and
+feelings; it is itself a thought.
+
+These three manifestations of mind--sensations, emotions and
+thoughts--are mutually exclusive in their tendencies. The patient
+forgets the fear of the result in the pain of the operation; in intense
+thought the pulse falls, the senses do not respond, emotions and action
+are absent. We may say that ideally the unimpeded exercise of the
+intellect forbids either sensation or emotion.
+
+Contrasting sensation and emotion, on the one side, with intellect
+on the other, feeling with thought, they are seen to be polar or
+antithetical manifestations of mind. Each requires the other for its
+existence, yet in such wise that the one is developed at the expense
+of the other. The one waxes as the other wanes. This is seen to
+advantage when their most similar elements are compared. Thus
+consciousness in sensation is keenest when impressions are strongest;
+but this consciousness is a bar to intellectual self-consciousness,
+as was pointed out by Professor Ferrier in his general Law of
+consciousness.[20-1] When emotion and sensation are at their minimum,
+one is most conscious of the solidarity of one’s thoughts; and just in
+proportion to the vividness of self-consciousness is thought lucid and
+strong. In an ideal intelligence, self-consciousness would be
+infinite, sensation infinitesimal.
+
+Yet there is a parallelism between feeling and thought, as well as a
+contrast. As pain and pleasure indicate opposite tendencies in the
+forces which guide sensation and emotion, so do the true and the untrue
+direct thought, and bear the same relation to it. For as pain is the
+warning of death, so the untrue is the detrimental, the destructive. The
+man who reasons falsely, will act unwisely and run into danger thereby.
+To know the truth is to be ready for the worst. Who reasons correctly
+will live the longest. To love pleasure is not more in the grain of man
+than to desire truth. “I have known many,” says St. Augustine, “who like
+to deceive; to be deceived, none.” Pleasure, joy, truth, are the
+respective measures of life in sensation, emotion, intellect; one or the
+other of these every organism seeks with all its might, its choice
+depending on which of these divisions of mind is prominently its own. As
+the last mentioned is the climax, truth presents itself as in some way
+the perfect expression of life.
+
+We have seen what pleasure is, but what is truth? The question of Pilate
+remains, not indeed unanswered, but answered vaguely and
+discrepantly.[21-1] We may pass it by as one of speculative interest
+merely, and turn our attention to its practical paraphrase, what is
+true?
+
+The rules of evidence as regards events are well known, and also the
+principles of reaching the laws of phenomena by inductive methods. Many
+say that the mind can go no further than this, that the truth thus
+reached, if not the highest, is at least the highest for man. It is at
+best relative, but it is real. The correctness of this statement may be
+tested by analyzing the processes by which we acquire knowledge.
+
+Knowledge reaches the mind in two forms, for which there are in most
+languages, though not in modern English, two distinct expressions,
+_connaitre_ and _savoir_, _kennen_ and _wissen_. The former relates to
+knowledge through sensation, the latter through intellection; the former
+cannot be rendered in words, the latter can be; the former is reached
+through immediate perception, the latter through logical processes. For
+example: an odor is something we may certainly know and can identify,
+but we cannot possibly describe it in words; justice on the other hand
+may be clearly defined to our mind, but it is equally impossible to
+translate it into sensation. Nevertheless, it is generally agreed that
+the one of these processes is, so far as it goes, as conclusive as the
+other, and that they proceed on essentially the same principles.[22-1]
+Religious philosophy has to do only with the second form of knowledge,
+that reached through notions or thoughts.
+
+The enchainment or sequence of thoughts in the mind is at first an
+accidental one. They arise through the two general relations of nearness
+in time or similarity in sensation. Their succession is prescribed by
+these conditions, and without conscious effort cannot be changed. They
+are notions about phenomena only, and hence are infinitely more likely
+to be wrong than right. Of the innumerable associations of thought
+possible, only one can yield the truth. The beneficial effects of this
+one were felt, and thus by experience man slowly came to distinguish the
+true as what is good for him, the untrue as what is injurious.
+
+After he had done this for a while, he attempted to find out some plan
+in accordance with which he could so arrange his thoughts that they
+should always produce this desirable result. He was thus led to
+establish the rules for right reasoning, which are now familiarly known
+as Logic. This science was long looked upon as a completed one, and at
+the commencement of this century we find such a thinker as Coleridge
+expressing an opinion that further development in it was not to be
+expected. Since then it has, however, taken a fresh start, and by its
+growth has laid the foundation for a system of metaphysics which will be
+free from the vagaries and unrealities which have thrown general
+discredit on the name of philosophy.
+
+In one direction, as applied logic and the logic of induction, the
+natural associations of ideas have been thoroughly studied, and the
+methods by which they can be controlled and reduced have been taught
+with eminent success. In this branch, Bentham, Mill, Bain, and others
+have been prominent workers.
+
+Dealing mainly with the subjects and materials of reasoning, with
+thoughts rather than with thinking, these writers, with the tendency of
+specialists, have not appreciated the labors of another school of
+logicians, who have made the investigation of the process of thinking
+itself their especial province. This is abstract logic, or pure logic,
+sometimes called, inasmuch as it deals with forms only, “formal logic,”
+or because it deals with names and not things, “the logic of names.” It
+dates its rise as an independent science from the discovery of what is
+known as “the quantification of the predicate,” claimed by Sir William
+Hamilton. Of writers upon it may be mentioned Professor De Morgan, W.
+Stanley Jevons, and especially Professor George Boole of Belfast. The
+latter, one of the subtlest thinkers of this age, and eminent as a
+mathematician, succeeded in making an ultimate analysis of the laws of
+thinking, and in giving them a symbolic notation, by which not only the
+truth of a simple proposition but the relative degree of truth in
+complex propositions may be accurately estimated.[24-1]
+
+This he did by showing that the laws of correct thinking can be
+expressed in algebraic notation, and, thus expressed, will be subject to
+all the mathematical laws of an algebra whose symbols bear the uniform
+value of unity or nought (1 or 0)--a limitation required by the fact
+that pure logic deals in notions of quality only, not of quantity.
+
+This mathematical form of logic was foreseen by Kant when he declared
+that all mathematical reasoning derives its validity from the logical
+laws; but no one before Professor Boole had succeeded in reaching the
+notation which subordinated these two divisions of abstract thought to
+the same formal types. His labors have not yet borne fruit in proportion
+to their value, and they are, I believe, comparatively little known. But
+in the future they will be regarded as epochal in the science of mind.
+They make us to see the same law governing mind and matter, thought and
+extension.
+
+Not the least important result thus achieved was in emphasizing the
+contrast between the natural laws of mental association, and the laws of
+thinking which are the foundation of the syllogism.
+
+By attending to this distinction we are enabled to keep the form and the
+matter of thought well apart--a neglect to do which, or rather a studied
+attempt to ignore which, is the radical error of the logic devised by
+Hegel, as I shall show more fully a little later.
+
+All applied logic, inductive as well as deductive, is based on formal
+logic, and this in turn on the “laws of thought,” or rather of thinking.
+These are strictly regulative or abstract, and differ altogether from
+the natural laws of thought, such as those of similarity, contiguity and
+harmony, as well as from the rules of applied logic, such as those of
+agreement and difference. The fundamental laws of thinking are three in
+number, and their bearing on all the higher questions of religious
+philosophy is so immediate that their consideration becomes of the last
+moment in such a study as this. They are called the laws of
+Determination, Limitation and Excluded Middle.
+
+The first affirms that every object thought about must be conceived as
+itself, and not as some other thing. “A is A,” or “_x_ = _x_,” is its
+formal expression. This teaches us that whatever we think of, must be
+thought as one or a unity. It is important, however, to note that this
+does not mean a mathematical unit, but a logical one, that is, identity
+and not contrast. So true is this that in mathematical logic the only
+value which can satisfy the formula is a concept which does not admit of
+increase, to wit, a Universal.
+
+From this necessity of conceiving a thought under unity has arisen the
+interesting tendency, so frequently observable even in early times, to
+speak of the universe as one whole, the το παν of the Greek philosophers;
+and also the monotheistic leaning of all thinkers, no matter what their
+creed, who have attained very general conceptions. Furthermore, the
+strong liability of confounding this speculative or logical unity with
+the concrete notion of individuality, or mathematical unity, has been,
+as I shall show hereafter, a fruitful source of error in both religious
+and metaphysical theories. Pure logic deals with quality only, not with
+quantity.
+
+The second law is that of Limitation. As the first is sometimes called
+that of Affirmation, so this is called that of Negation. It prescribes
+that a thing is not that which it is not. Its formula is, “A is not
+not-A.” If this seems trivial, it is because it is so familiar.
+
+These two laws are two aspects of the same law. The old maxim is, _omnis
+determinatio est negatio_; a quality can rise into cognition only by
+being limited by that which it is not. It is not a comparison of two
+thoughts, however, nor does it limit the quality itself. For the
+negative is not a thought, and the quality is not _in suo genere
+finita_, to use an expression of the old logicians; it is limited not by
+itself but by that which it is not. These are not idle distinctions, as
+will soon appear.
+
+The third law comes into play when two thoughts are associated and
+compared. There is qualitative identity, or there is not. A is either B
+or not B. An animal is either a man or not a man. There is no middle
+class between the two to which it can be assigned. Superficial truism as
+this appears, we have now come upon the very battle ground of the
+philosophies. This is the famous “Law of the contradictories and
+excluded middle,” on the construction of which the whole fabric of
+religious dogma, and I may add of the higher metaphysics, must depend.
+“One of the principal retarding causes of philosophy,” remarks Professor
+Ferrier, “has been the want of a clear and developed doctrine of the
+contradictory.”[28-1] The want is as old as the days of Heraclitus of
+Ephesus, and lent to his subtle paradoxes that obscurity which has not
+yet been wholly removed.
+
+Founding his arguments on one construction of this law, expressed in the
+maxim, “The conceivable lies between two contradictory extremes,” Sir
+William Hamilton defended with his wide learning those theories of the
+Conditioned and the Unconditioned, the Knowable and Unknowable, which
+banish religion from the realm of reason and knowledge to that of faith,
+and cleave an impassable chasm between the human and the divine
+intelligence. From this unfavorable ground his orthodox followers,
+Mansel and Mozley, defended with ability but poor success their
+Christianity against Herbert Spencer and his disciples, who also
+accepted the same theories, but followed them out to their legitimate
+conclusion--a substantially atheistic one.
+
+Hamilton in this was himself but a follower of Kant, who brought this
+law to support his celebrated “antinomies of the human understanding,”
+warnings set up to all metaphysical explorers to keep off of holy
+ground.
+
+On another construction of it, one which sought to escape the dilemma of
+the contradictories by confining them to matters of the understanding,
+Hegel and Schelling believed they had gained the open field. They taught
+that in the highest domain of thought, there where it deals with
+questions of pure reason, the unity and limits which must be observed in
+matters of the understanding and which give validity to this third law,
+do not obtain. This view has been closely criticized, and, I think, with
+justice. Pretending to deal with matters of pure reason, it constantly
+though surreptitiously proceeds on the methods of applied logic; its
+conclusions are as fallacious logically as they are experimentally. The
+laws of thought are formal, and are as binding in transcendental
+subjects as in those which concern phenomena.
+
+The real bearing of this law can, it appears to me, best be derived from
+a study of its mathematical expression. This is, according to the
+notation of Professor Boole, _x_^{2}=_x_. As such, it presents a
+fundamental equation of thought, and it is because it is of the second
+degree that we classify in pairs or opposites. This equation can only be
+satisfied by assigning to _x_ the value of 1 or 0. The “universal type
+of form” is therefore _x_(1-_x_)=0.
+
+This algebraic notation shows that there is, not two, but only one
+thought in the antithesis; that it is made up of a thought and its
+expressed limit; and, therefore, that the so-called “law of
+contradictories” does not concern contradictories at all, in pure logic.
+This result was seen, though not clearly, by Dr. Thompson, who indicated
+the proper relation of the members of the formula as a positive and a
+privative. He, however, retained Hamilton’s doctrine that “privative
+conceptions enter into and assist the higher processes of the reason in
+all that it can know of the absolute and infinite;” that we must, “from
+the seen realize an unseen world, not by extending to the latter the
+properties of the former, but by assigning to it attributes entirely
+opposite.”[31-1]
+
+The error that vitiates all such reasoning is the assumption that the
+privative is an independent thought, that a thought and its limitation
+are two thoughts; whereas they are but the two aspects of the one
+thought, like two sides to the one disc, and the absurdity of speaking
+of them as separate thoughts is as great as to speak of a curve seen
+from its concavity as a different thing from the same curve regarded
+from its convexity. The privative can help us nowhere and to nothing;
+the positive only can assist our reasoning.
+
+This elevation of the privative into a contrary, or a contradictory, has
+been the bane of metaphysical reasoning. From it has arisen the doctrine
+of the synthesis of an affirmative and a negative into a higher
+conception, reconciling them both. This is the maxim of the Hegelian
+logic, which starts from the synthesis of Being and Not-being into the
+Becoming, a very ancient doctrine, long since offered as an explanation
+of certain phenomena, which I shall now touch upon.
+
+A thought and its privative alone--that is, a quality and its
+negative--cannot lead to a more comprehensive thought. It is devoid of
+relation and barren. In pure logic this is always the case, and must be
+so. In concrete thought it may be otherwise. There are certain
+propositions in which the negative is a reciprocal quality, quite as
+positive as that which it is set over against. The members of such a
+proposition are what are called “true contraries.” To whatever they
+apply as qualities, they leave no middle ground. If a thing is not one
+of them, it is the other. There is no third possibility. An object is
+either red or not red; if not red, it may be one of many colors. But if
+we say that all laws are either concrete or abstract, then we know that
+a law not concrete has all the properties of one which is abstract. We
+must examine, then, this third law of thought in its applied forms in
+order to understand its correct use.
+
+It will be observed that there is an assumption of space or time in many
+propositions having the form of the excluded middle. They are only true
+under given conditions. “All gold is fusible or not,” means that some is
+fusible at the time. If all gold be already fused, it does not hold
+good. This distinction was noted by Kant in his discrimination between
+_synthetic_ judgments, which assume other conditions; and _analytic_
+judgments, which look only at the members of the proposition.
+
+Only the latter satisfy the formal law, for the proposition must not
+look outside of itself for its completion. Most analytic propositions
+cannot extend our knowledge beyond their immediate statement. If A is
+either B or not B, and it is shown not to be B, it is left uncertain
+what A may be. The class of propositions referred to do more than this,
+inasmuch as they present alternative conceptions, mutually exhaustive,
+each the privative of the other. Of these two contraries, the one always
+evokes the other; neither can be thought except in relation to the
+other. They do not arise from the dichotomic process of classification,
+but from the polar relations of things. Their relation is not in the
+mind but in themselves, a real externality. The distinction between such
+as spring from the former and the latter is the most important question
+in philosophy.
+
+To illustrate by examples, we familiarly speak of heat and cold, and to
+say a body is not hot is as much as to say it is cold. But every
+physicist knows that cold is merely a diminution of heat, not a distinct
+form of force. The absolute zero may be reached by the abstraction of
+all heat, and then the cold cannot increase. So, life and death are not
+true contraries, for the latter is not anything real but a mere
+privative, a quantitative diminution of the former, growing less to an
+absolute zero where it is wholly lost.
+
+Thus it is easy to see that the Unconditioned exists only as a part of
+the idea of the Conditioned, the Unknowable as the foil of the Knowable;
+and the erecting of these mere privatives, these negatives, these
+shadows, into substances and realities, and then setting them up as
+impassable barriers to human thought, is one of the worst pieces of work
+that metaphysics has been guilty of.
+
+The like does not hold in true contrasts. Each of them has an existence
+as a positive,and[TN-3] is never lost in a zero of the other. The one is
+always thought in relation to the other. Examples of these are subject
+and object, absolute and relative, mind and matter, person and
+consciousness, time and space. When any one of these is thought, the
+other is assumed. It is vain to attempt their separation. Thus those
+philosophers who assert that all knowledge is relative, are forced to
+maintain this assertion, to wit, All knowledge is relative, is
+nevertheless absolute, and thus they falsify their own position. So
+also, those others who say all mind is a property of matter, assume in
+this sentence the reality of an idea apart from matter. Some have argued
+that space and time can be conceived independently of each other; but
+their experiments to show it do not bear repetition.
+
+All true contraries are universals. A universal concept is one of
+“maximum extension,” as logicians say, that is, it is without limit. The
+logical limitation of such a universal is not its negation, but its
+contrary, which is itself also a universal. The synthesis of the two can
+be in theory only, yet yields a real product. To illustrate this by a
+geometrical example, a straight line produced indefinitely is, logically
+considered, a universal. Its antithesis or true contrary is not a
+crooked line, as might be supposed, but the straight line which runs at
+right angles to it. Their synthesis is not the line which bisects their
+angle but that formed by these contraries continually uniting, that is,
+the arc of a circle, the genesis of which is theoretically the union of
+two such lines. Again, time can only be measured by space, space by
+time; they are true universals and contraries; their synthesis is
+_motion_, a conception which requires them both and is completed by
+them. Or again, the philosophical extremes of downright materialism and
+idealism are each wholly true, yet but half the truth. The insoluble
+enigmas that either meets in standing alone are kindred to those which
+puzzled the old philosophers in the sophisms relating to motion, as, for
+instance, that as a body cannot move where it is and still less where it
+is not, therefore it cannot move at all. Motion must recognise both time
+and space to be comprehensible. As a true contrary constantly implies
+the existence of its opposite, we cannot take a step in right reasoning
+without a full recognition of both.
+
+This relation of contraries to the higher conception which logically
+must include them is one of the well-worn problems of the higher
+metaphysics.
+
+The proper explanation would seem to be, as suggested above, that the
+synthesis of contraries is capable of formal expression only, but not of
+interpretation. In pursuing the search for their union we pass into a
+realm of thought not unlike that of the mathematician when he deals with
+hypothetical quantities, those which can only be expressed in symbols--,
+√1 for example,--but uses them to good purpose in reaching
+real results. The law does not fail, but its operations can no longer be
+expressed under material images. They are symbolic and for speculative
+thought alone, though pregnant with practical applications.
+
+As I have hinted, in all real contraries it is theoretically possible to
+accept either the one or the other. As in mathematics, all motion can be
+expressed either under formulas of initial motion (mechanics), or of
+continuous motion (kinematics), or as all force can be expressed as
+either static or as dynamic force; in either case the other form
+assuming a merely hypothetical or negative position; so the logic of
+quality is competent to represent all existence as ideal or as material,
+all truth as absolute or all as relative, or even to express the
+universe in formulæ of being or of not-being. This perhaps was what
+Heraclitus meant when he propounded his dark saying: “All things are
+_and_ are not.” He added that “All is not,” is truer than “All is.”
+Previous to his day, Buddha Sakyamuni had said: “He who has risen to the
+perception of the not-Being, to the Unconditioned, the Universal, his
+path is difficult to understand, like the flight of birds in the
+air.”[37-1] Perhaps even he learned his lore from some older song of the
+Veda, one of which ends, “Thus have the sages, meditating in their
+souls, explained away the fetters of being by the not-being.”[37-2] The
+not-being, as alone free from space and time, impressed these sages as
+the more real of the two, the only absolute.
+
+The error of assigning to the one universal a preponderance over the
+other arose from the easy confusion of pure with applied thought. The
+synthesis of contraries exists in the formal law alone, and this is
+difficult to keep before the mind. In concrete displays they are forever
+incommensurate. One seems to exclude the other. To see them correctly we
+must there treat them as alternates. We may be competent, for instance,
+to explain all phenomena of mind by organic processes; and equally
+competent to explain all organism as effects of mind; but we must never
+suppose an immediate identity of the two; this is only to be found in
+the formal law common to both; still less should we deny the reality of
+either. Each exhausts the universe; but at every step each presupposes
+the other; their synthesis is life, a concept hopelessly puzzling unless
+regarded in all its possible displays as made up of both.
+
+This indicates also the limits of explanation. By no means every man’s
+reason knows when it has had enough. The less it is developed, the
+further is it from such knowledge. This is plainly seen in children, who
+often do not rest satisfied with a really satisfactory explanation. It
+is of first importance to be able to recognize what is a good reason.
+
+I may first say what it is _not_. It is not a _cause_. This is nothing
+more than a prior arrangement of the effect; the reason for an
+occurrence is never assigned by showing its cause. Nor is it a
+_caprice_, that is, motiveless volition, or will as a motor. In this
+sense, the “will of God” is no good reason for an occurrence. Nor is it
+_fate_, or physical necessity. This is denying there is any explanation
+to give.
+
+The reason can only be satisfied with an aliment consubstantial with
+itself. Nothing material like cause, nor anything incomprehensible like
+caprice, meets its demands. Reason is allied to order, system and
+purpose above all things. That which most completely answers to these
+will alone satisfy its requirements. They are for an ideal of order.
+Their complete satisfaction is obtained in universal types and measures,
+pure abstractions, which are not and cannot be real. The _formal law_ is
+the limit of explanation of phenomena, beyond which a sound intellect
+will ask nothing. It fulfils all the requirements of reason, and leaves
+nothing to be desired.
+
+Those philosophers, such as Herbert Spencer, who teach that there is
+some incogitable “nature” of something which is the immanent “cause” of
+phenomena, delude themselves with words. The history and the laws of a
+phenomenon _are_ its nature, and there is no chimerical something beyond
+them. They are exhaustive. They fully answer the question _why_, as well
+as the question _how_.[39-1]
+
+For it is important to note that the word “law” is not here used in the
+sense which Blackstone gives to it, a “rule of conduct;” nor yet in that
+which science assigns to it, a “physical necessity.” Law in its highest
+sense is the type or form, perceived by reason as that toward which
+phenomena tend, but which they always fail to reach. It was shown by
+Kant that all physical laws depend for their validity on logical laws.
+These are not authoritative, like the former, but purposive only. But
+their purpose is clear, to wit, the attainment of proportion,
+consistency or truth. As this purpose is reached only in the abstract
+form, this alone gives us the absolutely true in which reason can rest.
+
+In the concrete, matter shows the law in its efforts toward form, mind
+in its struggle for the true. The former is guided by physical force,
+and the extinction of the aberrant. The latter, in its highest
+exhibition in a conscious intelligence, can alone guide itself by the
+representation of law, by the sense of Duty. Such an intelligence has
+both the faculty to see and the power to choose and appropriate to its
+own behoof, and thus to build itself up out of those truths which are
+“from everlasting unto everlasting.”
+
+A purely formal truth of this kind as something wholly apart from
+phenomena, not in any way connected with the knowledge derived through
+the senses, does not admit of doubt and can never be changed by future
+conquests of the reasoning powers. We may rest upon it as something more
+permanent than matter, greater than Nature.
+
+Such was the vision that inspired the noble lines of Wordsworth:--
+
+    “What are things eternal?--Powers depart,
+    Possessions vanish, and opinions change,
+    And passions hold a fluctuating seat;
+    But, by the storms of circumstance unshaken,
+    And subject neither to eclipse nor wane,
+    Duty exists; immutably survive
+    For our support, the measures and the forms
+    Which an abstract intelligence supplies;
+    Whose kingdom is where time and space are not.”
+
+There is no danger that we shall not know what is thus true when we see
+it. The sane reason cannot reject it. “The true,” says Novalis, “is that
+which we cannot help believing.” It is the _perceptio per solam
+essentiam_ of Spinoza. It asks not faith nor yet testimony; it stands in
+need of neither.
+
+Mathematical truth is of this nature. We cannot, if we try, believe
+that twice two is five. Hence the unceasing effort of all science is to
+give its results mathematical expression. Such truth so informs itself
+with will that once received, it is never thereafter alienated;
+obedience to it does not impair freedom. Necessity and servitude do not
+arise from correct reasoning, but through the limitation of fallacies.
+They have nothing to do with
+
+          “Those transcendent truths
+    Of the pure intellect, that stand as laws
+    Even to Thy Being’s infinite majesty.”
+
+It is not derogatory, but on the contrary essential to the conception of
+the Supreme Reason, the Divine Logos, to contemplate its will as in
+accord and one with the forms of abstract truth. “The ‘will of God’”
+says Spinoza, “is the refuge of ignorance; the true Will is the spirit
+of right reasoning.”
+
+This identification of the forms of thought with the Absolute is almost
+as old as philosophy itself. The objections to it have been that no
+independent existence attaches to these forms; that they prescribe the
+conditions of thought but are not thought itself, still less being; that
+they hold good to thought as known to man’s reason, but perchance not to
+thought in other intelligences; and, therefore, that even if through the
+dialectical development of thought a consistent idea of the universe
+were framed, that is, one wherein every fact was referred to its
+appropriate law, still would remain the inquiry, Is this the last and
+absolute truth?
+
+The principal points in these objections are that abstract thought does
+not postulate being; and that possibly all intelligence is not one in
+kind. To the former objection the most satisfactory, reply has been
+offered by Professor J. F. Ferrier. He has shown that the conception of
+object, even ideal object, implies the conception of self in the
+subject; and upon this proposition which has been fully recognized even
+by those who differ from him widely, he grounds the existence of Supreme
+Thought as a logical unity. Those who would pursue this branch of the
+subject further, I would refer to his singularly able work.[43-1]
+
+The latter consideration will come up in a later chapter. If it be shown
+that all possible intelligence proceeds on the same laws as that of man,
+and that the essence of this is activity, permanence, or
+truth--synonymous terms--then the limitation of time ceases, and
+existence not in time but without regard to time, is a necessary
+consequence. Knowledge through intellection can alone reach a truth
+independent of time; that through sensation is always relative, true
+for the time only. The former cannot be expressed without the
+implication of the conceptions of the universal and the eternal as
+“dominant among the subjects of thought with which Logic is
+concerned;”[44-1] and hence the relation which the intellect bears to
+the absolute is a real and positive one.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6-1] In his essay entitled, _Ueber den Geschlechtsunterschied und
+dessen Einfluss auf die organische Natur_, first published in 1795.
+
+[6-2] “Der alte Dualismus von Geist und Körper, der Jahrhunderte
+hindurch nach Versöhnung gerungen, findet diese heute nicht
+zwar in der Einheit der Substanz, wohl aber in der Einheit des
+Gesetzes.” Dr. Heinrich Boehmer, _Geschichte der Entwickelung der
+Naturwissenschaftlichen Weltanschauung in Deutschland_, s. 201 (Gotha,
+1872).
+
+[7-1] _Elements of Physio-Philosophy_, §3589. Eng. trans., London, 1847.
+
+[8-1] Von Feuchtersleben, _The Principles of Medical Psychology_, p. 130
+(Eng. trans., London, 1847).
+
+[9-1] “The fundamental property of organic structure is to seek what is
+beneficial, and to shun what is hurtful to it.” Dr. Henry Maudsley,
+_Body and Mind_, p. 22.
+
+“The most essential nature of a sentient being is to move _to_ pleasure
+and _from_ pain.” A. Bain, _On the Study of Character_, p. 292 (London,
+1861).
+
+“States of Pleasure are connected with an increase, states of Pain with
+an abatement of some or all of the vital functions.” A. Bain, _Mind and
+Body_, p. 59.
+
+“Affectus est confusa idea, quâ Mens majorem, vel minorem sui corporis,
+vel alicujus ejus partis, existendi vim affirmat.” Spinoza, _Ethices_,
+Lib. III. _ad finem_.
+
+[11-1] The extension of the mechanical laws of motion to organic motion
+was, I believe, first carried out by Comte. His biological form of the
+first law is as follows: “Tout état, statique ou dynamique, tend à
+persister spontanément, sans aucune altération, en resistant aux
+perturbations extérieures.” _Système de Politique Positive_, Tome iv. p.
+178. The metaphysical ground of this law has, I think, been very well
+shown by Schopenhauer to be in the Kantian principle that time is not a
+force, nor a quality of matter, but a condition of perception, and hence
+it can exert no physical influence. See Schopenhauer, _Parerga und
+Paralipomena_, Bd. II, s. 37.
+
+[13-1] “Aller Genuss, seiner Natur nach, ist negativ, d. h., in
+Befreiung von einer Noth oder Pein besteht.” _Parerga und Paralipomena._
+Bd. II, s. 482.
+
+[14-1] “No impression whatever is pleasant beyond the instant of its
+realization; since, at that very instant, commences the change of
+susceptibility, which suggests the desire for a change of impression or
+for a renewal of that impression which is fading away.” Dr. J. P.
+Catlow, _The Principles of Aesthetic Medicine_, p. 155 (London, 1867).
+
+“Dum re, quem appetamus fruimur, corpus ex ea fruitione novam acquirat
+constitutionem, á quá aliter determinatur, et aliæ rerum imagines in eo
+excitantur,” etc. Spinoza, _Ethices_, Pars III, Prop. lix.
+
+[18-1] “Feeling and thought are much more real than anything else; they
+are the only things which we directly know to be real.”--John Stuart
+Mill.--_Theism_, p. 202. How very remote external objects are from what
+we take them to be, is constantly shown in physiological studies. As
+Helmholtz remarks: “No kind and no degree of similarity exists between
+the quality of a sensation, and the quality of the agent inducing it and
+portrayed by it.”--_Lectures on Scientific Subjects_, p. 390.
+
+[20-1] _The Philosophy of Consciousness_, p. 72.
+
+[21-1] The Gospel of John (ch. xviii.) leaves the impression that Pilate
+either did not wait for an answer but asked the question in contempt, as
+Bacon understood, or else that waiting he received no answer. The Gospel
+of Nicodemus, however, written according to Tischendorf in the second
+century, probably from tradition, gives the rest of the conversation as
+follows: “Pilate says to him: What is truth? Jesus says: Truth is from
+heaven. Pilate says: Is not there truth upon earth? Jesus says to
+Pilate: See how one who speaks truth is judged by those who have power
+upon earth!” [ch. iii.]
+
+[22-1] The most acute recent discussion of this subject is by Helmholtz,
+in his essay entitled, “_Recent Progress in the Theory of Vision_.”
+
+[24-1] George Boole, Professor of Mathematics in Queen’s College, Cork,
+was born Nov. 2, 1815, died Dec. 8, 1864. He was the author of several
+contributions to the higher mathematics, but his principal production is
+entitled: _An Investigation into the Laws of Thought, on which are
+founded the mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities_ [London,
+1854.] Though the reputation he gained was so limited that one may seek
+his name in vain in the _New American Cyclopedia_ [1875], or the
+_Dictionnaire des Contemporains_ [1859], the few who can appreciate his
+treatise place the very highest estimate upon it. Professor Todhunter,
+in the preface to his _History of the Theory of Probabilities_, calls it
+“a marvellous work,” and in similar language Professor W. Stanley Jevons
+speaks of it as “one of the most marvellous and admirable pieces of
+reasoning ever put together” (_Pure Logic_, p. 75). Professor Bain, who
+gives a synopsis of it in his _Deductive Logic_, wholly misapprehends
+the author’s purpose, and is unable to appraise justly his conclusions.
+
+[28-1] _The Institutes of Metaphysic_, p. 459, (2nd edition.)
+
+[31-1] _An Outline of the Necessary Laws of Thought_, p. 113 (New York,
+1860).
+
+[37-1] _The Dhamapada_, verse 93.
+
+[37-2] Koppen, _Der Buddhismus_, s. 30.
+
+[39-1] Spencer in assuming an “unknowable universal causal agent and
+source of things,” as “the nature of the power manifested in phenomena,”
+and in calling this the idea common to both religion and “ideal
+science,” fell far behind Comte, who expressed the immovable position,
+not only of positive science but of all intelligence, in these words:
+“Le véritable esprit positif consiste surtout à substituer toujours
+l’étude des _lois_ invariables des phénomènes à celles de leurs _causes_
+proprement dites, premières ou finales, en un mot la determination du
+_comment_ à celle du _pourquoi_.”--_Systèmede[TN-4] Politique Positive_,
+i. p. 47. Compare Spencer’s Essay entitled, “Reasons for dissenting from
+Comte.” The purposive law is the only final cause which reason allows.
+Comte’s error lay in ignoring this class of laws.
+
+[43-1] _The Institutes of Metaphysic_, 2d Ed. See also Bain, _The
+Emotions and the Will_, the closing note.
+
+[44-1] Boole, _Laws of Thought_, p. 401.
+
+
+
+
+THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     The Religious Sentiment is made up of emotions and thoughts. The
+     emotions are historically first and most prominent. Of all
+     concerned, Fear is the most obvious. Hope is its correlate. Both
+     suppose Experience, and a desire to repeat or avoid it. Hence a
+     Wish is the source of both emotions, and the proximate element of
+     religion. The significance of desire as the postulate of
+     development. The influence of fear and hope. The conditions which
+     encourage them.
+
+     The success of desire fails to gratify the religious sentiment. The
+     alternative left is eternal repose, or else action, unending yet
+     which aims at nothing beyond. The latter is reached through Love.
+     The result of love is _continuance_. Illustrations of this. Sexual
+     love and the venereal sense in religions. The hermaphrodite gods.
+     The virgin mother. Mohammed was the first to proclaim a deity above
+     sex. The conversion of sexual and religious emotion exemplified
+     from insane delusions. The element of fascination. The love of God.
+     Other emotional elements in religions.
+
+     The religious wish defined to be one _whose fruition depends upon
+     unknown power_. To be religious, one must desire and be ignorant.
+     The unknown power is of religious interest only in so far as it is
+     believed to be in relation to men’s desires. In what sense
+     ignorance is the mother of devotion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+The discussion in the last chapter illustrated how closely pain and
+pleasure, truth and error, and thought and its laws have been related to
+the forms of religions, and their dogmatic expressions. The character of
+the relatively and absolutely true was touched upon, and the latter, it
+was indicated, if attainable at all by human intelligence, must be found
+in the formal laws of that intelligence, those which constitute its
+nature and essence, and in the conclusions which such a premise forces
+upon the reason. The necessity of this preliminary inquiry arose from
+the fact that every historical religion claims the monopoly of the
+absolutely true, and such claims can be tested only when we have decided
+as to whether there is such truth, and if there is, where it is to be
+sought. Moreover, as religions arise from some mental demand, the
+different manifestations of mind,--sensation, emotion and
+intellect--must be recognized and understood.
+
+Passing now to a particular description of the Religious Sentiment, it
+may roughly be defined to be the feeling which prompts to thoughts or
+acts of worship. It is, as I have said, a complex product, made up of
+emotions and ideas, developing with the growth of mind, wide-reaching in
+its maturity, but meagre enough at the start. We need not expect to find
+in its simplest phases that insight and tender feeling which we
+attribute to the developed religious character. “The scent of the
+blossom is not in the bulb.” Its early and ruder forms, however, will
+best teach the mental elements which are at its root.
+
+The problem is, to find out why the primitive man figured to himself any
+gods at all; what necessity of his nature or his condition led him so
+universally to assume their existence, and seek their aid or their
+mercy? The conditions of the solution are, that it hold good everywhere
+and at all times; that it enable us to trace in every creed and cult the
+same sentiments which first impelled man to seek a god and adore him.
+Why is it that now and in remotest history, here and in the uttermost
+regions, there is and always has been this that we call _religion_?
+There must be some common reason, some universal peculiarity in man’s
+mental formation which prompts, which forces him, him alone of animals,
+and him without exception, to this discourse and observance of religion.
+What this is, it is my present purpose to try to find out.
+
+In speaking of the development of mind through organism, it was seen
+that the emotions precede the reason in point of time. This is daily
+confirmed by observation. The child is vastly more emotional than the
+man, the savage than his civilized neighbor. Castren, the Russian
+traveller, describes the Tartars and Lapps as a most nervous folk. When
+one shocks them with a sudden noise, they almost fall into convulsions.
+Among the North American Indians, falsely called a phlegmatic race,
+nervous diseases are epidemic to an almost unparalleled extent. Intense
+thought, on the other hand, as I have before said, tends to lessen and
+annul the emotions. Intellectual self-consciousness is adverse to them.
+
+But religion, we are everywhere told, is largely a matter of the
+emotions. The pulpit constantly resounds with appeals to the feelings,
+and not unfrequently with warnings against the intellect. “I acknowledge
+myself,” says the pious non-juror, William Law, “a declared enemy to the
+use of reason in religion;” and he often repeats his condemnation of
+“the labor-learned professors of far-fetched book-riches.”[49-1] As the
+eye is the organ of sight, says one whose thoughts on such matters equal
+in depth those of Pascal, so the heart is the organ of religion.[49-2]
+In popular physiology, the heart is the seat of the emotions as the
+brain is that of intellect. It is appropriate, therefore, that we
+commence our analysis of the religious sentiment with the emotions which
+form such a prominent part of it.
+
+Now, whether we take the experience of an individual or the history of a
+tribe, whether we have recourse to the opinions of religious teachers or
+irreligious philosophers, we find them nigh unanimous that the emotion
+which is the prime motor of religious thought is _fear_. I need not
+depend upon the well-known line of Petronius Arbiter,
+
+    Primus in orbe deos fecit timor;
+
+for there is plenty of less heterodox authority. The worthy Bishop Hall
+says, “Seldom doth God seize upon the heart without a vehement
+concussion going before. There must be some blustering and flashes of
+the law. We cannot be too awful in our fear.”[50-1] Bunyan, in his
+beautiful allegory of the religious life, lets Christian exclaim: “Had
+even Obstinate himself felt what I have felt of the terrors of the yet
+unseen, he would not thus lightly have given us the _back_.” The very
+word for God in the Semitic tongues means “fear;”[50-2] Jacob swore to
+Laban, “by Him whom Isaac feared;” and Moses warned his people that
+“God is come, that his fear may be before your faces.” To _venerate_ is
+from a Sanscrit root (_sêv_), to be afraid of.
+
+But it is needless to amass more evidence on this point. Few will
+question that fear is the most prominent emotion at the awakening of the
+religious sentiments. Let us rather proceed to inquire more minutely
+what fear is.
+
+I remarked in the previous chapter that “the emotions fall naturally
+into a dual classification, in which the one involves pleasurable or
+elevating, the other painful or depressing conditions.” Fear comes of
+course under the latter category, as it is essentially a painful and
+depressing state of mind. But it corresponds with and implies the
+presence of Hope, for he who has nothing to hope has nothing to
+fear.[51-1] “There is no hope without fear, as there is no fear without
+hope,” says Spinoza. “For he who is in fear has some doubt whether what
+he fears will take place, and consequently hopes that it will not.”
+
+We can go a step further, and say that in the mental process the hope
+must necessarily precede the fear. In the immediate moment of losing a
+pleasurable sensation we hope and seek for its repetition. The mind,
+untutored by experience, confidently looks for its return. The hope only
+becomes dashed by fear when experience has been associated with
+disappointment. Hence we must first look to enjoy a good before we can
+be troubled by a fear that we shall not enjoy it; we must first lay a
+plan before we can fear its failure. In modern Christianity hope, hope
+of immortal happiness, is more conspicuous than fear; but that hope is
+also based on the picture of a pleasant life made up from experience.
+
+Both hope and fear, therefore, have been correctly called secondary or
+derived emotions, as they presuppose experience and belief, experience
+of a pleasure akin to that which we hope, belief that we can attain such
+a pleasure. “We do not hope first and enjoy afterwards, but we enjoy
+first and hope afterwards.”[52-1] Having enjoyed, we seek to do so
+again. A desire, in other words, must precede either Hope or Fear. They
+are twin sisters, born of a Wish.
+
+Thus my analysis traces the real source of the religious sentiment, so
+far as the emotions are concerned, to a Wish; and having arrived there,
+I find myself anticipated by the words of one of the most reflective
+minds of this century: “All religion rests on a mental want; we hope,
+we fear, because we wish.”[53-1] And long before this conclusion was
+reached by philosophers, it had been expressed in unconscious religious
+thought in myths, in the Valkyria, the Wish-maidens, for instance, who
+carried the decrees of Odin to earth.
+
+This is no mean origin, for a wish, a desire, conscious or unconscious,
+in sensation only or in emotion as well, is the fundamental postulate of
+every sort of development, of improvement, of any possible future, of
+life of any kind, mental or physical. In its broadest meaning, science
+and history endorse the exclamation of the unhappy Obermann: “_La perte
+vraiment irréparable est celle des désirs._”[53-2]
+
+The sense of unrest, the ceaseless longing for something else, which is
+the general source of all desires and wishes, is also the source of all
+endeavor and of all progress. Physiologically, it is the effort of our
+organization to adapt itself to the ever varying conditions which
+surround it; intellectually, it is the struggle to arrive at truth; in
+both, it is the effort to attain a fuller life.
+
+As stimuli to action, therefore, the commonest and strongest of all
+emotions are Fear and Hope. They are the emotional correlates of
+pleasure and pain, which rule the life of sensation. Their closer
+consideration may well detain us awhile.
+
+In the early stages of religious life, whether in an individual or a
+nation, the latter is half concealed. Fear is more demonstrative, and as
+it is essentially destructive, its effects are more sudden and visible.
+In its acuter forms, as Fright and Terror, it may blanch the hair in a
+night, blight the mind and destroy the life of the individual. As Panic,
+it is eminently epidemic, carrying crowds and armies before it; while in
+the aggravated form of Despair it swallows up all other emotions and
+prompts to self destruction. Its physiological effect is a direct
+impairment of vitality.
+
+Hope is less intense and more lasting than fear. It stimulates the
+system, elates with the confidence of control, strengthens with the
+courage derived from a conviction of success, and bestows in advance the
+imagined joy of possession. As Feuchtersleben happily expresses it:
+“Hope preserves the principle of duration when other parts are
+threatened with destruction, and is a manifestation of the innermost
+psychical energy of Life.”[54-1]
+
+Both emotions powerfully prompt to action, and to that extent are
+opposed to thought. Based on belief, they banish uncertainty, and
+antagonize doubt and with it investigation. The religion in which they
+enter as the principal factors will be one intolerant of opposition,
+energetic in deed, and generally hostile to an unbiased pursuit of the
+truth.
+
+Naturally those temperaments and those physical conditions which chiefly
+foster these emotions will tend to religious systems in which they are
+prominent. Let us see what some of these conditions are.
+
+It has always been noticed that impaired vitality predisposes to fear.
+The sick and feeble are more timorous than the strong and well. Further
+predisposing causes of the same nature are insufficient nourishment,
+cold, gloom, malaria, advancing age and mental worry. For this reason
+nearly invariably after a general financial collapse we witness a
+religious “revival.” Age, full of care and fear, is thus prompted to
+piety, willing, as La Rochefoucauld remarks, to do good by precept when
+it can no longer do evil by example. The inhabitants of swampy,
+fever-ridden districts are usually devout. The female sex, always the
+weaker and often the worsted one in the struggle for existence, is when
+free more religious than the male; but with them hope is more commonly
+the incentive than fear.
+
+Although thus prominent and powerful, desire, so far as its fruition is
+pleasure, has expressed but the lowest emotions of the religious
+sentiment. Something more than this has always been asked by sensitively
+religious minds. Success fails to bring the gratification it promises.
+The wish granted, the mind turns from it in satiety. Not this, after
+all, was what we sought.
+
+The acutest thinkers have felt this. Pascal in his _Pensées_ has such
+expressions as these: “The present is never our aim. The future alone is
+our object.” “Forever getting ready to be happy, it is certain we never
+can be.” “’Tis the combat pleases us and not the victory. As soon as
+that is achieved, we have had enough of the spectacle. So it is in play,
+so it is in the search for truth. We never pursue objects, but we pursue
+the pursuit of objects.” But no one has stated it more boldly than
+Lessing when he wrote: “If God held in his right hand all truth, and in
+his left the one unceasingly active desire for truth, although bound up
+with the law that I should forever err, I should choose with humility
+the left and say: ‘Give me this, Father. The pure truth is for thee
+alone.’”[56-1] The pleasure seems to lie not in the booty but in the
+battle, not in gaining the stakes but in playing the game, not in the
+winning but in the wooing, not in the discovery of truth but in the
+search for it.
+
+What is left for the wise, but to turn, as does the preacher, from this
+delusion of living, where laughter is mad and pleasure is vain, and
+praise the dead which are dead more than the living which are yet alive,
+or to esteem as better than both he that hath never been?
+
+Such is the conclusion of many faiths. Wasted with combat, the mortal
+longs for the rest prepared for the weary. Buddha taught the
+extinguishment in Nirvana; the Brahman portrays the highest bliss as
+_shanti_, complete and eternal repose; and that the same longing was
+familiar to ancient Judaism, and has always been common to Christianity,
+numerous evidences testify.[57-1] Few epitaphs are more common than
+those which speak of the mortal resting _in pace, in quiete_.
+
+The supposition at the root of these longings is that action must bring
+fatigue and pain, and though it bring pleasure too, it is bought too
+dearly. True in fact, I have shown that this conflicts with the theory
+of perfect life, even organic life. The highest form of life is the most
+unceasing living; its functions ask for their completest well being
+constant action, not satisfaction. That general feeling of health and
+strength, that _sens de bien être_, which goes with the most perfect
+physical life, is experienced only when all the organs are in complete
+working order and doing full duty. They impart to the whole frame a
+desire of motion. Hence the activity of the young and healthy as
+contrasted with the inertness of the exhausted and aged.
+
+How is it possible to reconcile this ideal of life, still more the hope
+of everlasting life, with the acknowledged vanity of desire? It is
+accomplished through the medium of an emotion which more than any I have
+touched upon reveals the character of the religious sentiment--Love.
+This mighty but protean feeling I shall attempt to define on broader
+principles than has hitherto been done. The vague and partial meanings
+assigned it have led to sad confusion in the studies of religions. In
+the language of feeling, love is a passion; but it does not spring from
+feeling alone. It is far more fervid when it rises through intellect
+than through sense. “Men have died from time to time, and worms have
+eaten them, but not for love,” says the fair Rosalind; and though her
+saying is not very true as to the love of sense, it is far less true as
+to the love of intellect. The martyrs to science and religion, to
+principles and faith, multiply a hundred-fold those to the garden god.
+The spell of the idea is what
+
+  “Turns ruin into laughter and death into dreaming.”
+
+Such love destroys the baser passion of sense, or transfigures it so
+that we know it no longer. The idea-driven is callous to the
+blandishments of beauty, for his is a love stronger than the love to
+woman. The vestal, the virgin, the eunuch for the kingdom of heaven’s
+sake are the exemplars of the love to God.
+
+What common trait so marks these warring products of mind, that we call
+them by one name? In what is all love the same? The question is
+pertinent, for the love of woman, the love of neighbor, the love of
+country, the love of God, have made the positive side of most religions,
+the burden of their teachings. The priests of Cotytto and Venus, Astarte
+and Melitta, spoke but a more sensuous version of the sermon of the aged
+apostle to the Ephesians,--shortest and best of all sermons--“Little
+children, love one another.”[59-1]
+
+The earliest and most constant sign of reason is “working for a remote
+object.”[59-2] Nearly everything we do is as a step to something beyond.
+Forethought, conscious provision, is the measure of intelligence. But
+there must be something which is the object, the aim, the end-in-view of
+rational action, which is sought for itself alone, not as instrumental
+to something else. Such an object, when recognized, inspires the
+sentiment of love. It springs from the satisfaction of reason.
+
+This conclusion as to the nature of love has long been recognized by
+thinkers. Richard Baxter defined it as “the volition of the end,” “the
+motion of the soul that tendeth to the end,” and more minutely, “the
+will’s volition of good apprehended by the understanding.”[60-1] In
+similar language Bishop Butler explains it as “the resting in an object
+as an end.”[60-2] Perhaps I can better these explanations by the phrase,
+_Love is the mental impression of rational action whose end is in
+itself_.
+
+Now this satisfaction is found only in one class of efforts, namely,
+those whose result is continuity, persistence, in fine, _preservation_.
+This may be toward the individual, self-love, whose object is the
+continuance of personal existence; toward the other sex, where the
+hidden aim is the perpetuation of the race; toward one’s fellows, where
+the giving of pleasure and the prevention of pain mean the maintenance
+of life; toward one’s country, as patriotism; and finally toward the
+eternally true, which as alone the absolutely permanent and
+preservative, inspires a love adequate and exhaustive of its conception,
+casting out both hope and fear, the pangs of desire as well as the
+satiety of fruition.
+
+In one or other of these forms love has at all times been the burden of
+religion: the glad tidings it has always borne have been “love on
+earth.” The Phœnix in Egyptian myth appeared yearly as newly risen,
+but was ever the same bird, and bore the egg from which its _parent_ was
+to have birth. So religions have assumed the guise in turn of self-love,
+sex-love, love of country and love of humanity, cherishing in each the
+germ of that highest love which alone is the parent of its last and only
+perfect embodiment.
+
+Favorite of these forms was sex-love. “We find,” observes a recent
+writer, “that all religions have engaged and concerned themselves with
+the sexual passion. From the times of phallic worship through Romish
+celibacy down to Mormonism, theology has linked itself with man’s
+reproductive instincts.”[61-1] The remark is just, and is most
+conspicuously correct in strongly emotional temperaments. “The
+devotional feelings,” writes the Rev. Frederick Robertson in one of his
+essays, “are often singularly allied to the animal nature; they conduct
+the unconscious victim of feelings that appear divine into a state of
+life at which the world stands aghast.” Fanaticism is always united with
+either excessive lewdness or desperate asceticism. The physiological
+performance of the generative function is sure to be attacked by
+religious bigotry.
+
+So prominent is this feature that attempts have been made to explain
+nearly all symbolism and mythology as types of the generative procedure
+and the reproductive faculty of organism. Not only the pyramids and
+sacred mountains, the obelisks of the Nile and the myths of light have
+received this interpretation, but even such general symbols as the
+spires of churches, the cross of Christendom and the crescent of
+Islam.[62-1]
+
+Without falling into the error of supposing that any one meaning or
+origin can be assigned such frequent symbols, we may acknowledge that
+love, in its philosophical sense, is closely akin to the mystery of
+every religion. That, on occasions, love of sex gained the mastery over
+all other forms, is not to be doubted; but that at all times this was
+so, is a narrow, erroneous view, not consistent with a knowledge of the
+history of psychical development.
+
+Sex-love, as a sentiment, is a cultivated growth. All it is at first is
+a rude satisfaction of the erethism. The wild tribes of California had
+their pairing seasons when the sexes were in heat, “as regularly as the
+deer, the elk and the antelope.”[63-1] In most tongues of the savages of
+North America there are no tender words, as “dear,” “darling,” and the
+like.[63-2] No desire of offspring led to their unions. The women had
+few children, and their fathers paid them little attention. The family
+instinct appears in conditions of higher culture, in Judea, Greece, Rome
+and ancient Germany. Procreation instead of lust was there the aim of
+marriage. To-day, mere sentiment is so much in the ascendant that both
+these elements are often absent. There is warm affection without even
+instinctive knowledge of the design of the bond assumed.[63-3]
+
+Those who would confine the promptings of the passion of reproduction as
+it appears in man to its objects as shown in lower animals, know little
+how this wondrous emotion has acted as man’s mentor as well as paraclete
+in his long and toilsome conflict with the physical forces.
+
+The venereal sense is unlike the other special senses in that it is
+general, as well as referable to special organs and nerves. In its
+psychological action it “especially contributes to the development of
+sympathies which connect man not only with his coevals, but with his
+fellows of all preceding and succeeding generations as well. Upon it is
+erected this vast superstructure of intellect, of social and moral
+sentiment, of voluntary effort and endeavor.”[64-1] Of all the
+properties of organized matter, that of transmitting form and life is
+the most wonderful; and if we examine critically the physical basis of
+the labors and hopes of mankind, if we ask what prompts its noblest and
+holiest longings, we shall find them, in the vast majority of instances,
+directly traceable to this power. No wonder then that religion, which we
+have seen springs from man’s wants and wishes, very often bears the
+distinct trace of their origin in his reproductive functions. The liens
+of the family are justly deemed sacred, and are naturally associated
+with whatever the mind considers holy.
+
+The duty of a citizen to become a father was a prominent feature in
+many ancient religions. How much honor the sire of many sons had in Rome
+and Palestine is familiar to all readers. No warrior, according to
+German faith, could gain entrance to Valhalla unless he had begotten a
+son. Thus the preservation of the species was placed under the immediate
+guardianship of religion.
+
+Such considerations explain the close connection of sexual thoughts with
+the most sacred mysteries of faith. In polytheisms, the divinities are
+universally represented as male or female, virile and fecund. The
+processes of nature were often held to be maintained through such
+celestial nuptials.
+
+Yet stranger myths followed those of the loves of the gods. Religion, as
+the sentiment of continuance, finding its highest expression in the
+phenomenon of generation, had to reconcile this with the growing concept
+of a divine unity. Each separate god was magnified in praises as
+self-sufficient. Earth, or nature, or the season is one, yet brings
+forth all. How embody this in concrete form?
+
+The startling refuge was had in the image of a deity at once of both
+sexes. Such avowedly were Mithras, Janus, Melitta, Cybele, Aphrodite,
+Agdistis; indeed nearly all the Syrian, Egyptian, and Italic gods, as
+well as Brahma, and, in the esoteric doctrine of the Cabala, even
+Jehovah, whose female aspect is represented by the “Shekinah.” To this
+abnormal condition the learned have applied the adjectives epicene,
+androgynous, hermaphrodite, arrenothele. In art it is represented by a
+blending of the traits of both sexes. In the cult it was dramatically
+set forth by the votaries assuming the attire of the other sex, and
+dallying with both.[66-1] The phallic symbol superseded all others; and
+in Cyprus, Babylonia and Phrygia, once in her life, at least, must every
+woman submit to the embrace of a stranger.
+
+Such rites were not mere sensualities. The priests of these divinities
+often voluntarily suffered emasculation. None but a eunuch could become
+high priest of Cybele. Among the sixteen million worshippers of Siva,
+whose symbol is the Lingam, impurity is far less prevalent than among
+the sister sects of Hindoo religions.[66-2] To the Lingayets, the member
+typifies abstractly the idea of life. Therefore they carve it on
+sepulchres, or, like the ancient nations of Asia Minor, they lay clay
+images of it on graves to intimate the hope of existence beyond the
+tomb.
+
+This notion of a hermaphrodite deity is not “monstrous,” as it has been
+called. There lies a deep meaning in it. The gods are spirits, beings
+of another order, which the cultivated esthetic sense protests against
+classing as of one or the other gender. Never can the ideal of beauty,
+either physical or moral, be reached until the characteristics of sex
+are lost in the concept of the purely human. In the noblest men of
+history there has often been noted something feminine, a gentleness
+which is not akin to weakness; and the women whose names are ornaments
+to nations have displayed a calm greatness, not unwomanly but something
+more than belongs to woman. Art acknowledges this. In the Vatican Apollo
+we see masculine strength united with maidenly softness; and in the
+traditional face and figure of Christ a still more striking example how
+the devout mind conjoins the traits of both sexes to express the highest
+possibility of the species. “Soaring above the struggle in which the
+real is involved with its limitations, and free from the characteristics
+of gender, the ideal of beauty as well as the ideal of humanity, alike
+maintain a perfect sexual equilibrium.”[67-1]
+
+Another and more familiar expression of the religious emotion, akin to
+the belief in double-sexed deities,--nay, in its physiological aspect
+identical with it, as assuming sexual self-sufficiency, is the myth of
+the Virgin-Mother.
+
+When Columbus first planted the cross on the shores of San Domingo, the
+lay brother Roman Pane, whom he sent forth to convert the natives of
+that island, found among them a story of a virgin Mamóna, whose son
+Yocaúna, a hero and a god, was chief among divinities, and had in the
+old times taught this simple people the arts of peace and guided them
+through the islands.[68-1] When the missionaries penetrated to the
+Iroquois, the Aztecs, the Mayas, and many other tribes, this same story
+was told them with such startling likeness to one they came to tell,
+that they felt certain either St. Thomas or Satan had got the start of
+them in America.
+
+But had these pious men known as well as we do the gentile religions of
+the Old World, they would have seasoned their admiration. Long before
+Christianity was thought of, the myth of the Virgin-Mother of God was in
+the faith of millions, as we have had abundantly shown us of late years
+by certain expounders of Christian dogmas.
+
+How is this strange, impossible belief to be explained? Of what secret,
+unconscious, psychological working was it the expression? Look at its
+result. It is that wherever this doctrine is developed the _status
+matrimonialis_ is held to be less pure, less truly religious, than the
+_status virginitatis_. Such is the teaching to-day in Lhassa, in Rome;
+so it was in Yucatan, where, too, there were nunneries filled with
+spouses of God. I connect it with the general doctrine that chastity in
+either sex is more agreeable to God than marriage, and this belief, I
+think, very commonly arises at a certain stage of development of the
+religious sentiment, when it unconsciously recognises the indisputable
+fact that sex-love, whether in its form of love of woman, family, or
+nation, is not what that sentiment craves. This is first shown by
+rejecting the idea of sex-love in the birth of the god; then his priests
+and priestesses refuse its allurements, and deny all its claims, those
+of kindred, of country, of race, until the act of generation itself is
+held unholy and the thought of sex a sin. By such forcible though rude
+displays do they set forth their unconscious acknowledgment of that
+eternal truth: “He that loveth son or daughter more than Me, is not
+worthy of Me.”
+
+The significance of these words is not that there is an antagonism in
+the forms of love. It is not that man should hate himself, as Pascal,
+following the teachings of the Church, so ably argued; nor that the one
+sex should be set over against the other in sterile abhorrence; nor yet
+that love of country and of kindred is incompatible with that toward the
+Supreme of thought; but it is that each of these lower, shallower,
+evanescent forms of emotion is and must be lost in, subordinated to,
+that highest form to which these words have reference. Reconciliation,
+not abnegation, is what they mean.
+
+Even those religions which teach in its strictness the oneness of God
+have rarely separated from his personality the attribute of sex. He is
+the father, _pater et genitor_, of all beings. The monotheism which we
+find in Greece and India generally took this form. The ancient Hebrews
+emphasized the former, not the latter sense of the word, and thus
+depriving it of its more distinctive characteristics of sex, prepared
+the way for the teachings of Christianity, in which the Supreme Being
+always appears with the attributes of the male, but disconnected from
+the idea of generation.
+
+Singularly enough, the efforts to which this latent incongruity prompts,
+even in persons speaking English, in which tongue the articles and
+adjectives have no genders, point back to the errors of an earlier age.
+A recent prayer by an eminent spiritualist commences:--“Oh Eternal
+Spirit, our Father and our Mother!” The expression illustrates how
+naturally arises the belief in a hermaphrodite god, when once sex is
+associated with deity.
+
+Of all founders of religions, Mohammed first proclaimed a divinity
+without relation to sex. One of his earliest suras reads:
+
+    “He is God alone,
+    God the eternal.
+    He begetteth not, and is not begotten;
+    And there is none like unto him.”
+
+And elsewhere:--
+
+    “He hath no spouse, neither hath he any offspring.”[71-1]
+
+While he expressly acknowledged the divine conception of Jesus, he
+denied the coarse and literal version of that doctrine in vogue among
+the ignorant Christians around him. Enlightened christendom, to-day,
+does not, I believe, differ from him on this point.
+
+Such sexual religions do not arise, as the theory has hitherto been,
+from study and observation of the generative agencies in nature, but
+from the identity of object between love in sense and love in intellect,
+profane and sacred passion. The essence of each is _continuance_,
+preservation; the origin of each is subjective, personal; but the former
+has its root in sensation, the latter in reason.
+
+The sex-difference in organisms, the “abhorrence of self-fertilization”
+which Mr. Darwin speaks of as so conspicuous and inexplicable a
+phenomenon, is but one example of the sway of a law which as action and
+reaction, thesis and antithesis, is common to both elementary motion and
+thought. The fertile and profound fancy of Greece delighted to prefigure
+this truth in significant symbols and myths. Love, Eros, is shown
+carrying the globe, or wielding the club of Hercules; he is the unknown
+spouse of Psyche, the soul; and from the primitive chaos he brings forth
+the ordered world, the Kosmos.
+
+The intimate and strange relation between sensuality and religion, so
+often commented upon and denied, again proven, and always
+misinterpreted, thus receives a satisfactory explanation. Some singular
+manifestations of it, of significance in religious history, are
+presented by the records of insane delusions. They confirm what I have
+above urged, that the association is not one derived from observation
+through intellectual processes, but is a consequence of physiological
+connections, of identity of aim in the distinct realms of thought and
+emotion.
+
+That eminent writer on mental diseases, Schroeder van der Kolk, when
+speaking of the forms of melancholy which arise from physical
+conditions, remarks: “The patient who is melancholy from disorders of
+the generative organs considers himself sinful. His depressed tone of
+mind passes over into religious melancholy; ‘he is forsaken by God; he
+is lost.’ All his afflictions have a religious color.” In a similar
+strain, Feuchtersleben says: “In the female sex especially, the erotic
+delusion, unknown to the patient herself, often assumes the color of the
+religious.”[73-1] “The unaccomplished sexual designs of nature,”
+observes a later author speaking of the effects of the single life,
+“lead to brooding over supposed miseries which suggest devotion and
+religious exercise as the nepenthe to soothe the morbid longings.”[73-2]
+
+Stimulate the religious sentiment and you arouse the passion of love,
+which will be directed as the temperament and individual culture prompt.
+Develope very prominently any one form of love, and by a native affinity
+it will seize upon and consecrate to its own use whatever religious
+aspirations the individual has. This is the general law of their
+relation.
+
+All the lower forms of love point to one to which they are the gradual
+ascent, both of the individual and on a grander scale of the race, to
+wit, the love of God. This is the passion for the highest attainable
+truth, a passion which, as duty, prompts to the strongest action and to
+the utter sacrifice of all other longings. No speculative acquaintance
+with propositions satisfies it, no egotistic construction of systems,
+but the truth expressed in life, the truth as that which alone either
+has or can give being and diuturnity, this is its food, for which it
+thirsts with holy ardor. Here is the genuine esoteric gnosis, the sacred
+secret, which the rude and selfish wishes of the savage, the sensual
+rites of Babylon, “mother of harlots,” and the sublimely unselfish
+dreams of a “religion of humanity,” have alike had in their hearts, but
+had no capacity to interpret, no words to articulate.
+
+Related to this emotional phase of the religious sentiment is the
+theurgic power of certain natural objects over some persons. The
+biblical scholar Kitto confesses that the moon exerted a strange
+influence on his mind, stirring his devotional nature, and he owns that
+it would not have been hard for him to join the worshippers of the
+goddess of the night. Wilhelm von Humboldt in one of his odes refers to
+similar feelings excited in him by the gloom and murmur of groves. The
+sacred poets and the religious arts generally acknowledge this
+_fascination_, as it has been called, which certain phenomena have for
+religious temperaments.
+
+The explanation which suggests itself is that of individual and
+ancestral association. In the case of Kitto it was probably the latter.
+His sensitively religious nature experienced in gazing at the moon an
+impression inherited from some remote ancestor who had actually made it
+the object of ardent worship. The study of the laws of inherited memory,
+so successfully pursued of late by Professor Laycock, take away anything
+eccentric about this explanation, though I scarcely expect it will be
+received by one unacquainted with those laws.
+
+The emotional aspect of religion is not exhausted by the varieties of
+fear and hope and love. Wonder, awe, admiration, the æsthetic emotions,
+in fact all the active principles of man’s mental economy are at times
+excited and directed by the thought of supernatural power. Some have
+attempted to trace the religious sentiment exclusively to one or the
+other of these. But they are all incidental and subsidiary emotions.
+
+Certain mental diseases, by abnormally stimulating the emotions,
+predispose strongly to religious fervor. Epilepsy is one of these, and
+in Swedenborg and Mohammed, both epileptics, we see distinguished
+examples of religious mystics, who, no doubt honestly, accepted the
+visions which accompanied their disease as revelations from another
+world. Very many epileptics are subject to such delusions, and their
+insanity is usually of a religious character.
+
+On the other hand, devotional excitement is apt to bring about mental
+alienation. Every violent revival has left after it a small crop of
+religious melancholies and lunatics. Competent authorities state that in
+modern communities religious insanity is most frequent in those sects
+who are given to emotional forms of religion, the Methodists and
+Baptists for example; whereas it is least known among Roman Catholics,
+where doubt and anxiety are at once allayed by an infallible referee,
+and among the Quakers, where enthusiasm is discouraged and with whom the
+restraint of emotion is a part of discipline.[76-1] Authoritative
+assurance in many disturbed conditions of mind is sufficient to relieve
+the mental tension and restore health.
+
+If, by what has been said, it is clear that the religious sentiment has
+its origin in a wish, it is equally clear that not every wish is
+concerned in it. The objects which a man can attain by his own unaided
+efforts, are not those which he makes the subjects of his prayers; nor
+are the periodic and regular occurrences in nature, how impressive they
+may be, much thought of in devotional moods. The moment that an event is
+recognized to be under fixed law, it is seen to be inappropriate to seek
+by supplication to alter it. No devotee, acquainted with the theory of
+the tides, would, like Canute the King, think of staying their waves
+with words. Eclipses and comets, once matters of superstitious terror,
+have been entirely shorn of this attribute by astronomical discovery.
+Even real and tragic misfortunes, if believed to be such as flow from
+fixed law, and especially if they can be predicted sometime before they
+arrive, do not excite religious feeling. As Bishop Hall quaintly
+observes, referring to a curious medieval superstition: “Crosses, after
+the nature of the cockatrice, die if they be foreseen.”
+
+Only when the event suggests the direct action of _mind_, of some free
+intelligence, is it possible for the religious sentiment to throw around
+it the aureole of sanctity. Obviously when natural law was little known,
+this included vastly more occurrences than civilized men now think of
+holding to be of religious import. Hence the objective and material form
+of religion is always fostered by ignorance, and this is the form which
+prevails exclusively in uncultivated societies.
+
+The manifestations of motion which the child first notices, or which the
+savage chiefly observes, relate to himself. They are associated with the
+individuals around him who minister to his wants; the gratification of
+these depend on the volitions of others. As he grows in strength he
+learns to supply his own wants, and to make good his own volitions as
+against those of his fellows. But he soon learns that many events occur
+to thwart him, out of connection with any known individual, and these
+of a dreadful nature, hurricanes and floods, hunger, sickness and death.
+These pursue him everywhere, foiling his plans, and frustrating his
+hopes. It is not the show of power, the manifestations of might, that he
+cares for in these events, but that they touch _him_, that they spoil
+_his_ projects, and render vain _his_ desires; _this_ forces him to cast
+about for some means to protect himself against them.
+
+In accordance with the teaching of his experience, and true moreover to
+the laws of mind, he refers them, collectively, to a mental source, to a
+vague individuality. This loose, undefined conception of an unknown
+volition or power forms the earliest notion of Deity. It is hardly
+associated with personality, yet it is broadly separated from the human
+and the known. In the languages of savage tribes, as I have elsewhere
+remarked, “a word is usually found comprehending all manifestations of
+the unseen world, yet conveying no sense of personal unity.”[78-1]
+
+By some means to guard against this undefined marplot to the
+accomplishment of his wishes, is the object of his religion. Its
+primitive forms are therefore defensive and conciliatory. The hopes of
+the savage extend little beyond the reach of his own arm, and the tenor
+of his prayers is that the gods be neuter. If they do not interfere he
+can take care of himself. His religion is a sort of assurance of life.
+
+Not only the religion of the savage, but every religion is this and not
+much but this. With nobler associations and purer conceptions of life,
+the religious sentiment ever contains these same elements and depends
+upon them for its vigor and growth. It everywhere springs from _a desire
+whose fruition depends upon unknown power_. To give the religious wish a
+definition in the technic of psychology, I define it as: _Expectant
+Attention, directed toward an event not under known control, with a
+concomitant idea of Cause or Power_.
+
+Three elements are embraced in this definition, a wish, an idea of
+power, ignorance of the nature of that power. The first term prompts the
+hope, the third suggests the fear, and the second creates the
+personality, which we see set forth in every religious system. Without
+these three, religion as dogma becomes impossible.
+
+If a man wishes for nothing, neither the continuance of present comforts
+nor future blessings, why need he care for the gods? Who can hurt him,
+so long as he stays in his frame of mind? He may well shake off all
+religions and every fear, for he is stronger than God, and the universe
+holds nothing worth his effort to get. This was the doctrine taught by
+Buddha Sakyanuni, a philosopher opposed to every form of religion, but
+who is the reputed founder of the most numerous sect now on the globe.
+He sought to free the minds of his day from the burden of the Brahmanic
+ritual, by cultivating a frame of mind beyond desire or admiration, and
+hence beyond the need of a creed.
+
+The second element, the idea of power, is an intellectual abstraction.
+Its character is fluctuating. At first it is most vague, corresponding
+to what in its most general sense we term “the supernatural.” Later, it
+is regarded under its various exhibitions as separable phenomena, as in
+polytheisms, in which must be included trinitarian systems and the
+dualistic doctrine of the Parsees. But among the Egyptians, Greeks and
+Aztecs, as well as in the words of Zarathustra and in the theology of
+Christianity, we frequently meet with the distinct recognition of the
+fundamental unity of all power. At core, all religions have seeds of
+monotheism. When we generalize the current concepts of motion or force
+beyond individual displays and relative measures of quantity, we
+recognize their qualitative identity, and appreciate the logical unity
+under which we must give them abstract expression. This is the process,
+often unconscious, which has carried most original thinkers to
+monotheistic doctrines, no matter whence they started.
+
+The idea of power controlling the unknown would of itself have been of
+no interest to man had he not assumed certain relations to exist between
+him and it on the one hand, and it and things on the other. A
+dispassionate inquiry disproves entirely the view maintained by various
+modern writers, prominently by Bain, Spencer and Darwin, that the
+contemplation of power or majesty in external nature prompts of itself
+the religious sentiment, or could have been its historical origin. Such
+a view overlooks the most essential because the personal factor of
+religion--the wish. Far more correct are the words of David Hume, in the
+last century, by which he closes his admirable _Natural History of
+Religions_: “We may conclude, therefore, that in all nations the first
+ideas of religion arose not from a contemplation of the works of nature,
+but from a concern with regard to the events of life, and from the
+incessant hopes and fears which actuate the human mind.” A century
+before him Hobbes had written in his terse way: “The natural seed of
+religion lies in these four things: the fear of spirits, ignorance of
+secondary causes, the conciliation of those we fear, and the assumption
+of accidents for omens.”[81-1] The sentiment of religion is in its
+origin and nature purely personal and subjective. The aspect of power
+would never have led man to worship, unless he had assumed certain
+relations between the unseen author or authors of that power and
+himself. What these assumptions were, I shall discuss in the next
+chapter.
+
+Finally, as has so often been remarked in a flippant and contemptuous
+way,[82-1] which the fact when rightly understood nowise justifies,
+religion cannot exist without the aid of ignorance. It is really and
+truly the mother of devotion. The sentiment of religious fear does not
+apply to a _known_ power--to the movement of an opposing army, or the
+action of gravity in an avalanche for example. The prayer which under
+such circumstances is offered, is directed to an unknown intelligence,
+supposed to control the visible forces. As science--which is the
+knowledge of physical laws--extends, the object of prayer becomes more
+and more intangible and remote. What we formerly feared, we learn to
+govern. No one would pray God to avert the thunderbolt, if lightning
+rods invariably protected houses. The Swiss clergy opposed the system of
+insuring growing crops because it made their parishioners indifferent to
+prayers for the harvest. With increasing knowledge and the security
+which it brings, religious terror lessens, and the wants which excite
+the sentiment of devotion diminish in number and change in character.
+
+This is apt to cast general discredit on religion. When we make the
+discovery that so many events which excited religious apprehension in
+the minds of our forefathers are governed by inflexible laws which we
+know all about, we not only smile in pity at their superstitions, but
+make the mental inference that the diminished emotion of this kind we
+yet experience is equally groundless. If at the bottom of all displays
+of power lies a physical necessity, our qualms are folly. Therefore, to
+the pious soul which still finds the bulk of its religious aspirations
+and experiences in the regions of the emotions and sensations, the
+progress of science seems and really does threaten its cherished
+convictions. The audacious mind of man robs the gods of power when he
+can shield himself from their anger. The much-talked-of conflict between
+religion and science is no fiction; it exists, and is bound to go on,
+and religion will ever get the worst of it until it learns that the
+wishes to which it is its proper place to minister are not those for
+pleasure and prosperity, not for abundant harvests and seasonable
+showers, not success in battle and public health, not preservation from
+danger and safety on journeys, not much of anything that is spoken of
+in litanies and books of devotion.
+
+Let a person who still clings to this form of religion imagine that
+science had reached perfection in the arts of life; that by skilled
+adaptations of machinery, accidents by sea and land were quite avoided;
+that observation and experience had taught to foresee with certainty and
+to protect effectively against all meteoric disturbances; that a
+perfected government insured safety of person and property; that a
+consummate agriculture rendered want and poverty unknown; that a
+developed hygiene completely guarded against disease; and that a
+painless extinction of life in advanced age could surely be calculated
+upon; let him imagine this, and then ask himself what purpose religion
+would subserve in such a state of things? For whatever would occupy it
+then--if it could exist at all--should _alone_ occupy it now.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[49-1] _Address to the Clergy_, pp. 42, 43, 67, 106, etc.
+
+[49-2] E. von Hardenberg [Novalis], _Werke_, s. 364.
+
+[50-1] _Treatises Devotional and Practical_, p. 188. London, 1836.
+
+[50-2] In Aramaic _dachla_ means either a god or fear. The Arabic Allah
+and the Hebrew Eloah are by some traced to a common root, signifying to
+tremble, to show fear, though the more usual derivation is from one
+meaning to be strong.
+
+[51-1] “Wen die Hoffnung, den hat auch die Furcht verlassen.” Arthur
+Schopenhauer, _Parerga und Paralipomena_. Bd. ii. s. 474.
+
+[52-1] Alexander Bain, _On the Study of Character_, p. 128. See also his
+remarks in his work, _The Emotions and the Will_, p. 84, and in his
+notes to James Mill’s _Analysis of the Mind_, vol. i., pp. 124-125.
+
+[53-1] Wilhelm von Humboldt’s _Gesammelte Werke_, Bd. vii., s. 62.
+
+[53-2] De Senancourt, _Obermann_, Lettre xli.
+
+[54-1] _Elements of Medical Psychology_, p. 331.
+
+[56-1] Lessing’s _Gesammelte Werke_. B. ii. s. 443 (Leipzig, 1855).
+
+[57-1] See Exodus, xxiii. 12; Psalms, lv. 6; Isaiah, xxx. 15; Jeremiah,
+vi. 16; Hebrews, v. 9. So St. Augustine: “et nos post opera nostra
+sabbato vitæ eternæ requiescamus in te.” _Confessionum Lib._ xiii. cap.
+36.
+
+[59-1] “Filioli, diligite alterutrum.” This is the “testamentum
+Johannis,” as recorded from tradition by St. Jerome in his notes to the
+Epistle to the Galatians.
+
+[59-2] Alexander Bain, _The Senses and the Intellect_, Chap. I.
+
+[60-1] _A Christian Directory._ Part I. Chap. III.
+
+[60-2] “The very nature of affection, the idea itself, necessarily
+implies resting in its object as an end.” _Fifteen Sermons by Joseph
+Butler, late Lord Bishop of Durham_, Preface, and p. 147 (London, 1841).
+
+[61-1] Dr. J. Milner Fothergill, _Journal of Mental Science_, Oct. 1874,
+p. 198.
+
+[62-1] The most recent work on the topic is that of Messrs. Westropp and
+Wake, _The Influence of the Phallic Idea on the Religions of Antiquity_,
+London, 1874.
+
+[63-1] Schoolcraft’s _History and Statistics of the Indian Tribes_, Vol.
+iv. p. 224.
+
+[63-2] Richardson, _Arctic Expedition_, p. 412.
+
+[63-3] Most physicians have occasion to notice the almost entire loss in
+modern life of the instinctive knowledge of the sex relation. Sir James
+Paget has lately treated of the subject in one of his _Clinical
+Lectures_ (London, 1875).
+
+[64-1] Dr. J. P. Catlow, _Principles of Aesthetic Medicine_, p. 112.
+This thoughtful though obscure writer has received little recognition
+even in the circle of professional readers.
+
+[66-1] This is probably what was condemned in Deuteronomy xxii. 5, and
+Romans, i. 26.
+
+[66-2] “The worship of Siva is too severe, too stern for the softer
+emotions of love, and all his temples are quite free from any allusions
+to it.”--Ferguson, _Tree and Serpent Worship_, p. 71.
+
+[67-1] W. von Humboldt, in his admirable essay _Ueber die Männliche und
+Weibliche Form_ (_Werke, Bd. I._). Elsewhere he adds: “In der Natur des
+Gœttlichen strebt alles der Reinheit und Vollkommenheit des
+Gattungsbegriff entgegen.”
+
+[68-1] I have collected the Haitian myths, chiefly from the manuscript
+_Historia Apologetica de las Indias Occidentales_ of Las Casas, in an
+essay published in 1871, _The Arawack Language of Guiana in its
+Linguistic and Ethnological Relations_.
+
+[71-1] _The Koran_, Suras,[TN-5] cxii., lxii., and especially xix.
+
+[73-1] _Elements of Medical Psychology_, p. 281.
+
+[73-2] J. Thompson Dickson, _The Science and Practice of Medicine in
+relation to Mind_, p. 383 (New York, 1874).
+
+[76-1] Dr. Joseph Williams, _Insanity, its Causes, Prevention and Cure_,
+pp. 68, 69; Dr. A. L. Wigan, _The Duality of the Mind_, p. 437.
+
+[78-1] _The Myths of the New World, a Treatise on the Symbolism and
+Mythology of the Red Race of America_, p. 145.
+
+[81-1] _Leviathan, De Homine_, cap. xii.
+
+[82-1] For instance, of later writers from whom we might expect better
+things, Arthur Schopenhauer. He says in his _Parerga_ (Bd. ii. s. 290):
+“Ein gewisser Grad allgemeiner Unwissenheit ist die Bedingung aller
+Religionen;” a correct remark, and equally correct of the pursuit of
+science and philosophy. But the ignorance which is the condition of such
+pursuit is not a part of science or philosophy, and no more is it of
+religion.
+
+
+
+
+THE RATIONAL POSTULATES OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     Religion often considered merely an affair of the feelings. On the
+     contrary, it must assume at least three premises in reason, its
+     “rational postulates.”
+
+     I. There is Order in things.
+
+     The religious wish involves the idea of cause. This idea not
+     exhausted by uniformity of sequence, but by quantitative relation,
+     that is, Order as opposed to Chance. Both science and religion
+     assume order in things; but the latter includes the Will of God in
+     this order, while the former rejects it.
+
+     II. This order is one of Intelligence.
+
+     The order is assumed to be a comprehensible one, whether it be of
+     law wholly or of volition also.
+
+     III. All Intelligence is one in kind.
+
+     This postulate indispensable to religion, although it has been
+     attacked by religious as well as irreligious philosophers. Its
+     decision must rest on the absoluteness of the formal laws of
+     thought. The theory that these are products of natural selections
+     disproved by showing, (1) that they hold true throughout the
+     material universe, and (2) that they do not depend on it for their
+     verity. Reason sees beyond phenomena, but descries nothing alien to
+     itself.
+
+     The formal laws of reason are purposive. They therefore afford a
+     presumption of a moral government of the Universe, and point to an
+     Intelligence fulfilling an end through the order in physical laws.
+     Such an assumption, common to all historic religions, is thus
+     justified by induction.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE RATIONAL POSTULATES OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+In philosophical discussions of religion as well as in popular
+exhortations upon it, too exclusive stress has been laid upon its
+emotional elements. “It is,” says Professor Bain, “an affair of the
+feelings.”[87-1] “The essence of religion,” observes John Stuart Mill,
+“is the strong and earnest direction of the emotions and desires towards
+an ideal object.” “It must be allowed,” says Dr. Mansel,[87-2] “that it
+is not through reasoning that men obtain their first intimation of their
+relation to a deity.” In writers and preachers of the semi-mystical
+school, which embraces most of the ardent revivalists of the day, we
+constantly hear the “feeling of dependence” quoted as the radical
+element of religious thought.[87-3] In America Theodore Parker, and in
+Germany Schleiermacher, were brilliant exponents of this doctrine. To
+the latter the philosopher Hegel replied that if religion is a matter of
+feeling, an affectionate dog is the best Christian.
+
+This answer was not flippant, but founded on the true and only worthy
+conception of the religious sentiment. We have passed in review the
+emotions which form a part of it, and recognize their power. But neither
+these nor any other mere emotions, desires or feelings can explain even
+the lowest religion. It depends for its existence on the essential
+nature of reason. We cannot at all allow, as Dr. Mansel asks of us, that
+man’s first intimations of Deity came in any other way than as one of
+the ripest fruits of reason. Were such the case, we should certainly
+find traces of them among brutes and idiots, which we do not. The slight
+signs of religious actions thought to have been noticed by some in the
+lower animals, by Sir John Lubbock in ants, and by Charles Darwin in
+dogs, if authenticated, would vindicate for these species a much closer
+mental kinship to man than we have yet supposed.
+
+If we dispassionately analyze any religion whatever, paying less
+attention to what its professed teachers say it is, than to what the
+mass of the votaries believe it to be, we shall see that every form of
+adoration unconsciously assumes certain premises in reason, which give
+impulse and character to its emotional and active manifestations. They
+are its data or axioms, or, as I shall call them, its “rational
+postulates.” They can, I believe, be reduced to three, but not to a
+lesser number.
+
+Before the religious feeling acquires the distinctness of a notion and
+urges to conscious action, it must assume at least these three
+postulates, and without them it cannot rise into cognition. These, their
+necessary character and their relations, I shall set forth in this
+chapter.
+
+They are as follows:--
+
+    I. There is Order in things.
+   II. This order is one of Intelligence.
+  III. All Intelligence is one in kind.
+
+I. The conscious or unconscious purpose of the religious sentiment, as
+I have shown in the last chapter, is the _fruition of a wish_, the
+success of which depends upon unknown power. The votary asks help where
+he cannot help himself. He expects it through an exertion of power,
+through an efficient cause. Obviously therefore, he is acting on the
+logical idea of Causality. This underlies and is essential to the
+simplest prayer. He extends it, moreover, out of the limits of
+experience into the regions of hypothesis. He has carried the analogy
+of observation into the realm of abstract conceptions. No matter if he
+does believe that the will of God is the efficient cause. Perhaps he is
+right; at any rate he cannot be denied the privilege of regarding
+volition as a co-operating cause. Limited at first to the transactions
+which most concerned men, the conception of order as a divine act
+extended itself to the known universe. Herodotus derives the Greek word
+for God θεος from a root which gives the meaning “to set in order,” and
+the Scandinavians gave the same sense to their word, _Regin_.[90-1]
+Thus the abstract idea of cause or power is a postulate of all
+religious thought. Let us examine its meaning.
+
+Every reader, the least versed in the history of speculative thought for
+the last hundred years, knows how long and violent the discussions have
+been of the relations of “cause and effect.” Startled by the criticisms
+of Hume, Kant sought to elude them by distinguishing between two spheres
+of thought, the understanding and the reason. Sir William Hamilton at
+first included the “principle of sufficient reason’[TN-6] in the laws of
+thought, but subsequently rejected it as pertaining to judgments, and
+therefore material, not formal. Schopenhauer claimed to have traced it
+to a fourfold root, and Mill with most of the current English schools,
+Bain, Austin, Spencer, &c., maintained that it meant nothing but
+“uniformity of sequence.”
+
+It would be vain to touch upon a discussion so extended as this. In the
+first chapter I have remarked that the idea of cause does not enter into
+the conceptions of pure logic or thought. It is, as Hamilton saw,
+material. I shall only pause to show what is meant by the term “cause”
+in the physical sciences. When one event follows another, time after
+time, we have “uniformity of sequence.” Suppose the constitution of the
+race were so happy that we slept at night only, and always awoke a few
+moments before sunrise. Such a sequence quite without exception, should,
+if uniform experience is the source of the idea of cause, justly lead to
+the opinion that the sun rises because man awakes. As we know this
+conclusion would be erroneous, some other element beside sequence must
+complete a real cause. If now, it were shown that the relation of cause
+to effect which we actually entertain and cannot help entertaining is in
+some instances flatly contrary to all experience, then we must
+acknowledge that the idea of cause asks to confirm it something quite
+independent of experience, that is abstract. But such examples are
+common. We never saw two objects continue to approach without meeting;
+but we are constrained to believe that lines of certain descriptions can
+forever approach and never meet.
+
+The uniformity of sequence is, in fact, in the physical sciences never
+assumed to express the relation of cause and effect, until the
+connection between the antecedent and consequent can be set forth
+abstractly in mathematical formulæ. The sequence of the planetary
+motions was discovered by Kepler, but it was reserved for Newton to
+prove the theoretical necessity of this motion and establish its
+mathematical relations. The sequence of sensations to impressions is
+well known, but the law of the sequence remains the desideratum in
+psychology.[92-1]
+
+Science, therefore, has been correctly defined as “the knowledge of
+system.” Its aim is to ascertain the laws of phenomena, to define the
+“order in things.” Its fundamental postulate is that order exists, that
+all things are “lapped in universal law.” It acknowledges no exception,
+and it considers that all law is capable of final expression in
+quantity, in mathematical symbols. It is the manifest of reason, “whose
+unceasing endeavor is to banish the idea of Chance.”[93-1]
+
+We thus see that its postulate is the same as that of the religious
+sentiment. Wherein then do they differ? Not in the recognition of
+chance. Accident, chance, does not exist for the religious sense in any
+stage of its growth. Everywhere religion proclaims in the words of
+Dante:--
+
+              “le cose tutte quante,
+    Hann’ ordine tra loro;”
+
+everywhere in the more optimistic faiths it holds this order, in the
+words of St. Augustine, to be one “most fair, of excellent
+things.”[93-2]
+
+What we call “the element of chance” is in its scientific sense that of
+which we do not know the law; while to the untutored religious mind it
+is the manifestation of divine will. The Kamschatkan, when his boat is
+lost in the storm, attributes it to the vengeance of a god angered
+because he scraped the snow from his shoes with a knife, instead of
+using a piece of wood; if a Dakota has bad luck in hunting, he says it
+is caused by his wife stepping over a bone and thus irritating a
+spirit. The idea of cause, the sentiment of order, is as strong as ever,
+but it differs from that admitted by science in recognizing as a
+possible efficient motor that which is incapable of mathematical
+expression, namely, a volition, a will. _Voluntas Dei asylum
+ignorantiæ_, is no unkind description of such an opinion.
+
+So long as this recognition is essential to the life of a religious
+system, just so long it will and must be in conflict with science, with
+every prospect of the latter gaining the victory. Is the belief in
+volition as an efficient cause indispensable to the religious sentiment
+in general? For this vital question we are not yet prepared, but must
+first consider the remaining rational postulates it assumes. The second
+is
+
+II. This order is one of intelligence.
+
+By this is not meant that the order is one of _an_ Intelligence, but
+simply that the order which exists in things is conformable to man’s
+thinking power,--that if he knows the course of events he can appreciate
+their relations,--that facts can be subsumed under thoughts. Whatever
+scheme of order there were, would be nothing to him unless it were
+conformable to his intellectual functions. It could not form the matter
+of his thought.[94-1]
+
+Science, which deals in the first instance exclusively with phenomena,
+also assumes this postulate. It recognizes that when the formal laws,
+which it is its mission to define, are examined apart from their
+material expression, when they are emptied of their phenomenal contents,
+they show themselves to be logical constructions, reasoned truths, in
+other words, forms of intelligence. The votary who assumes the order one
+of volition alone, or volition with physical necessity, still assumes
+the volitions are as comprehensible as are his own; that they are
+purposive; that the order, even if not clear to him, is both real and
+reasonable. Were it not so, did he believe that the gods carried out
+their schemes through a series of caprices inconceivable to
+intelligence, through absolute chance, insane caprice, or blind fate, he
+could neither see in occurrences the signs of divine rule, nor hope for
+aid in obtaining his wishes. In fact, order is only conceivable to man
+at all as an order conformable to his own intelligence.
+
+This second postulate embraces what has been recently called the
+“Principle of continuity,” indispensable to sane thought of any kind. A
+late work defines it as “the trust that the Supreme Governor of the
+Universe will not put us to permanent intellectual confusion.”[96-1]
+Looked at closely, it is the identification of order with reason.
+
+The third and final postulate of the religious sentiment is that
+
+III. All intelligence is one in kind.
+
+Religion demands that there be a truth which is absolutely true, and
+that there be a goodness which is universally and eternally good. Each
+system claims the possession, and generally the exclusive possession,
+of this goodness and truth. They are right in maintaining these views,
+for unless such is the case, unless there is an absolute truth,
+cognizable to man, yet not transcended by any divine intelligence, all
+possible religion becomes mere child’s play, and its professed
+interpretation of mysteries but trickery.
+
+The Grecian sophists used to meet the demonstrations of the
+mathematicians and philosophers by conceding that they did indeed set
+forth the truth, so far as man’s intelligence goes, but that to the
+intelligence of other beings--a bat or an angel, for example--they might
+not hold good at all; that there is a different truth for different
+intelligences; that the intelligence makes the truth; and that as for
+the absolutely true, true to every intelligence, there is no such thing.
+They acknowledged that a simple syllogism, constructed on these
+premises, made their own assertions partake of the doubtful character
+that was by them ascribed to other human knowledge. But this they
+gracefully accepted as the inevitable conclusion of reasoning. Their
+position is defended to-day by the advocates of “positivism,” who
+maintain the relativity of all truth.
+
+But such a conclusion is wholly incompatible with the religious mind. It
+must assume that there are some common truths, true infinitely, and
+therefore, that in all intelligence there is an essential unity of kind.
+“This postulation,” says a close thinker, “is the very foundation and
+essence of religion. Destroy it, and you destroy the very possibility of
+religion.”[97-1]
+
+Clear as this would seem to be to any reflective mind, yet, strange to
+say, it is to-day the current fashion for religious teachers to deny it.
+Scared by a phantasm of their own creation, they have deserted the only
+position in which it is possible to defend religion at all. Afraid of
+the accusation that they make God like man, they have removed Him
+beyond the pale of all intelligence, and logically, therefore,
+annihilated every conception of Him.
+
+Teachers and preachers do not tire of telling their followers that God
+is incomprehensible; that his ways are past finding out; that he is the
+Unconditioned, the Infinite, the Unknowable. They really mean that he is
+another order of intelligence, which, to quote a famous comparison of
+Spinoza, has the same name as ours, but is no more one with it than the
+dog is one with his namesake, the dog-star!
+
+They are eagerly seconded in this position by a school of writers who
+distinctly see where such a doctrine leads, and who do not hesitate to
+carry it home. Mr. Mill is right in his scorn for those who “erect the
+incurable limitations of the human conceptive faculty into laws of the
+outward universe,” if there are such limitations. And Mr. Spencer is
+justified in condemning “the transcendent audacity which passes current
+as piety,” if his definition of the underlying verity of religion is
+admitted--that it is “the consciousness of an inscrutable power which,
+in its nature, transcends intuition, and is beyond imagination.”[98-1]
+They are but following the orthodox Sir William Hamilton, who says:
+“Creation must be thought as the incomprehensible evolution of power
+into energy.”[99-1] We are to think that which by the terms of the
+proposition is unthinkable! A most wise master!
+
+Let it be noted that the expressions such as inscrutable,
+incomprehensible, unknowable, etc., which such writers use, are avowedly
+not limited to man’s intelligence in its present state of cultivation,
+but are applied to his _kind_ of intelligence, no matter how far
+trained. They mean that the inscrutable, etc., is not merely not _at
+present_ open to man’s observation--that were a truism--but that it
+cannot be subsumed under the laws of his reasoning powers. In other
+words, they deny that all intelligence is one in _kind_. Some accept
+this fully, and concede that what are called the laws of order, as shown
+by science, are only matters of experience, true here and now, not
+necessarily and absolutely true.
+
+This is a consistent inference, and applies, of course, with equal force
+to all moral laws and religious dogmas.
+
+The arguments brought against such opinions have been various. The old
+reply to the sophists has been dressed in modern garb, and it has been
+repeatedly put that if no statement is really true, then this one, to
+wit “no statement is really true,” also is not true; and if that is the
+case, then there are statements which really are true. The theory of
+evolution as a dogma has been attacked by its own maxims; in asserting
+that all knowledge is imperfect, it calls its own verity into question.
+If all truth is relative, then this at least is absolutely true.
+
+It has also been noted that all such words as incomprehensible,
+unconditioned, infinite, unknowable, are in their nature privatives,
+they are not a thought but are only one element of a thought. As has
+been shown in the first chapter, every thought is made up of a positive
+and a privative, and it is absurd and unnatural to separate the one from
+the other. The concept man, regarded as a division of the higher concept
+animal, is made up of man and not-man. In so far as other animals are
+included under the term “not-man” they do not come into intelligent
+cognition; but that does not mean that they cannot do so. So “the
+unconditioned” is really a part of the thought of “the conditioned,” the
+“unknowable” a part of the “knowable,” the “infinite” a part of the
+thought of the “finite.” Under material images these privatives, as
+such, cannot be expressed; but in pure thought which deals with symbols
+and types alone, they can be.
+
+But if the abstract laws of thought themselves are confined in the
+limits of one kind of intelligence, then we cannot take an appeal to
+them to attack this sophism. Therefore on maintaining their integrity
+the discussion must finally rest. This has been fully recognized by
+thinkers, one of whom has not long since earnestly called attention to
+“the urgent necessity of fathoming the psychical mechanism on which
+rests all our intellectual life.”[101-1]
+
+In this endeavor the attempt has been made to show that the logical laws
+are derived in accordance with the general theory of evolution from the
+natural or material laws of thinking. These, as I have previously
+remarked, are those of the association of ideas, and come under the
+general heads of contiguity and similarity. Such combinations are
+independent of the aim of the logical laws, which is _correct_ thinking.
+A German writer, Dr. Windelband, has therefore argued that as
+experience, strengthened by hereditary transmission, continued to show
+that the particular combinations which are in accord with what we call
+the laws of thought furnished the best, that is, the most useful
+results, they were adopted in preference to others and finally assumed
+as the criteria of truth.
+
+Of course it follows from this that as these laws are merely the outcome
+of human experience they can have no validity outside of it.
+Consequently, adds the writer I have quoted, just as the study of optics
+teaches us that the human eye yields a very different picture of the
+external world from that given by the eye of a fly, for instance, and
+as each of them is equally far from the reality, so the truth which our
+intelligence enables us to reach is not less remote from that which is
+the absolutely true. He considers that this is proven by the very nature
+of the “law of contradiction” itself, which must be inconsistent with
+the character of absolute thought. For in the latter, positive truth
+only can exist, therefore no negation, and no law about the relation of
+affirmative to negative.[102-1]
+
+The latter criticism assumes that negation is of the nature of error, a
+mistake drawn from the use of the negative in applied logic. For in
+formal logic, whether as quantity or quality, that is, in pure
+mathematics or abstract thought, the reasoning is just as correct when
+negatives are employed as when positives, as I have remarked before. The
+other criticism is more important, for if we can reach the conclusion
+that the real laws of the universe are other than as we understand them,
+then our intelligence is not of a kind to represent them.
+
+Such an opinion can be refuted directly. The laws which we profess to
+know are as operative in the remotest nebulae as in the planet we
+inhabit. It is altogether likely that countless forms of intelligent
+beings inhabit the starry wastes, receiving through sensory apparatus
+widely different from ours very diverse impressions of the external
+world. All this we know, but we also know that if those beings have
+defined the laws which underlie phenomena, they have found them to be
+the same that we have; for were they in the least different, in
+principle or application, they could not furnish the means, as those we
+know do, of predicting the recurrence of the celestial motions with
+unfailing accuracy. Therefore the demonstrations of pure mathematics,
+such as the relation of an absciss to an ordinate, or of the diameter to
+the circumference, must be universally true; and hence the logical laws
+which are the ultimate criteria of these truths must also be true to
+every intelligence, real or possible.[103-1]
+
+Another and forcible reply to these objections is that the laws which
+our intelligence has reached and recognizes as universally true are not
+only not derived from experience, but are in direct opposition to and
+are constantly contradicted by it. Neither sense nor imagination has
+ever portrayed a perfect circle in which the diameter bore to the
+circumference the exact proportion which we know it does bear. The very
+fact that we have learned that our senses are wholly untrustworthy, and
+that experience is always fallacious, shows that we have tests of truth
+depending on some other faculty. “Each series of connected facts in
+nature furnishes the intimation of an order more exact than that which
+it directly manifests.”[104-1]
+
+But, it has been urged, granted that we have reached something like
+positive knowledge of those laws which are the _order_ of the
+manifestation of phenomena, the real Inscrutable, the mysterious
+Unknowable, escapes us still; this is the _nature_ of phenomenal
+manifestation, “the secret of the Power manifested in Existence.”[104-2]
+At this point the physicist trips and falls; and here, too, the
+metaphysician stumbles.
+
+I have already spoken of our aptitude to be frightened by a chimera, and
+deceived by such words as “nature” and “cause.” Laws and rules, by which
+we express Order, are restrictive only in a condition of intelligence
+short of completeness, only therefore in that province of thought which
+concerns itself with material facts. The musician is not fettered by the
+laws of harmony, but only by those of discord. The truly virtuous man,
+remarks Aristotle, never has occasion to practise self-denial. Hence,
+mathematically, “the theory of the intellectual action involves the
+recognition of a sphere of thought from which all limits are
+withdrawn.”[105-1] True freedom, real being, is only possible when law
+as such is inexistent. Only the lawless makes the law. When the idea of
+the laws of order thus disappears in that of free function consistent
+with perfect order, when, as Kant expresses it, we ascend from the
+contemplation of things acting according to law, to action according to
+the representation of law,[105-2] we can, without audacity, believe that
+we have penetrated the secret of existence, that we have reached the
+limits of explanation and found one wholly satisfying the highest
+reason. Intelligence, not apart from phenomena, but parallel with them,
+not under law, but through perfect harmony above it, _power one with
+being_, the will which is “the essence of reason,” the emanant cause of
+phenomena, immanent only by the number of its relations we have not
+learned, this is the satisfying and exhaustive solution. The folly lies
+not in claiming reason as the absolute, but in assuming that the
+absolute is beyond and against reason.
+
+There is nothing new in this explanation; and it is none the worse for
+being old. If Anaxagoras discerned it dimly, and many a one since him
+has spoken of Intelligence, Reason, Nous or Logos as the constructive
+factor of the creation; if “all the riper religions of the Orient
+assumed as their fundamental principle that unless the Highest
+penetrates all parts of the Universe, and itself conditions whatever is
+conditioned, no universal order, no Kosmos, no real existence is
+thinkable;”[106-1] such inadequate expressions should never obscure the
+truth that reason in its loftiest flights descries nothing nobler than
+itself.
+
+The relative, as its name implies, for ever presupposes and points to
+the absolute, the latter an Intelligence also, not one that renders ours
+futile and fallacious, but one that imparts to ours the capacity we
+possess of reaching eternal and ubiquitous truth. The severest
+mathematical reasoning forces us to this conclusion, and we can dispense
+with speculation about it.
+
+Only on the principle which here receives its proof, that man has
+something in him of God, that the norm of the true holds good
+throughout, can he know or care anything about divinity. “It takes a
+god to discern a god,” profoundly wrote Novalis.
+
+When a religion teaches what reason disclaims, not through lack of
+testimony but through a denial of the rights of reason, then that
+religion wars against itself and will fall. Faith is not the acceptance
+of what intelligence rejects, but a suspension of judgment for want of
+evidence. A thoroughly religious mind will rejoice when its faith is
+shaken with doubt; for the doubt indicates increased light rendering
+perceptible some possible error not before seen.
+
+Least of all should a believer in a divine revelation deny the oneness
+of intelligence. For if he is right, then the revealed truth he talks
+about is but relative and partial, and those inspired men who claimed
+for it the sign manual of the Absolute were fools, insane or liars.
+
+If the various arguments I have rehearsed indicate conclusively that in
+the laws of thought we have the norms of absolute truth--and skepticism
+on this point can be skepticism and not belief only by virtue of the
+very law which it doubts--some important corollaries present themselves.
+
+Regarding in the first place the nature of these laws, we find them very
+different from those of physical necessity--those which are called the
+laws of nature. The latter are authoritative, they are never means to an
+end, they admit no exception, they leave no room for error. Not so with
+the laws of reasoning. Man far more frequently disregards than obeys
+them; they leave a wide field for fallacy. Wherein then lies that
+theoretical necessity which is the essence of law? The answer is that
+the laws of reasoning are _purposive_ only, they are regulative, not
+constitutive, and their theoretical necessity lies in the end, the
+result of reasoning, that is, in the knowing, in the recognition of
+truth. They are what the Germans call _Zweckgesetze_.[108-1]
+
+But in mathematical reasoning and in the processes of physical nature
+the absolute character of the laws which prevail depends for its final
+necessity on their consistency, their entire correspondence with the
+laws of right reasoning. Applied to them the purposive character of the
+laws is not seen, for their ends are fulfilled. We are brought,
+therefore, to the momentous conclusion that the manifestation of Order,
+whether in material or mental processes, “affords a presumption, not
+measurable indeed but real, of the fulfilment of an end or
+purpose;”[108-1][TN-7] and this purpose, one which has other objects in
+view than the continuance of physical processes. The history of mind,
+from protoplasmic sensation upward, must be a progression, whose end
+will be worth more than was its beginning, a process, which has for its
+purpose the satisfaction of the laws of mind. This is nothing else than
+correct thinking, the attainment of truth.
+
+But this conclusion, reached by a searching criticism of the validity of
+scientific laws, is precisely that which is the postulate of all
+developed creeds. “The faith of all historical religions,” says Bunsen,
+“starts from the assumption of a universal moral order, in which the
+good is alone the true, and the true is the only good.”[109-1]
+
+The purposive nature of the processes of thought, as well as the manner
+in which they govern the mind, is illustrated by the history of man. His
+actions, whether as an individual or as a nation, are guided by ideas
+not derived from the outer world, for they do not correspond to actual
+objects, but from mental pictures of things as he wants them to exist.
+These are his hopes, his wishes, his ideals; they are the more potent,
+and prompt to more vigorous action, the clearer they are to his mind.
+Even when he is unconscious of them, they exist as tendencies, or
+instincts, inherited often from some remote ancestor, perhaps even the
+heir-loom of a stage of lower life, for they occur where sensation
+alone is present, and are an important factor in general evolution.
+
+It is usually conceded that this theory of organic development very much
+attenuates the evidence of what is known as the argument from design in
+nature, by which the existence of an intelligent Creator is sought to be
+shown. If the distinction between the formal laws of mathematics, which
+are those of nature, and logic, which are those of mind, be fully
+understood, no one will seek such an argument in the former but in the
+latter only, for they alone, as I have shown, are purposive, and they
+are wholly so. The only God that nature points to is an adamantine Fate.
+
+If religion has indeed the object which Bunsen assigns it, physical
+phenomena cannot concern it. Its votaries should not look to change the
+operation of natural laws by incantations, prayers or miracles.
+
+Whenever in the material world there presents itself a seeming
+confusion, it is certain to turn out but an incompleteness of our
+observation, and on closer inspection it resolves itself into some
+higher scheme of Order. This is not so in the realm of thought. Wrong
+thinking never can become right thinking. A profound writer has said:
+“One explanation only of these facts can be given, viz., that the
+distinction between _true_ and _false_, between _correct_ and
+_incorrect_, exists in the processes of the intellect, but not in the
+region of a physical necessity.”[111-1] A religion therefore which
+claims as its mission the discovery of the true and its identification
+with the good,--in other words the persuading man that he should always
+act in accordance with the dictates of right reasoning--should be
+addressed primarily to the intellect.
+
+As man can attain to certain truths which are without any mixture of
+fallacy, which when once he comprehends them he can never any more
+doubt, and which though thus absolute do not fetter his intellect but
+first give it the use of all its powers to the extent of those truths;
+so he can conceive of an Intelligence in which all truth is thus without
+taint of error. Not only is such an Intelligence conceivable, it is
+necessary to conceive it, in order to complete the scientific induction
+of “a sphere of thought from which all limits are withdrawn,” forced
+upon us by the demonstrations of the exact sciences.[111-2]
+
+Thus do we reach the foundation for the faith in a moral government of
+the world, which it has been the uniform characteristic of religions to
+assert; but a government, as thus analytically reached, not easily
+corresponding with that which popular religion speaks of. Such feeble
+sentiments as mercy, benevolence and effusive love, scarcely find place
+in this conception of the source of universal order. In this cosmical
+dust-cloud we inhabit, whose each speck is a sun, man’s destiny plays a
+microscopic part. The vexed question whether ours is the best possible
+or the worst possible world, drops into startling insignificance.
+Religion has taught the abnegation of self; science is first to teach
+the humiliation of the race. Not for man’s behoof were created the
+greater and the lesser lights, not for his deeds will the sun grow dark
+or the stars fall, not with any reference to his pains or pleasure was
+this universe spread upon the night. That Intelligence which pursues its
+own ends in this All, which sees from first to last the chain of causes
+which mould human action, measures not its purposes by man’s halting
+sensations. Such an Intelligence is fitly described by the
+philosopher-poet as one,
+
+    “Wo die Gerechtigkeit so Wurzel schläget,
+    Und Schuld und Unschuld so erhaben wäget
+    Dass sie vertritt die Stelle aller Güte.”[112-1]
+
+In the scheme of the universe, pain and pleasure, truth and error, has
+each its fitness, and no single thought or act can be judged apart from
+all others that ever have been and ever shall be.
+
+Such was the power that was contemplated by the Hebrew prophet, one from
+which all evil things and all good things come, and who disposes them
+all to the fulfilment of a final purpose:
+
+     “I am the Lord and there is none else. I form the light and create
+     darkness; I make peace and create evil.”
+
+     “I am God and there is none like me, declaring the end from the
+     beginning, and from ancient times the things which are not yet
+     done.”[113-1]
+
+In a similar strain the ancient Aryan sang:--
+
+    “This do I ask thee, tell me, O Ahura!
+    Who is he, working good, made the light and also darkness?
+    Who is he, working good, made the sleep as well as waking?
+    Who the night, as well as noon and the morning?”
+
+And the reply came:
+
+     “Know also this, O pure Zarathustra: through my wisdom, through
+     which was the beginning of the world, so also its end shall
+     be.”[113-2]
+
+Or as the Arabian apostle wrote, inspired by the same idea:--
+
+    “Praise the name of thy Lord, the Most High,
+    Who hath created and balanced all things,
+    Who hath fixed their destinies and guideth them.”
+
+     “The Revelation of this book is from the Mighty, the Wise. We have
+     not created the Heavens and the Earth and all that is between them
+     otherwise than with a purpose and for a settled term.”[113-3]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[87-1] _The Emotions and Will_, p. 594. So Professor Tyndall speaks of
+confining the religious sentiment to “the region of emotion, which is
+its proper sphere.”
+
+[87-2] H. L. Mansel, _The Limits of Religious Thought_, p. 115. (Boston,
+1859.)
+
+[87-3] “The _one relation_ which is the ground of all true religion is a
+total dependence upon God.” William Law, _Address to the Clergy_, p. 12.
+“The essential germ of the religious life is concentrated in the
+absolute feeling of dependence on infinite power.” J. D. Morell, _The
+Philosophy of Religion_, p. 94. (New York, 1849.) This accomplished
+author, well known for his _History of Philosophy_, is the most able
+English exponent of the religious views of Schleiermacher and Jacobi.
+
+[90-1] “Weil sie die Welt _eingerichtet_ haben.” Creuzer, _Symbolik und
+Mythologie der alten Vœlker_, Bd. I. s. 169. It is not of any importance
+that Herodotus’ etymology is incorrect: what I wish to show is that he
+and his contemporaries entertained the conception of the gods as the
+authors of order.
+
+[92-1] This distinction is well set forth by A. von Humboldt, _Kosmos_,
+p. 388 (Phila., 1869).
+
+[93-1] “Ueberall den Zufall zu verbannen, zu verhindern, dass in dem
+Gebiete des Beobachtens und Denkens er nicht zu herrschen scheine, im
+Gebiete des Handelns nicht herrsche, ist das Streben der Vernunft.”
+Wilhelm von Humboldt, _Ueber Goethe’s Hermann und Dorothea_, iv.
+
+[93-2] “Iste ordo pulcherrimus rerum valde bonarum.” _Confessiones_,
+Lib. xiii. cap. xxxv.
+
+[94-1] “The notion of a God is not contained in the mere notion of
+Cause, that is the notion of Fate or Power. To this must be added
+Intelligence,” etc. Sir Wm. Hamilton, _Lectures on Metaphysics_, Lecture
+ii.
+
+[96-1] _The Unseen Universe_, p. 60.
+
+[97-1] James Frederick Ferrier, _Lectures on Greek Philosophy_, p. 13
+(Edinburgh, 1866). On a question growing directly out of this, to wit,
+the relative character of good and evil, Mr. J. S. Mill expresses
+himself thus: “My opinion of this doctrine is, that it is beyond all
+others which now engage speculative minds, the decisive one between
+moral good and evil for the Christian world.” _Examination of Hamilton’s
+Philosophy_, p. 90.
+
+[98-1] _First Principles_, pp. 108, 127.
+
+[99-1] _Lectures on Metaphysics_, Vol. I., p. 690.
+
+[101-1] Professor Steinthal in the _Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie_.
+
+[102-1] Dr. W. Windelband, _Die Erkenntnissiehre unter dem
+voelkerpsychologischem Gesichtspunkte_, in the _Zeitschrift für
+Völkerpsychologie_, 1874, _Bd. VIII._ S. 165 _sqq._
+
+[103-1] I would ask the reader willing to pursue this reasoning further,
+to peruse the charming essay of Oersted, entitled _Das ganze Dasein Ein
+Vernunftreich_.
+
+[104-1] Geo. Boole, _An Investigation of the Laws of Thought_, p. 407.
+
+[104-2] Herbert Spencer, _First Principles_, p. 112. Spinoza’s famous
+proposition, previously quoted, _Unaquæque res quantum in se est, in suo
+esse perseverare conatur_, (_Ethices, Pars III., Prop. VI._,) expresses
+also the ultimate of modern investigation. A recent critic considers it
+is a fallacy because the conatus “surreptitiously implies a sense of
+effort or struggle for existence,” whereas the logical concept of a res
+does not involve effort (S. N. Hodgson, _The Theory of Practice_, vol.
+I. pp. 134-6, London, 1870.) The answer is that identity implies
+continuance. In organic life we have the fact of nutrition, a function
+whose duty is to supply waste, and hence offer direct opposition to
+perturbing forces.
+
+[105-1] Geo. Boole, _The Laws of Thought_, p. 419.
+
+[105-2] Kant, _The Metaphysic of Ethics_, p. 23 (Eng. Trans. London,
+1869.)
+
+[106-1] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Voelker_, Bd. I. s.
+291.
+
+[108-1] See this distinction between physical and thought laws fully set
+forth by Prof. Boole in the appendix to _The Laws of Thought_, and by
+Dr. Windelband, _Zeitschrift für Voelkerpsychologie_, Bd. VIII., s. 165
+sqq.
+
+[108-2] Geo. Boole, u. s. p. 399.
+
+[109-1] “Der Glaube aller geschichtlichen Religionen geht aus von dieser
+Annahme einer sittlichen, in Gott bewusst lebenden, Weltordnung, wonach
+das Gute das allein Wahre ist, and das Wahre das allein Gute.” _Gott in
+der Geschichte_, Bd. I. s. xl. Leipzig, 1857.
+
+[111-1] Geo. Boole, _Laws of Thought_, p. 410.
+
+[111-2] The latest researches in natural science confirm the expressions
+of W. von Humboldt: “Das Streben der Natur ist auf etwas Unbeschränktes
+gerichtet.” “Die Natur mit endlichen Mitteln unendliche Zwecke
+verfolgt.” _Ueber den Geschlechtsunterschied, etc._
+
+[112-1] Wilhelm von Humboldt, _Sonnette_, “Höchste Gerechtigkeit.”
+
+[113-1] Isaiah, xlv. 7; xlvi. 10.
+
+[113-2] _Khordah--avesta_, _Ormazd--Yasht_, 38, and _Yaçna_, 42.
+
+[113-3] _The Koran_, Suras lxxxvii., xlvi.
+
+
+
+
+THE PRAYER AND ITS ANSWER.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     Religion starts with a Prayer. This is an appeal to the unknown,
+     and is indispensable in religious thought. The apparent exceptions
+     of Buddhism and Confucianism.
+
+     All prayers relate to the fulfilment of a wish. At first its direct
+     object is alone thought of. This so frequently fails that the
+     indirect object rises into view. This stated to be the increase of
+     the pleasurable emotions. The inadequacy of this statement.
+
+     The answers to prayer. As a form of Expectant Attention, it exerts
+     much subjective power. Can it influence external phenomena? It is
+     possible. Deeply religious minds reject both these answers,
+     however. They claim the objective answer to be Inspiration. All
+     religions unite in this claim.
+
+     Inspirations have been contradictory. That is genuine which teaches
+     truths which cannot be doubted concerning duty and deity. A certain
+     mental condition favors the attainment of such truths. This
+     simulated in religious entheasm. Examples. It is allied to the most
+     intense intellectual action, but its steps remain unknown.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE PRAYER AND ITS ANSWER.
+
+
+The foregoing analysis of the religious sentiment results in finding it,
+even in its simplest forms, a product of complicated reasoning forced
+into action by some of the strongest emotions, and maintaining its
+position indefeasibly through the limitations of the intellect. This it
+does, however, with a certain nobleness, for while it wraps the unknown
+in sacred mystery, it proclaims man one in nature with the Highest, by
+birthright a son of the gods, of an intelligence akin to theirs, and
+less than they only in degree. Through thus presenting at once his
+strength and his feebleness, his grandeur and his degradation, religion
+goes beyond philosophy or utility in suggesting motives for exertion,
+stimuli to labor. This phase of it will now occupy us.
+
+The Religious Sentiment manifests itself in thought, in word and in act
+through the respective media of the Prayer, the Myth and the Cult. The
+first embraces the personal relations of the individual to the object
+of his worship, the second expresses the opinions current in a community
+about the nature and actions of that object, the last includes the
+symbols and ceremonies under and by which it is represented and
+propitiated.
+
+The first has the logical priority. Man cares nothing for God--_can_
+care nothing for him practically--except as an aid to the fulfilment of
+his desires, the satisfaction of his wants, as the “ground of his
+hopes.” The root of the religious sentiment, I have said, is “a wish
+whose fruition depends upon unknown power.” An appeal for aid to this
+unknown power, is the first form of prayer in its religious sense. It is
+not merely “the soul’s sincere desire.” This may well be and well
+directed, and yet not religious, as the devotion of the mathematician to
+the solution of an important problem. With the desire must be the
+earnest appeal to the unknown. A theological dictionary I have at hand
+almost correctly defines it as “a petition for spiritual or physical
+benefits which [we believe] we cannot obtain without divine
+co-operation.” The words in brackets must be inserted to complete the
+definition.
+
+It need not be expressed in language. Rousseau, in his _Confessions_,
+tells of a bishop who, in visiting his diocese, came across an old woman
+who was troubled because she could frame no prayer in words, but only
+cry, “Oh!” “Good mother,” said the wise bishop, “Pray always so. Your
+prayers are better than ours.”[119-1]
+
+A petition for assistance is, as I have said, one of its first forms;
+but not its only one. The assistance asked in simple prayers is often
+nothing more than the neutrality of the gods, their non-interference;
+“no preventing Providence,” as the expression is in our popular
+religion. Prayers of fear are of this kind:
+
+    “And they say, God be merciful,
+    Who ne’er said, God be praised.”
+
+Some of the Egyptian formulæ even threaten the gods if they prevent
+success.[119-2] The wish accomplished, the prayer may be one of
+gratitude, often enough of that kind described by La Rochefoucauld, of
+which a prominent element is “a lively sense of possible favors to
+come.”[119-3]
+
+Or again, self-abasement being so natural a form of flattery that to
+call ourselves “obedient and humble servants” of others, has passed
+into one of the commonest forms of address, many prayers are made up of
+similar expressions of humility and contrition, the votary calling
+himself a “miserable sinner” and a “vile worm,” and on the other hand
+magnifying his Lord as greater than all other gods, mighty and helpful
+to those who assiduously worship him.
+
+In some form or other, as of petition, gratitude or contrition, uttered
+in words or confined to the aspirations of the soul, prayer is a
+necessary factor in the religious life. It always has been, and it must
+be present.
+
+The exceptions which may be taken to this in religious systems are
+chiefly two, those supposed to have been founded by Buddha Sakyamuni and
+Confucius.
+
+It is undoubtedly correct that Buddha discouraged prayer. He permitted
+it at best in the inferior grades of discipleship. For himself, and all
+who reached his stage of culture, he pronounced it futile.
+
+But Buddha did not set out to teach a religion, but rather the inutility
+of all creeds. He struck shrewdly at the root of them by placing the
+highest condition of man in the total extinguishment of desire. He bound
+the gods in fetters by establishing a theory of causal connection (the
+twelve Nidana) which does away with the necessity of ruling powers. He
+then swept both matter and spirit into unreality by establishing the
+canon of ignorance, that the highest knowledge is to know that nothing
+is; that there is neither being nor not-being, nor yet the becoming.
+After this wholesale iconoclasm the only possible object in life for the
+sage is the negative one of avoiding pain, which though as unreal as
+anything else, interferes with his meditations on its unreality. To this
+negative end the only aid he can expect is from other sages who have
+gone farther in self-cultivation. Self, therefore, is the first, the
+collective body of sages is the second, and the written instruction of
+Buddha is the third; and these three are the only sources to which the
+consistent Buddhist looks for aid.
+
+This was Buddha’s teaching. But it is not Buddhism as professed by the
+hundreds of millions in Ceylon, in Thibet, China, Japan, and Siberia,
+who claim Sakyamuni under his names Buddha, the awakened, Tathagata,
+thus gone, or gone before, Siddartha, the accomplisher of the wish, and
+threescore and ten others of like purport, as their inspired teacher.
+Millions of saints, holy men, Buddhas, they believe, are ready to aid in
+every way the true believer, and incessant, constant prayer is, they
+maintain, the one efficient means to insure this aid. Repetition,
+dinning the divinities and wearying them into answering, is their
+theory. Therefore they will repeat a short formula of four words (_om
+mani padme hum_--Om! the jewel in the lotus, amen) thousands of times a
+day; or, as they correctly think it not a whit more mechanical, they
+write it a million times on strips of paper, fasten it around a
+cylinder, attach this to a water or a wind-wheel, and thus sleeping or
+waking, at home or abroad, keep up a steady fire of prayer at the gods,
+which finally, they sanguinely hope, will bring them to submission.
+
+No sect has such entire confidence in the power of prayer as the
+Buddhists. The most pious Mahometan or Christian does not approach their
+faith. After all is said and done, the latter has room to doubt the
+efficacy of his prayer. It may be refused. Not so the Buddhists. They
+have a syllogism which covers the case completely, as follows:--
+
+    All things are in the power of the gods.
+    The gods are in the power of prayer.
+    Prayer is at the will of the saint.
+    Therefore all things are in the power of the saint.
+
+The only reason that any prayer fails is that it is not repeated often
+enough--a statement difficult to refute.
+
+The case with Confucius was different.[122-1] No speculative dreamer,
+but a practical man, bent on improving his fellows by teaching them
+self-reliance, industry, honesty, good feeling and the attainment of
+material comfort, he did not see in the religious systems and doctrines
+of his time any assistance to these ends. Therefore, like Socrates and
+many other men of ancient and modern times, without actually condemning
+the faiths around him, or absolutely neglecting some external respect to
+their usages, he taught his followers to turn away from religious topics
+and occupy themselves with subjects of immediate utility. For questions
+of duty, man, he taught, has a sufficient guide within himself. “What
+you do not like,” he said, “when done to yourself, do not to others.”
+The wishes, he adds, should be limited to the attainable; thus their
+disappointment can be avoided by a just estimate of one’s own powers. He
+used to compare a wise man to an archer: “When the archer misses the
+target, he seeks for the cause of his failure within himself.” He did
+not like to talk about spiritual beings. When asked whether the dead had
+knowledge, he replied: “There is no present urgency about the matter. If
+they have, you will know it for yourself in time.” He did not deny the
+existence of unseen powers; on the contrary, he said: “The _kwei shin_
+(the most general term for supernatural beings) enter into all things,
+and there is nothing without them;” but he added, “We look for them and
+do not see them; we listen, but do not hear them.” In speaking of deity,
+he dropped the personal syllable (_te_) and only spoke of heaven, in the
+indefinite sense. Such was this extraordinary man. The utilitarian
+theory, what we call the common sense view of life, was never better
+taught. But his doctrine is not a religion. His followers erect temples,
+and from filial respect pay the usual honors to their ancestors, as
+Confucius himself did. But they ignore religious observances, strictly
+so-called.
+
+These examples, therefore, do not at all conflict with the general
+statement that no religion can exist without prayer. On the contrary, it
+is the native expression of the religious sentiment, that to which we
+must look for its most hidden meaning. The thoughtful Novalis, whose
+meditations are so rich in reflections on the religious nature of man,
+well said: “Prayer is to religion what thought is to philosophy. To pray
+is to make religion. The religious sense prays with like necessity that
+the reason thinks.”
+
+Whatever the form of the prayer, it has direct or indirect relation to
+the accomplishment of a wish. David prays to the Lord as the one who
+“satisfies the desire of every living thing,” who “will fulfil the
+desire of them that fear him,” and it is with the like faith that the
+heart of every votary is stirred when he approaches in prayer the
+divinity he adores.
+
+Widely various are the things wished for. Their character is the test of
+religions. In primitive faiths and in uncultivated minds, prayers are
+confined to the nearest material advantages; they are directed to the
+attainment of food, of victory in combat, of safety in danger, of
+personal prosperity. They may all be summed up in a line of one which
+occurs in the Rig Veda: “O Lord Varuna! Grant that we may prosper in
+_getting and keeping_!”
+
+Beyond this point of “getting and keeping,” few primitive prayers take
+us. Those of the American Indians, as I have elsewhere shown, remained
+in this stage among the savage tribes, and rose above it only in the
+civilized states of Mexico and Peru. Prayers for health, for plenteous
+harvests, for safe voyages and the like are of this nature, though from
+their familiarity to us they seem less crude than the simple-hearted
+petition of the old Aryan, which I have quoted. They mean the same.
+
+The more thoughtful votaries of the higher forms of religion have,
+however, frequently drawn the distinction between the direct and
+indirect fulfilment of the wish. An abundant harvest, restoration to
+health, or a victory in battle is the object of our hopes, not in
+itself, but for its results upon ourselves. These, in their final
+expression, can mean nothing else than agreeable sensations and
+pleasurable emotions. These, therefore, are the real though indirect
+objects of such prayers; often unconsciously so, because the ordinary
+devotee has little capacity and less inclination to analyze the nature
+of his religious feelings.
+
+A recent writer, Mr. Hodgson, has said: “The real answer to prayer is
+the increase of the joyful emotions, the decrease of the painful
+ones.”[126-1] It would seem a simpler plan to make this directly the
+purport of our petitions; but to the modern mind this naked simplicity
+would be distasteful.
+
+Nor is the ordinary supplicant willing to look so far. The direct, not
+the indirect object of the wish, is what he wants. The lazzarone of
+Naples prays to his patron saint to favor his choice of a lottery
+ticket; if it turn out an unlucky number he will take the little leaden
+image of the saint from his pocket, revile it, spit on it, and trample
+it in the mud. Another man, when his prayer for success is not followed
+by victory, sends gifts to the church, flogs himself in public and
+fasts. Xenophon gives us in his _Economics_ the prayer of a pious
+Athenian of his time, in the person of Ischomachus. “I seek to obtain,”
+says the latter, “from the gods by just prayers, strength and health,
+the respect of the community, the love of my friends, an honorable
+termination to my combats, and riches, the fruit of honest industry.”
+Xenophon evidently considered these appropriate objects for prayer, and
+from the petitions in many recent manuals of devotion, I should suppose
+most Christians of to-day would not see in them anything inappropriate.
+
+In spite of the effort that has been made by Professor Creuzer[127-1] to
+show that the classical nations rose to a higher use of prayer, one
+which made spiritual growth in the better sense of the phrase its main
+end; I think such instances were confined to single philosophers and
+poets. They do not represent the prayers of the average votary. Then and
+now he, as a rule, has little or no idea of any other answer to his
+prayer than the attainment of his wish.
+
+As such petitions, however, more frequently fail than succeed in their
+direct object, and as the alternative of considering them impotent is
+not open to the votary, some other explanation of their failure was
+taught in very early day. At first, it was that the god was angered, and
+refused the petition out of revenge. Later, the indirect purpose of such
+a prayer asserted itself more clearly, and aided by a nobler conception
+of Divinity, suggested that the refusal of the lower is a preparation
+for a higher reward. Children, in well-ordered households, are
+frequently refused by parents who love them well; this present analogy
+was early seized to explain the failure of prayer. Unquestioning
+submission to the divine will was inculcated. Some even went so far as
+to think it improper to define any wish at all, and subsumed all prayer
+under the one formula, “Thy will be done.” Such was the teaching of St.
+Augustine, whose favorite prayer was _Da quod jubes, et jube quod vis_,
+a phrase much criticized by Pelagius and others of his time as too
+quietistic.[128-1] The usual Christian doctrine of resignation proceeds
+in theory to this extent. Such a notion of the purpose of prayer leads
+to a cheerful acceptance of the effects of physical laws, effects which
+an enlightened religious mind never asks to be altered in its favor, for
+the promises and aims of religion should be wholly outside the arena of
+their operation. The ideal prayer has quite other objects than to work
+material changes.
+
+To say, as does Mr. Hodgson, that its aim is the increase of the joyful
+emotions is far from sufficient. The same may be said of most human
+effort, the effort to make money, for instance. The indirect object of
+money-making is also the increase of the agreeable feelings. The
+similarity of purpose might lead to a belief that the aims of religion
+and business are identical.
+
+Before we can fully decide on what, in the specifically religious sense
+of the word, is the answer to prayer, we should inquire as a matter of
+fact what effect it actually exerts, and to do this we should understand
+what it is as a psychological process. The reply to this is that prayer,
+in its psychological definition, is a form of Expectant Attention. It is
+always urged by religious teachers that it must be very earnest and
+continuous to be successful. “Importunity is of the essence of
+successful prayer,” says Canon Liddon in a recent sermon. In the New
+Testament it is likened to a constant knocking at a door; and by a
+curious parity of thought the Chinese character for prayer is composed
+of the signs for a spirit and an axe or hammer.[129-1] We must “keep
+hammering” as a colloquial phrase has it. Strong belief is also
+required. To pray with faith we must expect with confidence.
+
+Now that such a condition of expectant attention, prolonged and earnest,
+will have a very powerful subjective effect, no one acquainted with the
+functions of the human economy can doubt. “Any state of the body,”
+observes the physiologist Müller, “expected with certain confidence is
+very prone to ensue.” A pill of bread-crumbs, which the patient supposes
+to contain a powerful cathartic, will often produce copious evacuations.
+No one who studies the history of medicine can question that scrofulous
+swellings and ulcerations were cured by the royal touch, that paralytics
+have regained the use of their limbs by touching the relics of the
+saints, and that in many countries beside Judea the laying on of hands
+and the words of a holy man have made issues to heal and the lame to
+walk.[130-1]
+
+Such effects are not disputed by physicians as probable results of
+prayer or faith considered as expectant attention. The stigmata of St.
+Francis d’Assisi are more than paralleled by those of Louise Lateau, now
+living at Bois d’Haine in Belgium, whose hands, feet and side bleed
+every Friday like those of Christ on the cross. A commission of medical
+men after the most careful precautions against deception attributed
+these hemorrhages to the effect of expectation (prayer) vastly
+increased in force by repetition.[131-1] If human testimony is worth
+anything, the cures of Porte Royale are not open to dispute.[131-2]
+
+The mental consequences of a prayerful condition of mind are to inspire
+patience under afflictions, hope in adversity, courage in the presence
+of danger and a calm confidence in the face of death itself. How
+mightily such influences have worked in history is shown in every
+religious war, and in the lives of the martyrs of all faiths. It matters
+not what they believed, so only that they believed it thoroughly, and
+the gates of Hades could not prevail against them.
+
+No one will question that these various and momentous results are the
+legitimate effects or answers to prayers. But whether prayer can
+influence the working of the material forces external to the individual
+is a disputed point. If it cannot in some way do this, prayers for rain,
+for harvests, for safety at sea, for restoration to health, for delivery
+from grasshoppers[131-3] and pestilence, whether for our own benefit or
+others, are hardly worth reciting. A physicist expresses the one opinion
+in these words: “Science asserts that without a disturbance of natural
+law, quite as serious as the stoppage of an eclipse or the rolling of
+the St. Lawrence up the Falls of Niagara, no act of humiliation,
+individual or national, could call one shower from heaven or deflect
+toward us a single beam of the sun.” “Assuming the efficacy of free
+prayer to produce changes in external nature, it necessarily follows
+that natural laws are more or less at the mercy of man’s
+volition.”[132-1]
+
+This authoritative statement, much discussed at the time it was
+published, does not in fact express the assertion of science. To the
+scientific apprehension, man’s volitions and his prayers are states of
+emotion, inseparably connected in their manifestations with changes in
+his cerebral structure, with relative elevation of temperature, and with
+the elimination of oxygen and phosphorus, in other words with
+chemico-vital phenomena and the transformation of force. Science also
+adds that there is a constant interaction of all force, and it is not
+prepared to deny that the force expended by a national or individual
+prayer may become a co-operating cause in the material change asked
+for, even if the latter be a rain shower. This would not affect a
+natural law but only its operation, and that much every act of our life
+does. The fact that persistency and earnestness in prayer--_i. e._, the
+increased development of force--add to its efficacy, would accord with
+such a scientific view. It would further be very materially corroborated
+by the accepted doctrine of the orders of force. A unit of electrical or
+magnetic force equals many of the force of gravity; a number of
+electrical units are required to make one of chemical force; and
+chemico-vital or “metabolic” force is still higher; whereas thought
+regarded as a form of force must be vastly beyond this again.
+
+To render a loadstone, which lifts filings of iron by its magnetic
+force, capable of doing the same by the force of gravity, its density
+would have to be increased more than a thousand million times. All
+forces differ in like degree. Professor Faraday calculated that the
+force latent in the chemical composition of one drop of water, equals
+that manifested in an average thunderstorm. In our limited knowledge of
+the relation of forces therefore, a scientific man is rash to deny that
+the chemico-vital forces set loose by an earnest prayer may affect the
+operation of natural laws outside the body as they confessedly do in
+it.
+
+Experience alone can decide such a question, and I for one, from theory
+and from observation, believe in the material efficacy of prayer. In a
+certain percentage of the cases where the wished-for material result
+followed, the physical force of the active cerebral action has seemed to
+me a co-operating cause. A physician can observe this to best advantage
+in the sickness of children, as they are free from subjective bias,
+their constitutions are delicately susceptible, and the prayers for them
+are in their immediate vicinity and very earnest.
+
+But this admission after all is a barren one to the truly devout mind.
+The effect gained does not depend on the God to whom the prayer is
+offered. Blind physical laws bring it about, and any event that comes
+through their compulsive force is gelded of its power to fecundate the
+germs of the better religious life. The knowledge of this would paralyze
+faith.
+
+Further to attenuate the value of my admission, another consideration
+arises, this time prompted not by speculative criticism, but by
+reverence itself. A scholar whom I have already quoted justly observes:
+“Whenever we prefer a request as a means of obtaining what we wish for,
+we are not praying in the religious sense of the term.”[134-1] Or, as a
+recent theologian puts the same idea: “Every true prayer prays to be
+refused, if the granting of it would be hurtful to us or subversive of
+God’s glory.”[135-1] The real answer to prayer can never be an event or
+occurrence. Only in moments of spiritual weakness and obscured vision,
+when governed by his emotions or sensations, will the reverent soul ask
+a definite transaction, a modification in the operation of natural laws,
+still less such vulgar objects as victory, wealth or health.
+
+The prayer of faith finds its only true objective answer in itself, in
+accepting whatever befalls as the revelation of the will of God as to
+what is best. This temper of mind as the real meaning of prayer was
+beautifully set forth by St. John: “If we know that he hear us,
+whatsoever we ask, we know that we have the petitions that we desired of
+him.”[135-2]
+
+But this solution of the problem does not go far enough. Prayer is
+claimed to have a positive effect on the mind other than resignation.
+Joyful emotions are its fruits, _spiritual enlightenment_ its reward.
+These are more than cheerful acquiescence, nor can the latter come from
+objects of sense.
+
+The most eminent teachers agree in banishing material pleasure and
+prosperity from holy desires. They are of one mind in warning against
+what the world and the flesh can offer, against the pursuit of riches,
+power and lust. Many counsel poverty and deliberate renunciation of all
+such things. Nor is the happiness they talk of that which the pursuit of
+intellectual truth brings. This, indeed, confers joy, of which whoever
+has tasted will not hastily return to the fleshpots of the senses, but
+it is easy to see that it is not religious. Prayer and veneration have
+not a part in it. Great joy is likewise given by the exercise of the
+imagination when stirred by art in some of its varied forms, and a joy
+more nearly allied to religion than is that of scientific investigation.
+But the esthetic emotions are well defined, and are distinctly apart
+from those concerned with the religious sentiment. Their most complete
+satisfaction rather excludes than encourages pious meditations. That
+which prayer ought to seek outside of itself is different from all of
+these, its dower must be divine.
+
+We need not look long for it. Though hidden from the wise, it has ever
+been familiar to the unlearned. Man has never been in doubt as to what
+it is. He has been only too willing to believe he has received it.
+
+In barbarism and civilization, in the old and new worlds, the final
+answer to prayer has ever been acknowledged to be _inspiration_,
+revelation, the thought of God made clear to the mind of man, the
+mystical hypostasis through which the ideas of the human coincide with
+those of universal Intelligence. This is what the Pythian priestess, the
+Siberian shaman, the Roman sibyl, the Voluspan prophetess, the Indian
+medicine-man, all claimed in various degrees along with the Hebrew seers
+and the Mahometan teacher.[137-1]
+
+The TRUTH, the last and absolute truth, is what is everywhere recognized
+as, if not the only, at least the completest, the highest answer to
+prayer. “Where I found the truth, there I found my God, himself the
+truth,” says St. Augustine; and in a prayer by St. Chrysostom, the
+“Golden Mouth,” unsurpassed in its grand simplicity, it is said:
+“Almighty Father, * * grant us in this world _knowledge of Thy truth_,
+and in the world to come, life everlasting.” Never has the loftiest
+purpose of prayer been more completely stated. This it was that had been
+promised them by Him, to whom they looked as an Intercessor for their
+petitions, who had said: “I will send unto you the Comforter. * * When
+he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you unto all truth.”
+
+The belief that this answer is at all times attainable has always been
+recognized by the Christian Church, Apostolic, Catholic, and Protestant.
+Baptism was called by the Greek fathers, “enlightenment” (Φωτισμος), as
+by it the believer received the spirit of truth. The Romanist, in the
+dogma of infallibility, proclaims the perpetual inspiration of a living
+man; the Protestant Churches in many creeds and doctrinal works extend a
+substantial infallibility to all true believers, at least to the extent
+that they can be inspired to recognize, if not to receive divine verity.
+
+The Gallican Confession of Faith, adopted in 1561, rests the principal
+evidence of the truth of the Scriptures on “_le témoignage et
+l’intérieure persuasion du Saint Esprit_,” and the Westminster
+Confession on “the inward work of the holy spirit.” The Society of
+Friends maintain it as “a leading principle, that the work of the Holy
+Spirit in the soul is not only immediate and direct, but perceptible;”
+that it imparts truth “without any mixture of error;” and thus is
+something quite distinct from conscience, which is common to the race,
+while this “inward light” is given only to the favored of God.[138-1]
+
+The non-juror, William Law, emphatically says: “The Christian that
+rejects the necessity of immediate divine inspiration, pleads the whole
+cause of infidelity; he has nothing to prove the goodness of his own
+Christianity, but that which equally proves to the Deist the goodness of
+his infidelity.”[139-1] That by prayer the path of duty will be made
+clear, is a universal doctrine.
+
+The extent to which the gift of inspiration is supposed to be granted is
+largely a matter of church government. Where authority prevails, it is
+apt to be confined to those in power. Where religion is regarded as
+chiefly subjective and individual, it is conceded that any pious votary
+may become the receptacle of such special light.
+
+Experience, however, has too often shown that inspiration teaches such
+contradictory doctrines that they are incompatible with any standard.
+The indefinite splitting of Protestant sects has convinced all clear
+thinkers that the claim of the early Confessions to a divinely given
+power of distinguishing the true from the false has been a mistaken
+supposition. As a proof to an unbeliever, such a gift could avail
+nothing; and as evidence to one’s own mind, it can only be accepted by
+those who deliberately shut their eyes to the innumerable contradictions
+it offers.[140-1]
+
+While, therefore, in this, if anywhere, we perceive the only at once fit
+and definite answer to prayer, and find that this is acknowledged by all
+faiths, from the savage to the Christian, it would seem that this answer
+is a fallacious and futile one. The teachings of inspiration are
+infinitely discrepant and contradictory, and often plainly world-wide
+from the truth they pretend to embody. The case seems hopeless; yet, as
+religion of any kind without prayer is empty, there has been a proper
+unwillingness to adopt the conclusion just stated.
+
+The distinction has been made that “the inspiration of the Christian is
+altogether _subjective_, and directed to the moral improvement of the
+individual,”[140-2] not to facts of history or questions of science,
+even exegetic science. The term _illumination_ has been preferred for
+it, and while it is still defined as “a spiritual intelligence which
+brings truth within the range of mental apprehension by a kind of
+intuition,”[141-1] this truth has reference only to immediate matters of
+individual faith and practice. The Roman church allows more latitude
+than this, as it sanctions revelations concerning events, but not
+concerning doctrines.[141-2]
+
+Looked at narrowly, the advantage which inspiration has been to
+religions has not so much depended on what it taught, as on its strength
+as a psychological motive power. As a general mental phenomenon it does
+not so much concern knowledge as belief; its province is to teach faith
+rather than facts. No conviction can equal that which arises from an
+assertion of God directly to ourselves. The force of the argument lies
+not in the question whether he did address us, but whether we believe he
+did. As a stimulus to action, prayer thus rises to a prime power.
+
+Belief is considered by Professor Bain and his school to be the ultimate
+postulate, the final ground of intellection. It is of the utmost
+importance, however,--and this Professor Bain fails to do--to
+distinguish between two kinds of belief. There are men who believe and
+others who disbelieve the Koran or the Bible; I can accept or reject
+the historical existence of King Arthur or Napoleon; but, if I
+understand them, I cannot disbelieve the demonstrations of Euclid, nor
+the relations of subject and object, nor the formal laws of thought. No
+sane man, acquainted with the properties of numbers, can believe that
+twice three are ten, or that a thing can be thought as other than
+itself. These truths that “we cannot help believing,” I have defined in
+the first chapter as absolute truths. They do not come to us through
+testimony and induction, but through a process variously called
+“immediate perception,” “apprehension,” or “intuition,” a process long
+known but never satisfactorily explained.
+
+All such truths are analytic, that is, they are true, not merely for a
+given time or place, but at all times and places conceivable, or, time
+and space out of the question, they still remain formally true. Of
+course, therefore, they cannot refer to historic occurrences nor
+phenomena. The modern position, that truth lies in facts, must be
+forsaken, and with the ancients, we must place it in ideas.
+
+If we define inspiration as that condition of mind which is in the
+highest degree sensitive to the presence of such truth, we have of it
+the only worthy idea which it is possible to frame. The object of
+scientific investigation is to reach a truth which can neither be denied
+nor doubted. If religion is willing to content itself with any lower
+form of truth, it cannot support its claims to respect, let alone
+reverence.
+
+It may be said that the subjects with which the religious sentiment
+concerns itself are not such as are capable of this absolute expression.
+This is, however, disclaimed by all great reformers, and by none more
+emphatically than by him who said: “Heaven and earth shall pass away,
+but my statements (λογοι) shall not pass away.” There is clear reference
+here to absolute truths. If what we know of God, duty and life, is not
+capable of expression except in historic narrative and synthetic terms,
+the sooner we drop their consideration the better. That form sufficed
+for a time, but can no longer, when a higher is generally known. As the
+mathematical surpasses the historic truth, so the former is in turn
+transcended by the purely logical, and in this, if anywhere, religion
+must rest its claims for recognition. Here is the arena of the theology
+of the future, not in the decrees of councils, nor in the records of
+past time.
+
+Inspiration, in its religious sense, we may, therefore, define to be
+that condition of mind in which the truths relating to deity and duty
+become in whole or in part the subjects of immediate perception.
+
+That such a condition is possible will be granted. Every reformer who
+has made a permanent betterment in the religion of his time has
+possessed it in some degree. He who first conceived the Kosmos under
+logical unity as an orderly whole, had it in singular power; so too had
+he who looking into the mind became aware of its purposive laws which
+are the everlasting warrants of duty. Some nations have possessed it in
+remarkable fulness, none more so than the descendants of Abraham, from
+himself, who left his kindred and his father’s house at the word of God,
+through many eminent seers down to Spinoza, who likewise forsook his
+tribe to obey the inspirations vouchsafed him; surpassing them all,
+Jesus of Nazareth, to whose mind, as he waxed in wisdom, the truth
+unfolded itself in such surpassing clearness that neither his immediate
+disciples nor any generations since have fathomed all the significance
+of his words.
+
+Such minds do not need development and organic transmission of thought
+to enrich their stores. We may suppose the organization of their brains
+to be so perfect that their functions are always accordant with true
+reasoning, so self-prompting, that a hint of the problem is all they ask
+to arrive at its demonstration. Blaise Pascal, when a boy of twelve,
+whose education had been carefully restrained, once asked his father
+what is geometry. The latter replied that it is a method devised to draw
+figures correctly, but forbade any further inquiry about it. On this
+hint Pascal, by himself, unassisted, without so much as knowing the name
+of a line or circle, reached in a few weeks to the demonstration of the
+thirty-second problem of the first book of Euclid! Is it not possible
+for a mind equally productive of religious truth to surpass with no less
+ease its age on such subjects?
+
+As what Newton so well called “patient thought,” constant application,
+prolonged attention, is the means on which even great minds must rely in
+order to reach the sempiternal verities of science, so earnest continued
+prayer is that which all teachers prescribe as the only avenue to
+inspiration in its religious sense. While this may be conceded,
+collaterals of the prayer have too often been made to appear trivial and
+ridiculous.
+
+In the pursuit of inspiration the methods observed present an
+interesting similarity. The votary who aspires to a communion with the
+god, shuts himself out from the distraction of social intercourse and
+the disturbing allurements of the senses. In the solitude of the forest
+or the cell, with complete bodily inaction, he gives himself to fasting
+and devotion, to a concentration of all his mind on the one object of
+his wish, the expected revelation. Waking and sleeping he banishes all
+other topics of thought, perhaps by an incessant repetition of a
+formula, until at last the moment comes, as it surely will come in some
+access of hallucination, furor or ecstasy, the unfailing accompaniments
+of excessive mental strain, when the mist seems to roll away from the
+mortal vision, the inimical powers which darkened the mind are baffled,
+and the word of the Creator makes itself articulate to the creature.
+
+Take any connected account of the revelation of the divine will, and
+this history is substantially the same. It differs but little whether
+told of Buddha Sakyamuni, the royal seer of Kapilavastu, or by Catherine
+Wabose, the Chipeway squaw,[146-1] concerning the _Revelations_ of St.
+Gertrude of Nivelles or of Saint Brigida, or in the homely language of
+the cobbler George Fox.
+
+For six years did Sakyamuni wander in the forest, practising the
+mortifications of the flesh and combatting the temptations of the
+devil,before[TN-8] the final night when, after overcoming the crowning
+enticements of beauty, power and wealth, at a certain moment he became
+the “awakened,” and knew himself in all his previous births, and with
+that knowledge soared above the “divine illusion” of existence. In the
+cave of Hari, Mohammed fasted and prayed until “the night of the divine
+decisions;” then he saw the angel Gabriel approach and inspire him:
+
+    “A revelation was revealed to him:
+    One terrible in power taught it him,
+    Endowed with wisdom. With firm step stood he,
+    There, where the horizon is highest,
+    Then came he near and nearer,
+    A matter of two bowshots or closer,
+    And he revealed to his servant a revelation;
+    He has falsified not what he saw.”[147-1]
+
+With not dissimilar preparation did George Fox seek the “openings” which
+revealed to him the hollowness of the Christianity of his day, in
+contrast to the truth he found. In his _Journal_ he records that for
+months he “fasted much, walked around in solitary places, and sate in
+hollow trees and lonesome places, and frequently in the night walked
+mournfully about.” When the word of truth came to him it was of a
+sudden, “through the immediate opening of the invisible spirit.” Then a
+new life commenced for him: “Now was I come up in Spirit through the
+flaming sword into the Paradise of God. All things were new: all the
+creation gave another smell unto me than before.” The healing virtues of
+all herbs were straightway made known to him, and the needful truths
+about the kingdom of God.[147-2]
+
+These are portraitures of the condition of _entheasm_. Its lineaments
+are the same, find it where we may.
+
+How is this similarity to be explained? Is it that this alleged
+inspiration is always but the dream of a half-crazed brain? The deep and
+real truths it has now and then revealed, the noble results it has
+occasionally achieved, do not allow this view. A more worthy explanation
+is at hand.
+
+These preliminaries of inspiration are in fact but a parody, sometimes a
+caricature, of the most intense intellectual action as shown in the
+efforts of creative thought. The physiological characteristics of such
+mental episodes indicate a lowering of the animal life, the respiration
+is faint and slow, the pulse loses in force and frequency, the nerves of
+special sense are almost inhibited, the eye is fixed and records no
+impression, the ear registers no sound, necessary motions are performed
+unconsciously, the condition approaches that of trance. There is also an
+alarming similarity at times between the action of genius and of
+madness, as is well known to alienists.
+
+When the creative thought appears, it does so suddenly; it breaks upon
+the mind when partly engaged with something else as an instantaneous
+flash, apparently out of connection with previous efforts. This is the
+history of all great discoveries, and it has been abundantly illustrated
+from the lives of inventors, artists, poets and mathematicians. The
+links of such a mental procedure we do not know. “The product of
+inspiration, genius, is incomprehensible to itself. Its activity
+proceeds on no beaten track, and we seek in vain to trace its footsteps.
+There is no warrant for the value of its efforts. This it can alone
+secure through voluntary submission to law. All its powers are centred
+in the energy of production, and none is left for idle watching of the
+process.”[149-1]
+
+The prevalent theory of the day is that this mental action is one
+essentially hidden from the mind itself. The name “unconscious
+cerebration” has been proposed for it by Dr. Carpenter, and he has amply
+and ably illustrated its peculiarities. But his theory has encountered
+just criticism, and I am persuaded does not meet the requirements of the
+case. Whether at such moments the mind actually receives some impulse
+from without, as is the religious theory, or, as science more willingly
+teaches, certain associations are more easily achieved when the mind is
+partially engaged with other trains of ideas, we cannot be sure. We can
+only say of it, in the words of Dr. Henry Maudsley, the result “is truly
+an inspiration, coming we know not whence.” Whatever it is, we recognize
+in it the original of that of which religious hallucination is the
+counterfeit presentment. So similar are the processes that their
+liability to be confounded has been expressly guarded against.[150-1]
+
+The prevalence of such caricatures does not prove the absence of the
+sterling article. They rather show that the mind is conscious of the
+possibility of reaching a frame or mood in which it perceives what it
+seeks, immediately and correctly. Buddhism distinctly asserts this to be
+the condition of “the stage of intuitive insight;” and Protestant
+Christianity commenced with the same opinion. Every prayer for guidance
+in the path of duty assumes it. The error is in applying such a method
+where it is incompatible, to facts of history and the phenomena of
+physical force. Confined to the realm of ideas, to which alone the norm
+of the true and untrue is applicable, there is no valid evidence
+against, and many theoretical reasons for, respecting prayer as a fit
+psychological preparation for those obscure and unconscious processes,
+through which the mind accomplishes its best work.
+
+The intellect, exalted by dwelling upon the sublimest subjects of
+thought, warmed into highest activity by the flames of devotion,
+spurning as sterile and vain the offers of time and the enticements of
+sense, may certainly be then in the mood fittest to achieve its greatest
+victories. But no narrowed heaven must cloud it, no man-made god
+obstruct its gaze. Free from superstition and prejudice, it must be
+ready to follow wherever the voice of reason shall lead it. All inspired
+men have commenced by freeing themselves from inherited forms of Belief
+in order that with undiverted attention they might listen to the
+promptings of the divinity within their souls. One of the greatest of
+them and one the most free from the charge of prejudice, has said that
+to this end prayer is the means.[151-1]
+
+He who believes that the ultimate truth is commensurate with reason,
+finds no stumbling-block in the doctrine that there may be laws through
+whose action inspiration is the enlightenment of mind as it exists in
+man, by mind as it underlies the motions which make up matter. The truth
+thus reached is not the formulæ of the Calculus, nor the verbiage of the
+Dialectic, still less the events of history, but that which gives what
+validity they have to all of these, and moreover imparts to the will and
+the conscience their power to govern conduct.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[119-1] The “silent worship” of the Quakers is defended by the writers
+of that sect, on the ground that prayer is “often very imperfectly
+performed and sometimes materially interrupted by the use of words.”
+Joseph John Gurney, _The Distinguishing Views and Practice of the
+Society of Friends_, p. 300. (London, 1834.)
+
+[119-2] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Völker_, Bd. I., s.
+162.
+
+[119-3] The learned Bishop Butler, author of the _Analogy of Religion_,
+justly gives prominence to “our expectation of future benefits,” as a
+reason for gratitude to God. _Sermons_, p. 155. (London, 1841.)
+
+[122-1] The expressions of Confucius’ religious views may be found in
+_The Doctrine of the Mean_, chaps. xiii., xvi., the _Analects_, i., 99,
+100, vii., and in a few other passages of the canonical books.
+
+[126-1] _An Inquiry into the Theory of Practice_, p. 330.
+
+[127-1] _Symbolik und Mythologie der Alten Völker._ Bd. I., ss. 165,
+sqq. One of the most favorable examples (not mentioned by Creuzer) is
+the formula with which Apollonius of Tyana closed every prayer and gave
+as the summary of all: “Give me, ye Gods, what I deserve”--Δοιητε μοι τα
+οφειλομενα. The Christian’s comment on this would be in the words of
+Hamlet’s reply to Polonius: “God’s bodkin, man! use every man after his
+desert and who should ’scape whipping?”
+
+[128-1] Aurelii Augustini, _De Dono Perseverantiæ_, cap. xx. Comte
+remarks “Depuis St. Augustin toutes les âmes pures ont de plus en plus
+senti, à travers l’égoisme Chrétien, que prier peut n’être pas
+demander.” _Système de Politique Positive_, I., p. 260. Popular
+Protestantism has retrograded in this respect.
+
+[129-1] Plath, _Die Religion und Cultus der alten Chineser_, s. 836.
+This author observes that the Chinese prayers are confined to temporal
+benefits only, and are all either prayers of petition or gratitude.
+Prayers of contrition are unknown.
+
+[130-1] Numerous examples can be found in medical text books, for
+instance in Dr. Tuke’s, _The Influence of the Mind on the Body_. London,
+1873.
+
+[131-1] The commission appointed by the Royal Academy of Medicine of
+Belgium on Louise Lateau reported in March, 1875, and most of the
+medical periodicals of that year contain abstracts of its paper.
+
+[131-2] They may be found in the life of Pascal, written by his sister,
+and in many other works of the time.
+
+[131-3] It is worthy of note, as an exponent of the condition of
+religious thought in 1875, that in May of that year the Governor of the
+State of Missouri appointed by official proclamation a day of prayer to
+check the advance of the grasshoppers. He should also have requested the
+clergy to pronounce the ban of the Church against them, as the Bishop of
+Rheims did in the ninth century.
+
+[132-1] Tyndall, _On Prayer and Natural Law_, 1872.
+
+[134-1] S. M. Hodgson, _An Inquiry into the Theory of Practice_, pp.
+329, 330.
+
+[135-1] The Rev. Dr. Thomas K. Conrad, _Thoughts on Prayer_, p. 54: New
+York, 1875.
+
+[135-2] I. John, v. 15. “There are millions of prayers,” says Richard
+Baxter, “that will all be found answered at death and judgment, which we
+know not to be answered any way but by believing it.” _A Christian
+Directory_, Part II. chap. xxiii.
+
+[137-1] “So wie das Gebet ein Hauptwurzel alter Lehre war, so war das
+Deuten und Offenbaren ihre ursprüngliche Form.” Creuzer, _Symbolik und
+Mythologie der alten Völker_, Bd. I., s. 10. It were more accurate to
+say that divination is the answer to, rather than a form of prayer.
+
+[138-1] Joseph John Gurney, _The Distinguishing Views and Practices of
+the Society of Friends_, pp. 58, 59, 76, 78. An easy consequence of this
+view was to place the decrees of the internal monitor above the written
+word. This was advocated mainly by Elias Hicks, who expressed his
+doctrine in the words: “As no spring can rise higher than its fountain,
+so likewise the Scriptures can only direct to the fountain whence they
+originated--the Spirit of Truth.” _Letters of Elias Hicks_, p. 228
+(Phila., 1861).
+
+[139-1] _Address to the Clergy_, p. 67.
+
+[140-1] See an intelligent note on this subject in the Rev. Wm. Lee’s
+work, entitled _The Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures_, pp. 44, 47
+(London and New York, 1857).
+
+[140-2] Rev. William Lee, _u. s._, p. 243.
+
+[141-1] Blunt, _Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology_, s. v.
+
+[141-2] There is a carefully written essay on the views of the Romish
+Church on this subject, preceding _The Revelations of Saint Brigida_ (N.
+Y. 1875).
+
+[146-1] Chusco or Catherine Wabose, “the prophetess of Chegoimegon,” has
+left a full and psychologically most valuable account of her
+inspiration. It is published in Schoolcraft’s _History and Statistics of
+the Indian Tribes_, Vol. I., p. 390, sqq.
+
+[147-1] _The Koran_, Sura liii. This is in date one of the earliest
+suras.
+
+[147-2] _The Journal of George Fox_, pp. 59, 67, 69.
+
+[149-1] Wilhelm von Humboldt, _Gesammelte Werke_, Bd. iv., s. 278.
+
+[150-1] In his treatise _De Veritate_, itself the subject, as its author
+thought, of a special revelation, Lord Herbert of Cherbury, gives as one
+of the earmarks of a real revelation: “ut afflatum Divini numinis
+sentias, ita enim internæ Facultatum circa veritatem operationes a
+revelationibus externis distinguuntur.” p. 226.
+
+[151-1] Spinoza, _Espistolæ et Responsionnes_, Ep. xxxiv.
+
+
+
+
+THE MYTH AND THE MYTHICAL CYCLES.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     Myths are inspirations concerning the Unknown. Science treats them
+     as apperceptions of the relations of man and nature. Moments of
+     their growth, as treated by mythological science. Their similar
+     forms, explained variously, the topic of the philosophy of
+     mythology. The ante-mythical period. Myths have centred chiefly
+     around three subjects, each giving rise to a Mythical Cycle.
+
+     I. The Epochs of Nature.
+
+     The idea of Time led to the myth of a creation. This starting the
+     question, What was going on before creation? recourse was had to
+     the myth of recurrent epochs. The last epoch gave origin to the
+     Flood Myths; the coming one to that of the Day of Judgment.
+
+     II. The Paradise lost and to be re-gained.
+
+     To man, the past and the future are ever better than the present.
+     He imagines a Golden Age in the past and believes it will return.
+     The material Paradise he dreams of in his ruder conditions, becomes
+     a spiritual one with intellectual advancement. The basis of this
+     belief.
+
+     III. The Hierarchy of the Gods.
+
+     The earliest hierarchy is a dual classification of the gods into
+     those who help and those who hinder the fruition of desire. Light
+     and darkness typify the contrast. Divinity thus conceived under
+     numerical separateness. Monotheisms do not escape this. The triune
+     nature of single gods. The truly religious and only philosophic
+     notion of divinity is under logical, not mathematical unity. This
+     discards mythical conceptions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE MYTH AND THE MYTHICAL CYCLES.
+
+
+Returning again to the definition of the elemental religious
+sentiment--“a Wish whose fruition depends upon unknown power”--it
+enables us to class all those notions, opinions and narratives, which
+constitute mythologies, creeds and dogmas, as theories respecting the
+nature and action of the unknown power. Of course they are not
+recognized as theories. They arise unconsciously or are received by
+tradition, oral or written, and always come with the stamp of divinity
+through inspiration and revelation. None but a god can tell the secrets
+of the gods.
+
+Therefore they are the most sacred of all things, and they partake of
+the holiness and immutability which belong to the unknown power itself.
+To misplace a vowel point in copying the sacred books was esteemed a sin
+by the Rabbis, and a pious Mussulman will not employ the same pen to
+copy a verse of the Koran and an ordinary letter. There are many
+Christians who suppose the saying: “Heaven and earth shall pass away,
+but My Words shall not pass away,” has reference to the words of the Old
+and New Testament. “What shall remain to us,” asked Ananda, the disciple
+of Buddha, “when thou shalt have gone hence into Nirvana?” “My Word
+(_dharma_),” replied the Master. Names thus came to be as holy as the
+objects to which they referred. So sacred was that of Jehovah to the
+Israelites that its original sound was finally lost. Such views are
+consistent enough to the Buddhist, who, assuming all existence to be but
+imaginary, justly infers that the name is full as much as the object.
+
+The science of mythology has made long strides in the last half century.
+It has left far behind it the old euphemeristic view that the myth is a
+distorted historical tradition, as well as the theories not long since
+in vogue, that it was a system of natural philosophy, a device of shrewd
+rulers, or as Bacon thought, a series of “instructive fables.” The
+primitive form of the myth is now recognized to be made up from the
+notions which man gains of the manifestations of force in external
+nature, in their supposed relations to himself. In technical language it
+may be defined as _the apperception of man and nature under synthetic
+conceptions_.[156-1]
+
+This primitive form undergoes numerous changes, to trace and illustrate
+which, has been the special task assumed by the many recent writers on
+mythology. In some instances these changes are owing to the blending of
+the myth with traditions of facts, forming a quasi-historical narrative,
+the _saga;_ in others, elaborated by a poetic fancy and enriched by the
+imagination, it becomes a fairy tale, the _märchen_. Again, the myth
+being a product of creative thought, existing in words only, as language
+changes, it alters through forgetfulness of the earlier meanings of
+words, through similarities in sounds deceiving the ear, or through a
+confusion of the literal with the metaphorical signification of the same
+word. The character of languages also favors or retards such changes,
+pliable and easily modified ones, such as those of the American Indians,
+and in a less degree those of the Aryan nations, favoring a developed
+mythology, while rigid and monosyllabic ones, as the Chinese and Semitic
+types, offer fewer facilities to such variations. Furthermore, tribal or
+national history, the peculiar difficulties which retard the growth of
+a community, and the geographical and climatic character of its
+surroundings, give prominence to certain features in its mythology, and
+to the absence of others. Myths originally diverse are blended, either
+unconsciously, as that of the Roman Saturn with the Greek Cronus; or
+consciously, as when the medieval missionaries transferred the deeds of
+the German gods to Christian saints. Lastly, the prevailing temperament
+of a nation, its psychology, gives a strong color to its mythical
+conceptions, and imprints upon them the national peculiarities.
+
+The judicious student of mythology must carefully weigh all these
+formative agents, and assign each its value. They are all present in
+every mythology, but in varying force. His object is accomplished when
+he can point out the causal relation between the various features of a
+myth and these governing agencies.
+
+Such is the science of mythology. The philosophy of mythology undertakes
+to set forth the unities of form which exist in various myths, and
+putting aside whatever of this uniformity is explainable historically,
+proposes to illustrate from what remains the intellectual need myths
+were unconsciously framed to gratify, to measure their success in this
+attempt, and if they have not been wholly successful, to point out why
+and in what respect they have failed. In a study preliminary to the
+present one, I have attempted to apply the rules of mythological science
+to the limited area of the native American race; in the present chapter
+I shall deal mainly with the philosophy of mythology.
+
+The objection may be urged at starting that there is no such unity of
+form in myths as the philosophy of mythology assumes; that if it
+appears, it is always explainable historically.
+
+A little investigation sets this objection aside. Certain features must
+be common to all myths. A divinity must appear in them and his doings
+with men must be recorded. A reasonable being can hardly think at all
+without asking himself, “Whence come I, my fellows, and these things
+which I see? And what will become of us all?” So some myth is sure to be
+created at an early stage of thought which the parent can tell the
+child, the wise man his disciple, containing responses to such
+questions.
+
+But this reasoning from probability is needless, for the similarity of
+mythical tales in very distant nations, where no hypothesis of ancient
+intercourse is justified, is one of the best ascertained and most
+striking discoveries of modern mythological investigation.[159-1] The
+general character of “solar myths” is familiar to most readers, and the
+persistency with which they have been applied to the explanation of
+generally received historical facts, as well as to the familiar fairy
+tales of childhood, has been pushed so far as to become the subject of
+satire and caricature. The myths of the Dawn have been so frequently
+brought to public notice in the popular writings of Professor Max
+Müller, that their general distribution may be taken as well known. The
+same may be said of the storm myths. Wilhelm von Humboldt, who thought
+deeply on the religious nature of man, said early in this century:
+“Wholly similar myths can very readily arise in different localities,
+each independent of the others.”[160-1]
+
+This similarity is in a measure owing to the similar impressions which
+the same phenomenon, the sunrise or the thunder-storm for instance,
+makes on the mind--and to this extent the science of mythology is
+adequate to its explanation. But that it falls short is so generally
+acknowledged, that various other explanations have been offered.
+
+These may be classed as the skeptical explanation, which claims that the
+likeness of the myths is vastly exaggerated and much more the work of
+the scholar at his desk than of the honest worshipper; the historical
+explanation, which suggests unrecorded proselytisms, forgotten
+communications and the possible original unity of widely separated
+nations; the theological explanations, often discrepant, one suggesting
+caricatures of the sacred narrative inspired by the Devil, another
+reminiscences of a primeval inspiration, and a third the unconscious
+testimony of heathendom to orthodoxy;[161-1] and lastly the metaphysical
+explanation, which seems at present to be the fashionable one, expressed
+nearly alike by Steinthal and Max Müller, which cuts the knot by
+crediting man with “an innate consciousness of the Absolute,” or as
+Renan puts it, “a profound instinct of deity.”
+
+The philosophy of mythology, differing from all these, finding beyond
+question similarities which history cannot unriddle, interprets them by
+no incomprehensible assumption, but by the identity of the laws of
+thought acting on similar impressions under the guidance of known
+categories of thought. Nor does it stop here, but proceeds to appraise
+these results by the general scheme of truth and error. It asks for
+what psychological purpose man has so universally imagined for himself
+gods--pure creations of his fancy;--whether that purpose can now or will
+ultimately be better attained by an exercise of his intellect more in
+accordance with the laws of right reasoning; and thus seeking to define
+the genuine food of the religious desire, estimates the quality and
+value of each mythological system by the nearness of its approach to
+this standard.
+
+The philosophy of mythology, starting with the wish or prayer as the
+unit of religious thought, regards all myths as theories about the
+unknown power which is supposed to grant or withhold the accomplishment
+of the wish. These theories are all based upon the postulate of the
+religious sentiment, that there is order in things; but they differ from
+scientific theories in recognizing volition as an efficient cause of
+order.
+
+The very earliest efforts at religious thought do not rise to the
+formation of myths, that is, connected narratives about supernatural
+beings. All unknown power is embraced under a word which does not convey
+the notion of personality; single exhibitions of power which threaten
+man’s life are supposed to be the doings of an unseen person, often of a
+deceased man, whose memory survives; but any general theory of a
+hierarchy, or of the world or man, is not yet visible. Even such
+immature notions are, however, so far as they go, framed within the
+category of causality; only, the will of the god takes the place of all
+other force. This stage of religious thought has been called Animism, a
+name which does not express its peculiarity, which is, that all force is
+not only supposed to proceed from mind, but through what metaphysicians
+call “immanent volition,” that is, through will independent of relation.
+Mind as “emanant volition,” in unison with matter and law, the “seat of
+law,” to use an expression of Professor Boole’s, may prove the highest
+conception of force.
+
+As the slowly growing reason reached more general notions, the law which
+prescribes unity as a condition of thought led man early in his history
+to look upon nature as one, and to seek for some one law of its changes;
+the experience of social order impressed him with the belief that the
+unseen agencies around him also bore relations to each other, and
+acknowledged subjection to a leader; and the pangs of sickness, hunger
+and terror to which he was daily exposed, and more than all the “last
+and greatest of all terribles, death,” which he so often witnessed,
+turned his early meditations toward his own origin and destiny.
+
+Around these three subjects of thought his fancy busied itself, striving
+to fabricate some theory which would solve the enigmas which his reason
+everywhere met, some belief which would relieve him from the haunting
+horror of the unknown. Hence arose three great cycles of myths, which
+recur with strangely similar physiognomies in all continents and among
+all races. They are the myths of the Epochs of Nature, the Hierarchy of
+the Gods, and of the Paradise lost but to be regained. Wherever we turn,
+whether to the Assyrian tablets or to the verses of the Voluspa, to the
+crude fancies of the red man of the new world or the black man of the
+African plateau, to the sacred books of the modern Christian or of the
+ancient Brahman, we find these same questions occupying his mind, and in
+meaning and in form the same solutions proffered. Through what
+intellectual operations he reached these solutions, and their validity,
+as tested by the known criteria of truth, it is the province of the
+philosophy of mythology to determine.
+
+Let us study the psychological growth of the myth of the Epochs of
+Nature. This tells of the World, its beginning, its convulsions and its
+ending, and thus embraces the three minor cycles of the cosmogonical,
+the cataclysmal and the eschatological myths.
+
+Nature is known to man only as _force_, which manifests itself in
+_change_. He is so constituted that “the idea of an event, a change,
+without the idea of a cause, is impossible” to him. But in passing from
+the occurrence to its cause the idea of Time is unavoidable; it presents
+itself as the one inevitable condition of change; itself unwearing, it
+wears out all else; it includes all existence, as the greater does the
+less; and as “causation is necessarily within existence,”[165-1] time is
+beyond existence and includes the nonexistent as well. Whatever it
+creates, it also destroys; and as even the gods are but existences, it
+will swallow them. It renders vain all pleasures, and carries the balm
+of a certain oblivion for all woes.
+
+This oppressive sense of time, regarded not in its real meaning as one
+of the conditions of perception, but as an active force destroying
+thought as well as motion, recurs continually in mythology. To the
+Greek, indefinite time as Cronos, was the oldest of the gods, begetting
+numberless children, but with unnatural act consuming them again; while
+definite time, as the Horæ, were the blithe goddesses of the order in
+nature and the recurrent seasons. Osiris, supreme god of the Egyptians,
+was born of a yet older god, Sev, Time. Adonis and Aeon acknowledge the
+same parentage.[165-2] The ancient Arab spoke of time (_dahr_, _zaman_)
+as the final, defining principle; as uniting and separating all things;
+and as swallowing one thing after another as the camel drains the water
+from a trough.[166-1] In the Koran it is written: “Time alone destroys
+us.” Here and there, through the sacred songs of the Parsees, composed
+long before Aristotle wrote, beyond all the dust and noise of the
+everlasting conflict of good and evil, of Ahura Mazda and Anya-Mainyus,
+there are glimpses of a deeper power, Zeruana Akerana, Eternal Duration,
+unmoved by act or thought, in the face of which these bitter opponents
+are seen to be children, brethren, “twin sons of Time.”[166-2] The
+Alexandrian Gnostics, in their explanations of Christian dogmas,
+identify Aeon, infinite time, with God the Father, as the source and
+fount of existence; not merely as a predicate of the highest, but the
+Highest himself.
+
+This heavy-weighing sense of the infinity of duration, and the urgency
+of escaping from the weariness of thinking it, led to the construction
+of the myth of the Creation. Man devised it so that he might be able to
+say, “in the beginning.” But a new difficulty met him at the
+threshold--as change must be in existence, “we cannot think of a change
+from non-existence to existence.” His only refuge was to select some
+apparently primordial, simple, homogeneous substance from which, by the
+exertion of volition, things came into being. The one which most
+naturally suggested itself was _water_.[167-1] This does in fact cover
+and hide the land, and the act of creation was often described as the
+emerging of the dry land from the water; it dissolves and wears away the
+hard rock; and, diminishing all things, itself neither diminishes nor
+increases. Therefore nearly all cosmogonical myths are but variations of
+that one familiar to us all: “And God said, Let the waters under the
+heaven be gathered together in one place, and let the dry land appear;
+and it was so.” The manifestation of the primordial energy was supposed
+to have been akin to that which is shown in organic reproduction. The
+myths of the primeval egg from which life proceeded, of the mighty bird
+typical of the Holy Spirit which “brooded” upon the waters, of Love
+developing the Kosmos from the Chaos, of the bull bringing the world
+from the waters, of Protogonus, the “egg-born,” the “multispermed,” and
+countless others, point to the application of one or the other, or of
+both these explanations.[167-2]
+
+In them the early thinkers found some rest: but not for long. The
+perplexity of the presence of this immediate order of things seemed
+solved; but another kept obtruding itself: what was going on before that
+“beginning?” Vain to stifle the inquiry by replying, “nothing.”[168-1]
+For time, which knows no beginning, was there, still building, still
+destroying; nothing can be put to it, nor anything taken from it. What
+then is left but the conclusion of the Preacher: “That which hath been,
+is now; and that which is to be, hath already been?” Regarding time as a
+form of force, the only possible history of the material universe is
+that it is a series of destructions and restorations, force latent
+evolving into force active or energy, and this dissipated and absorbed
+again into latency.
+
+Expressed in myths, these destructions and restorations are the Epochs
+of Nature. They are an essential part of the religious traditions of the
+Brahmans, Persians, Parsees, Greeks, Egyptians, Jews, Mexicans, Mayas,
+and of all nations who have reached a certain stage of culture. The
+length of the intervening periods may widely differ. The kalpa or great
+year of the Brahmans is so long that were a cube of granite a hundred
+yards each way brushed once in a century by a soft cloth, it would be
+quite worn to dust before the kalpa would close: or, as some Christians
+believe, there may be but six thousand years, six days of God in whose
+sight “a thousand years are as one day,” between the creation and the
+cremation of the world, from when it rose from the waters until it shall
+be consumed by the fire.
+
+There were also various views about the agents and the completeness of
+these periodical destructions. In the Norse mythology and in the
+doctrine of Buddhism, not one of the gods can survive the fire of the
+last day. Among the Greeks, great Jove alone will await the appearance
+of the virgin world after the icy winter and the fiery summer of the
+Great Year. The Brahmans hold that the higher classes of gods outlive
+the wreck of things which, at the close of the day of Brahm, involves
+all men and many divinities in elemental chaos; while elsewhere, in the
+later Puranas and in the myths of Mexico, Peru, and Assyria, one or a
+few of the race of man escape a deluge which is universal, and serve to
+people the new-made earth. This latter supposition, in its application
+to the last epoch of nature, is the origin of the myth of the Flood.
+
+In its general features and even in many details, the story of a vast
+overflow which drowned the world, and from which by the timely succor
+of divinity some man was preserved, and after the waters had subsided
+became the progenitor of the race, is exceedingly common among distant
+tribes, where it is impossible to explain it as a reminiscence of a
+historic occurrence, or by community of religious doctrine. In Judea
+Noah, in India Manu, in Chaldea Xisuthrus, in Assyria Oannes, in Aztlan
+Nata, in Algonkin tradition Messou, in Brazil Monan, etc., are all
+heroes of similar alleged occurrences. In all of them the story is but a
+modification of that of the creation in time from the primeval
+waters.[170-1]
+
+“As it was once, so it shall be again,” and as the present age of the
+world wears out, the myth teaches that things will once more fall back
+to universal chaos. “The expectation of the end of the world is a
+natural complement to the belief in its periodical destructions.” It is
+taught with distinctness by all religious systems, by the prophetess in
+the Voluspa, by the Hebrew seers,[171-1] by the writer of the
+Apocalypse, by the Eastern sages, Persian and Indian, by the Roman
+Sibyl, and among the savage and semi-civilized races of the New World.
+
+Often that looked for destruction was associated with the divine plans
+for man. This was an addition to the simplicity of the original myth,
+but an easy and a popular one. The Indian of our prairies still looks
+forward to the time when the rivers shall rise, and submerging the land
+sweep from its surface the pale-faced intruders, and restore it to its
+original owners. Impatient under the ceaseless disappointments of life,
+and worn out with the pains which seem inseparable from this condition
+of things, the believer gives up his hopes for this world, and losing
+his faith in the final conquest of the good, thinks it only attainable
+by the total annihilation of the present conditions. He looks for it,
+therefore, in the next great age, in the new heaven and the new earth,
+when the spirit of evil shall be bound and shut up, and the chosen
+people possess the land, “and grow up as calves of the stall.”[172-1]
+
+This is to be inaugurated by the Day of Judgment, “the day of wrath, the
+dreadful day,” in which God is to come in his power and pronounce his
+final decrees on those who have neglected the observance due him. The
+myth, originally one relating to the procession of natural forces, thus
+assumed with the increasing depth of the religious sentiment more and
+more a moral and subjective coloring, until finally its old and simple
+form was altogether discarded, or treated as symbolic only.
+
+The myth of the Epochs of Nature was at first a theory to account for
+the existing order of nature. For a long time it satisfied the inquiring
+mind, if not with a solution at least with an answer to its queries.
+After geologic science had learned to decipher the facts of the world’s
+growth as written on the stones which orb it, the religious mind fondly
+identified the upheavals and cataclysms there recorded with those which
+its own fancy had long since fabricated. The stars and suns, which the
+old seer thought would fall from heaven in the day of wrath, were seen
+to be involved in motions far beyond the pale of man’s welfare, and,
+therefore, the millennial change was confined to the limits of our
+planet. Losing more and more of its original form as an attempted
+explanation of natural phenomena, the myth now exists in civilized
+nations as an allegorical type of man’s own history and destiny, and
+thus is slowly merging into an episode of the second great cycle of the
+mythus, that of the Paradise lost and regained. It, too, finds its
+interpretation in psychology.
+
+Broadly surveying the life of man, philosophers have found in it much
+matter fit either for mockery or tears. We are born with a thirst for
+pleasure; we learn that pain alone is felt. We ask health; and having
+it, never notice it till it is gone. In the ardent pursuit of enjoyment,
+we waste our capacity of appreciation. Every sweet we gain is sauced
+with a bitter. Our eyes forever bent on the future, which can never be
+ours, we fritter away the present, which alone we possess. Ere we have
+got ourselves ready to live, we must die. Fooling ourselves even here,
+we represent death as the portal to joy unspeakable; and forthwith
+discredit our words by avoiding it in every possible way.
+
+Pitiable spectacle of weakness and folly, is it capable of any
+explanation which can redeem man from the imputation of unreason? Is
+Wisdom even here justified of her children by some deeper law of being?
+
+The theologian explains it as the unrest of the soul penned in its house
+of clay; the physiologist attributes it to the unceasing effort of
+organic functions to adapt themselves to ever varying external
+conditions. They are both right, for the theologian, were his words
+translated into the language of science, refers to the _effort to adapt
+condition to function_, which is the peculiar faculty of intelligence,
+and which alone renders man unable to accept the comfort of merely
+animal existence, an inability which he need never expect to outlive,
+for it will increase in exact proportion to his mental development.
+Action, not rest, as I have elsewhere said, must be his ideal of life.
+
+In even his lowest levels man experiences this dissatisfaction. It may
+there be confined to a pain he would be free from, or a pleasure he
+dreams of. Always the future charms him, and as advancing years increase
+the number of his disappointments and bring with them the pains of
+decrepitude, he also recurs to the past, when youth was his, and the
+world was bright and gay. Thus it comes that most nations speak of some
+earlier period of their history as one characterized by purer public
+virtues than the present, one when the fires of patriotism burned
+brighter and social harmony was more conspicuous. In rude stages of
+society this fancy receives real credit and ranks as a veritable record
+of the past, forming a Golden Age or Saturnian Era. Turned in the
+kaleidoscope of the mythus, it assumes yet more gorgeous hues, and
+becomes a state of pure felicity, an Eden or a Paradise, wherein man
+dwelt in joy, and from which he wandered or was driven in the old days.
+
+It is almost needless to quote examples to show the wide distribution of
+this myth. The first pages of the Vendidad describe the reign of Yima in
+“the garden of delight,” where “there was no cold wind nor violent heat,
+no disease and no death.” The northern Buddhist tells of “the land of
+joy,” Sukhavati, in the far west, where ruled Amitabha, “infinite
+Light.”[175-1] The Edda wistfully recalls the pleasant days of good King
+Gudmund who once held sway in Odainsakr, where death came not.[175-2]
+Persian story has glad reminiscences of the seven hundred years that
+Jemschid sat on the throne of Iran, when peace and plenty were in the
+land.
+
+The garden “eastward in Eden” of the Pentateuch, the land of Tulan or
+Tlapallan in Aztec myth, the islands of the Hesperides, the rose garden
+of Feridun, and a score of other legends attest with what strong
+yearning man seeks in the past the picture of that perfect felicity
+which the present never yields.
+
+Nor can he be persuaded that the golden age has gone, no more to return.
+In all conditions of progress, and especially where the load of the
+present was the most wearying, has he counted on a restoration to that
+past felicity. The paradise lost is to be regained. How it is to be done
+the sages are not agreed. But they of old were unanimous that some
+divinity must lend his aid, that some god-sent guide is needed to rescue
+man from the slough of wretchedness in which he hopelessly struggles.
+
+Therefore in the new world the red men looked for the ruler who had
+governed their happy forefathers in the golden age, and who had not died
+but withdrawn mysteriously from view, to return to them, protect them,
+and insure them long bliss and ease. The ancient Persians expected as
+much from the coming of Craoshanç; the Thibetan Buddhists look to the
+advent of a Buddha 5000 years after Sakyamuni, one whose fortunate names
+are Maîtrêya, the Loving one, and Adjita, the Unconquerable;[176-1] and
+even the practical Roman, as we learn from Virgil, was not a stranger to
+this dream. Very many nations felt it quite as strongly as the
+Israelites, who from early time awaited a mighty king, the Messiah, the
+Anointed, of whom the Targums say: “In his days shall peace be
+multiplied;” “He shall execute the judgment of truth and justice on the
+earth;” “He shall rule over all kingdoms.”
+
+The early forms of this conception, such as here referred to, looked
+forward to an earthly kingdom, identified with that of the past when
+this was vigorous in the national mythology. Material success and the
+utmost physical comfort were to characterize it. It was usually to be a
+national apotheosis, and was not generally supposed to include the human
+race, though traces of this wider view might easily be quoted from
+Avestan, Roman, and Israelitic sources. Those who were to enjoy it were
+not the dead, but those who shall be living.
+
+As the myth grew, it coalesced with that of the Epochs of Nature, and
+assumed grander proportions. The deliverer was to come at the close of
+this epoch, at the end of the world; he was to embrace the whole human
+kind in his kingdom; even those who died before his coming, if they had
+obeyed his mandates, should rise to join the happy throng; instead of a
+mere earthly king, he should be a supernatural visitant, even God
+himself; and instead of temporal pleasures only, others of a spiritual
+character were to be conferred. There are reasons to believe that even
+in this developed form the myth was familiar to the most enlightened
+worshippers of ancient Egypt; but it was not till some time after the
+doctrines of Christianity had been cast into mythical moulds by the
+oriental fancy, that it was introduced in its completed form to modern
+thought. Although expressly repudiated by Jesus of Nazareth himself, and
+applied in maxim and parable as a universal symbol of intelligence to
+the religious growth of the individual and race, his followers reverted
+to the coarser and literal meaning, and ever since teach to a greater or
+less extent the chiliastic or millennial dogma, often mathematically
+computing, in direct defiance of his words, the exact date that event is
+to be expected.
+
+If we ask the psychological construction of this myth, and the ever
+present conditions of man’s life which have rendered him always ready to
+create it and loath to renounce it, we trace the former distinctly to
+his sense of the purposive nature of the laws of thought, and the latter
+to the wide difference between desire and fulfilment. His intellectual
+nature is framed to accord with laws which are ever present but are not
+authoritative; they admonish but they do not coerce; _that_ is done
+surely though oft remotely by the consequences of their violation. At
+first, unaware of the true character of these laws, he fancies that if
+he were altogether comfortable physically, his every wish would be
+gratified. Slowly it dawns upon him that no material gratification can
+supply an intellectual craving; that this is the real want which haunts
+him; and that its only satisfaction is _to think rightly_, to learn the
+truth. Then he sees that the millennial kingdom is “not of this world;”
+that heaven and earth may pass away, but that such truth as he seeks
+cannot pass away; and that his first and only care should be as a
+faithful and wise servant to learn and revere it.
+
+The sentiments which created this mythical cycle, based as they are now
+seen to be on ultimate psychological laws, are as active to-day as ever.
+This century has witnessed the rise of a school of powerful thinkers and
+true philanthropists who maintained that the noblest object is the
+securing to our fellow-men the greatest material comfort possible; that
+the religious aspirations will do well to content themselves with this
+gospel of humanity; and that the approach of the material millennium,
+the perfectibility of the human race, the complete adaptation of
+function to condition, the “distant but not uncertain final victory of
+Good,”[179-1] is susceptible of demonstration. At present, these views
+are undergoing modification. It is perceived with more or less
+distinctness that complete physical comfort is not enough to make a man
+happy; that in proportion as this comfort is attained new wants develope
+themselves, quite as importunate, which ask what material comfort
+cannot give, and whose demand is neither for utility nor pleasurable
+sensation. Such wants are created by the sense of duty and the love of
+truth.
+
+The main difference between the latest exponents of the utilitarian
+doctrines and the heralds of distinctively religious thought, is that
+the former consider that it is most important in the present condition
+of man for him to look after his material welfare; while the latter
+teach that if he first subject thought and life to truth and duty, “all
+these things will be added unto him.” Wordsworth has cast this latter
+opinion, and the myths which are its types, into eloquent verse:
+
+                        “Paradise and groves
+    Elysian, Fortunate Fields--like those of old
+    Sought in the Atlantic main, why should they be
+    A history only of departed things,
+    Or a mere fiction of what never was?
+    For the discerning intellect of man,
+    When wedded to this goodly universe
+    In love and holy passion, shall find these
+    A simple produce of the common day.”
+
+The incredulity and even derision with which the latter doctrine is
+received by “practical men,” should not affright the collected thinker,
+as it certainly is not so chimerical as they pretend. The writer De
+Senancourt, not at all of a religious turn, in speculating on the
+shortest possible road to general happiness, concluded that if we were
+able to foretell the weather a reasonable time ahead, and if men would
+make it a rule to speak the truth as near as they can, these two
+conditions would remove nine-tenths of the misery in the world. The
+more carefully I meditate on this speculation, the better grounded it
+seems. The weather we are learning to know much more about than when the
+solitary Obermann penned his despondent dreams; but who shall predict
+the time when men will tell the truth?
+
+I now pass to the third great mythical cyclus, which I have called that
+of the Hierarchy of the Gods. This was created in order to define that
+unknown power which was supposed to give to the wish frustration or
+fruition. It includes every statement in reference to the number,
+nature, history and character of supernatural beings.
+
+The precise form under which the intellect, when the religious
+conception of unknown power first dawns upon it, imagines this unknown,
+is uncertain. Some have maintained that the earliest religions are
+animal worships, others that the spirits of ancestors or chiefs are the
+primitive gods. Local divinities and personal spirits are found in the
+rudest culture, while simple fetichism, or the vague shapes presented by
+dreams, play a large part in the most inchoate systems. The prominence
+of one or the other of these elements depends upon local and national
+momenta, which are a proper study for the science of mythology, but need
+not detain us here. The underlying principle in all these conceptions of
+divinity is that of the _res per accidens_, an accidental relation of
+the thought to the symbol, not a general or necessary one. This is seen
+in the nature of these primitive gods. They have no decided character as
+propitious or the reverse other than the objects they typify, but are
+supposed to send bad or good fortune as they happen to be pleased or
+displeased with the votary. No classification as good and evil deities
+is as yet perceptible.
+
+This undeveloped stage of religious thought faded away, as general
+conceptions of man and his surroundings arose. Starting always from his
+wish dependent on unknown control, man found certain phenomena usually
+soothed his fears and favored his wishes, while others interfered with
+their attainment and excited his alarm. This distinction, directly
+founded on his sensations of pleasure and pain, led to a general, more
+or less rigid, classification of the unknown, into two opposing classes
+of beings, the one kindly disposed, beneficent, good, the other
+untoward, maleficent, evil.
+
+At first this distinction had in it nothing of a _moral_ character. It
+is in fact a long time before this is visible, and to-day but two or
+three religions acknowledge it even theoretically. All, however, which
+claim historical position set up a dual hierarchy in the divine realms.
+Ahura-mazda and Anya-mainyus, God and Satan, Jove and Pluto, Pachacamac
+and Supay, Enigorio and Enigohatgea are examples out of hundreds that
+might be adduced.
+
+The fundamental contrast of pleasure and pain might be considered enough
+to explain this duality. But in fact it is even farther reaching. The
+emotions are dual as well as the sensations, as we have seen in the
+first chapter. All the operations of the intellect are dichotomic, and
+in mathematical logic must be expressed by an equation of the second
+degree. Subject and object must be understood as polar pairs, and in
+physical science polarization, contrast of properties corresponding to
+contrast of position, is a universal phenomenon. Analogy, therefore,
+vindicates the assumption that the unknown, like the known, is the field
+of the operation of contradictory powers.
+
+A variety of expression is given this philosophic notion in myths. In
+Egypt, Syria, Greece and India the contrast was that of the sexes, the
+male and female principles as displayed in the operations of nature. The
+type of all is that very ancient Phrygian cult in which by the side of
+Ma, mother of mountains and mistress of herds, stood Papas, father of
+the race of shepherds and inventor of the rustic pipe.[183-1] Quite
+characteristic was the classification of the gods worshipped by the
+miners and metal workers of Phrygian Ida. This was into right and left,
+and the general name of Dactyli, Fingers, was given them. The right gods
+broke the spells which the left wove, the right pointed out the ore
+which the left had buried, the right disclosed the remedies for the
+sickness which the left had sent. This venerable division is still
+retained when we speak of a _sinister_ portent, or a _right_ judgment.
+It is of physiological interest as showing that “dextral pre-eminence”
+or right-handedness was prevalent in earliest historic times, though it
+is unknown in any lower animal.
+
+The thoughtful dwellers in Farsistan also developed a religion close to
+man’s wants by dividing the gods into those who aid and those who harm
+him, subject the one class to Ahura-Mazda, the other to Anya-Mainyus.
+Early in their history this assumed almost a moral aspect, and there is
+little to be added to one of the most ancient precepts of their
+law--“Happiness be to the man who conduces to the happiness of
+all.”[184-1]
+
+When this dual classification sought expression through natural
+contrasts, there was one which nigh everywhere offered itself as the
+most appropriate. The savage, the nomad, limited to the utmost in
+artificial contrivances, met nothing which more signally aided the
+accomplishment of his wishes than _light_; nothing which more certainly
+frustrated them than _darkness_. From these two sources flow numerous
+myths, symbols, and rites, as narratives or acts which convey religious
+thought to the eye or the ear of sense.
+
+As the bringers of light, man adored the sun, the dawn, and fire;
+associated with warmth and spring, his further meditations saw in it the
+source of his own and of all life, and led him to connect with its
+worship that of the reproductive principle. As it comes from above, and
+seems to dwell in the far-off sky, he located there his good gods, and
+lifted his hands or his eyes when he prayed. As light is necessary to
+sight, and as to see is to know, the faculty of knowing was typified as
+enlightenment, an inward god-given light. The great and beneficent
+deities are always the gods of light. Their names often show this. Deva,
+Deus, means the shining one; Michabo, the great white one; the Mongols
+call Tien, the chief Turanian god, the bright one, the luminous one; the
+northern Buddhist prays to Amitabha, Infinite Light; and the Christian
+to the Light of the World.
+
+On the other hand, darkness was connected with feelings of helplessness
+and terror. It exposed him to attacks of wild beasts and all accidents.
+It was the precursor of the storm. It was like to death and the grave.
+The realm of the departed was supposed to be a land of shadows, an
+underground region, an unseeing Hades or hell.
+
+The task would be easy to show many strange corroborations of these
+early chosen symbols by the exacter studies of later ages. Light, as the
+indispensable condition of life, is no dream, but a fact; sight is the
+highest sentient faculty; and the luminous rays are real intellectual
+stimulants.[186-1] But such reflections will not escape the
+contemplative reader.
+
+I hasten to an important consequence of this dual classification of
+divinities. It led to what I may call the _quantification of the gods_,
+that is, to conceiving divinity under notions of number or quantity, a
+step which has led to profound deterioration of the religious sentiment.
+I do not mean by this the distinction between polytheism and monotheism.
+The latter is as untrue and as injurious as the former, nor does it
+contain a whit the more the real elements of religious progress.
+
+It is indeed singular that this subject has been so misunderstood. Much
+has been written by Christian theologians to show the superiority of
+monotheisms; and by their opponents much has been made of Comte’s _loi
+des trois états_, which defines religious progress to be first
+fetichism, secondly polytheism, finally monotheism. Of this Mr. Lewes
+says: “The theological system arrived at the highest perfection of which
+it is capable when it substituted the providential action of a single
+being, for the varied operations of the numerous divinities which had
+before been imagined.”[187-1] Nothing could be more erroneous than the
+spirit of this statement; nothing is more correct, if the ordinary talk
+of the superiority of monotheism in religion be admitted.
+
+History and long experience show that monotheistic religions have no
+special good effect either on the morals or the religious sensibility of
+races.[187-2] Buddhism,[187-3] Mohammedanism and Judaism are, at least
+in theory, uncompromising monotheisms; modern Christianity is less so,
+as many Catholics pray to the Virgin and Saints, and many Protestants to
+Christ. So long as _the mathematical conception of number_, whether one
+or many, is applied to deity by a theological system, it has not yet
+“arrived at the highest perfection of which it is capable.”
+
+For let us inquire what a monotheism is? It is a belief in one god as
+distinct from the belief in several gods. In other words, it applies to
+God the mathematical concept of unity, a concept which can only come
+into cognition by virtue of contrasts and determinations, and which
+forces therefore the believer either to Pantheism or anthropomorphism to
+reconcile his belief with his reason. No other resource is left him.
+With monotheism there must always be the idea of numerical separateness,
+which is incompatible with universal conceptions.
+
+Let him, however, clear his mind of the current admiration for
+monotheisms, and impress upon himself that he who would form a
+conception of supreme intelligence must do so under the rules of pure
+thought, not numerical relation. The logical, not the mathematical,
+unity of the divine is the perfection of theological reasoning. Logical
+unity does not demand a determination by contrasts; it conveys only the
+idea of identity with self. As the logical attainment of truth is the
+recognition of identities in apparent diversity, thus leading from the
+logically many to the logically one, the assumption of the latter is
+eminently justified. Every act of reasoning is an additional proof of
+it.[188-1]
+
+Nor does the duality of nature and thought, to which I have alluded, in
+any wise contradict this. In pure thought we must understand the
+dichotomic process to be the distinction of a positive by a privative,
+both logical elements of the same thought, as I have elsewhere shown.
+The opposites or contraries referred to as giving rise to the dualistic
+conceptions of divinity are thus readily harmonized with the conception
+of logical unity. This was recognized by the Hindoo sage who composed
+the Bhagavad Gità, early in our era. Krishna, the Holy One, addressing
+the King Ardjuna says: “All beings fall into error as to the nature of
+creation, O Bharata, by reason of that delusion of natural opposites
+which springs from liking and disliking, oh thou tormentor of thy
+foes!”[189-1]
+
+The substitution of the conception of mathematical for logical unity in
+this connection has left curious traces in both philosophy and religion.
+It has led to a belief in the triplicate nature of the supreme Being,
+and to those philosophical triads which have often attracted thinkers,
+from Pythagoras and Heraclitus down to Hegel and Ghiberti.
+
+Pythagoras, who had thought profoundly on numbers and their relations,
+is credited with the obscure maxim that every thought is made up of a
+definite one and an indefinite two (a μονας and an αοριστος δυας). Some
+of his commentators have added to rather than lessened the darkness of
+this saying. But applied to concrete number, it seems clear enough. Take
+any number, ten, for example, and it is ten by virtue of being a _one_,
+one ten, and because on either side counting upward or downward, a
+different number appears, which two are its logical determinants, but,
+as not expressed, make up an _indefinite two_.
+
+So the number one, thought as concrete unity, is really a trinity, made
+up of its definite self and its indefinite next greater and lesser
+determinants. The obscure consciousness of this has made itself felt in
+many religions when they have progressed to a certain plane of thought.
+The ancient Egyptian gods were nearly all triune; Phanes, in the Orphic
+hymns the first principle of things, was tripartite; the Indian
+trinities are well known; the Celtic triads applied to divine as well as
+human existence; the Jews distinguished between Jehovah, his Wisdom and
+his Word; and in Christian religion and philosophy the doctrine of the
+trinity, though nowhere taught by Christ, has found a lasting foothold,
+and often presents itself as an actual tritheism.[190-1]
+
+The triplicate nature of number, thus alluded to by Pythagoras, springs
+from the third law of thought, and holds true of all concrete notions.
+Every such notion stands in necessary relation to its privative, and to
+the logical concept of next greater extension, _i. e._, that which
+includes the notion and its privative, as I explained in the first
+chapter. This was noted by the early Platonists, who describe a certain
+concrete expression of it as “the intelligential triad;” and it has been
+repeatedly commented upon by later philosophers, some of whom avowedly
+derive from it the proof of the trinitarian dogma as formulated by
+Athanasius. Even modern mathematical investigations have been supposed
+to point to a _Deus triformis_, though of course quite another one from
+that which ancient Rome honored. A late work of much ability makes the
+statement: “The doctrine of the Trinity, or something analogous to it,
+forms, as it were, the avenue through which the universe itself leads us
+up to the conception of the Infinite and Eternal One.”[191-1] The
+explanation of this notion is the same as that of the “Trinity of the
+Gentiles,” always hitherto a puzzling mythological concept.
+
+For reasons previously given, an analysis of the formal law itself does
+not yield these elements. They belong to a certain class of values
+assigned it, not to the law itself; hence it is only when deity is
+conceived under the conditions of numerical oneness that the tripartite
+constitution of a whole number makes itself felt, and is applied to the
+divine nature.
+
+The essence of a logical unit is identity, of a mathematical,
+difference. The qualities of the latter are limitations--_so much of a
+thing_; those of the former are coincidences--_that kind of a thing_.
+
+To be sure it is no easy matter to free ourselves from the habit of
+confounding identity and individuality. We must cultivate a much greater
+familiarity with the forms of thought, and the character of universals,
+than every-day life requires of us, before the distinction grows facile.
+The individual, not the species, exists; our own personality, our
+thinking faculty is what we are most certain of. On it rests the reality
+of everything, the Unknown as well. But the rejection of a mathematical
+unity does not at all depreciate the force of such an argument.
+Individuality regarded as mathematical unity rests on the deeper law of
+logical identity from which the validity of numbers rises; it is not
+the least diminished, but intensified, in the conception of a Supreme
+Intelligence, as the font of truth, though the confinements and
+limitations of the mathematical unit fall away, and all contrasts
+disappear.
+
+The reverse conception, however, has prevailed in religious systems,
+polytheistic or monotheistic. Man has projected on the cloudy unknown
+the magnified picture of his own individuality and shuddered with terror
+at the self-created plantasm,[TN-9] like the peasant frightened by the
+spectre of the Brocken, formed by the distorted image of himself. In his
+happier moments, with his hopes gratified, the same vice of thought,
+still active, prevented him from conceiving any higher ideal than his
+better self. “Everywhere the same tendency was observed; the gods,
+always exaggerations of human power and passions, became more and more
+personifications of what was most admirable and lovable in human nature,
+till in Christianity there emerged the avowed ideal man.” What could it
+end in but anthropomorphism, or pantheism, or, rejecting both, a
+Religion of Humanity, with a background of an imbecile Unknowable?
+
+Is it necessary to point out how none of these conclusions can satisfy
+the enlightened religious sentiment? How anthropomorphism,which[TN-10]
+makes God in the image of man, instead of acknowledging that man is
+made in the image of God, belittles divinity to a creature of passions
+and caprices? How pantheism, increasing God at the expense of man, wipes
+out the fundamental difference of true and false, calls bad “good in the
+making,” and virtually extinguishes the sense of duty and the permanence
+of personality? And how the denial of all possible knowledge of the
+absolute digs away the only foundation on which sanity can establish a
+religion, and then palms off material comfort as the proper food for
+religious longing?
+
+The long story of religious effort is not from fetichism to monotheism,
+as Comte read it; nor is its only possible goal inside the limits of the
+ego, as Feuerbach and the other Neo-Hegelians assert; but it is on its
+theoretical side to develope with greater and greater distinctness the
+immeasurable reality of pure thought, to dispense more and more with the
+quantification of the absolute, and to avoid in the representation of
+that Being the use of the technic of concrete existence.
+
+Little by little we learn that the really true is never true in fact,
+that the really good is never good in act.[194-1] Carefully cherishing
+this distinction taught by mathematics and ethics, the religious mind
+learns to recognize in that only reality darkly seen through the glass
+of material things, that which should fix and fill its meditations.
+Passing beyond the domain of physical law, it occupies itself with that
+which defines the conditions of law. It contemplates an eternal
+activity, before which its own self-consciousness seems a flickering
+shadow, yet in that contemplation is not lost but gains an evergrowing
+personality.
+
+This is the goal of religious striving, the hidden aim of the wars and
+persecutions, the polemics and martyrdoms, which have so busied and
+bloodied the world. This satisfies the rational postulates of religion.
+Does some one say that it does not stimulate its emotional elements,
+that it does not supply the impulses of action which must ever be the
+criteria of the true faith? Is it not a religion at all, but a
+philosophy, a search, or if you prefer, a love for the truth?
+
+Let such doubter ponder well the signification of truth, its relation to
+life, its identity with the good, and the paramount might of wisdom and
+a clear understanding, and he will be ready to exclaim with the
+passionate piety of St. Augustine: “_Ubi inveni veritatem, ibi inveni
+Deum meum, ipsam veritatem, quam, ex quo didici, non sum oblitus._”
+
+From this brief review of its character, the Myth will be seen to be one
+of the transitory expressions of the religious sentiment, which in
+enlightened lands it has already outgrown and should lay aside. So far
+as it relates to events, real or alleged, historic or geologic, it deals
+with that which is indifferent to pure religion; and so far as it
+assumes to reveal the character, plans and temper of divinity, it is too
+evidently a reflex of man’s personality to be worthy of serious
+refutation where it conflicts with the better guide he has within him.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[156-1] In this definition the word _apperception_ is used in the sense
+assigned it by Professor Lazarus--the perception modified by imagination
+and memory. “Mythologie ist eine Apperceptionsform der Natur und des
+Menschen.” (_Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie_, Bd. i., s. 44). Most
+recent mythologists omit the latter branch of the definition; for
+instance, “A myth is in its origin an explanation by the uncivilized
+mind of some natural phenomenon.” (John Fiske, _Myths and Myth Makers_,
+p. 21). This is to omit that which gives the myth its only claim to be a
+product of the religious sentiment. Schopenhauer, in calling dogmas and
+myths “the metaphysics of the people,” fell into the same error.
+Religion, as such, is always concrete.
+
+[159-1] Half a century ago the learned Mr. Faber, in his _Origin of
+Pagan Idolatry_, expressed his astonishment at “the singular, minute and
+regular accordance” between the classical myths. That accordance has now
+been discovered to be world-wide.
+
+[160-1] “Ganz gleiche Mythen können sehr füglich, jede selbstständig, an
+verschiedenen Oerter emporkommen.” _Briefe an Woelcker._
+
+[161-1] The last two are the modern orthodox theories, supported by
+Bryant, Faber, Trench, De Maistre and Sepp. Medieval Christianity
+preferred the direct agency of the Devil. Primitive Christianity leaned
+to the opinion that the Grecian and Roman myth makers had stolen from
+the sacred writings of the Jews.
+
+[165-1] Sir Wm. Hamilton, _Lectures on Metaphysics_. Appendix, p. 691.
+
+[165-2] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie_, Bd. ii., s. 107.
+
+[166-1] Th. Nöldeke, _Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie_, Bd. iii., s.
+131.
+
+[166-2] See a note of Prof. Spiegel to Yaçna, 29, of the _Khordah-Avesta_.
+
+[167-1] Ἡ υγρα φυσις αρχη και γενεσις παντων.
+
+  Plutarch, _De Iside_.
+
+According to the Koran and the Jewish Rabbis, the throne of God rested
+on the primeval waters from which the earth was produced. See a note in
+Rodwell’s translation of the Koran, _Sura_. xi.
+
+[167-2] I have discussed some of these myths in the seventh chapter of
+the _Myths of the New World_.
+
+[168-1] How it troubled the early Christians who dared not adopt the
+refuge of the Epochs of Nature, may be seen in the _Confessions_ of St.
+Augustine, Lib. XI, cap. 10, et seq. He quotes the reply of one pushed
+by the inquiry, what God was doing before creation: “He was making a
+hell for inquisitive busy-bodies.” _Alta spectantibus gehennas parabat._
+
+[170-1] Many interesting references to the Oriental flood-myth may be
+found in Cory’s _Ancient Fragments_. See also, Dr. Fr. Windischmann,
+_Die Ursagen der Arischen Völker_, pp. 4-10. It is probable that in very
+ancient Semitic tradition Adam was represented as the survivor of a
+flood anterior to that of Noah. Maimonides relates that the Sabians
+believed the world to be eternal, and called Adam “the Prophet of the
+Moon,” which symbolized, as we know from other sources, the deity of
+water. Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon, _More Nevochim_, cap. iv. In early
+Christian symbolism Christ was called “the true Noah”; the dove
+accompanied him also, and as through Noah came “salvation by wood and
+water,” so through Christ came “salvation by spirit and water.” (See St.
+Cyril of Jerusalem’s _Catechetical Lectures_, Lect. xvii., cap. 10). The
+fish (ιχθυς) was the symbol of Christ as well as of Oannes. As the
+second coming of Christ was to be the destruction of the world, how
+plainly appear the germs of the myth of the Epochs of Nature in the
+Judæo-Christian mind!
+
+[171-1] Besides the expressions in the Book of Ecclesiastes and the
+later prophets, the doctrine is distinctly announced in one of the most
+sublime of the Psalms (xc), one attributed to “Moses the Man of God.”
+
+[172-1] Malachi, ch. iv., v. 2.
+
+[175-1] C. F. Koppen, _Die Lamaische Hierarchie_, s. 28.
+
+[175-2] Odainsakr, ô privative, _dain_ death, _akr_ land, “the land of
+immortal life.” Saxo Grammaticus speaks of it also. Another such land
+faintly referred to in the Edda is Breidablick, governed by Baldur, the
+Light-god.
+
+[176-1] C. F. Koppen, _Die Lamaische Hierarchie und Kirche_, p. 17.
+
+[179-1] John Stuart Mill, _Theism_, p. 256.
+
+[183-1] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie_, Bd. II., s. 47
+
+[184-1] This is the first line of Yaçna, 42, of the _Khordah-Avesta_.
+The Parsees believe that it is the salutation which meets the soul of
+the good on entering the next world.
+
+[186-1] “Sight is the light sense. Through it we become acquainted with
+universal relations, this being _reason_. Without the eye there would be
+no reason.” Lorenz Oken, _Elements of Physio-Philosophy_, p. 475.
+
+[187-1] _History of Philosophy_, Vol. II. p. 638 (4th ed.)
+
+[187-2] “The intolerance of almost all religions which have maintained
+the unity of God, is as remarkable as the contrary principle in
+polytheism.” Hume, _Nat. Hist. of Religion_, Sec. ix.
+
+[187-3] “The Lamas emphatically maintain monotheism to be the real
+character of Buddhism.” Emil Schlagintweit, _Buddhism in Tibet_, p. 108.
+
+[188-1] No one has seen the error here pointed out, and its injurious
+results on thought, more clearly than Comte himself. He is emphatic in
+condemning “le tendance involontaire à constituer l’unité spéculative
+par l’ascendant universel des plus grossières contemplations numérique,
+geométrique ou mécaniques.” _Systême de Politique Positive_; Tome I., p.
+51. But he was too biassed to apply this warning to Christian thought.
+The conception of the Universe in the logic of Professor De Morgan and
+Boole is an example of speculative unity.
+
+[189-1] _Bhagavad Gità_, ch. iv.
+
+[190-1] See the introduction by Mr. J. W. Etheridge to _The Targums of
+Onkelos and Jonathan Ben Uzziel_ (London, 1862). St. Augustine believed
+the trinity is referred to in the opening verses of Genesis.
+_Confessiones_, Lib. xiii. cap. 5. The early Christian writer,
+Theophilus of Antioch (circa 225), in his _Apologia_, recognizes the
+Jewish trinity only. It was a century later that the dogma was defined
+in its Athanasian form. See further, Isaac Preston Cory, _Ancient
+Fragments, with an Inquiry into the Trinity of the Gentiles_ (London,
+1832).
+
+[191-1] _The Unseen Universe_, p. 194.
+
+[194-1] “A good will is the only altogether good thing in the
+world.”--_Kant._ “What man conceives in himself is always superior to
+that reality which it precedes and prepares.”--_Comte._
+
+
+
+
+THE CULT, ITS SYMBOLS AND RITES.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     The Symbol represents the unknown; the Rite is the ceremony of
+     worship.
+
+     A symbol stands for the supernatural, an emblem for something
+     known. The elucidation of symbolism is in the laws of the
+     association of ideas. Associations of similarity give related
+     symbols, of contiguity coincident symbols. Symbols tend either
+     toward personification (iconolatry), or toward secularization. The
+     symbol has no fixed interpretation. Its indefiniteness shown by the
+     serpent symbol, and the cross. The physiological relations of
+     certain symbols. Their classification. The Lotus. The Pillar.
+     Symbols discarded by the higher religious thought. Esthetic and
+     scientific symbolism (the “Doctrine of Correspondences”).
+
+     Rites are either propitiatory or memorial. The former spring either
+     from the idea of sacrifice or of specific performance. A sacrifice
+     is a gift, but its measure is what it costs the giver. Specific
+     performance means that a religious act should have no ulterior aim.
+     Vicarious sacrifice and the idea of sin.
+
+     Memorial rites are intended to recall the myth, or else to keep up
+     the organization. The former are dramatic or imitative, the latter
+     institutionary. Tendency of memorial rites to become propitiatory.
+     Examples.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE CULT, ITS SYMBOLS AND RITES.
+
+
+As the side which a religious system presents to the intellect is shown
+in the Myth, so the side that it presents to sense is exhibited in the
+Cult. This includes the representation and forms of worship of the
+unknown power which presides over the fruition of the Prayer or
+religious wish. The representation is effected by the Symbol, the
+worship by the Rite. The development of these two, and their relation to
+religious thought, will be the subject of the present chapter.
+
+The word Symbolism has a technical sense in theological writings, to
+wit, the discussion of creeds, quite different from that in which it is
+used in mythological science. Here it means the discussion of the
+natural objects which have been used to represent to sense supposed
+supernatural beings. As some conception of such beings must first be
+formed, the symbol is necessarily founded upon the myth, and must be
+explained by it.
+
+A symbol is closely allied to an emblem, the distinction being that the
+latter is intended to represent some abstract conception or concrete
+fact, not supposed to be supernatural. Thus the serpent is the emblem of
+Esculapius, or, abstractly, of the art of healing; but in its use as a
+symbol in Christian art it stands for the Evil One, a supernatural
+being. The heraldric insignia of the Middle Ages were emblematic
+devices; but the architecture of the cathedrals was largely symbolic.
+Both agree in aiming to aid the imagination and the memory, and both may
+appeal to any special sense, although the majority are addressed to
+sight alone.
+
+Symbolism has not received the scientific treatment which has been so
+liberally bestowed on mythology. The first writer who approached it in
+the proper spirit was Professor Creuzer.[200-1] Previous to his labors
+the distinction between pictographic and symbolic art was not well
+defined. He drew the line sharply, and illustrated it abundantly; but he
+did not preserve so clearly the relations of the symbol and the myth.
+Indeed, he regarded the latter as a symbol, a “phonetic” one, to be
+treated by the same processes of analysis. Herein later students have
+not consented to follow him. The contrast between these two expressions
+of the religious sentiment becomes apparent when we examine their
+psychological origin. This Professor Creuzer did not include in his
+researches, nor is it dwelt upon at any length in the more recent works
+on the subject.[201-1] The neglect to do this has given rise to an
+arbitrariness in the interpretation of many symbols, which has often
+obscured their position in religious history.
+
+What these principles are I shall endeavor to indicate; and first of the
+laws of the origin of symbols, the rules which guided the early
+intellect in choosing from the vast number of objects appealing to sense
+those fit to shadow forth the supernatural.
+
+It may safely be assumed that this was not done capriciously, as the
+modern parvenue makes for himself a heraldric device. The simple and
+devout intellect of the primitive man imagined a real connection between
+the god and the symbol. Were this questioned, yet the wonderful
+unanimity with which the same natural objects, the serpent, the bird,
+the tree, for example, were everywhere chosen, proves that their
+selection was not the work of chance. The constant preference of these
+objects points conclusively to some strong and frequent connection of
+their images with mythical concepts.
+
+The question of the origin of symbols therefore resolves itself into one
+of the association of ideas, and we start from sure ground in applying
+to their interpretation the established canons of association. These, as
+I have elsewhere said, are those of contiguity and similarity, the
+former producing association by the closeness of succession of
+impressions or thoughts, the latter through impressions or thoughts
+recalling like ones in previous experience. When the same occurrence
+affects different senses simultaneously, or nearly so, the association
+is one of _contiguity_, as thunder and lightning, for a sound cannot be
+_like_ a sight; when the same sense is affected in such a manner as to
+recall a previous impression, the association is one of _similarity_, as
+when the red autumn leaves recall the hue of sunset. Nearness in time or
+nearness in kind is the condition of association.
+
+The intensity or permanence of the association depends somewhat on
+temperament, but chiefly on repetition or continuance. Not having an ear
+for music, I may find it difficult to recall a song from hearing its
+tune; but by dint of frequent repetition I learn to associate them.
+Light and heat, smoke and fire, poverty and hunger so frequently occur
+together, that the one is apt to recall the other. So do a large number
+of antithetical associations, as light and darkness, heat and cold, by
+_inverse similarity_, opposite impressions reviving each other, in
+accordance with the positive and privative elements of a notion.
+
+This brief reference to the laws of applied thought,--too brief, did I
+not take for granted that they are generally familiar--furnishes the
+clue to guide us through the labyrinth of symbolism, to wit, the
+repeated association of the event or power recorded in the myth with
+some sensuous image. Where there is a connection in kind between the
+symbol and that for which it stands, there is _related_ symbolism; where
+the connection is one of juxtaposition in time, there is _coincident_
+symbolism. Mother Earth, fertile and fecund, was a popular deity in many
+nations, and especially among the Egyptians, who worshipped her under
+the symbol of a cow; this is related symbolism; the historical event of
+the execution of Christ occurred by crucifixion, one of several methods
+common in that age, and since then the cross has been the symbol of
+Christianity; this is coincident symbolism. It is easy for the two to
+merge, as when the cross was identified with a somewhat similar and much
+older symbol, one of the class I have called “related,” signifying the
+reproductive principle, and became the “tree of life.” As a coincident
+symbol is to a certain extent accidental in origin, related symbols
+have always been most agreeable to the religious sentiment.
+
+This remark embodies the explanation of the growth of religious
+symbolism, and also its gradual decay into decorative art and mnemonic
+design. The tendency of related symbolism is toward the identification
+of the symbol with that for which it stands, toward personification or
+prosopopeia; while what I may call the _secularization_ of symbols is
+brought about by regarding them more and more as accidental connections,
+by giving them conventional forms, and treating them as elements of
+architectural or pictorial design, or as aids to memory.
+
+This tendency of related symbolism depends on a law of applied thought
+which has lately been formulated by a distinguished logician in the
+following words: “What is true of a thing, is true of its like.”[204-1]
+The similarity of the symbol to its prototype assumed, the qualities of
+the symbol, even those which had no share in deciding its selection, no
+likeness to the original, were lumped, and transferred to the divinity.
+As those like by similarity, so those unlike, were identified by
+contiguity, as traits of the unknown power. This is the active element
+in the degeneracy of religious idealism. The cow or the bull, chosen
+first as a symbol of creation or fecundity, led to a worship of the
+animal itself, and a transfer of its traits, even to its horns, to the
+god. In a less repulsive form, the same tendency shows itself in the
+pietistic ingenuity of such poets as Adam de Sancto Victore and George
+Herbert, who delight in taking some biblical symbol, and developing from
+it a score of applications which the original user never dreamt of. In
+such hands a chance simile grows to an elaborate myth.
+
+Correct thought would prevent the extension of the value of the symbol
+beyond the original element of similarity. More than this, it would
+recognize the fact that similarity does not suppose identity, but the
+reverse, to wit, defect of likeness; and this dissimilitude must be the
+greater, as the original and symbol are naturally discrepant. The
+supernatual,[TN-11] however, whether by this term we mean the unknown or
+the universal--still more if we mean the incomprehensible--is utterly
+discrepant with the known, except by an indefinitely faint analogy. In
+the higher thought, therefore, the symbol loses all trace of identity
+and becomes merely emblematic.
+
+The ancients defended symbolic teaching on this very ground, that the
+symbol left so much unexplained, that it stimulated the intellect and
+trained it to profounder thinking;[205-1] practically it had the
+reverse effect, the symbol being accepted as the thing itself.
+
+Passing from these general rules of the selection of symbols, to the
+history of the symbol when chosen, this presents itself to us in a
+reciprocal form, first as the myth led to the adoption and changes in
+the symbol, and as the latter in turn altered and reformed the myth.
+
+The tropes and figures of rhetoric by which the conceptions of the
+supernatural were first expressed, give the clue to primitive symbolism.
+A very few examples will be sufficient. No one can doubt that the figure
+of the serpent was sometimes used in pictorial art to represent the
+lightning, when he reads that the Algonkins _straightly_ called the
+latter a snake; when he sees the same adjective, spiral or winding,
+(ἑλικοιεδης) applied by the Greeks to the lightning and a snake; when
+the Quiché call the electric flash a strong serpent; and many other such
+examples. The Pueblo Indians represent lightning in their pictographs by
+a zigzag line. A zigzag fence is called in the Middle States a worm or
+“snake” fence. Besides this, adjectives which describe the line traced
+by the serpent in motion are applied to many twisting or winding
+objects, as a river, a curl or lock of hair, the tendrils of a vine, the
+intestines, a trailing plant, the mazes of a dance, a bracelet, a broken
+ray of light, a sickle, a crooked limb, an anfractuous path, the
+phallus, etc. Hence the figure of a serpent may, and in fact has been,
+used with direct reference to every one of these, as could easily be
+shown. How short-sighted then the expounder of symbolism who would
+explain the frequent recurrence of the symbol or the myth of the serpent
+wherever he finds it by any one of these!
+
+This narrowness of exposition becomes doubly evident when we give
+consideration to two other elements in primitive symbolism--the
+multivocal nature of early designs, and the misapprehensions due to
+contiguous association.
+
+To illustrate the first, let us suppose, with Schwarz[207-1] and others,
+that the serpent was at first the symbol of the lightning. Its most
+natural representation would be in motion; it might then stand for the
+other serpentine objects I have mentioned; but once accepted as an
+acknowledged symbol, the other qualities and properties of the serpent
+would present themselves to the mind, and the effort would be made to
+discover or to imagine likenesses to these in the electric flash. The
+serpent is venomous; it casts its skin and thus seems to renew its life;
+it is said to fascinate its prey; it lives in the ground; it hisses or
+rattles when disturbed: none of these properties is present to the mind
+of the savage who scratches on the rock a zigzag line to represent the
+lightning god. But after-thought brings them up, and the association of
+contiguity can apply them all to the lightning, and actually has done so
+over and over again; and not only to it, but also to other objects
+originally represented by a broken line, for example, the river gods and
+the rays of light.
+
+This complexity is increased by the ambiguous representation of symbolic
+designs. The serpent, no longer chosen for its motion alone, will be
+expressed in art in that form best suited to the meaning of the symbol
+present in the mind of the artist. Realism is never the aim of religious
+art. The zigzag line, the coil, the spiral, the circle and the straight
+line, are all geometrical radicals of various serpentine forms. Any one
+of these may be displayed with fanciful embellishments and artistic
+aids. Or the artist, proceeding by synecdoche, takes a part for the
+whole, and instead of portraying the entire animal, contents himself
+with one prominent feature or one aspect of it. A striking instance of
+this has been developed by Dr. Harrison Allen, in the prevalence of what
+he calls the “crotalean curve,” in aboriginal American art, a line which
+is the radical of the profile view of the head of the rattlesnake
+(_crotalus_).[208-1] This he has detected in the architectural monuments
+of Mexico and Yucatan, in the Maya phonetic scrip, and even in the rude
+efforts of the savage tribes. Each of these elective methods of
+representing the serpent, would itself, by independent association,
+call up ideas out of all connection whatever with that which the figure
+first symbolized. These, in the mind entertaining them, will supersede
+and efface the primitive meaning. Thus the circle is used in
+conventional symbolic art to designate the serpent; but also the eye,
+the ear, the open mouth, the mamma, the sun, the moon, a wheel, the
+womb, the vagina, the return of the seasons, time, continued life, hence
+health, and many other things. Whichever of these ideas is easiest
+recalled will first appear on looking at a circle. The error of those
+who have discussed mythological symbolism has been to trace a connection
+of such adventitious ideas beyond the symbol to its original meaning;
+whereas the symbol itself is the starting-point. To one living in a
+region where venomous serpents abound, the figure of one will recall the
+sense of danger, the dread of the bite, and the natural hostility we
+feel to those who hurt us; whereas no such ideas would occur to the
+native of a country where there are no snakes, or where they are
+harmless, unless taught this association.
+
+Few symbols have received more extended study than that of the cross,
+owing to its prominence in Christian art. This, as I have said, was
+coincident or incidental only. It corresponded, however, to a current
+“phonetic symbol,” in the expression common to the Greeks and Romans of
+that day, “to take up one’s cross,” meaning to prepare for the worst, a
+metaphor used by Christ himself.
+
+Now there is no agreement as to what was the precise form of the cross
+on which he suffered. Three materially unlike crosses are each equally
+probable. In symbolic art these have been so multiplied that now _two
+hundred and twenty-two_ variants of the figure are described![210-1] Of
+course there is nothing easier than to find among these similarities,
+with many other conventional symbols, the Egyptian Tau, the Hammer of
+Thor, the “Tree of Fertility,” on which the Aztecs nailed their victims,
+the crossed lines which are described on Etruscan tombs, or the logs
+crossed at rectangles, on which the Muskogee Indians built the sacred
+fire. The four cardinal points are so generally objects of worship, that
+more than any other mythical conception they have been represented by
+cruciform figures. But to connect these in any way with the symbol as it
+appears in Christian art, is to violate every scientific principle.
+
+Each variant of a symbol may give rise to myths quite independent of its
+original meaning. A symbol once adopted is preserved by its sacred
+character, exists long as a symbol, but with ever fluctuating
+significations. It always takes that which is uppermost in the mind of
+the votary and the congregation. Hence, psychology, and especially the
+psychology of races, is the only true guide in symbolic exegesis.
+
+Nor is the wide adoption and preservation of symbols alone due to an
+easily noticed similarity between certain objects and the earliest
+conceptions of the supernatural, or to the preservative power of
+religious veneration.
+
+I have previously referred to the associations of ideas arising from
+ancestral reversions of memory, and from the principles of minimum
+muscular action and harmonic excitation. Such laws make themselves felt
+unconsciously from the commencement of life, with greater or less power,
+dependent on the susceptibility of the nervous system. They go far
+toward explaining the recurrence and permanence of symbols, whether of
+sight or sound. Thus I attribute the prevalence of the serpentine curve
+in early religious art largely to its approach to the “line of beauty,”
+which is none other than that line which the eye, owing to the
+arrangement of its muscles, can follow with the minimum expenditure of
+nervous energy. The satisfaction of the mind in viewing symmetrical
+figures or harmonious coloring, as also that of the ear, in hearing
+accordant sounds, is, as I have remarked, based on the principle of
+maximum action with minimum waste. The mind gets the most at the least
+cost.
+
+The equilateral triangle, which is the simplest geometrical figure which
+can enclose a space, thus satisfying the mind the easiest of any, is
+nigh universal in symbolism. It is seen in the Egyptian pyramids, whose
+sides are equilateral triangles with a common apex, in the mediæval
+cathedrals, whose designs are combinations of such triangles, in the
+sign for the trinity, the pentalpha, etc.
+
+The classification of some symbols of less extensive prevalence must be
+made from their phonetic values. One class was formed as were the
+“canting arms” in heraldry, that is, by a rebus. This is in its simpler
+form, direct, as when Quetzalcoatl, the mystical hero-god of Atzlan, is
+represented by a bird on a serpent, _quetzal_ signifying a bird, _coatl_
+a serpent; or composite, two or more of such rebus symbols being blended
+by synecdoche, like the “marshalling” of arms in heraldry, as when the
+same god is portrayed by a feathered serpent; or the rebus may occur
+with paronymy, especially when the literal meaning of a name of the god
+is lost, as when the Algonkins forgot the sense of the word _wabish_,
+white or bright, as applied to their chief divinity, and confounding it
+with _wabos_, a rabbit, wove various myths about their ancestor, the
+Great Hare, and chose the hare or rabbit as a totemic badge.[212-1]
+
+It is almost needless to add further that the ideas most frequently
+associated with the unknown object of religion are those, which,
+struggling after material expression, were most fecund in symbols. We
+have but to turn to the Orphic hymns, or those of the Vedas or the
+Hebrew Psalms, to see how inexhaustible was the poetic fancy, stirred by
+religious awe, in the discovery of similitudes, any of which, under
+favoring circumstances, might become a symbol.
+
+Before leaving this branch of my subject, I may illustrate some of the
+preceding comments by applying them to one or two well known subjects of
+religious art.
+
+A pleasing symbol, which has played a conspicuous part in many
+religions, is the Egyptian lotus, or “lily of the Nile.” It is an
+aquatic plant, with white, roseate or blue flowers, which float upon the
+water, and send up from their centre long stamens. In Egypt it grows
+with the rising of the Nile, and as its appearance was coincident with
+that important event, it came to take prominence in the worship of Isis
+and Osiris as the symbol of fertility. Their mystical marriage took
+place in its blossom. In the technical language of the priests, however,
+it bore a profounder meaning, that of the supremacy of reason above
+matter, the contrast being between the beautiful flower and the muddy
+water which bears it.[214-1] In India the lotus bears other and
+manifold meanings. It is a symbol of the sacred river Ganges, and of the
+morally pure. No prayer in the world has ever been more frequently
+repeated than this: “Om! the jewel in the lotus. Amen” (_om mani padme
+hum_). Many millions of times, every hour, for centuries, has this been
+iterated by the Buddhists of Thibet and the countries north of it. What
+it means, they can only explain by fantastic and mystical guesses.
+Probably it refers to the legendary birth of their chief saint,
+Avalokitesvara, who is said to have been born of a lotus flower. But
+some say it is a piece of symbolism not strange to its meaning in
+Egypt,[214-2] and borrowed by Buddhism from the Siva worship. In the
+symbolic language of this sect the lotus is the symbol of the vagina,
+while the phallus is called “the jewel.” With this interpretation the
+Buddhist prayer would refer to the reproductive act; but it is
+illustrative of the necessity of attributing wholly diverse meanings to
+the same symbol, that the Buddhists neither now nor at any past time
+attached any such signification to the expression, and it would be most
+discrepant with their doctrines to do so.[214-3]
+
+Another symbol has frequently been open to this duplicate
+interpretation, that is, the upright pillar. The Egyptian obelisk, the
+pillars of “Irmin” or of “Roland,” set up now of wood, now of stone by
+the ancient Germans, the “red-painted great warpole” of the American
+Indians, the May-pole of Old England, the spire of sacred edifices, the
+staff planted on the grave, the terminus of the Roman landholders, all
+these objects have been interpreted to be symbols of life, or the
+life-force. As they were often of wood, the trunk of a tree for
+instance, they have often been called by titles equivalent to the “tree
+of life,” and are thus connected with the nigh innumerable myths which
+relate to some mystic tree as the source of life. The ash Ygdrasyl of
+the Edda, the oak of Dordona and of the Druid, the modern Christmas
+tree, the sacred banyan, the holy groves, illustrate but faintly the
+prevalence of tree worship. Even so late as the time of Canute, it had
+to be forbidden in England by royal edict.
+
+Now, the general meaning of this symbol I take to be the same as that
+which led to the choice of hills and “high places,” as sites for altars
+and temples, and to the assigning of mountain tops as the abodes of the
+chief gods. It is seen in adjectives applied, I believe, in all
+languages, certainly all developed ones, to such deities themselves.
+These adjectives are related to adverbs of place, signifying _above_,
+_up_ or _over_. We speak of the supernatural, or supernal powers, the
+Supreme Being, the Most High, He in Heaven, and such like. So do all
+Aryan and Semitic tongues. Beyond them, the Chinese name for the Supreme
+Deity, Tien, means _up_. I have elsewhere illustrated the same fact in
+native American tongues. The association of light and the sky above, the
+sun and the heaven, is why we raise our hands and eyes in confident
+prayer to divinity. That at times, however, a religion of sex-love did
+identify these erect symbols with the phallus as the life-giver, is very
+true, but this was a temporary and adventitious meaning assigned a
+symbol far more ancient than this form of religion.
+
+In this review of the principles of religious symbolism, I have
+attempted mainly to exhibit the part it has sustained in the development
+of the religious sentiment. It has been generally unfavorable to the
+growth of higher thought. The symbol, in what it is above the emblem,
+assumes more than a similarity, a closer relation than analogy; to some
+degree it pretends to a hypostatic union or identity of the material
+with the divine, the known to sense with the unknown. Fully seen, this
+becomes object worship; partially so, personification.
+
+There is no exception to this. The refined symbolisms which pass current
+to day as religious philosophies exemplify it. The one, esthetic
+symbolism, has its field in musical and architectural art, in the study
+and portraiture of the beautiful; the other, scientific symbolism,
+claims to discover in the morphology of organisms, in the harmonic laws
+of physics, and in the processes of the dialectic, the proof that
+symbolism, if not a revelation, is at least an unconscious inspiration
+of universal truth. This is the “Doctrine of Correspondences,” much in
+favor with Swedenborgians, but by no means introduced by the founder of
+that sect. The recognition of the identity in form of the fundamental
+laws of motion and thought, and the clearer understanding of the
+character of harmony which the experiments of Helmholtz and others give
+us, disperse most of the mystery about these similarities. The religion
+of art, as such, will come up for consideration in the next chapter.
+
+The second form of the Cult is the Rite. This includes the acts or
+ceremonies of worship. Considered in the gross, they can be classed as
+of two kinds, the first and earliest propitiatory, the second and later
+memorial or institutionary.
+
+We have but to bear in mind the one aspiration of commencing religious
+thought, to wit, the attainment of a wish, to see that whatever action
+arose therefrom must be directed to that purpose. Hence, when we analyze
+the rude ceremonies of savage cults, the motive is extremely apparent.
+They, like their prayers, all point to the securing of some material
+advantage. They are designed
+
+                                    “to cozen
+    The gods that constrain us and curse.”
+
+The motives which underlie these simplest as well as the most elaborate
+rituals, and impress upon them their distinctively religious character
+can be reduced to two, the idea of _sacrifice_ and the idea of _specific
+performance_.
+
+The simplest notion involved in a sacrifice is that of _giving_. The
+value of the gift is not, however, the intrinsic worth of the thing
+given, nor even the pleasure or advantage the recipient derives
+therefrom, but, singularly enough, the amount of pain the giver
+experiences in depriving himself of it! This is also often seen in
+ordinary transactions. A rich man who subscribes a hundred dollars to a
+charity, is thought to merit less commendation than the widow who gives
+her mite. Measured by motive, this reasoning is correct. There is a
+justice which can be vindicated in holding self-denial to be a standard
+of motive. All developed religions have demanded the renunciation of
+what is dearest. The Ynglyngasaga tells us that in a time of famine, the
+first sacrifice offered to the gods was of beasts only; if this failed,
+men were slain to appease them; and if this did not mitigate their
+anger, the king himself was obliged to die that they might send plenty.
+The Latin writers have handed it down that among the Germans and Gauls a
+human sacrifice was deemed the more efficacious the more distinguished
+the victim, and the nearer his relationship to him who offered the
+rite.[219-1] The slaughter of children and wives to please the gods was
+common in many religions, and the self-emasculation of the priests of
+Cybele, with other such painful rites, indicates that the measure of the
+sacrifice was very usually not what the god needed, but the willingness
+of the worshipper to give.
+
+The second idea, that of _specific performance_, has been well expressed
+and humorously commented upon by Hume in his _Natural History of
+Religions_. He says: “Here I cannot forbear observing a fact which may
+be worth the attention of those who make human nature the object of
+their inquiry. It is certain that in every religion, many of the
+votaries, perhaps the greatest number, will seek the divine favor, not
+by virtue and good morals, but either by frivolous observances, by
+intemperate zeal, by rapturous ecstasies, or by the belief of mysterious
+and absurd opinions.
+
+* * * In all this [_i. e._, in virtue and good morals], a superstitious
+man finds nothing, which he has properly performed for the sake of his
+deity, or which can peculiarly recommend him to divine favor and
+protection. * * * * But if he fast or give himself a sound whipping,
+this has a direct reference, in his opinion, to the service of God. No
+other motive could engage him to such austerities.”
+
+The philosopher here sets forth in his inimitable style a marked
+characteristic of religious acts. But he touches upon it with his usual
+superficiality. It is true that no religion has ever been content with
+promoting the happiness of man, and that the vast majority of votaries
+are always seeking to do something specifically religious, and are not
+satisfied with the moral only. The simple explanation of it is that the
+religious sentiment has a purpose entirely distinct from ethics, a
+purpose constantly felt as something peculiar to itself, though
+obscurely seen and often wholly misconceived. It is only when an action
+is utterly dissevered from other ends, and is purely and solely
+religious, that it can satisfy this sentiment. “_La religion_,” most
+truly observes Madame Necker de Saussure, “_ne doit point avoir d’autre
+bût qu’elle même_.”
+
+The uniform prevalence of these ideas in rites may be illustrated from
+the simplest or the most elaborate. Father Brebeuf, missionary to the
+Hurons in 1636, has a chapter on their superstitions. He there tells us
+that this nation had two sorts of ceremonies, the one to induce the
+gods to grant good fortune, the other to appease them when some ill-luck
+had occurred. Before running a dangerous rapid in their frail canoes
+they would lay tobacco on a certain rock where the deity of the rapid
+was supposed to reside, and ask for safety in their voyage. They took
+tobacco and cast it in the fire, saying: “O Heaven (_Aronhiaté_), see, I
+give you something; aid me; cure this sickness of mine.” When one was
+drowned or died of cold, a feast was called, and the soft parts of the
+corpse were cut from the bones and burned to conciliate the personal
+god, while the women danced and chanted a melancholy strain. Here one
+sacrifice was to curry favor with the gods, another to soothe their
+anger, and the third was a rite, not a sacrifice, but done for a
+religious end, whose merit was specific performance.
+
+As the gift was valued at what it cost the giver, and was supposed to be
+efficacious in this same ratio, self-denial soon passed into
+self-torture, prolonged fasts, scourging and lacerations, thus becoming
+legitimate exhibitions of religious fervor. As mental pain is as keen as
+bodily pain, the suffering of Jephthah was quite as severe as that of
+the Flagellants, and was expected to find favor in the eyes of the gods.
+
+A significant corrollary[TN-12] from such a theory follows: that which is
+the efficacious part of the sacrifice is the suffering; given a certain
+degree of this, the desired effect will follow. As to what or who
+suffers, or in what manner he or it suffers, these are secondary
+considerations, even unimportant ones, so far as the end to be obtained
+is concerned. This is the germ of _vicarious_ sacrifice, a plan
+frequently observed in even immature religions. What seems the
+diabolical cruelty of some superstitious rites, those of the
+Carthaginians and Celts, for example, is thoroughly consistent with the
+abstract theory of sacrifice, and did not spring from capricious malice.
+The Death of Christ, regarded as a general vicarious atonement, has had
+its efficiency explained directly by the theory that the pain he
+suffered partook of the infinity of his divine nature; as thus it was
+excruciating beyond measure, so it was infinitely effectual toward
+appeasing divinity.
+
+It is well known that this doctrine was no innovation on the religious
+sentiment of the age when it was preached by the Greek fathers. For
+centuries the Egyptian priests had taught the incarnation and sufferings
+of Osiris, and his death for the salvation of his people. Similar myths
+were common throughout the Orient, all drawn from the reasoning I have
+mentioned.[222-1]
+
+They have been variously criticized. Apart from the equivocal traits
+this theory of atonement attributes to the supernatural powers--a
+feature counterbalanced, in modern religion, by subduing its harshest
+features--it is rooted essentially in the material view of religion. The
+religious value of an act is to be appraised by the extent to which it
+follows recognition of duty. To acknowledge an error is unpleasant; to
+renounce it still more so, for it breaks a habit; to see our own errors
+in their magnitude, sullying our whole nature and reaching far ahead to
+generations yet unborn, is consummately bitter, and in proportion as it
+is bitter, will keep us from erring.[223-1] This is the “sacrifice of a
+contrite heart,” which alone is not despicable; and this no one can do
+for us. We may be sure that neither the physical pain of victims burning
+in a slow fire, nor the mental pain of yielding up whatever we hold
+dearest upon earth, will make our views of duty a particle clearer or
+our notion of divinity a jot nobler; and whatever does neither of these
+is not of true religion.
+
+The theory of sacrifice is intimately related with the idea of sin. In
+the quotation I have made from Father Brebeuf we see that the Hurons
+recognized a distinct form of rite as appropriate to appease a god when
+angered. It is a matter of national temperament which of these forms
+takes the lead. Joutel tells of a tribe in Texas who paid attention only
+to the gods who worked them harm, saying that the good gods were good
+anyhow. By parity of reasoning, one sect of Mohammedans worship the
+devil only. It is well to make friends with your enemy, and then he will
+not hurt you; and if a man is shielded from his enemies, he is safe
+enough.
+
+But where, as in most Semitic, Celtic and various other religions, the
+chief gods frowned or smiled as they were propitiated or neglected, and
+when a certain amount of pain was the propitiation they demanded, the
+necessity of rendering this threw a dark shadow on life. What is the
+condition of man, that only through sorrow he can reach joy? He must be
+under a curse.
+
+Physical and mental processes aided by analogy this gloomy deduction. It
+is only through pain that we are stimulated to the pursuit of pleasure,
+and the latter is a phantom we never catch. The laws of correct
+reasoning are those which alone should guide us; but the natural laws of
+the association of ideas do not at all correspond with the one
+association which reason accepts. Truth is what we are born for, error
+is what is given us.
+
+Instead of viewing this state of things as one inseparable to the
+relative as another than the universal, and, instead of seeing the means
+of correcting it in the mental element of attention, continuance or
+volition, guided by experience and the growing clearness of the purposes
+of the laws of thought, the problem was given up as hopeless, and man
+was placed under a ban from which a god alone could set him free; he was
+sunk in original sin, chained to death.
+
+To reach this result it is evident that a considerable effort at
+reasoning, a peculiar view of the nature of the gods, and a temperament
+not the most common, must be combined. Hence it was adopted as a
+religious dogma by but a few nations. The Chinese know nothing of the
+“sense of sin,” nor did the Greeks and Romans. The Parsees do not
+acknowledge it, nor do the American tribes. “To sin,” in their
+languages, does not mean to offend the deity, but to make a mistake, to
+miss the mark, to loose one’s way as in a wood, and the missionaries
+have exceeding difficulty in making them understand the theological
+signification of the word.
+
+The second class of rites are memorial in character. As the former were
+addressed to the gods, so these are chiefly for the benefit of the
+people. They are didactic, to preserve the myth, or institutionary, to
+keep alive the discipline and forms of the church.
+
+Of this class of rites it may broadly be said they are the myth
+dramatized. Indeed, the drama owes its origin to the mimicry by
+worshippers of the supposed doings of the gods. The most ancient
+festivals have reference to the recurrence of the seasons, and the
+ceremonies which mark them represent the mythical transactions which are
+supposed to govern the yearly changes. The god himself was often
+represented by the
+
+high priest, and masked figures took the parts of attendant deities.
+
+Institutionary rites are those avowedly designed to commemorate a myth
+or event, and to strengthen thereby the religious organization.
+Christian baptism is by some denominations looked upon as a
+commemorative or institutionary rite only; and the same is the case with
+the Lord’s Supper. These seem to have been the only rites recommended,
+though the former was not practiced by Christ. In any ordinary meaning
+of his words, he regarded them both as institutionary.
+
+The tendency of memorial to become propitiatory rites is visible in all
+materialistic religions. The procedure, from a simple commemorative act,
+acquires a mystic efficacy, a supernatural or spiritual power, often
+supposed to extend to the deity as well as the votary. Thus the Indian
+“rain-maker” will rattle his gourd, beat his drum, and blow through his
+pipe, to represent the thunder, lightning, and wind of the storm; and
+he believes that by this mimicry of the rain-god’s proceedings he can
+force him to send the wished-for showers. The charms, spells and
+incantations of sorcery have the same foundation. Equally visible is it
+in the reception of the Christian rites above mentioned, baptism and the
+Eucharist, as “sacraments,” as observances of divine efficacy in
+themselves. All such views arise from the material character of the
+religious wants.
+
+The conclusion is that, while emblems and memorial rites have nothing in
+them which can mar, they also have nothing which can aid the growth and
+purity of the religious sentiment, beyond advancing its social
+relations; while symbols, in the proper sense of the term, and
+propitiatory rites, as necessarily false and without foundation, always
+degrade and obscure religious thought. Their prominence in a cult
+declines, as it rises in quality; and in a perfected scheme of worship
+they would have no place whatever.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[200-1] In his chapter _Ideen zu einer Physik des Symbols und des
+Mythus_, of his _Symbolik und Mythologie_.
+
+[201-1] Dr. H. C. Barlow’s _Essays on Symbolism_ (London, 1866),
+deserves mention as one of the best of these.
+
+[204-1] W. S. Jevons, _The Substitution of Similars_, p. 15 (London,
+1869.)
+
+[205-1] Creuzer, _Symbolik_, Bd. I, s. 59.
+
+[207-1] _Ursprung der Mythologie_ (Berlin, 1862).
+
+[208-1] Harrison Allen, M. D., _The Life Form in Art_, Phila. 1874.
+
+[210-1] Cussans, _Grammar of Heraldry_, p. 16.
+
+[212-1] Numerous examples from classical antiquity are given by Creuzer,
+_Symbolik_, Bd. i. s. 114. sqq.
+
+[214-1] W. von Humboldt, _Gesammelte Werke_, Bd. iv., s. 332.
+
+[214-2] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie_, Bd. i., s. 282.
+
+[214-3] Carl Frederick Koppen, _Die Lamaische Hierarchie and[TN-13]
+Kirche_, ss. 59, 60, 61.
+
+[219-1] Adolph Holtzmann, _Deutsche Mythologie_, p. 232 (Leipzig, 1874).
+
+[222-1] “Es ist so gewissermassen in allen ernsten orientalischen Lehren
+das Christenthum in seinem Keime vorgebildet.” Creuzer, _Symbolik und
+Mythologie der Alten Völker_, Bd. i., s. 297.
+
+[223-1] In a conversation reported by Mr. John Morley, John Stuart Mill
+expressed his belief that “the coming modification of religion” will be
+controlled largely through men becoming “more and more impressed with
+the awful fact that a piece of conduct to-day may prove a curse to men
+and women scores and even hundreds of years after the author of it is
+dead.”
+
+
+
+
+THE MOMENTA OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     National impulses and aims as historic ideas. Their recurrence and
+     its explanation. Their permanence in relation to their truth and
+     consciousness. The historic ideas in religious progress are chiefly
+     three.
+
+     I. The Idea of the Perfected Individual.
+
+     First placed in physical strength. This gave way in Southern Europe
+     to the idea of physical symmetry, a religion of beauty and art.
+     Later days have produced the idea of mental symmetry, the religion
+     of culture. All have failed, and why? The momenta of true religion
+     in each.
+
+     II. The Idea of the Perfected Commonwealth.
+
+     Certain national temperaments predispose to individualism, others
+     to communism. The social relations governed at first by divine law.
+     Later, morality represents this law. The religion of conduct. The
+     religion of sentiment and of humanity. Advantages and disadvantages
+     in this idea.
+
+     Comparisons of these two ideas as completed respectively by Wilhelm
+     von Humboldt and Auguste Comte.
+
+     III. The Idea of Personal Survival.
+
+     The doctrine of immortality the main moment in Christianity, Islam
+     and Buddhism. Unfamiliar to old and simple faiths. Its energy and
+     speculative relations. It is decreasing as a religious moment owing
+     to, (1) a better understanding of ethics, (2) more accurate
+     cosmical conceptions, (3) the clearer defining of life, (4) the
+     increasing immateriality of religions.
+
+     The future and final moments of religious thought.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE MOMENTA OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT.
+
+
+The records of the past can be studied variously. Events can be arranged
+in the order of their occurrence: this is chronology or annals; in
+addition to this, their connections and mutual relations as cause and
+effect may be shown: this is historical science; or, thirdly, from a
+general view of trains of related events some abstract aim as their
+final cause may be theoretically deduced and confirmed by experience:
+this is the philosophy of history. The doctrine of final causes, in its
+old form as the _argumentum de appetitu_, has been superseded. Function
+is not purpose; desire comes from the experience of pleasure, and
+realizes its dreams, if at all, by the slow development of capacity. The
+wish carries no warrant of gratification with it. No “argument from
+design” can be adduced from the region where the laws of physical
+necessity prevail. Those laws are not designed for an end.
+
+When, however, in the unfolding of mind we reach the stage of notions,
+we observe a growing power to accomplish desire, not only by altering
+the individual or race organism, but also by bringing external objects
+into unison with the desire, reversing the process common in the life of
+sensation. This spectacle, however, is confined to man alone, and man as
+guided by prospective volition, that is, by an object ahead.
+
+When some such object is common to a nation or race, it exercises a wide
+influence on its destiny, and is the key to much that otherwise would be
+inexplicable in its actions. What we call national hopes, ambitions and
+ideals are such objects. Sometimes they are distinctly recognized by the
+nation, sometimes they are pursued almost unconsciously. They do not
+correspond to things as they are, but as they are wished to be. Hence
+there is nothing in them to insure their realization. They are like an
+appetite, which may and may not develope the function which can gratify
+it. They have been called “historic ideas,” and their consideration is a
+leading topic in modern historical science.
+
+Reason claims the power of criticizing such ideas, and of distinguishing
+in them between what is true and therefore obtainable, and what is false
+and therefore chimerical or even destructive. This is the province of
+the philosophy of history. It guides itself by those general principles
+for the pursuit of truth which have been noticed in brief in the earlier
+pages of this book. Looking before as well as after, it aspires in the
+united light of experience and the laws of mind, to construct for the
+race an ideal within the reach of its capacities, yet which will
+develope them to the fullest extent, a pole-star to which it can trust
+in this night teeming with will-o’-the wisps.
+
+The opinion that the history of mind is a progress whose end will be
+worth more than was its beginning, may not prove true in fact--the
+concrete expression never wholly covers the abstract requirements--but
+it is undoubtedly true in theory. The progress, so far, has been by no
+means a lineal one--each son a better man than his father--nor even, as
+some would have it, a spiral one--periodical recurrences to the same
+historical ideas, but each recurrence a nearer approach to the
+philosophical idea--but it has been far more complex and irregular than
+any geometrical figure will illustrate. These facile generalizations do
+not express it.
+
+Following the natural laws of thought man has erred infinitely, and his
+errors have worked their sure result--they have destroyed him. There is
+no “relish of salvation” in an error; otherwise than that it is sure to
+kill him who obstructs the light by harboring it. There is no sort of
+convertability of the false into the true, as shallow thinkers of the
+day teach.
+
+Man has only escaped death when at first by a lucky chance, and then by
+personal and inherited experience, his thoughts drifted or were forced
+into conformity with the logical laws of thought.
+
+A historic idea is a complex product formed of numerous conceptions,
+some true and others false. Its permanency and efficacy are in direct
+proportion to the number and clearness of the former it embraces. When
+it is purging itself of the latter, the nation is progressive; when the
+false are retained, their poison spreads and the nation decays.
+
+The _periodical recurrence_ of historic ideas is one of their most
+striking features. The explanations offered for it have been various.
+The ancient doctrines of an exact repetition of events in the cycles of
+nature, and of the transmigration of souls, drew much support from it;
+and the modern modification of the latter theory as set forth by
+Wordsworth and Lessing, are distinctly derived from the same source.
+Rightly elucidated, the philosophical historian will find in it an
+invaluable clue to the unravelment of the tangled skein of human
+endeavor.
+
+Historic periodicity is on the one side an organic law of memory,
+dependent upon the revival of transmitted ancestral impressions. A
+prevailing idea though over-cultivation exhausts its organic correlate,
+and leads to defective nutrition of that part in the offspring. Hence
+they do not pursue the same idea as their fathers, but revert to a
+remoter ancestral historic idea, the organic correlate of which has
+lain fallow, thus gained strength. It is brought forth as new, receives
+additions by contiguity and similarity, is ardently pursued,
+over-cultivated, and in time supplanted by another revival.
+
+But this material side corresponds to an all-important mental one. As an
+organic process only, the history of periodic ideas is thus
+satisfactorily explained, but he who holds this explanation to be
+exhaustive sees but half the problem.
+
+The permanence of a historic idea, I have stated, is in direct
+proportion to the number of true ideas in its composition; the
+impression it makes on the organic substrata of memory is in turn in
+proportion to its permanence. The element of decay is the destructive
+effects of natural trains of thought out of accord with the logically
+true trains. These cause defective cerebral nutrition, which is thus
+seen to arise, so far as influenced by the operations of the memory,
+from relations of truth and error. There is a physiological tendency in
+the former to preserve and maintain in activity; in the latter to
+disappear. The percentage of true concepts which makes up the complexity
+of a historic idea gives the principal factor towards calculating its
+probable recurrence. Of course, a second factor is the physiological one
+of nutrition itself.
+
+The next important distinction in discussing historic ideas is between
+those which are held consciously, and those which operate
+unconsciously. The former are always found to be more active, and more
+amenable to correction. An unconscious idea is a product of the natural,
+not the logical laws of mind, and is therefore very apt to be largely
+false. It is always displaced with advantage by a conscious aim.
+
+One of the superficial fallacies of the day, which pass under the name
+of philosophy, is to maintain that any such historic idea is the best
+possible one for the time and place in which it is found. I am led to
+refer to this by the false light it has thrown on religious history.
+Herbert Spencer remarks in one of his essays:[236-1] “All religious
+creeds, during the eras in which they are severally held, are the best
+that could be held.” “All are good for their times and places.” So far
+from this being the case, there never has been a religion but that an
+improvement in it would have straightway exerted a beneficent effect.
+Man, no matter what his condition, can always derive immediate good
+from higher conceptions of Deity than he himself has elaborated. Nor is
+the highest conception possible an idealization of self, as I have
+sufficiently shown in a previous chapter, but is one drawn wholly from
+the realm of the abstract. Moreover, as a matter of history, we know
+that in abundant instances, the decay of nations can be traced largely
+to the base teachings of their religious instructors. To maintain that
+such religions were “the best possible ones” for the time and place is
+the absurdest optimism. In what a religion shares of the abstractly true
+it is beneficent; in what it partakes of the untrue it is deleterious.
+This, and no other canon, must be our guide.
+
+The ideas of religious history obey the same laws as other historic
+ideas. They grow, decay, are supplanted and revive again in varying
+guises, in accordance with the processes of organic nutrition as
+influenced by the truth or falsity of their component ideas. Their
+tendency to personification is stronger, because of the much greater
+nearness they have to the individual desire. The one aspiration of a
+high-spirited people when subjugated will be freedom; and in the lower
+stages of culture they will be very certain to fabricate a myth of a
+deliverer to come.
+
+In like manner, every member of a community shares with his fellow
+members some wish, hope or ambition dependent on unknown control and
+therefore religious in character, which will become the “formative idea”
+of the national religious development.
+
+Of the various ideas in religious history there are three which, through
+their permanence and frequent revival, we may justly suppose in
+accordance with the above-mentioned canons to contain a large measure of
+truth, and yet to be far from wholly true. They may be considered as
+leading moments in religious growth, yet withal lacking something or
+other essential to the satisfaction of the religious sentiment. The
+first of these is the idea of the _perfected individual_; the second the
+idea of the _perfected commonwealth_; the third, that of _personal
+survival_. These have been the formative ideas (_Ideen der Gestaltung_)
+in the prayers, myths, rites and religious institutions of many nations
+at widely separated times.
+
+Of the two first mentioned it may be said that every extended faith has
+accepted them to some degree. They are the secret of the alliances of
+religion with art, with government, with ethics, with science, education
+and sentiment.
+
+These alliances have often been taken by historians to contain the vital
+elements of religion itself, and many explanations based on one or
+another assumption of the kind have been proffered. Religion, while it
+may embrace any of them, is independent of them all. Its relations to
+them have been transitory, and the more so as their aims have been
+local and material. The brief duration of the subjection of religion to
+such incongenial ties was well compared by Lord Herbert of Cherbury to
+the early maturity of brutes, who attain their full growth in a year or
+two, while man needs a quarter of a century.[239-1] The inferior aims of
+the religious sentiment were discarded one after another to make way for
+higher ones, which were slowly dawning upon it. In this progress it was
+guided largely by the three ideas I have mentioned, which have been in
+many forms leading stimuli of the religious thought of the race.
+
+First, of the _idea of the perfected individual_.
+
+Many writers have supposed that the contemplation of Power in nature
+first stirred religious thought in man. Though this is not the view
+taken in this book, no one will question that the leading trait in the
+gods of barbarism is physical strength. The naive anthropomorphism of
+the savage makes his a god of a mighty arm, a giant in stature, puissant
+and terrible. He hurls the thunderbolt, and piles up the mountains in
+sport. His name is often The Strong One, as in the Allah, Eloah of the
+Semitic tongues. Hercules, Chon, Melkarth, Dorsanes, Thor and others
+were of the most ancient divinities in Greece, Egypt, Phœnicia, India,
+and Scandinavia, and were all embodiments of physical force. Such, too,
+was largely the character of the Algonkin Messou, who scooped out the
+great lakes with his hands and tore up the largest trees by the roots.
+The huge boulders from the glacial epoch which are scattered over their
+country are the pebbles he tossed in play or in anger. The cleft in the
+Andes, through which flows the river Funha, was opened by a single blow
+of Nemqueteba, chief god of the Muyscas. In all such and a hundred
+similar legends, easy to quote, we see the notion of strength, brute
+force, muscular power, was that deemed most appropriate to divinity, and
+that which he who would be godlike must most sedulously seek. When
+filled with the god, the votary felt a surpassing vigor. The Berserker
+fury was found in the wilds of America and Africa, as well as among the
+Fiords. Sickness and weakness, on the contrary, were signs that the gods
+were against him. Therefore, in all early stages of culture, the office
+of priest and physician was one. Conciliation of the gods was the
+catholicon.
+
+Such deities were fearful to behold. They are represented as mighty of
+stature and terrible of mien, calculated to appal, not attract, to
+inspire fear, not to kindle love. In tropical America, in Egypt, in
+Thibet, almost where you will, there is little to please the eye in the
+pictures and statues of deities.
+
+In Greece alone, a national temperament, marvellously sensitive to
+symmetry, developed the combination of maximum strength with perfect
+form in the sun-god, Apollo, and of grace with beauty in Aphrodite. The
+Greeks were the apostles of the religion of beauty. Their philosophic
+thought saw the permanent in the Form, which outlives strength, and is
+that alone in which the race has being. In its transmission love is the
+agent, and Aphrodite, unmatched in beauty and mother of love, was a
+creation worthy of their devotion. Thus with them the religious
+sentiment still sought its satisfaction in the individual, not indeed in
+the muscle, but in the feature and expression.
+
+When the old gods fell, the Christian fathers taught their flocks to
+abhor the beautiful as one with the sensual. St. Clement of Alexandria
+and Tertullian describe Christ as ugly of visage and undersized, a sort
+of Socrates in appearance.[241-1] Christian art was long in getting
+recognition. The heathens were the first to represent in picture and
+statues Christ and the apostles, and for long the fathers of the church
+opposed the multiplication of such images, saying that the inward beauty
+was alone desirable. Christian art reached its highest inspiration under
+the influence of Greek culture after the fall of Constantinople. In the
+very year, however, that Rafaello Sanzio met his premature death, Luther
+burned the decretals of the pope in the market-place of Wittenberg, and
+preached a doctrine as hostile to art as was that of Eusebius and
+Chrysostom. There was no longer any hope for the religion of beauty.
+
+Nevertheless, under the influence of the revival of ancient art which
+arose with Winckelmann towards the close of the last century, a gospel
+of esthetics was preached. Its apostles were chiefly Germans, and among
+them Schiller and Goethe are not inconspicuous names. The latter, before
+his long life was closed, began to see the emptiness of such teachings,
+and the violence perpetrated on the mind by forcing on the religious
+sentiment the food fit only for the esthetic emotions.
+
+The highest conception of individual perfection is reached in a
+character whose physical and mental powers are symmetrically trained,
+and always directed by conscious reason to their appropriate ends.
+Self-government, founded on self-knowledge, wards off the pangs of
+disappointment by limiting ambition to the attainable. The affections
+and emotions, and the pleasures of sensation as well, are indulged in or
+abstained from, but never to the darkening of the intellect. All the
+talents are placed at usury; every power exercised systematically and
+fruitfully with a consecration to a noble purpose.
+
+This is the religion of culture. None other ranks among its adherents so
+many great minds; men, as Carlyle expresses it, of much religiosity, if
+of little religion. The ideal is a taking one. Such utter self-reliance,
+not from ignorance, but from the perfection of knowledge, was that which
+Buddha held up to his followers: “Self is the God of self; who else
+should be the God?” In this century Goethe, Wordsworth, beyond all
+others Wilhelm von Humboldt, have set forth this ideal. Less strongly
+intellectual natures, as Maine de Biran, De Senancourt, and Matthew
+Arnold, listen with admiration, but feel how unknown to the mass of
+human kind must remain the tongue these masters speak.
+
+Thus did the religious sentiment seek its satisfaction in the
+idealization, first of physical force, then of form, and last of mental
+force, but in each case turned away unsatisfied. Wherein did these
+ideals fail? The first mentioned in exalting power over principle, might
+over right. As was well said by the philosophical Novalis: “The ideal of
+morality has no more dangerous rival than the ideal of physical
+strength, of the most vigorous life. Through it man is transformed into
+a reasoning beast, whose brutal cleverness has a fascination for weak
+minds.”[243-1] The religion of beauty failed in that it addressed the
+esthetic emotions, not the reasoning power. Art does not promote the
+good; it owes no fealty to either utility or ethics: in itself, it must
+be, in the negative sense of the words, at once useless and immoral.
+“Nature is not its standard, nor is truth its chief end.”[244-1] Its
+spirit is repose, “the perfect form in perfect rest;” whereas the spirit
+of religion is action because of imperfection. Even the gods must know
+of suffering, and partake, in incarnations, of the miseries of men.
+
+In the religion of culture what can we blame? That it is lacking in the
+impulses of action through the isolation it fosters; that it is and must
+be limited to a few, for it provides no defense for the weaknesses the
+many inherit; that its tendency is antagonistic to religion, as it cuts
+away the feeling of dependence, and the trust in the unknown; that it
+allows too little to enthusiasm ever to become a power.
+
+On the other hand, what momenta of true religious thought have these
+ideals embraced? Each presents some. Physical vigor, regarded as a sign
+of complete nutrition, is an indispensable preliminary to the highest
+religion. Correct thought cannot be, without sufficient and appropriate
+food. If the nourishment is inadequate, defective energy of the brain
+will be transmitted, and the offspring will revert ancestrally to a
+lower plane of thought. “It thus happens that the minds of persons of
+high religious culture by ancestral descent, and the intermarriage of
+religious families, so strangely end in the production of children
+totally devoid of moral sense and religious sentiment--moral imbeciles
+in short.”[245-1] From such considerations of the necessity of physical
+vigor to elevated thought, Descartes predicted that if the human race
+ever attain perfection it will be chiefly through the art of medicine.
+Not alone from emotions of sympathy did the eminent religious teachers
+of past ages maintain that the alleviation and prevention of suffering
+is the first practical duty of man; but it was from a perhaps
+unconscious perception of the antagonism of bodily degeneration to
+mental progress.
+
+So, too, the religion of beauty and art contains an indefeasible germ of
+true religious thought. Art sees the universal in the isolated fact; it
+redeemed the coarse symbol of earlier days by associating it with the
+emotions of joy, instead of fear; commencing with an exaltation of the
+love to sex, it etherealized and ennobled passion; it taught man to look
+elsewhere than to material things for his highest pleasure, for the work
+of art always has its fortune in the imagination and not in the senses
+of the observer; conceptions of order and harmony are familiar to it;
+its best efforts seek to bring all the affairs of life under unity and
+system;[246-1] and thus it strengthens the sentiment of moral
+government, which is the first postulate of religion.
+
+The symmetry of the individual, as understood in the religion of
+culture, is likewise a cherished article of true religion. Thus only can
+it protect personality against the pitfalls of self-negation and
+absorption, which communism and pantheism dig for it. The integrity and
+permanence of the person is the keystone to religion, as it is to
+philosophy and ethics. None but a false teacher would measure our duty
+to our neighbor by a higher standard than our love to ourselves. The
+love of God alone is worthy to obscure it.
+
+Professor Steinthal has said: “Every people has its own religion. The
+national temperament hears the tidings and interprets them as it
+can.”[246-2] On the other hand, Humboldt--perhaps the profoundest
+thinker on these subjects of his generation--doubted whether religions
+can be measured in reference to nations and sects, because “religion is
+altogether subjective, and rests solely on the conceptive powers of the
+individual.”[247-1] Whatever the creed, a pure mind will attach itself
+to its better elements, a base one to its brutal and narrow doctrines. A
+national religion can only be regarded as an average, applicable to the
+majority, not entirely correct of the belief of any one individual,
+wholly incorrect as to a few. Yet it is indubitable that the national
+temperament creates the ideal which gives the essence of religion. Races
+like the Tartar Mongols, who, as we are informed by the Abbé Huc, not
+unfrequently move their tents several times a day, out of simple
+restlessness, cannot desire the same stability that is sought by other
+races, who have the beaver’s instinct for building and colonizing, such
+as the Romans. Buddhism, which sets up the ideal of the individual, is
+an acceptable theory to the former, while the latter, from earliest
+ages, fostered religious views which taught the subordination of the
+individual to the community, in other words, the _idea of the perfected
+commonwealth_.
+
+This is the conception at the base of all theocracies, forms of
+government whose statutes are identified with the precepts of religion.
+Instead of a constitution there is the Law, given and sanctioned by God
+as a rule of action.
+
+The Law is at first the Myth applied. Its object is as much to
+propitiate the gods as to preserve social order. It is absolute because
+it is inspired. Many of its ordinances as drawn from the myth are
+inapplicable to man, and are unjust or frivolous. Yet such as it is, it
+rules the conduct of the commonwealth and expresses the ideal of its
+perfected condition.
+
+All the oldest codes of laws are religious, and are alleged revelations.
+The Pentateuch, the Avesta, the Laws of Manu, the Twelve Tables, the
+Laws of Seleucus, all carry the endorsement, “And God said.” Their real
+intention is to teach the relation of man to God, rather than the
+relations of man to man. On practical points--on the rights of property,
+on succession and wills, on contracts, on the adoption of neighbors, and
+on the treatment of enemies--they often violate the plainest dictates of
+natural justice, of common humanity, even of family affection. Their
+precepts are frequently frivolous, sometimes grossly immoral. But if
+these laws are compared with the earliest myths and cults, and the
+opinions then entertained of the gods, and how to propitiate them, it
+becomes easy to see how the precepts of the law flowed from these
+inchoate imaginings of the religious sentiment.[249-1]
+
+The improvement of civil statutes did not come through religion.
+Experience, observation and free thought taught man justice, and his
+kindlier emotions were educated by the desire to cherish and preserve
+which arose from family and social ties. As these came to be recognized
+as necessary relations of society, religion appropriated them,
+incorporated them into her ideal, and even claimed them as her
+revelations. History largely invalidates this claim. The moral progress
+of mankind has been mainly apart from dogmatic teachings, often in
+conflict with them. An established rule of faith may enforce obedience
+to its statutes, but can never develop morals. “True virtue is
+independent of every religion, and incompatible with any which is
+accepted on authority.”[249-2]
+
+Yet thinkers, even the best of them, appear to have had difficulty in
+discerning any nobler arena for the religious sentiment than the social
+one. “Religion,” says Matthew Arnold, “is conduct.” It is the power
+“which makes for righteousness.” “As civil law,” said Voltaire,
+“enforces morality in public, so the use of religion is to compel it in
+private life.” “A complete morality,” observes a contemporary Christian
+writer, “meets all the practical ends of religion.”[250-1] In such
+expressions man’s social relations, his duty to his neighbor, are taken
+to exhaust religion. It is still the idea of the commonwealth, the
+religion of morality, the submission to a law recognized as divine.
+Whether the law is a code of ethics, the decision of a general council,
+or the ten commandments, it is alike held to be written by the finger of
+God, and imperative. Good works are the demands of such religion.
+
+Catholicism, which is altogether theocratic and authoritative, which
+pictures the church as an ideal commonwealth, has always most flourished
+in those countries where the Roman colonies left their more important
+traces. The reformation of Protestantism was a reversion to the ideal of
+the individual, which was that of ancient Teutonic faith. In more recent
+times Catholicism itself has modified the rigidity of its teachings in
+favor of the religion of sentiment, as it has been called, inaugurated
+by Chateaubriand, and which is that attractive form seen in the writings
+of Madame Swetchine and the La Ferronnais. These elevated souls throw a
+charm around the immolation of self, which the egotism of the Protestant
+rarely matches.
+
+Thus the ideal of the commonwealth is found in those creeds which give
+prominence to law, to ethics, and to sentiment, the altruistic elements
+of mind. It fails, because its authority is antagonistic to morality in
+that it impedes the search for the true. Neither is morality religion,
+for it deals with the relative, while religion should guide itself by
+the absolute. Every great religious teacher has violated the morality of
+his day. Even sentiment, attractive as it is, is no ground on which to
+build a church. It is, at best, one of the lower emotional planes of
+action. Love itself, which must be the kernel of every true religion, is
+not in earthly relations an altruistic sentiment. The measure and the
+source of all such love, is self-love. The creed which rejects this as
+its corner stone will build in vain.
+
+While, therefore, the advantages of organization and action are on the
+side of the faiths which see in religion a form of government, they
+present fewer momenta of religious thought than those which encourage
+the greater individuality. All forms and reforms, remarks Machiavelli,
+in one of his notes to Livy, have been brought about by the exertions of
+one man.[251-1] Religious reforms, especially, never have originated in
+majorities. The reformatory decrees of the Council of Trent are due to
+Martin Luther.
+
+Either ideal, raised to its maximum, not only fails to satisfy the
+religious sentiment, but puts upon it a forced meaning, and is therefore
+not what this sentiment asks. This may be illustrated by comparing two
+remarkable works, which, by a singular coincidence, were published in
+the same year, and which better than any others present these ideals
+pushed to their extreme. It is characteristic of them that neither
+professes to treat of religion, but of politics. The one is entitled,
+“_An Attempt to define the limits of Government_,” and is by Wilhelm von
+Humboldt; the other is the better known work of Auguste Comte, his
+“_System of Positive Polity_.”[252-1]
+
+The first lays down the principle that the highest end of man is the
+utmost symmetrical education of his own powers in their individual
+peculiarities. To accomplish this, he must enjoy the largest freedom of
+thought and action consistent with the recognition of the same right in
+others. In regard to religion, the state should have nothing to do with
+aiding it, but should protect the individual in his opposition to any
+authoritative form of it. As a wholly personal and subjective matter,
+social relations do not concern it. In fine, the aim of both government
+and education should be the development of an individualism in which an
+enlightened intellect controls and directs all the powers toward an
+exalted self-cultivation.
+
+Comte reverses this picture. His fundamental principle is to subordinate
+the sum total of our existence to our social relations; real life is to
+live in others; not the individual but humanity is the only worthy
+object of effort. Social polity therefore includes the whole of
+development; the intellect should have no other end but to subserve the
+needs of the race, and always be second to the altruistic sentiments.
+Love toward others should absorb self-love. “_Il est encore meilleur
+d’aimer que d’être aimé._”
+
+Such is the contrast between the ideal of the individual as exhibited by
+the Religion of Culture, and the ideal of the commonwealth as portrayed
+in the Religion of Humanity.
+
+The whole duty of man, says the one school, is to live for others; nay,
+says the other, it is to live intelligently for himself; the intellect,
+says the former, should always be subordinated to society, and be led by
+the emotions; intellect, says the latter, should ever be in the
+ascendant, and absolutely control and direct the emotions; the
+theoretical object of government, says the former, is to enable the
+affections and thoughts to pass into action; not so, says the latter,
+its only use is to give the individual secure leisure to develope his
+own affections and thoughts. Mutual relation is the key note of the
+former, independence of the latter; the former is the apotheosis of
+love, the latter of reason.
+
+Strictly and literally the apotheosis. For, differing as they do on such
+vital points, they both agree in dispensing with the ideas of God and
+immortality as conceptions superfluous in the realization of the
+theoretical perfection they contemplate. Not that either scheme omits
+the religious sentiment. On the contrary, it is especially prominent in
+one, and very well marked in the other. Both assume its growing
+prominence, never its extinction. Both speak of it as an integral part
+of man’s highest nature.
+
+Comte and Humboldt were thinkers too profound to be caught by the facile
+fallacy that the rapid changes in religious thought betoken the early
+abrogation of all creeds. Lessing, the philosophers of the French
+revolution, James Mill, Schopenhauer and others fell into this error.
+They were not wiser than the clown of Horace, who seated himself by the
+rushing stream, thinking it must soon run itself out--
+
+    Expectat rusticus dum defluat amnis; at ille
+    Labitur et labetur in omne volubilis ævum.
+
+Vain is the dream that man will ever reach the point when he will think
+no more of the gods. Dogmas may disappear, but religion will flourish;
+destroy the temple and sow it with salt, in a few days it rises again
+built for aye on the solid ground of man’s nature.
+
+So long as the race is upon earth, just so long will the religious
+sentiment continue to crave its appropriate food, and this at last is
+recognized even by those who estimate it at the lowest. “To yield this
+sentiment reasonable satisfaction,” observes Professor Tyndall in one of
+his best known addresses, “is the problem of problems at the present
+hour. It is vain to oppose it with a view to its extirpation.” The
+“general thaw of theological creeds,” which Spencer remarks upon, is no
+sign of the loss of interest in religious subjects, but the reverse.
+Coldness and languor are the premonitions of death, not strife and
+defence.
+
+But as the two moments of religious thought which I have now discussed
+have both reached their culmination in a substantial repudiation of
+religion, that which stimulates the religious sentiment to-day must be
+something different from either. This I take to be the _idea of personal
+survival_ after physical death, or, as it is generally called, the
+doctrine of the immortality of the soul.
+
+This is the main dogma in the leading religions of the world to-day. “A
+God,” remarks Sir William Hamilton, speaking for the enlightened
+Christians of his generation, “is to us of practical interest, only
+inasmuch as he is the condition of our immortality.”[256-1] In his
+attractive work, _La Vie Eternelle_, whose large popularity shows it to
+express the prevailing views of modern Protestant thought, Ernest
+Naville takes pains to distinguish that Christianity is not a means of
+living a holy life so much as one of gaining a blessed hereafter. The
+promises of a life after death are numerous and distinct in the New
+Testament. Most of the recommendations of action and suffering in this
+world are based on the doctrine of compensation in the world to come.
+
+Mohammed taught the same tenet with equal or even greater emphasis. In
+one sura he says: “To whatever is evil may they be likened who believe
+not in a future life;” and elsewhere: “As for the blessed ones--their
+place is Paradise. There shall they dwell so long as the heavens and the
+earth endure, enjoying the imperishable bounties of God. But as for
+those who shall be consigned to misery, their place is the Fire. There
+shall they abide so long as the heavens and the earth shall last, unless
+God wills it otherwise.”[256-2]
+
+In Buddhism, as generally understood, the doctrine of a future life is
+just as clear. Not only does the soul wander from one to another animal
+body, but when it has completed its peregrinations and reaches its final
+abode, it revels in all sorts of bliss. For the condition of Nirvana,
+understood by philosophical Buddhists as that of the extinction of
+desires even to the desire of life, and of the complete enlightenment of
+the mind even to the recognition that existence itself is an illusion,
+has no such meaning to the millions who profess themselves the followers
+of the sage of Kapilavastu. They take it to be a material Paradise with
+pleasures as real as those painted by Mohammed, wherein they will dwell
+beyond all time, a reward for their devotions and faith in this life.
+
+These three religions embrace three-fourths of the human race and all
+its civilized nations, with trifling exceptions. They displaced and
+extinguished the older creeds and in a few centuries controlled the
+earth; but as against each other their strife has been of little avail.
+The reason is, they share the same momentum of religious thought,
+differing in its interpretation not more among themselves than do
+orthodox members of either faith in their own fold. Many enlightened
+Muslims and Christians, for example, consider the descriptions of
+Paradise given in the Koran and the Apocalypse to convey wholly
+spiritual meanings.
+
+There has been so much to surprise in the rapid extension of these
+faiths that the votaries of each claim manifest miraculous
+interposition. The religious idea of an after life is a sufficient
+moment to account for the phenomenon. I say the _religious_ idea, for,
+with one or two exceptions, however distinct had been the belief in a
+hereafter, that belief had not a religious coloring until they gave it
+such. This distinction is an important one.
+
+Students of religions have hitherto attributed too much weight to the
+primitive notion of an existence after death. It is common enough, but
+it rarely has anything at all to do with the simpler manifestations of
+the religious sentiment. These are directed to the immediate desires of
+the individual or the community, and do not look beyond the present
+life. The doctrine of compensation hereafter is foreign to them. I have
+shown this at length so far as the religions of America were concerned.
+“Neither the delights of a heaven on the one hand, nor the terrors of a
+hell on the other were ever held out by priests or sages as an incentive
+to well doing, or a warning to the evil disposed.”[258-1] The same is
+true of the classical religions of Greece and Rome, of Carthage and
+Assyria. Even in Egypt the manner of death and the rites of interment
+had much more to do with the fate of the soul, than had its thoughts
+and deeds in the flesh. The opinions of Socrates and Plato on the soul
+as something which always existed and whose after life is affected by
+its experiences here, struck the Athenians as novel and innovating.
+
+On the other hand, the ancient Germans had a most lively faith in the
+life hereafter. Money was loaned in this world to be repaid in the next.
+But with them also, as with the Aztecs, the future was dependent on the
+character or mode of death rather than the conduct of life. He who died
+the “straw-death” on the couch of sickness looked for little joy in the
+hereafter; but he who met the “spear-death” on the field of battle went
+at once to Odin, to the hall of Valhalla, where the heroes of all time
+assembled to fight, eat boar’s fat and drink beer. Even this rude belief
+gave them such an ascendancy over the materialistic Romans, that these
+distinctly felt that in the long run they must succumb to a bravery
+which rested on such a mighty moment as this.[259-1]
+
+The Israelites do not seem to have entertained any general opinion on an
+existence after death. No promise in the Old Testament refers to a
+future life. The religion there taught nowhere looks beyond the grave.
+It is materialistic to the fullest extent. Hence, a large body of
+orthodox Jewish philosophers, the Sadducees, denied the existence of the
+soul apart from the body.
+
+The central doctrine of the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, the leading
+impulse which he gave to the religious thought of his age, was that the
+thinking part of man survives his physical death, and that its condition
+does not depend on the rites of interment, as other religions then
+taught,[260-1] but on the character of its thoughts during life here.
+Filled with this new and sublime idea, he developed it in its numerous
+applications, and drew from it those startling inferences, which, to
+this day, stagger his followers, and have been in turn, the terror and
+derision of his foes. This he saw, that against a mind inwardly
+penetrated with the full conviction of a life hereafter, obtainable
+under known conditions, the powers of this world are utterly futile, and
+its pleasures hollow phantoms.
+
+The practical energy of this doctrine was immensely strengthened by
+another, which is found very obscurely, if at all, stated in his own
+words, but which was made the central point of their teaching by his
+immediate followers. The Christianity they preached was not a
+philosophical scheme for improving the race, but rested on the
+historical fact of a transaction between God and man, and while they
+conceded everlasting existence to all men, all would pass it in the
+utmost conceivable misery, except those who had learned of these
+historical events, and understood them as the church prescribed.
+
+As the ancient world placed truth in ideas and not in facts, no teaching
+could well have been more radically contrary to its modes of thought;
+and the doctrine once accepted, the spirit of proselytizing came with
+it.
+
+I have called this idea a new one to the first century of our era, and
+so it was in Europe and Syria. But in India, Sakyamuni, probably five
+hundred years before, had laid down in sententious maxims the
+philosophical principle which underlies the higher religious doctrine of
+a future life. These are his words, and if through the efforts of
+reasoning we ever reach a demonstration of the immortality of the soul,
+we shall do it by pursuing the argument here indicated: “Right thought
+is the path to life everlasting. Those who think do not die.”[262-1]
+
+Truth alone contains the elements of indefinite continuity; and truth is
+found only in the idea, in correct thought.
+
+Error in the intellectual processes corresponds to pain in sensation; it
+is the premonition of waning life, of threatened annihilation; it
+contains the seed of cessation of action or death. False reasoning is
+self-destructive. The man who believes himself invulnerable will
+scarcely survive his first combat. A man’s true ideas are the most he
+can hope, and all that he should wish, to carry with him to a life
+hereafter. Falsehood, sin, is the efficient agent of death. As Bishop
+Hall says: “There is a kind of not-being in sin; for sin is not an
+existence of somewhat that is, but a deficiency of that rectitude which
+should be; it is a privation, as blindness is a privation of sight.”
+
+While the religious doctrine of personal survival has thus a position
+defensible on grounds of reason as being that of the inherent permanence
+of self-conscious truth, it also calls to its aid and indefinitely
+elevates the most powerful of all the emotions, _love_. This, as I have
+shown in the second chapter, is the sentiment which is characteristic
+of _preservative_ acts. Self-love, which is prominent in the idea of the
+perfected individual, sex-love, which is the spirit of the multiform
+religious symbolism of the reproductive act, and the love of race, which
+is the chief motor in the religion of humanity, are purified of their
+grosser demands and assigned each its meet post in the labor of uniting
+the conceptions of the true under the relation of personality.
+
+The highest development of which such love is capable arises through the
+contemplation of those verities which are abstract and eternal, and
+which thus set forth, to the extent the individual mind is capable of
+receiving it, the completed notion of diuturnity. This highest love is
+the “love of God.” A Supreme Intelligence, one to which all truth is
+perfect, must forever dwell in such contemplation. Therefore the deeper
+minds of Christianity define man’s love of God, as God’s love to
+himself. “Eternal life,” says Ernest Naville, “is in its principle the
+union with God and the joy that results from that union.”[263-1] The
+pious William Law wrote: “No man can reach God with his love, or have
+union with Him by it, but he who is inspired with that one same spirit
+of love, with which God loved himself from all eternity, before there
+was any creation.”[264-1]
+
+Attractive as the idea of personal survival is in itself, and potent as
+it has been as a moment of religious thought, it must be ranked among
+those that are past. While the immortality of the soul retains its
+interest as a speculative inquiry, I venture to believe that as an idea
+in religious history, it is nigh inoperative; that as an element in
+devotional life it is of not much weight; and that it will gradually
+become less so, as the real meaning of religion reaches clearer
+interpretations.
+
+Its decay has been progressive, and common to all the creeds which
+taught it as a cardinal doctrine, though most marked in Christianity. A
+century ago Gibbon wrote: “The ancient Christians were animated by a
+contempt for their present existence, and by a just confidence of
+immortality, of which the doubtful but imperfect faith of modern ages
+cannot give us any adequate notion.”[264-2] How true this is can be
+appreciated only by those who study this doctrine in the lives and
+writings of the martyrs and fathers of the primitive church.
+
+The breach which Gibbon remarked has been indefinitely widened since his
+time. What has brought this about, and what new moment in religious
+thought seems about to supply its place, will form an appropriate close
+to the present series of studies. In its examination, I shall speak only
+of Christian thought, since it leads the way which other systems will
+ultimately follow.
+
+In depicting the influences which have led and are daily leading with
+augmented force to the devitalizing of the doctrine of immortality, I
+may with propriety confine myself to those which are themselves strictly
+religious. For the change I refer to is not one brought about by the
+opponents of religion, by materialistic doctrines, but is owing to the
+development of the religious sentiment itself. Instead of tending to an
+abrogation of that sentiment, it may be expected to ennoble its
+emotional manifestations and elevate its intellectual conceptions.
+
+Some of these influences are historical, as the repeated disappointments
+in the second coming of Christ, and the interest of proselytizing
+churches to interpret this event allegorically. Those which I deem of
+more importance, however, are such as are efficient to-day, and probably
+will continue to be the main agents in the immediate future of religious
+development. They are:
+
+(1.) The recognition of the grounds of ethics.
+
+(2.) The recognition of the cosmical relations.
+
+(3.) The clearer defining of life.
+
+(4.) The growing immateriality of religious thought.
+
+(1.) The authority of the Law was assumed in the course of time by most
+Christian churches, and the interests of morality and religion were
+claimed to be identical. The Roman church with its developed casuistry
+is ready to prescribe the proper course of conduct in every emergency;
+and if we turn to many theological writers of other churches, Dick’s
+_Philosophy of Religion_ for instance, we find moral conduct regarded as
+the important aim of the Christian life. Morality without religion,
+works without faith, are pronounced to be of no avail in a religious,
+and of very questionable value in a social sense. Some go so far as to
+deny that a person indifferent to the prevailing tenets of religion can
+lead a pure and moral life. Do away with the belief in a hereafter of
+rewards and punishments, say these, and there is nothing left to
+restrain men from the worst excesses, or at least from private sin.
+
+Now, however, the world is growing to perceive that morality is
+separable from religion; that it arose independently, from a gradual
+study of the relations of man to man, from principles of equity inherent
+in the laws of thought, and from considerations of expediency which
+deprive its precepts of the character of universality. Religion is
+subjective, and that in which it exerts an influence on morality is not
+its contents, but the reception of them peculiar to the individual.
+Experience alone has taught man morals; pain and pleasure are the forms
+of its admonitions; and each generation sees more clearly that the
+principles of ethics are based on immutable physical laws. Moreover, it
+has been shown to be dangerous to rest morality on the doctrine of a
+future life; for apart from the small effect the terrors of a hereafter
+have on many sinners, as that doctrine is frequently rejected, social
+interests suffer. And, finally, it is debasing and hurtful to religion
+to make it a substitute for police magistracy.[267-1]
+
+The highest religion would certainly enforce the purest morality; but it
+is equally true that such a religion would enjoin much not approved by
+the current opinions of the day. The spirit of the reform inaugurated by
+Luther was a protest against the subjection of the religious sentiment
+to a moral code. With the independence thus achieved, it came to be
+recognized that to the full extent that morality is essential to
+religion, it can be reached as well or better without a system of
+rewards and punishments after death, than with one. Both religion and
+morality stand higher, when a conception of an after life for this
+purpose is dropped.
+
+(2.) The recognition of the cosmical relations has also modified the
+views of personal survival. The expansion of the notions of space and
+time by the sciences of geology and astronomy has, as I before remarked,
+done away with the ancient belief that the culminating catastrophe of
+the universe will be the destruction of this world. An insignificant
+satellite of a third rate sun, which, with the far grander suns whose
+light we dimly discern at night, may all be swept away in some flurry of
+“cosmical weather,” that the formation or the dissolution of such a body
+would be an event of any beyond the most insignificant importance, is
+now known to be almost ridiculous. To assert that at the end of a few or
+a few thousand years, on account of events transpiring on the surface of
+this planet, the whole relationship of the universe will be altered, a
+new heaven and a new earth be formed, and all therein be made
+subservient to the joys of man, becomes an indication of an arrogance
+which deserves to be called a symptom of insanity. Thus, much of the
+teleology both of the individual and the race taught by the primitive
+and medieval church undergoes serious alterations. The literal meaning
+of the millennium, the New Jerusalem, and the reign of God on earth has
+been practically discarded.
+
+With the disappearance of the ancient opinion that the universe was
+created for man, the sun to light him by day and the stars by night,
+disappeared also the later thesis that the happiness or the education of
+man was the aim of the Order in Things. The extent and duration of
+matter, if they indicate any purpose at all, suggest one incomparably
+vaster than this; while the laws of mind, which alone distinctly point
+to purpose, reveal one in which pain and pleasure have no part or lot,
+and one in which man has so small a share that it seems as if it must be
+indifferent what his fate may be. The slightest change in the atmosphere
+of the globe will sweep away his species forever.
+
+Schopenhauer classified all religions as optimisms or pessimisms. The
+faith of the future will be neither. What is agreeable or disagreeable
+to man will not be its standard of the excellence of the universe.
+However unwillingly, he is at last brought to confess that his comfort
+is not the chief nor even any visible aim of the order in things. In the
+course of that order it may be, nay, it is nigh certain, that the human
+species will pass through decadence to extinction along with so many
+other organisms. Neither as individuals nor as a race, neither in regard
+to this life nor to the next, does the idea of God, when ennobled by a
+contemplation of the cosmical relations, permit to man the effrontery
+of claiming that this universe and all that therein is was made with an
+eye to his wants and wishes, whether to gratify or to defeat them.
+
+(3.) The closer defining of life as a result of physical force, and the
+recognition of mind as a connotation of organism, promise to be active
+in elevating religious conceptions, but at the expense of the current
+notions of personality. Sensation and voluntary motion are common to the
+fetus, the brute and the plant, as well as to man. They are not part of
+his “soul.” Intellect and consciousness, as I have shown, exclude
+sensation, and in these, if anywhere, he must look for his immortal
+part. Even here, error works destruction, and ignorance plants no seed
+of life. We are driven back to the teaching of Buddha, that true thought
+alone is that which does not die.
+
+Why should we ask more? What else is worth saving? Our present
+personality is a train of ideas base and noble, true and false, coherent
+through the contiguity of organs nourished from a common center. Another
+personality is possible, one of true ideas coherent through conscious
+similarity, independent of sensation, as dealing with topics not
+commensurate with it. Yet were this refuge gained, it leaves not much of
+the dogma that every man has an indestructible conscious soul, which
+will endure always, no matter what his conduct or thoughts have been.
+Rather does it favor the opinion expressed so well by Matthew Arnold in
+one of his sonnets:
+
+    “He who flagged not in the earthly strife
+    From strength to strength advancing--only he,
+    His soul well knit and all his battles won,
+    Mounts, and that hardly, to eternal life.”
+
+Not only has the received doctrine of a “soul,” as an undying something
+different from mind and peculiar to man, received no support from a
+closer study of nature,--rather objections amounting to refutation,--but
+it has reacted injuriously on morals, and through them on religion
+itself. Buddha taught that the same spark of immortality exists in man
+and brute, and actuated by this belief laid down the merciful rule to
+his disciples: “Do harm to no breathing thing.” The apostle Paul on the
+other hand, recognizing in the lower animals no such claim on our
+sympathy, asks with scorn: “Doth God care for oxen?” and actually strips
+from a humane provision of the old Mosaic code its spirit of charity, in
+order to make it subserve a point in his polemic.
+
+(4.) As the arrogance of the race has thus met a rebuke, so has the
+egotism of the individual. His religion at first was a means of securing
+material benefits; then a way to a joyous existence beyond the tomb: the
+love of self all the time in the ascendant.
+
+This egoism in the doctrine of personal survival has been repeatedly
+flung at it by satirists, and commented on by philosophers. The
+Christian who “hopes to be saved by grossly believing” has been felt on
+all hands to be as mean in his hope, as he is contemptible in his way of
+attaining it. To center all our religious efforts to the one end of
+getting joy--however we may define it--for our individual selves, has
+something repulsive in it to a deeply religious mind. Yet that such in
+the real significance of the doctrine of personal survival is granted by
+its ablest defenders. “The general expectation of future happiness can
+afford satisfaction only as it is a present object to the principle of
+self-love,” says Dr. Butler, the eminent Lord Bishop of Durham, than
+whom no acuter analyst has written on the religious nature of man.
+
+Yet nothing is more certain than that the spirit of true religion wages
+constant war with the predominance or even presence of selfish aims.
+Self-love is the first and rudest form of the instinct of preservation.
+It is sublimed and sacrificed on the altar of holy passion. “Self,”
+exclaims the fervid William Law, “is both atheist and idolater; atheist,
+because it rejects God; idolater, because it is its own idol.” Even when
+this lowest expression of the preservative instinct rises but to the
+height of sex-love, it renounces self, and rejoices in martyrdom. “All
+for love, or the world well lost,” has been the motto of too many
+tragedies to be doubted now. By the side of the ancient Roman or the
+soldier of the French revolution, who through mere love of country
+marched joyously to certain death from which he expected no waking, does
+not the martyr compare unfavorably, who meets the same death, but does
+so because he believes that thereby he secures endless and joyous life?
+Is his love as real, as noble, as unselfish?
+
+Even the resistless physical energy which the clear faith in the life
+hereafter has so often imparted, becomes something uncongenial to the
+ripened religious meditation. Such faith brings about mighty effects in
+the arena of man’s struggles, but it does so through a sort of
+mechanical action. An ulterior purpose is ahead, to wit, the salvation
+of the soul, and it may be regarded as one of the best established
+principles of human effort that every business is better done, when it
+is done for its own sake, out of liking for it, than for results
+expected from it.
+
+Of nothing is this more just than religion. Those blossoms of spiritual
+perfection, the purified reason, the submissive will, the sanctifying
+grace of abstract ideas, find no propitious airs amid the violent toil
+for personal survival, whether that is to be among the mead jugs of
+Valhalla, the dark-eyed houris of Paradise, or the “solemn troops and
+sweet society” of Christian dreams. Unmindful of these, the saintly
+psyche looks to nothing beyond truth; it asks no definite, still less
+personal, end to which this truth is to be applied; to find it is to
+love it, and to love it is enough.
+
+The doctrine I here broach, is no strange one to Christian thought. To
+be sure the exhortation, “Save your soul from Hell,” was almost the sole
+incentive to religion in the middle ages, and is still the burden of
+most sermons. But St. Paul was quickened with a holier fire, that
+consumed and swept away such a personal motive, when he wrote: “Yea, I
+could wish that I myself were cast out from Christ as accursed, for the
+sake of my brethren, my kinsmen according to the flesh.”[274-1] St.
+Augustine reveals the touch of the same inspiration in his passionate
+exclamation: “Far, O Lord, far from the heart of thy servant be it that
+I should rejoice in any joy whatever. The blessed life is the joy in
+truth alone.”[274-2] And amid the pæans to everlasting life which fill
+the pages of the _De Imitatione Christi_, the medieval monk saw
+something yet greater, when he puts in the mouth of God the Father, the
+warning: “The wise lover thinks not of the gift, but of the love of the
+giver. He rests not in the reward, but in Me, beyond all
+rewards.”[275-1] The mystery of great godliness is, that he who has it
+is as one who seeking nothing yet finds all things, who asking naught
+for his own sake, neither in the life here nor yet hereafter, gains that
+alone which is of worth in either.
+
+Pressed by such considerations, the pious Schleiermacher threw down the
+glaive on the side of religion half a century ago when he wrote: “Life
+to come, as popularly conceived, is the last enemy which speculative
+criticism has to encounter, and, if possible, to overcome.” The course
+he marked out, however, was not that which promises success. Recurring
+to the austere theses of Spinoza, he sought to bring them into accord
+with a religion of emotion. The result was a refined Pantheism with its
+usual deceptive solutions.
+
+What recourse is left? Where are we to look for the intellectual moment
+of religion in the future? Let us review the situation.
+
+The religious sentiment has been shown to be the expression of
+unfulfilled desire, but this desire peculiar as dependent on unknown
+power. Material advantages do not gratify it, nor even spiritual joy
+when regarded as a personal sentiment. Preservation by and through
+relation with absolute intelligence has appeared to be the meaning of
+that “love of God” which alone yields it satisfaction. Even this is
+severed from its received doctrinal sense by the recognition of the
+speculative as above the numerical unity of that intelligence, and the
+limitation of personality which spiritual thought demands. The eternal
+laws of mind guarantee perpetuity to the extent they are obeyed--and no
+farther. They differ from the laws of force in that they convey a
+message which cannot be doubted concerning the purport of the order in
+nature, which is itself “the will of God.” That message in its
+application is the same which with more or less articulate utterance
+every religion speaks--Seek truth: do good. Faith in that message,
+confidence in and willing submission to that order, this is all the
+religious sentiment needs to bring forth its sweetest flowers, its
+richest fruits.
+
+Such is the ample and satisfying ground which remains for the religion
+of the future to build upon. It is a result long foreseen by the clearer
+minds of Christendom. One who more than any other deserves to be classed
+among these writes: “Resignation to the will of God is the whole of
+piety. * * * Our resignation may be said to be perfect when we rest in
+his will as our end, as being itself most just and right and good.
+Neither is this at bottom anything more than faith, and honesty and
+fairness of mind; in a more enlarged sense, indeed, than these words are
+commonly used.”[277-1]
+
+Goethe, who studied and reflected on religious questions more than is
+generally supposed, saw that in such a disposition of mind lie the
+native and strongest elements of religion. In one of his conversations
+with Chancellor Müller, he observed: “Confidence and resignation, the
+sense of subjection to a higher will which rules the course of events
+but which we do not fully comprehend, are the fundamental principles of
+every better religion.”[277-2]
+
+By the side of two such remarkable men, I might place the opinion of a
+third not less eminent than they--Blaise Pascal. In one part of his
+writings he sets forth the “marks of a true religion.” Sifted from its
+physical ingredients, the faith he defines is one which rests on love
+and submission to God, and a clear recognition of the nature of man.
+
+Here I close these studies on the Religious Sentiment. They show it to
+be a late and probably a final development of mind. The intellect first
+reaches entire self-consciousness, the emotions first attain perfection
+of purpose, when guided by its highest manifestation. Man’s history
+seems largely to have been a series of efforts to give it satisfaction.
+This will be possible only when he rises to a practical appreciation of
+the identity of truth, love and life.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[236-1] _Essay on the use of Anthropomorphism._ Mr. Spencer’s argument,
+in his own words, is this:--“From the inability under which we labor to
+conceive of a Deity save as some idealization of ourselves, it
+inevitably results that in each age, among each people, and to a great
+extent in each individual, there must arise just that conception of
+Deity best adapted to the needs of the case.” “All are good for their
+times and places.” “All were beneficent in their effects on those who
+held them.” It would be hard to quote from the records of theory-making
+an example of more complete indifference to acknowledged facts than
+these quotations set forth.
+
+[239-1] _De Veritate_, p. 216.
+
+[241-1] August Neander, _Geschichte der Christlichen Religion und
+Kirche_, Bd. i., ss. 160, 346. (Gotha, 1856.) St. Clement’s description
+of Christ is Τον οψιν αισχρον. Tertullian says: “Nec humanæ honestatis
+corpus fuit, nedum celestis claritatis.”
+
+[243-1] Novalis, _Schriften_, B. i., s. 244.
+
+[244-1] A. Bain, _The Senses and the Intellect_, p. 607.
+
+[245-1] Dr. T. Laycock, _On some Organic Laws of Memory_, in the
+_Journal of Mental Science_, July, 1875, p. 178.
+
+[246-1] Speaking of the mission of the artist, Wilhelm von Humboldt
+says: “Die ganze Natur, treu und vollständig beobachtet, mit sich
+hinüber zu tragen, d. h. den Stoff seiner Erfahrungen dem Umfange der
+Welt gleich zu machen, diese ungeheure Masse einzelner und abgerissener
+Erscheinungen in eine l’ungetrennte Einheit und ein organisirtes Ganzes
+zu verwandeln; und dies durch alle die Organe zu thun, die ihm hierzu
+verliehen sind,--ist das letzte Ziel seines intellectuellen Bemühen.”
+_Ueber Goethe’s Hermann und Dorothea_, Ab. IV.
+
+[246-2] _Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie_, B. I. s. 48.
+
+[247-1] _Gesammelte Werke_. Bd. VII., s. 63.
+
+[249-1] See this forcibly brought out and abundantly illustrated in the
+work of M. Coulange, _La Cité Antique_.
+
+[249-2] W. von Humboldt, _Gesammelte Werke_. Bd. VII., p. 72.
+
+[250-1] H. L. Liddon, Canon of St. Paul’s. _Some Elements of Religion_,
+p. 84.
+
+[251-1] The Chevalier Bunsen completed the moral estimate of the
+one-man-power, thus acknowledged by Machiavelli, in these words: “Alles
+Grosse geht aus vom Einzelnen, _aber nur in dem Masse, als dieser das
+Ich dem Ganzen opfert_.” _Gott in der Geschichte_, Bd. I., s. 38.
+
+[252-1] W. von Humboldt, _Ideen zu einem Vorsuch, die Gränzen der
+Wirksamkeit des Staats zu bestimmen_, Breslau, 1851. Auguste Comte,
+_Système de Politique Positive_, Paris, 1851-4. The former was written
+many years before its publication.
+
+[256-1] _Lectures on Metaphysics_, Vol. I., p. 23.
+
+[256-2] _The Koran_, Suras xi., xvi.
+
+[258-1] _The Myths of the New World_, Chap. IX.
+
+[259-1] Jacob Grimm quite overlooked this important element in the
+religion of the ancient Germans. It is ably set forth by Adolf
+Holtzmann, _Deutsche Mythologie_, s. 196 sqq. (Leipzig, 1874).
+
+[260-1] The seemingly heartless reply he made to one of his disciples,
+who asked permission to perform the funeral rites at his father’s grave:
+“Follow me; and let the dead bury their dead,” is an obvious
+condemnation of one of the most widespread superstitions of the ancient
+world. So, according to an ingenious suggestion of Lord Herbert of
+Cherbury, was the fifth commandment of Moses: “Ne parentum seriem
+tanquam primam aliquam causam suspicerent homines, et proinde cultum
+aliquem Divinum illis deferrent, qualem ex honore parentum sperare
+liceat benedictionem, docuit.” _De Veritate_, p. 231.
+
+Herbert Spencer in his _Essay on the Origin of Animal Worship_, calls
+ancestral worship “the universal first form of religious belief.” This
+is very far from correct, but it is easy to see how a hasty thinker
+would be led into the error by the prominence of the ancient funereal
+ceremonies.
+
+[262-1] Dhammapada, 21.
+
+[263-1] _La Vie Eternelle_, p. 339.
+
+[264-1] _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, Vol. I., ch. XV.
+
+[264-2] _Address to the Clergy_, p. 16.
+
+[267-1] “Toute religion, qu’on se permet de défendre comme une croyance
+qu’il est utile de laisser au peuple, ne peut plus espérer qu’une agonie
+plus ou moins prolongée.” Condorcet, _De l’Esprit Humain_, Ep. V.
+
+[274-1] _Romans_, ch. ix., v. 3.
+
+[274-2] “Beata quippe vita est gaudium de veritate.” Augustini
+_Confessionum_, Lib. x., caps. xxii., xxiii.
+
+[275-1] “Prudens amator non tam donum amantis considerat, quam dantis
+amorem. Nobilis amator non quiescit in dono, sed in me super omne
+donum.” _De Imitatione Christi_, Lib. iii., cap. vi.
+
+[277-1] _Fifteen Sermons_ by Joseph Butler, Lord Bishop of Durham.
+Sermon “On the love of God.”
+
+[277-2] _Unterhaltungen_, p. 131.
+
+
+
+
+INDICES.
+
+
+I. AUTHORS QUOTED.
+
+  Allen, H., 208.
+
+  Anaxagoras, 106.
+
+  Arnold, M., 249, 271.
+
+  Aristotle, 105.
+
+  Augustine, St., 20, 57, 93, 128, 191, 194, 274.
+
+
+  Bain, A., 9, 25, 52, 59, 87, 91, 244.
+
+  Barlow, H. C., 201.
+
+  Baxter, Richard, 60.
+
+  Boehmer, H., 7.
+
+  Boole, Geo., 24, 44, 104, 105, 108, 111.
+
+  Bunsen, 109, 251.
+
+  Butler, Bishop, 60, 119, 276.
+
+
+  Carlyle, 243.
+
+  Catlow, J. P., 14, 64.
+
+  Chateaubriand, 250.
+
+  Comte, A., 11, 39, 128, 187, 194, 252.
+
+  Condorcet, 267.
+
+  Cory, J. P., 191.
+
+  Coulange, 245.
+
+  Creuzer, 90, 106, 119, 127, 200, 212, 222.
+
+  Cussans, 210.
+
+
+  Dante, 93.
+
+  Darwin, C., 71, 88.
+
+  Dick, 266.
+
+  Dickson, J. T., 73.
+
+
+  Etheridge, J. W., 190.
+
+
+  Ferguson, 66.
+
+  Ferrier, J. F., 20, 28, 43, 97.
+
+  Feuchtersleben, 8, 54, 73.
+
+  Feuerbach, 194.
+
+  Fothergill, J. M., 61.
+
+
+  Gibbon, 264.
+
+  Goethe, 277.
+
+  Gurney, J. J., 119.
+
+
+  Hall, Bishop, 50, 77.
+
+  Hamilton, Sir W., 24, 29, 91, 95, 99, 256.
+
+  Helmholtz, 11, 14, 18, 22.
+
+  Hegel, 29, 88.
+
+  Herbert of Cherbury, 149, 260.
+
+  Hobbes, 81.
+
+  Hodgson, S. N., 104, 126, 128, 134.
+
+  Holtzmann, A., 259.
+
+  Humboldt, A. von, 92.
+
+  Humboldt, W. von, 6, 53, 67, 93, 112, 113, 214, 246, 252.
+
+  Hume, David, 81, 187, 219.
+
+  Hunter, John, 9.
+
+
+  Jacobi, 88.
+
+  Jevons, W. S., 25, 204.
+
+  Kant, I., 25, 29, 32, 40, 91, 105, 194.
+
+
+  Kolk, Schroeder van der, 72.
+
+  Kitto, 74.
+
+  Koppen, 37, 214.
+
+
+  Law, Wm., 49, 87, 263, 272.
+
+  Laycock, 75, 245.
+
+  Lessing, 56, 254.
+
+  Lewes, 187.
+
+  Liddon, H. L., 129, 250.
+
+
+  Mansel, 87, 88.
+
+  Maudsley, H., 9, 150.
+
+  Mill, J. S., 18, 87, 91, 97, 223.
+
+  Mohammed, 71, 75, 114, 256.
+
+  Morell, J. D., 88.
+
+  Morley, J., 223.
+
+  Müller, 130.
+
+  Müller, Max, _preface_.
+
+
+  Naville, E., 256, 263.
+
+  Neander, A., 241.
+
+  Novalis, 41, 49, 107, 124, 243.
+
+
+  Oersted, 103.
+
+  Oken, L., 7, 186.
+
+
+  Paget, J., 63.
+
+  Parker, Theo., 88.
+
+  Pascal, 56.
+
+  Plath, 129.
+
+  Rousseau, J. J., 118.
+
+  Saussure, Necker de, 220.
+
+  Schlagintweit, E., 187.
+
+  Schleiermacher, 88, 275.
+
+  Schoolcraft, 63, 146.
+
+  Schopenhauer, A., 11, 13, 51, 82, 91, 269.
+
+  Schwarz, 207.
+
+  Senancourt de, 53, 180.
+
+  Spinoza, 9, 14, 17, 41, 42, 51, 98, 104.
+
+  Spencer, Herbert, 29, 39, 98, 104, 236, 260.
+
+  Swedenborg, 75.
+
+  Steinthal, 101, 246.
+
+  Tertullian, 241.
+
+  Theophilus, 191.
+
+  Thompson, 31.
+
+  Todhunter, 25.
+
+  Tyndall, 87, 132, 255.
+
+  Voltaire, 249.
+
+  Westropp, 62.
+
+  Wigan, A. L., 76.
+
+  Williams, J., 76.
+
+  Wordsworth, 41, 42, 180.
+
+  Windelband, Dr., 101, 102, 108.
+
+
+  II. SUBJECTS.
+
+  Absolute, the, 102, 106.
+    consciousness of, 161.
+
+  Adam, as prophet of the moon, 170.
+
+  Adjita, 178.
+
+  Adonis, 165.
+
+  Aeon, 163, 166.
+
+  Agdistis, an epicene deity, 65.
+
+  Ahura-Mazda, 113, 166, 184.
+
+  Allah, 239.
+
+  Amitabha, 175, 185.
+
+  Analytic propositions, 32.
+
+  Androgynous deities, 66.
+
+  Animism, 163.
+
+  Anointed, the, 176.
+
+  Anya-Mainyus, 166, 184.
+
+  Anthropomorphism, 193.
+
+  Antinomies, of Kant, 29.
+
+  Aphrodite, 65, 241.
+
+  Apocalypse, the, 171.
+
+  Apollo, 67, 241.
+
+  Apperception, 156.
+
+  Apprehension, 142.
+
+  Arab idea of time, 165.
+
+  Argumentum de appetitu, 231.
+
+  Aronhiate, a Huron deity, 221.
+
+  Arrenothele deities, 66.
+
+  Art, religious, in Orient, 15;
+    in Greece, 16;
+    Christian, 209, 241;
+    useless and immoral, 244.
+
+  Assyria, flood myth of, 169.
+
+  Athanasius, his doctrine of the Trinity, 191.
+
+  Atonement, doctrine of, 222.
+
+  Avalokitesvara, 214.
+
+  Aztecs, 80.
+
+
+  Baghavad Gita, the, 189.
+
+  Babylon, rites of, 74.
+
+  Baldur, 176.
+
+  Baptism, 138, 226.
+
+  Beauty, the line of, 15, 211.
+    the religion of, 241, 244, 245.
+
+  Belief, its kinds, 141.
+
+  Brahma, 65, 169.
+
+  Brahmans, highest bliss of, 57;
+    doctrines, 168, 169.
+
+  Breidablick, 176.
+
+  Brutes, religious feeling in, 88.
+
+  Buddha, 37, 57, 80, 120, 146, 156, 261, 271.
+
+  Buddhism, four truths of, 13;
+    theories of prayer, 121, 150, 214;
+    last day, 169;
+    myths, 175, 176;
+    monotheism of, 187, 247, 256.
+
+  Bull, as a symbol, 204.
+
+
+  Cabala, Jehova in, 65.
+
+  Canting arms, 212.
+
+  Cause, not a reason, 38;
+    in physical science, 91.
+
+  Celibacy, Romish, 61.
+
+  Cerebration, unconscious, 149.
+
+  Chance, the idea of, 93.
+
+  Chinese character for prayer, 129.
+
+  Christ, _see_ Jesus.
+
+  Christianity, doctrines of, 190, 257, 264, 274;
+    symbol of, 203.
+
+  Christmas tree, the, 215.
+
+  Cockatrice, the, 77.
+
+  Commonwealth, ideal of, 247.
+
+  Consciousness, forms of, 17, 20.
+
+  Confucius, doctrine, 122, sq.
+
+  Continuity, law of, 11, 16;
+    principle of, 95.
+
+  Contradiction, law of, 27, 102.
+
+  Correspondences, doctrine of, 217.
+
+  Cosmical relations of man, 112, 268.
+
+  Cotytto, 65.
+
+  Cow, as a symbol, 204.
+
+  Craoshanç, 176.
+
+  Creation, myth of, 166.
+
+  Crescent, a phallic symbol, 62.
+
+  Cross, a phallic symbol, 62;
+    as phonetic symbol, 210;
+    variants of, 210.
+
+  Cult, the, 199 sq.
+
+  Culture, religion of, 243, 244, 253.
+
+  Cybele, 65; priests of, 66, 219.
+
+
+  Dactyli, the, 184.
+
+  Darkness, terror of, 185.
+
+  Day of Judgment, the, 172.
+
+  Deity, _see_ God.
+
+  Design, argument from, 110.
+
+  Desire, meaning of, 53.
+
+  Deus, 185; triformis, 191.
+
+  Deva, 185.
+
+  Didactic rites, 225.
+
+  Divination and prayer, 137.
+
+  Dramatic rites, 226.
+
+  Dual law of thought, 27, 102;
+    division of the gods, 182, 183.
+
+
+  Edda, mythology of, 175, 215.
+
+  Eden, garden of, 175.
+
+  Ego, the, 19.
+
+  Egoism of religion, 272.
+
+  Egyptians, doctrines of, 80, 222;
+    prayers, 115;
+    pyramids, 212;
+    lotus of, 214.
+
+  Emotions, origin of, 10;
+    exclude thought, 19;
+    in religion, 49;
+    of fear and hope, 50, 51;
+    esthetic, 14.
+
+  Entheasm, 148.
+
+  Epochs of nature, 164 sq.
+
+  Epicene deities, 66.
+
+  Epilepsy and religious delusions, 75.
+
+  Eros, 72.
+
+  Esculapius, emblem of, 200.
+
+  Esthetic emotions, 14, 244.
+
+  Ethics, grounds of, 266.
+
+  Excluded middle, law of, 27, sqq.
+
+  Expectant attention, 74, 129.
+
+  Explanation, limits of, 38.
+
+
+  Faith in religion, 107.
+
+  Fascination, 74.
+
+  Fear, in religion, 50, sqq.
+
+  Female principle in religion, 62, 183.
+
+  Feridun, garden of, 175.
+
+  Flood, myth of, 169, sq.
+
+  Fingers, as gods, 184.
+
+  Force, orders of, 133.
+
+  Freedom, 105.
+
+  Friends, sect of, _see_ Quakers.
+
+  Future life, doctrine of, 256, sq.
+
+
+  Gallican confession, the, 138.
+
+  Generative function in religion, 62, 72, 73.
+
+  Genius as inspiration, 149.
+
+  Gnosis, the genuine, 74.
+
+  Gnostic doctrines, 166.
+
+  God, as father, 70;
+    spouses of, 69, 71;
+    mother of, 68;
+    sexless, 71;
+    earliest notions of, 78;
+    incomprehensible, 98;
+    throne of, 167;
+    love of, 73, 263, 276.
+
+  Gods,
+    hierarchy of, 181;
+    quantification of the, 186;
+    of lightning, 207.
+
+  Good, final victory of, 179.
+
+  Grasshoppers, prayers against, 131.
+
+  Greeks, art of, 16;
+    doctrines of, 80;
+    sophists, 96.
+
+  Gudmund, King, 175.
+
+
+  Hades, 186.
+
+  Hare, the Great, 212.
+
+  Hell, 186, 258, 274.
+
+  Hercules, 72.
+
+  Hermaphrodite deities, 66.
+
+  Hesperides, the, 175.
+
+  Hierarchy of the gods, 181.
+
+  High places, worship of, 215, 216.
+
+  Historic ideas, 232.
+
+  Holy spirit, as inspiring, 138;
+    brooding, 167.
+
+  Hope, in religion, 51 sqq.
+
+  Horæ, the, 165.
+
+  Humanity, the religion of, 194, 253.
+
+
+  Ignorance, in relation to religion, 82.
+
+  Illumination, 140.
+
+  Immortality, doctrine of, 255.
+
+  Indians, American, 125, 157.
+
+  Insanity, religious, 76.
+
+  Inspiration, 137.
+
+  Intelligence, one in kind, 96;
+    as the first cause, 106, 111.
+
+  Irmin, pillars of, 215.
+
+  Ischomachus, prayer of, 126.
+
+  Israelites, the Messiah of, 176.
+
+
+  Janus, an epicene deity, 65.
+
+  Jehovah, 65, 156.
+
+  Jemschid, king, 175.
+
+  Jesus, face of, 67, 241;
+    conception of, 71;
+    wounds of, 130;
+    wisdom of, 144;
+    as second Noah, 170;
+    teachings, 178, 260;
+    prayer to, 187;
+    execution of, 203;
+    death of, 222.
+
+  Judaism, 187.
+
+  Judgment, day of, 172.
+
+
+  Kalpa, of Brahmans, 168.
+
+  Knowledge, forms of, 21.
+
+  Kosmos, the, 72, 144, 167.
+
+
+  Lateau, Louise, 130.
+
+  Law, defined, 40;
+    of excluded middle, 27;
+    oldest, 248.
+
+  Laws, the, of thought, 26, sq.; 101, sq.;
+    not restrictive, 105;
+    as purposive, 108.
+
+  Light, as object of worship, 185.
+
+  Lightning, the, in symbolic art, 207.
+
+  Life, the perfect, 57.
+
+  Lingam, the, 66.
+
+  Lingayets, sect of, 66.
+
+  Logic, applied, 23;
+    abstract or formal, 24;
+    mathematical, 24;
+    laws of, 101, sq.
+
+  Logos, the, 42, 106.
+
+  Lotus, as symbol, 213, sq.
+
+  Love, as religious emotion, defined, 58, 60, 262;
+    of sex, 61, 63;
+    law of, 73;
+    of God, 73, 263, 276.
+
+
+  Ma, a goddess, 183.
+
+  Maitreya, 176.
+
+  Mamona, a Haitian deity, 68.
+
+  Märchen, the, defined, 157.
+
+  Marriage condemned, 69.
+
+  Maypole, as a symbol, 215.
+
+  Melitta, 65.
+
+  Memory, physical basis of, 10;
+    ancestral, 75.
+
+  Memorial, rites, 225.
+
+  Messiah, the, 176.
+
+  Millennium, the, 173, 268.
+
+  Michabo, an Algonkin deity, 185.
+
+  Mind,
+    growth of, 7;
+    extent of, 8, 271;
+    as seat of law, 163.
+
+  Miracles, 110, 130.
+
+  Mithras, 65.
+
+  Mohammed,
+    notion of god, 71;
+    inspired, 146.
+
+  Mohammedanism, 187, 224.
+
+  Monotheism, origin of, 80, 81; 186, sq.
+
+  Moral government of the world, 112.
+
+  Morality, independent of religion, dualism of deities, 182, 249, 266, 267.
+
+  Mormonism, 61.
+
+  Motion, first law of, 11;
+    relation to time and space, 35;
+    manifestations of, 77.
+
+  Myth, the, defined, 156.
+
+
+  Names, sacred, 156.
+
+  Natural selection, in sensation, 10;
+    in logic, 101.
+
+  Nature,
+    meaning of, 4, 39, 105;
+    epochs of, 164.
+
+  Nemqueteba, 240.
+
+  Neo-Hegelian doctrine, 194.
+
+  Nirvana, the, 13, 57, 257.
+
+  Noah, 170.
+
+  Nous, the, 106.
+
+
+  Oannes, 170.
+
+  Obelisk as symbol, 215.
+
+  Odainsakr, 175.
+
+  Odin, 53, 259.
+
+  Optimism, 112, 269.
+
+  Order, in things, 90, sq.
+
+  Osiris, 165.
+
+
+  Pain, defined, 17.
+
+  Parsees, doctrine of, 80, 166, 184.
+
+  Pantheism, 188, 194, 247.
+
+  Papas, a Phrygian god, 183.
+
+  Paradise, lost and regained, myths of, 173, sq;
+    future, 257.
+
+  Pentalpha, the, 212.
+
+  Perfected commonwealth, idea of, 247.
+
+  Perfected individual, idea of, 239.
+
+  Personal survival, idea of, 255.
+
+  Pessimism, 11, 112, 269.
+
+  Persians, ancient, 176.
+
+  Personality, the, 19, 270.
+
+  Phallus, worship of, 62, 66, 214, 216.
+
+  Phanes, the orphic principle, 190.
+
+  Philosophy of religion, defined, 3;
+    of mythology, 159;
+    of history, 232.
+
+  Phrygian divinities, 183.
+
+  Pillar worship, 215.
+
+  Pleasure, defined, 14.
+
+  Polarization, as a principle of thought, 183.
+
+  Porte Royale, miracles of, 131.
+
+  Postulates of religion, 89.
+
+  Prayer, 117, sq.
+
+  Progression of development, 109.
+
+  Protestantism, 128, 139, 250.
+
+  Protogonus, 167.
+
+  Psyche, and love, 72.
+
+  Pythagoras, his thoughts on number, 189.
+
+
+  Quakers, sect of, 76, 115, 138, 147.
+
+  Quantification of the predicate, 22;
+    of the gods, 186.
+
+  Quetzalcoatl, 212.
+
+
+  Reason in religion, 106, 107;
+    drawn from sight, 186.
+
+  Rebus in symbolism, 212.
+
+  Regin, as name of gods, 90.
+
+  Relative, the, 106.
+
+  Religion, science of, 3;
+    philosophy of, 3;
+    personal factor of, 81;
+    not concerned with phenomena, 110.
+
+  Reproductive function in religion, 62.
+
+  Res per accidens, 182.
+
+  Resignation, doctrine of, 128, 135.
+
+  Revelation, marks of, 149.
+
+  Rig Veda, the, 125.
+
+  Rite, the, 217, seq.
+
+  Roland, pillars of, 215.
+
+  Roman Catholics, 76, 138, 141, 187, 250.
+
+
+  Sabians, myths of, 170.
+
+  Sacraments, 227.
+
+  Sacrifice, idea in, 218;
+    vicarious, 222.
+
+  Saga, the, defined, 157.
+
+  Saint Brigida, 146.
+
+  Saint Gertrude of Nivelles, 146.
+
+  Sakyamuni, _see_ Buddha.
+
+  Saturnian Era, the, 175.
+
+  Science of Religion, 3;
+    as knowledge of system, 92;
+    of mythology, 158.
+
+  Secularization of symbols, 204.
+
+  Sensation, defined, 9;
+    excludes thought, 19;
+    of pain and pleasure, 10.
+
+  Sentiment, the religious, 3;
+    emotional elements of, 79;
+    rational postulates of, 87;
+    religion of, 250.
+
+  Serpent, as emblem and symbol, 200, 206, 207.
+
+  Sev, an Egyptian deity, 165.
+
+  Sex, love of, 61, 63;
+    in nature, 71, 72, 216.
+
+  Shekinah, the, 66.
+
+  Siddartha, a name of Buddha, 121.
+
+  Similars, law of, 204.
+
+  Sin, sense of, 225.
+
+  Sight, as the light-sense, 186.
+
+  Siva, worship of, 66, 214.
+
+  Soul, the, 19, 271.
+
+  Specific performance in rites, 218, sq.
+
+  Stigmata, the, 130.
+
+  Sufficient reason, principle of, 91.
+
+  Sukhavati, 175.
+
+  Supernatural, defined, 4;
+    its relation to symbols, 205.
+
+  Swedenborg, 75, 217.
+
+  Symbol, the phonetic, 200;
+    origin of, 202;
+    related and coincident, 203.
+
+  Symbolism, defined, 200.
+
+  Synthesis of contraries, 37.
+
+  Synthetic propositions, 32.
+
+
+  Tathagata, a name of Buddha, 121.
+
+  Tau, the Egyptian, 210.
+
+  Theology, 4.
+
+  Thor, hammer of, 210, 239.
+
+  Thought, as a function, 17;
+    laws of, 26, 101, sq.;
+    as purposive, 108.
+
+  Tien, Mongolian deity, 185, 216.
+
+  Time, not a force, 11;
+    but believed to be one, 165.
+
+  Tlapallan, 175.
+
+  Tree worship, 215.
+
+  Triads, the Celtic, 190;
+    Platonic, 191.
+
+  Triangle, the equilateral, 212.
+
+  Trinity, the doctrine of, 191;
+    symbol of, 212.
+
+  Triplicate relation of numbers, 190.
+
+  Tritheism, of Christianity, 190.
+
+  Truth, what is, 21;
+    eternal, 41;
+    as answer to prayer, 137.
+
+  Tulan, 175.
+
+
+  Unconditioned, the, 29, 34, 37, 98, 100.
+
+  Uniformity of sequence, as cause, 91, 92.
+
+  Unknowable, the, 29, 34, 99, 100.
+
+
+  Valkyria, the, 53.
+
+  Valhalla, 259.
+
+  Varuna, an Aryan god, 125.
+
+  Vendidad, the, 175.
+
+  Venereal sense, the, 64.
+
+  Vicarious sacrifice, theory of, 222.
+
+  Virginity, sacredness of, 69.
+
+  Virgin Mother, the, 68.
+
+  Volition, _see_ Will.
+
+  Voluspa, the, 171.
+
+
+  Wabose, Catherine, 146.
+
+  Water, as the primitive substance, 167.
+
+  Will, the, 16;
+    of God, 38, 42;
+    as a cause, 90.
+
+  Wish, the religious, 52;
+    definition of, 79.
+
+  World, moral government of, 112;
+    creation and changes, 164;
+    light of the, 185.
+
+
+  Xisuthrus, 170.
+
+
+  Year, the Great, 169.
+
+  Yima, reign of, 175.
+
+  Ynglyngasaga, the, 218.
+
+  Yocauna, a Haitian deity, 68.
+
+
+  Zarathustra, 80, 114.
+
+  Zeruana akerana, 166.
+
+  Zweckgesetze, 108.
+
+
+
+
+_PUBLISHED BY HENRY HOLT & CO._
+
+
+=BRINTON’S (D. G.) WORKS. The Myths of the New World.= A Treatise on the
+Symbolism and Mythology of the Red Race of America. Second edition,
+large 12mo, $2.50. Large-paper (first) edition. $6.00.
+
+“The philosophical spirit in which it is written is deserving of
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+
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+=DEUTSCH’S (E.) LITERARY REMAINS.= With a Brief Memoir. 8vo. $4.00.
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+     CONTENTS:--The Talmud--Islam--Egypt. Ancient and Modern--Hermes
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+
+
+Transcriber’s Note
+
+
+The following misspellings and typographical errors were maintained.
+
+       Page       Error
+TN-1     2   expres ion should read expression
+TN-2    15   mind,whose should read mind, whose
+TN-3    34   positive,and should read positive, and
+TN-4   fn. 39-1   Systèmede should read Système de
+TN-5   fn. 71-1   Suras, should read Suras
+TN-6    91   reason’ should read reason”
+TN-7   108   [108-1] should read [108-2]
+TN-8   146   devil,before should read devil, before
+TN-9   193   plantasm should read phantasm
+TN-10  193   anthropomorphism,which should read anthropomorphism, which
+TN-11  205   supernatual should read supernatural
+TN-12  221   corrollary should read corollary
+TN-13  fn. 214-3   and should read und
+TN-14  Ads. p. 1   clergy. should read clergy.”
+TN-15  Ads. p. 2   (His should read His
+
+Accents in foreign words are inconsistent and have been left as
+originally printed.
+
+The following words were inconsistenly spelled or hyphenated:
+
+  develop / develope
+  key-stone / keystone
+  May-pole / Maypole
+  re-gained / regained
+  thunder-storm / thunderstorm
+  _u. s._ / u. s.
+  Voelker / Vœlker
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Religious Sentiment, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT ***
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+  </head>
+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30061 ***</div>
+
+<div class="tn">
+<p class="titlepage">Transcriber’s Note</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">A number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of
+this book. They are <ins class="correction" title="correction">marked</ins> and the corrected text is shown in the popup.
+A description of the errors is found in the <a href="#trans_note">list</a> at the end of the text.
+Inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation have been maintained. A <a href="#trans_note">list</a>
+of inconsistently spelled and hyphenated words is found at the end of
+the text.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following less common characters are used in this version of the
+book. If they do not display properly, please try changing your font.</p>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>√&nbsp; square root sign</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 20em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding: 1em;">
+<p class="titlepage"><i>BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<p class="hanging">THE MYTHS OF THE NEW WORLD: A Treatise on the Symbolism and Mythology
+of the Red Race of America. <i>Second edition, revised.</i> Large 12mo,
+$2.50.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging">THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT: Its Source and Aim. A Contribution to the
+Science and Philosophy of Religion. Large 12mo, $2.50.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h1 class="sectionhead"><span style="font-size: 50%;">THE</span><br />
+RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT<br />
+<span style="font-size: 80%;">ITS SOURCE AND AIM</span></h1>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 2em;"><i>A CONTRIBUTION TO THE SCIENCE AND<br />
+PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION.</i></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 2em;"><span style="font-size: 80%;">BY</span><br />
+DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D.<br />
+<i>Member of the American Philosophical Society, the American Philological<br />
+Society, etc.; author of “The Myths of the New World,” etc.</i></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px; margin-top: 2em;">
+<img src="images/colophon.png" width="100" height="116" alt="colophn" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 2em;">NEW YORK<br />
+HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY<br />
+1876.</p>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="titlepage"><span class="smcap">Copyright</span>,<br />
+BY HENRY HOLT<br />
+1876.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 2em;"><span class="smcap">John F. Trow &amp; Son, Printers,</span><br />
+205-213 East 12th St., New York.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mythology,</span> since it began to receive a scientific handling at all, has
+been treated as a subordinate branch of history or of ethnology. The
+“science of religion,” as we know it in the works of Burnouf, Müller,
+and others, is a comparison of systems of worship in their historic
+development. The deeper inquiry as to what in the mind of man gave birth
+to religion in any of its forms, what spirit breathed and is ever
+breathing life into these dry bones, this, the final and highest
+question of all, has had but passing or prejudiced attention. To its
+investigation this book is devoted.</p>
+
+<p>The analysis of the religious sentiment I offer is an inductive one,
+whose outlines were furnished by a preliminary study of the religions of
+the native race of America, a field selected as most favorable by reason
+of the simplicity of many of its cults, and the absence of theories
+respecting them. This study was embodied in “The Myths of the New World;
+a Treatise on the Symbolism and Mythology of the Red Race of America”
+(second edition, N. Y. 1876).</p>
+
+<p>The results thus obtained I have in the present work expanded by
+including in the survey the historic religions of the Old World, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span>submitted the whole for solution to the Laws of Mind, regarded as
+physiological elements of growth, and to the Laws of Thought, these, as
+formal only, being held as nowise a development of those. This latter
+position, which is not conceded by the reigning school of psychology, I
+have taken pains to explain and defend as far as consistent with the
+plan of this treatise; but I am well aware that to say all that can be
+said in proof of it, would take much more space than here allowed.</p>
+
+<p>The main questions I have had before me in writing this volume have an
+interest beyond those which mere science propounds. What led men to
+imagine gods at all? What still prompts enlightened nations to worship?
+Is prayer of any avail, or of none? Is faith the last ground of
+adoration, or is reason? Is religion a transient phase of development,
+or is it the chief end of man? What is its warrant of continuance? If it
+overlive this day of crumbling theologies, whence will come its
+reprieve?</p>
+
+<p>To such inquiries as these, answers satisfactory to thinking men of this
+time can, I believe, be given only by an inductive study of religions,
+supported by a sound psychology, and conducted in a spirit which
+acknowledges as possibly rightful, the reverence which every system
+claims. Those I propose, inadequate though they may be, can at any rate
+pretend to be the result of honest labor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Philadelphia</span>, <i>January</i>, 1876.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table of contents">
+<tr>
+  <td class="chapnum" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="font-size: smaller;">PAGE.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="smcap">The Bearing of the Laws of Mind on Religion</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="chapnum" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="smcap">The Emotional Elements of the Religious Sentiment</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">47</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="chapnum" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="smcap">The Rational Postulates of the Religious Sentiment</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">87</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="chapnum" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="smcap">The Prayer and its Answer</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">117</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="chapnum" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="smcap">The Myth and the Mythical Cycles</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">155</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="chapnum" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="smcap">The Cult, its Symbols and Rites</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">199</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="chapnum" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="smcap">The Momenta of Religious Thought</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">231</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapdivider"><a name="THE_BEARING_OF_THE_LAWS_OF_MIND_ON_RELIGION" id="THE_BEARING_OF_THE_LAWS_OF_MIND_ON_RELIGION"></a>THE BEARING OF THE LAWS OF MIND ON RELIGION</h2>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="chapterhead">SUMMARY.</h3>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The distinction between the Science and the Philosophy of religion.
+It is assumed (1) that religions are products of thought, (2) that
+they have a unity of kind and purpose. They can be studied by the
+methods of natural science applied to Mind.</p>
+
+<p>Mind is co-extensive with organism. Sensation and Emotion are
+prominent marks of it. These are either pleasurable or painful; the
+latter <i>diminish</i> vital motions, the former <i>increase</i> them. This
+is a product of natural selection. A mis-reading of these facts is
+the fallacy of Buddhism and other pessimistic systems. Pleasure
+comes from continuous action. This is illustrated by the esthetic
+emotions, volition and consciousness.</p>
+
+<p>The climax of mind is Intellect. Physical changes accompany thought
+but cannot measure it. Relations of thought and feeling. <i>Truth</i> is
+its only measure. Truth, like pleasure, is desired for its
+preservative powers. It is reached through the laws of thought.</p>
+
+<p>These laws are: (1) the natural order of the association of ideas,
+(2) the methods of applied logic, (3) the forms of correct
+reasoning. The last allow of mathematical expression. They are
+three in number, called those of Determination, Limitation and
+Excluded Middle.</p>
+
+<p>The last is the key-stone of religious philosophy. Its diverse
+interpretations. Its mathematical <a name="corr1" id="corr1"></a><ins class="correction" title="expression">expres ion</ins> shows that it
+does not relate to contradictories. But certain concrete analytic
+propositions, relating to contraries, do have this form. The
+contrary as distinguished from the privative. The Conditioned and
+Unconditioned, the Knowable and Unknowable are not true
+contradictions. The synthesis of contraries is theoretic only.</p>
+
+<p>Errors as to the limits of possible explanation corrected by these
+distinctions. The formal law is the last and complete explanation.
+The relations of thought, belief and being.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2 class="chapdivider"><a name="THE_RELIGIOUS_SENTIMENT" id="THE_RELIGIOUS_SENTIMENT"></a>THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr class="declong" />
+
+
+<h2 class="sectionhead"><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="chaptitle">THE BEARING OF THE LAWS OF MIND ON RELIGION.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Science of Religion is one of the branches of general historical
+science. It embraces, as the domain of its investigation, all recorded
+facts relating to the displays of the Religious Sentiment. Its limits
+are defined by those facts, and the legitimate inferences from them. Its
+aim is to ascertain the constitutive laws of the origin and spread of
+religions, and to depict the influence they have exerted on the general
+life of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>The question whether a given religion is true or false cannot present
+itself in this form as a proper subject of scientific inquiry. The most
+that can be asked is, whether some one system is best suited to a
+specified condition of the individual or the community.</p>
+
+<p>The higher inquiry is the object of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> Philosophy of Religion. This
+branch of study aims to pass beyond recorded facts and local adjustments
+in order to weigh the theoretical claims of religions, and measure their
+greater or less conformity with abstract truth. The formal or regulative
+laws of religious thought occupy it.</p>
+
+<p>Theology, dogmatic or polemic, is an explanatory defence of some
+particular faith. Together with mythology and symbolism, it furnishes
+the material from which the Science and Philosophy of Religion seek to
+educe the laws and frame the generalizations which will explain the
+source and aim of religion in general.</p>
+
+<p>The common source of all devotional displays is the Religious Sentiment,
+a complex feeling, a thorough understanding of which is an essential
+preliminary to the study of religious systems.</p>
+
+<p>Such a study proceeds on the assumption that all religions are products
+of thought, commenced and continued in accordance with the laws of the
+human mind, and, therefore, comprehensible to the extent to which these
+laws are known. No one disputes this, except in reference to his own
+religion. This, he is apt to assert, had something “supernatural” about
+its origin. If this word be correctly used, it may stand without cavil.
+The “natural” is that of which we know in whole or in part the laws; the
+“supernatural” means that of which we do not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> at present know in any
+degree the laws. The domain of the supernatural diminishes in the ratio
+of the increase of knowledge; and the inference that it also is
+absolutely under the control of law, is not only allowable but
+obligatory.</p>
+
+<p>A second assumption must be that there is a unity of kind and purpose in
+all religions. Without this, no common law can exist for them. Such a
+law must hold good in all ages, in every condition of society, and in
+each instance. Hence those who explain religious systems as forms of
+government, or as systems of ethics, or as misconceived history, or as
+theories of natural philosophy, must be prepared to make their view good
+when it is universally applied, or else renounce the possibility of a
+Science of Religion; while those who would except their own system from
+what they grant is the law of all others, violate the principles of
+investigation and thereby the canons of truth.</p>
+
+<p>The methods of science are everywhere alike. Has the naturalist to
+explain an organism, he begins with its elements or proximate principles
+as obtained by analysis; he thence passes to the tissues and fluids
+which compose its members; these he considers first in a state of
+repose, their structure and their connections; then he examines their
+functions, the laws of their growth and action; and finally he has
+recourse to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> doctrine of relations, <i>la théorie des milieux</i>, to
+define the conditions of its existence. Were such a method applied to a
+religion, it would lead us first to study its psychological elements,
+then the various expressions in word and act to which these give
+occasion, next the record of its growth and decay, and finally from
+these to gather the circumstantials of human life and culture which led
+to its historic existence.</p>
+
+<p>Some have urged that such a method should not be summoned to questions
+in mental philosophy. To do so, say they, is to confound things
+distinct, requiring distinct plans of study. Such a criticism might have
+had weight in the days when the mind was supposed to inhabit the body as
+a tenant a house, and have no relation to it other than that of a casual
+occupant. But that opinion is antiquated. More than three-fourths of a
+century ago the far-seeing thinker, Wilhelm von Humboldt, laid down the
+maxim that the phenomena of mind and matter obey laws identical in
+kind;<a name="FNanchor_6-1_1" id="FNanchor_6-1_1" href="#Footnote_6-1_1" class="fnanchor">6-1</a> and a recent historian of science sums up the result of the
+latest research in these words:</p>
+
+<p>“The old dualism of mind and body, which for centuries struggled in vain
+for reconciliation, finds it now, not indeed in the unity of substance,
+but in the unity of laws.”<a name="FNanchor_6-2_2" id="FNanchor_6-2_2" href="#Footnote_6-2_2" class="fnanchor">6-2</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>It is, therefore, as a question in mental philosophy to be treated by
+the methods of natural science, that I shall approach the discussion of
+the religious sentiment. As it is a part, or at least a manifestation of
+mind, I must preface its more particular consideration with some words
+on the mind in general, words which I shall make as few and as clear as
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of this century, the naturalist Oken hazarded the
+assertion: “The human mind is a memberment of infusorial
+sensation,”<a name="FNanchor_7-1_3" id="FNanchor_7-1_3" href="#Footnote_7-1_3" class="fnanchor">7-1</a> a phrase which has been the guiding principle of
+scientific psychology ever since. That in the course of this memberment
+or growth wholly new faculties are acquired, is conceded. As the union
+of two inorganic substances may yield a third different in every respect
+from either; or, as in the transition of inorganic to organic matter,
+the power of reproduction is attained; so, positively new powers may
+attend the development of mind. From sensations it progresses to
+emotions, from emotions to reason. The one is the psychical climax of
+the other. “We have still to do with the one <a name="corr2" id="corr2"></a><ins class="correction" title="mind, whose">mind,whose</ins> action
+devel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>opes itself with perception, through discrimination, till it
+arrives at notions, wherein its most general scheme, ‘truth and error,’
+serves as the principle.”<a name="FNanchor_8-1_4" id="FNanchor_8-1_4" href="#Footnote_8-1_4" class="fnanchor">8-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Extravagant as Oken’s expression seemed to many when it was published,
+it now falls short of the legitimate demands of science, and I may add,
+of religion. <i>Mind is co-extensive with organism</i>; in the language of
+logic, one “connotes” the other; this statement, and nothing short of
+it, satisfies the conditions of the problem. Wherever we see Form
+preserved amid the change of substance, <i>there</i> is mind; it alone can
+work that miracle; only it gives Life. Matter suffers no increase;
+therefore the new is but a redistribution of the old; it is new in
+<i>form</i> only; and the maintenance of form under changes of substance is
+the one distinguishing mark of organism. To it is added the yet more
+wonderful power of transmitting form by reproduction. Wherever these
+are, are also the rudiments of mind. The distinction between the animal
+and the vegetable worlds, between the reasoning and unreasoning animals,
+is one of degree only. Whether, in a somewhat different sense, we should
+not go yet further, and say that mind is co-extensive with motion, and
+hence with phenomena, is a speculative inquiry which may have to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+answered in the affirmative, but it does not concern us here.</p>
+
+<p>The first and most general mark of Mind is sensation or common feeling.
+In technical language a sensation is defined to be the result of an
+impression on an organism, producing some molecular change in its nerve
+or life centres. It is the consequence of a contact with another
+existence. Measured by its effects upon the individual the common law of
+sensation is: Every impression, however slight, either adds to or takes
+from the sum of the life-force of the system; in the former case it
+produces a pleasurable, in the latter a painful sensation. The
+exceptions to this rule, though many, are such in appearance only.<a name="FNanchor_9-1_5" id="FNanchor_9-1_5" href="#Footnote_9-1_5" class="fnanchor">9-1</a></p>
+
+<p>In the human race the impression can often be made quite as forcibly by
+a thought as by an act. “I am confident,” says John Hunter, the
+anatomist, “that I can fix my attention to any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> part, until I have a
+sensation in that part.” This is what is called the influence of the
+mind upon the body. Its extent is much greater than used to be imagined,
+and it has been a fertile source of religious delusions. Such sensations
+are called subjective; those produced by external force, objective.</p>
+
+<p>The immediate consequent of a sensation is <i>reflex action</i>, the object
+of which is either to avoid pain or increase pleasure, in other words,
+either to preserve or augment the individual life.</p>
+
+<p>The molecular changes incident to a sensation leave permanent traces,
+which are the physical bases of memory. One or several such remembered
+sensations, evoked by a present sensation, combine with it to form an
+Emotion. Characteristic of their origin is it that the emotions fall
+naturally into a dual classification, in which the one involves
+pleasurable or elevating, the other painful or depressing conditions.
+Thus we have the pairs joy and grief, hope and fear, love and hate, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The question of pleasure and pain is thus seen to be the primary one of
+mental science. We must look to it to explain the meaning of sensation
+as a common quality of organism. What is the significance of pleasure
+and pain?</p>
+
+<p>The question involves that of Life. Not to stray into foreign topics, it
+may broadly be said<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> that as all change resolves itself into motion,
+and, as Helmholtz remarks, all science merges itself into mechanics, we
+should commence by asking what vital motions these sensations stand for
+or correspond to.</p>
+
+<p>Every organism, and each of its parts, is the resultant of innumerable
+motions, a composition of forces. As such, each obeys the first law of
+motion, to wit, indefinite continuance of action until interfered with.
+This is a modification of Newton’s “law of continuance,” which, with the
+other primary laws of motion, must be taken as the foundation of biology
+as well as of astronomy.<a name="FNanchor_11-1_6" id="FNanchor_11-1_6" href="#Footnote_11-1_6" class="fnanchor">11-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The diminution or dispersion of organic motion is expressed in
+physiological terms as <i>waste</i>; we are admonished of waste by <i>pain</i>;
+and thus admonished we supply the waste or avoid the injury as far as we
+can. But this connection of pain with waste is not a necessary one, nor
+is it the work of a <i>Providentia particularis</i>, as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> schoolmen said.
+It is a simple result of natural selection. Many organisms have been
+born, no doubt, in which waste did not cause pain; caused, perhaps,
+pleasure. Consequently, they indulged their preferences and soon
+perished. Only those lived to propagate their kind in whom a different
+sensation was associated with waste, and they transmitted this
+sensitiveness increased by ancestral impression to their offspring. The
+curses of the human race to-day are alcohol, opium and tobacco, and they
+are so because they cause waste, but do not immediately produce painful
+but rather pleasurable feelings.</p>
+
+<p>Pain, as the sensation of waste, is the precursor of death, of the part
+or system. By parity of evolution, pleasure came to be the sensation of
+continuance, of uninterrupted action, of increasing vigor and life.
+Every action, however, is accompanied by waste, and hence every pleasure
+developes pain. But it is all important to note that the latter is the
+mental correlative not of the action but of its cessation, not of the
+life of the part but of its ceasing to live. Pain, it is true, in
+certain limits excites to action; but it is by awakening the
+self-preservative tendencies, which are the real actors. This
+physiological distinction, capable of illustration from sensitive
+vegetable as well as the lowest animal organisms, has had an intimate
+connection with religious theories. The problems of suffering and death<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+are precisely the ones which all religions set forth to solve in theory
+and in practice. Their creeds and myths are based on what they make of
+pain. The theory of Buddhism, which now has more followers than any
+other faith, is founded on four axioms, which are called “the four
+excellent truths.” The first and fundamental one is: “Pain is
+inseparable from existence.” This is the principle of all pessimism,
+ancient and modern. Schopenhauer, an out-and-out pessimist, lays down
+the allied maxim, “All pleasure is negative, that is, it consists in
+getting rid of a want or pain,”<a name="FNanchor_13-1_7" id="FNanchor_13-1_7" href="#Footnote_13-1_7" class="fnanchor">13-1</a> a principle expressed before his
+time in the saying “the highest pleasure is the relief from pain.”</p>
+
+<p>Consistently with this, Buddhism holds out as the ultimate of hope the
+state of Nirvana, in which existence is not, where the soul is “blown
+out” like the flame of a candle.</p>
+
+<p>But physiology demolishes the corner-stone of this edifice when it shows
+that pain, so far from being inseparable from existence, has merely
+become, through transmitted experience, nearly inseparable from the
+progressive cessation of existence. While action and reaction are equal
+in inorganic nature, the principle of life modifies the operation of
+this universal law of force by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> bringing in <i>nutrition</i>, which, were it
+complete, would antagonize reaction. In such a case, pleasure would be
+continuous, pain null; action constant, reaction hypothetical. As,
+however, nutrition in fact never wholly and at once replaces the
+elements altered by vital action, both physicians and metaphysicians
+have observed that pleasure is the fore-runner of pain, and has the
+latter as its certain sequel.<a name="FNanchor_14-1_8" id="FNanchor_14-1_8" href="#Footnote_14-1_8" class="fnanchor">14-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Physiologically and practically, the definition of pleasure is, <i>maximum
+action with minimum waste</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This latter generalization is the explanation of the esthetic emotions.
+The modern theory of art rests not on a psychological but a
+physiological, and this in turn on a physical basis. Helmholtz’s theory
+of musical harmony depends on the experimental fact that a continued
+impression gives a pleasant, a discontinuous an unpleasant sensation.
+The mechanics of muscular structure prove that what are called graceful
+motions are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> those which are the mechanical resultant of the force of
+the muscle,&mdash;those which it can perform at least waste. The pleasure we
+take in curves, especially “the line of beauty,” is because our eyes can
+follow them with a minimum action of its muscles of attachment. The
+popular figure called the Grecian figure or the walls of Troy, is
+pleasant because each straight line is shorter, and at right angles to
+the preceding one, thus giving the greatest possible change of action to
+the muscles of the eye.</p>
+
+<p>Such a mechanical view of physiology presents other suggestions. The
+laws of vibratory motion lead to the inference that action in accordance
+with those laws gives maximum intensity and minimum waste. Hence the
+pleasure the mind takes in harmonies of sound, of color and of odors.</p>
+
+<p>The correct physiological conception of the most perfect physical life
+is that which will continue the longest in use, not that which can
+display the greatest muscular force. The ideal is one of extension, not
+of intension.</p>
+
+<p>Religious art indicates the gradual recognition of these principles.
+True to their ideal of inaction, the Oriental nations represent their
+gods as mighty in stature, with prominent muscles, but sitting or
+reclining, often with closed eyes or folded hands, wrapped in robes, and
+lost in meditation. The Greeks, on the other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> hand, portrayed their
+deities of ordinary stature, naked, awake and erect, but the limbs
+smooth and round, the muscular lines and the veins hardly visible, so
+that in every attitude an indefinite sense of repose pervades the whole
+figure. Movement without effort, action without waste, is the
+immortality these incomparable works set forth. They are meant to teach
+that the ideal life is one, not of painless ease, but of joyous action.</p>
+
+<p>The law of continuity to which I have alluded is not confined to simple
+motions. It is a general mathematical law, that the longer anything
+lasts the longer it is likely to last. If a die turns ace a dozen times
+handrunning, the chances are large that it will turn ace again. The
+Theory of Probabilities is founded upon this, and the value of
+statistics is based on an allied principle. Every condition opposes
+change through inertia. By this law, as the motion caused by a
+pleasurable sensation excites by the physical laws of associated motions
+the reminiscences of former pleasures and pains, a tendency to
+permanence is acquired, which gives the physical basis for Volition.
+Experience and memory are, therefore, necessary to volition, and
+practically self restraint is secured by calling numerous past
+sensations to mind, deterrent ones, “the pains which are indirect
+pleasures,” or else pleasurable ones.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> The Will is an exhibition under
+complex relations of the tendency to continuance which is expressed in
+the first law of motion. Its normal action is the maintenance of the
+individual life, the prolongation of the pleasurable sensations, the
+support of the forces which combat death.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever the action, whether conscious or reflex, its real though often
+indirect and unaccomplished object is the preservation or the
+augmentation of the individual life. Such is the dictum of natural
+science, and it coincides singularly with the famous maxim of Spinoza:
+<i>Unaquaeque res, quantum in se est, in suo esse perseverare conatur.</i></p>
+
+<p>The consciousness which accompanies volitional action is derived from
+the common feeling which an organism has, as the result of all its parts
+deriving their nutrition from the same centre. Rising into the sphere of
+emotions, this at first muscular sensation becomes “self-feeling.” The
+Individual is another name for the boundaries of reflex action.</p>
+
+<p>Through memory and consciousness we reach that function of the mind
+called the intellect or reason, the product of which is <i>thought</i>. Its
+physical accompaniments are chemical action, and an increase of
+temperature in the brain. But the sum of the physical forces thus
+evolved is not the measure of the results of intellectual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> action. These
+differ from other forms of force in being incommensurate with extension.
+They cannot be appraised in units of quantity, but in quality only. The
+chemico-vital forces by which a thought rises into consciousness bear
+not the slightest relation to the value of the thought itself. It is
+here as in those ancient myths where an earthly maiden brings forth a
+god. The power of the thought is dependent on another test than physical
+force, to wit, its <i>truth</i>. This is measured by its conformity to the
+laws of right reasoning, laws clearly ascertained, which are the common
+basis of all science, and to which it is the special province of the
+science of logic to give formal expression.</p>
+
+<p>Physical force itself, in whatever form it appears, is only known to us
+as feeling or as thought; these alone we know to be real; all else is at
+least less real.<a name="FNanchor_18-1_9" id="FNanchor_18-1_9" href="#Footnote_18-1_9" class="fnanchor">18-1</a> Not only is this true of the external world, but
+also of that assumed something, the reason, the soul, the ego, or the
+intellect. For the sake of convenience these words may be used; but it
+is well to know that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> this introduction of something that thinks, back
+of thought itself, is a mere figure of speech. We say, “<i>I</i> think,” as
+if the “I” was something else than the thinking. At most, it is but the
+relation of the thoughts. Pushed further, it becomes the limitation of
+thought by sensation, the higher by the lower. The Cartesian maxim,
+<i>cogito ergo sum</i>, has perpetuated this error, and the modern philosophy
+of the <i>ego</i> and <i>non-ego</i> has prevented its detection. A false reading
+of self-consciousness led to this assumption of “a thinking mind.” Our
+personality is but the perception of the solidarity of our thoughts and
+feelings; it is itself a thought.</p>
+
+<p>These three manifestations of mind&mdash;sensations, emotions and
+thoughts&mdash;are mutually exclusive in their tendencies. The patient
+forgets the fear of the result in the pain of the operation; in intense
+thought the pulse falls, the senses do not respond, emotions and action
+are absent. We may say that ideally the unimpeded exercise of the
+intellect forbids either sensation or emotion.</p>
+
+<p>Contrasting sensation and emotion, on the one side, with intellect on
+the other, feeling with thought, they are seen to be polar or
+antithetical manifestations of mind. Each requires the other for its
+existence, yet in such wise that the one is developed at the expense of
+the other. The one waxes as the other wanes. This is seen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> to advantage
+when their most similar elements are compared. Thus consciousness in
+sensation is keenest when impressions are strongest; but this
+consciousness is a bar to intellectual self-consciousness, as was
+pointed out by Professor Ferrier in his general Law of
+consciousness.<a name="FNanchor_20-1_10" id="FNanchor_20-1_10" href="#Footnote_20-1_10" class="fnanchor">20-1</a> When emotion and sensation are at their minimum,
+one is most conscious of the solidarity of one’s thoughts; and just in
+proportion to the vividness of self-consciousness is thought lucid and
+strong. In an ideal intelligence, self-consciousness would be infinite,
+sensation infinitesimal.</p>
+
+<p>Yet there is a parallelism between feeling and thought, as well as a
+contrast. As pain and pleasure indicate opposite tendencies in the
+forces which guide sensation and emotion, so do the true and the untrue
+direct thought, and bear the same relation to it. For as pain is the
+warning of death, so the untrue is the detrimental, the destructive. The
+man who reasons falsely, will act unwisely and run into danger thereby.
+To know the truth is to be ready for the worst. Who reasons correctly
+will live the longest. To love pleasure is not more in the grain of man
+than to desire truth. “I have known many,” says St. Augustine, “who like
+to deceive; to be deceived, none.” Pleasure, joy, truth, are the
+respective measures of life in sensation, emotion, intellect; one or the
+other of these every organ<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>ism seeks with all its might, its choice
+depending on which of these divisions of mind is prominently its own. As
+the last mentioned is the climax, truth presents itself as in some way
+the perfect expression of life.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen what pleasure is, but what is truth? The question of Pilate
+remains, not indeed unanswered, but answered vaguely and
+discrepantly.<a name="FNanchor_21-1_11" id="FNanchor_21-1_11" href="#Footnote_21-1_11" class="fnanchor">21-1</a> We may pass it by as one of speculative interest
+merely, and turn our attention to its practical paraphrase, what is
+true?</p>
+
+<p>The rules of evidence as regards events are well known, and also the
+principles of reaching the laws of phenomena by inductive methods. Many
+say that the mind can go no further than this, that the truth thus
+reached, if not the highest, is at least the highest for man. It is at
+best relative, but it is real. The correctness of this statement may be
+tested by analyzing the processes by which we acquire knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>Knowledge reaches the mind in two forms, for which there are in most
+languages, though not in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> modern English, two distinct expressions,
+<i>connaitre</i> and <i>savoir</i>, <i>kennen</i> and <i>wissen</i>. The former relates to
+knowledge through sensation, the latter through intellection; the former
+cannot be rendered in words, the latter can be; the former is reached
+through immediate perception, the latter through logical processes. For
+example: an odor is something we may certainly know and can identify,
+but we cannot possibly describe it in words; justice on the other hand
+may be clearly defined to our mind, but it is equally impossible to
+translate it into sensation. Nevertheless, it is generally agreed that
+the one of these processes is, so far as it goes, as conclusive as the
+other, and that they proceed on essentially the same principles.<a name="FNanchor_22-1_12" id="FNanchor_22-1_12" href="#Footnote_22-1_12" class="fnanchor">22-1</a>
+Religious philosophy has to do only with the second form of knowledge,
+that reached through notions or thoughts.</p>
+
+<p>The enchainment or sequence of thoughts in the mind is at first an
+accidental one. They arise through the two general relations of nearness
+in time or similarity in sensation. Their succession is prescribed by
+these conditions, and without conscious effort cannot be changed. They
+are notions about phenomena only, and hence are infinitely more likely
+to be wrong<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> than right. Of the innumerable associations of thought
+possible, only one can yield the truth. The beneficial effects of this
+one were felt, and thus by experience man slowly came to distinguish the
+true as what is good for him, the untrue as what is injurious.</p>
+
+<p>After he had done this for a while, he attempted to find out some plan
+in accordance with which he could so arrange his thoughts that they
+should always produce this desirable result. He was thus led to
+establish the rules for right reasoning, which are now familiarly known
+as Logic. This science was long looked upon as a completed one, and at
+the commencement of this century we find such a thinker as Coleridge
+expressing an opinion that further development in it was not to be
+expected. Since then it has, however, taken a fresh start, and by its
+growth has laid the foundation for a system of metaphysics which will be
+free from the vagaries and unrealities which have thrown general
+discredit on the name of philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>In one direction, as applied logic and the logic of induction, the
+natural associations of ideas have been thoroughly studied, and the
+methods by which they can be controlled and reduced have been taught
+with eminent success. In this branch, Bentham, Mill, Bain, and others
+have been prominent workers.</p>
+
+<p>Dealing mainly with the subjects and materials<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> of reasoning, with
+thoughts rather than with thinking, these writers, with the tendency of
+specialists, have not appreciated the labors of another school of
+logicians, who have made the investigation of the process of thinking
+itself their especial province. This is abstract logic, or pure logic,
+sometimes called, inasmuch as it deals with forms only, “formal logic,”
+or because it deals with names and not things, “the logic of names.” It
+dates its rise as an independent science from the discovery of what is
+known as “the quantification of the predicate,” claimed by Sir William
+Hamilton. Of writers upon it may be mentioned Professor De Morgan, W.
+Stanley Jevons, and especially Professor George Boole of Belfast. The
+latter, one of the subtlest thinkers of this age, and eminent as a
+mathematician, succeeded in making an ultimate analysis of the laws of
+thinking, and in giving them a symbolic notation, by which not only the
+truth of a simple proposition but the relative degree of truth in
+complex propositions may be accurately estimated.<a name="FNanchor_24-1_13" id="FNanchor_24-1_13" href="#Footnote_24-1_13" class="fnanchor">24-1</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>This he did by showing that the laws of correct thinking can be
+expressed in algebraic notation, and, thus expressed, will be subject to
+all the mathematical laws of an algebra whose symbols bear the uniform
+value of unity or nought (1 or 0)&mdash;a limitation required by the fact
+that pure logic deals in notions of quality only, not of quantity.</p>
+
+<p>This mathematical form of logic was foreseen by Kant when he declared
+that all mathematical reasoning derives its validity from the logical
+laws; but no one before Professor Boole had succeeded in reaching the
+notation which subordinated these two divisions of abstract thought to
+the same formal types. His labors have not yet borne fruit in proportion
+to their value, and they are, I believe, comparatively little known. But
+in the future they will be regarded as epochal in the science of mind.
+They make us to see the same law governing mind and matter, thought and
+extension.</p>
+
+<p>Not the least important result thus achieved<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> was in emphasizing the
+contrast between the natural laws of mental association, and the laws of
+thinking which are the foundation of the syllogism.</p>
+
+<p>By attending to this distinction we are enabled to keep the form and the
+matter of thought well apart&mdash;a neglect to do which, or rather a studied
+attempt to ignore which, is the radical error of the logic devised by
+Hegel, as I shall show more fully a little later.</p>
+
+<p>All applied logic, inductive as well as deductive, is based on formal
+logic, and this in turn on the “laws of thought,” or rather of thinking.
+These are strictly regulative or abstract, and differ altogether from
+the natural laws of thought, such as those of similarity, contiguity and
+harmony, as well as from the rules of applied logic, such as those of
+agreement and difference. The fundamental laws of thinking are three in
+number, and their bearing on all the higher questions of religious
+philosophy is so immediate that their consideration becomes of the last
+moment in such a study as this. They are called the laws of
+Determination, Limitation and Excluded Middle.</p>
+
+<p>The first affirms that every object thought about must be conceived as
+itself, and not as some other thing. “A is A,” or “<i>x</i> = <i>x</i>,” is its
+formal expression. This teaches us that whatever we think of, must be
+thought as one or a unity. It is important, however, to note that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> this
+does not mean a mathematical unit, but a logical one, that is, identity
+and not contrast. So true is this that in mathematical logic the only
+value which can satisfy the formula is a concept which does not admit of
+increase, to wit, a Universal.</p>
+
+<p>From this necessity of conceiving a thought under unity has arisen the
+interesting tendency, so frequently observable even in early times, to
+speak of the universe as one whole, the <span class="greek" title="to pan">το παν</span> of the Greek philosophers;
+and also the monotheistic leaning of all thinkers, no matter what their
+creed, who have attained very general conceptions. Furthermore, the
+strong liability of confounding this speculative or logical unity with
+the concrete notion of individuality, or mathematical unity, has been,
+as I shall show hereafter, a fruitful source of error in both religious
+and metaphysical theories. Pure logic deals with quality only, not with
+quantity.</p>
+
+<p>The second law is that of Limitation. As the first is sometimes called
+that of Affirmation, so this is called that of Negation. It prescribes
+that a thing is not that which it is not. Its formula is, “A is not
+not-A.” If this seems trivial, it is because it is so familiar.</p>
+
+<p>These two laws are two aspects of the same law. The old maxim is, <i>omnis
+determinatio est negatio</i>; a quality can rise into cognition only by
+being limited by that which it is not.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> It is not a comparison of two
+thoughts, however, nor does it limit the quality itself. For the
+negative is not a thought, and the quality is not <i>in suo genere
+finita</i>, to use an expression of the old logicians; it is limited not by
+itself but by that which it is not. These are not idle distinctions, as
+will soon appear.</p>
+
+<p>The third law comes into play when two thoughts are associated and
+compared. There is qualitative identity, or there is not. A is either B
+or not B. An animal is either a man or not a man. There is no middle
+class between the two to which it can be assigned. Superficial truism as
+this appears, we have now come upon the very battle ground of the
+philosophies. This is the famous “Law of the contradictories and
+excluded middle,” on the construction of which the whole fabric of
+religious dogma, and I may add of the higher metaphysics, must depend.
+“One of the principal retarding causes of philosophy,” remarks Professor
+Ferrier, “has been the want of a clear and developed doctrine of the
+contradictory.”<a name="FNanchor_28-1_14" id="FNanchor_28-1_14" href="#Footnote_28-1_14" class="fnanchor">28-1</a> The want is as old as the days of Heraclitus of
+Ephesus, and lent to his subtle paradoxes that obscurity which has not
+yet been wholly removed.</p>
+
+<p>Founding his arguments on one construction of this law, expressed in the
+maxim, “The con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>ceivable lies between two contradictory extremes,” Sir
+William Hamilton defended with his wide learning those theories of the
+Conditioned and the Unconditioned, the Knowable and Unknowable, which
+banish religion from the realm of reason and knowledge to that of faith,
+and cleave an impassable chasm between the human and the divine
+intelligence. From this unfavorable ground his orthodox followers,
+Mansel and Mozley, defended with ability but poor success their
+Christianity against Herbert Spencer and his disciples, who also
+accepted the same theories, but followed them out to their legitimate
+conclusion&mdash;a substantially atheistic one.</p>
+
+<p>Hamilton in this was himself but a follower of Kant, who brought this
+law to support his celebrated “antinomies of the human understanding,”
+warnings set up to all metaphysical explorers to keep off of holy
+ground.</p>
+
+<p>On another construction of it, one which sought to escape the dilemma of
+the contradictories by confining them to matters of the understanding,
+Hegel and Schelling believed they had gained the open field. They taught
+that in the highest domain of thought, there where it deals with
+questions of pure reason, the unity and limits which must be observed in
+matters of the understanding and which give validity to this third law,
+do not obtain. This view has been closely criticized, and, I think, with
+justice.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> Pretending to deal with matters of pure reason, it constantly
+though surreptitiously proceeds on the methods of applied logic; its
+conclusions are as fallacious logically as they are experimentally. The
+laws of thought are formal, and are as binding in transcendental
+subjects as in those which concern phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>The real bearing of this law can, it appears to me, best be derived from
+a study of its mathematical expression. This is, according to the
+notation of Professor Boole, <i>x</i><sup>2</sup>=<i>x</i>. As such, it presents a
+fundamental equation of thought, and it is because it is of the second
+degree that we classify in pairs or opposites. This equation can only be
+satisfied by assigning to <i>x</i> the value of 1 or 0. The “universal type
+of form” is therefore <i>x</i>(1-<i>x</i>)=0.</p>
+
+<p>This algebraic notation shows that there is, not two, but only one
+thought in the antithesis; that it is made up of a thought and its
+expressed limit; and, therefore, that the so-called “law of
+contradictories” does not concern contradictories at all, in pure logic.
+This result was seen, though not clearly, by Dr. Thompson, who indicated
+the proper relation of the members of the formula as a positive and a
+privative. He, however, retained Hamilton’s doctrine that “privative
+conceptions enter into and assist the higher processes of the reason in
+all that it can know of the absolute and infinite;” that we must,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> “from
+the seen realize an unseen world, not by extending to the latter the
+properties of the former, but by assigning to it attributes entirely
+opposite.”<a name="FNanchor_31-1_15" id="FNanchor_31-1_15" href="#Footnote_31-1_15" class="fnanchor">31-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The error that vitiates all such reasoning is the assumption that the
+privative is an independent thought, that a thought and its limitation
+are two thoughts; whereas they are but the two aspects of the one
+thought, like two sides to the one disc, and the absurdity of speaking
+of them as separate thoughts is as great as to speak of a curve seen
+from its concavity as a different thing from the same curve regarded
+from its convexity. The privative can help us nowhere and to nothing;
+the positive only can assist our reasoning.</p>
+
+<p>This elevation of the privative into a contrary, or a contradictory, has
+been the bane of metaphysical reasoning. From it has arisen the doctrine
+of the synthesis of an affirmative and a negative into a higher
+conception, reconciling them both. This is the maxim of the Hegelian
+logic, which starts from the synthesis of Being and Not-being into the
+Becoming, a very ancient doctrine, long since offered as an explanation
+of certain phenomena, which I shall now touch upon.</p>
+
+<p>A thought and its privative alone&mdash;that is, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> quality and its
+negative&mdash;cannot lead to a more comprehensive thought. It is devoid of
+relation and barren. In pure logic this is always the case, and must be
+so. In concrete thought it may be otherwise. There are certain
+propositions in which the negative is a reciprocal quality, quite as
+positive as that which it is set over against. The members of such a
+proposition are what are called “true contraries.” To whatever they
+apply as qualities, they leave no middle ground. If a thing is not one
+of them, it is the other. There is no third possibility. An object is
+either red or not red; if not red, it may be one of many colors. But if
+we say that all laws are either concrete or abstract, then we know that
+a law not concrete has all the properties of one which is abstract. We
+must examine, then, this third law of thought in its applied forms in
+order to understand its correct use.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that there is an assumption of space or time in many
+propositions having the form of the excluded middle. They are only true
+under given conditions. “All gold is fusible or not,” means that some is
+fusible at the time. If all gold be already fused, it does not hold
+good. This distinction was noted by Kant in his discrimination between
+<i>synthetic</i> judgments, which assume other conditions; and <i>analytic</i>
+judgments, which look only at the members of the proposition.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Only the latter satisfy the formal law, for the proposition must not
+look outside of itself for its completion. Most analytic propositions
+cannot extend our knowledge beyond their immediate statement. If A is
+either B or not B, and it is shown not to be B, it is left uncertain
+what A may be. The class of propositions referred to do more than this,
+inasmuch as they present alternative conceptions, mutually exhaustive,
+each the privative of the other. Of these two contraries, the one always
+evokes the other; neither can be thought except in relation to the
+other. They do not arise from the dichotomic process of classification,
+but from the polar relations of things. Their relation is not in the
+mind but in themselves, a real externality. The distinction between such
+as spring from the former and the latter is the most important question
+in philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>To illustrate by examples, we familiarly speak of heat and cold, and to
+say a body is not hot is as much as to say it is cold. But every
+physicist knows that cold is merely a diminution of heat, not a distinct
+form of force. The absolute zero may be reached by the abstraction of
+all heat, and then the cold cannot increase. So, life and death are not
+true contraries, for the latter is not anything real but a mere
+privative, a quantitative diminution of the former, growing less to an
+absolute zero where it is wholly lost.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Thus it is easy to see that the Unconditioned exists only as a part of
+the idea of the Conditioned, the Unknowable as the foil of the Knowable;
+and the erecting of these mere privatives, these negatives, these
+shadows, into substances and realities, and then setting them up as
+impassable barriers to human thought, is one of the worst pieces of work
+that metaphysics has been guilty of.</p>
+
+<p>The like does not hold in true contrasts. Each of them has an existence
+as a <a name="corr3" id="corr3"></a><ins class="correction" title="positive, and">positive,and</ins> is never lost in a zero of the other. The one is
+always thought in relation to the other. Examples of these are subject
+and object, absolute and relative, mind and matter, person and
+consciousness, time and space. When any one of these is thought, the
+other is assumed. It is vain to attempt their separation. Thus those
+philosophers who assert that all knowledge is relative, are forced to
+maintain this assertion, to wit, All knowledge is relative, is
+nevertheless absolute, and thus they falsify their own position. So
+also, those others who say all mind is a property of matter, assume in
+this sentence the reality of an idea apart from matter. Some have argued
+that space and time can be conceived independently of each other; but
+their experiments to show it do not bear repetition.</p>
+
+<p>All true contraries are universals. A uni<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>versal concept is one of
+“maximum extension,” as logicians say, that is, it is without limit. The
+logical limitation of such a universal is not its negation, but its
+contrary, which is itself also a universal. The synthesis of the two can
+be in theory only, yet yields a real product. To illustrate this by a
+geometrical example, a straight line produced indefinitely is, logically
+considered, a universal. Its antithesis or true contrary is not a
+crooked line, as might be supposed, but the straight line which runs at
+right angles to it. Their synthesis is not the line which bisects their
+angle but that formed by these contraries continually uniting, that is,
+the arc of a circle, the genesis of which is theoretically the union of
+two such lines. Again, time can only be measured by space, space by
+time; they are true universals and contraries; their synthesis is
+<i>motion</i>, a conception which requires them both and is completed by
+them. Or again, the philosophical extremes of downright materialism and
+idealism are each wholly true, yet but half the truth. The insoluble
+enigmas that either meets in standing alone are kindred to those which
+puzzled the old philosophers in the sophisms relating to motion, as, for
+instance, that as a body cannot move where it is and still less where it
+is not, therefore it cannot move at all. Motion must recognise both time
+and space to be comprehensible. As a true contrary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> constantly implies
+the existence of its opposite, we cannot take a step in right reasoning
+without a full recognition of both.</p>
+
+<p>This relation of contraries to the higher conception which logically
+must include them is one of the well-worn problems of the higher
+metaphysics.</p>
+
+<p>The proper explanation would seem to be, as suggested above, that the
+synthesis of contraries is capable of formal expression only, but not of
+interpretation. In pursuing the search for their union we pass into a
+realm of thought not unlike that of the mathematician when he deals with
+hypothetical quantities, those which can only be expressed in symbols&mdash;,
+√1 for example,&mdash;but uses them to good purpose in reaching
+real results. The law does not fail, but its operations can no longer be
+expressed under material images. They are symbolic and for speculative
+thought alone, though pregnant with practical applications.</p>
+
+<p>As I have hinted, in all real contraries it is theoretically possible to
+accept either the one or the other. As in mathematics, all motion can be
+expressed either under formulas of initial motion (mechanics), or of
+continuous motion (kinematics), or as all force can be expressed as
+either static or as dynamic force; in either case the other form
+assuming a merely hypothetical or negative position; so the logic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> of
+quality is competent to represent all existence as ideal or as material,
+all truth as absolute or all as relative, or even to express the
+universe in formulæ of being or of not-being. This perhaps was what
+Heraclitus meant when he propounded his dark saying: “All things are
+<i>and</i> are not.” He added that “All is not,” is truer than “All is.”
+Previous to his day, Buddha Sakyamuni had said: “He who has risen to the
+perception of the not-Being, to the Unconditioned, the Universal, his
+path is difficult to understand, like the flight of birds in the
+air.”<a name="FNanchor_37-1_16" id="FNanchor_37-1_16" href="#Footnote_37-1_16" class="fnanchor">37-1</a> Perhaps even he learned his lore from some older song of the
+Veda, one of which ends, “Thus have the sages, meditating in their
+souls, explained away the fetters of being by the not-being.”<a name="FNanchor_37-2_17" id="FNanchor_37-2_17" href="#Footnote_37-2_17" class="fnanchor">37-2</a> The
+not-being, as alone free from space and time, impressed these sages as
+the more real of the two, the only absolute.</p>
+
+<p>The error of assigning to the one universal a preponderance over the
+other arose from the easy confusion of pure with applied thought. The
+synthesis of contraries exists in the formal law alone, and this is
+difficult to keep before the mind. In concrete displays they are forever
+incommensurate. One seems to exclude the other. To see them correctly we
+must there treat them as alternates. We may be competent,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> for instance,
+to explain all phenomena of mind by organic processes; and equally
+competent to explain all organism as effects of mind; but we must never
+suppose an immediate identity of the two; this is only to be found in
+the formal law common to both; still less should we deny the reality of
+either. Each exhausts the universe; but at every step each presupposes
+the other; their synthesis is life, a concept hopelessly puzzling unless
+regarded in all its possible displays as made up of both.</p>
+
+<p>This indicates also the limits of explanation. By no means every man’s
+reason knows when it has had enough. The less it is developed, the
+further is it from such knowledge. This is plainly seen in children, who
+often do not rest satisfied with a really satisfactory explanation. It
+is of first importance to be able to recognize what is a good reason.</p>
+
+<p>I may first say what it is <i>not</i>. It is not a <i>cause</i>. This is nothing
+more than a prior arrangement of the effect; the reason for an
+occurrence is never assigned by showing its cause. Nor is it a
+<i>caprice</i>, that is, motiveless volition, or will as a motor. In this
+sense, the “will of God” is no good reason for an occurrence. Nor is it
+<i>fate</i>, or physical necessity. This is denying there is any explanation
+to give.</p>
+
+<p>The reason can only be satisfied with an aliment consubstantial with
+itself. Nothing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> material like cause, nor anything incomprehensible like
+caprice, meets its demands. Reason is allied to order, system and
+purpose above all things. That which most completely answers to these
+will alone satisfy its requirements. They are for an ideal of order.
+Their complete satisfaction is obtained in universal types and measures,
+pure abstractions, which are not and cannot be real. The <i>formal law</i> is
+the limit of explanation of phenomena, beyond which a sound intellect
+will ask nothing. It fulfils all the requirements of reason, and leaves
+nothing to be desired.</p>
+
+<p>Those philosophers, such as Herbert Spencer, who teach that there is
+some incogitable “nature” of something which is the immanent “cause” of
+phenomena, delude themselves with words. The history and the laws of a
+phenomenon <i>are</i> its nature, and there is no chimerical something beyond
+them. They are exhaustive. They fully answer the question <i>why</i>, as well
+as the question <i>how</i>.<a name="FNanchor_39-1_18" id="FNanchor_39-1_18" href="#Footnote_39-1_18" class="fnanchor">39-1</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>For it is important to note that the word “law” is not here used in the
+sense which Blackstone gives to it, a “rule of conduct;” nor yet in that
+which science assigns to it, a “physical necessity.” Law in its highest
+sense is the type or form, perceived by reason as that toward which
+phenomena tend, but which they always fail to reach. It was shown by
+Kant that all physical laws depend for their validity on logical laws.
+These are not authoritative, like the former, but purposive only. But
+their purpose is clear, to wit, the attainment of proportion,
+consistency or truth. As this purpose is reached only in the abstract
+form, this alone gives us the absolutely true in which reason can rest.</p>
+
+<p>In the concrete, matter shows the law in its efforts toward form, mind
+in its struggle for the true. The former is guided by physical force,
+and the extinction of the aberrant. The latter, in its highest
+exhibition in a conscious intelligence, can alone guide itself by the
+representation of law, by the sense of Duty. Such an intelligence has
+both the faculty to see and the power to choose and appropriate to its
+own be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>hoof, and thus to build itself up out of those truths which are
+“from everlasting unto everlasting.”</p>
+
+<p>A purely formal truth of this kind as something wholly apart from
+phenomena, not in any way connected with the knowledge derived through
+the senses, does not admit of doubt and can never be changed by future
+conquests of the reasoning powers. We may rest upon it as something more
+permanent than matter, greater than Nature.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the vision that inspired the noble lines of Wordsworth:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“What are things eternal?&mdash;Powers depart,<br />
+Possessions vanish, and opinions change,<br />
+And passions hold a fluctuating seat;<br />
+But, by the storms of circumstance unshaken,<br />
+And subject neither to eclipse nor wane,<br />
+Duty exists; immutably survive<br />
+For our support, the measures and the forms<br />
+Which an abstract intelligence supplies;<br />
+Whose kingdom is where time and space are not.”</p>
+
+<p>There is no danger that we shall not know what is thus true when we see
+it. The sane reason cannot reject it. “The true,” says Novalis, “is that
+which we cannot help believing.” It is the <i>perceptio per solam
+essentiam</i> of Spinoza. It asks not faith nor yet testimony; it stands in
+need of neither.</p>
+
+<p>Mathematical truth is of this nature. We<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> cannot, if we try, believe
+that twice two is five. Hence the unceasing effort of all science is to
+give its results mathematical expression. Such truth so informs itself
+with will that once received, it is never thereafter alienated;
+obedience to it does not impair freedom. Necessity and servitude do not
+arise from correct reasoning, but through the limitation of fallacies.
+They have nothing to do with</p>
+
+<p class="poem"><span class="i3">“Those transcendent truths</span><br />
+Of the pure intellect, that stand as laws<br />
+Even to Thy Being’s infinite majesty.”</p>
+
+<p>It is not derogatory, but on the contrary essential to the conception of
+the Supreme Reason, the Divine Logos, to contemplate its will as in
+accord and one with the forms of abstract truth. “The ‘will of God’”
+says Spinoza, “is the refuge of ignorance; the true Will is the spirit
+of right reasoning.”</p>
+
+<p>This identification of the forms of thought with the Absolute is almost
+as old as philosophy itself. The objections to it have been that no
+independent existence attaches to these forms; that they prescribe the
+conditions of thought but are not thought itself, still less being; that
+they hold good to thought as known to man’s reason, but perchance not to
+thought in other intelligences; and, therefore, that even if through the
+dialectical development of thought a consistent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> idea of the universe
+were framed, that is, one wherein every fact was referred to its
+appropriate law, still would remain the inquiry, Is this the last and
+absolute truth?</p>
+
+<p>The principal points in these objections are that abstract thought does
+not postulate being; and that possibly all intelligence is not one in
+kind. To the former objection the most satisfactory, reply has been
+offered by Professor J. F. Ferrier. He has shown that the conception of
+object, even ideal object, implies the conception of self in the
+subject; and upon this proposition which has been fully recognized even
+by those who differ from him widely, he grounds the existence of Supreme
+Thought as a logical unity. Those who would pursue this branch of the
+subject further, I would refer to his singularly able work.<a name="FNanchor_43-1_19" id="FNanchor_43-1_19" href="#Footnote_43-1_19" class="fnanchor">43-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The latter consideration will come up in a later chapter. If it be shown
+that all possible intelligence proceeds on the same laws as that of man,
+and that the essence of this is activity, permanence, or
+truth&mdash;synonymous terms&mdash;then the limitation of time ceases, and
+existence not in time but without regard to time, is a necessary
+consequence. Knowledge through intellection can alone reach a truth
+independent of time; that through sensation is always relative, true<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+for the time only. The former cannot be expressed without the
+implication of the conceptions of the universal and the eternal as
+“dominant among the subjects of thought with which Logic is
+concerned;”<a name="FNanchor_44-1_20" id="FNanchor_44-1_20" href="#Footnote_44-1_20" class="fnanchor">44-1</a> and hence the relation which the intellect bears to
+the absolute is a real and positive one.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_6-1_1" id="Footnote_6-1_1" href="#FNanchor_6-1_1">6-1</a> In his essay entitled, <i>Ueber den Geschlechtsunterschied
+und dessen Einfluss auf die organische Natur</i>, first published in 1795.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_6-2_2" id="Footnote_6-2_2" href="#FNanchor_6-2_2">6-2</a> “Der alte Dualismus von Geist und Körper, der
+Jahrhunderte hindurch nach Versöhnung gerungen, findet diese heute nicht
+zwar in der Einheit der Substanz, wohl aber in der Einheit des
+Gesetzes.” Dr. Heinrich Boehmer, <i>Geschichte der Entwickelung der
+Naturwissenschaftlichen Weltanschauung in Deutschland</i>, s. 201 (Gotha,
+1872).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_7-1_3" id="Footnote_7-1_3" href="#FNanchor_7-1_3">7-1</a> <i>Elements of Physio-Philosophy</i>, §3589. Eng. trans.,
+London, 1847.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_8-1_4" id="Footnote_8-1_4" href="#FNanchor_8-1_4">8-1</a> Von Feuchtersleben, <i>The Principles of Medical
+Psychology</i>, p. 130 (Eng. trans., London, 1847).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_9-1_5" id="Footnote_9-1_5" href="#FNanchor_9-1_5">9-1</a> “The fundamental property of organic structure is to seek
+what is beneficial, and to shun what is hurtful to it.” Dr. Henry
+Maudsley, <i>Body and Mind</i>, p. 22.
+</p><p>
+“The most essential nature of a sentient being is to move <i>to</i> pleasure
+and <i>from</i> pain.” A. Bain, <i>On the Study of Character</i>, p. 292 (London,
+1861).
+</p><p>
+“States of Pleasure are connected with an increase, states of Pain with
+an abatement of some or all of the vital functions.” A. Bain, <i>Mind and
+Body</i>, p. 59.
+</p><p>
+“Affectus est confusa idea, quâ Mens majorem, vel minorem sui corporis,
+vel alicujus ejus partis, existendi vim affirmat.” Spinoza, <i>Ethices</i>,
+Lib. III. <i>ad finem</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_11-1_6" id="Footnote_11-1_6" href="#FNanchor_11-1_6">11-1</a> The extension of the mechanical laws of motion to
+organic motion was, I believe, first carried out by Comte. His
+biological form of the first law is as follows: “Tout état, statique ou
+dynamique, tend à persister spontanément, sans aucune altération, en
+resistant aux perturbations extérieures.” <i>Système de Politique
+Positive</i>, Tome iv. p. 178. The metaphysical ground of this law has, I
+think, been very well shown by Schopenhauer to be in the Kantian
+principle that time is not a force, nor a quality of matter, but a
+condition of perception, and hence it can exert no physical influence.
+See Schopenhauer, <i>Parerga und Paralipomena</i>, Bd. II, s. 37.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_13-1_7" id="Footnote_13-1_7" href="#FNanchor_13-1_7">13-1</a> “Aller Genuss, seiner Natur nach, ist negativ, d. h., in
+Befreiung von einer Noth oder Pein besteht.” <i>Parerga und Paralipomena.</i>
+Bd. II, s. 482.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_14-1_8" id="Footnote_14-1_8" href="#FNanchor_14-1_8">14-1</a> “No impression whatever is pleasant beyond the instant
+of its realization; since, at that very instant, commences the change of
+susceptibility, which suggests the desire for a change of impression or
+for a renewal of that impression which is fading away.” Dr. J. P.
+Catlow, <i>The Principles of Aesthetic Medicine</i>, p. 155 (London, 1867).
+</p><p>
+“Dum re, quem appetamus fruimur, corpus ex ea fruitione novam acquirat
+constitutionem, á quá aliter determinatur, et aliæ rerum imagines in eo
+excitantur,” etc. Spinoza, <i>Ethices</i>, Pars III, Prop. lix.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_18-1_9" id="Footnote_18-1_9" href="#FNanchor_18-1_9">18-1</a> “Feeling and thought are much more real than anything
+else; they are the only things which we directly know to be real.”&mdash;John
+Stuart Mill.&mdash;<i>Theism</i>, p. 202. How very remote external objects are
+from what we take them to be, is constantly shown in physiological
+studies. As Helmholtz remarks: “No kind and no degree of similarity
+exists between the quality of a sensation, and the quality of the agent
+inducing it and portrayed by it.”&mdash;<i>Lectures on Scientific Subjects</i>, p.
+390.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_20-1_10" id="Footnote_20-1_10" href="#FNanchor_20-1_10">20-1</a> <i>The Philosophy of Consciousness</i>, p. 72.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_21-1_11" id="Footnote_21-1_11" href="#FNanchor_21-1_11">21-1</a> The Gospel of John (ch. xviii.) leaves the impression
+that Pilate either did not wait for an answer but asked the question in
+contempt, as Bacon understood, or else that waiting he received no
+answer. The Gospel of Nicodemus, however, written according to
+Tischendorf in the second century, probably from tradition, gives the
+rest of the conversation as follows: “Pilate says to him: What is truth?
+Jesus says: Truth is from heaven. Pilate says: Is not there truth upon
+earth? Jesus says to Pilate: See how one who speaks truth is judged by
+those who have power upon earth!” [ch. iii.]</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_22-1_12" id="Footnote_22-1_12" href="#FNanchor_22-1_12">22-1</a> The most acute recent discussion of this subject is by
+Helmholtz, in his essay entitled, “<i>Recent Progress in the Theory of
+Vision</i>.”</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_24-1_13" id="Footnote_24-1_13" href="#FNanchor_24-1_13">24-1</a> George Boole, Professor of Mathematics in Queen’s
+College, Cork, was born Nov. 2, 1815, died Dec. 8, 1864. He was the
+author of several contributions to the higher mathematics, but his
+principal production is entitled: <i>An Investigation into the Laws of
+Thought, on which are founded the mathematical Theories of Logic and
+Probabilities</i> [London, 1854.] Though the reputation he gained was so
+limited that one may seek his name in vain in the <i>New American
+Cyclopedia</i> [1875], or the <i>Dictionnaire des Contemporains</i> [1859], the
+few who can appreciate his treatise place the very highest estimate upon
+it. Professor Todhunter, in the preface to his <i>History of the Theory of
+Probabilities</i>, calls it “a marvellous work,” and in similar language
+Professor W. Stanley Jevons speaks of it as “one of the most marvellous
+and admirable pieces of reasoning ever put together” (<i>Pure Logic</i>, p.
+75). Professor Bain, who gives a synopsis of it in his <i>Deductive
+Logic</i>, wholly misapprehends the author’s purpose, and is unable to
+appraise justly his conclusions.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_28-1_14" id="Footnote_28-1_14" href="#FNanchor_28-1_14">28-1</a> <i>The Institutes of Metaphysic</i>, p. 459, (2nd edition.)</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_31-1_15" id="Footnote_31-1_15" href="#FNanchor_31-1_15">31-1</a> <i>An Outline of the Necessary Laws of Thought</i>, p. 113
+(New York, 1860).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_37-1_16" id="Footnote_37-1_16" href="#FNanchor_37-1_16">37-1</a> <i>The Dhamapada</i>, verse 93.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_37-2_17" id="Footnote_37-2_17" href="#FNanchor_37-2_17">37-2</a> Koppen, <i>Der Buddhismus</i>, s. 30.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_39-1_18" id="Footnote_39-1_18" href="#FNanchor_39-1_18">39-1</a> Spencer in assuming an “unknowable universal causal
+agent and source of things,” as “the nature of the power manifested in
+phenomena,” and in calling this the idea common to both religion and
+“ideal science,” fell far behind Comte, who expressed the immovable
+position, not only of positive science but of all intelligence, in these
+words: “Le véritable esprit positif consiste surtout à substituer
+toujours l’étude des <i>lois</i> invariables des phénomènes à celles de leurs
+<i>causes</i> proprement dites, premières ou finales, en un mot la
+determination du <i>comment</i> à celle du <i>pourquoi</i>.”&mdash;<i><a name="corr4" id="corr4"></a><ins class="correction" title="Système de">Systèmede</ins>
+Politique Positive</i>, i. p. 47. Compare Spencer’s Essay entitled,
+“Reasons for dissenting from Comte.” The purposive law is the only final
+cause which reason allows. Comte’s error lay in ignoring this class of
+laws.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_43-1_19" id="Footnote_43-1_19" href="#FNanchor_43-1_19">43-1</a> <i>The Institutes of Metaphysic</i>, 2d Ed. See also Bain,
+<i>The Emotions and the Will</i>, the closing note.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_44-1_20" id="Footnote_44-1_20" href="#FNanchor_44-1_20">44-1</a> Boole, <i>Laws of Thought</i>, p. 401.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapdivider"><a name="THE_EMOTIONAL_ELEMENTS_OF_THE_RELIGIOUS_SENTIMENT" id="THE_EMOTIONAL_ELEMENTS_OF_THE_RELIGIOUS_SENTIMENT"></a>THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.</h2>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="chapterhead">SUMMARY.</h3>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Religious Sentiment is made up of emotions and thoughts. The
+emotions are historically first and most prominent. Of all
+concerned, Fear is the most obvious. Hope is its correlate. Both
+suppose Experience, and a desire to repeat or avoid it. Hence a
+Wish is the source of both emotions, and the proximate element of
+religion. The significance of desire as the postulate of
+development. The influence of fear and hope. The conditions which
+encourage them.</p>
+
+<p>The success of desire fails to gratify the religious sentiment. The
+alternative left is eternal repose, or else action, unending yet
+which aims at nothing beyond. The latter is reached through Love.
+The result of love is <i>continuance</i>. Illustrations of this. Sexual
+love and the venereal sense in religions. The hermaphrodite gods.
+The virgin mother. Mohammed was the first to proclaim a deity above
+sex. The conversion of sexual and religious emotion exemplified
+from insane delusions. The element of fascination. The love of God.
+Other emotional elements in religions.</p>
+
+<p>The religious wish defined to be one <i>whose fruition depends upon
+unknown power</i>. To be religious, one must desire and be ignorant.
+The unknown power is of religious interest only in so far as it is
+believed to be in relation to men’s desires. In what sense
+ignorance is the mother of devotion.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="chaptitle">THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> discussion in the last chapter illustrated how closely pain and
+pleasure, truth and error, and thought and its laws have been related to
+the forms of religions, and their dogmatic expressions. The character of
+the relatively and absolutely true was touched upon, and the latter, it
+was indicated, if attainable at all by human intelligence, must be found
+in the formal laws of that intelligence, those which constitute its
+nature and essence, and in the conclusions which such a premise forces
+upon the reason. The necessity of this preliminary inquiry arose from
+the fact that every historical religion claims the monopoly of the
+absolutely true, and such claims can be tested only when we have decided
+as to whether there is such truth, and if there is, where it is to be
+sought. Moreover, as religions arise from some mental demand, the
+different manifestations of mind,&mdash;sensation, emotion and
+intellect&mdash;must be recognized and understood.</p>
+
+<p>Passing now to a particular description of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> Religious Sentiment, it
+may roughly be defined to be the feeling which prompts to thoughts or
+acts of worship. It is, as I have said, a complex product, made up of
+emotions and ideas, developing with the growth of mind, wide-reaching in
+its maturity, but meagre enough at the start. We need not expect to find
+in its simplest phases that insight and tender feeling which we
+attribute to the developed religious character. “The scent of the
+blossom is not in the bulb.” Its early and ruder forms, however, will
+best teach the mental elements which are at its root.</p>
+
+<p>The problem is, to find out why the primitive man figured to himself any
+gods at all; what necessity of his nature or his condition led him so
+universally to assume their existence, and seek their aid or their
+mercy? The conditions of the solution are, that it hold good everywhere
+and at all times; that it enable us to trace in every creed and cult the
+same sentiments which first impelled man to seek a god and adore him.
+Why is it that now and in remotest history, here and in the uttermost
+regions, there is and always has been this that we call <i>religion</i>?
+There must be some common reason, some universal peculiarity in man’s
+mental formation which prompts, which forces him, him alone of animals,
+and him without exception, to this discourse and observance of religion.
+What this is, it is my present purpose to try to find out.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In speaking of the development of mind through organism, it was seen
+that the emotions precede the reason in point of time. This is daily
+confirmed by observation. The child is vastly more emotional than the
+man, the savage than his civilized neighbor. Castren, the Russian
+traveller, describes the Tartars and Lapps as a most nervous folk. When
+one shocks them with a sudden noise, they almost fall into convulsions.
+Among the North American Indians, falsely called a phlegmatic race,
+nervous diseases are epidemic to an almost unparalleled extent. Intense
+thought, on the other hand, as I have before said, tends to lessen and
+annul the emotions. Intellectual self-consciousness is adverse to them.</p>
+
+<p>But religion, we are everywhere told, is largely a matter of the
+emotions. The pulpit constantly resounds with appeals to the feelings,
+and not unfrequently with warnings against the intellect. “I acknowledge
+myself,” says the pious non-juror, William Law, “a declared enemy to the
+use of reason in religion;” and he often repeats his condemnation of
+“the labor-learned professors of far-fetched book-riches.”<a name="FNanchor_49-1_21" id="FNanchor_49-1_21" href="#Footnote_49-1_21" class="fnanchor">49-1</a> As the
+eye is the organ of sight, says one whose thoughts on such matters equal
+in depth those of Pascal, so the heart is the organ of religion.<a name="FNanchor_49-2_22" id="FNanchor_49-2_22" href="#Footnote_49-2_22" class="fnanchor">49-2</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+In popular physiology, the heart is the seat of the emotions as the
+brain is that of intellect. It is appropriate, therefore, that we
+commence our analysis of the religious sentiment with the emotions which
+form such a prominent part of it.</p>
+
+<p>Now, whether we take the experience of an individual or the history of a
+tribe, whether we have recourse to the opinions of religious teachers or
+irreligious philosophers, we find them nigh unanimous that the emotion
+which is the prime motor of religious thought is <i>fear</i>. I need not
+depend upon the well-known line of Petronius Arbiter,</p>
+
+<p class="poem">Primus in orbe deos fecit timor;</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">for there is plenty of less heterodox authority. The worthy Bishop Hall
+says, “Seldom doth God seize upon the heart without a vehement
+concussion going before. There must be some blustering and flashes of
+the law. We cannot be too awful in our fear.”<a name="FNanchor_50-1_23" id="FNanchor_50-1_23" href="#Footnote_50-1_23" class="fnanchor">50-1</a> Bunyan, in his
+beautiful allegory of the religious life, lets Christian exclaim: “Had
+even Obstinate himself felt what I have felt of the terrors of the yet
+unseen, he would not thus lightly have given us the <i>back</i>.” The very
+word for God in the Semitic tongues means “fear;”<a name="FNanchor_50-2_24" id="FNanchor_50-2_24" href="#Footnote_50-2_24" class="fnanchor">50-2</a> Jacob swore to
+Laban, “by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> Him whom Isaac feared;” and Moses warned his people that
+“God is come, that his fear may be before your faces.” To <i>venerate</i> is
+from a Sanscrit root (<i>sêv</i>), to be afraid of.</p>
+
+<p>But it is needless to amass more evidence on this point. Few will
+question that fear is the most prominent emotion at the awakening of the
+religious sentiments. Let us rather proceed to inquire more minutely
+what fear is.</p>
+
+<p>I remarked in the previous chapter that “the emotions fall naturally
+into a dual classification, in which the one involves pleasurable or
+elevating, the other painful or depressing conditions.” Fear comes of
+course under the latter category, as it is essentially a painful and
+depressing state of mind. But it corresponds with and implies the
+presence of Hope, for he who has nothing to hope has nothing to
+fear.<a name="FNanchor_51-1_25" id="FNanchor_51-1_25" href="#Footnote_51-1_25" class="fnanchor">51-1</a> “There is no hope without fear, as there is no fear without
+hope,” says Spinoza. “For he who is in fear has some doubt whether what
+he fears will take place, and consequently hopes that it will not.”</p>
+
+<p>We can go a step further, and say that in the mental process the hope
+must necessarily precede the fear. In the immediate moment of losing a
+pleasurable sensation we hope and seek<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> for its repetition. The mind,
+untutored by experience, confidently looks for its return. The hope only
+becomes dashed by fear when experience has been associated with
+disappointment. Hence we must first look to enjoy a good before we can
+be troubled by a fear that we shall not enjoy it; we must first lay a
+plan before we can fear its failure. In modern Christianity hope, hope
+of immortal happiness, is more conspicuous than fear; but that hope is
+also based on the picture of a pleasant life made up from experience.</p>
+
+<p>Both hope and fear, therefore, have been correctly called secondary or
+derived emotions, as they presuppose experience and belief, experience
+of a pleasure akin to that which we hope, belief that we can attain such
+a pleasure. “We do not hope first and enjoy afterwards, but we enjoy
+first and hope afterwards.”<a name="FNanchor_52-1_26" id="FNanchor_52-1_26" href="#Footnote_52-1_26" class="fnanchor">52-1</a> Having enjoyed, we seek to do so
+again. A desire, in other words, must precede either Hope or Fear. They
+are twin sisters, born of a Wish.</p>
+
+<p>Thus my analysis traces the real source of the religious sentiment, so
+far as the emotions are concerned, to a Wish; and having arrived there,
+I find myself anticipated by the words of one of the most reflective
+minds of this century:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> “All religion rests on a mental want; we hope,
+we fear, because we wish.”<a name="FNanchor_53-1_27" id="FNanchor_53-1_27" href="#Footnote_53-1_27" class="fnanchor">53-1</a> And long before this conclusion was
+reached by philosophers, it had been expressed in unconscious religious
+thought in myths, in the Valkyria, the Wish-maidens, for instance, who
+carried the decrees of Odin to earth.</p>
+
+<p>This is no mean origin, for a wish, a desire, conscious or unconscious,
+in sensation only or in emotion as well, is the fundamental postulate of
+every sort of development, of improvement, of any possible future, of
+life of any kind, mental or physical. In its broadest meaning, science
+and history endorse the exclamation of the unhappy Obermann: “<i>La perte
+vraiment irréparable est celle des désirs.</i>”<a name="FNanchor_53-2_28" id="FNanchor_53-2_28" href="#Footnote_53-2_28" class="fnanchor">53-2</a></p>
+
+<p>The sense of unrest, the ceaseless longing for something else, which is
+the general source of all desires and wishes, is also the source of all
+endeavor and of all progress. Physiologically, it is the effort of our
+organization to adapt itself to the ever varying conditions which
+surround it; intellectually, it is the struggle to arrive at truth; in
+both, it is the effort to attain a fuller life.</p>
+
+<p>As stimuli to action, therefore, the commonest and strongest of all
+emotions are Fear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> and Hope. They are the emotional correlates of
+pleasure and pain, which rule the life of sensation. Their closer
+consideration may well detain us awhile.</p>
+
+<p>In the early stages of religious life, whether in an individual or a
+nation, the latter is half concealed. Fear is more demonstrative, and as
+it is essentially destructive, its effects are more sudden and visible.
+In its acuter forms, as Fright and Terror, it may blanch the hair in a
+night, blight the mind and destroy the life of the individual. As Panic,
+it is eminently epidemic, carrying crowds and armies before it; while in
+the aggravated form of Despair it swallows up all other emotions and
+prompts to self destruction. Its physiological effect is a direct
+impairment of vitality.</p>
+
+<p>Hope is less intense and more lasting than fear. It stimulates the
+system, elates with the confidence of control, strengthens with the
+courage derived from a conviction of success, and bestows in advance the
+imagined joy of possession. As Feuchtersleben happily expresses it:
+“Hope preserves the principle of duration when other parts are
+threatened with destruction, and is a manifestation of the innermost
+psychical energy of Life.”<a name="FNanchor_54-1_29" id="FNanchor_54-1_29" href="#Footnote_54-1_29" class="fnanchor">54-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Both emotions powerfully prompt to action,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> and to that extent are
+opposed to thought. Based on belief, they banish uncertainty, and
+antagonize doubt and with it investigation. The religion in which they
+enter as the principal factors will be one intolerant of opposition,
+energetic in deed, and generally hostile to an unbiased pursuit of the
+truth.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally those temperaments and those physical conditions which chiefly
+foster these emotions will tend to religious systems in which they are
+prominent. Let us see what some of these conditions are.</p>
+
+<p>It has always been noticed that impaired vitality predisposes to fear.
+The sick and feeble are more timorous than the strong and well. Further
+predisposing causes of the same nature are insufficient nourishment,
+cold, gloom, malaria, advancing age and mental worry. For this reason
+nearly invariably after a general financial collapse we witness a
+religious “revival.” Age, full of care and fear, is thus prompted to
+piety, willing, as La Rochefoucauld remarks, to do good by precept when
+it can no longer do evil by example. The inhabitants of swampy,
+fever-ridden districts are usually devout. The female sex, always the
+weaker and often the worsted one in the struggle for existence, is when
+free more religious than the male; but with them hope is more commonly
+the incentive than fear.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Although thus prominent and powerful, desire, so far as its fruition is
+pleasure, has expressed but the lowest emotions of the religious
+sentiment. Something more than this has always been asked by sensitively
+religious minds. Success fails to bring the gratification it promises.
+The wish granted, the mind turns from it in satiety. Not this, after
+all, was what we sought.</p>
+
+<p>The acutest thinkers have felt this. Pascal in his <i>Pensées</i> has such
+expressions as these: “The present is never our aim. The future alone is
+our object.” “Forever getting ready to be happy, it is certain we never
+can be.” “’Tis the combat pleases us and not the victory. As soon as
+that is achieved, we have had enough of the spectacle. So it is in play,
+so it is in the search for truth. We never pursue objects, but we pursue
+the pursuit of objects.” But no one has stated it more boldly than
+Lessing when he wrote: “If God held in his right hand all truth, and in
+his left the one unceasingly active desire for truth, although bound up
+with the law that I should forever err, I should choose with humility
+the left and say: ‘Give me this, Father. The pure truth is for thee
+alone.’”<a name="FNanchor_56-1_30" id="FNanchor_56-1_30" href="#Footnote_56-1_30" class="fnanchor">56-1</a> The pleasure seems to lie not in the booty but in the
+battle, not in gaining the stakes but in playing the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> game, not in the
+winning but in the wooing, not in the discovery of truth but in the
+search for it.</p>
+
+<p>What is left for the wise, but to turn, as does the preacher, from this
+delusion of living, where laughter is mad and pleasure is vain, and
+praise the dead which are dead more than the living which are yet alive,
+or to esteem as better than both he that hath never been?</p>
+
+<p>Such is the conclusion of many faiths. Wasted with combat, the mortal
+longs for the rest prepared for the weary. Buddha taught the
+extinguishment in Nirvana; the Brahman portrays the highest bliss as
+<i>shanti</i>, complete and eternal repose; and that the same longing was
+familiar to ancient Judaism, and has always been common to Christianity,
+numerous evidences testify.<a name="FNanchor_57-1_31" id="FNanchor_57-1_31" href="#Footnote_57-1_31" class="fnanchor">57-1</a> Few epitaphs are more common than
+those which speak of the mortal resting <i>in pace, in quiete</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The supposition at the root of these longings is that action must bring
+fatigue and pain, and though it bring pleasure too, it is bought too
+dearly. True in fact, I have shown that this conflicts with the theory
+of perfect life, even organic life. The highest form of life is the most
+unceasing living; its functions ask for their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> completest well being
+constant action, not satisfaction. That general feeling of health and
+strength, that <i>sens de bien être</i>, which goes with the most perfect
+physical life, is experienced only when all the organs are in complete
+working order and doing full duty. They impart to the whole frame a
+desire of motion. Hence the activity of the young and healthy as
+contrasted with the inertness of the exhausted and aged.</p>
+
+<p>How is it possible to reconcile this ideal of life, still more the hope
+of everlasting life, with the acknowledged vanity of desire? It is
+accomplished through the medium of an emotion which more than any I have
+touched upon reveals the character of the religious sentiment&mdash;Love.
+This mighty but protean feeling I shall attempt to define on broader
+principles than has hitherto been done. The vague and partial meanings
+assigned it have led to sad confusion in the studies of religions. In
+the language of feeling, love is a passion; but it does not spring from
+feeling alone. It is far more fervid when it rises through intellect
+than through sense. “Men have died from time to time, and worms have
+eaten them, but not for love,” says the fair Rosalind; and though her
+saying is not very true as to the love of sense, it is far less true as
+to the love of intellect. The martyrs to science and religion, to
+principles and faith, multiply a hundred-fold<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> those to the garden god.
+The spell of the idea is what</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: smaller;">“Turns ruin into laughter and death into dreaming.”</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Such love destroys the baser passion of sense, or transfigures it so
+that we know it no longer. The idea-driven is callous to the
+blandishments of beauty, for his is a love stronger than the love to
+woman. The vestal, the virgin, the eunuch for the kingdom of heaven’s
+sake are the exemplars of the love to God.</p>
+
+<p>What common trait so marks these warring products of mind, that we call
+them by one name? In what is all love the same? The question is
+pertinent, for the love of woman, the love of neighbor, the love of
+country, the love of God, have made the positive side of most religions,
+the burden of their teachings. The priests of Cotytto and Venus, Astarte
+and Melitta, spoke but a more sensuous version of the sermon of the aged
+apostle to the Ephesians,&mdash;shortest and best of all sermons&mdash;“Little
+children, love one another.”<a name="FNanchor_59-1_32" id="FNanchor_59-1_32" href="#Footnote_59-1_32" class="fnanchor">59-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The earliest and most constant sign of reason is “working for a remote
+object.”<a name="FNanchor_59-2_33" id="FNanchor_59-2_33" href="#Footnote_59-2_33" class="fnanchor">59-2</a> Nearly everything we do is as a step to something beyond.
+Forethought, conscious provision, is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> measure of intelligence. But
+there must be something which is the object, the aim, the end-in-view of
+rational action, which is sought for itself alone, not as instrumental
+to something else. Such an object, when recognized, inspires the
+sentiment of love. It springs from the satisfaction of reason.</p>
+
+<p>This conclusion as to the nature of love has long been recognized by
+thinkers. Richard Baxter defined it as “the volition of the end,” “the
+motion of the soul that tendeth to the end,” and more minutely, “the
+will’s volition of good apprehended by the understanding.”<a name="FNanchor_60-1_34" id="FNanchor_60-1_34" href="#Footnote_60-1_34" class="fnanchor">60-1</a> In
+similar language Bishop Butler explains it as “the resting in an object
+as an end.”<a name="FNanchor_60-2_35" id="FNanchor_60-2_35" href="#Footnote_60-2_35" class="fnanchor">60-2</a> Perhaps I can better these explanations by the phrase,
+<i>Love is the mental impression of rational action whose end is in
+itself</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Now this satisfaction is found only in one class of efforts, namely,
+those whose result is continuity, persistence, in fine, <i>preservation</i>.
+This may be toward the individual, self-love, whose object is the
+continuance of personal existence; toward the other sex, where the
+hidden aim is the perpetuation of the race; toward<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> one’s fellows, where
+the giving of pleasure and the prevention of pain mean the maintenance
+of life; toward one’s country, as patriotism; and finally toward the
+eternally true, which as alone the absolutely permanent and
+preservative, inspires a love adequate and exhaustive of its conception,
+casting out both hope and fear, the pangs of desire as well as the
+satiety of fruition.</p>
+
+<p>In one or other of these forms love has at all times been the burden of
+religion: the glad tidings it has always borne have been “love on
+earth.” The Phœnix in Egyptian myth appeared yearly as newly risen,
+but was ever the same bird, and bore the egg from which its <i>parent</i> was
+to have birth. So religions have assumed the guise in turn of self-love,
+sex-love, love of country and love of humanity, cherishing in each the
+germ of that highest love which alone is the parent of its last and only
+perfect embodiment.</p>
+
+<p>Favorite of these forms was sex-love. “We find,” observes a recent
+writer, “that all religions have engaged and concerned themselves with
+the sexual passion. From the times of phallic worship through Romish
+celibacy down to Mormonism, theology has linked itself with man’s
+reproductive instincts.”<a name="FNanchor_61-1_36" id="FNanchor_61-1_36" href="#Footnote_61-1_36" class="fnanchor">61-1</a> The remark is just, and is most
+conspicuously correct in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> strongly emotional temperaments. “The
+devotional feelings,” writes the Rev. Frederick Robertson in one of his
+essays, “are often singularly allied to the animal nature; they conduct
+the unconscious victim of feelings that appear divine into a state of
+life at which the world stands aghast.” Fanaticism is always united with
+either excessive lewdness or desperate asceticism. The physiological
+performance of the generative function is sure to be attacked by
+religious bigotry.</p>
+
+<p>So prominent is this feature that attempts have been made to explain
+nearly all symbolism and mythology as types of the generative procedure
+and the reproductive faculty of organism. Not only the pyramids and
+sacred mountains, the obelisks of the Nile and the myths of light have
+received this interpretation, but even such general symbols as the
+spires of churches, the cross of Christendom and the crescent of
+Islam.<a name="FNanchor_62-1_37" id="FNanchor_62-1_37" href="#Footnote_62-1_37" class="fnanchor">62-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Without falling into the error of supposing that any one meaning or
+origin can be assigned such frequent symbols, we may acknowledge that
+love, in its philosophical sense, is closely akin to the mystery of
+every religion. That, on occasions, love of sex gained the mastery over
+all other forms, is not to be doubted; but that at all times<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> this was
+so, is a narrow, erroneous view, not consistent with a knowledge of the
+history of psychical development.</p>
+
+<p>Sex-love, as a sentiment, is a cultivated growth. All it is at first is
+a rude satisfaction of the erethism. The wild tribes of California had
+their pairing seasons when the sexes were in heat, “as regularly as the
+deer, the elk and the antelope.”<a name="FNanchor_63-1_38" id="FNanchor_63-1_38" href="#Footnote_63-1_38" class="fnanchor">63-1</a> In most tongues of the savages of
+North America there are no tender words, as “dear,” “darling,” and the
+like.<a name="FNanchor_63-2_39" id="FNanchor_63-2_39" href="#Footnote_63-2_39" class="fnanchor">63-2</a> No desire of offspring led to their unions. The women had
+few children, and their fathers paid them little attention. The family
+instinct appears in conditions of higher culture, in Judea, Greece, Rome
+and ancient Germany. Procreation instead of lust was there the aim of
+marriage. To-day, mere sentiment is so much in the ascendant that both
+these elements are often absent. There is warm affection without even
+instinctive knowledge of the design of the bond assumed.<a name="FNanchor_63-3_40" id="FNanchor_63-3_40" href="#Footnote_63-3_40" class="fnanchor">63-3</a></p>
+
+<p>Those who would confine the promptings of the passion of reproduction as
+it appears in man to its objects as shown in lower animals, know<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> little
+how this wondrous emotion has acted as man’s mentor as well as paraclete
+in his long and toilsome conflict with the physical forces.</p>
+
+<p>The venereal sense is unlike the other special senses in that it is
+general, as well as referable to special organs and nerves. In its
+psychological action it “especially contributes to the development of
+sympathies which connect man not only with his coevals, but with his
+fellows of all preceding and succeeding generations as well. Upon it is
+erected this vast superstructure of intellect, of social and moral
+sentiment, of voluntary effort and endeavor.”<a name="FNanchor_64-1_41" id="FNanchor_64-1_41" href="#Footnote_64-1_41" class="fnanchor">64-1</a> Of all the
+properties of organized matter, that of transmitting form and life is
+the most wonderful; and if we examine critically the physical basis of
+the labors and hopes of mankind, if we ask what prompts its noblest and
+holiest longings, we shall find them, in the vast majority of instances,
+directly traceable to this power. No wonder then that religion, which we
+have seen springs from man’s wants and wishes, very often bears the
+distinct trace of their origin in his reproductive functions. The liens
+of the family are justly deemed sacred, and are naturally associated
+with whatever the mind considers holy.</p>
+
+<p>The duty of a citizen to become a father was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> a prominent feature in
+many ancient religions. How much honor the sire of many sons had in Rome
+and Palestine is familiar to all readers. No warrior, according to
+German faith, could gain entrance to Valhalla unless he had begotten a
+son. Thus the preservation of the species was placed under the immediate
+guardianship of religion.</p>
+
+<p>Such considerations explain the close connection of sexual thoughts with
+the most sacred mysteries of faith. In polytheisms, the divinities are
+universally represented as male or female, virile and fecund. The
+processes of nature were often held to be maintained through such
+celestial nuptials.</p>
+
+<p>Yet stranger myths followed those of the loves of the gods. Religion, as
+the sentiment of continuance, finding its highest expression in the
+phenomenon of generation, had to reconcile this with the growing concept
+of a divine unity. Each separate god was magnified in praises as
+self-sufficient. Earth, or nature, or the season is one, yet brings
+forth all. How embody this in concrete form?</p>
+
+<p>The startling refuge was had in the image of a deity at once of both
+sexes. Such avowedly were Mithras, Janus, Melitta, Cybele, Aphrodite,
+Agdistis; indeed nearly all the Syrian, Egyptian, and Italic gods, as
+well as Brahma, and, in the esoteric doctrine of the Cabala, even
+Jehovah, whose female aspect is represented by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> “Shekinah.” To this
+abnormal condition the learned have applied the adjectives epicene,
+androgynous, hermaphrodite, arrenothele. In art it is represented by a
+blending of the traits of both sexes. In the cult it was dramatically
+set forth by the votaries assuming the attire of the other sex, and
+dallying with both.<a name="FNanchor_66-1_42" id="FNanchor_66-1_42" href="#Footnote_66-1_42" class="fnanchor">66-1</a> The phallic symbol superseded all others; and
+in Cyprus, Babylonia and Phrygia, once in her life, at least, must every
+woman submit to the embrace of a stranger.</p>
+
+<p>Such rites were not mere sensualities. The priests of these divinities
+often voluntarily suffered emasculation. None but a eunuch could become
+high priest of Cybele. Among the sixteen million worshippers of Siva,
+whose symbol is the Lingam, impurity is far less prevalent than among
+the sister sects of Hindoo religions.<a name="FNanchor_66-2_43" id="FNanchor_66-2_43" href="#Footnote_66-2_43" class="fnanchor">66-2</a> To the Lingayets, the member
+typifies abstractly the idea of life. Therefore they carve it on
+sepulchres, or, like the ancient nations of Asia Minor, they lay clay
+images of it on graves to intimate the hope of existence beyond the
+tomb.</p>
+
+<p>This notion of a hermaphrodite deity is not “monstrous,” as it has been
+called. There lies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> a deep meaning in it. The gods are spirits, beings
+of another order, which the cultivated esthetic sense protests against
+classing as of one or the other gender. Never can the ideal of beauty,
+either physical or moral, be reached until the characteristics of sex
+are lost in the concept of the purely human. In the noblest men of
+history there has often been noted something feminine, a gentleness
+which is not akin to weakness; and the women whose names are ornaments
+to nations have displayed a calm greatness, not unwomanly but something
+more than belongs to woman. Art acknowledges this. In the Vatican Apollo
+we see masculine strength united with maidenly softness; and in the
+traditional face and figure of Christ a still more striking example how
+the devout mind conjoins the traits of both sexes to express the highest
+possibility of the species. “Soaring above the struggle in which the
+real is involved with its limitations, and free from the characteristics
+of gender, the ideal of beauty as well as the ideal of humanity, alike
+maintain a perfect sexual equilibrium.”<a name="FNanchor_67-1_44" id="FNanchor_67-1_44" href="#Footnote_67-1_44" class="fnanchor">67-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Another and more familiar expression of the religious emotion, akin to
+the belief in double-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>sexed deities,&mdash;nay, in its physiological aspect
+identical with it, as assuming sexual self-sufficiency, is the myth of
+the Virgin-Mother.</p>
+
+<p>When Columbus first planted the cross on the shores of San Domingo, the
+lay brother Roman Pane, whom he sent forth to convert the natives of
+that island, found among them a story of a virgin Mamóna, whose son
+Yocaúna, a hero and a god, was chief among divinities, and had in the
+old times taught this simple people the arts of peace and guided them
+through the islands.<a name="FNanchor_68-1_45" id="FNanchor_68-1_45" href="#Footnote_68-1_45" class="fnanchor">68-1</a> When the missionaries penetrated to the
+Iroquois, the Aztecs, the Mayas, and many other tribes, this same story
+was told them with such startling likeness to one they came to tell,
+that they felt certain either St. Thomas or Satan had got the start of
+them in America.</p>
+
+<p>But had these pious men known as well as we do the gentile religions of
+the Old World, they would have seasoned their admiration. Long before
+Christianity was thought of, the myth of the Virgin-Mother of God was in
+the faith of millions, as we have had abundantly shown us of late years
+by certain expounders of Christian dogmas.</p>
+
+<p>How is this strange, impossible belief to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> explained? Of what secret,
+unconscious, psychological working was it the expression? Look at its
+result. It is that wherever this doctrine is developed the <i>status
+matrimonialis</i> is held to be less pure, less truly religious, than the
+<i>status virginitatis</i>. Such is the teaching to-day in Lhassa, in Rome;
+so it was in Yucatan, where, too, there were nunneries filled with
+spouses of God. I connect it with the general doctrine that chastity in
+either sex is more agreeable to God than marriage, and this belief, I
+think, very commonly arises at a certain stage of development of the
+religious sentiment, when it unconsciously recognises the indisputable
+fact that sex-love, whether in its form of love of woman, family, or
+nation, is not what that sentiment craves. This is first shown by
+rejecting the idea of sex-love in the birth of the god; then his priests
+and priestesses refuse its allurements, and deny all its claims, those
+of kindred, of country, of race, until the act of generation itself is
+held unholy and the thought of sex a sin. By such forcible though rude
+displays do they set forth their unconscious acknowledgment of that
+eternal truth: “He that loveth son or daughter more than Me, is not
+worthy of Me.”</p>
+
+<p>The significance of these words is not that there is an antagonism in
+the forms of love. It is not that man should hate himself, as Pascal,
+following the teachings of the Church, so ably<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> argued; nor that the one
+sex should be set over against the other in sterile abhorrence; nor yet
+that love of country and of kindred is incompatible with that toward the
+Supreme of thought; but it is that each of these lower, shallower,
+evanescent forms of emotion is and must be lost in, subordinated to,
+that highest form to which these words have reference. Reconciliation,
+not abnegation, is what they mean.</p>
+
+<p>Even those religions which teach in its strictness the oneness of God
+have rarely separated from his personality the attribute of sex. He is
+the father, <i>pater et genitor</i>, of all beings. The monotheism which we
+find in Greece and India generally took this form. The ancient Hebrews
+emphasized the former, not the latter sense of the word, and thus
+depriving it of its more distinctive characteristics of sex, prepared
+the way for the teachings of Christianity, in which the Supreme Being
+always appears with the attributes of the male, but disconnected from
+the idea of generation.</p>
+
+<p>Singularly enough, the efforts to which this latent incongruity prompts,
+even in persons speaking English, in which tongue the articles and
+adjectives have no genders, point back to the errors of an earlier age.
+A recent prayer by an eminent spiritualist commences:&mdash;“Oh Eternal
+Spirit, our Father and our Mother!” The expression illustrates how
+naturally arises the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> belief in a hermaphrodite god, when once sex is
+associated with deity.</p>
+
+<p>Of all founders of religions, Mohammed first proclaimed a divinity
+without relation to sex. One of his earliest suras reads:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“He is God alone,<br />
+God the eternal.<br />
+He begetteth not, and is not begotten;<br />
+And there is none like unto him.”</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">And elsewhere:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“He hath no spouse, neither hath he any offspring.”<a name="FNanchor_71-1_46" id="FNanchor_71-1_46" href="#Footnote_71-1_46" class="fnanchor">71-1</a></p>
+
+<p>While he expressly acknowledged the divine conception of Jesus, he
+denied the coarse and literal version of that doctrine in vogue among
+the ignorant Christians around him. Enlightened christendom, to-day,
+does not, I believe, differ from him on this point.</p>
+
+<p>Such sexual religions do not arise, as the theory has hitherto been,
+from study and observation of the generative agencies in nature, but
+from the identity of object between love in sense and love in intellect,
+profane and sacred passion. The essence of each is <i>continuance</i>,
+preservation; the origin of each is subjective, personal; but the former
+has its root in sensation, the latter in reason.</p>
+
+<p>The sex-difference in organisms, the “abhorrence of self-fertilization”
+which Mr. Darwin speaks of as so conspicuous and inexplicable a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+phenomenon, is but one example of the sway of a law which as action and
+reaction, thesis and antithesis, is common to both elementary motion and
+thought. The fertile and profound fancy of Greece delighted to prefigure
+this truth in significant symbols and myths. Love, Eros, is shown
+carrying the globe, or wielding the club of Hercules; he is the unknown
+spouse of Psyche, the soul; and from the primitive chaos he brings forth
+the ordered world, the Kosmos.</p>
+
+<p>The intimate and strange relation between sensuality and religion, so
+often commented upon and denied, again proven, and always
+misinterpreted, thus receives a satisfactory explanation. Some singular
+manifestations of it, of significance in religious history, are
+presented by the records of insane delusions. They confirm what I have
+above urged, that the association is not one derived from observation
+through intellectual processes, but is a consequence of physiological
+connections, of identity of aim in the distinct realms of thought and
+emotion.</p>
+
+<p>That eminent writer on mental diseases, Schroeder van der Kolk, when
+speaking of the forms of melancholy which arise from physical
+conditions, remarks: “The patient who is melancholy from disorders of
+the generative organs considers himself sinful. His depressed tone of
+mind passes over into religious melan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>choly; ‘he is forsaken by God; he
+is lost.’ All his afflictions have a religious color.” In a similar
+strain, Feuchtersleben says: “In the female sex especially, the erotic
+delusion, unknown to the patient herself, often assumes the color of the
+religious.”<a name="FNanchor_73-1_47" id="FNanchor_73-1_47" href="#Footnote_73-1_47" class="fnanchor">73-1</a> “The unaccomplished sexual designs of nature,”
+observes a later author speaking of the effects of the single life,
+“lead to brooding over supposed miseries which suggest devotion and
+religious exercise as the nepenthe to soothe the morbid longings.”<a name="FNanchor_73-2_48" id="FNanchor_73-2_48" href="#Footnote_73-2_48" class="fnanchor">73-2</a></p>
+
+<p>Stimulate the religious sentiment and you arouse the passion of love,
+which will be directed as the temperament and individual culture prompt.
+Develope very prominently any one form of love, and by a native affinity
+it will seize upon and consecrate to its own use whatever religious
+aspirations the individual has. This is the general law of their
+relation.</p>
+
+<p>All the lower forms of love point to one to which they are the gradual
+ascent, both of the individual and on a grander scale of the race, to
+wit, the love of God. This is the passion for the highest attainable
+truth, a passion which, as duty, prompts to the strongest action and to
+the utter sacrifice of all other longings. No speculative acquaintance
+with propositions satisfies it, no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> egotistic construction of systems,
+but the truth expressed in life, the truth as that which alone either
+has or can give being and diuturnity, this is its food, for which it
+thirsts with holy ardor. Here is the genuine esoteric gnosis, the sacred
+secret, which the rude and selfish wishes of the savage, the sensual
+rites of Babylon, “mother of harlots,” and the sublimely unselfish
+dreams of a “religion of humanity,” have alike had in their hearts, but
+had no capacity to interpret, no words to articulate.</p>
+
+<p>Related to this emotional phase of the religious sentiment is the
+theurgic power of certain natural objects over some persons. The
+biblical scholar Kitto confesses that the moon exerted a strange
+influence on his mind, stirring his devotional nature, and he owns that
+it would not have been hard for him to join the worshippers of the
+goddess of the night. Wilhelm von Humboldt in one of his odes refers to
+similar feelings excited in him by the gloom and murmur of groves. The
+sacred poets and the religious arts generally acknowledge this
+<i>fascination</i>, as it has been called, which certain phenomena have for
+religious temperaments.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation which suggests itself is that of individual and
+ancestral association. In the case of Kitto it was probably the latter.
+His sensitively religious nature experienced in gazing at the moon an
+impression inherited from some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> remote ancestor who had actually made it
+the object of ardent worship. The study of the laws of inherited memory,
+so successfully pursued of late by Professor Laycock, take away anything
+eccentric about this explanation, though I scarcely expect it will be
+received by one unacquainted with those laws.</p>
+
+<p>The emotional aspect of religion is not exhausted by the varieties of
+fear and hope and love. Wonder, awe, admiration, the æsthetic emotions,
+in fact all the active principles of man’s mental economy are at times
+excited and directed by the thought of supernatural power. Some have
+attempted to trace the religious sentiment exclusively to one or the
+other of these. But they are all incidental and subsidiary emotions.</p>
+
+<p>Certain mental diseases, by abnormally stimulating the emotions,
+predispose strongly to religious fervor. Epilepsy is one of these, and
+in Swedenborg and Mohammed, both epileptics, we see distinguished
+examples of religious mystics, who, no doubt honestly, accepted the
+visions which accompanied their disease as revelations from another
+world. Very many epileptics are subject to such delusions, and their
+insanity is usually of a religious character.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, devotional excitement is apt to bring about mental
+alienation. Every violent revival has left after it a small crop of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+religious melancholies and lunatics. Competent authorities state that in
+modern communities religious insanity is most frequent in those sects
+who are given to emotional forms of religion, the Methodists and
+Baptists for example; whereas it is least known among Roman Catholics,
+where doubt and anxiety are at once allayed by an infallible referee,
+and among the Quakers, where enthusiasm is discouraged and with whom the
+restraint of emotion is a part of discipline.<a name="FNanchor_76-1_49" id="FNanchor_76-1_49" href="#Footnote_76-1_49" class="fnanchor">76-1</a> Authoritative
+assurance in many disturbed conditions of mind is sufficient to relieve
+the mental tension and restore health.</p>
+
+<p>If, by what has been said, it is clear that the religious sentiment has
+its origin in a wish, it is equally clear that not every wish is
+concerned in it. The objects which a man can attain by his own unaided
+efforts, are not those which he makes the subjects of his prayers; nor
+are the periodic and regular occurrences in nature, how impressive they
+may be, much thought of in devotional moods. The moment that an event is
+recognized to be under fixed law, it is seen to be inappropriate to seek
+by supplication to alter it. No devotee, acquainted with the theory of
+the tides, would, like Canute the King, think of staying their waves
+with words. Eclipses and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> comets, once matters of superstitious terror,
+have been entirely shorn of this attribute by astronomical discovery.
+Even real and tragic misfortunes, if believed to be such as flow from
+fixed law, and especially if they can be predicted sometime before they
+arrive, do not excite religious feeling. As Bishop Hall quaintly
+observes, referring to a curious medieval superstition: “Crosses, after
+the nature of the cockatrice, die if they be foreseen.”</p>
+
+<p>Only when the event suggests the direct action of <i>mind</i>, of some free
+intelligence, is it possible for the religious sentiment to throw around
+it the aureole of sanctity. Obviously when natural law was little known,
+this included vastly more occurrences than civilized men now think of
+holding to be of religious import. Hence the objective and material form
+of religion is always fostered by ignorance, and this is the form which
+prevails exclusively in uncultivated societies.</p>
+
+<p>The manifestations of motion which the child first notices, or which the
+savage chiefly observes, relate to himself. They are associated with the
+individuals around him who minister to his wants; the gratification of
+these depend on the volitions of others. As he grows in strength he
+learns to supply his own wants, and to make good his own volitions as
+against those of his fellows. But he soon learns that many events occur
+to thwart him, out of connection with any known indi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>vidual, and these
+of a dreadful nature, hurricanes and floods, hunger, sickness and death.
+These pursue him everywhere, foiling his plans, and frustrating his
+hopes. It is not the show of power, the manifestations of might, that he
+cares for in these events, but that they touch <i>him</i>, that they spoil
+<i>his</i> projects, and render vain <i>his</i> desires; <i>this</i> forces him to cast
+about for some means to protect himself against them.</p>
+
+<p>In accordance with the teaching of his experience, and true moreover to
+the laws of mind, he refers them, collectively, to a mental source, to a
+vague individuality. This loose, undefined conception of an unknown
+volition or power forms the earliest notion of Deity. It is hardly
+associated with personality, yet it is broadly separated from the human
+and the known. In the languages of savage tribes, as I have elsewhere
+remarked, “a word is usually found comprehending all manifestations of
+the unseen world, yet conveying no sense of personal unity.”<a name="FNanchor_78-1_50" id="FNanchor_78-1_50" href="#Footnote_78-1_50" class="fnanchor">78-1</a></p>
+
+<p>By some means to guard against this undefined marplot to the
+accomplishment of his wishes, is the object of his religion. Its
+primitive forms are therefore defensive and conciliatory. The hopes of
+the savage extend little beyond the reach of his own arm, and the tenor
+of his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> prayers is that the gods be neuter. If they do not interfere he
+can take care of himself. His religion is a sort of assurance of life.</p>
+
+<p>Not only the religion of the savage, but every religion is this and not
+much but this. With nobler associations and purer conceptions of life,
+the religious sentiment ever contains these same elements and depends
+upon them for its vigor and growth. It everywhere springs from <i>a desire
+whose fruition depends upon unknown power</i>. To give the religious wish a
+definition in the technic of psychology, I define it as: <i>Expectant
+Attention, directed toward an event not under known control, with a
+concomitant idea of Cause or Power</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Three elements are embraced in this definition, a wish, an idea of
+power, ignorance of the nature of that power. The first term prompts the
+hope, the third suggests the fear, and the second creates the
+personality, which we see set forth in every religious system. Without
+these three, religion as dogma becomes impossible.</p>
+
+<p>If a man wishes for nothing, neither the continuance of present comforts
+nor future blessings, why need he care for the gods? Who can hurt him,
+so long as he stays in his frame of mind? He may well shake off all
+religions and every fear, for he is stronger than God, and the universe
+holds nothing worth his effort to get. This was the doctrine taught by
+Buddha Sakya<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>nuni, a philosopher opposed to every form of religion, but
+who is the reputed founder of the most numerous sect now on the globe.
+He sought to free the minds of his day from the burden of the Brahmanic
+ritual, by cultivating a frame of mind beyond desire or admiration, and
+hence beyond the need of a creed.</p>
+
+<p>The second element, the idea of power, is an intellectual abstraction.
+Its character is fluctuating. At first it is most vague, corresponding
+to what in its most general sense we term “the supernatural.” Later, it
+is regarded under its various exhibitions as separable phenomena, as in
+polytheisms, in which must be included trinitarian systems and the
+dualistic doctrine of the Parsees. But among the Egyptians, Greeks and
+Aztecs, as well as in the words of Zarathustra and in the theology of
+Christianity, we frequently meet with the distinct recognition of the
+fundamental unity of all power. At core, all religions have seeds of
+monotheism. When we generalize the current concepts of motion or force
+beyond individual displays and relative measures of quantity, we
+recognize their qualitative identity, and appreciate the logical unity
+under which we must give them abstract expression. This is the process,
+often unconscious, which has carried most original thinkers to
+monotheistic doctrines, no matter whence they started.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of power controlling the unknown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> would of itself have been of
+no interest to man had he not assumed certain relations to exist between
+him and it on the one hand, and it and things on the other. A
+dispassionate inquiry disproves entirely the view maintained by various
+modern writers, prominently by Bain, Spencer and Darwin, that the
+contemplation of power or majesty in external nature prompts of itself
+the religious sentiment, or could have been its historical origin. Such
+a view overlooks the most essential because the personal factor of
+religion&mdash;the wish. Far more correct are the words of David Hume, in the
+last century, by which he closes his admirable <i>Natural History of
+Religions</i>: “We may conclude, therefore, that in all nations the first
+ideas of religion arose not from a contemplation of the works of nature,
+but from a concern with regard to the events of life, and from the
+incessant hopes and fears which actuate the human mind.” A century
+before him Hobbes had written in his terse way: “The natural seed of
+religion lies in these four things: the fear of spirits, ignorance of
+secondary causes, the conciliation of those we fear, and the assumption
+of accidents for omens.”<a name="FNanchor_81-1_51" id="FNanchor_81-1_51" href="#Footnote_81-1_51" class="fnanchor">81-1</a> The sentiment of religion is in its
+origin and nature purely personal and subjective. The aspect of power
+would never have led man to worship, unless he had assumed certain
+relations between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> the unseen author or authors of that power and
+himself. What these assumptions were, I shall discuss in the next
+chapter.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, as has so often been remarked in a flippant and contemptuous
+way,<a name="FNanchor_82-1_52" id="FNanchor_82-1_52" href="#Footnote_82-1_52" class="fnanchor">82-1</a> which the fact when rightly understood nowise justifies,
+religion cannot exist without the aid of ignorance. It is really and
+truly the mother of devotion. The sentiment of religious fear does not
+apply to a <i>known</i> power&mdash;to the movement of an opposing army, or the
+action of gravity in an avalanche for example. The prayer which under
+such circumstances is offered, is directed to an unknown intelligence,
+supposed to control the visible forces. As science&mdash;which is the
+knowledge of physical laws&mdash;extends, the object of prayer becomes more
+and more intangible and remote. What we formerly feared, we learn to
+govern. No one would pray God to avert the thunderbolt, if lightning
+rods invariably protected houses. The Swiss clergy opposed the system of
+insuring growing crops because it made their parishioners indifferent to
+prayers for the harvest. With increasing knowledge<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> and the security
+which it brings, religious terror lessens, and the wants which excite
+the sentiment of devotion diminish in number and change in character.</p>
+
+<p>This is apt to cast general discredit on religion. When we make the
+discovery that so many events which excited religious apprehension in
+the minds of our forefathers are governed by inflexible laws which we
+know all about, we not only smile in pity at their superstitions, but
+make the mental inference that the diminished emotion of this kind we
+yet experience is equally groundless. If at the bottom of all displays
+of power lies a physical necessity, our qualms are folly. Therefore, to
+the pious soul which still finds the bulk of its religious aspirations
+and experiences in the regions of the emotions and sensations, the
+progress of science seems and really does threaten its cherished
+convictions. The audacious mind of man robs the gods of power when he
+can shield himself from their anger. The much-talked-of conflict between
+religion and science is no fiction; it exists, and is bound to go on,
+and religion will ever get the worst of it until it learns that the
+wishes to which it is its proper place to minister are not those for
+pleasure and prosperity, not for abundant harvests and seasonable
+showers, not success in battle and public health, not preservation from
+danger and safety on journeys, not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> much of anything that is spoken of
+in litanies and books of devotion.</p>
+
+<p>Let a person who still clings to this form of religion imagine that
+science had reached perfection in the arts of life; that by skilled
+adaptations of machinery, accidents by sea and land were quite avoided;
+that observation and experience had taught to foresee with certainty and
+to protect effectively against all meteoric disturbances; that a
+perfected government insured safety of person and property; that a
+consummate agriculture rendered want and poverty unknown; that a
+developed hygiene completely guarded against disease; and that a
+painless extinction of life in advanced age could surely be calculated
+upon; let him imagine this, and then ask himself what purpose religion
+would subserve in such a state of things? For whatever would occupy it
+then&mdash;if it could exist at all&mdash;should <i>alone</i> occupy it now.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_49-1_21" id="Footnote_49-1_21" href="#FNanchor_49-1_21">49-1</a> <i>Address to the Clergy</i>, pp. 42, 43, 67, 106, etc.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_49-2_22" id="Footnote_49-2_22" href="#FNanchor_49-2_22">49-2</a> E. von Hardenberg [Novalis], <i>Werke</i>, s. 364.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_50-1_23" id="Footnote_50-1_23" href="#FNanchor_50-1_23">50-1</a> <i>Treatises Devotional and Practical</i>, p. 188. London,
+1836.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_50-2_24" id="Footnote_50-2_24" href="#FNanchor_50-2_24">50-2</a> In Aramaic <i>dachla</i> means either a god or fear. The
+Arabic Allah and the Hebrew Eloah are by some traced to a common root,
+signifying to tremble, to show fear, though the more usual derivation is
+from one meaning to be strong.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_51-1_25" id="Footnote_51-1_25" href="#FNanchor_51-1_25">51-1</a> “Wen die Hoffnung, den hat auch die Furcht verlassen.”
+Arthur Schopenhauer, <i>Parerga und Paralipomena</i>. Bd. ii. s. 474.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_52-1_26" id="Footnote_52-1_26" href="#FNanchor_52-1_26">52-1</a> Alexander Bain, <i>On the Study of Character</i>, p. 128. See
+also his remarks in his work, <i>The Emotions and the Will</i>, p. 84, and in
+his notes to James Mill’s <i>Analysis of the Mind</i>, vol. i., pp. 124-125.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_53-1_27" id="Footnote_53-1_27" href="#FNanchor_53-1_27">53-1</a> Wilhelm von Humboldt’s <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>, Bd. vii., s.
+62.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_53-2_28" id="Footnote_53-2_28" href="#FNanchor_53-2_28">53-2</a> De Senancourt, <i>Obermann</i>, Lettre xli.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_54-1_29" id="Footnote_54-1_29" href="#FNanchor_54-1_29">54-1</a> <i>Elements of Medical Psychology</i>, p. 331.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_56-1_30" id="Footnote_56-1_30" href="#FNanchor_56-1_30">56-1</a> Lessing’s <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>. B. ii. s. 443 (Leipzig,
+1855).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_57-1_31" id="Footnote_57-1_31" href="#FNanchor_57-1_31">57-1</a> See Exodus, xxiii. 12; Psalms, lv. 6; Isaiah, xxx. 15;
+Jeremiah, vi. 16; Hebrews, v. 9. So St. Augustine: “et nos post opera
+nostra sabbato vitæ eternæ requiescamus in te.” <i>Confessionum Lib.</i>
+xiii. cap. 36.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_59-1_32" id="Footnote_59-1_32" href="#FNanchor_59-1_32">59-1</a> “Filioli, diligite alterutrum.” This is the “testamentum
+Johannis,” as recorded from tradition by St. Jerome in his notes to the
+Epistle to the Galatians.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_59-2_33" id="Footnote_59-2_33" href="#FNanchor_59-2_33">59-2</a> Alexander Bain, <i>The Senses and the Intellect</i>, Chap.
+I.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_60-1_34" id="Footnote_60-1_34" href="#FNanchor_60-1_34">60-1</a> <i>A Christian Directory.</i> Part I. Chap. III.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_60-2_35" id="Footnote_60-2_35" href="#FNanchor_60-2_35">60-2</a> “The very nature of affection, the idea itself,
+necessarily implies resting in its object as an end.” <i>Fifteen Sermons
+by Joseph Butler, late Lord Bishop of Durham</i>, Preface, and p. 147
+(London, 1841).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_61-1_36" id="Footnote_61-1_36" href="#FNanchor_61-1_36">61-1</a> Dr. J. Milner Fothergill, <i>Journal of Mental Science</i>,
+Oct. 1874, p. 198.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_62-1_37" id="Footnote_62-1_37" href="#FNanchor_62-1_37">62-1</a> The most recent work on the topic is that of Messrs.
+Westropp and Wake, <i>The Influence of the Phallic Idea on the Religions
+of Antiquity</i>, London, 1874.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_63-1_38" id="Footnote_63-1_38" href="#FNanchor_63-1_38">63-1</a> Schoolcraft’s <i>History and Statistics of the Indian
+Tribes</i>, Vol. iv. p. 224.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_63-2_39" id="Footnote_63-2_39" href="#FNanchor_63-2_39">63-2</a> Richardson, <i>Arctic Expedition</i>, p. 412.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_63-3_40" id="Footnote_63-3_40" href="#FNanchor_63-3_40">63-3</a> Most physicians have occasion to notice the almost
+entire loss in modern life of the instinctive knowledge of the sex
+relation. Sir James Paget has lately treated of the subject in one of
+his <i>Clinical Lectures</i> (London, 1875).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_64-1_41" id="Footnote_64-1_41" href="#FNanchor_64-1_41">64-1</a> Dr. J. P. Catlow, <i>Principles of Aesthetic Medicine</i>, p.
+112. This thoughtful though obscure writer has received little
+recognition even in the circle of professional readers.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_66-1_42" id="Footnote_66-1_42" href="#FNanchor_66-1_42">66-1</a> This is probably what was condemned in Deuteronomy xxii.
+5, and Romans, i. 26.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_66-2_43" id="Footnote_66-2_43" href="#FNanchor_66-2_43">66-2</a> “The worship of Siva is too severe, too stern for the
+softer emotions of love, and all his temples are quite free from any
+allusions to it.”&mdash;Ferguson, <i>Tree and Serpent Worship</i>, p. 71.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_67-1_44" id="Footnote_67-1_44" href="#FNanchor_67-1_44">67-1</a> W. von Humboldt, in his admirable essay <i>Ueber die
+Männliche und Weibliche Form</i> (<i>Werke, Bd. I.</i>). Elsewhere he adds: “In
+der Natur des Gœttlichen strebt alles der Reinheit und Vollkommenheit
+des Gattungsbegriff entgegen.”</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_68-1_45" id="Footnote_68-1_45" href="#FNanchor_68-1_45">68-1</a> I have collected the Haitian myths, chiefly from the
+manuscript <i>Historia Apologetica de las Indias Occidentales</i> of Las
+Casas, in an essay published in 1871, <i>The Arawack Language of Guiana in
+its Linguistic and Ethnological Relations</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_71-1_46" id="Footnote_71-1_46" href="#FNanchor_71-1_46">71-1</a> <i>The Koran</i>, <a name="corr5" id="corr5"></a><ins class="correction" title="Suras">Suras,</ins> cxii., lxii., and especially
+xix.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_73-1_47" id="Footnote_73-1_47" href="#FNanchor_73-1_47">73-1</a> <i>Elements of Medical Psychology</i>, p. 281.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_73-2_48" id="Footnote_73-2_48" href="#FNanchor_73-2_48">73-2</a> J. Thompson Dickson, <i>The Science and Practice of
+Medicine in relation to Mind</i>, p. 383 (New York, 1874).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_76-1_49" id="Footnote_76-1_49" href="#FNanchor_76-1_49">76-1</a> Dr. Joseph Williams, <i>Insanity, its Causes, Prevention
+and Cure</i>, pp. 68, 69; Dr. A. L. Wigan, <i>The Duality of the Mind</i>, p.
+437.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_78-1_50" id="Footnote_78-1_50" href="#FNanchor_78-1_50">78-1</a> <i>The Myths of the New World, a Treatise on the Symbolism
+and Mythology of the Red Race of America</i>, p. 145.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_81-1_51" id="Footnote_81-1_51" href="#FNanchor_81-1_51">81-1</a> <i>Leviathan, De Homine</i>, cap. xii.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_82-1_52" id="Footnote_82-1_52" href="#FNanchor_82-1_52">82-1</a> For instance, of later writers from whom we might expect
+better things, Arthur Schopenhauer. He says in his <i>Parerga</i> (Bd. ii. s.
+290): “Ein gewisser Grad allgemeiner Unwissenheit ist die Bedingung
+aller Religionen;” a correct remark, and equally correct of the pursuit
+of science and philosophy. But the ignorance which is the condition of
+such pursuit is not a part of science or philosophy, and no more is it
+of religion.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2 class="chapdivider"><a name="THE_RATIONAL_POSTULATES_OF_THE_RELIGIOUS_SENTIMENT" id="THE_RATIONAL_POSTULATES_OF_THE_RELIGIOUS_SENTIMENT"></a>THE RATIONAL POSTULATES OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.</h2>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="chapterhead">SUMMARY.</h3>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Religion often considered merely an affair of the feelings. On the
+contrary, it must assume at least three premises in reason, its
+“rational postulates.”</p>
+
+<p>I. There is Order in things.</p>
+
+<p>The religious wish involves the idea of cause. This idea not
+exhausted by uniformity of sequence, but by quantitative relation,
+that is, Order as opposed to Chance. Both science and religion
+assume order in things; but the latter includes the Will of God in
+this order, while the former rejects it.</p>
+
+<p>II. This order is one of Intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>The order is assumed to be a comprehensible one, whether it be of
+law wholly or of volition also.</p>
+
+<p>III. All Intelligence is one in kind.</p>
+
+<p>This postulate indispensable to religion, although it has been
+attacked by religious as well as irreligious philosophers. Its
+decision must rest on the absoluteness of the formal laws of
+thought. The theory that these are products of natural selections
+disproved by showing, (1) that they hold true throughout the
+material universe, and (2) that they do not depend on it for their
+verity. Reason sees beyond phenomena, but descries nothing alien to
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>The formal laws of reason are purposive. They therefore afford a
+presumption of a moral government of the Universe, and point to an
+Intelligence fulfilling an end through the order in physical laws.
+Such an assumption, common to all historic religions, is thus
+justified by induction.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="chaptitle">THE RATIONAL POSTULATES OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> philosophical discussions of religion as well as in popular
+exhortations upon it, too exclusive stress has been laid upon its
+emotional elements. “It is,” says Professor Bain, “an affair of the
+feelings.”<a name="FNanchor_87-1_53" id="FNanchor_87-1_53" href="#Footnote_87-1_53" class="fnanchor">87-1</a> “The essence of religion,” observes John Stuart Mill,
+“is the strong and earnest direction of the emotions and desires towards
+an ideal object.” “It must be allowed,” says Dr. Mansel,<a name="FNanchor_87-2_54" id="FNanchor_87-2_54" href="#Footnote_87-2_54" class="fnanchor">87-2</a> “that it
+is not through reasoning that men obtain their first intimation of their
+relation to a deity.” In writers and preachers of the semi-mystical
+school, which embraces most of the ardent revivalists of the day, we
+constantly hear the “feeling of dependence” quoted as the radical
+element of religious thought.<a name="FNanchor_87-3_55" id="FNanchor_87-3_55" href="#Footnote_87-3_55" class="fnanchor">87-3</a> In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> America Theodore Parker, and in
+Germany Schleiermacher, were brilliant exponents of this doctrine. To
+the latter the philosopher Hegel replied that if religion is a matter of
+feeling, an affectionate dog is the best Christian.</p>
+
+<p>This answer was not flippant, but founded on the true and only worthy
+conception of the religious sentiment. We have passed in review the
+emotions which form a part of it, and recognize their power. But neither
+these nor any other mere emotions, desires or feelings can explain even
+the lowest religion. It depends for its existence on the essential
+nature of reason. We cannot at all allow, as Dr. Mansel asks of us, that
+man’s first intimations of Deity came in any other way than as one of
+the ripest fruits of reason. Were such the case, we should certainly
+find traces of them among brutes and idiots, which we do not. The slight
+signs of religious actions thought to have been noticed by some in the
+lower animals, by Sir John Lubbock in ants, and by Charles Darwin in
+dogs, if authenticated, would vindicate for these species a much closer
+mental kinship to man than we have yet supposed.</p>
+
+<p>If we dispassionately analyze any religion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> whatever, paying less
+attention to what its professed teachers say it is, than to what the
+mass of the votaries believe it to be, we shall see that every form of
+adoration unconsciously assumes certain premises in reason, which give
+impulse and character to its emotional and active manifestations. They
+are its data or axioms, or, as I shall call them, its “rational
+postulates.” They can, I believe, be reduced to three, but not to a
+lesser number.</p>
+
+<p>Before the religious feeling acquires the distinctness of a notion and
+urges to conscious action, it must assume at least these three
+postulates, and without them it cannot rise into cognition. These, their
+necessary character and their relations, I shall set forth in this
+chapter.</p>
+
+<p>They are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li style="padding-left: 0.6em;">I. There is Order in things.</li>
+  <li style="padding-left: 0.3em;">II. This order is one of Intelligence.</li>
+  <li>III. All Intelligence is one in kind.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>I. The conscious or unconscious purpose of the religious sentiment, as
+I have shown in the last chapter, is the <i>fruition of a wish</i>, the
+success of which depends upon unknown power. The votary asks help where
+he cannot help himself. He expects it through an exertion of power,
+through an efficient cause. Obviously therefore, he is acting on the
+logical idea of Causality. This underlies and is essential to the
+sim<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>plest prayer. He extends it, moreover, out of the limits of
+experience into the regions of hypothesis. He has carried the analogy
+of observation into the realm of abstract conceptions. No matter if he
+does believe that the will of God is the efficient cause. Perhaps he is
+right; at any rate he cannot be denied the privilege of regarding
+volition as a co-operating cause. Limited at first to the transactions
+which most concerned men, the conception of order as a divine act
+extended itself to the known universe. Herodotus derives the Greek word
+for God <span class="greek" title="Theos">θεος</span> from a root which gives the meaning “to set in order,” and
+the Scandinavians gave the same sense to their word, <i>Regin</i>.<a name="FNanchor_90-1_56" id="FNanchor_90-1_56" href="#Footnote_90-1_56" class="fnanchor">90-1</a>
+Thus the abstract idea of cause or power is a postulate of all
+religious thought. Let us examine its meaning.</p>
+
+<p>Every reader, the least versed in the history of speculative thought for
+the last hundred years, knows how long and violent the discussions have
+been of the relations of “cause and effect.” Startled by the criticisms
+of Hume, Kant sought to elude them by distinguishing between two spheres
+of thought, the understanding and the reason. Sir William Hamilton at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+first included the “principle of sufficient <a name="corr6" id="corr6"></a><ins class="correction" title="reason”">reason’</ins> in the laws of
+thought, but subsequently rejected it as pertaining to judgments, and
+therefore material, not formal. Schopenhauer claimed to have traced it
+to a fourfold root, and Mill with most of the current English schools,
+Bain, Austin, Spencer, &amp;c., maintained that it meant nothing but
+“uniformity of sequence.”</p>
+
+<p>It would be vain to touch upon a discussion so extended as this. In the
+first chapter I have remarked that the idea of cause does not enter into
+the conceptions of pure logic or thought. It is, as Hamilton saw,
+material. I shall only pause to show what is meant by the term “cause”
+in the physical sciences. When one event follows another, time after
+time, we have “uniformity of sequence.” Suppose the constitution of the
+race were so happy that we slept at night only, and always awoke a few
+moments before sunrise. Such a sequence quite without exception, should,
+if uniform experience is the source of the idea of cause, justly lead to
+the opinion that the sun rises because man awakes. As we know this
+conclusion would be erroneous, some other element beside sequence must
+complete a real cause. If now, it were shown that the relation of cause
+to effect which we actually entertain and cannot help entertaining is in
+some instances flatly contrary to all experience, then we must
+acknowledge that the idea of cause asks to con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>firm it something quite
+independent of experience, that is abstract. But such examples are
+common. We never saw two objects continue to approach without meeting;
+but we are constrained to believe that lines of certain descriptions can
+forever approach and never meet.</p>
+
+<p>The uniformity of sequence is, in fact, in the physical sciences never
+assumed to express the relation of cause and effect, until the
+connection between the antecedent and consequent can be set forth
+abstractly in mathematical formulæ. The sequence of the planetary
+motions was discovered by Kepler, but it was reserved for Newton to
+prove the theoretical necessity of this motion and establish its
+mathematical relations. The sequence of sensations to impressions is
+well known, but the law of the sequence remains the desideratum in
+psychology.<a name="FNanchor_92-1_57" id="FNanchor_92-1_57" href="#Footnote_92-1_57" class="fnanchor">92-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Science, therefore, has been correctly defined as “the knowledge of
+system.” Its aim is to ascertain the laws of phenomena, to define the
+“order in things.” Its fundamental postulate is that order exists, that
+all things are “lapped in universal law.” It acknowledges no exception,
+and it considers that all law is capable of final expression in
+quantity, in mathematical symbols.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> It is the manifest of reason, “whose
+unceasing endeavor is to banish the idea of Chance.”<a name="FNanchor_93-1_58" id="FNanchor_93-1_58" href="#Footnote_93-1_58" class="fnanchor">93-1</a></p>
+
+<p>We thus see that its postulate is the same as that of the religious
+sentiment. Wherein then do they differ? Not in the recognition of
+chance. Accident, chance, does not exist for the religious sense in any
+stage of its growth. Everywhere religion proclaims in the words of
+Dante:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem"><span class="i5">“le cose tutte quante,</span><br />
+Hann’ ordine tra loro;”</p>
+
+<p>everywhere in the more optimistic faiths it holds this order, in the
+words of St. Augustine, to be one “most fair, of excellent
+things.”<a name="FNanchor_93-2_59" id="FNanchor_93-2_59" href="#Footnote_93-2_59" class="fnanchor">93-2</a></p>
+
+<p>What we call “the element of chance” is in its scientific sense that of
+which we do not know the law; while to the untutored religious mind it
+is the manifestation of divine will. The Kamschatkan, when his boat is
+lost in the storm, attributes it to the vengeance of a god angered
+because he scraped the snow from his shoes with a knife, instead of
+using a piece of wood; if a Dakota has bad luck in hunting, he says it
+is caused by his wife stepping over a bone and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> thus irritating a
+spirit. The idea of cause, the sentiment of order, is as strong as ever,
+but it differs from that admitted by science in recognizing as a
+possible efficient motor that which is incapable of mathematical
+expression, namely, a volition, a will. <i>Voluntas Dei asylum
+ignorantiæ</i>, is no unkind description of such an opinion.</p>
+
+<p>So long as this recognition is essential to the life of a religious
+system, just so long it will and must be in conflict with science, with
+every prospect of the latter gaining the victory. Is the belief in
+volition as an efficient cause indispensable to the religious sentiment
+in general? For this vital question we are not yet prepared, but must
+first consider the remaining rational postulates it assumes. The second
+is</p>
+
+<p>II. This order is one of intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>By this is not meant that the order is one of <i>an</i> Intelligence, but
+simply that the order which exists in things is conformable to man’s
+thinking power,&mdash;that if he knows the course of events he can appreciate
+their relations,&mdash;that facts can be subsumed under thoughts. Whatever
+scheme of order there were, would be nothing to him unless it were
+conformable to his intellectual functions. It could not form the matter
+of his thought.<a name="FNanchor_94-1_60" id="FNanchor_94-1_60" href="#Footnote_94-1_60" class="fnanchor">94-1</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>Science, which deals in the first instance exclusively with phenomena,
+also assumes this postulate. It recognizes that when the formal laws,
+which it is its mission to define, are examined apart from their
+material expression, when they are emptied of their phenomenal contents,
+they show themselves to be logical constructions, reasoned truths, in
+other words, forms of intelligence. The votary who assumes the order one
+of volition alone, or volition with physical necessity, still assumes
+the volitions are as comprehensible as are his own; that they are
+purposive; that the order, even if not clear to him, is both real and
+reasonable. Were it not so, did he believe that the gods carried out
+their schemes through a series of caprices inconceivable to
+intelligence, through absolute chance, insane caprice, or blind fate, he
+could neither see in occurrences the signs of divine rule, nor hope for
+aid in obtaining his wishes. In fact, order is only conceivable to man
+at all as an order conformable to his own intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>This second postulate embraces what has been recently called the
+“Principle of continuity,” indispensable to sane thought of any kind. A
+late work defines it as “the trust that the Supreme Governor of the
+Universe will not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> put us to permanent intellectual confusion.”<a name="FNanchor_96-1_61" id="FNanchor_96-1_61" href="#Footnote_96-1_61" class="fnanchor">96-1</a>
+Looked at closely, it is the identification of order with reason.</p>
+
+<p>The third and final postulate of the religious sentiment is that</p>
+
+<p>III. All intelligence is one in kind.</p>
+
+<p>Religion demands that there be a truth which is absolutely true, and
+that there be a goodness which is universally and eternally good. Each
+system claims the possession, and generally the exclusive possession,
+of this goodness and truth. They are right in maintaining these views,
+for unless such is the case, unless there is an absolute truth,
+cognizable to man, yet not transcended by any divine intelligence, all
+possible religion becomes mere child’s play, and its professed
+interpretation of mysteries but trickery.</p>
+
+<p>The Grecian sophists used to meet the demonstrations of the
+mathematicians and philosophers by conceding that they did indeed set
+forth the truth, so far as man’s intelligence goes, but that to the
+intelligence of other beings&mdash;a bat or an angel, for example&mdash;they might
+not hold good at all; that there is a different truth for different
+intelligences; that the intelligence makes the truth; and that as for
+the absolutely true, true to every intelligence, there is no such thing.
+They acknowledged that a simple syl<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>logism, constructed on these
+premises, made their own assertions partake of the doubtful character
+that was by them ascribed to other human knowledge. But this they
+gracefully accepted as the inevitable conclusion of reasoning. Their
+position is defended to-day by the advocates of “positivism,” who
+maintain the relativity of all truth.</p>
+
+<p>But such a conclusion is wholly incompatible with the religious mind. It
+must assume that there are some common truths, true infinitely, and
+therefore, that in all intelligence there is an essential unity of kind.
+“This postulation,” says a close thinker, “is the very foundation and
+essence of religion. Destroy it, and you destroy the very possibility of
+religion.”<a name="FNanchor_97-1_62" id="FNanchor_97-1_62" href="#Footnote_97-1_62" class="fnanchor">97-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Clear as this would seem to be to any reflective mind, yet, strange to
+say, it is to-day the current fashion for religious teachers to deny it.
+Scared by a phantasm of their own creation, they have deserted the only
+position in which it is possible to defend religion at all. Afraid of
+the accusation that they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> make God like man, they have removed Him
+beyond the pale of all intelligence, and logically, therefore,
+annihilated every conception of Him.</p>
+
+<p>Teachers and preachers do not tire of telling their followers that God
+is incomprehensible; that his ways are past finding out; that he is the
+Unconditioned, the Infinite, the Unknowable. They really mean that he is
+another order of intelligence, which, to quote a famous comparison of
+Spinoza, has the same name as ours, but is no more one with it than the
+dog is one with his namesake, the dog-star!</p>
+
+<p>They are eagerly seconded in this position by a school of writers who
+distinctly see where such a doctrine leads, and who do not hesitate to
+carry it home. Mr. Mill is right in his scorn for those who “erect the
+incurable limitations of the human conceptive faculty into laws of the
+outward universe,” if there are such limitations. And Mr. Spencer is
+justified in condemning “the transcendent audacity which passes current
+as piety,” if his definition of the underlying verity of religion is
+admitted&mdash;that it is “the consciousness of an inscrutable power which,
+in its nature, transcends intuition, and is beyond imagination.”<a name="FNanchor_98-1_63" id="FNanchor_98-1_63" href="#Footnote_98-1_63" class="fnanchor">98-1</a>
+They are but following the orthodox Sir William Hamilton, who says:
+“Creation must be thought as the incomprehen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>sible evolution of power
+into energy.”<a name="FNanchor_99-1_64" id="FNanchor_99-1_64" href="#Footnote_99-1_64" class="fnanchor">99-1</a> We are to think that which by the terms of the
+proposition is unthinkable! A most wise master!</p>
+
+<p>Let it be noted that the expressions such as inscrutable,
+incomprehensible, unknowable, etc., which such writers use, are avowedly
+not limited to man’s intelligence in its present state of cultivation,
+but are applied to his <i>kind</i> of intelligence, no matter how far
+trained. They mean that the inscrutable, etc., is not merely not <i>at
+present</i> open to man’s observation&mdash;that were a truism&mdash;but that it
+cannot be subsumed under the laws of his reasoning powers. In other
+words, they deny that all intelligence is one in <i>kind</i>. Some accept
+this fully, and concede that what are called the laws of order, as shown
+by science, are only matters of experience, true here and now, not
+necessarily and absolutely true.</p>
+
+<p>This is a consistent inference, and applies, of course, with equal force
+to all moral laws and religious dogmas.</p>
+
+<p>The arguments brought against such opinions have been various. The old
+reply to the sophists has been dressed in modern garb, and it has been
+repeatedly put that if no statement is really true, then this one, to
+wit “no statement is really true,” also is not true; and if that is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+case, then there are statements which really are true. The theory of
+evolution as a dogma has been attacked by its own maxims; in asserting
+that all knowledge is imperfect, it calls its own verity into question.
+If all truth is relative, then this at least is absolutely true.</p>
+
+<p>It has also been noted that all such words as incomprehensible,
+unconditioned, infinite, unknowable, are in their nature privatives,
+they are not a thought but are only one element of a thought. As has
+been shown in the first chapter, every thought is made up of a positive
+and a privative, and it is absurd and unnatural to separate the one from
+the other. The concept man, regarded as a division of the higher concept
+animal, is made up of man and not-man. In so far as other animals are
+included under the term “not-man” they do not come into intelligent
+cognition; but that does not mean that they cannot do so. So “the
+unconditioned” is really a part of the thought of “the conditioned,” the
+“unknowable” a part of the “knowable,” the “infinite” a part of the
+thought of the “finite.” Under material images these privatives, as
+such, cannot be expressed; but in pure thought which deals with symbols
+and types alone, they can be.</p>
+
+<p>But if the abstract laws of thought themselves are confined in the
+limits of one kind of intelligence, then we cannot take an appeal to
+them to attack this sophism. Therefore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> on maintaining their integrity
+the discussion must finally rest. This has been fully recognized by
+thinkers, one of whom has not long since earnestly called attention to
+“the urgent necessity of fathoming the psychical mechanism on which
+rests all our intellectual life.”<a name="FNanchor_101-1_65" id="FNanchor_101-1_65" href="#Footnote_101-1_65" class="fnanchor">101-1</a></p>
+
+<p>In this endeavor the attempt has been made to show that the logical laws
+are derived in accordance with the general theory of evolution from the
+natural or material laws of thinking. These, as I have previously
+remarked, are those of the association of ideas, and come under the
+general heads of contiguity and similarity. Such combinations are
+independent of the aim of the logical laws, which is <i>correct</i> thinking.
+A German writer, Dr. Windelband, has therefore argued that as
+experience, strengthened by hereditary transmission, continued to show
+that the particular combinations which are in accord with what we call
+the laws of thought furnished the best, that is, the most useful
+results, they were adopted in preference to others and finally assumed
+as the criteria of truth.</p>
+
+<p>Of course it follows from this that as these laws are merely the outcome
+of human experience they can have no validity outside of it.
+Consequently, adds the writer I have quoted, just as the study of optics
+teaches us that the human eye yields a very different picture of the
+exter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>nal world from that given by the eye of a fly, for instance, and
+as each of them is equally far from the reality, so the truth which our
+intelligence enables us to reach is not less remote from that which is
+the absolutely true. He considers that this is proven by the very nature
+of the “law of contradiction” itself, which must be inconsistent with
+the character of absolute thought. For in the latter, positive truth
+only can exist, therefore no negation, and no law about the relation of
+affirmative to negative.<a name="FNanchor_102-1_66" id="FNanchor_102-1_66" href="#Footnote_102-1_66" class="fnanchor">102-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The latter criticism assumes that negation is of the nature of error, a
+mistake drawn from the use of the negative in applied logic. For in
+formal logic, whether as quantity or quality, that is, in pure
+mathematics or abstract thought, the reasoning is just as correct when
+negatives are employed as when positives, as I have remarked before. The
+other criticism is more important, for if we can reach the conclusion
+that the real laws of the universe are other than as we understand them,
+then our intelligence is not of a kind to represent them.</p>
+
+<p>Such an opinion can be refuted directly. The laws which we profess to
+know are as operative in the remotest nebulae as in the planet we
+inhabit. It is altogether likely that countless<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> forms of intelligent
+beings inhabit the starry wastes, receiving through sensory apparatus
+widely different from ours very diverse impressions of the external
+world. All this we know, but we also know that if those beings have
+defined the laws which underlie phenomena, they have found them to be
+the same that we have; for were they in the least different, in
+principle or application, they could not furnish the means, as those we
+know do, of predicting the recurrence of the celestial motions with
+unfailing accuracy. Therefore the demonstrations of pure mathematics,
+such as the relation of an absciss to an ordinate, or of the diameter to
+the circumference, must be universally true; and hence the logical laws
+which are the ultimate criteria of these truths must also be true to
+every intelligence, real or possible.<a name="FNanchor_103-1_67" id="FNanchor_103-1_67" href="#Footnote_103-1_67" class="fnanchor">103-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Another and forcible reply to these objections is that the laws which
+our intelligence has reached and recognizes as universally true are not
+only not derived from experience, but are in direct opposition to and
+are constantly contradicted by it. Neither sense nor imagination has
+ever portrayed a perfect circle in which the diameter bore to the
+circumference the exact proportion which we know it does bear. The very
+fact that we have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> learned that our senses are wholly untrustworthy, and
+that experience is always fallacious, shows that we have tests of truth
+depending on some other faculty. “Each series of connected facts in
+nature furnishes the intimation of an order more exact than that which
+it directly manifests.”<a name="FNanchor_104-1_68" id="FNanchor_104-1_68" href="#Footnote_104-1_68" class="fnanchor">104-1</a></p>
+
+<p>But, it has been urged, granted that we have reached something like
+positive knowledge of those laws which are the <i>order</i> of the
+manifestation of phenomena, the real Inscrutable, the mysterious
+Unknowable, escapes us still; this is the <i>nature</i> of phenomenal
+manifestation, “the secret of the Power manifested in Existence.”<a name="FNanchor_104-2_69" id="FNanchor_104-2_69" href="#Footnote_104-2_69" class="fnanchor">104-2</a>
+At this point the physicist trips and falls; and here, too, the
+metaphysician stumbles.</p>
+
+<p>I have already spoken of our aptitude to be frightened by a chimera, and
+deceived by such words as “nature” and “cause.” Laws and rules, by which
+we express Order, are restrictive only in a condition of intelligence
+short of com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>pleteness, only therefore in that province of thought which
+concerns itself with material facts. The musician is not fettered by the
+laws of harmony, but only by those of discord. The truly virtuous man,
+remarks Aristotle, never has occasion to practise self-denial. Hence,
+mathematically, “the theory of the intellectual action involves the
+recognition of a sphere of thought from which all limits are
+withdrawn.”<a name="FNanchor_105-1_70" id="FNanchor_105-1_70" href="#Footnote_105-1_70" class="fnanchor">105-1</a> True freedom, real being, is only possible when law
+as such is inexistent. Only the lawless makes the law. When the idea of
+the laws of order thus disappears in that of free function consistent
+with perfect order, when, as Kant expresses it, we ascend from the
+contemplation of things acting according to law, to action according to
+the representation of law,<a name="FNanchor_105-2_71" id="FNanchor_105-2_71" href="#Footnote_105-2_71" class="fnanchor">105-2</a> we can, without audacity, believe that
+we have penetrated the secret of existence, that we have reached the
+limits of explanation and found one wholly satisfying the highest
+reason. Intelligence, not apart from phenomena, but parallel with them,
+not under law, but through perfect harmony above it, <i>power one with
+being</i>, the will which is “the essence of reason,” the emanant cause of
+phenomena, immanent only by the number of its relations we have not
+learned, this is the satisfying and exhaustive solution.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> The folly lies
+not in claiming reason as the absolute, but in assuming that the
+absolute is beyond and against reason.</p>
+
+<p>There is nothing new in this explanation; and it is none the worse for
+being old. If Anaxagoras discerned it dimly, and many a one since him
+has spoken of Intelligence, Reason, Nous or Logos as the constructive
+factor of the creation; if “all the riper religions of the Orient
+assumed as their fundamental principle that unless the Highest
+penetrates all parts of the Universe, and itself conditions whatever is
+conditioned, no universal order, no Kosmos, no real existence is
+thinkable;”<a name="FNanchor_106-1_72" id="FNanchor_106-1_72" href="#Footnote_106-1_72" class="fnanchor">106-1</a> such inadequate expressions should never obscure the
+truth that reason in its loftiest flights descries nothing nobler than
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>The relative, as its name implies, for ever presupposes and points to
+the absolute, the latter an Intelligence also, not one that renders ours
+futile and fallacious, but one that imparts to ours the capacity we
+possess of reaching eternal and ubiquitous truth. The severest
+mathematical reasoning forces us to this conclusion, and we can dispense
+with speculation about it.</p>
+
+<p>Only on the principle which here receives its proof, that man has
+something in him of God, that the norm of the true holds good
+throughout,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> can he know or care anything about divinity. “It takes a
+god to discern a god,” profoundly wrote Novalis.</p>
+
+<p>When a religion teaches what reason disclaims, not through lack of
+testimony but through a denial of the rights of reason, then that
+religion wars against itself and will fall. Faith is not the acceptance
+of what intelligence rejects, but a suspension of judgment for want of
+evidence. A thoroughly religious mind will rejoice when its faith is
+shaken with doubt; for the doubt indicates increased light rendering
+perceptible some possible error not before seen.</p>
+
+<p>Least of all should a believer in a divine revelation deny the oneness
+of intelligence. For if he is right, then the revealed truth he talks
+about is but relative and partial, and those inspired men who claimed
+for it the sign manual of the Absolute were fools, insane or liars.</p>
+
+<p>If the various arguments I have rehearsed indicate conclusively that in
+the laws of thought we have the norms of absolute truth&mdash;and skepticism
+on this point can be skepticism and not belief only by virtue of the
+very law which it doubts&mdash;some important corollaries present themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding in the first place the nature of these laws, we find them very
+different from those of physical necessity&mdash;those which are called the
+laws of nature. The latter are authoritative, they are never means to an
+end, they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> admit no exception, they leave no room for error. Not so with
+the laws of reasoning. Man far more frequently disregards than obeys
+them; they leave a wide field for fallacy. Wherein then lies that
+theoretical necessity which is the essence of law? The answer is that
+the laws of reasoning are <i>purposive</i> only, they are regulative, not
+constitutive, and their theoretical necessity lies in the end, the
+result of reasoning, that is, in the knowing, in the recognition of
+truth. They are what the Germans call <i>Zweckgesetze</i>.<a name="FNanchor_108-1_73" id="FNanchor_108-1_73" href="#Footnote_108-1_73" class="fnanchor">108-1</a></p>
+
+<p>But in mathematical reasoning and in the processes of physical nature
+the absolute character of the laws which prevail depends for its final
+necessity on their consistency, their entire correspondence with the
+laws of right reasoning. Applied to them the purposive character of the
+laws is not seen, for their ends are fulfilled. We are brought,
+therefore, to the momentous conclusion that the manifestation of Order,
+whether in material or mental processes, “affords a presumption, not
+measurable indeed but real, of the fulfilment of an end or
+purpose;”<a name="corr7" id="corr7"></a><ins class="correction" title="108-2"><a name="FNanchor_108-2_74" id="FNanchor_108-2_74" href="#Footnote_108-2_74" class="fnanchor">108-1</a></ins> and this purpose, one which has other objects in
+view than the continuance of physical processes. The history of mind,
+from protoplasmic sensation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> upward, must be a progression, whose end
+will be worth more than was its beginning, a process, which has for its
+purpose the satisfaction of the laws of mind. This is nothing else than
+correct thinking, the attainment of truth.</p>
+
+<p>But this conclusion, reached by a searching criticism of the validity of
+scientific laws, is precisely that which is the postulate of all
+developed creeds. “The faith of all historical religions,” says Bunsen,
+“starts from the assumption of a universal moral order, in which the
+good is alone the true, and the true is the only good.”<a name="FNanchor_109-1_75" id="FNanchor_109-1_75" href="#Footnote_109-1_75" class="fnanchor">109-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The purposive nature of the processes of thought, as well as the manner
+in which they govern the mind, is illustrated by the history of man. His
+actions, whether as an individual or as a nation, are guided by ideas
+not derived from the outer world, for they do not correspond to actual
+objects, but from mental pictures of things as he wants them to exist.
+These are his hopes, his wishes, his ideals; they are the more potent,
+and prompt to more vigorous action, the clearer they are to his mind.
+Even when he is unconscious of them, they exist as tendencies, or
+instincts, inherited often from some remote ancestor, perhaps even the
+heir-loom of a stage of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> lower life, for they occur where sensation
+alone is present, and are an important factor in general evolution.</p>
+
+<p>It is usually conceded that this theory of organic development very much
+attenuates the evidence of what is known as the argument from design in
+nature, by which the existence of an intelligent Creator is sought to be
+shown. If the distinction between the formal laws of mathematics, which
+are those of nature, and logic, which are those of mind, be fully
+understood, no one will seek such an argument in the former but in the
+latter only, for they alone, as I have shown, are purposive, and they
+are wholly so. The only God that nature points to is an adamantine Fate.</p>
+
+<p>If religion has indeed the object which Bunsen assigns it, physical
+phenomena cannot concern it. Its votaries should not look to change the
+operation of natural laws by incantations, prayers or miracles.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever in the material world there presents itself a seeming
+confusion, it is certain to turn out but an incompleteness of our
+observation, and on closer inspection it resolves itself into some
+higher scheme of Order. This is not so in the realm of thought. Wrong
+thinking never can become right thinking. A profound writer has said:
+“One explanation only of these facts can be given, viz., that the
+distinction be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>tween <i>true</i> and <i>false</i>, between <i>correct</i> and
+<i>incorrect</i>, exists in the processes of the intellect, but not in the
+region of a physical necessity.”<a name="FNanchor_111-1_76" id="FNanchor_111-1_76" href="#Footnote_111-1_76" class="fnanchor">111-1</a> A religion therefore which
+claims as its mission the discovery of the true and its identification
+with the good,&mdash;in other words the persuading man that he should always
+act in accordance with the dictates of right reasoning&mdash;should be
+addressed primarily to the intellect.</p>
+
+<p>As man can attain to certain truths which are without any mixture of
+fallacy, which when once he comprehends them he can never any more
+doubt, and which though thus absolute do not fetter his intellect but
+first give it the use of all its powers to the extent of those truths;
+so he can conceive of an Intelligence in which all truth is thus without
+taint of error. Not only is such an Intelligence conceivable, it is
+necessary to conceive it, in order to complete the scientific induction
+of “a sphere of thought from which all limits are withdrawn,” forced
+upon us by the demonstrations of the exact sciences.<a name="FNanchor_111-2_77" id="FNanchor_111-2_77" href="#Footnote_111-2_77" class="fnanchor">111-2</a></p>
+
+<p>Thus do we reach the foundation for the faith in a moral government of
+the world, which it has been the uniform characteristic of religions to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+assert; but a government, as thus analytically reached, not easily
+corresponding with that which popular religion speaks of. Such feeble
+sentiments as mercy, benevolence and effusive love, scarcely find place
+in this conception of the source of universal order. In this cosmical
+dust-cloud we inhabit, whose each speck is a sun, man’s destiny plays a
+microscopic part. The vexed question whether ours is the best possible
+or the worst possible world, drops into startling insignificance.
+Religion has taught the abnegation of self; science is first to teach
+the humiliation of the race. Not for man’s behoof were created the
+greater and the lesser lights, not for his deeds will the sun grow dark
+or the stars fall, not with any reference to his pains or pleasure was
+this universe spread upon the night. That Intelligence which pursues its
+own ends in this All, which sees from first to last the chain of causes
+which mould human action, measures not its purposes by man’s halting
+sensations. Such an Intelligence is fitly described by the
+philosopher-poet as one,</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“Wo die Gerechtigkeit so Wurzel schläget,<br />
+Und Schuld und Unschuld so erhaben wäget<br />
+Dass sie vertritt die Stelle aller Güte.”<a name="FNanchor_112-1_78" id="FNanchor_112-1_78" href="#Footnote_112-1_78" class="fnanchor">112-1</a></p>
+
+<p>In the scheme of the universe, pain and pleasure, truth and error, has
+each its fitness, and no single thought or act can be judged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> apart from
+all others that ever have been and ever shall be.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the power that was contemplated by the Hebrew prophet, one from
+which all evil things and all good things come, and who disposes them
+all to the fulfilment of a final purpose:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>“I am the Lord and there is none else. I form the light and create
+darkness; I make peace and create evil.”</p>
+
+<p>“I am God and there is none like me, declaring the end from the
+beginning, and from ancient times the things which are not yet
+done.”<a name="FNanchor_113-1_79" id="FNanchor_113-1_79" href="#Footnote_113-1_79" class="fnanchor">113-1</a></p></div>
+
+<p>In a similar strain the ancient Aryan sang:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“This do I ask thee, tell me, O Ahura!<br />
+Who is he, working good, made the light and also darkness?<br />
+Who is he, working good, made the sleep as well as waking?<br />
+Who the night, as well as noon and the morning?”</p>
+
+<p>And the reply came:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>“Know also this, O pure Zarathustra: through my wisdom, through
+which was the beginning of the world, so also its end shall
+be.”<a name="FNanchor_113-2_80" id="FNanchor_113-2_80" href="#Footnote_113-2_80" class="fnanchor">113-2</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Or as the Arabian apostle wrote, inspired by the same idea:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“Praise the name of thy Lord, the Most High,<br />
+Who hath created and balanced all things,<br />
+Who hath fixed their destinies and guideth them.”</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>“The Revelation of this book is from the Mighty, the Wise. We have
+not created the Heavens and the Earth and all that is between them
+otherwise than with a purpose and for a settled term.”<a name="FNanchor_113-3_81" id="FNanchor_113-3_81" href="#Footnote_113-3_81" class="fnanchor">113-3</a></p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_87-1_53" id="Footnote_87-1_53" href="#FNanchor_87-1_53">87-1</a> <i>The Emotions and Will</i>, p. 594. So Professor Tyndall
+speaks of confining the religious sentiment to “the region of emotion,
+which is its proper sphere.”</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_87-2_54" id="Footnote_87-2_54" href="#FNanchor_87-2_54">87-2</a> H. L. Mansel, <i>The Limits of Religious Thought</i>, p. 115.
+(Boston, 1859.)</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_87-3_55" id="Footnote_87-3_55" href="#FNanchor_87-3_55">87-3</a> “The <i>one relation</i> which is the ground of all true
+religion is a total dependence upon God.” William Law, <i>Address to the
+Clergy</i>, p. 12. “The essential germ of the religious life is
+concentrated in the absolute feeling of dependence on infinite power.”
+J. D. Morell, <i>The Philosophy of Religion</i>, p. 94. (New York, 1849.)
+This accomplished author, well known for his <i>History of Philosophy</i>, is
+the most able English exponent of the religious views of Schleiermacher
+and Jacobi.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_90-1_56" id="Footnote_90-1_56" href="#FNanchor_90-1_56">90-1</a> “Weil sie die Welt <i>eingerichtet</i> haben.” Creuzer,
+<i>Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Vœlker</i>, Bd. I. s. 169. It is not
+of any importance that Herodotus’ etymology is incorrect: what I wish to
+show is that he and his contemporaries entertained the conception of the
+gods as the authors of order.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_92-1_57" id="Footnote_92-1_57" href="#FNanchor_92-1_57">92-1</a> This distinction is well set forth by A. von Humboldt,
+<i>Kosmos</i>, p. 388 (Phila., 1869).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_93-1_58" id="Footnote_93-1_58" href="#FNanchor_93-1_58">93-1</a> “Ueberall den Zufall zu verbannen, zu verhindern, dass
+in dem Gebiete des Beobachtens und Denkens er nicht zu herrschen
+scheine, im Gebiete des Handelns nicht herrsche, ist das Streben der
+Vernunft.” Wilhelm von Humboldt, <i>Ueber Goethe’s Hermann und Dorothea</i>,
+iv.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_93-2_59" id="Footnote_93-2_59" href="#FNanchor_93-2_59">93-2</a> “Iste ordo pulcherrimus rerum valde bonarum.”
+<i>Confessiones</i>, Lib. xiii. cap. xxxv.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_94-1_60" id="Footnote_94-1_60" href="#FNanchor_94-1_60">94-1</a> “The notion of a God is not contained in the mere notion
+of Cause, that is the notion of Fate or Power. To this must be added
+Intelligence,” etc. Sir Wm. Hamilton, <i>Lectures on Metaphysics</i>, Lecture
+ii.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_96-1_61" id="Footnote_96-1_61" href="#FNanchor_96-1_61">96-1</a> <i>The Unseen Universe</i>, p. 60.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_97-1_62" id="Footnote_97-1_62" href="#FNanchor_97-1_62">97-1</a> James Frederick Ferrier, <i>Lectures on Greek Philosophy</i>,
+p. 13 (Edinburgh, 1866). On a question growing directly out of this, to
+wit, the relative character of good and evil, Mr. J. S. Mill expresses
+himself thus: “My opinion of this doctrine is, that it is beyond all
+others which now engage speculative minds, the decisive one between
+moral good and evil for the Christian world.” <i>Examination of Hamilton’s
+Philosophy</i>, p. 90.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_98-1_63" id="Footnote_98-1_63" href="#FNanchor_98-1_63">98-1</a> <i>First Principles</i>, pp. 108, 127.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_99-1_64" id="Footnote_99-1_64" href="#FNanchor_99-1_64">99-1</a> <i>Lectures on Metaphysics</i>, Vol. I., p. 690.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_101-1_65" id="Footnote_101-1_65" href="#FNanchor_101-1_65">101-1</a> Professor Steinthal in the <i>Zeitschrift für
+Völkerpsychologie</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_102-1_66" id="Footnote_102-1_66" href="#FNanchor_102-1_66">102-1</a> Dr. W. Windelband, <i>Die Erkenntnissiehre unter dem
+voelkerpsychologischem Gesichtspunkte</i>, in the <i>Zeitschrift für
+Völkerpsychologie</i>, 1874, <i>Bd. VIII.</i> S. 165 <i>sqq.</i></p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_103-1_67" id="Footnote_103-1_67" href="#FNanchor_103-1_67">103-1</a> I would ask the reader willing to pursue this reasoning
+further, to peruse the charming essay of Oersted, entitled <i>Das ganze
+Dasein Ein Vernunftreich</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_104-1_68" id="Footnote_104-1_68" href="#FNanchor_104-1_68">104-1</a> Geo. Boole, <i>An Investigation of the Laws of Thought</i>,
+p. 407.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_104-2_69" id="Footnote_104-2_69" href="#FNanchor_104-2_69">104-2</a> Herbert Spencer, <i>First Principles</i>, p. 112. Spinoza’s
+famous proposition, previously quoted, <i>Unaquæque res quantum in se est,
+in suo esse perseverare conatur</i>, (<i>Ethices, Pars III., Prop. VI.</i>,)
+expresses also the ultimate of modern investigation. A recent critic
+considers it is a fallacy because the conatus “surreptitiously implies a
+sense of effort or struggle for existence,” whereas the logical concept
+of a res does not involve effort (S. N. Hodgson, <i>The Theory of
+Practice</i>, vol. I. pp. 134-6, London, 1870.) The answer is that identity
+implies continuance. In organic life we have the fact of nutrition, a
+function whose duty is to supply waste, and hence offer direct
+opposition to perturbing forces.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_105-1_70" id="Footnote_105-1_70" href="#FNanchor_105-1_70">105-1</a> Geo. Boole, <i>The Laws of Thought</i>, p. 419.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_105-2_71" id="Footnote_105-2_71" href="#FNanchor_105-2_71">105-2</a> Kant, <i>The Metaphysic of Ethics</i>, p. 23 (Eng. Trans.
+London, 1869.)</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_106-1_72" id="Footnote_106-1_72" href="#FNanchor_106-1_72">106-1</a> Creuzer, <i>Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Voelker</i>,
+Bd. I. s. 291.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_108-1_73" id="Footnote_108-1_73" href="#FNanchor_108-1_73">108-1</a> See this distinction between physical and thought laws
+fully set forth by Prof. Boole in the appendix to <i>The Laws of Thought</i>,
+and by Dr. Windelband, <i>Zeitschrift für Voelkerpsychologie</i>, Bd. VIII.,
+s. 165 sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_108-2_74" id="Footnote_108-2_74" href="#FNanchor_108-2_74">108-2</a> Geo. Boole, u. s. p. 399.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_109-1_75" id="Footnote_109-1_75" href="#FNanchor_109-1_75">109-1</a> “Der Glaube aller geschichtlichen Religionen geht aus
+von dieser Annahme einer sittlichen, in Gott bewusst lebenden,
+Weltordnung, wonach das Gute das allein Wahre ist, and das Wahre das
+allein Gute.” <i>Gott in der Geschichte</i>, Bd. I. s. xl. Leipzig, 1857.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_111-1_76" id="Footnote_111-1_76" href="#FNanchor_111-1_76">111-1</a> Geo. Boole, <i>Laws of Thought</i>, p. 410.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_111-2_77" id="Footnote_111-2_77" href="#FNanchor_111-2_77">111-2</a> The latest researches in natural science confirm the
+expressions of W. von Humboldt: “Das Streben der Natur ist auf etwas
+Unbeschränktes gerichtet.” “Die Natur mit endlichen Mitteln unendliche
+Zwecke verfolgt.” <i>Ueber den Geschlechtsunterschied, etc.</i></p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_112-1_78" id="Footnote_112-1_78" href="#FNanchor_112-1_78">112-1</a> Wilhelm von Humboldt, <i>Sonnette</i>, “Höchste
+Gerechtigkeit.”</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_113-1_79" id="Footnote_113-1_79" href="#FNanchor_113-1_79">113-1</a> Isaiah, xlv. 7; xlvi. 10.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_113-2_80" id="Footnote_113-2_80" href="#FNanchor_113-2_80">113-2</a> <i>Khordah&mdash;avesta</i>, <i>Ormazd&mdash;Yasht</i>, 38, and <i>Yaçna</i>,
+42.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_113-3_81" id="Footnote_113-3_81" href="#FNanchor_113-3_81">113-3</a> <i>The Koran</i>, Suras lxxxvii., xlvi.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapdivider"><a name="THE_PRAYER_AND_ITS_ANSWER" id="THE_PRAYER_AND_ITS_ANSWER"></a>THE PRAYER AND ITS ANSWER.</h2>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="chapterhead">SUMMARY.</h3>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Religion starts with a Prayer. This is an appeal to the unknown,
+and is indispensable in religious thought. The apparent exceptions
+of Buddhism and Confucianism.</p>
+
+<p>All prayers relate to the fulfilment of a wish. At first its direct
+object is alone thought of. This so frequently fails that the
+indirect object rises into view. This stated to be the increase of
+the pleasurable emotions. The inadequacy of this statement.</p>
+
+<p>The answers to prayer. As a form of Expectant Attention, it exerts
+much subjective power. Can it influence external phenomena? It is
+possible. Deeply religious minds reject both these answers,
+however. They claim the objective answer to be Inspiration. All
+religions unite in this claim.</p>
+
+<p>Inspirations have been contradictory. That is genuine which teaches
+truths which cannot be doubted concerning duty and deity. A certain
+mental condition favors the attainment of such truths. This
+simulated in religious entheasm. Examples. It is allied to the most
+intense intellectual action, but its steps remain unknown.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="chaptitle">THE PRAYER AND ITS ANSWER.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> foregoing analysis of the religious sentiment results in finding it,
+even in its simplest forms, a product of complicated reasoning forced
+into action by some of the strongest emotions, and maintaining its
+position indefeasibly through the limitations of the intellect. This it
+does, however, with a certain nobleness, for while it wraps the unknown
+in sacred mystery, it proclaims man one in nature with the Highest, by
+birthright a son of the gods, of an intelligence akin to theirs, and
+less than they only in degree. Through thus presenting at once his
+strength and his feebleness, his grandeur and his degradation, religion
+goes beyond philosophy or utility in suggesting motives for exertion,
+stimuli to labor. This phase of it will now occupy us.</p>
+
+<p>The Religious Sentiment manifests itself in thought, in word and in act
+through the respective media of the Prayer, the Myth and the Cult. The
+first embraces the personal relations of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> individual to the object
+of his worship, the second expresses the opinions current in a community
+about the nature and actions of that object, the last includes the
+symbols and ceremonies under and by which it is represented and
+propitiated.</p>
+
+<p>The first has the logical priority. Man cares nothing for God&mdash;<i>can</i>
+care nothing for him practically&mdash;except as an aid to the fulfilment of
+his desires, the satisfaction of his wants, as the “ground of his
+hopes.” The root of the religious sentiment, I have said, is “a wish
+whose fruition depends upon unknown power.” An appeal for aid to this
+unknown power, is the first form of prayer in its religious sense. It is
+not merely “the soul’s sincere desire.” This may well be and well
+directed, and yet not religious, as the devotion of the mathematician to
+the solution of an important problem. With the desire must be the
+earnest appeal to the unknown. A theological dictionary I have at hand
+almost correctly defines it as “a petition for spiritual or physical
+benefits which [we believe] we cannot obtain without divine
+co-operation.” The words in brackets must be inserted to complete the
+definition.</p>
+
+<p>It need not be expressed in language. Rousseau, in his <i>Confessions</i>,
+tells of a bishop who, in visiting his diocese, came across an old woman
+who was troubled because she could frame no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> prayer in words, but only
+cry, “Oh!” “Good mother,” said the wise bishop, “Pray always so. Your
+prayers are better than ours.”<a name="FNanchor_119-1_82" id="FNanchor_119-1_82" href="#Footnote_119-1_82" class="fnanchor">119-1</a></p>
+
+<p>A petition for assistance is, as I have said, one of its first forms;
+but not its only one. The assistance asked in simple prayers is often
+nothing more than the neutrality of the gods, their non-interference;
+“no preventing Providence,” as the expression is in our popular
+religion. Prayers of fear are of this kind:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“And they say, God be merciful,<br />
+Who ne’er said, God be praised.”</p>
+
+<p>Some of the Egyptian formulæ even threaten the gods if they prevent
+success.<a name="FNanchor_119-2_83" id="FNanchor_119-2_83" href="#Footnote_119-2_83" class="fnanchor">119-2</a> The wish accomplished, the prayer may be one of
+gratitude, often enough of that kind described by La Rochefoucauld, of
+which a prominent element is “a lively sense of possible favors to
+come.”<a name="FNanchor_119-3_84" id="FNanchor_119-3_84" href="#Footnote_119-3_84" class="fnanchor">119-3</a></p>
+
+<p>Or again, self-abasement being so natural a form of flattery that to
+call ourselves “obedient<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> and humble servants” of others, has passed
+into one of the commonest forms of address, many prayers are made up of
+similar expressions of humility and contrition, the votary calling
+himself a “miserable sinner” and a “vile worm,” and on the other hand
+magnifying his Lord as greater than all other gods, mighty and helpful
+to those who assiduously worship him.</p>
+
+<p>In some form or other, as of petition, gratitude or contrition, uttered
+in words or confined to the aspirations of the soul, prayer is a
+necessary factor in the religious life. It always has been, and it must
+be present.</p>
+
+<p>The exceptions which may be taken to this in religious systems are
+chiefly two, those supposed to have been founded by Buddha Sakyamuni and
+Confucius.</p>
+
+<p>It is undoubtedly correct that Buddha discouraged prayer. He permitted
+it at best in the inferior grades of discipleship. For himself, and all
+who reached his stage of culture, he pronounced it futile.</p>
+
+<p>But Buddha did not set out to teach a religion, but rather the inutility
+of all creeds. He struck shrewdly at the root of them by placing the
+highest condition of man in the total extinguishment of desire. He bound
+the gods in fetters by establishing a theory of causal connection (the
+twelve Nidana) which does away with the necessity of ruling powers. He
+then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> swept both matter and spirit into unreality by establishing the
+canon of ignorance, that the highest knowledge is to know that nothing
+is; that there is neither being nor not-being, nor yet the becoming.
+After this wholesale iconoclasm the only possible object in life for the
+sage is the negative one of avoiding pain, which though as unreal as
+anything else, interferes with his meditations on its unreality. To this
+negative end the only aid he can expect is from other sages who have
+gone farther in self-cultivation. Self, therefore, is the first, the
+collective body of sages is the second, and the written instruction of
+Buddha is the third; and these three are the only sources to which the
+consistent Buddhist looks for aid.</p>
+
+<p>This was Buddha’s teaching. But it is not Buddhism as professed by the
+hundreds of millions in Ceylon, in Thibet, China, Japan, and Siberia,
+who claim Sakyamuni under his names Buddha, the awakened, Tathagata,
+thus gone, or gone before, Siddartha, the accomplisher of the wish, and
+threescore and ten others of like purport, as their inspired teacher.
+Millions of saints, holy men, Buddhas, they believe, are ready to aid in
+every way the true believer, and incessant, constant prayer is, they
+maintain, the one efficient means to insure this aid. Repetition,
+dinning the divinities and wearying them into answering, is their
+theory. Therefore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> they will repeat a short formula of four words (<i>om
+mani padme hum</i>&mdash;Om! the jewel in the lotus, amen) thousands of times a
+day; or, as they correctly think it not a whit more mechanical, they
+write it a million times on strips of paper, fasten it around a
+cylinder, attach this to a water or a wind-wheel, and thus sleeping or
+waking, at home or abroad, keep up a steady fire of prayer at the gods,
+which finally, they sanguinely hope, will bring them to submission.</p>
+
+<p>No sect has such entire confidence in the power of prayer as the
+Buddhists. The most pious Mahometan or Christian does not approach their
+faith. After all is said and done, the latter has room to doubt the
+efficacy of his prayer. It may be refused. Not so the Buddhists. They
+have a syllogism which covers the case completely, as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">All things are in the power of the gods.<br />
+The gods are in the power of prayer.<br />
+Prayer is at the will of the saint.<br />
+Therefore all things are in the power of the saint.</p>
+
+<p>The only reason that any prayer fails is that it is not repeated often
+enough&mdash;a statement difficult to refute.</p>
+
+<p>The case with Confucius was different.<a name="FNanchor_122-1_85" id="FNanchor_122-1_85" href="#Footnote_122-1_85" class="fnanchor">122-1</a> No speculative dreamer,
+but a practical man, bent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> on improving his fellows by teaching them
+self-reliance, industry, honesty, good feeling and the attainment of
+material comfort, he did not see in the religious systems and doctrines
+of his time any assistance to these ends. Therefore, like Socrates and
+many other men of ancient and modern times, without actually condemning
+the faiths around him, or absolutely neglecting some external respect to
+their usages, he taught his followers to turn away from religious topics
+and occupy themselves with subjects of immediate utility. For questions
+of duty, man, he taught, has a sufficient guide within himself. “What
+you do not like,” he said, “when done to yourself, do not to others.”
+The wishes, he adds, should be limited to the attainable; thus their
+disappointment can be avoided by a just estimate of one’s own powers. He
+used to compare a wise man to an archer: “When the archer misses the
+target, he seeks for the cause of his failure within himself.” He did
+not like to talk about spiritual beings. When asked whether the dead had
+knowledge, he replied: “There is no present urgency about the matter. If
+they have, you will know it for yourself in time.” He did not deny the
+existence of unseen powers; on the contrary, he said: “The <i>kwei shin</i>
+(the most general term for supernatural beings) enter into all things,
+and there is nothing without them;” but he added, “We look for them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> and
+do not see them; we listen, but do not hear them.” In speaking of deity,
+he dropped the personal syllable (<i>te</i>) and only spoke of heaven, in the
+indefinite sense. Such was this extraordinary man. The utilitarian
+theory, what we call the common sense view of life, was never better
+taught. But his doctrine is not a religion. His followers erect temples,
+and from filial respect pay the usual honors to their ancestors, as
+Confucius himself did. But they ignore religious observances, strictly
+so-called.</p>
+
+<p>These examples, therefore, do not at all conflict with the general
+statement that no religion can exist without prayer. On the contrary, it
+is the native expression of the religious sentiment, that to which we
+must look for its most hidden meaning. The thoughtful Novalis, whose
+meditations are so rich in reflections on the religious nature of man,
+well said: “Prayer is to religion what thought is to philosophy. To pray
+is to make religion. The religious sense prays with like necessity that
+the reason thinks.”</p>
+
+<p>Whatever the form of the prayer, it has direct or indirect relation to
+the accomplishment of a wish. David prays to the Lord as the one who
+“satisfies the desire of every living thing,” who “will fulfil the
+desire of them that fear him,” and it is with the like faith that the
+heart of every votary is stirred when he approaches in prayer the
+divinity he adores.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Widely various are the things wished for. Their character is the test of
+religions. In primitive faiths and in uncultivated minds, prayers are
+confined to the nearest material advantages; they are directed to the
+attainment of food, of victory in combat, of safety in danger, of
+personal prosperity. They may all be summed up in a line of one which
+occurs in the Rig Veda: “O Lord Varuna! Grant that we may prosper in
+<i>getting and keeping</i>!”</p>
+
+<p>Beyond this point of “getting and keeping,” few primitive prayers take
+us. Those of the American Indians, as I have elsewhere shown, remained
+in this stage among the savage tribes, and rose above it only in the
+civilized states of Mexico and Peru. Prayers for health, for plenteous
+harvests, for safe voyages and the like are of this nature, though from
+their familiarity to us they seem less crude than the simple-hearted
+petition of the old Aryan, which I have quoted. They mean the same.</p>
+
+<p>The more thoughtful votaries of the higher forms of religion have,
+however, frequently drawn the distinction between the direct and
+indirect fulfilment of the wish. An abundant harvest, restoration to
+health, or a victory in battle is the object of our hopes, not in
+itself, but for its results upon ourselves. These, in their final
+expression, can mean nothing else than agreeable sensations and
+pleasurable emotions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> These, therefore, are the real though indirect
+objects of such prayers; often unconsciously so, because the ordinary
+devotee has little capacity and less inclination to analyze the nature
+of his religious feelings.</p>
+
+<p>A recent writer, Mr. Hodgson, has said: “The real answer to prayer is
+the increase of the joyful emotions, the decrease of the painful
+ones.”<a name="FNanchor_126-1_86" id="FNanchor_126-1_86" href="#Footnote_126-1_86" class="fnanchor">126-1</a> It would seem a simpler plan to make this directly the
+purport of our petitions; but to the modern mind this naked simplicity
+would be distasteful.</p>
+
+<p>Nor is the ordinary supplicant willing to look so far. The direct, not
+the indirect object of the wish, is what he wants. The lazzarone of
+Naples prays to his patron saint to favor his choice of a lottery
+ticket; if it turn out an unlucky number he will take the little leaden
+image of the saint from his pocket, revile it, spit on it, and trample
+it in the mud. Another man, when his prayer for success is not followed
+by victory, sends gifts to the church, flogs himself in public and
+fasts. Xenophon gives us in his <i>Economics</i> the prayer of a pious
+Athenian of his time, in the person of Ischomachus. “I seek to obtain,”
+says the latter, “from the gods by just prayers, strength and health,
+the respect of the community, the love of my friends, an honorable
+termination to my combats, and riches, the fruit of honest in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>dustry.”
+Xenophon evidently considered these appropriate objects for prayer, and
+from the petitions in many recent manuals of devotion, I should suppose
+most Christians of to-day would not see in them anything inappropriate.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the effort that has been made by Professor Creuzer<a name="FNanchor_127-1_87" id="FNanchor_127-1_87" href="#Footnote_127-1_87" class="fnanchor">127-1</a> to
+show that the classical nations rose to a higher use of prayer, one
+which made spiritual growth in the better sense of the phrase its main
+end; I think such instances were confined to single philosophers and
+poets. They do not represent the prayers of the average votary. Then and
+now he, as a rule, has little or no idea of any other answer to his
+prayer than the attainment of his wish.</p>
+
+<p>As such petitions, however, more frequently fail than succeed in their
+direct object, and as the alternative of considering them impotent is
+not open to the votary, some other explanation of their failure was
+taught in very early day. At first, it was that the god was angered, and
+refused the petition out of revenge. Later, the indirect purpose of such
+a prayer asserted itself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> more clearly, and aided by a nobler conception
+of Divinity, suggested that the refusal of the lower is a preparation
+for a higher reward. Children, in well-ordered households, are
+frequently refused by parents who love them well; this present analogy
+was early seized to explain the failure of prayer. Unquestioning
+submission to the divine will was inculcated. Some even went so far as
+to think it improper to define any wish at all, and subsumed all prayer
+under the one formula, “Thy will be done.” Such was the teaching of St.
+Augustine, whose favorite prayer was <i>Da quod jubes, et jube quod vis</i>,
+a phrase much criticized by Pelagius and others of his time as too
+quietistic.<a name="FNanchor_128-1_88" id="FNanchor_128-1_88" href="#Footnote_128-1_88" class="fnanchor">128-1</a> The usual Christian doctrine of resignation proceeds
+in theory to this extent. Such a notion of the purpose of prayer leads
+to a cheerful acceptance of the effects of physical laws, effects which
+an enlightened religious mind never asks to be altered in its favor, for
+the promises and aims of religion should be wholly outside the arena of
+their operation. The ideal prayer has quite other objects than to work
+material changes.</p>
+
+<p>To say, as does Mr. Hodgson, that its aim is the increase of the joyful
+emotions is far from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> sufficient. The same may be said of most human
+effort, the effort to make money, for instance. The indirect object of
+money-making is also the increase of the agreeable feelings. The
+similarity of purpose might lead to a belief that the aims of religion
+and business are identical.</p>
+
+<p>Before we can fully decide on what, in the specifically religious sense
+of the word, is the answer to prayer, we should inquire as a matter of
+fact what effect it actually exerts, and to do this we should understand
+what it is as a psychological process. The reply to this is that prayer,
+in its psychological definition, is a form of Expectant Attention. It is
+always urged by religious teachers that it must be very earnest and
+continuous to be successful. “Importunity is of the essence of
+successful prayer,” says Canon Liddon in a recent sermon. In the New
+Testament it is likened to a constant knocking at a door; and by a
+curious parity of thought the Chinese character for prayer is composed
+of the signs for a spirit and an axe or hammer.<a name="FNanchor_129-1_89" id="FNanchor_129-1_89" href="#Footnote_129-1_89" class="fnanchor">129-1</a> We must “keep
+hammering” as a colloquial phrase has it. Strong belief is also
+required. To pray with faith we must expect with confidence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Now that such a condition of expectant attention, prolonged and earnest,
+will have a very powerful subjective effect, no one acquainted with the
+functions of the human economy can doubt. “Any state of the body,”
+observes the physiologist Müller, “expected with certain confidence is
+very prone to ensue.” A pill of bread-crumbs, which the patient supposes
+to contain a powerful cathartic, will often produce copious evacuations.
+No one who studies the history of medicine can question that scrofulous
+swellings and ulcerations were cured by the royal touch, that paralytics
+have regained the use of their limbs by touching the relics of the
+saints, and that in many countries beside Judea the laying on of hands
+and the words of a holy man have made issues to heal and the lame to
+walk.<a name="FNanchor_130-1_90" id="FNanchor_130-1_90" href="#Footnote_130-1_90" class="fnanchor">130-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Such effects are not disputed by physicians as probable results of
+prayer or faith considered as expectant attention. The stigmata of St.
+Francis d’Assisi are more than paralleled by those of Louise Lateau, now
+living at Bois d’Haine in Belgium, whose hands, feet and side bleed
+every Friday like those of Christ on the cross. A commission of medical
+men after the most careful precautions against deception attributed
+these hemorrhages to the effect of expectation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> (prayer) vastly
+increased in force by repetition.<a name="FNanchor_131-1_91" id="FNanchor_131-1_91" href="#Footnote_131-1_91" class="fnanchor">131-1</a> If human testimony is worth
+anything, the cures of Porte Royale are not open to dispute.<a name="FNanchor_131-2_92" id="FNanchor_131-2_92" href="#Footnote_131-2_92" class="fnanchor">131-2</a></p>
+
+<p>The mental consequences of a prayerful condition of mind are to inspire
+patience under afflictions, hope in adversity, courage in the presence
+of danger and a calm confidence in the face of death itself. How
+mightily such influences have worked in history is shown in every
+religious war, and in the lives of the martyrs of all faiths. It matters
+not what they believed, so only that they believed it thoroughly, and
+the gates of Hades could not prevail against them.</p>
+
+<p>No one will question that these various and momentous results are the
+legitimate effects or answers to prayers. But whether prayer can
+influence the working of the material forces external to the individual
+is a disputed point. If it cannot in some way do this, prayers for rain,
+for harvests, for safety at sea, for restoration to health, for delivery
+from grasshoppers<a name="FNanchor_131-3_93" id="FNanchor_131-3_93" href="#Footnote_131-3_93" class="fnanchor">131-3</a> and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> pestilence, whether for our own benefit or
+others, are hardly worth reciting. A physicist expresses the one opinion
+in these words: “Science asserts that without a disturbance of natural
+law, quite as serious as the stoppage of an eclipse or the rolling of
+the St. Lawrence up the Falls of Niagara, no act of humiliation,
+individual or national, could call one shower from heaven or deflect
+toward us a single beam of the sun.” “Assuming the efficacy of free
+prayer to produce changes in external nature, it necessarily follows
+that natural laws are more or less at the mercy of man’s
+volition.”<a name="FNanchor_132-1_94" id="FNanchor_132-1_94" href="#Footnote_132-1_94" class="fnanchor">132-1</a></p>
+
+<p>This authoritative statement, much discussed at the time it was
+published, does not in fact express the assertion of science. To the
+scientific apprehension, man’s volitions and his prayers are states of
+emotion, inseparably connected in their manifestations with changes in
+his cerebral structure, with relative elevation of temperature, and with
+the elimination of oxygen and phosphorus, in other words with
+chemico-vital phenomena and the transformation of force. Science also
+adds that there is a constant interaction of all force, and it is not
+prepared to deny that the force expended by a national or individual
+prayer may become a co-operating cause in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> the material change asked
+for, even if the latter be a rain shower. This would not affect a
+natural law but only its operation, and that much every act of our life
+does. The fact that persistency and earnestness in prayer&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, the
+increased development of force&mdash;add to its efficacy, would accord with
+such a scientific view. It would further be very materially corroborated
+by the accepted doctrine of the orders of force. A unit of electrical or
+magnetic force equals many of the force of gravity; a number of
+electrical units are required to make one of chemical force; and
+chemico-vital or “metabolic” force is still higher; whereas thought
+regarded as a form of force must be vastly beyond this again.</p>
+
+<p>To render a loadstone, which lifts filings of iron by its magnetic
+force, capable of doing the same by the force of gravity, its density
+would have to be increased more than a thousand million times. All
+forces differ in like degree. Professor Faraday calculated that the
+force latent in the chemical composition of one drop of water, equals
+that manifested in an average thunderstorm. In our limited knowledge of
+the relation of forces therefore, a scientific man is rash to deny that
+the chemico-vital forces set loose by an earnest prayer may affect the
+operation of natural laws outside the body as they confessedly do in
+it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Experience alone can decide such a question, and I for one, from theory
+and from observation, believe in the material efficacy of prayer. In a
+certain percentage of the cases where the wished-for material result
+followed, the physical force of the active cerebral action has seemed to
+me a co-operating cause. A physician can observe this to best advantage
+in the sickness of children, as they are free from subjective bias,
+their constitutions are delicately susceptible, and the prayers for them
+are in their immediate vicinity and very earnest.</p>
+
+<p>But this admission after all is a barren one to the truly devout mind.
+The effect gained does not depend on the God to whom the prayer is
+offered. Blind physical laws bring it about, and any event that comes
+through their compulsive force is gelded of its power to fecundate the
+germs of the better religious life. The knowledge of this would paralyze
+faith.</p>
+
+<p>Further to attenuate the value of my admission, another consideration
+arises, this time prompted not by speculative criticism, but by
+reverence itself. A scholar whom I have already quoted justly observes:
+“Whenever we prefer a request as a means of obtaining what we wish for,
+we are not praying in the religious sense of the term.”<a name="FNanchor_134-1_95" id="FNanchor_134-1_95" href="#Footnote_134-1_95" class="fnanchor">134-1</a> Or, as a
+recent theologian puts the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> idea: “Every true prayer prays to be
+refused, if the granting of it would be hurtful to us or subversive of
+God’s glory.”<a name="FNanchor_135-1_96" id="FNanchor_135-1_96" href="#Footnote_135-1_96" class="fnanchor">135-1</a> The real answer to prayer can never be an event or
+occurrence. Only in moments of spiritual weakness and obscured vision,
+when governed by his emotions or sensations, will the reverent soul ask
+a definite transaction, a modification in the operation of natural laws,
+still less such vulgar objects as victory, wealth or health.</p>
+
+<p>The prayer of faith finds its only true objective answer in itself, in
+accepting whatever befalls as the revelation of the will of God as to
+what is best. This temper of mind as the real meaning of prayer was
+beautifully set forth by St. John: “If we know that he hear us,
+whatsoever we ask, we know that we have the petitions that we desired of
+him.”<a name="FNanchor_135-2_97" id="FNanchor_135-2_97" href="#Footnote_135-2_97" class="fnanchor">135-2</a></p>
+
+<p>But this solution of the problem does not go far enough. Prayer is
+claimed to have a positive effect on the mind other than resignation.
+Joyful emotions are its fruits, <i>spiritual enlightenment</i> its reward.
+These are more than cheerful acquiescence, nor can the latter come from
+objects of sense.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The most eminent teachers agree in banishing material pleasure and
+prosperity from holy desires. They are of one mind in warning against
+what the world and the flesh can offer, against the pursuit of riches,
+power and lust. Many counsel poverty and deliberate renunciation of all
+such things. Nor is the happiness they talk of that which the pursuit of
+intellectual truth brings. This, indeed, confers joy, of which whoever
+has tasted will not hastily return to the fleshpots of the senses, but
+it is easy to see that it is not religious. Prayer and veneration have
+not a part in it. Great joy is likewise given by the exercise of the
+imagination when stirred by art in some of its varied forms, and a joy
+more nearly allied to religion than is that of scientific investigation.
+But the esthetic emotions are well defined, and are distinctly apart
+from those concerned with the religious sentiment. Their most complete
+satisfaction rather excludes than encourages pious meditations. That
+which prayer ought to seek outside of itself is different from all of
+these, its dower must be divine.</p>
+
+<p>We need not look long for it. Though hidden from the wise, it has ever
+been familiar to the unlearned. Man has never been in doubt as to what
+it is. He has been only too willing to believe he has received it.</p>
+
+<p>In barbarism and civilization, in the old and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> new worlds, the final
+answer to prayer has ever been acknowledged to be <i>inspiration</i>,
+revelation, the thought of God made clear to the mind of man, the
+mystical hypostasis through which the ideas of the human coincide with
+those of universal Intelligence. This is what the Pythian priestess, the
+Siberian shaman, the Roman sibyl, the Voluspan prophetess, the Indian
+medicine-man, all claimed in various degrees along with the Hebrew seers
+and the Mahometan teacher.<a name="FNanchor_137-1_98" id="FNanchor_137-1_98" href="#Footnote_137-1_98" class="fnanchor">137-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">TRUTH</span>, the last and absolute truth, is what is everywhere recognized
+as, if not the only, at least the completest, the highest answer to
+prayer. “Where I found the truth, there I found my God, himself the
+truth,” says St. Augustine; and in a prayer by St. Chrysostom, the
+“Golden Mouth,” unsurpassed in its grand simplicity, it is said:
+“Almighty Father, * * grant us in this world <i>knowledge of Thy truth</i>,
+and in the world to come, life everlasting.” Never has the loftiest
+purpose of prayer been more completely stated. This it was that had been
+promised them by Him, to whom they looked as an Intercessor for their
+petitions, who had said: “I will send unto you the Comforter. * *<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> When
+he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you unto all truth.”</p>
+
+<p>The belief that this answer is at all times attainable has always been
+recognized by the Christian Church, Apostolic, Catholic, and Protestant.
+Baptism was called by the Greek fathers, “enlightenment” (<span class="greek" title="Phôtismos">Φωτισμος</span>), as
+by it the believer received the spirit of truth. The Romanist, in the
+dogma of infallibility, proclaims the perpetual inspiration of a living
+man; the Protestant Churches in many creeds and doctrinal works extend a
+substantial infallibility to all true believers, at least to the extent
+that they can be inspired to recognize, if not to receive divine verity.</p>
+
+<p>The Gallican Confession of Faith, adopted in 1561, rests the principal
+evidence of the truth of the Scriptures on “<i>le témoignage et
+l’intérieure persuasion du Saint Esprit</i>,” and the Westminster
+Confession on “the inward work of the holy spirit.” The Society of
+Friends maintain it as “a leading principle, that the work of the Holy
+Spirit in the soul is not only immediate and direct, but perceptible;”
+that it imparts truth “without any mixture of error;” and thus is
+something quite distinct from conscience, which is common to the race,
+while this “inward light” is given only to the favored of God.<a name="FNanchor_138-1_99" id="FNanchor_138-1_99" href="#Footnote_138-1_99" class="fnanchor">138-1</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>The non-juror, William Law, emphatically says: “The Christian that
+rejects the necessity of immediate divine inspiration, pleads the whole
+cause of infidelity; he has nothing to prove the goodness of his own
+Christianity, but that which equally proves to the Deist the goodness of
+his infidelity.”<a name="FNanchor_139-1_100" id="FNanchor_139-1_100" href="#Footnote_139-1_100" class="fnanchor">139-1</a> That by prayer the path of duty will be made
+clear, is a universal doctrine.</p>
+
+<p>The extent to which the gift of inspiration is supposed to be granted is
+largely a matter of church government. Where authority prevails, it is
+apt to be confined to those in power. Where religion is regarded as
+chiefly subjective and individual, it is conceded that any pious votary
+may become the receptacle of such special light.</p>
+
+<p>Experience, however, has too often shown that inspiration teaches such
+contradictory doctrines that they are incompatible with any standard.
+The indefinite splitting of Protestant sects has convinced all clear
+thinkers that the claim of the early Confessions to a divinely given<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+power of distinguishing the true from the false has been a mistaken
+supposition. As a proof to an unbeliever, such a gift could avail
+nothing; and as evidence to one’s own mind, it can only be accepted by
+those who deliberately shut their eyes to the innumerable contradictions
+it offers.<a name="FNanchor_140-1_101" id="FNanchor_140-1_101" href="#Footnote_140-1_101" class="fnanchor">140-1</a></p>
+
+<p>While, therefore, in this, if anywhere, we perceive the only at once fit
+and definite answer to prayer, and find that this is acknowledged by all
+faiths, from the savage to the Christian, it would seem that this answer
+is a fallacious and futile one. The teachings of inspiration are
+infinitely discrepant and contradictory, and often plainly world-wide
+from the truth they pretend to embody. The case seems hopeless; yet, as
+religion of any kind without prayer is empty, there has been a proper
+unwillingness to adopt the conclusion just stated.</p>
+
+<p>The distinction has been made that “the inspiration of the Christian is
+altogether <i>subjective</i>, and directed to the moral improvement of the
+individual,”<a name="FNanchor_140-2_102" id="FNanchor_140-2_102" href="#Footnote_140-2_102" class="fnanchor">140-2</a> not to facts of history or questions of science,
+even exegetic science. The term <i>illumination</i> has been preferred for
+it, and while it is still defined as “a spiritual intelligence which
+brings truth within the range of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> mental apprehension by a kind of
+intuition,”<a name="FNanchor_141-1_103" id="FNanchor_141-1_103" href="#Footnote_141-1_103" class="fnanchor">141-1</a> this truth has reference only to immediate matters of
+individual faith and practice. The Roman church allows more latitude
+than this, as it sanctions revelations concerning events, but not
+concerning doctrines.<a name="FNanchor_141-2_104" id="FNanchor_141-2_104" href="#Footnote_141-2_104" class="fnanchor">141-2</a></p>
+
+<p>Looked at narrowly, the advantage which inspiration has been to
+religions has not so much depended on what it taught, as on its strength
+as a psychological motive power. As a general mental phenomenon it does
+not so much concern knowledge as belief; its province is to teach faith
+rather than facts. No conviction can equal that which arises from an
+assertion of God directly to ourselves. The force of the argument lies
+not in the question whether he did address us, but whether we believe he
+did. As a stimulus to action, prayer thus rises to a prime power.</p>
+
+<p>Belief is considered by Professor Bain and his school to be the ultimate
+postulate, the final ground of intellection. It is of the utmost
+importance, however,&mdash;and this Professor Bain fails to do&mdash;to
+distinguish between two kinds of belief. There are men who believe and
+others who disbelieve the Koran or the Bible; I can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> accept or reject
+the historical existence of King Arthur or Napoleon; but, if I
+understand them, I cannot disbelieve the demonstrations of Euclid, nor
+the relations of subject and object, nor the formal laws of thought. No
+sane man, acquainted with the properties of numbers, can believe that
+twice three are ten, or that a thing can be thought as other than
+itself. These truths that “we cannot help believing,” I have defined in
+the first chapter as absolute truths. They do not come to us through
+testimony and induction, but through a process variously called
+“immediate perception,” “apprehension,” or “intuition,” a process long
+known but never satisfactorily explained.</p>
+
+<p>All such truths are analytic, that is, they are true, not merely for a
+given time or place, but at all times and places conceivable, or, time
+and space out of the question, they still remain formally true. Of
+course, therefore, they cannot refer to historic occurrences nor
+phenomena. The modern position, that truth lies in facts, must be
+forsaken, and with the ancients, we must place it in ideas.</p>
+
+<p>If we define inspiration as that condition of mind which is in the
+highest degree sensitive to the presence of such truth, we have of it
+the only worthy idea which it is possible to frame. The object of
+scientific investigation is to reach a truth which can neither be denied
+nor doubt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>ed. If religion is willing to content itself with any lower
+form of truth, it cannot support its claims to respect, let alone
+reverence.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said that the subjects with which the religious sentiment
+concerns itself are not such as are capable of this absolute expression.
+This is, however, disclaimed by all great reformers, and by none more
+emphatically than by him who said: “Heaven and earth shall pass away,
+but my statements (<span class="greek" title="logoi">λογοι</span>) shall not pass away.” There is clear reference
+here to absolute truths. If what we know of God, duty and life, is not
+capable of expression except in historic narrative and synthetic terms,
+the sooner we drop their consideration the better. That form sufficed
+for a time, but can no longer, when a higher is generally known. As the
+mathematical surpasses the historic truth, so the former is in turn
+transcended by the purely logical, and in this, if anywhere, religion
+must rest its claims for recognition. Here is the arena of the theology
+of the future, not in the decrees of councils, nor in the records of
+past time.</p>
+
+<p>Inspiration, in its religious sense, we may, therefore, define to be
+that condition of mind in which the truths relating to deity and duty
+become in whole or in part the subjects of immediate perception.</p>
+
+<p>That such a condition is possible will be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> granted. Every reformer who
+has made a permanent betterment in the religion of his time has
+possessed it in some degree. He who first conceived the Kosmos under
+logical unity as an orderly whole, had it in singular power; so too had
+he who looking into the mind became aware of its purposive laws which
+are the everlasting warrants of duty. Some nations have possessed it in
+remarkable fulness, none more so than the descendants of Abraham, from
+himself, who left his kindred and his father’s house at the word of God,
+through many eminent seers down to Spinoza, who likewise forsook his
+tribe to obey the inspirations vouchsafed him; surpassing them all,
+Jesus of Nazareth, to whose mind, as he waxed in wisdom, the truth
+unfolded itself in such surpassing clearness that neither his immediate
+disciples nor any generations since have fathomed all the significance
+of his words.</p>
+
+<p>Such minds do not need development and organic transmission of thought
+to enrich their stores. We may suppose the organization of their brains
+to be so perfect that their functions are always accordant with true
+reasoning, so self-prompting, that a hint of the problem is all they ask
+to arrive at its demonstration. Blaise Pascal, when a boy of twelve,
+whose education had been carefully restrained, once asked his father
+what is geometry. The latter replied that it is a method devised to draw
+figures correctly, but forbade<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> any further inquiry about it. On this
+hint Pascal, by himself, unassisted, without so much as knowing the name
+of a line or circle, reached in a few weeks to the demonstration of the
+thirty-second problem of the first book of Euclid! Is it not possible
+for a mind equally productive of religious truth to surpass with no less
+ease its age on such subjects?</p>
+
+<p>As what Newton so well called “patient thought,” constant application,
+prolonged attention, is the means on which even great minds must rely in
+order to reach the sempiternal verities of science, so earnest continued
+prayer is that which all teachers prescribe as the only avenue to
+inspiration in its religious sense. While this may be conceded,
+collaterals of the prayer have too often been made to appear trivial and
+ridiculous.</p>
+
+<p>In the pursuit of inspiration the methods observed present an
+interesting similarity. The votary who aspires to a communion with the
+god, shuts himself out from the distraction of social intercourse and
+the disturbing allurements of the senses. In the solitude of the forest
+or the cell, with complete bodily inaction, he gives himself to fasting
+and devotion, to a concentration of all his mind on the one object of
+his wish, the expected revelation. Waking and sleeping he banishes all
+other topics of thought, perhaps by an incessant repetition of a
+formula, until at last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> the moment comes, as it surely will come in some
+access of hallucination, furor or ecstasy, the unfailing accompaniments
+of excessive mental strain, when the mist seems to roll away from the
+mortal vision, the inimical powers which darkened the mind are baffled,
+and the word of the Creator makes itself articulate to the creature.</p>
+
+<p>Take any connected account of the revelation of the divine will, and
+this history is substantially the same. It differs but little whether
+told of Buddha Sakyamuni, the royal seer of Kapilavastu, or by Catherine
+Wabose, the Chipeway squaw,<a name="FNanchor_146-1_105" id="FNanchor_146-1_105" href="#Footnote_146-1_105" class="fnanchor">146-1</a> concerning the <i>Revelations</i> of St.
+Gertrude of Nivelles or of Saint Brigida, or in the homely language of
+the cobbler George Fox.</p>
+
+<p>For six years did Sakyamuni wander in the forest, practising the
+mortifications of the flesh and combatting the temptations of the
+<a name="corr8" id="corr8"></a><ins class="correction" title="devil, before">devil,before</ins> the final night when, after overcoming the crowning
+enticements of beauty, power and wealth, at a certain moment he became
+the “awakened,” and knew himself in all his previous births, and with
+that knowledge soared above the “divine illusion” of existence. In the
+cave of Hari, Mohammed fasted and prayed until “the night of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> the divine
+decisions;” then he saw the angel Gabriel approach and inspire him:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“A revelation was revealed to him:<br />
+One terrible in power taught it him,<br />
+Endowed with wisdom. With firm step stood he,<br />
+There, where the horizon is highest,<br />
+Then came he near and nearer,<br />
+A matter of two bowshots or closer,<br />
+And he revealed to his servant a revelation;<br />
+He has falsified not what he saw.”<a name="FNanchor_147-1_106" id="FNanchor_147-1_106" href="#Footnote_147-1_106" class="fnanchor">147-1</a></p>
+
+<p>With not dissimilar preparation did George Fox seek the “openings” which
+revealed to him the hollowness of the Christianity of his day, in
+contrast to the truth he found. In his <i>Journal</i> he records that for
+months he “fasted much, walked around in solitary places, and sate in
+hollow trees and lonesome places, and frequently in the night walked
+mournfully about.” When the word of truth came to him it was of a
+sudden, “through the immediate opening of the invisible spirit.” Then a
+new life commenced for him: “Now was I come up in Spirit through the
+flaming sword into the Paradise of God. All things were new: all the
+creation gave another smell unto me than before.” The healing virtues of
+all herbs were straightway made known to him, and the needful truths
+about the kingdom of God.<a name="FNanchor_147-2_107" id="FNanchor_147-2_107" href="#Footnote_147-2_107" class="fnanchor">147-2</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>These are portraitures of the condition of <i>entheasm</i>. Its lineaments
+are the same, find it where we may.</p>
+
+<p>How is this similarity to be explained? Is it that this alleged
+inspiration is always but the dream of a half-crazed brain? The deep and
+real truths it has now and then revealed, the noble results it has
+occasionally achieved, do not allow this view. A more worthy explanation
+is at hand.</p>
+
+<p>These preliminaries of inspiration are in fact but a parody, sometimes a
+caricature, of the most intense intellectual action as shown in the
+efforts of creative thought. The physiological characteristics of such
+mental episodes indicate a lowering of the animal life, the respiration
+is faint and slow, the pulse loses in force and frequency, the nerves of
+special sense are almost inhibited, the eye is fixed and records no
+impression, the ear registers no sound, necessary motions are performed
+unconsciously, the condition approaches that of trance. There is also an
+alarming similarity at times between the action of genius and of
+madness, as is well known to alienists.</p>
+
+<p>When the creative thought appears, it does so suddenly; it breaks upon
+the mind when partly engaged with something else as an instantaneous
+flash, apparently out of connection with previous efforts. This is the
+history of all great discoveries, and it has been abundantly illustrated
+from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> the lives of inventors, artists, poets and mathematicians. The
+links of such a mental procedure we do not know. “The product of
+inspiration, genius, is incomprehensible to itself. Its activity
+proceeds on no beaten track, and we seek in vain to trace its footsteps.
+There is no warrant for the value of its efforts. This it can alone
+secure through voluntary submission to law. All its powers are centred
+in the energy of production, and none is left for idle watching of the
+process.”<a name="FNanchor_149-1_108" id="FNanchor_149-1_108" href="#Footnote_149-1_108" class="fnanchor">149-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The prevalent theory of the day is that this mental action is one
+essentially hidden from the mind itself. The name “unconscious
+cerebration” has been proposed for it by Dr. Carpenter, and he has amply
+and ably illustrated its peculiarities. But his theory has encountered
+just criticism, and I am persuaded does not meet the requirements of the
+case. Whether at such moments the mind actually receives some impulse
+from without, as is the religious theory, or, as science more willingly
+teaches, certain associations are more easily achieved when the mind is
+partially engaged with other trains of ideas, we cannot be sure. We can
+only say of it, in the words of Dr. Henry Maudsley, the result “is truly
+an inspiration, coming we know not whence.” Whatever it is, we recognize
+in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> it the original of that of which religious hallucination is the
+counterfeit presentment. So similar are the processes that their
+liability to be confounded has been expressly guarded against.<a name="FNanchor_150-1_109" id="FNanchor_150-1_109" href="#Footnote_150-1_109" class="fnanchor">150-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The prevalence of such caricatures does not prove the absence of the
+sterling article. They rather show that the mind is conscious of the
+possibility of reaching a frame or mood in which it perceives what it
+seeks, immediately and correctly. Buddhism distinctly asserts this to be
+the condition of “the stage of intuitive insight;” and Protestant
+Christianity commenced with the same opinion. Every prayer for guidance
+in the path of duty assumes it. The error is in applying such a method
+where it is incompatible, to facts of history and the phenomena of
+physical force. Confined to the realm of ideas, to which alone the norm
+of the true and untrue is applicable, there is no valid evidence
+against, and many theoretical reasons for, respecting prayer as a fit
+psychological preparation for those obscure and unconscious processes,
+through which the mind accomplishes its best work.</p>
+
+<p>The intellect, exalted by dwelling upon the sublimest subjects of
+thought, warmed into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> highest activity by the flames of devotion,
+spurning as sterile and vain the offers of time and the enticements of
+sense, may certainly be then in the mood fittest to achieve its greatest
+victories. But no narrowed heaven must cloud it, no man-made god
+obstruct its gaze. Free from superstition and prejudice, it must be
+ready to follow wherever the voice of reason shall lead it. All inspired
+men have commenced by freeing themselves from inherited forms of Belief
+in order that with undiverted attention they might listen to the
+promptings of the divinity within their souls. One of the greatest of
+them and one the most free from the charge of prejudice, has said that
+to this end prayer is the means.<a name="FNanchor_151-1_110" id="FNanchor_151-1_110" href="#Footnote_151-1_110" class="fnanchor">151-1</a></p>
+
+<p>He who believes that the ultimate truth is commensurate with reason,
+finds no stumbling-block in the doctrine that there may be laws through
+whose action inspiration is the enlightenment of mind as it exists in
+man, by mind as it underlies the motions which make up matter. The truth
+thus reached is not the formulæ of the Calculus, nor the verbiage of the
+Dialectic, still less the events of history, but that which gives what
+validity they have to all of these, and moreover imparts to the will and
+the conscience their power to govern conduct.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_119-1_82" id="Footnote_119-1_82" href="#FNanchor_119-1_82">119-1</a> The “silent worship” of the Quakers is defended by the
+writers of that sect, on the ground that prayer is “often very
+imperfectly performed and sometimes materially interrupted by the use of
+words.” Joseph John Gurney, <i>The Distinguishing Views and Practice of
+the Society of Friends</i>, p. 300. (London, 1834.)</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_119-2_83" id="Footnote_119-2_83" href="#FNanchor_119-2_83">119-2</a> Creuzer, <i>Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Völker</i>,
+Bd. I., s. 162.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_119-3_84" id="Footnote_119-3_84" href="#FNanchor_119-3_84">119-3</a> The learned Bishop Butler, author of the <i>Analogy of
+Religion</i>, justly gives prominence to “our expectation of future
+benefits,” as a reason for gratitude to God. <i>Sermons</i>, p. 155. (London,
+1841.)</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_122-1_85" id="Footnote_122-1_85" href="#FNanchor_122-1_85">122-1</a> The expressions of Confucius’ religious views may be
+found in <i>The Doctrine of the Mean</i>, chaps. xiii., xvi., the <i>Analects</i>,
+i., 99, 100, vii., and in a few other passages of the canonical books.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_126-1_86" id="Footnote_126-1_86" href="#FNanchor_126-1_86">126-1</a> <i>An Inquiry into the Theory of Practice</i>, p. 330.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_127-1_87" id="Footnote_127-1_87" href="#FNanchor_127-1_87">127-1</a> <i>Symbolik und Mythologie der Alten Völker.</i> Bd. I., ss.
+165, sqq. One of the most favorable examples (not mentioned by Creuzer)
+is the formula with which Apollonius of Tyana closed every prayer and
+gave as the summary of all: “Give me, ye Gods, what I deserve”&mdash;<span class="greek" title="Doiête moi ta opheilomena">Δοιητε
+μοι τα οφειλομενα</span>. The Christian’s comment on this would be in the words
+of Hamlet’s reply to Polonius: “God’s bodkin, man! use every man after
+his desert and who should ’scape whipping?”</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_128-1_88" id="Footnote_128-1_88" href="#FNanchor_128-1_88">128-1</a> Aurelii Augustini, <i>De Dono Perseverantiæ</i>, cap. xx.
+Comte remarks “Depuis St. Augustin toutes les âmes pures ont de plus en
+plus senti, à travers l’égoisme Chrétien, que prier peut n’être pas
+demander.” <i>Système de Politique Positive</i>, I., p. 260. Popular
+Protestantism has retrograded in this respect.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_129-1_89" id="Footnote_129-1_89" href="#FNanchor_129-1_89">129-1</a> Plath, <i>Die Religion und Cultus der alten Chineser</i>, s.
+836. This author observes that the Chinese prayers are confined to
+temporal benefits only, and are all either prayers of petition or
+gratitude. Prayers of contrition are unknown.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_130-1_90" id="Footnote_130-1_90" href="#FNanchor_130-1_90">130-1</a> Numerous examples can be found in medical text books,
+for instance in Dr. Tuke’s, <i>The Influence of the Mind on the Body</i>.
+London, 1873.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_131-1_91" id="Footnote_131-1_91" href="#FNanchor_131-1_91">131-1</a> The commission appointed by the Royal Academy of
+Medicine of Belgium on Louise Lateau reported in March, 1875, and most
+of the medical periodicals of that year contain abstracts of its paper.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_131-2_92" id="Footnote_131-2_92" href="#FNanchor_131-2_92">131-2</a> They may be found in the life of Pascal, written by his
+sister, and in many other works of the time.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_131-3_93" id="Footnote_131-3_93" href="#FNanchor_131-3_93">131-3</a> It is worthy of note, as an exponent of the condition
+of religious thought in 1875, that in May of that year the Governor of
+the State of Missouri appointed by official proclamation a day of prayer
+to check the advance of the grasshoppers. He should also have requested
+the clergy to pronounce the ban of the Church against them, as the
+Bishop of Rheims did in the ninth century.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_132-1_94" id="Footnote_132-1_94" href="#FNanchor_132-1_94">132-1</a> Tyndall, <i>On Prayer and Natural Law</i>, 1872.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_134-1_95" id="Footnote_134-1_95" href="#FNanchor_134-1_95">134-1</a> S. M. Hodgson, <i>An Inquiry into the Theory of
+Practice</i>, pp. 329, 330.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_135-1_96" id="Footnote_135-1_96" href="#FNanchor_135-1_96">135-1</a> The Rev. Dr. Thomas K. Conrad, <i>Thoughts on Prayer</i>, p.
+54: New York, 1875.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_135-2_97" id="Footnote_135-2_97" href="#FNanchor_135-2_97">135-2</a> I. John, v. 15. “There are millions of prayers,” says
+Richard Baxter, “that will all be found answered at death and judgment,
+which we know not to be answered any way but by believing it.” <i>A
+Christian Directory</i>, Part II. chap. xxiii.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_137-1_98" id="Footnote_137-1_98" href="#FNanchor_137-1_98">137-1</a> “So wie das Gebet ein Hauptwurzel alter Lehre war, so
+war das Deuten und Offenbaren ihre ursprüngliche Form.” Creuzer,
+<i>Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Völker</i>, Bd. I., s. 10. It were more
+accurate to say that divination is the answer to, rather than a form of
+prayer.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_138-1_99" id="Footnote_138-1_99" href="#FNanchor_138-1_99">138-1</a> Joseph John Gurney, <i>The Distinguishing Views and
+Practices of the Society of Friends</i>, pp. 58, 59, 76, 78. An easy
+consequence of this view was to place the decrees of the internal
+monitor above the written word. This was advocated mainly by Elias
+Hicks, who expressed his doctrine in the words: “As no spring can rise
+higher than its fountain, so likewise the Scriptures can only direct to
+the fountain whence they originated&mdash;the Spirit of Truth.” <i>Letters of
+Elias Hicks</i>, p. 228 (Phila., 1861).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_139-1_100" id="Footnote_139-1_100" href="#FNanchor_139-1_100">139-1</a> <i>Address to the Clergy</i>, p. 67.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_140-1_101" id="Footnote_140-1_101" href="#FNanchor_140-1_101">140-1</a> See an intelligent note on this subject in the Rev. Wm.
+Lee’s work, entitled <i>The Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures</i>, pp. 44,
+47 (London and New York, 1857).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_140-2_102" id="Footnote_140-2_102" href="#FNanchor_140-2_102">140-2</a> Rev. William Lee, <i>u. s.</i>, p. 243.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_141-1_103" id="Footnote_141-1_103" href="#FNanchor_141-1_103">141-1</a> Blunt, <i>Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical
+Theology</i>, s. v.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_141-2_104" id="Footnote_141-2_104" href="#FNanchor_141-2_104">141-2</a> There is a carefully written essay on the views of the
+Romish Church on this subject, preceding <i>The Revelations of Saint
+Brigida</i> (N. Y. 1875).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_146-1_105" id="Footnote_146-1_105" href="#FNanchor_146-1_105">146-1</a> Chusco or Catherine Wabose, “the prophetess of
+Chegoimegon,” has left a full and psychologically most valuable account
+of her inspiration. It is published in Schoolcraft’s <i>History and
+Statistics of the Indian Tribes</i>, Vol. I., p. 390, sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_147-1_106" id="Footnote_147-1_106" href="#FNanchor_147-1_106">147-1</a> <i>The Koran</i>, Sura liii. This is in date one of the
+earliest suras.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_147-2_107" id="Footnote_147-2_107" href="#FNanchor_147-2_107">147-2</a> <i>The Journal of George Fox</i>, pp. 59, 67, 69.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_149-1_108" id="Footnote_149-1_108" href="#FNanchor_149-1_108">149-1</a> Wilhelm von Humboldt, <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>, Bd. iv., s.
+278.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_150-1_109" id="Footnote_150-1_109" href="#FNanchor_150-1_109">150-1</a> In his treatise <i>De Veritate</i>, itself the subject, as
+its author thought, of a special revelation, Lord Herbert of Cherbury,
+gives as one of the earmarks of a real revelation: “ut afflatum Divini
+numinis sentias, ita enim internæ Facultatum circa veritatem operationes
+a revelationibus externis distinguuntur.” p. 226.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_151-1_110" id="Footnote_151-1_110" href="#FNanchor_151-1_110">151-1</a> Spinoza, <i>Espistolæ et Responsionnes</i>, Ep. xxxiv.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapdivider"><a name="THE_MYTH_AND_THE_MYTHICAL_CYCLES" id="THE_MYTH_AND_THE_MYTHICAL_CYCLES"></a>THE MYTH AND THE MYTHICAL CYCLES.</h2>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="chapterhead">SUMMARY.</h3>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Myths are inspirations concerning the Unknown. Science treats them
+as apperceptions of the relations of man and nature. Moments of
+their growth, as treated by mythological science. Their similar
+forms, explained variously, the topic of the philosophy of
+mythology. The ante-mythical period. Myths have centred chiefly
+around three subjects, each giving rise to a Mythical Cycle.</p>
+
+<p>I. The Epochs of Nature.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of Time led to the myth of a creation. This starting the
+question, What was going on before creation? recourse was had to
+the myth of recurrent epochs. The last epoch gave origin to the
+Flood Myths; the coming one to that of the Day of Judgment.</p>
+
+<p>II. The Paradise lost and to be re-gained.</p>
+
+<p>To man, the past and the future are ever better than the present.
+He imagines a Golden Age in the past and believes it will return.
+The material Paradise he dreams of in his ruder conditions, becomes
+a spiritual one with intellectual advancement. The basis of this
+belief.</p>
+
+<p>III. The Hierarchy of the Gods.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest hierarchy is a dual classification of the gods into
+those who help and those who hinder the fruition of desire. Light
+and darkness typify the contrast. Divinity thus conceived under
+numerical separateness. Monotheisms do not escape this. The triune
+nature of single gods. The truly religious and only philosophic
+notion of divinity is under logical, not mathematical unity. This
+discards mythical conceptions.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="chaptitle">THE MYTH AND THE MYTHICAL CYCLES.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Returning</span> again to the definition of the elemental religious
+sentiment&mdash;“a Wish whose fruition depends upon unknown power”&mdash;it
+enables us to class all those notions, opinions and narratives, which
+constitute mythologies, creeds and dogmas, as theories respecting the
+nature and action of the unknown power. Of course they are not
+recognized as theories. They arise unconsciously or are received by
+tradition, oral or written, and always come with the stamp of divinity
+through inspiration and revelation. None but a god can tell the secrets
+of the gods.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore they are the most sacred of all things, and they partake of
+the holiness and immutability which belong to the unknown power itself.
+To misplace a vowel point in copying the sacred books was esteemed a sin
+by the Rabbis, and a pious Mussulman will not employ the same pen to
+copy a verse of the Koran and an ordinary letter. There are many
+Christians who suppose the saying: “Heaven and earth shall pass<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> away,
+but My Words shall not pass away,” has reference to the words of the Old
+and New Testament. “What shall remain to us,” asked Ananda, the disciple
+of Buddha, “when thou shalt have gone hence into Nirvana?” “My Word
+(<i>dharma</i>),” replied the Master. Names thus came to be as holy as the
+objects to which they referred. So sacred was that of Jehovah to the
+Israelites that its original sound was finally lost. Such views are
+consistent enough to the Buddhist, who, assuming all existence to be but
+imaginary, justly infers that the name is full as much as the object.</p>
+
+<p>The science of mythology has made long strides in the last half century.
+It has left far behind it the old euphemeristic view that the myth is a
+distorted historical tradition, as well as the theories not long since
+in vogue, that it was a system of natural philosophy, a device of shrewd
+rulers, or as Bacon thought, a series of “instructive fables.” The
+primitive form of the myth is now recognized to be made up from the
+notions which man gains of the manifestations of force in external
+nature, in their supposed relations to himself. In technical language it
+may be defined as <i>the apperception of man and nature under synthetic
+conceptions</i>.<a name="FNanchor_156-1_111" id="FNanchor_156-1_111" href="#Footnote_156-1_111" class="fnanchor">156-1</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>This primitive form undergoes numerous changes, to trace and illustrate
+which, has been the special task assumed by the many recent writers on
+mythology. In some instances these changes are owing to the blending of
+the myth with traditions of facts, forming a quasi-historical narrative,
+the <i>saga;</i> in others, elaborated by a poetic fancy and enriched by the
+imagination, it becomes a fairy tale, the <i>märchen</i>. Again, the myth
+being a product of creative thought, existing in words only, as language
+changes, it alters through forgetfulness of the earlier meanings of
+words, through similarities in sounds deceiving the ear, or through a
+confusion of the literal with the metaphorical signification of the same
+word. The character of languages also favors or retards such changes,
+pliable and easily modified ones, such as those of the American Indians,
+and in a less degree those of the Aryan nations, favoring a developed
+mythology, while rigid and monosyllabic ones, as the Chinese and Semitic
+types, offer fewer facilities to such variations. Furthermore, tribal or
+national history, the peculiar dif<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>ficulties which retard the growth of
+a community, and the geographical and climatic character of its
+surroundings, give prominence to certain features in its mythology, and
+to the absence of others. Myths originally diverse are blended, either
+unconsciously, as that of the Roman Saturn with the Greek Cronus; or
+consciously, as when the medieval missionaries transferred the deeds of
+the German gods to Christian saints. Lastly, the prevailing temperament
+of a nation, its psychology, gives a strong color to its mythical
+conceptions, and imprints upon them the national peculiarities.</p>
+
+<p>The judicious student of mythology must carefully weigh all these
+formative agents, and assign each its value. They are all present in
+every mythology, but in varying force. His object is accomplished when
+he can point out the causal relation between the various features of a
+myth and these governing agencies.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the science of mythology. The philosophy of mythology undertakes
+to set forth the unities of form which exist in various myths, and
+putting aside whatever of this uniformity is explainable historically,
+proposes to illustrate from what remains the intellectual need myths
+were unconsciously framed to gratify, to measure their success in this
+attempt, and if they have not been wholly successful, to point out why
+and in what respect they have failed. In a study<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> preliminary to the
+present one, I have attempted to apply the rules of mythological science
+to the limited area of the native American race; in the present chapter
+I shall deal mainly with the philosophy of mythology.</p>
+
+<p>The objection may be urged at starting that there is no such unity of
+form in myths as the philosophy of mythology assumes; that if it
+appears, it is always explainable historically.</p>
+
+<p>A little investigation sets this objection aside. Certain features must
+be common to all myths. A divinity must appear in them and his doings
+with men must be recorded. A reasonable being can hardly think at all
+without asking himself, “Whence come I, my fellows, and these things
+which I see? And what will become of us all?” So some myth is sure to be
+created at an early stage of thought which the parent can tell the
+child, the wise man his disciple, containing responses to such
+questions.</p>
+
+<p>But this reasoning from probability is needless, for the similarity of
+mythical tales in very distant nations, where no hypothesis of ancient
+intercourse is justified, is one of the best ascertained and most
+striking discoveries of modern mythological investigation.<a name="FNanchor_159-1_112" id="FNanchor_159-1_112" href="#Footnote_159-1_112" class="fnanchor">159-1</a> The
+general char<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>acter of “solar myths” is familiar to most readers, and the
+persistency with which they have been applied to the explanation of
+generally received historical facts, as well as to the familiar fairy
+tales of childhood, has been pushed so far as to become the subject of
+satire and caricature. The myths of the Dawn have been so frequently
+brought to public notice in the popular writings of Professor Max
+Müller, that their general distribution may be taken as well known. The
+same may be said of the storm myths. Wilhelm von Humboldt, who thought
+deeply on the religious nature of man, said early in this century:
+“Wholly similar myths can very readily arise in different localities,
+each independent of the others.”<a name="FNanchor_160-1_113" id="FNanchor_160-1_113" href="#Footnote_160-1_113" class="fnanchor">160-1</a></p>
+
+<p>This similarity is in a measure owing to the similar impressions which
+the same phenomenon, the sunrise or the thunder-storm for instance,
+makes on the mind&mdash;and to this extent the science of mythology is
+adequate to its explanation. But that it falls short is so generally
+acknowledged, that various other explanations have been offered.</p>
+
+<p>These may be classed as the skeptical explanation, which claims that the
+likeness of the myths is vastly exaggerated and much more the work of
+the scholar at his desk than of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> honest worshipper; the historical
+explanation, which suggests unrecorded proselytisms, forgotten
+communications and the possible original unity of widely separated
+nations; the theological explanations, often discrepant, one suggesting
+caricatures of the sacred narrative inspired by the Devil, another
+reminiscences of a primeval inspiration, and a third the unconscious
+testimony of heathendom to orthodoxy;<a name="FNanchor_161-1_114" id="FNanchor_161-1_114" href="#Footnote_161-1_114" class="fnanchor">161-1</a> and lastly the metaphysical
+explanation, which seems at present to be the fashionable one, expressed
+nearly alike by Steinthal and Max Müller, which cuts the knot by
+crediting man with “an innate consciousness of the Absolute,” or as
+Renan puts it, “a profound instinct of deity.”</p>
+
+<p>The philosophy of mythology, differing from all these, finding beyond
+question similarities which history cannot unriddle, interprets them by
+no incomprehensible assumption, but by the identity of the laws of
+thought acting on similar impressions under the guidance of known
+categories of thought. Nor does it stop here, but proceeds to appraise
+these results by the general scheme of truth and error. It asks for
+what<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> psychological purpose man has so universally imagined for himself
+gods&mdash;pure creations of his fancy;&mdash;whether that purpose can now or will
+ultimately be better attained by an exercise of his intellect more in
+accordance with the laws of right reasoning; and thus seeking to define
+the genuine food of the religious desire, estimates the quality and
+value of each mythological system by the nearness of its approach to
+this standard.</p>
+
+<p>The philosophy of mythology, starting with the wish or prayer as the
+unit of religious thought, regards all myths as theories about the
+unknown power which is supposed to grant or withhold the accomplishment
+of the wish. These theories are all based upon the postulate of the
+religious sentiment, that there is order in things; but they differ from
+scientific theories in recognizing volition as an efficient cause of
+order.</p>
+
+<p>The very earliest efforts at religious thought do not rise to the
+formation of myths, that is, connected narratives about supernatural
+beings. All unknown power is embraced under a word which does not convey
+the notion of personality; single exhibitions of power which threaten
+man’s life are supposed to be the doings of an unseen person, often of a
+deceased man, whose memory survives; but any general theory of a
+hierarchy, or of the world or man, is not yet visible. Even such
+immature notions are, however, so far as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> they go, framed within the
+category of causality; only, the will of the god takes the place of all
+other force. This stage of religious thought has been called Animism, a
+name which does not express its peculiarity, which is, that all force is
+not only supposed to proceed from mind, but through what metaphysicians
+call “immanent volition,” that is, through will independent of relation.
+Mind as “emanant volition,” in unison with matter and law, the “seat of
+law,” to use an expression of Professor Boole’s, may prove the highest
+conception of force.</p>
+
+<p>As the slowly growing reason reached more general notions, the law which
+prescribes unity as a condition of thought led man early in his history
+to look upon nature as one, and to seek for some one law of its changes;
+the experience of social order impressed him with the belief that the
+unseen agencies around him also bore relations to each other, and
+acknowledged subjection to a leader; and the pangs of sickness, hunger
+and terror to which he was daily exposed, and more than all the “last
+and greatest of all terribles, death,” which he so often witnessed,
+turned his early meditations toward his own origin and destiny.</p>
+
+<p>Around these three subjects of thought his fancy busied itself, striving
+to fabricate some theory which would solve the enigmas which his reason
+everywhere met, some belief which would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> relieve him from the haunting
+horror of the unknown. Hence arose three great cycles of myths, which
+recur with strangely similar physiognomies in all continents and among
+all races. They are the myths of the Epochs of Nature, the Hierarchy of
+the Gods, and of the Paradise lost but to be regained. Wherever we turn,
+whether to the Assyrian tablets or to the verses of the Voluspa, to the
+crude fancies of the red man of the new world or the black man of the
+African plateau, to the sacred books of the modern Christian or of the
+ancient Brahman, we find these same questions occupying his mind, and in
+meaning and in form the same solutions proffered. Through what
+intellectual operations he reached these solutions, and their validity,
+as tested by the known criteria of truth, it is the province of the
+philosophy of mythology to determine.</p>
+
+<p>Let us study the psychological growth of the myth of the Epochs of
+Nature. This tells of the World, its beginning, its convulsions and its
+ending, and thus embraces the three minor cycles of the cosmogonical,
+the cataclysmal and the eschatological myths.</p>
+
+<p>Nature is known to man only as <i>force</i>, which manifests itself in
+<i>change</i>. He is so constituted that “the idea of an event, a change,
+without the idea of a cause, is impossible” to him. But in passing from
+the occurrence to its cause the idea of Time is unavoidable; it presents
+itself as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> the one inevitable condition of change; itself unwearing, it
+wears out all else; it includes all existence, as the greater does the
+less; and as “causation is necessarily within existence,”<a name="FNanchor_165-1_115" id="FNanchor_165-1_115" href="#Footnote_165-1_115" class="fnanchor">165-1</a> time is
+beyond existence and includes the nonexistent as well. Whatever it
+creates, it also destroys; and as even the gods are but existences, it
+will swallow them. It renders vain all pleasures, and carries the balm
+of a certain oblivion for all woes.</p>
+
+<p>This oppressive sense of time, regarded not in its real meaning as one
+of the conditions of perception, but as an active force destroying
+thought as well as motion, recurs continually in mythology. To the
+Greek, indefinite time as Cronos, was the oldest of the gods, begetting
+numberless children, but with unnatural act consuming them again; while
+definite time, as the Horæ, were the blithe goddesses of the order in
+nature and the recurrent seasons. Osiris, supreme god of the Egyptians,
+was born of a yet older god, Sev, Time. Adonis and Aeon acknowledge the
+same parentage.<a name="FNanchor_165-2_116" id="FNanchor_165-2_116" href="#Footnote_165-2_116" class="fnanchor">165-2</a> The ancient Arab spoke of time (<i>dahr</i>, <i>zaman</i>)
+as the final, defining principle; as uniting and separating all things;
+and as swallowing one thing after another as the camel drains the water
+from a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> trough.<a name="FNanchor_166-1_117" id="FNanchor_166-1_117" href="#Footnote_166-1_117" class="fnanchor">166-1</a> In the Koran it is written: “Time alone destroys
+us.” Here and there, through the sacred songs of the Parsees, composed
+long before Aristotle wrote, beyond all the dust and noise of the
+everlasting conflict of good and evil, of Ahura Mazda and Anya-Mainyus,
+there are glimpses of a deeper power, Zeruana Akerana, Eternal Duration,
+unmoved by act or thought, in the face of which these bitter opponents
+are seen to be children, brethren, “twin sons of Time.”<a name="FNanchor_166-2_118" id="FNanchor_166-2_118" href="#Footnote_166-2_118" class="fnanchor">166-2</a> The
+Alexandrian Gnostics, in their explanations of Christian dogmas,
+identify Aeon, infinite time, with God the Father, as the source and
+fount of existence; not merely as a predicate of the highest, but the
+Highest himself.</p>
+
+<p>This heavy-weighing sense of the infinity of duration, and the urgency
+of escaping from the weariness of thinking it, led to the construction
+of the myth of the Creation. Man devised it so that he might be able to
+say, “in the beginning.” But a new difficulty met him at the
+threshold&mdash;as change must be in existence, “we cannot think of a change
+from non-existence to existence.” His only refuge was to select some
+apparently primordial, simple, homogeneous substance from which, by the
+exertion of volition,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> things came into being. The one which most
+naturally suggested itself was <i>water</i>.<a name="FNanchor_167-1_119" id="FNanchor_167-1_119" href="#Footnote_167-1_119" class="fnanchor">167-1</a> This does in fact cover
+and hide the land, and the act of creation was often described as the
+emerging of the dry land from the water; it dissolves and wears away the
+hard rock; and, diminishing all things, itself neither diminishes nor
+increases. Therefore nearly all cosmogonical myths are but variations of
+that one familiar to us all: “And God said, Let the waters under the
+heaven be gathered together in one place, and let the dry land appear;
+and it was so.” The manifestation of the primordial energy was supposed
+to have been akin to that which is shown in organic reproduction. The
+myths of the primeval egg from which life proceeded, of the mighty bird
+typical of the Holy Spirit which “brooded” upon the waters, of Love
+developing the Kosmos from the Chaos, of the bull bringing the world
+from the waters, of Protogonus, the “egg-born,” the “multispermed,” and
+countless others, point to the application of one or the other, or of
+both these explanations.<a name="FNanchor_167-2_120" id="FNanchor_167-2_120" href="#Footnote_167-2_120" class="fnanchor">167-2</a></p>
+
+<p>In them the early thinkers found some rest:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> but not for long. The
+perplexity of the presence of this immediate order of things seemed
+solved; but another kept obtruding itself: what was going on before that
+“beginning?” Vain to stifle the inquiry by replying, “nothing.”<a name="FNanchor_168-1_121" id="FNanchor_168-1_121" href="#Footnote_168-1_121" class="fnanchor">168-1</a>
+For time, which knows no beginning, was there, still building, still
+destroying; nothing can be put to it, nor anything taken from it. What
+then is left but the conclusion of the Preacher: “That which hath been,
+is now; and that which is to be, hath already been?” Regarding time as a
+form of force, the only possible history of the material universe is
+that it is a series of destructions and restorations, force latent
+evolving into force active or energy, and this dissipated and absorbed
+again into latency.</p>
+
+<p>Expressed in myths, these destructions and restorations are the Epochs
+of Nature. They are an essential part of the religious traditions of the
+Brahmans, Persians, Parsees, Greeks, Egyptians, Jews, Mexicans, Mayas,
+and of all nations who have reached a certain stage of culture. The
+length of the intervening periods may widely differ. The kalpa or great
+year of the Brahmans is so long that were a cube of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> granite a hundred
+yards each way brushed once in a century by a soft cloth, it would be
+quite worn to dust before the kalpa would close: or, as some Christians
+believe, there may be but six thousand years, six days of God in whose
+sight “a thousand years are as one day,” between the creation and the
+cremation of the world, from when it rose from the waters until it shall
+be consumed by the fire.</p>
+
+<p>There were also various views about the agents and the completeness of
+these periodical destructions. In the Norse mythology and in the
+doctrine of Buddhism, not one of the gods can survive the fire of the
+last day. Among the Greeks, great Jove alone will await the appearance
+of the virgin world after the icy winter and the fiery summer of the
+Great Year. The Brahmans hold that the higher classes of gods outlive
+the wreck of things which, at the close of the day of Brahm, involves
+all men and many divinities in elemental chaos; while elsewhere, in the
+later Puranas and in the myths of Mexico, Peru, and Assyria, one or a
+few of the race of man escape a deluge which is universal, and serve to
+people the new-made earth. This latter supposition, in its application
+to the last epoch of nature, is the origin of the myth of the Flood.</p>
+
+<p>In its general features and even in many details, the story of a vast
+overflow which drowned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> the world, and from which by the timely succor
+of divinity some man was preserved, and after the waters had subsided
+became the progenitor of the race, is exceedingly common among distant
+tribes, where it is impossible to explain it as a reminiscence of a
+historic occurrence, or by community of religious doctrine. In Judea
+Noah, in India Manu, in Chaldea Xisuthrus, in Assyria Oannes, in Aztlan
+Nata, in Algonkin tradition Messou, in Brazil Monan, etc., are all
+heroes of similar alleged occurrences. In all of them the story is but a
+modification of that of the creation in time from the primeval
+waters.<a name="FNanchor_170-1_122" id="FNanchor_170-1_122" href="#Footnote_170-1_122" class="fnanchor">170-1</a></p>
+
+<p>“As it was once, so it shall be again,” and as the present age of the
+world wears out, the myth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> teaches that things will once more fall back
+to universal chaos. “The expectation of the end of the world is a
+natural complement to the belief in its periodical destructions.” It is
+taught with distinctness by all religious systems, by the prophetess in
+the Voluspa, by the Hebrew seers,<a name="FNanchor_171-1_123" id="FNanchor_171-1_123" href="#Footnote_171-1_123" class="fnanchor">171-1</a> by the writer of the
+Apocalypse, by the Eastern sages, Persian and Indian, by the Roman
+Sibyl, and among the savage and semi-civilized races of the New World.</p>
+
+<p>Often that looked for destruction was associated with the divine plans
+for man. This was an addition to the simplicity of the original myth,
+but an easy and a popular one. The Indian of our prairies still looks
+forward to the time when the rivers shall rise, and submerging the land
+sweep from its surface the pale-faced intruders, and restore it to its
+original owners. Impatient under the ceaseless disappointments of life,
+and worn out with the pains which seem inseparable from this condition
+of things, the believer gives up his hopes for this world, and losing
+his faith in the final conquest of the good, thinks it only attainable
+by the total annihilation of the present conditions. He looks for it,
+therefore, in the next great age, in the new<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> heaven and the new earth,
+when the spirit of evil shall be bound and shut up, and the chosen
+people possess the land, “and grow up as calves of the stall.”<a name="FNanchor_172-1_124" id="FNanchor_172-1_124" href="#Footnote_172-1_124" class="fnanchor">172-1</a></p>
+
+<p>This is to be inaugurated by the Day of Judgment, “the day of wrath, the
+dreadful day,” in which God is to come in his power and pronounce his
+final decrees on those who have neglected the observance due him. The
+myth, originally one relating to the procession of natural forces, thus
+assumed with the increasing depth of the religious sentiment more and
+more a moral and subjective coloring, until finally its old and simple
+form was altogether discarded, or treated as symbolic only.</p>
+
+<p>The myth of the Epochs of Nature was at first a theory to account for
+the existing order of nature. For a long time it satisfied the inquiring
+mind, if not with a solution at least with an answer to its queries.
+After geologic science had learned to decipher the facts of the world’s
+growth as written on the stones which orb it, the religious mind fondly
+identified the upheavals and cataclysms there recorded with those which
+its own fancy had long since fabricated. The stars and suns, which the
+old seer thought would fall from heaven in the day of wrath, were seen
+to be involved in motions far beyond the pale of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> man’s welfare, and,
+therefore, the millennial change was confined to the limits of our
+planet. Losing more and more of its original form as an attempted
+explanation of natural phenomena, the myth now exists in civilized
+nations as an allegorical type of man’s own history and destiny, and
+thus is slowly merging into an episode of the second great cycle of the
+mythus, that of the Paradise lost and regained. It, too, finds its
+interpretation in psychology.</p>
+
+<p>Broadly surveying the life of man, philosophers have found in it much
+matter fit either for mockery or tears. We are born with a thirst for
+pleasure; we learn that pain alone is felt. We ask health; and having
+it, never notice it till it is gone. In the ardent pursuit of enjoyment,
+we waste our capacity of appreciation. Every sweet we gain is sauced
+with a bitter. Our eyes forever bent on the future, which can never be
+ours, we fritter away the present, which alone we possess. Ere we have
+got ourselves ready to live, we must die. Fooling ourselves even here,
+we represent death as the portal to joy unspeakable; and forthwith
+discredit our words by avoiding it in every possible way.</p>
+
+<p>Pitiable spectacle of weakness and folly, is it capable of any
+explanation which can redeem man from the imputation of unreason? Is
+Wisdom even here justified of her children by some deeper law of being?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The theologian explains it as the unrest of the soul penned in its house
+of clay; the physiologist attributes it to the unceasing effort of
+organic functions to adapt themselves to ever varying external
+conditions. They are both right, for the theologian, were his words
+translated into the language of science, refers to the <i>effort to adapt
+condition to function</i>, which is the peculiar faculty of intelligence,
+and which alone renders man unable to accept the comfort of merely
+animal existence, an inability which he need never expect to outlive,
+for it will increase in exact proportion to his mental development.
+Action, not rest, as I have elsewhere said, must be his ideal of life.</p>
+
+<p>In even his lowest levels man experiences this dissatisfaction. It may
+there be confined to a pain he would be free from, or a pleasure he
+dreams of. Always the future charms him, and as advancing years increase
+the number of his disappointments and bring with them the pains of
+decrepitude, he also recurs to the past, when youth was his, and the
+world was bright and gay. Thus it comes that most nations speak of some
+earlier period of their history as one characterized by purer public
+virtues than the present, one when the fires of patriotism burned
+brighter and social harmony was more conspicuous. In rude stages of
+society this fancy receives real credit and ranks as a veritable record
+of the past,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> forming a Golden Age or Saturnian Era. Turned in the
+kaleidoscope of the mythus, it assumes yet more gorgeous hues, and
+becomes a state of pure felicity, an Eden or a Paradise, wherein man
+dwelt in joy, and from which he wandered or was driven in the old days.</p>
+
+<p>It is almost needless to quote examples to show the wide distribution of
+this myth. The first pages of the Vendidad describe the reign of Yima in
+“the garden of delight,” where “there was no cold wind nor violent heat,
+no disease and no death.” The northern Buddhist tells of “the land of
+joy,” Sukhavati, in the far west, where ruled Amitabha, “infinite
+Light.”<a name="FNanchor_175-1_125" id="FNanchor_175-1_125" href="#Footnote_175-1_125" class="fnanchor">175-1</a> The Edda wistfully recalls the pleasant days of good King
+Gudmund who once held sway in Odainsakr, where death came not.<a name="FNanchor_175-2_126" id="FNanchor_175-2_126" href="#Footnote_175-2_126" class="fnanchor">175-2</a>
+Persian story has glad reminiscences of the seven hundred years that
+Jemschid sat on the throne of Iran, when peace and plenty were in the
+land.</p>
+
+<p>The garden “eastward in Eden” of the Pentateuch, the land of Tulan or
+Tlapallan in Aztec myth, the islands of the Hesperides, the rose garden
+of Feridun, and a score of other legends attest with what strong
+yearning man seeks in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> the past the picture of that perfect felicity
+which the present never yields.</p>
+
+<p>Nor can he be persuaded that the golden age has gone, no more to return.
+In all conditions of progress, and especially where the load of the
+present was the most wearying, has he counted on a restoration to that
+past felicity. The paradise lost is to be regained. How it is to be done
+the sages are not agreed. But they of old were unanimous that some
+divinity must lend his aid, that some god-sent guide is needed to rescue
+man from the slough of wretchedness in which he hopelessly struggles.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore in the new world the red men looked for the ruler who had
+governed their happy forefathers in the golden age, and who had not died
+but withdrawn mysteriously from view, to return to them, protect them,
+and insure them long bliss and ease. The ancient Persians expected as
+much from the coming of Craoshanç; the Thibetan Buddhists look to the
+advent of a Buddha 5000 years after Sakyamuni, one whose fortunate names
+are Maîtrêya, the Loving one, and Adjita, the Unconquerable;<a name="FNanchor_176-1_127" id="FNanchor_176-1_127" href="#Footnote_176-1_127" class="fnanchor">176-1</a> and
+even the practical Roman, as we learn from Virgil, was not a stranger to
+this dream. Very many nations felt it quite as strongly as the
+Israelites, who from early time awaited a mighty king, the Messiah, the
+Anointed, of whom the Targums say: “In his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> days shall peace be
+multiplied;” “He shall execute the judgment of truth and justice on the
+earth;” “He shall rule over all kingdoms.”</p>
+
+<p>The early forms of this conception, such as here referred to, looked
+forward to an earthly kingdom, identified with that of the past when
+this was vigorous in the national mythology. Material success and the
+utmost physical comfort were to characterize it. It was usually to be a
+national apotheosis, and was not generally supposed to include the human
+race, though traces of this wider view might easily be quoted from
+Avestan, Roman, and Israelitic sources. Those who were to enjoy it were
+not the dead, but those who shall be living.</p>
+
+<p>As the myth grew, it coalesced with that of the Epochs of Nature, and
+assumed grander proportions. The deliverer was to come at the close of
+this epoch, at the end of the world; he was to embrace the whole human
+kind in his kingdom; even those who died before his coming, if they had
+obeyed his mandates, should rise to join the happy throng; instead of a
+mere earthly king, he should be a supernatural visitant, even God
+himself; and instead of temporal pleasures only, others of a spiritual
+character were to be conferred. There are reasons to believe that even
+in this developed form the myth was familiar to the most enlightened
+worshippers of ancient Egypt; but it was not till some time after the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+doctrines of Christianity had been cast into mythical moulds by the
+oriental fancy, that it was introduced in its completed form to modern
+thought. Although expressly repudiated by Jesus of Nazareth himself, and
+applied in maxim and parable as a universal symbol of intelligence to
+the religious growth of the individual and race, his followers reverted
+to the coarser and literal meaning, and ever since teach to a greater or
+less extent the chiliastic or millennial dogma, often mathematically
+computing, in direct defiance of his words, the exact date that event is
+to be expected.</p>
+
+<p>If we ask the psychological construction of this myth, and the ever
+present conditions of man’s life which have rendered him always ready to
+create it and loath to renounce it, we trace the former distinctly to
+his sense of the purposive nature of the laws of thought, and the latter
+to the wide difference between desire and fulfilment. His intellectual
+nature is framed to accord with laws which are ever present but are not
+authoritative; they admonish but they do not coerce; <i>that</i> is done
+surely though oft remotely by the consequences of their violation. At
+first, unaware of the true character of these laws, he fancies that if
+he were altogether comfortable physically, his every wish would be
+gratified. Slowly it dawns upon him that no material gratification can
+supply an intellectual craving; that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> this is the real want which haunts
+him; and that its only satisfaction is <i>to think rightly</i>, to learn the
+truth. Then he sees that the millennial kingdom is “not of this world;”
+that heaven and earth may pass away, but that such truth as he seeks
+cannot pass away; and that his first and only care should be as a
+faithful and wise servant to learn and revere it.</p>
+
+<p>The sentiments which created this mythical cycle, based as they are now
+seen to be on ultimate psychological laws, are as active to-day as ever.
+This century has witnessed the rise of a school of powerful thinkers and
+true philanthropists who maintained that the noblest object is the
+securing to our fellow-men the greatest material comfort possible; that
+the religious aspirations will do well to content themselves with this
+gospel of humanity; and that the approach of the material millennium,
+the perfectibility of the human race, the complete adaptation of
+function to condition, the “distant but not uncertain final victory of
+Good,”<a name="FNanchor_179-1_128" id="FNanchor_179-1_128" href="#Footnote_179-1_128" class="fnanchor">179-1</a> is susceptible of demonstration. At present, these views
+are undergoing modification. It is perceived with more or less
+distinctness that complete physical comfort is not enough to make a man
+happy; that in proportion as this comfort is attained new wants develope
+themselves, quite as importunate, which ask what material com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>fort
+cannot give, and whose demand is neither for utility nor pleasurable
+sensation. Such wants are created by the sense of duty and the love of
+truth.</p>
+
+<p>The main difference between the latest exponents of the utilitarian
+doctrines and the heralds of distinctively religious thought, is that
+the former consider that it is most important in the present condition
+of man for him to look after his material welfare; while the latter
+teach that if he first subject thought and life to truth and duty, “all
+these things will be added unto him.” Wordsworth has cast this latter
+opinion, and the myths which are its types, into eloquent verse:</p>
+
+<p class="poem"><span class="i8">“Paradise and groves</span><br />
+Elysian, Fortunate Fields&mdash;like those of old<br />
+Sought in the Atlantic main, why should they be<br />
+A history only of departed things,<br />
+Or a mere fiction of what never was?<br />
+For the discerning intellect of man,<br />
+When wedded to this goodly universe<br />
+In love and holy passion, shall find these<br />
+A simple produce of the common day.”</p>
+
+<p>The incredulity and even derision with which the latter doctrine is
+received by “practical men,” should not affright the collected thinker,
+as it certainly is not so chimerical as they pretend. The writer De
+Senancourt, not at all of a religious turn, in speculating on the
+shortest possible road to general happiness, concluded that if we were
+able to foretell the weather a reasonable time ahead, and if men would
+make it a rule to speak the truth as near as they can, these two
+conditions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> would remove nine-tenths of the misery in the world. The
+more carefully I meditate on this speculation, the better grounded it
+seems. The weather we are learning to know much more about than when the
+solitary Obermann penned his despondent dreams; but who shall predict
+the time when men will tell the truth?</p>
+
+<p>I now pass to the third great mythical cyclus, which I have called that
+of the Hierarchy of the Gods. This was created in order to define that
+unknown power which was supposed to give to the wish frustration or
+fruition. It includes every statement in reference to the number,
+nature, history and character of supernatural beings.</p>
+
+<p>The precise form under which the intellect, when the religious
+conception of unknown power first dawns upon it, imagines this unknown,
+is uncertain. Some have maintained that the earliest religions are
+animal worships, others that the spirits of ancestors or chiefs are the
+primitive gods. Local divinities and personal spirits are found in the
+rudest culture, while simple fetichism, or the vague shapes presented by
+dreams, play a large part in the most inchoate systems. The prominence
+of one or the other of these elements depends upon local and national
+momenta, which are a proper study for the science of mythology, but need
+not detain us here. The underlying principle in all these conceptions of
+divinity is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> that of the <i>res per accidens</i>, an accidental relation of
+the thought to the symbol, not a general or necessary one. This is seen
+in the nature of these primitive gods. They have no decided character as
+propitious or the reverse other than the objects they typify, but are
+supposed to send bad or good fortune as they happen to be pleased or
+displeased with the votary. No classification as good and evil deities
+is as yet perceptible.</p>
+
+<p>This undeveloped stage of religious thought faded away, as general
+conceptions of man and his surroundings arose. Starting always from his
+wish dependent on unknown control, man found certain phenomena usually
+soothed his fears and favored his wishes, while others interfered with
+their attainment and excited his alarm. This distinction, directly
+founded on his sensations of pleasure and pain, led to a general, more
+or less rigid, classification of the unknown, into two opposing classes
+of beings, the one kindly disposed, beneficent, good, the other
+untoward, maleficent, evil.</p>
+
+<p>At first this distinction had in it nothing of a <i>moral</i> character. It
+is in fact a long time before this is visible, and to-day but two or
+three religions acknowledge it even theoretically. All, however, which
+claim historical position set up a dual hierarchy in the divine realms.
+Ahura-mazda and Anya-mainyus, God and Satan, Jove and Pluto, Pachacamac
+and Supay, Enigorio and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> Enigohatgea are examples out of hundreds that
+might be adduced.</p>
+
+<p>The fundamental contrast of pleasure and pain might be considered enough
+to explain this duality. But in fact it is even farther reaching. The
+emotions are dual as well as the sensations, as we have seen in the
+first chapter. All the operations of the intellect are dichotomic, and
+in mathematical logic must be expressed by an equation of the second
+degree. Subject and object must be understood as polar pairs, and in
+physical science polarization, contrast of properties corresponding to
+contrast of position, is a universal phenomenon. Analogy, therefore,
+vindicates the assumption that the unknown, like the known, is the field
+of the operation of contradictory powers.</p>
+
+<p>A variety of expression is given this philosophic notion in myths. In
+Egypt, Syria, Greece and India the contrast was that of the sexes, the
+male and female principles as displayed in the operations of nature. The
+type of all is that very ancient Phrygian cult in which by the side of
+Ma, mother of mountains and mistress of herds, stood Papas, father of
+the race of shepherds and inventor of the rustic pipe.<a name="FNanchor_183-1_129" id="FNanchor_183-1_129" href="#Footnote_183-1_129" class="fnanchor">183-1</a> Quite
+characteristic was the classification of the gods worshipped by the
+miners and metal workers of Phrygian Ida. This was into right and left,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+and the general name of Dactyli, Fingers, was given them. The right gods
+broke the spells which the left wove, the right pointed out the ore
+which the left had buried, the right disclosed the remedies for the
+sickness which the left had sent. This venerable division is still
+retained when we speak of a <i>sinister</i> portent, or a <i>right</i> judgment.
+It is of physiological interest as showing that “dextral pre-eminence”
+or right-handedness was prevalent in earliest historic times, though it
+is unknown in any lower animal.</p>
+
+<p>The thoughtful dwellers in Farsistan also developed a religion close to
+man’s wants by dividing the gods into those who aid and those who harm
+him, subject the one class to Ahura-Mazda, the other to Anya-Mainyus.
+Early in their history this assumed almost a moral aspect, and there is
+little to be added to one of the most ancient precepts of their
+law&mdash;“Happiness be to the man who conduces to the happiness of
+all.”<a name="FNanchor_184-1_130" id="FNanchor_184-1_130" href="#Footnote_184-1_130" class="fnanchor">184-1</a></p>
+
+<p>When this dual classification sought expression through natural
+contrasts, there was one which nigh everywhere offered itself as the
+most appropriate. The savage, the nomad, limited to the utmost in
+artificial contrivances, met nothing which more signally aided the
+accom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>plishment of his wishes than <i>light</i>; nothing which more certainly
+frustrated them than <i>darkness</i>. From these two sources flow numerous
+myths, symbols, and rites, as narratives or acts which convey religious
+thought to the eye or the ear of sense.</p>
+
+<p>As the bringers of light, man adored the sun, the dawn, and fire;
+associated with warmth and spring, his further meditations saw in it the
+source of his own and of all life, and led him to connect with its
+worship that of the reproductive principle. As it comes from above, and
+seems to dwell in the far-off sky, he located there his good gods, and
+lifted his hands or his eyes when he prayed. As light is necessary to
+sight, and as to see is to know, the faculty of knowing was typified as
+enlightenment, an inward god-given light. The great and beneficent
+deities are always the gods of light. Their names often show this. Deva,
+Deus, means the shining one; Michabo, the great white one; the Mongols
+call Tien, the chief Turanian god, the bright one, the luminous one; the
+northern Buddhist prays to Amitabha, Infinite Light; and the Christian
+to the Light of the World.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, darkness was connected with feelings of helplessness
+and terror. It exposed him to attacks of wild beasts and all accidents.
+It was the precursor of the storm. It was like to death and the grave.
+The realm<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> of the departed was supposed to be a land of shadows, an
+underground region, an unseeing Hades or hell.</p>
+
+<p>The task would be easy to show many strange corroborations of these
+early chosen symbols by the exacter studies of later ages. Light, as the
+indispensable condition of life, is no dream, but a fact; sight is the
+highest sentient faculty; and the luminous rays are real intellectual
+stimulants.<a name="FNanchor_186-1_131" id="FNanchor_186-1_131" href="#Footnote_186-1_131" class="fnanchor">186-1</a> But such reflections will not escape the
+contemplative reader.</p>
+
+<p>I hasten to an important consequence of this dual classification of
+divinities. It led to what I may call the <i>quantification of the gods</i>,
+that is, to conceiving divinity under notions of number or quantity, a
+step which has led to profound deterioration of the religious sentiment.
+I do not mean by this the distinction between polytheism and monotheism.
+The latter is as untrue and as injurious as the former, nor does it
+contain a whit the more the real elements of religious progress.</p>
+
+<p>It is indeed singular that this subject has been so misunderstood. Much
+has been written by Christian theologians to show the superiority of
+monotheisms; and by their opponents much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> has been made of Comte’s <i>loi
+des trois états</i>, which defines religious progress to be first
+fetichism, secondly polytheism, finally monotheism. Of this Mr. Lewes
+says: “The theological system arrived at the highest perfection of which
+it is capable when it substituted the providential action of a single
+being, for the varied operations of the numerous divinities which had
+before been imagined.”<a name="FNanchor_187-1_132" id="FNanchor_187-1_132" href="#Footnote_187-1_132" class="fnanchor">187-1</a> Nothing could be more erroneous than the
+spirit of this statement; nothing is more correct, if the ordinary talk
+of the superiority of monotheism in religion be admitted.</p>
+
+<p>History and long experience show that monotheistic religions have no
+special good effect either on the morals or the religious sensibility of
+races.<a name="FNanchor_187-2_133" id="FNanchor_187-2_133" href="#Footnote_187-2_133" class="fnanchor">187-2</a> Buddhism,<a name="FNanchor_187-3_134" id="FNanchor_187-3_134" href="#Footnote_187-3_134" class="fnanchor">187-3</a> Mohammedanism and Judaism are, at least
+in theory, uncompromising monotheisms; modern Christianity is less so,
+as many Catholics pray to the Virgin and Saints, and many Protestants to
+Christ. So long as <i>the mathematical conception of number</i>, whether one
+or many, is applied to deity by a theological system, it has not yet
+“arrived at the highest perfection of which it is capable.”</p>
+
+<p>For let us inquire what a monotheism is? It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> is a belief in one god as
+distinct from the belief in several gods. In other words, it applies to
+God the mathematical concept of unity, a concept which can only come
+into cognition by virtue of contrasts and determinations, and which
+forces therefore the believer either to Pantheism or anthropomorphism to
+reconcile his belief with his reason. No other resource is left him.
+With monotheism there must always be the idea of numerical separateness,
+which is incompatible with universal conceptions.</p>
+
+<p>Let him, however, clear his mind of the current admiration for
+monotheisms, and impress upon himself that he who would form a
+conception of supreme intelligence must do so under the rules of pure
+thought, not numerical relation. The logical, not the mathematical,
+unity of the divine is the perfection of theological reasoning. Logical
+unity does not demand a determination by contrasts; it conveys only the
+idea of identity with self. As the logical attainment of truth is the
+recognition of identities in apparent diversity, thus leading from the
+logically many to the logically one, the assumption of the latter is
+eminently justified. Every act of reasoning is an additional proof of
+it.<a name="FNanchor_188-1_135" id="FNanchor_188-1_135" href="#Footnote_188-1_135" class="fnanchor">188-1</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>Nor does the duality of nature and thought, to which I have alluded, in
+any wise contradict this. In pure thought we must understand the
+dichotomic process to be the distinction of a positive by a privative,
+both logical elements of the same thought, as I have elsewhere shown.
+The opposites or contraries referred to as giving rise to the dualistic
+conceptions of divinity are thus readily harmonized with the conception
+of logical unity. This was recognized by the Hindoo sage who composed
+the Bhagavad Gità, early in our era. Krishna, the Holy One, addressing
+the King Ardjuna says: “All beings fall into error as to the nature of
+creation, O Bharata, by reason of that delusion of natural opposites
+which springs from liking and disliking, oh thou tormentor of thy
+foes!”<a name="FNanchor_189-1_136" id="FNanchor_189-1_136" href="#Footnote_189-1_136" class="fnanchor">189-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The substitution of the conception of mathematical for logical unity in
+this connection has left curious traces in both philosophy and religion.
+It has led to a belief in the triplicate nature of the supreme Being,
+and to those philosophical triads which have often attracted thinkers,
+from Pythagoras and Heraclitus down to Hegel and Ghiberti.</p>
+
+<p>Pythagoras, who had thought profoundly on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> numbers and their relations,
+is credited with the obscure maxim that every thought is made up of a
+definite one and an indefinite two (a <span class="greek" title="monas">μονας</span> and an <span class="greek" title="aoristos duas">αοριστος δυας</span>). Some
+of his commentators have added to rather than lessened the darkness of
+this saying. But applied to concrete number, it seems clear enough. Take
+any number, ten, for example, and it is ten by virtue of being a <i>one</i>,
+one ten, and because on either side counting upward or downward, a
+different number appears, which two are its logical determinants, but,
+as not expressed, make up an <i>indefinite two</i>.</p>
+
+<p>So the number one, thought as concrete unity, is really a trinity, made
+up of its definite self and its indefinite next greater and lesser
+determinants. The obscure consciousness of this has made itself felt in
+many religions when they have progressed to a certain plane of thought.
+The ancient Egyptian gods were nearly all triune; Phanes, in the Orphic
+hymns the first principle of things, was tripartite; the Indian
+trinities are well known; the Celtic triads applied to divine as well as
+human existence; the Jews distinguished between Jehovah, his Wisdom and
+his Word; and in Christian religion and philosophy the doctrine of the
+trinity, though nowhere taught by Christ, has found a lasting foothold,
+and often presents itself as an actual tritheism.<a name="FNanchor_190-1_137" id="FNanchor_190-1_137" href="#Footnote_190-1_137" class="fnanchor">190-1</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>The triplicate nature of number, thus alluded to by Pythagoras, springs
+from the third law of thought, and holds true of all concrete notions.
+Every such notion stands in necessary relation to its privative, and to
+the logical concept of next greater extension, <i>i. e.</i>, that which
+includes the notion and its privative, as I explained in the first
+chapter. This was noted by the early Platonists, who describe a certain
+concrete expression of it as “the intelligential triad;” and it has been
+repeatedly commented upon by later philosophers, some of whom avowedly
+derive from it the proof of the trinitarian dogma as formulated by
+Athanasius. Even modern mathematical investigations have been supposed
+to point to a <i>Deus triformis</i>, though of course quite another one from
+that which ancient Rome honored. A late work of much ability makes the
+statement: “The doctrine of the Trinity, or something analogous to it,
+forms, as it were, the avenue through which the universe itself leads us
+up to the conception of the Infinite and Eternal One.”<a name="FNanchor_191-1_138" id="FNanchor_191-1_138" href="#Footnote_191-1_138" class="fnanchor">191-1</a> The
+explana<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>tion of this notion is the same as that of the “Trinity of the
+Gentiles,” always hitherto a puzzling mythological concept.</p>
+
+<p>For reasons previously given, an analysis of the formal law itself does
+not yield these elements. They belong to a certain class of values
+assigned it, not to the law itself; hence it is only when deity is
+conceived under the conditions of numerical oneness that the tripartite
+constitution of a whole number makes itself felt, and is applied to the
+divine nature.</p>
+
+<p>The essence of a logical unit is identity, of a mathematical,
+difference. The qualities of the latter are limitations&mdash;<i>so much of a
+thing</i>; those of the former are coincidences&mdash;<i>that kind of a thing</i>.</p>
+
+<p>To be sure it is no easy matter to free ourselves from the habit of
+confounding identity and individuality. We must cultivate a much greater
+familiarity with the forms of thought, and the character of universals,
+than every-day life requires of us, before the distinction grows facile.
+The individual, not the species, exists; our own personality, our
+thinking faculty is what we are most certain of. On it rests the reality
+of everything, the Unknown as well. But the rejection of a mathematical
+unity does not at all depreciate the force of such an argument.
+Individuality regarded as mathematical unity rests on the deeper law of
+logical identity from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> which the validity of numbers rises; it is not
+the least diminished, but intensified, in the conception of a Supreme
+Intelligence, as the font of truth, though the confinements and
+limitations of the mathematical unit fall away, and all contrasts
+disappear.</p>
+
+<p>The reverse conception, however, has prevailed in religious systems,
+polytheistic or monotheistic. Man has projected on the cloudy unknown
+the magnified picture of his own individuality and shuddered with terror
+at the self-created <a name="corr9" id="corr9"></a><ins class="correction" title="phantasm,">plantasm,</ins> like the peasant frightened by the
+spectre of the Brocken, formed by the distorted image of himself. In his
+happier moments, with his hopes gratified, the same vice of thought,
+still active, prevented him from conceiving any higher ideal than his
+better self. “Everywhere the same tendency was observed; the gods,
+always exaggerations of human power and passions, became more and more
+personifications of what was most admirable and lovable in human nature,
+till in Christianity there emerged the avowed ideal man.” What could it
+end in but anthropomorphism, or pantheism, or, rejecting both, a
+Religion of Humanity, with a background of an imbecile Unknowable?</p>
+
+<p>Is it necessary to point out how none of these conclusions can satisfy
+the enlightened religious sentiment? How <a name="corr10" id="corr10"></a><ins class="correction" title="anthropomorphism, which">anthropomorphism,which</ins>
+makes God in the image of man, instead of acknowledg<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>ing that man is
+made in the image of God, belittles divinity to a creature of passions
+and caprices? How pantheism, increasing God at the expense of man, wipes
+out the fundamental difference of true and false, calls bad “good in the
+making,” and virtually extinguishes the sense of duty and the permanence
+of personality? And how the denial of all possible knowledge of the
+absolute digs away the only foundation on which sanity can establish a
+religion, and then palms off material comfort as the proper food for
+religious longing?</p>
+
+<p>The long story of religious effort is not from fetichism to monotheism,
+as Comte read it; nor is its only possible goal inside the limits of the
+ego, as Feuerbach and the other Neo-Hegelians assert; but it is on its
+theoretical side to develope with greater and greater distinctness the
+immeasurable reality of pure thought, to dispense more and more with the
+quantification of the absolute, and to avoid in the representation of
+that Being the use of the technic of concrete existence.</p>
+
+<p>Little by little we learn that the really true is never true in fact,
+that the really good is never good in act.<a name="FNanchor_194-1_139" id="FNanchor_194-1_139" href="#Footnote_194-1_139" class="fnanchor">194-1</a> Carefully cherishing
+this distinction taught by mathematics and ethics, the religious mind
+learns to recognize in that only reality<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> darkly seen through the glass
+of material things, that which should fix and fill its meditations.
+Passing beyond the domain of physical law, it occupies itself with that
+which defines the conditions of law. It contemplates an eternal
+activity, before which its own self-consciousness seems a flickering
+shadow, yet in that contemplation is not lost but gains an evergrowing
+personality.</p>
+
+<p>This is the goal of religious striving, the hidden aim of the wars and
+persecutions, the polemics and martyrdoms, which have so busied and
+bloodied the world. This satisfies the rational postulates of religion.
+Does some one say that it does not stimulate its emotional elements,
+that it does not supply the impulses of action which must ever be the
+criteria of the true faith? Is it not a religion at all, but a
+philosophy, a search, or if you prefer, a love for the truth?</p>
+
+<p>Let such doubter ponder well the signification of truth, its relation to
+life, its identity with the good, and the paramount might of wisdom and
+a clear understanding, and he will be ready to exclaim with the
+passionate piety of St. Augustine: “<i>Ubi inveni veritatem, ibi inveni
+Deum meum, ipsam veritatem, quam, ex quo didici, non sum oblitus.</i>”</p>
+
+<p>From this brief review of its character, the Myth will be seen to be one
+of the transitory expressions of the religious sentiment, which in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+enlightened lands it has already outgrown and should lay aside. So far
+as it relates to events, real or alleged, historic or geologic, it deals
+with that which is indifferent to pure religion; and so far as it
+assumes to reveal the character, plans and temper of divinity, it is too
+evidently a reflex of man’s personality to be worthy of serious
+refutation where it conflicts with the better guide he has within him.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_156-1_111" id="Footnote_156-1_111" href="#FNanchor_156-1_111">156-1</a> In this definition the word <i>apperception</i> is used in
+the sense assigned it by Professor Lazarus&mdash;the perception modified by
+imagination and memory. “Mythologie ist eine Apperceptionsform der Natur
+und des Menschen.” (<i>Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie</i>, Bd. i., s. 44).
+Most recent mythologists omit the latter branch of the definition; for
+instance, “A myth is in its origin an explanation by the uncivilized
+mind of some natural phenomenon.” (John Fiske, <i>Myths and Myth Makers</i>,
+p. 21). This is to omit that which gives the myth its only claim to be a
+product of the religious sentiment. Schopenhauer, in calling dogmas and
+myths “the metaphysics of the people,” fell into the same error.
+Religion, as such, is always concrete.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_159-1_112" id="Footnote_159-1_112" href="#FNanchor_159-1_112">159-1</a> Half a century ago the learned Mr. Faber, in his
+<i>Origin of Pagan Idolatry</i>, expressed his astonishment at “the singular,
+minute and regular accordance” between the classical myths. That
+accordance has now been discovered to be world-wide.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_160-1_113" id="Footnote_160-1_113" href="#FNanchor_160-1_113">160-1</a> “Ganz gleiche Mythen können sehr füglich, jede
+selbstständig, an verschiedenen Oerter emporkommen.” <i>Briefe an
+Woelcker.</i></p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_161-1_114" id="Footnote_161-1_114" href="#FNanchor_161-1_114">161-1</a> The last two are the modern orthodox theories,
+supported by Bryant, Faber, Trench, De Maistre and Sepp. Medieval
+Christianity preferred the direct agency of the Devil. Primitive
+Christianity leaned to the opinion that the Grecian and Roman myth
+makers had stolen from the sacred writings of the Jews.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_165-1_115" id="Footnote_165-1_115" href="#FNanchor_165-1_115">165-1</a> Sir Wm. Hamilton, <i>Lectures on Metaphysics</i>. Appendix,
+p. 691.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_165-2_116" id="Footnote_165-2_116" href="#FNanchor_165-2_116">165-2</a> Creuzer, <i>Symbolik und Mythologie</i>, Bd. ii., s. 107.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_166-1_117" id="Footnote_166-1_117" href="#FNanchor_166-1_117">166-1</a> Th. Nöldeke, <i>Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie</i>, Bd.
+iii., s. 131.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_166-2_118" id="Footnote_166-2_118" href="#FNanchor_166-2_118">166-2</a> See a note of Prof. Spiegel to Yaçna, 29, of the
+<i>Khordah-Avesta</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_167-1_119" id="Footnote_167-1_119" href="#FNanchor_167-1_119">167-1</a> <span class="greek" title="Hê ygra physis archê kai genesis pantôn">Ἡ υγρα φυσις αρχη και γενεσις παντων</span>.<br />
+<span class="i16">Plutarch, <i>De Iside</i>.</span></p>
+
+<p>According to the Koran and the Jewish Rabbis, the throne of God rested
+on the primeval waters from which the earth was produced. See a note in
+Rodwell’s translation of the Koran, <i>Sura</i>. xi.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_167-2_120" id="Footnote_167-2_120" href="#FNanchor_167-2_120">167-2</a> I have discussed some of these myths in the seventh
+chapter of the <i>Myths of the New World</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_168-1_121" id="Footnote_168-1_121" href="#FNanchor_168-1_121">168-1</a> How it troubled the early Christians who dared not
+adopt the refuge of the Epochs of Nature, may be seen in the
+<i>Confessions</i> of St. Augustine, Lib. XI, cap. 10, et seq. He quotes the
+reply of one pushed by the inquiry, what God was doing before creation:
+“He was making a hell for inquisitive busy-bodies.” <i>Alta spectantibus
+gehennas parabat.</i></p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_170-1_122" id="Footnote_170-1_122" href="#FNanchor_170-1_122">170-1</a> Many interesting references to the Oriental flood-myth
+may be found in Cory’s <i>Ancient Fragments</i>. See also, Dr. Fr.
+Windischmann, <i>Die Ursagen der Arischen Völker</i>, pp. 4-10. It is
+probable that in very ancient Semitic tradition Adam was represented as
+the survivor of a flood anterior to that of Noah. Maimonides relates
+that the Sabians believed the world to be eternal, and called Adam “the
+Prophet of the Moon,” which symbolized, as we know from other sources,
+the deity of water. Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon, <i>More Nevochim</i>, cap. iv. In
+early Christian symbolism Christ was called “the true Noah”; the dove
+accompanied him also, and as through Noah came “salvation by wood and
+water,” so through Christ came “salvation by spirit and water.” (See St.
+Cyril of Jerusalem’s <i>Catechetical Lectures</i>, Lect. xvii., cap. 10). The
+fish (<span class="greek" title="ichthus">ιχθυς</span>) was the symbol of Christ as well as of Oannes. As the
+second coming of Christ was to be the destruction of the world, how
+plainly appear the germs of the myth of the Epochs of Nature in the
+Judæo-Christian mind!</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_171-1_123" id="Footnote_171-1_123" href="#FNanchor_171-1_123">171-1</a> Besides the expressions in the Book of Ecclesiastes and
+the later prophets, the doctrine is distinctly announced in one of the
+most sublime of the Psalms (xc), one attributed to “Moses the Man of
+God.”</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_172-1_124" id="Footnote_172-1_124" href="#FNanchor_172-1_124">172-1</a> Malachi, ch. iv., v. 2.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_175-1_125" id="Footnote_175-1_125" href="#FNanchor_175-1_125">175-1</a> C. F. Koppen, <i>Die Lamaische Hierarchie</i>, s. 28.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_175-2_126" id="Footnote_175-2_126" href="#FNanchor_175-2_126">175-2</a> Odainsakr, ô privative, <i>dain</i> death, <i>akr</i> land, “the
+land of immortal life.” Saxo Grammaticus speaks of it also. Another such
+land faintly referred to in the Edda is Breidablick, governed by Baldur,
+the Light-god.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_176-1_127" id="Footnote_176-1_127" href="#FNanchor_176-1_127">176-1</a> C. F. Koppen, <i>Die Lamaische Hierarchie und Kirche</i>, p.
+17.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_179-1_128" id="Footnote_179-1_128" href="#FNanchor_179-1_128">179-1</a> John Stuart Mill, <i>Theism</i>, p. 256.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_183-1_129" id="Footnote_183-1_129" href="#FNanchor_183-1_129">183-1</a> Creuzer, <i>Symbolik und Mythologie</i>, Bd. II., s. 47</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_184-1_130" id="Footnote_184-1_130" href="#FNanchor_184-1_130">184-1</a> This is the first line of Yaçna, 42, of the
+<i>Khordah-Avesta</i>. The Parsees believe that it is the salutation which
+meets the soul of the good on entering the next world.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_186-1_131" id="Footnote_186-1_131" href="#FNanchor_186-1_131">186-1</a> “Sight is the light sense. Through it we become
+acquainted with universal relations, this being <i>reason</i>. Without the
+eye there would be no reason.” Lorenz Oken, <i>Elements of
+Physio-Philosophy</i>, p. 475.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_187-1_132" id="Footnote_187-1_132" href="#FNanchor_187-1_132">187-1</a> <i>History of Philosophy</i>, Vol. II. p. 638 (4th ed.)</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_187-2_133" id="Footnote_187-2_133" href="#FNanchor_187-2_133">187-2</a> “The intolerance of almost all religions which have
+maintained the unity of God, is as remarkable as the contrary principle
+in polytheism.” Hume, <i>Nat. Hist. of Religion</i>, Sec. ix.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_187-3_134" id="Footnote_187-3_134" href="#FNanchor_187-3_134">187-3</a> “The Lamas emphatically maintain monotheism to be the
+real character of Buddhism.” Emil Schlagintweit, <i>Buddhism in Tibet</i>, p.
+108.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_188-1_135" id="Footnote_188-1_135" href="#FNanchor_188-1_135">188-1</a> No one has seen the error here pointed out, and its
+injurious results on thought, more clearly than Comte himself. He is
+emphatic in condemning “le tendance involontaire à constituer l’unité
+spéculative par l’ascendant universel des plus grossières contemplations
+numérique, geométrique ou mécaniques.” <i>Systême de Politique Positive</i>;
+Tome I., p. 51. But he was too biassed to apply this warning to
+Christian thought. The conception of the Universe in the logic of
+Professor De Morgan and Boole is an example of speculative unity.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_189-1_136" id="Footnote_189-1_136" href="#FNanchor_189-1_136">189-1</a> <i>Bhagavad Gità</i>, ch. iv.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_190-1_137" id="Footnote_190-1_137" href="#FNanchor_190-1_137">190-1</a> See the introduction by Mr. J. W. Etheridge to <i>The
+Targums of Onkelos and Jonathan Ben Uzziel</i> (London, 1862). St.
+Augustine believed the trinity is referred to in the opening verses of
+Genesis. <i>Confessiones</i>, Lib. xiii. cap. 5. The early Christian writer,
+Theophilus of Antioch (circa 225), in his <i>Apologia</i>, recognizes the
+Jewish trinity only. It was a century later that the dogma was defined
+in its Athanasian form. See further, Isaac Preston Cory, <i>Ancient
+Fragments, with an Inquiry into the Trinity of the Gentiles</i> (London,
+1832).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_191-1_138" id="Footnote_191-1_138" href="#FNanchor_191-1_138">191-1</a> <i>The Unseen Universe</i>, p. 194.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_194-1_139" id="Footnote_194-1_139" href="#FNanchor_194-1_139">194-1</a> “A good will is the only altogether good thing in the
+world.”&mdash;<i>Kant.</i> “What man conceives in himself is always superior to
+that reality which it precedes and prepares.”&mdash;<i>Comte.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapdivider"><a name="THE_CULT_ITS_SYMBOLS_AND_RITES" id="THE_CULT_ITS_SYMBOLS_AND_RITES"></a>THE CULT, ITS SYMBOLS AND RITES.</h2>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="chapterhead">SUMMARY.</h3>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Symbol represents the unknown; the Rite is the ceremony of
+worship.</p>
+
+<p>A symbol stands for the supernatural, an emblem for something
+known. The elucidation of symbolism is in the laws of the
+association of ideas. Associations of similarity give related
+symbols, of contiguity coincident symbols. Symbols tend either
+toward personification (iconolatry), or toward secularization. The
+symbol has no fixed interpretation. Its indefiniteness shown by the
+serpent symbol, and the cross. The physiological relations of
+certain symbols. Their classification. The Lotus. The Pillar.
+Symbols discarded by the higher religious thought. Esthetic and
+scientific symbolism (the “Doctrine of Correspondences”).</p>
+
+<p>Rites are either propitiatory or memorial. The former spring either
+from the idea of sacrifice or of specific performance. A sacrifice
+is a gift, but its measure is what it costs the giver. Specific
+performance means that a religious act should have no ulterior aim.
+Vicarious sacrifice and the idea of sin.</p>
+
+<p>Memorial rites are intended to recall the myth, or else to keep up
+the organization. The former are dramatic or imitative, the latter
+institutionary. Tendency of memorial rites to become propitiatory.
+Examples.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="chaptitle">THE CULT, ITS SYMBOLS AND RITES.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">As</span> the side which a religious system presents to the intellect is shown
+in the Myth, so the side that it presents to sense is exhibited in the
+Cult. This includes the representation and forms of worship of the
+unknown power which presides over the fruition of the Prayer or
+religious wish. The representation is effected by the Symbol, the
+worship by the Rite. The development of these two, and their relation to
+religious thought, will be the subject of the present chapter.</p>
+
+<p>The word Symbolism has a technical sense in theological writings, to
+wit, the discussion of creeds, quite different from that in which it is
+used in mythological science. Here it means the discussion of the
+natural objects which have been used to represent to sense supposed
+supernatural beings. As some conception of such beings must first be
+formed, the symbol is neces<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>sarily founded upon the myth, and must be
+explained by it.</p>
+
+<p>A symbol is closely allied to an emblem, the distinction being that the
+latter is intended to represent some abstract conception or concrete
+fact, not supposed to be supernatural. Thus the serpent is the emblem of
+Esculapius, or, abstractly, of the art of healing; but in its use as a
+symbol in Christian art it stands for the Evil One, a supernatural
+being. The heraldric insignia of the Middle Ages were emblematic
+devices; but the architecture of the cathedrals was largely symbolic.
+Both agree in aiming to aid the imagination and the memory, and both may
+appeal to any special sense, although the majority are addressed to
+sight alone.</p>
+
+<p>Symbolism has not received the scientific treatment which has been so
+liberally bestowed on mythology. The first writer who approached it in
+the proper spirit was Professor Creuzer.<a name="FNanchor_200-1_140" id="FNanchor_200-1_140" href="#Footnote_200-1_140" class="fnanchor">200-1</a> Previous to his labors
+the distinction between pictographic and symbolic art was not well
+defined. He drew the line sharply, and illustrated it abundantly; but he
+did not preserve so clearly the relations of the symbol and the myth.
+Indeed, he regarded the latter as a symbol, a “phonetic” one, to be
+treated by the same pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>cesses of analysis. Herein later students have
+not consented to follow him. The contrast between these two expressions
+of the religious sentiment becomes apparent when we examine their
+psychological origin. This Professor Creuzer did not include in his
+researches, nor is it dwelt upon at any length in the more recent works
+on the subject.<a name="FNanchor_201-1_141" id="FNanchor_201-1_141" href="#Footnote_201-1_141" class="fnanchor">201-1</a> The neglect to do this has given rise to an
+arbitrariness in the interpretation of many symbols, which has often
+obscured their position in religious history.</p>
+
+<p>What these principles are I shall endeavor to indicate; and first of the
+laws of the origin of symbols, the rules which guided the early
+intellect in choosing from the vast number of objects appealing to sense
+those fit to shadow forth the supernatural.</p>
+
+<p>It may safely be assumed that this was not done capriciously, as the
+modern parvenue makes for himself a heraldric device. The simple and
+devout intellect of the primitive man imagined a real connection between
+the god and the symbol. Were this questioned, yet the wonderful
+unanimity with which the same natural objects, the serpent, the bird,
+the tree, for example, were everywhere chosen, proves that their
+selection was not the work of chance. The constant preference of these
+objects points conclusively to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> some strong and frequent connection of
+their images with mythical concepts.</p>
+
+<p>The question of the origin of symbols therefore resolves itself into one
+of the association of ideas, and we start from sure ground in applying
+to their interpretation the established canons of association. These, as
+I have elsewhere said, are those of contiguity and similarity, the
+former producing association by the closeness of succession of
+impressions or thoughts, the latter through impressions or thoughts
+recalling like ones in previous experience. When the same occurrence
+affects different senses simultaneously, or nearly so, the association
+is one of <i>contiguity</i>, as thunder and lightning, for a sound cannot be
+<i>like</i> a sight; when the same sense is affected in such a manner as to
+recall a previous impression, the association is one of <i>similarity</i>, as
+when the red autumn leaves recall the hue of sunset. Nearness in time or
+nearness in kind is the condition of association.</p>
+
+<p>The intensity or permanence of the association depends somewhat on
+temperament, but chiefly on repetition or continuance. Not having an ear
+for music, I may find it difficult to recall a song from hearing its
+tune; but by dint of frequent repetition I learn to associate them.
+Light and heat, smoke and fire, poverty and hunger so frequently occur
+together, that the one is apt to recall the other. So do a large<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> number
+of antithetical associations, as light and darkness, heat and cold, by
+<i>inverse similarity</i>, opposite impressions reviving each other, in
+accordance with the positive and privative elements of a notion.</p>
+
+<p>This brief reference to the laws of applied thought,&mdash;too brief, did I
+not take for granted that they are generally familiar&mdash;furnishes the
+clue to guide us through the labyrinth of symbolism, to wit, the
+repeated association of the event or power recorded in the myth with
+some sensuous image. Where there is a connection in kind between the
+symbol and that for which it stands, there is <i>related</i> symbolism; where
+the connection is one of juxtaposition in time, there is <i>coincident</i>
+symbolism. Mother Earth, fertile and fecund, was a popular deity in many
+nations, and especially among the Egyptians, who worshipped her under
+the symbol of a cow; this is related symbolism; the historical event of
+the execution of Christ occurred by crucifixion, one of several methods
+common in that age, and since then the cross has been the symbol of
+Christianity; this is coincident symbolism. It is easy for the two to
+merge, as when the cross was identified with a somewhat similar and much
+older symbol, one of the class I have called “related,” signifying the
+reproductive principle, and became the “tree of life.” As a coincident
+symbol is to a certain extent acciden<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>tal in origin, related symbols
+have always been most agreeable to the religious sentiment.</p>
+
+<p>This remark embodies the explanation of the growth of religious
+symbolism, and also its gradual decay into decorative art and mnemonic
+design. The tendency of related symbolism is toward the identification
+of the symbol with that for which it stands, toward personification or
+prosopopeia; while what I may call the <i>secularization</i> of symbols is
+brought about by regarding them more and more as accidental connections,
+by giving them conventional forms, and treating them as elements of
+architectural or pictorial design, or as aids to memory.</p>
+
+<p>This tendency of related symbolism depends on a law of applied thought
+which has lately been formulated by a distinguished logician in the
+following words: “What is true of a thing, is true of its like.”<a name="FNanchor_204-1_142" id="FNanchor_204-1_142" href="#Footnote_204-1_142" class="fnanchor">204-1</a>
+The similarity of the symbol to its prototype assumed, the qualities of
+the symbol, even those which had no share in deciding its selection, no
+likeness to the original, were lumped, and transferred to the divinity.
+As those like by similarity, so those unlike, were identified by
+contiguity, as traits of the unknown power. This is the active element
+in the degeneracy of religious idealism. The cow or the bull, chosen
+first as a symbol of creation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> or fecundity, led to a worship of the
+animal itself, and a transfer of its traits, even to its horns, to the
+god. In a less repulsive form, the same tendency shows itself in the
+pietistic ingenuity of such poets as Adam de Sancto Victore and George
+Herbert, who delight in taking some biblical symbol, and developing from
+it a score of applications which the original user never dreamt of. In
+such hands a chance simile grows to an elaborate myth.</p>
+
+<p>Correct thought would prevent the extension of the value of the symbol
+beyond the original element of similarity. More than this, it would
+recognize the fact that similarity does not suppose identity, but the
+reverse, to wit, defect of likeness; and this dissimilitude must be the
+greater, as the original and symbol are naturally discrepant. The
+<a name="corr11" id="corr11"></a><ins class="correction" title="supernatural,">supernatual,</ins> however, whether by this term we mean the unknown or
+the universal&mdash;still more if we mean the incomprehensible&mdash;is utterly
+discrepant with the known, except by an indefinitely faint analogy. In
+the higher thought, therefore, the symbol loses all trace of identity
+and becomes merely emblematic.</p>
+
+<p>The ancients defended symbolic teaching on this very ground, that the
+symbol left so much unexplained, that it stimulated the intellect and
+trained it to profounder thinking;<a name="FNanchor_205-1_143" id="FNanchor_205-1_143" href="#Footnote_205-1_143" class="fnanchor">205-1</a> practically<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> it had the
+reverse effect, the symbol being accepted as the thing itself.</p>
+
+<p>Passing from these general rules of the selection of symbols, to the
+history of the symbol when chosen, this presents itself to us in a
+reciprocal form, first as the myth led to the adoption and changes in
+the symbol, and as the latter in turn altered and reformed the myth.</p>
+
+<p>The tropes and figures of rhetoric by which the conceptions of the
+supernatural were first expressed, give the clue to primitive symbolism.
+A very few examples will be sufficient. No one can doubt that the figure
+of the serpent was sometimes used in pictorial art to represent the
+lightning, when he reads that the Algonkins <i>straightly</i> called the
+latter a snake; when he sees the same adjective, spiral or winding,
+(<span class="greek" title="helikoiedês">ἑλικοιεδης</span>) applied by the Greeks to the lightning and a snake; when
+the Quiché call the electric flash a strong serpent; and many other such
+examples. The Pueblo Indians represent lightning in their pictographs by
+a zigzag line. A zigzag fence is called in the Middle States a worm or
+“snake” fence. Besides this, adjectives which describe the line traced
+by the serpent in motion are applied to many twisting or winding
+objects, as a river, a curl or lock of hair, the tendrils of a vine, the
+intestines, a trailing plant, the mazes of a dance, a bracelet, a broken
+ray of light, a sickle, a crooked limb, an anfractuous path,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> the
+phallus, etc. Hence the figure of a serpent may, and in fact has been,
+used with direct reference to every one of these, as could easily be
+shown. How short-sighted then the expounder of symbolism who would
+explain the frequent recurrence of the symbol or the myth of the serpent
+wherever he finds it by any one of these!</p>
+
+<p>This narrowness of exposition becomes doubly evident when we give
+consideration to two other elements in primitive symbolism&mdash;the
+multivocal nature of early designs, and the misapprehensions due to
+contiguous association.</p>
+
+<p>To illustrate the first, let us suppose, with Schwarz<a name="FNanchor_207-1_144" id="FNanchor_207-1_144" href="#Footnote_207-1_144" class="fnanchor">207-1</a> and others,
+that the serpent was at first the symbol of the lightning. Its most
+natural representation would be in motion; it might then stand for the
+other serpentine objects I have mentioned; but once accepted as an
+acknowledged symbol, the other qualities and properties of the serpent
+would present themselves to the mind, and the effort would be made to
+discover or to imagine likenesses to these in the electric flash. The
+serpent is venomous; it casts its skin and thus seems to renew its life;
+it is said to fascinate its prey; it lives in the ground; it hisses or
+rattles when disturbed: none of these properties is present to the mind
+of the savage who scratches on the rock a zigzag line to represent the
+lightning god. But after-thought brings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> them up, and the association of
+contiguity can apply them all to the lightning, and actually has done so
+over and over again; and not only to it, but also to other objects
+originally represented by a broken line, for example, the river gods and
+the rays of light.</p>
+
+<p>This complexity is increased by the ambiguous representation of symbolic
+designs. The serpent, no longer chosen for its motion alone, will be
+expressed in art in that form best suited to the meaning of the symbol
+present in the mind of the artist. Realism is never the aim of religious
+art. The zigzag line, the coil, the spiral, the circle and the straight
+line, are all geometrical radicals of various serpentine forms. Any one
+of these may be displayed with fanciful embellishments and artistic
+aids. Or the artist, proceeding by synecdoche, takes a part for the
+whole, and instead of portraying the entire animal, contents himself
+with one prominent feature or one aspect of it. A striking instance of
+this has been developed by Dr. Harrison Allen, in the prevalence of what
+he calls the “crotalean curve,” in aboriginal American art, a line which
+is the radical of the profile view of the head of the rattlesnake
+(<i>crotalus</i>).<a name="FNanchor_208-1_145" id="FNanchor_208-1_145" href="#Footnote_208-1_145" class="fnanchor">208-1</a> This he has detected in the architectural monuments
+of Mexico and Yucatan, in the Maya phonetic scrip, and even in the rude
+efforts of the savage tribes. Each of these elective methods of
+repre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>senting the serpent, would itself, by independent association,
+call up ideas out of all connection whatever with that which the figure
+first symbolized. These, in the mind entertaining them, will supersede
+and efface the primitive meaning. Thus the circle is used in
+conventional symbolic art to designate the serpent; but also the eye,
+the ear, the open mouth, the mamma, the sun, the moon, a wheel, the
+womb, the vagina, the return of the seasons, time, continued life, hence
+health, and many other things. Whichever of these ideas is easiest
+recalled will first appear on looking at a circle. The error of those
+who have discussed mythological symbolism has been to trace a connection
+of such adventitious ideas beyond the symbol to its original meaning;
+whereas the symbol itself is the starting-point. To one living in a
+region where venomous serpents abound, the figure of one will recall the
+sense of danger, the dread of the bite, and the natural hostility we
+feel to those who hurt us; whereas no such ideas would occur to the
+native of a country where there are no snakes, or where they are
+harmless, unless taught this association.</p>
+
+<p>Few symbols have received more extended study than that of the cross,
+owing to its prominence in Christian art. This, as I have said, was
+coincident or incidental only. It corresponded, however, to a current
+“phonetic symbol,” in the expression common to the Greeks and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> Romans of
+that day, “to take up one’s cross,” meaning to prepare for the worst, a
+metaphor used by Christ himself.</p>
+
+<p>Now there is no agreement as to what was the precise form of the cross
+on which he suffered. Three materially unlike crosses are each equally
+probable. In symbolic art these have been so multiplied that now <i>two
+hundred and twenty-two</i> variants of the figure are described!<a name="FNanchor_210-1_146" id="FNanchor_210-1_146" href="#Footnote_210-1_146" class="fnanchor">210-1</a> Of
+course there is nothing easier than to find among these similarities,
+with many other conventional symbols, the Egyptian Tau, the Hammer of
+Thor, the “Tree of Fertility,” on which the Aztecs nailed their victims,
+the crossed lines which are described on Etruscan tombs, or the logs
+crossed at rectangles, on which the Muskogee Indians built the sacred
+fire. The four cardinal points are so generally objects of worship, that
+more than any other mythical conception they have been represented by
+cruciform figures. But to connect these in any way with the symbol as it
+appears in Christian art, is to violate every scientific principle.</p>
+
+<p>Each variant of a symbol may give rise to myths quite independent of its
+original meaning. A symbol once adopted is preserved by its sacred
+character, exists long as a symbol, but with ever fluctuating
+significations. It always takes that which is uppermost in the mind of
+the votary and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> the congregation. Hence, psychology, and especially the
+psychology of races, is the only true guide in symbolic exegesis.</p>
+
+<p>Nor is the wide adoption and preservation of symbols alone due to an
+easily noticed similarity between certain objects and the earliest
+conceptions of the supernatural, or to the preservative power of
+religious veneration.</p>
+
+<p>I have previously referred to the associations of ideas arising from
+ancestral reversions of memory, and from the principles of minimum
+muscular action and harmonic excitation. Such laws make themselves felt
+unconsciously from the commencement of life, with greater or less power,
+dependent on the susceptibility of the nervous system. They go far
+toward explaining the recurrence and permanence of symbols, whether of
+sight or sound. Thus I attribute the prevalence of the serpentine curve
+in early religious art largely to its approach to the “line of beauty,”
+which is none other than that line which the eye, owing to the
+arrangement of its muscles, can follow with the minimum expenditure of
+nervous energy. The satisfaction of the mind in viewing symmetrical
+figures or harmonious coloring, as also that of the ear, in hearing
+accordant sounds, is, as I have remarked, based on the principle of
+maximum action with minimum waste. The mind gets the most at the least
+cost.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The equilateral triangle, which is the simplest geometrical figure which
+can enclose a space, thus satisfying the mind the easiest of any, is
+nigh universal in symbolism. It is seen in the Egyptian pyramids, whose
+sides are equilateral triangles with a common apex, in the mediæval
+cathedrals, whose designs are combinations of such triangles, in the
+sign for the trinity, the pentalpha, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The classification of some symbols of less extensive prevalence must be
+made from their phonetic values. One class was formed as were the
+“canting arms” in heraldry, that is, by a rebus. This is in its simpler
+form, direct, as when Quetzalcoatl, the mystical hero-god of Atzlan, is
+represented by a bird on a serpent, <i>quetzal</i> signifying a bird, <i>coatl</i>
+a serpent; or composite, two or more of such rebus symbols being blended
+by synecdoche, like the “marshalling” of arms in heraldry, as when the
+same god is portrayed by a feathered serpent; or the rebus may occur
+with paronymy, especially when the literal meaning of a name of the god
+is lost, as when the Algonkins forgot the sense of the word <i>wabish</i>,
+white or bright, as applied to their chief divinity, and confounding it
+with <i>wabos</i>, a rabbit, wove various myths about their ancestor, the
+Great Hare, and chose the hare or rabbit as a totemic badge.<a name="FNanchor_212-1_147" id="FNanchor_212-1_147" href="#Footnote_212-1_147" class="fnanchor">212-1</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>It is almost needless to add further that the ideas most frequently
+associated with the unknown object of religion are those, which,
+struggling after material expression, were most fecund in symbols. We
+have but to turn to the Orphic hymns, or those of the Vedas or the
+Hebrew Psalms, to see how inexhaustible was the poetic fancy, stirred by
+religious awe, in the discovery of similitudes, any of which, under
+favoring circumstances, might become a symbol.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving this branch of my subject, I may illustrate some of the
+preceding comments by applying them to one or two well known subjects of
+religious art.</p>
+
+<p>A pleasing symbol, which has played a conspicuous part in many
+religions, is the Egyptian lotus, or “lily of the Nile.” It is an
+aquatic plant, with white, roseate or blue flowers, which float upon the
+water, and send up from their centre long stamens. In Egypt it grows
+with the rising of the Nile, and as its appearance was coincident with
+that important event, it came to take prominence in the worship of Isis
+and Osiris as the symbol of fertility. Their mystical marriage took
+place in its blossom. In the technical language of the priests, however,
+it bore a profounder meaning, that of the supremacy of reason above
+matter, the contrast being between the beautiful flower and the muddy
+water which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> bears it.<a name="FNanchor_214-1_148" id="FNanchor_214-1_148" href="#Footnote_214-1_148" class="fnanchor">214-1</a> In India the lotus bears other and
+manifold meanings. It is a symbol of the sacred river Ganges, and of the
+morally pure. No prayer in the world has ever been more frequently
+repeated than this: “Om! the jewel in the lotus. Amen” (<i>om mani padme
+hum</i>). Many millions of times, every hour, for centuries, has this been
+iterated by the Buddhists of Thibet and the countries north of it. What
+it means, they can only explain by fantastic and mystical guesses.
+Probably it refers to the legendary birth of their chief saint,
+Avalokitesvara, who is said to have been born of a lotus flower. But
+some say it is a piece of symbolism not strange to its meaning in
+Egypt,<a name="FNanchor_214-2_149" id="FNanchor_214-2_149" href="#Footnote_214-2_149" class="fnanchor">214-2</a> and borrowed by Buddhism from the Siva worship. In the
+symbolic language of this sect the lotus is the symbol of the vagina,
+while the phallus is called “the jewel.” With this interpretation the
+Buddhist prayer would refer to the reproductive act; but it is
+illustrative of the necessity of attributing wholly diverse meanings to
+the same symbol, that the Buddhists neither now nor at any past time
+attached any such signification to the expression, and it would be most
+discrepant with their doctrines to do so.<a name="FNanchor_214-3_150" id="FNanchor_214-3_150" href="#Footnote_214-3_150" class="fnanchor">214-3</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>Another symbol has frequently been open to this duplicate
+interpretation, that is, the upright pillar. The Egyptian obelisk, the
+pillars of “Irmin” or of “Roland,” set up now of wood, now of stone by
+the ancient Germans, the “red-painted great warpole” of the American
+Indians, the May-pole of Old England, the spire of sacred edifices, the
+staff planted on the grave, the terminus of the Roman landholders, all
+these objects have been interpreted to be symbols of life, or the
+life-force. As they were often of wood, the trunk of a tree for
+instance, they have often been called by titles equivalent to the “tree
+of life,” and are thus connected with the nigh innumerable myths which
+relate to some mystic tree as the source of life. The ash Ygdrasyl of
+the Edda, the oak of Dordona and of the Druid, the modern Christmas
+tree, the sacred banyan, the holy groves, illustrate but faintly the
+prevalence of tree worship. Even so late as the time of Canute, it had
+to be forbidden in England by royal edict.</p>
+
+<p>Now, the general meaning of this symbol I take to be the same as that
+which led to the choice of hills and “high places,” as sites for altars
+and temples, and to the assigning of mountain tops as the abodes of the
+chief gods. It is seen in adjectives applied, I believe, in all
+languages, certainly all developed ones, to such deities themselves.
+These adjectives are related<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> to adverbs of place, signifying <i>above</i>,
+<i>up</i> or <i>over</i>. We speak of the supernatural, or supernal powers, the
+Supreme Being, the Most High, He in Heaven, and such like. So do all
+Aryan and Semitic tongues. Beyond them, the Chinese name for the Supreme
+Deity, Tien, means <i>up</i>. I have elsewhere illustrated the same fact in
+native American tongues. The association of light and the sky above, the
+sun and the heaven, is why we raise our hands and eyes in confident
+prayer to divinity. That at times, however, a religion of sex-love did
+identify these erect symbols with the phallus as the life-giver, is very
+true, but this was a temporary and adventitious meaning assigned a
+symbol far more ancient than this form of religion.</p>
+
+<p>In this review of the principles of religious symbolism, I have
+attempted mainly to exhibit the part it has sustained in the development
+of the religious sentiment. It has been generally unfavorable to the
+growth of higher thought. The symbol, in what it is above the emblem,
+assumes more than a similarity, a closer relation than analogy; to some
+degree it pretends to a hypostatic union or identity of the material
+with the divine, the known to sense with the unknown. Fully seen, this
+becomes object worship; partially so, personification.</p>
+
+<p>There is no exception to this. The refined symbolisms which pass current
+to day as religious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> philosophies exemplify it. The one, esthetic
+symbolism, has its field in musical and architectural art, in the study
+and portraiture of the beautiful; the other, scientific symbolism,
+claims to discover in the morphology of organisms, in the harmonic laws
+of physics, and in the processes of the dialectic, the proof that
+symbolism, if not a revelation, is at least an unconscious inspiration
+of universal truth. This is the “Doctrine of Correspondences,” much in
+favor with Swedenborgians, but by no means introduced by the founder of
+that sect. The recognition of the identity in form of the fundamental
+laws of motion and thought, and the clearer understanding of the
+character of harmony which the experiments of Helmholtz and others give
+us, disperse most of the mystery about these similarities. The religion
+of art, as such, will come up for consideration in the next chapter.</p>
+
+<p>The second form of the Cult is the Rite. This includes the acts or
+ceremonies of worship. Considered in the gross, they can be classed as
+of two kinds, the first and earliest propitiatory, the second and later
+memorial or institutionary.</p>
+
+<p>We have but to bear in mind the one aspiration of commencing religious
+thought, to wit, the attainment of a wish, to see that whatever action
+arose therefrom must be directed to that purpose. Hence, when we analyze
+the rude ceremonies of savage cults, the motive is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> extremely apparent.
+They, like their prayers, all point to the securing of some material
+advantage. They are designed</p>
+
+<p class="poem"><span class="i14">“to cozen</span><br />
+The gods that constrain us and curse.”</p>
+
+<p>The motives which underlie these simplest as well as the most elaborate
+rituals, and impress upon them their distinctively religious character
+can be reduced to two, the idea of <i>sacrifice</i> and the idea of <i>specific
+performance</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest notion involved in a sacrifice is that of <i>giving</i>. The
+value of the gift is not, however, the intrinsic worth of the thing
+given, nor even the pleasure or advantage the recipient derives
+therefrom, but, singularly enough, the amount of pain the giver
+experiences in depriving himself of it! This is also often seen in
+ordinary transactions. A rich man who subscribes a hundred dollars to a
+charity, is thought to merit less commendation than the widow who gives
+her mite. Measured by motive, this reasoning is correct. There is a
+justice which can be vindicated in holding self-denial to be a standard
+of motive. All developed religions have demanded the renunciation of
+what is dearest. The Ynglyngasaga tells us that in a time of famine, the
+first sacrifice offered to the gods was of beasts only; if this failed,
+men were slain to appease them; and if this did not mitigate their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+anger, the king himself was obliged to die that they might send plenty.
+The Latin writers have handed it down that among the Germans and Gauls a
+human sacrifice was deemed the more efficacious the more distinguished
+the victim, and the nearer his relationship to him who offered the
+rite.<a name="FNanchor_219-1_151" id="FNanchor_219-1_151" href="#Footnote_219-1_151" class="fnanchor">219-1</a> The slaughter of children and wives to please the gods was
+common in many religions, and the self-emasculation of the priests of
+Cybele, with other such painful rites, indicates that the measure of the
+sacrifice was very usually not what the god needed, but the willingness
+of the worshipper to give.</p>
+
+<p>The second idea, that of <i>specific performance</i>, has been well expressed
+and humorously commented upon by Hume in his <i>Natural History of
+Religions</i>. He says: “Here I cannot forbear observing a fact which may
+be worth the attention of those who make human nature the object of
+their inquiry. It is certain that in every religion, many of the
+votaries, perhaps the greatest number, will seek the divine favor, not
+by virtue and good morals, but either by frivolous observances, by
+intemperate zeal, by rapturous ecstasies, or by the belief of mysterious
+and absurd opinions.</p>
+
+<p>* * * In all this [<i>i. e.</i>, in virtue and good morals], a superstitious
+man finds nothing, which he has properly performed for the sake of his
+deity, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> which can peculiarly recommend him to divine favor and
+protection. * * * * But if he fast or give himself a sound whipping,
+this has a direct reference, in his opinion, to the service of God. No
+other motive could engage him to such austerities.”</p>
+
+<p>The philosopher here sets forth in his inimitable style a marked
+characteristic of religious acts. But he touches upon it with his usual
+superficiality. It is true that no religion has ever been content with
+promoting the happiness of man, and that the vast majority of votaries
+are always seeking to do something specifically religious, and are not
+satisfied with the moral only. The simple explanation of it is that the
+religious sentiment has a purpose entirely distinct from ethics, a
+purpose constantly felt as something peculiar to itself, though
+obscurely seen and often wholly misconceived. It is only when an action
+is utterly dissevered from other ends, and is purely and solely
+religious, that it can satisfy this sentiment. “<i>La religion</i>,” most
+truly observes Madame Necker de Saussure, “<i>ne doit point avoir d’autre
+bût qu’elle même</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>The uniform prevalence of these ideas in rites may be illustrated from
+the simplest or the most elaborate. Father Brebeuf, missionary to the
+Hurons in 1636, has a chapter on their superstitions. He there tells us
+that this nation had two sorts of ceremonies, the one to induce the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+gods to grant good fortune, the other to appease them when some ill-luck
+had occurred. Before running a dangerous rapid in their frail canoes
+they would lay tobacco on a certain rock where the deity of the rapid
+was supposed to reside, and ask for safety in their voyage. They took
+tobacco and cast it in the fire, saying: “O Heaven (<i>Aronhiaté</i>), see, I
+give you something; aid me; cure this sickness of mine.” When one was
+drowned or died of cold, a feast was called, and the soft parts of the
+corpse were cut from the bones and burned to conciliate the personal
+god, while the women danced and chanted a melancholy strain. Here one
+sacrifice was to curry favor with the gods, another to soothe their
+anger, and the third was a rite, not a sacrifice, but done for a
+religious end, whose merit was specific performance.</p>
+
+<p>As the gift was valued at what it cost the giver, and was supposed to be
+efficacious in this same ratio, self-denial soon passed into
+self-torture, prolonged fasts, scourging and lacerations, thus becoming
+legitimate exhibitions of religious fervor. As mental pain is as keen as
+bodily pain, the suffering of Jephthah was quite as severe as that of
+the Flagellants, and was expected to find favor in the eyes of the gods.</p>
+
+<p>A significant <a name="corr12" id="corr12"></a><ins class="correction" title="corollary">corrollary</ins> from such a theory follows: that which is
+the efficacious part of the sacrifice is the suffering; given a certain
+degree<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> of this, the desired effect will follow. As to what or who
+suffers, or in what manner he or it suffers, these are secondary
+considerations, even unimportant ones, so far as the end to be obtained
+is concerned. This is the germ of <i>vicarious</i> sacrifice, a plan
+frequently observed in even immature religions. What seems the
+diabolical cruelty of some superstitious rites, those of the
+Carthaginians and Celts, for example, is thoroughly consistent with the
+abstract theory of sacrifice, and did not spring from capricious malice.
+The Death of Christ, regarded as a general vicarious atonement, has had
+its efficiency explained directly by the theory that the pain he
+suffered partook of the infinity of his divine nature; as thus it was
+excruciating beyond measure, so it was infinitely effectual toward
+appeasing divinity.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known that this doctrine was no innovation on the religious
+sentiment of the age when it was preached by the Greek fathers. For
+centuries the Egyptian priests had taught the incarnation and sufferings
+of Osiris, and his death for the salvation of his people. Similar myths
+were common throughout the Orient, all drawn from the reasoning I have
+mentioned.<a name="FNanchor_222-1_152" id="FNanchor_222-1_152" href="#Footnote_222-1_152" class="fnanchor">222-1</a></p>
+
+<p>They have been variously criticized. Apart<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> from the equivocal traits
+this theory of atonement attributes to the supernatural powers&mdash;a
+feature counterbalanced, in modern religion, by subduing its harshest
+features&mdash;it is rooted essentially in the material view of religion. The
+religious value of an act is to be appraised by the extent to which it
+follows recognition of duty. To acknowledge an error is unpleasant; to
+renounce it still more so, for it breaks a habit; to see our own errors
+in their magnitude, sullying our whole nature and reaching far ahead to
+generations yet unborn, is consummately bitter, and in proportion as it
+is bitter, will keep us from erring.<a name="FNanchor_223-1_153" id="FNanchor_223-1_153" href="#Footnote_223-1_153" class="fnanchor">223-1</a> This is the “sacrifice of a
+contrite heart,” which alone is not despicable; and this no one can do
+for us. We may be sure that neither the physical pain of victims burning
+in a slow fire, nor the mental pain of yielding up whatever we hold
+dearest upon earth, will make our views of duty a particle clearer or
+our notion of divinity a jot nobler; and whatever does neither of these
+is not of true religion.</p>
+
+<p>The theory of sacrifice is intimately related with the idea of sin. In
+the quotation I have made from Father Brebeuf we see that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> Hurons
+recognized a distinct form of rite as appropriate to appease a god when
+angered. It is a matter of national temperament which of these forms
+takes the lead. Joutel tells of a tribe in Texas who paid attention only
+to the gods who worked them harm, saying that the good gods were good
+anyhow. By parity of reasoning, one sect of Mohammedans worship the
+devil only. It is well to make friends with your enemy, and then he will
+not hurt you; and if a man is shielded from his enemies, he is safe
+enough.</p>
+
+<p>But where, as in most Semitic, Celtic and various other religions, the
+chief gods frowned or smiled as they were propitiated or neglected, and
+when a certain amount of pain was the propitiation they demanded, the
+necessity of rendering this threw a dark shadow on life. What is the
+condition of man, that only through sorrow he can reach joy? He must be
+under a curse.</p>
+
+<p>Physical and mental processes aided by analogy this gloomy deduction. It
+is only through pain that we are stimulated to the pursuit of pleasure,
+and the latter is a phantom we never catch. The laws of correct
+reasoning are those which alone should guide us; but the natural laws of
+the association of ideas do not at all correspond with the one
+association which reason accepts. Truth is what we are born for, error
+is what is given us.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Instead of viewing this state of things as one inseparable to the
+relative as another than the universal, and, instead of seeing the means
+of correcting it in the mental element of attention, continuance or
+volition, guided by experience and the growing clearness of the purposes
+of the laws of thought, the problem was given up as hopeless, and man
+was placed under a ban from which a god alone could set him free; he was
+sunk in original sin, chained to death.</p>
+
+<p>To reach this result it is evident that a considerable effort at
+reasoning, a peculiar view of the nature of the gods, and a temperament
+not the most common, must be combined. Hence it was adopted as a
+religious dogma by but a few nations. The Chinese know nothing of the
+“sense of sin,” nor did the Greeks and Romans. The Parsees do not
+acknowledge it, nor do the American tribes. “To sin,” in their
+languages, does not mean to offend the deity, but to make a mistake, to
+miss the mark, to loose one’s way as in a wood, and the missionaries
+have exceeding difficulty in making them understand the theological
+signification of the word.</p>
+
+<p>The second class of rites are memorial in character. As the former were
+addressed to the gods, so these are chiefly for the benefit of the
+people. They are didactic, to preserve the myth, or institutionary, to
+keep alive the discipline and forms of the church.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Of this class of rites it may broadly be said they are the myth
+dramatized. Indeed, the drama owes its origin to the mimicry by
+worshippers of the supposed doings of the gods. The most ancient
+festivals have reference to the recurrence of the seasons, and the
+ceremonies which mark them represent the mythical transactions which are
+supposed to govern the yearly changes. The god himself was often
+represented by the</p>
+
+<p>high priest, and masked figures took the parts of attendant deities.</p>
+
+<p>Institutionary rites are those avowedly designed to commemorate a myth
+or event, and to strengthen thereby the religious organization.
+Christian baptism is by some denominations looked upon as a
+commemorative or institutionary rite only; and the same is the case with
+the Lord’s Supper. These seem to have been the only rites recommended,
+though the former was not practiced by Christ. In any ordinary meaning
+of his words, he regarded them both as institutionary.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency of memorial to become propitiatory rites is visible in all
+materialistic religions. The procedure, from a simple commemorative act,
+acquires a mystic efficacy, a supernatural or spiritual power, often
+supposed to extend to the deity as well as the votary. Thus the Indian
+“rain-maker” will rattle his gourd, beat his drum, and blow through his
+pipe, to represent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> the thunder, lightning, and wind of the storm; and
+he believes that by this mimicry of the rain-god’s proceedings he can
+force him to send the wished-for showers. The charms, spells and
+incantations of sorcery have the same foundation. Equally visible is it
+in the reception of the Christian rites above mentioned, baptism and the
+Eucharist, as “sacraments,” as observances of divine efficacy in
+themselves. All such views arise from the material character of the
+religious wants.</p>
+
+<p>The conclusion is that, while emblems and memorial rites have nothing in
+them which can mar, they also have nothing which can aid the growth and
+purity of the religious sentiment, beyond advancing its social
+relations; while symbols, in the proper sense of the term, and
+propitiatory rites, as necessarily false and without foundation, always
+degrade and obscure religious thought. Their prominence in a cult
+declines, as it rises in quality; and in a perfected scheme of worship
+they would have no place whatever.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_200-1_140" id="Footnote_200-1_140" href="#FNanchor_200-1_140">200-1</a> In his chapter <i>Ideen zu einer Physik des Symbols und
+des Mythus</i>, of his <i>Symbolik und Mythologie</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_201-1_141" id="Footnote_201-1_141" href="#FNanchor_201-1_141">201-1</a> Dr. H. C. Barlow’s <i>Essays on Symbolism</i> (London,
+1866), deserves mention as one of the best of these.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_204-1_142" id="Footnote_204-1_142" href="#FNanchor_204-1_142">204-1</a> W. S. Jevons, <i>The Substitution of Similars</i>, p. 15
+(London, 1869.)</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_205-1_143" id="Footnote_205-1_143" href="#FNanchor_205-1_143">205-1</a> Creuzer, <i>Symbolik</i>, Bd. I, s. 59.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_207-1_144" id="Footnote_207-1_144" href="#FNanchor_207-1_144">207-1</a> <i>Ursprung der Mythologie</i> (Berlin, 1862).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_208-1_145" id="Footnote_208-1_145" href="#FNanchor_208-1_145">208-1</a> Harrison Allen, M. D., <i>The Life Form in Art</i>, Phila.
+1874.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_210-1_146" id="Footnote_210-1_146" href="#FNanchor_210-1_146">210-1</a> Cussans, <i>Grammar of Heraldry</i>, p. 16.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_212-1_147" id="Footnote_212-1_147" href="#FNanchor_212-1_147">212-1</a> Numerous examples from classical antiquity are given by
+Creuzer, <i>Symbolik</i>, Bd. i. s. 114. sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_214-1_148" id="Footnote_214-1_148" href="#FNanchor_214-1_148">214-1</a> W. von Humboldt, <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>, Bd. iv., s. 332.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_214-2_149" id="Footnote_214-2_149" href="#FNanchor_214-2_149">214-2</a> Creuzer, <i>Symbolik und Mythologie</i>, Bd. i., s. 282.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_214-3_150" id="Footnote_214-3_150" href="#FNanchor_214-3_150">214-3</a> Carl Frederick Koppen, <i>Die Lamaische Hierarchie
+<a name="corr13" id="corr13"></a><ins class="correction" title="und">and</ins> Kirche</i>, ss. 59, 60, 61.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_219-1_151" id="Footnote_219-1_151" href="#FNanchor_219-1_151">219-1</a> Adolph Holtzmann, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, p. 232
+(Leipzig, 1874).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_222-1_152" id="Footnote_222-1_152" href="#FNanchor_222-1_152">222-1</a> “Es ist so gewissermassen in allen ernsten
+orientalischen Lehren das Christenthum in seinem Keime vorgebildet.”
+Creuzer, <i>Symbolik und Mythologie der Alten Völker</i>, Bd. i., s. 297.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_223-1_153" id="Footnote_223-1_153" href="#FNanchor_223-1_153">223-1</a> In a conversation reported by Mr. John Morley, John
+Stuart Mill expressed his belief that “the coming modification of
+religion” will be controlled largely through men becoming “more and more
+impressed with the awful fact that a piece of conduct to-day may prove a
+curse to men and women scores and even hundreds of years after the
+author of it is dead.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapdivider"><a name="THE_MOMENTA_OF_RELIGIOUS_THOUGHT" id="THE_MOMENTA_OF_RELIGIOUS_THOUGHT"></a>THE MOMENTA OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT.</h2>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="chapterhead">SUMMARY.</h3>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>National impulses and aims as historic ideas. Their recurrence and
+its explanation. Their permanence in relation to their truth and
+consciousness. The historic ideas in religious progress are chiefly
+three.</p>
+
+<p>I. The Idea of the Perfected Individual.</p>
+
+<p>First placed in physical strength. This gave way in Southern Europe
+to the idea of physical symmetry, a religion of beauty and art.
+Later days have produced the idea of mental symmetry, the religion
+of culture. All have failed, and why? The momenta of true religion
+in each.</p>
+
+<p>II. The Idea of the Perfected Commonwealth.</p>
+
+<p>Certain national temperaments predispose to individualism, others
+to communism. The social relations governed at first by divine law.
+Later, morality represents this law. The religion of conduct. The
+religion of sentiment and of humanity. Advantages and disadvantages
+in this idea.</p>
+
+<p>Comparisons of these two ideas as completed respectively by Wilhelm
+von Humboldt and Auguste Comte.</p>
+
+<p>III. The Idea of Personal Survival.</p>
+
+<p>The doctrine of immortality the main moment in Christianity, Islam
+and Buddhism. Unfamiliar to old and simple faiths. Its energy and
+speculative relations. It is decreasing as a religious moment owing
+to, (1) a better understanding of ethics, (2) more accurate
+cosmical conceptions, (3) the clearer defining of life, (4) the
+increasing immateriality of religions.</p>
+
+<p>The future and final moments of religious thought.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="chaptitle">THE MOMENTA OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> records of the past can be studied variously. Events can be arranged
+in the order of their occurrence: this is chronology or annals; in
+addition to this, their connections and mutual relations as cause and
+effect may be shown: this is historical science; or, thirdly, from a
+general view of trains of related events some abstract aim as their
+final cause may be theoretically deduced and confirmed by experience:
+this is the philosophy of history. The doctrine of final causes, in its
+old form as the <i>argumentum de appetitu</i>, has been superseded. Function
+is not purpose; desire comes from the experience of pleasure, and
+realizes its dreams, if at all, by the slow development of capacity. The
+wish carries no warrant of gratification with it. No “argument from
+design” can be adduced from the region where the laws of physical
+necessity prevail. Those laws are not designed for an end.</p>
+
+<p>When, however, in the unfolding of mind we reach the stage of notions,
+we observe a growing power to accomplish desire, not only by altering<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+the individual or race organism, but also by bringing external objects
+into unison with the desire, reversing the process common in the life of
+sensation. This spectacle, however, is confined to man alone, and man as
+guided by prospective volition, that is, by an object ahead.</p>
+
+<p>When some such object is common to a nation or race, it exercises a wide
+influence on its destiny, and is the key to much that otherwise would be
+inexplicable in its actions. What we call national hopes, ambitions and
+ideals are such objects. Sometimes they are distinctly recognized by the
+nation, sometimes they are pursued almost unconsciously. They do not
+correspond to things as they are, but as they are wished to be. Hence
+there is nothing in them to insure their realization. They are like an
+appetite, which may and may not develope the function which can gratify
+it. They have been called “historic ideas,” and their consideration is a
+leading topic in modern historical science.</p>
+
+<p>Reason claims the power of criticizing such ideas, and of distinguishing
+in them between what is true and therefore obtainable, and what is false
+and therefore chimerical or even destructive. This is the province of
+the philosophy of history. It guides itself by those general principles
+for the pursuit of truth which have been noticed in brief in the earlier
+pages of this book. Looking before as well as after, it aspires in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+united light of experience and the laws of mind, to construct for the
+race an ideal within the reach of its capacities, yet which will
+develope them to the fullest extent, a pole-star to which it can trust
+in this night teeming with will-o’-the wisps.</p>
+
+<p>The opinion that the history of mind is a progress whose end will be
+worth more than was its beginning, may not prove true in fact&mdash;the
+concrete expression never wholly covers the abstract requirements&mdash;but
+it is undoubtedly true in theory. The progress, so far, has been by no
+means a lineal one&mdash;each son a better man than his father&mdash;nor even, as
+some would have it, a spiral one&mdash;periodical recurrences to the same
+historical ideas, but each recurrence a nearer approach to the
+philosophical idea&mdash;but it has been far more complex and irregular than
+any geometrical figure will illustrate. These facile generalizations do
+not express it.</p>
+
+<p>Following the natural laws of thought man has erred infinitely, and his
+errors have worked their sure result&mdash;they have destroyed him. There is
+no “relish of salvation” in an error; otherwise than that it is sure to
+kill him who obstructs the light by harboring it. There is no sort of
+convertability of the false into the true, as shallow thinkers of the
+day teach.</p>
+
+<p>Man has only escaped death when at first by a lucky chance, and then by
+personal and inherited<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> experience, his thoughts drifted or were forced
+into conformity with the logical laws of thought.</p>
+
+<p>A historic idea is a complex product formed of numerous conceptions,
+some true and others false. Its permanency and efficacy are in direct
+proportion to the number and clearness of the former it embraces. When
+it is purging itself of the latter, the nation is progressive; when the
+false are retained, their poison spreads and the nation decays.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>periodical recurrence</i> of historic ideas is one of their most
+striking features. The explanations offered for it have been various.
+The ancient doctrines of an exact repetition of events in the cycles of
+nature, and of the transmigration of souls, drew much support from it;
+and the modern modification of the latter theory as set forth by
+Wordsworth and Lessing, are distinctly derived from the same source.
+Rightly elucidated, the philosophical historian will find in it an
+invaluable clue to the unravelment of the tangled skein of human
+endeavor.</p>
+
+<p>Historic periodicity is on the one side an organic law of memory,
+dependent upon the revival of transmitted ancestral impressions. A
+prevailing idea though over-cultivation exhausts its organic correlate,
+and leads to defective nutrition of that part in the offspring. Hence
+they do not pursue the same idea as their fathers, but revert to a
+remoter ancestral historic idea, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> organic correlate of which has
+lain fallow, thus gained strength. It is brought forth as new, receives
+additions by contiguity and similarity, is ardently pursued,
+over-cultivated, and in time supplanted by another revival.</p>
+
+<p>But this material side corresponds to an all-important mental one. As an
+organic process only, the history of periodic ideas is thus
+satisfactorily explained, but he who holds this explanation to be
+exhaustive sees but half the problem.</p>
+
+<p>The permanence of a historic idea, I have stated, is in direct
+proportion to the number of true ideas in its composition; the
+impression it makes on the organic substrata of memory is in turn in
+proportion to its permanence. The element of decay is the destructive
+effects of natural trains of thought out of accord with the logically
+true trains. These cause defective cerebral nutrition, which is thus
+seen to arise, so far as influenced by the operations of the memory,
+from relations of truth and error. There is a physiological tendency in
+the former to preserve and maintain in activity; in the latter to
+disappear. The percentage of true concepts which makes up the complexity
+of a historic idea gives the principal factor towards calculating its
+probable recurrence. Of course, a second factor is the physiological one
+of nutrition itself.</p>
+
+<p>The next important distinction in discussing historic ideas is between
+those which are held<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> consciously, and those which operate
+unconsciously. The former are always found to be more active, and more
+amenable to correction. An unconscious idea is a product of the natural,
+not the logical laws of mind, and is therefore very apt to be largely
+false. It is always displaced with advantage by a conscious aim.</p>
+
+<p>One of the superficial fallacies of the day, which pass under the name
+of philosophy, is to maintain that any such historic idea is the best
+possible one for the time and place in which it is found. I am led to
+refer to this by the false light it has thrown on religious history.
+Herbert Spencer remarks in one of his essays:<a name="FNanchor_236-1_154" id="FNanchor_236-1_154" href="#Footnote_236-1_154" class="fnanchor">236-1</a> “All religious
+creeds, during the eras in which they are severally held, are the best
+that could be held.” “All are good for their times and places.” So far
+from this being the case, there never has been a religion but that an
+improvement in it would have straightway exerted a beneficent effect.
+Man, no matter what his condition, can always<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> derive immediate good
+from higher conceptions of Deity than he himself has elaborated. Nor is
+the highest conception possible an idealization of self, as I have
+sufficiently shown in a previous chapter, but is one drawn wholly from
+the realm of the abstract. Moreover, as a matter of history, we know
+that in abundant instances, the decay of nations can be traced largely
+to the base teachings of their religious instructors. To maintain that
+such religions were “the best possible ones” for the time and place is
+the absurdest optimism. In what a religion shares of the abstractly true
+it is beneficent; in what it partakes of the untrue it is deleterious.
+This, and no other canon, must be our guide.</p>
+
+<p>The ideas of religious history obey the same laws as other historic
+ideas. They grow, decay, are supplanted and revive again in varying
+guises, in accordance with the processes of organic nutrition as
+influenced by the truth or falsity of their component ideas. Their
+tendency to personification is stronger, because of the much greater
+nearness they have to the individual desire. The one aspiration of a
+high-spirited people when subjugated will be freedom; and in the lower
+stages of culture they will be very certain to fabricate a myth of a
+deliverer to come.</p>
+
+<p>In like manner, every member of a community shares with his fellow
+members some wish, hope or ambition dependent on unknown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> control and
+therefore religious in character, which will become the “formative idea”
+of the national religious development.</p>
+
+<p>Of the various ideas in religious history there are three which, through
+their permanence and frequent revival, we may justly suppose in
+accordance with the above-mentioned canons to contain a large measure of
+truth, and yet to be far from wholly true. They may be considered as
+leading moments in religious growth, yet withal lacking something or
+other essential to the satisfaction of the religious sentiment. The
+first of these is the idea of the <i>perfected individual</i>; the second the
+idea of the <i>perfected commonwealth</i>; the third, that of <i>personal
+survival</i>. These have been the formative ideas (<i>Ideen der Gestaltung</i>)
+in the prayers, myths, rites and religious institutions of many nations
+at widely separated times.</p>
+
+<p>Of the two first mentioned it may be said that every extended faith has
+accepted them to some degree. They are the secret of the alliances of
+religion with art, with government, with ethics, with science, education
+and sentiment.</p>
+
+<p>These alliances have often been taken by historians to contain the vital
+elements of religion itself, and many explanations based on one or
+another assumption of the kind have been proffered. Religion, while it
+may embrace any of them, is independent of them all. Its relations to
+them have been transitory, and the more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> so as their aims have been
+local and material. The brief duration of the subjection of religion to
+such incongenial ties was well compared by Lord Herbert of Cherbury to
+the early maturity of brutes, who attain their full growth in a year or
+two, while man needs a quarter of a century.<a name="FNanchor_239-1_155" id="FNanchor_239-1_155" href="#Footnote_239-1_155" class="fnanchor">239-1</a> The inferior aims of
+the religious sentiment were discarded one after another to make way for
+higher ones, which were slowly dawning upon it. In this progress it was
+guided largely by the three ideas I have mentioned, which have been in
+many forms leading stimuli of the religious thought of the race.</p>
+
+<p>First, of the <i>idea of the perfected individual</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Many writers have supposed that the contemplation of Power in nature
+first stirred religious thought in man. Though this is not the view
+taken in this book, no one will question that the leading trait in the
+gods of barbarism is physical strength. The naive anthropomorphism of
+the savage makes his a god of a mighty arm, a giant in stature, puissant
+and terrible. He hurls the thunderbolt, and piles up the mountains in
+sport. His name is often The Strong One, as in the Allah, Eloah of the
+Semitic tongues. Hercules, Chon, Melkarth, Dorsanes, Thor and others
+were of the most ancient divinities in Greece, Egypt, Phœnicia, India,
+and Scandinavia, and were all embodiments of physical force. Such, too,
+was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> largely the character of the Algonkin Messou, who scooped out the
+great lakes with his hands and tore up the largest trees by the roots.
+The huge boulders from the glacial epoch which are scattered over their
+country are the pebbles he tossed in play or in anger. The cleft in the
+Andes, through which flows the river Funha, was opened by a single blow
+of Nemqueteba, chief god of the Muyscas. In all such and a hundred
+similar legends, easy to quote, we see the notion of strength, brute
+force, muscular power, was that deemed most appropriate to divinity, and
+that which he who would be godlike must most sedulously seek. When
+filled with the god, the votary felt a surpassing vigor. The Berserker
+fury was found in the wilds of America and Africa, as well as among the
+Fiords. Sickness and weakness, on the contrary, were signs that the gods
+were against him. Therefore, in all early stages of culture, the office
+of priest and physician was one. Conciliation of the gods was the
+catholicon.</p>
+
+<p>Such deities were fearful to behold. They are represented as mighty of
+stature and terrible of mien, calculated to appal, not attract, to
+inspire fear, not to kindle love. In tropical America, in Egypt, in
+Thibet, almost where you will, there is little to please the eye in the
+pictures and statues of deities.</p>
+
+<p>In Greece alone, a national temperament, marvellously sensitive to
+symmetry, developed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> the combination of maximum strength with perfect
+form in the sun-god, Apollo, and of grace with beauty in Aphrodite. The
+Greeks were the apostles of the religion of beauty. Their philosophic
+thought saw the permanent in the Form, which outlives strength, and is
+that alone in which the race has being. In its transmission love is the
+agent, and Aphrodite, unmatched in beauty and mother of love, was a
+creation worthy of their devotion. Thus with them the religious
+sentiment still sought its satisfaction in the individual, not indeed in
+the muscle, but in the feature and expression.</p>
+
+<p>When the old gods fell, the Christian fathers taught their flocks to
+abhor the beautiful as one with the sensual. St. Clement of Alexandria
+and Tertullian describe Christ as ugly of visage and undersized, a sort
+of Socrates in appearance.<a name="FNanchor_241-1_156" id="FNanchor_241-1_156" href="#Footnote_241-1_156" class="fnanchor">241-1</a> Christian art was long in getting
+recognition. The heathens were the first to represent in picture and
+statues Christ and the apostles, and for long the fathers of the church
+opposed the multiplication of such images, saying that the inward beauty
+was alone desirable. Christian art reached its highest inspiration under
+the influence of Greek culture after the fall of Constantinople.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> In the
+very year, however, that Rafaello Sanzio met his premature death, Luther
+burned the decretals of the pope in the market-place of Wittenberg, and
+preached a doctrine as hostile to art as was that of Eusebius and
+Chrysostom. There was no longer any hope for the religion of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, under the influence of the revival of ancient art which
+arose with Winckelmann towards the close of the last century, a gospel
+of esthetics was preached. Its apostles were chiefly Germans, and among
+them Schiller and Goethe are not inconspicuous names. The latter, before
+his long life was closed, began to see the emptiness of such teachings,
+and the violence perpetrated on the mind by forcing on the religious
+sentiment the food fit only for the esthetic emotions.</p>
+
+<p>The highest conception of individual perfection is reached in a
+character whose physical and mental powers are symmetrically trained,
+and always directed by conscious reason to their appropriate ends.
+Self-government, founded on self-knowledge, wards off the pangs of
+disappointment by limiting ambition to the attainable. The affections
+and emotions, and the pleasures of sensation as well, are indulged in or
+abstained from, but never to the darkening of the intellect. All the
+talents are placed at usury; every power exercised systematically and
+fruitfully with a consecration to a noble purpose.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This is the religion of culture. None other ranks among its adherents so
+many great minds; men, as Carlyle expresses it, of much religiosity, if
+of little religion. The ideal is a taking one. Such utter self-reliance,
+not from ignorance, but from the perfection of knowledge, was that which
+Buddha held up to his followers: “Self is the God of self; who else
+should be the God?” In this century Goethe, Wordsworth, beyond all
+others Wilhelm von Humboldt, have set forth this ideal. Less strongly
+intellectual natures, as Maine de Biran, De Senancourt, and Matthew
+Arnold, listen with admiration, but feel how unknown to the mass of
+human kind must remain the tongue these masters speak.</p>
+
+<p>Thus did the religious sentiment seek its satisfaction in the
+idealization, first of physical force, then of form, and last of mental
+force, but in each case turned away unsatisfied. Wherein did these
+ideals fail? The first mentioned in exalting power over principle, might
+over right. As was well said by the philosophical Novalis: “The ideal of
+morality has no more dangerous rival than the ideal of physical
+strength, of the most vigorous life. Through it man is transformed into
+a reasoning beast, whose brutal cleverness has a fascination for weak
+minds.”<a name="FNanchor_243-1_157" id="FNanchor_243-1_157" href="#Footnote_243-1_157" class="fnanchor">243-1</a> The religion of beauty failed in that it addressed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> the
+esthetic emotions, not the reasoning power. Art does not promote the
+good; it owes no fealty to either utility or ethics: in itself, it must
+be, in the negative sense of the words, at once useless and immoral.
+“Nature is not its standard, nor is truth its chief end.”<a name="FNanchor_244-1_158" id="FNanchor_244-1_158" href="#Footnote_244-1_158" class="fnanchor">244-1</a> Its
+spirit is repose, “the perfect form in perfect rest;” whereas the spirit
+of religion is action because of imperfection. Even the gods must know
+of suffering, and partake, in incarnations, of the miseries of men.</p>
+
+<p>In the religion of culture what can we blame? That it is lacking in the
+impulses of action through the isolation it fosters; that it is and must
+be limited to a few, for it provides no defense for the weaknesses the
+many inherit; that its tendency is antagonistic to religion, as it cuts
+away the feeling of dependence, and the trust in the unknown; that it
+allows too little to enthusiasm ever to become a power.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, what momenta of true religious thought have these
+ideals embraced? Each presents some. Physical vigor, regarded as a sign
+of complete nutrition, is an indispensable preliminary to the highest
+religion. Correct thought cannot be, without sufficient and appropriate
+food. If the nourishment is inadequate, defective energy of the brain
+will be transmitted, and the offspring will revert ancestrally to a
+lower plane of thought. “It thus happens that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> the minds of persons of
+high religious culture by ancestral descent, and the intermarriage of
+religious families, so strangely end in the production of children
+totally devoid of moral sense and religious sentiment&mdash;moral imbeciles
+in short.”<a name="FNanchor_245-1_159" id="FNanchor_245-1_159" href="#Footnote_245-1_159" class="fnanchor">245-1</a> From such considerations of the necessity of physical
+vigor to elevated thought, Descartes predicted that if the human race
+ever attain perfection it will be chiefly through the art of medicine.
+Not alone from emotions of sympathy did the eminent religious teachers
+of past ages maintain that the alleviation and prevention of suffering
+is the first practical duty of man; but it was from a perhaps
+unconscious perception of the antagonism of bodily degeneration to
+mental progress.</p>
+
+<p>So, too, the religion of beauty and art contains an indefeasible germ of
+true religious thought. Art sees the universal in the isolated fact; it
+redeemed the coarse symbol of earlier days by associating it with the
+emotions of joy, instead of fear; commencing with an exaltation of the
+love to sex, it etherealized and ennobled passion; it taught man to look
+elsewhere than to material things for his highest pleasure, for the work
+of art always has its fortune in the imagination and not in the senses
+of the observer; conceptions of order and harmony are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> familiar to it;
+its best efforts seek to bring all the affairs of life under unity and
+system;<a name="FNanchor_246-1_160" id="FNanchor_246-1_160" href="#Footnote_246-1_160" class="fnanchor">246-1</a> and thus it strengthens the sentiment of moral
+government, which is the first postulate of religion.</p>
+
+<p>The symmetry of the individual, as understood in the religion of
+culture, is likewise a cherished article of true religion. Thus only can
+it protect personality against the pitfalls of self-negation and
+absorption, which communism and pantheism dig for it. The integrity and
+permanence of the person is the keystone to religion, as it is to
+philosophy and ethics. None but a false teacher would measure our duty
+to our neighbor by a higher standard than our love to ourselves. The
+love of God alone is worthy to obscure it.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Steinthal has said: “Every people has its own religion. The
+national temperament hears the tidings and interprets them as it
+can.”<a name="FNanchor_246-2_161" id="FNanchor_246-2_161" href="#Footnote_246-2_161" class="fnanchor">246-2</a> On the other hand, Humboldt&mdash;perhaps<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> the profoundest
+thinker on these subjects of his generation&mdash;doubted whether religions
+can be measured in reference to nations and sects, because “religion is
+altogether subjective, and rests solely on the conceptive powers of the
+individual.”<a name="FNanchor_247-1_162" id="FNanchor_247-1_162" href="#Footnote_247-1_162" class="fnanchor">247-1</a> Whatever the creed, a pure mind will attach itself
+to its better elements, a base one to its brutal and narrow doctrines. A
+national religion can only be regarded as an average, applicable to the
+majority, not entirely correct of the belief of any one individual,
+wholly incorrect as to a few. Yet it is indubitable that the national
+temperament creates the ideal which gives the essence of religion. Races
+like the Tartar Mongols, who, as we are informed by the Abbé Huc, not
+unfrequently move their tents several times a day, out of simple
+restlessness, cannot desire the same stability that is sought by other
+races, who have the beaver’s instinct for building and colonizing, such
+as the Romans. Buddhism, which sets up the ideal of the individual, is
+an acceptable theory to the former, while the latter, from earliest
+ages, fostered religious views which taught the subordination of the
+individual to the community, in other words, the <i>idea of the perfected
+commonwealth</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This is the conception at the base of all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> theocracies, forms of
+government whose statutes are identified with the precepts of religion.
+Instead of a constitution there is the Law, given and sanctioned by God
+as a rule of action.</p>
+
+<p>The Law is at first the Myth applied. Its object is as much to
+propitiate the gods as to preserve social order. It is absolute because
+it is inspired. Many of its ordinances as drawn from the myth are
+inapplicable to man, and are unjust or frivolous. Yet such as it is, it
+rules the conduct of the commonwealth and expresses the ideal of its
+perfected condition.</p>
+
+<p>All the oldest codes of laws are religious, and are alleged revelations.
+The Pentateuch, the Avesta, the Laws of Manu, the Twelve Tables, the
+Laws of Seleucus, all carry the endorsement, “And God said.” Their real
+intention is to teach the relation of man to God, rather than the
+relations of man to man. On practical points&mdash;on the rights of property,
+on succession and wills, on contracts, on the adoption of neighbors, and
+on the treatment of enemies&mdash;they often violate the plainest dictates of
+natural justice, of common humanity, even of family affection. Their
+precepts are frequently frivolous, sometimes grossly immoral. But if
+these laws are compared with the earliest myths and cults, and the
+opinions then entertained of the gods, and how to propitiate them, it
+becomes easy to see how the precepts of the law<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> flowed from these
+inchoate imaginings of the religious sentiment.<a name="FNanchor_249-1_163" id="FNanchor_249-1_163" href="#Footnote_249-1_163" class="fnanchor">249-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The improvement of civil statutes did not come through religion.
+Experience, observation and free thought taught man justice, and his
+kindlier emotions were educated by the desire to cherish and preserve
+which arose from family and social ties. As these came to be recognized
+as necessary relations of society, religion appropriated them,
+incorporated them into her ideal, and even claimed them as her
+revelations. History largely invalidates this claim. The moral progress
+of mankind has been mainly apart from dogmatic teachings, often in
+conflict with them. An established rule of faith may enforce obedience
+to its statutes, but can never develop morals. “True virtue is
+independent of every religion, and incompatible with any which is
+accepted on authority.”<a name="FNanchor_249-2_164" id="FNanchor_249-2_164" href="#Footnote_249-2_164" class="fnanchor">249-2</a></p>
+
+<p>Yet thinkers, even the best of them, appear to have had difficulty in
+discerning any nobler arena for the religious sentiment than the social
+one. “Religion,” says Matthew Arnold, “is conduct.” It is the power
+“which makes for righteousness.” “As civil law,” said Voltaire,
+“enforces morality in public, so the use of religion is to compel it in
+private life.” “A complete<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> morality,” observes a contemporary Christian
+writer, “meets all the practical ends of religion.”<a name="FNanchor_250-1_165" id="FNanchor_250-1_165" href="#Footnote_250-1_165" class="fnanchor">250-1</a> In such
+expressions man’s social relations, his duty to his neighbor, are taken
+to exhaust religion. It is still the idea of the commonwealth, the
+religion of morality, the submission to a law recognized as divine.
+Whether the law is a code of ethics, the decision of a general council,
+or the ten commandments, it is alike held to be written by the finger of
+God, and imperative. Good works are the demands of such religion.</p>
+
+<p>Catholicism, which is altogether theocratic and authoritative, which
+pictures the church as an ideal commonwealth, has always most flourished
+in those countries where the Roman colonies left their more important
+traces. The reformation of Protestantism was a reversion to the ideal of
+the individual, which was that of ancient Teutonic faith. In more recent
+times Catholicism itself has modified the rigidity of its teachings in
+favor of the religion of sentiment, as it has been called, inaugurated
+by Chateaubriand, and which is that attractive form seen in the writings
+of Madame Swetchine and the La Ferronnais. These elevated souls throw a
+charm around the immolation of self, which the egotism of the Protestant
+rarely matches.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Thus the ideal of the commonwealth is found in those creeds which give
+prominence to law, to ethics, and to sentiment, the altruistic elements
+of mind. It fails, because its authority is antagonistic to morality in
+that it impedes the search for the true. Neither is morality religion,
+for it deals with the relative, while religion should guide itself by
+the absolute. Every great religious teacher has violated the morality of
+his day. Even sentiment, attractive as it is, is no ground on which to
+build a church. It is, at best, one of the lower emotional planes of
+action. Love itself, which must be the kernel of every true religion, is
+not in earthly relations an altruistic sentiment. The measure and the
+source of all such love, is self-love. The creed which rejects this as
+its corner stone will build in vain.</p>
+
+<p>While, therefore, the advantages of organization and action are on the
+side of the faiths which see in religion a form of government, they
+present fewer momenta of religious thought than those which encourage
+the greater individuality. All forms and reforms, remarks Machiavelli,
+in one of his notes to Livy, have been brought about by the exertions of
+one man.<a name="FNanchor_251-1_166" id="FNanchor_251-1_166" href="#Footnote_251-1_166" class="fnanchor">251-1</a> Religious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> reforms, especially, never have originated in
+majorities. The reformatory decrees of the Council of Trent are due to
+Martin Luther.</p>
+
+<p>Either ideal, raised to its maximum, not only fails to satisfy the
+religious sentiment, but puts upon it a forced meaning, and is therefore
+not what this sentiment asks. This may be illustrated by comparing two
+remarkable works, which, by a singular coincidence, were published in
+the same year, and which better than any others present these ideals
+pushed to their extreme. It is characteristic of them that neither
+professes to treat of religion, but of politics. The one is entitled,
+“<i>An Attempt to define the limits of Government</i>,” and is by Wilhelm von
+Humboldt; the other is the better known work of Auguste Comte, his
+“<i>System of Positive Polity</i>.”<a name="FNanchor_252-1_167" id="FNanchor_252-1_167" href="#Footnote_252-1_167" class="fnanchor">252-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The first lays down the principle that the highest end of man is the
+utmost symmetrical education of his own powers in their individual
+peculiarities. To accomplish this, he must enjoy the largest freedom of
+thought and action consistent with the recognition of the same right in
+others. In regard to religion, the state should have nothing to do with
+aiding it, but should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> protect the individual in his opposition to any
+authoritative form of it. As a wholly personal and subjective matter,
+social relations do not concern it. In fine, the aim of both government
+and education should be the development of an individualism in which an
+enlightened intellect controls and directs all the powers toward an
+exalted self-cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>Comte reverses this picture. His fundamental principle is to subordinate
+the sum total of our existence to our social relations; real life is to
+live in others; not the individual but humanity is the only worthy
+object of effort. Social polity therefore includes the whole of
+development; the intellect should have no other end but to subserve the
+needs of the race, and always be second to the altruistic sentiments.
+Love toward others should absorb self-love. “<i>Il est encore meilleur
+d’aimer que d’être aimé.</i>”</p>
+
+<p>Such is the contrast between the ideal of the individual as exhibited by
+the Religion of Culture, and the ideal of the commonwealth as portrayed
+in the Religion of Humanity.</p>
+
+<p>The whole duty of man, says the one school, is to live for others; nay,
+says the other, it is to live intelligently for himself; the intellect,
+says the former, should always be subordinated to society, and be led by
+the emotions; intellect, says the latter, should ever be in the
+ascendant, and absolutely control and direct the emotions; the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+theoretical object of government, says the former, is to enable the
+affections and thoughts to pass into action; not so, says the latter,
+its only use is to give the individual secure leisure to develope his
+own affections and thoughts. Mutual relation is the key note of the
+former, independence of the latter; the former is the apotheosis of
+love, the latter of reason.</p>
+
+<p>Strictly and literally the apotheosis. For, differing as they do on such
+vital points, they both agree in dispensing with the ideas of God and
+immortality as conceptions superfluous in the realization of the
+theoretical perfection they contemplate. Not that either scheme omits
+the religious sentiment. On the contrary, it is especially prominent in
+one, and very well marked in the other. Both assume its growing
+prominence, never its extinction. Both speak of it as an integral part
+of man’s highest nature.</p>
+
+<p>Comte and Humboldt were thinkers too profound to be caught by the facile
+fallacy that the rapid changes in religious thought betoken the early
+abrogation of all creeds. Lessing, the philosophers of the French
+revolution, James Mill, Schopenhauer and others fell into this error.
+They were not wiser than the clown of Horace, who seated himself by the
+rushing stream, thinking it must soon run itself out&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">Expectat rusticus dum defluat amnis; at ille<br />
+Labitur et labetur in omne volubilis ævum.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>Vain is the dream that man will ever reach the point when he will think
+no more of the gods. Dogmas may disappear, but religion will flourish;
+destroy the temple and sow it with salt, in a few days it rises again
+built for aye on the solid ground of man’s nature.</p>
+
+<p>So long as the race is upon earth, just so long will the religious
+sentiment continue to crave its appropriate food, and this at last is
+recognized even by those who estimate it at the lowest. “To yield this
+sentiment reasonable satisfaction,” observes Professor Tyndall in one of
+his best known addresses, “is the problem of problems at the present
+hour. It is vain to oppose it with a view to its extirpation.” The
+“general thaw of theological creeds,” which Spencer remarks upon, is no
+sign of the loss of interest in religious subjects, but the reverse.
+Coldness and languor are the premonitions of death, not strife and
+defence.</p>
+
+<p>But as the two moments of religious thought which I have now discussed
+have both reached their culmination in a substantial repudiation of
+religion, that which stimulates the religious sentiment to-day must be
+something different from either. This I take to be the <i>idea of personal
+survival</i> after physical death, or, as it is generally called, the
+doctrine of the immortality of the soul.</p>
+
+<p>This is the main dogma in the leading religions of the world to-day. “A
+God,” remarks<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> Sir William Hamilton, speaking for the enlightened
+Christians of his generation, “is to us of practical interest, only
+inasmuch as he is the condition of our immortality.”<a name="FNanchor_256-1_168" id="FNanchor_256-1_168" href="#Footnote_256-1_168" class="fnanchor">256-1</a> In his
+attractive work, <i>La Vie Eternelle</i>, whose large popularity shows it to
+express the prevailing views of modern Protestant thought, Ernest
+Naville takes pains to distinguish that Christianity is not a means of
+living a holy life so much as one of gaining a blessed hereafter. The
+promises of a life after death are numerous and distinct in the New
+Testament. Most of the recommendations of action and suffering in this
+world are based on the doctrine of compensation in the world to come.</p>
+
+<p>Mohammed taught the same tenet with equal or even greater emphasis. In
+one sura he says: “To whatever is evil may they be likened who believe
+not in a future life;” and elsewhere: “As for the blessed ones&mdash;their
+place is Paradise. There shall they dwell so long as the heavens and the
+earth endure, enjoying the imperishable bounties of God. But as for
+those who shall be consigned to misery, their place is the Fire. There
+shall they abide so long as the heavens and the earth shall last, unless
+God wills it otherwise.”<a name="FNanchor_256-2_169" id="FNanchor_256-2_169" href="#Footnote_256-2_169" class="fnanchor">256-2</a></p>
+
+<p>In Buddhism, as generally understood, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> doctrine of a future life is
+just as clear. Not only does the soul wander from one to another animal
+body, but when it has completed its peregrinations and reaches its final
+abode, it revels in all sorts of bliss. For the condition of Nirvana,
+understood by philosophical Buddhists as that of the extinction of
+desires even to the desire of life, and of the complete enlightenment of
+the mind even to the recognition that existence itself is an illusion,
+has no such meaning to the millions who profess themselves the followers
+of the sage of Kapilavastu. They take it to be a material Paradise with
+pleasures as real as those painted by Mohammed, wherein they will dwell
+beyond all time, a reward for their devotions and faith in this life.</p>
+
+<p>These three religions embrace three-fourths of the human race and all
+its civilized nations, with trifling exceptions. They displaced and
+extinguished the older creeds and in a few centuries controlled the
+earth; but as against each other their strife has been of little avail.
+The reason is, they share the same momentum of religious thought,
+differing in its interpretation not more among themselves than do
+orthodox members of either faith in their own fold. Many enlightened
+Muslims and Christians, for example, consider the descriptions of
+Paradise given in the Koran and the Apocalypse to convey wholly
+spiritual meanings.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There has been so much to surprise in the rapid extension of these
+faiths that the votaries of each claim manifest miraculous
+interposition. The religious idea of an after life is a sufficient
+moment to account for the phenomenon. I say the <i>religious</i> idea, for,
+with one or two exceptions, however distinct had been the belief in a
+hereafter, that belief had not a religious coloring until they gave it
+such. This distinction is an important one.</p>
+
+<p>Students of religions have hitherto attributed too much weight to the
+primitive notion of an existence after death. It is common enough, but
+it rarely has anything at all to do with the simpler manifestations of
+the religious sentiment. These are directed to the immediate desires of
+the individual or the community, and do not look beyond the present
+life. The doctrine of compensation hereafter is foreign to them. I have
+shown this at length so far as the religions of America were concerned.
+“Neither the delights of a heaven on the one hand, nor the terrors of a
+hell on the other were ever held out by priests or sages as an incentive
+to well doing, or a warning to the evil disposed.”<a name="FNanchor_258-1_170" id="FNanchor_258-1_170" href="#Footnote_258-1_170" class="fnanchor">258-1</a> The same is
+true of the classical religions of Greece and Rome, of Carthage and
+Assyria. Even in Egypt the manner of death and the rites of interment
+had much more to do with the fate of the soul,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> than had its thoughts
+and deeds in the flesh. The opinions of Socrates and Plato on the soul
+as something which always existed and whose after life is affected by
+its experiences here, struck the Athenians as novel and innovating.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the ancient Germans had a most lively faith in the
+life hereafter. Money was loaned in this world to be repaid in the next.
+But with them also, as with the Aztecs, the future was dependent on the
+character or mode of death rather than the conduct of life. He who died
+the “straw-death” on the couch of sickness looked for little joy in the
+hereafter; but he who met the “spear-death” on the field of battle went
+at once to Odin, to the hall of Valhalla, where the heroes of all time
+assembled to fight, eat boar’s fat and drink beer. Even this rude belief
+gave them such an ascendancy over the materialistic Romans, that these
+distinctly felt that in the long run they must succumb to a bravery
+which rested on such a mighty moment as this.<a name="FNanchor_259-1_171" id="FNanchor_259-1_171" href="#Footnote_259-1_171" class="fnanchor">259-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The Israelites do not seem to have entertained any general opinion on an
+existence after death. No promise in the Old Testament refers to a
+future life. The religion there taught nowhere<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> looks beyond the grave.
+It is materialistic to the fullest extent. Hence, a large body of
+orthodox Jewish philosophers, the Sadducees, denied the existence of the
+soul apart from the body.</p>
+
+<p>The central doctrine of the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, the leading
+impulse which he gave to the religious thought of his age, was that the
+thinking part of man survives his physical death, and that its condition
+does not depend on the rites of interment, as other religions then
+taught,<a name="FNanchor_260-1_172" id="FNanchor_260-1_172" href="#Footnote_260-1_172" class="fnanchor">260-1</a> but on the character of its thoughts during life here.
+Filled with this new and sublime idea, he developed it in its numerous
+applications, and drew from it those startling inferences, which, to
+this day, stagger his followers, and have been in turn, the terror and
+derision of his foes. This he saw, that against a mind<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> inwardly
+penetrated with the full conviction of a life hereafter, obtainable
+under known conditions, the powers of this world are utterly futile, and
+its pleasures hollow phantoms.</p>
+
+<p>The practical energy of this doctrine was immensely strengthened by
+another, which is found very obscurely, if at all, stated in his own
+words, but which was made the central point of their teaching by his
+immediate followers. The Christianity they preached was not a
+philosophical scheme for improving the race, but rested on the
+historical fact of a transaction between God and man, and while they
+conceded everlasting existence to all men, all would pass it in the
+utmost conceivable misery, except those who had learned of these
+historical events, and understood them as the church prescribed.</p>
+
+<p>As the ancient world placed truth in ideas and not in facts, no teaching
+could well have been more radically contrary to its modes of thought;
+and the doctrine once accepted, the spirit of proselytizing came with
+it.</p>
+
+<p>I have called this idea a new one to the first century of our era, and
+so it was in Europe and Syria. But in India, Sakyamuni, probably five
+hundred years before, had laid down in sententious maxims the
+philosophical principle which underlies the higher religious doctrine of
+a future life. These are his words, and if through the efforts of
+reasoning we ever reach a demon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>stration of the immortality of the soul,
+we shall do it by pursuing the argument here indicated: “Right thought
+is the path to life everlasting. Those who think do not die.”<a name="FNanchor_262-1_173" id="FNanchor_262-1_173" href="#Footnote_262-1_173" class="fnanchor">262-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Truth alone contains the elements of indefinite continuity; and truth is
+found only in the idea, in correct thought.</p>
+
+<p>Error in the intellectual processes corresponds to pain in sensation; it
+is the premonition of waning life, of threatened annihilation; it
+contains the seed of cessation of action or death. False reasoning is
+self-destructive. The man who believes himself invulnerable will
+scarcely survive his first combat. A man’s true ideas are the most he
+can hope, and all that he should wish, to carry with him to a life
+hereafter. Falsehood, sin, is the efficient agent of death. As Bishop
+Hall says: “There is a kind of not-being in sin; for sin is not an
+existence of somewhat that is, but a deficiency of that rectitude which
+should be; it is a privation, as blindness is a privation of sight.”</p>
+
+<p>While the religious doctrine of personal survival has thus a position
+defensible on grounds of reason as being that of the inherent permanence
+of self-conscious truth, it also calls to its aid and indefinitely
+elevates the most powerful of all the emotions, <i>love</i>. This, as I have
+shown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> in the second chapter, is the sentiment which is characteristic
+of <i>preservative</i> acts. Self-love, which is prominent in the idea of the
+perfected individual, sex-love, which is the spirit of the multiform
+religious symbolism of the reproductive act, and the love of race, which
+is the chief motor in the religion of humanity, are purified of their
+grosser demands and assigned each its meet post in the labor of uniting
+the conceptions of the true under the relation of personality.</p>
+
+<p>The highest development of which such love is capable arises through the
+contemplation of those verities which are abstract and eternal, and
+which thus set forth, to the extent the individual mind is capable of
+receiving it, the completed notion of diuturnity. This highest love is
+the “love of God.” A Supreme Intelligence, one to which all truth is
+perfect, must forever dwell in such contemplation. Therefore the deeper
+minds of Christianity define man’s love of God, as God’s love to
+himself. “Eternal life,” says Ernest Naville, “is in its principle the
+union with God and the joy that results from that union.”<a name="FNanchor_263-1_174" id="FNanchor_263-1_174" href="#Footnote_263-1_174" class="fnanchor">263-1</a> The
+pious William Law wrote: “No man can reach God with his love, or have
+union with Him by it, but he who is inspired with that one same spirit
+of love, with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> which God loved himself from all eternity, before there
+was any creation.”<a name="FNanchor_264-1_175" id="FNanchor_264-1_175" href="#Footnote_264-1_175" class="fnanchor">264-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Attractive as the idea of personal survival is in itself, and potent as
+it has been as a moment of religious thought, it must be ranked among
+those that are past. While the immortality of the soul retains its
+interest as a speculative inquiry, I venture to believe that as an idea
+in religious history, it is nigh inoperative; that as an element in
+devotional life it is of not much weight; and that it will gradually
+become less so, as the real meaning of religion reaches clearer
+interpretations.</p>
+
+<p>Its decay has been progressive, and common to all the creeds which
+taught it as a cardinal doctrine, though most marked in Christianity. A
+century ago Gibbon wrote: “The ancient Christians were animated by a
+contempt for their present existence, and by a just confidence of
+immortality, of which the doubtful but imperfect faith of modern ages
+cannot give us any adequate notion.”<a name="FNanchor_264-2_176" id="FNanchor_264-2_176" href="#Footnote_264-2_176" class="fnanchor">264-2</a> How true this is can be
+appreciated only by those who study this doctrine in the lives and
+writings of the martyrs and fathers of the primitive church.</p>
+
+<p>The breach which Gibbon remarked has been indefinitely widened since his
+time. What has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> brought this about, and what new moment in religious
+thought seems about to supply its place, will form an appropriate close
+to the present series of studies. In its examination, I shall speak only
+of Christian thought, since it leads the way which other systems will
+ultimately follow.</p>
+
+<p>In depicting the influences which have led and are daily leading with
+augmented force to the devitalizing of the doctrine of immortality, I
+may with propriety confine myself to those which are themselves strictly
+religious. For the change I refer to is not one brought about by the
+opponents of religion, by materialistic doctrines, but is owing to the
+development of the religious sentiment itself. Instead of tending to an
+abrogation of that sentiment, it may be expected to ennoble its
+emotional manifestations and elevate its intellectual conceptions.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these influences are historical, as the repeated disappointments
+in the second coming of Christ, and the interest of proselytizing
+churches to interpret this event allegorically. Those which I deem of
+more importance, however, are such as are efficient to-day, and probably
+will continue to be the main agents in the immediate future of religious
+development. They are:</p>
+
+<p>(1.) The recognition of the grounds of ethics.</p>
+
+<p>(2.) The recognition of the cosmical relations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(3.) The clearer defining of life.</p>
+
+<p>(4.) The growing immateriality of religious thought.</p>
+
+<p>(1.) The authority of the Law was assumed in the course of time by most
+Christian churches, and the interests of morality and religion were
+claimed to be identical. The Roman church with its developed casuistry
+is ready to prescribe the proper course of conduct in every emergency;
+and if we turn to many theological writers of other churches, Dick’s
+<i>Philosophy of Religion</i> for instance, we find moral conduct regarded as
+the important aim of the Christian life. Morality without religion,
+works without faith, are pronounced to be of no avail in a religious,
+and of very questionable value in a social sense. Some go so far as to
+deny that a person indifferent to the prevailing tenets of religion can
+lead a pure and moral life. Do away with the belief in a hereafter of
+rewards and punishments, say these, and there is nothing left to
+restrain men from the worst excesses, or at least from private sin.</p>
+
+<p>Now, however, the world is growing to perceive that morality is
+separable from religion; that it arose independently, from a gradual
+study of the relations of man to man, from principles of equity inherent
+in the laws of thought, and from considerations of expediency which
+deprive its precepts of the character of universality.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> Religion is
+subjective, and that in which it exerts an influence on morality is not
+its contents, but the reception of them peculiar to the individual.
+Experience alone has taught man morals; pain and pleasure are the forms
+of its admonitions; and each generation sees more clearly that the
+principles of ethics are based on immutable physical laws. Moreover, it
+has been shown to be dangerous to rest morality on the doctrine of a
+future life; for apart from the small effect the terrors of a hereafter
+have on many sinners, as that doctrine is frequently rejected, social
+interests suffer. And, finally, it is debasing and hurtful to religion
+to make it a substitute for police magistracy.<a name="FNanchor_267-1_177" id="FNanchor_267-1_177" href="#Footnote_267-1_177" class="fnanchor">267-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The highest religion would certainly enforce the purest morality; but it
+is equally true that such a religion would enjoin much not approved by
+the current opinions of the day. The spirit of the reform inaugurated by
+Luther was a protest against the subjection of the religious sentiment
+to a moral code. With the independence thus achieved, it came to be
+recognized that to the full extent that morality is essential to
+religion, it can be reached as well or better without a system of
+rewards and punishments after death,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> than with one. Both religion and
+morality stand higher, when a conception of an after life for this
+purpose is dropped.</p>
+
+<p>(2.) The recognition of the cosmical relations has also modified the
+views of personal survival. The expansion of the notions of space and
+time by the sciences of geology and astronomy has, as I before remarked,
+done away with the ancient belief that the culminating catastrophe of
+the universe will be the destruction of this world. An insignificant
+satellite of a third rate sun, which, with the far grander suns whose
+light we dimly discern at night, may all be swept away in some flurry of
+“cosmical weather,” that the formation or the dissolution of such a body
+would be an event of any beyond the most insignificant importance, is
+now known to be almost ridiculous. To assert that at the end of a few or
+a few thousand years, on account of events transpiring on the surface of
+this planet, the whole relationship of the universe will be altered, a
+new heaven and a new earth be formed, and all therein be made
+subservient to the joys of man, becomes an indication of an arrogance
+which deserves to be called a symptom of insanity. Thus, much of the
+teleology both of the individual and the race taught by the primitive
+and medieval church undergoes serious alterations. The literal meaning
+of the millennium, the New Jerusalem, and the reign of God on earth has
+been practically discarded.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>With the disappearance of the ancient opinion that the universe was
+created for man, the sun to light him by day and the stars by night,
+disappeared also the later thesis that the happiness or the education of
+man was the aim of the Order in Things. The extent and duration of
+matter, if they indicate any purpose at all, suggest one incomparably
+vaster than this; while the laws of mind, which alone distinctly point
+to purpose, reveal one in which pain and pleasure have no part or lot,
+and one in which man has so small a share that it seems as if it must be
+indifferent what his fate may be. The slightest change in the atmosphere
+of the globe will sweep away his species forever.</p>
+
+<p>Schopenhauer classified all religions as optimisms or pessimisms. The
+faith of the future will be neither. What is agreeable or disagreeable
+to man will not be its standard of the excellence of the universe.
+However unwillingly, he is at last brought to confess that his comfort
+is not the chief nor even any visible aim of the order in things. In the
+course of that order it may be, nay, it is nigh certain, that the human
+species will pass through decadence to extinction along with so many
+other organisms. Neither as individuals nor as a race, neither in regard
+to this life nor to the next, does the idea of God, when ennobled by a
+contemplation of the cosmical relations, permit to man the effron<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>tery
+of claiming that this universe and all that therein is was made with an
+eye to his wants and wishes, whether to gratify or to defeat them.</p>
+
+<p>(3.) The closer defining of life as a result of physical force, and the
+recognition of mind as a connotation of organism, promise to be active
+in elevating religious conceptions, but at the expense of the current
+notions of personality. Sensation and voluntary motion are common to the
+fetus, the brute and the plant, as well as to man. They are not part of
+his “soul.” Intellect and consciousness, as I have shown, exclude
+sensation, and in these, if anywhere, he must look for his immortal
+part. Even here, error works destruction, and ignorance plants no seed
+of life. We are driven back to the teaching of Buddha, that true thought
+alone is that which does not die.</p>
+
+<p>Why should we ask more? What else is worth saving? Our present
+personality is a train of ideas base and noble, true and false, coherent
+through the contiguity of organs nourished from a common center. Another
+personality is possible, one of true ideas coherent through conscious
+similarity, independent of sensation, as dealing with topics not
+commensurate with it. Yet were this refuge gained, it leaves not much of
+the dogma that every man has an indestructible conscious soul, which
+will endure always, no matter what his conduct or thoughts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> have been.
+Rather does it favor the opinion expressed so well by Matthew Arnold in
+one of his sonnets:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“He who flagged not in the earthly strife<br />
+From strength to strength advancing&mdash;only he,<br />
+His soul well knit and all his battles won,<br />
+Mounts, and that hardly, to eternal life.”</p>
+
+<p>Not only has the received doctrine of a “soul,” as an undying something
+different from mind and peculiar to man, received no support from a
+closer study of nature,&mdash;rather objections amounting to refutation,&mdash;but
+it has reacted injuriously on morals, and through them on religion
+itself. Buddha taught that the same spark of immortality exists in man
+and brute, and actuated by this belief laid down the merciful rule to
+his disciples: “Do harm to no breathing thing.” The apostle Paul on the
+other hand, recognizing in the lower animals no such claim on our
+sympathy, asks with scorn: “Doth God care for oxen?” and actually strips
+from a humane provision of the old Mosaic code its spirit of charity, in
+order to make it subserve a point in his polemic.</p>
+
+<p>(4.) As the arrogance of the race has thus met a rebuke, so has the
+egotism of the individual. His religion at first was a means of securing
+material benefits; then a way to a joyous existence beyond the tomb: the
+love of self all the time in the ascendant.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This egoism in the doctrine of personal survival has been repeatedly
+flung at it by satirists, and commented on by philosophers. The
+Christian who “hopes to be saved by grossly believing” has been felt on
+all hands to be as mean in his hope, as he is contemptible in his way of
+attaining it. To center all our religious efforts to the one end of
+getting joy&mdash;however we may define it&mdash;for our individual selves, has
+something repulsive in it to a deeply religious mind. Yet that such in
+the real significance of the doctrine of personal survival is granted by
+its ablest defenders. “The general expectation of future happiness can
+afford satisfaction only as it is a present object to the principle of
+self-love,” says Dr. Butler, the eminent Lord Bishop of Durham, than
+whom no acuter analyst has written on the religious nature of man.</p>
+
+<p>Yet nothing is more certain than that the spirit of true religion wages
+constant war with the predominance or even presence of selfish aims.
+Self-love is the first and rudest form of the instinct of preservation.
+It is sublimed and sacrificed on the altar of holy passion. “Self,”
+exclaims the fervid William Law, “is both atheist and idolater; atheist,
+because it rejects God; idolater, because it is its own idol.” Even when
+this lowest expression of the preservative instinct rises but to the
+height of sex-love, it renounces self, and rejoices in martyrdom. “All<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>
+for love, or the world well lost,” has been the motto of too many
+tragedies to be doubted now. By the side of the ancient Roman or the
+soldier of the French revolution, who through mere love of country
+marched joyously to certain death from which he expected no waking, does
+not the martyr compare unfavorably, who meets the same death, but does
+so because he believes that thereby he secures endless and joyous life?
+Is his love as real, as noble, as unselfish?</p>
+
+<p>Even the resistless physical energy which the clear faith in the life
+hereafter has so often imparted, becomes something uncongenial to the
+ripened religious meditation. Such faith brings about mighty effects in
+the arena of man’s struggles, but it does so through a sort of
+mechanical action. An ulterior purpose is ahead, to wit, the salvation
+of the soul, and it may be regarded as one of the best established
+principles of human effort that every business is better done, when it
+is done for its own sake, out of liking for it, than for results
+expected from it.</p>
+
+<p>Of nothing is this more just than religion. Those blossoms of spiritual
+perfection, the purified reason, the submissive will, the sanctifying
+grace of abstract ideas, find no propitious airs amid the violent toil
+for personal survival, whether that is to be among the mead jugs of
+Valhalla, the dark-eyed houris of Paradise, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> the “solemn troops and
+sweet society” of Christian dreams. Unmindful of these, the saintly
+psyche looks to nothing beyond truth; it asks no definite, still less
+personal, end to which this truth is to be applied; to find it is to
+love it, and to love it is enough.</p>
+
+<p>The doctrine I here broach, is no strange one to Christian thought. To
+be sure the exhortation, “Save your soul from Hell,” was almost the sole
+incentive to religion in the middle ages, and is still the burden of
+most sermons. But St. Paul was quickened with a holier fire, that
+consumed and swept away such a personal motive, when he wrote: “Yea, I
+could wish that I myself were cast out from Christ as accursed, for the
+sake of my brethren, my kinsmen according to the flesh.”<a name="FNanchor_274-1_178" id="FNanchor_274-1_178" href="#Footnote_274-1_178" class="fnanchor">274-1</a> St.
+Augustine reveals the touch of the same inspiration in his passionate
+exclamation: “Far, O Lord, far from the heart of thy servant be it that
+I should rejoice in any joy whatever. The blessed life is the joy in
+truth alone.”<a name="FNanchor_274-2_179" id="FNanchor_274-2_179" href="#Footnote_274-2_179" class="fnanchor">274-2</a> And amid the pæans to everlasting life which fill
+the pages of the <i>De Imitatione Christi</i>, the medieval monk saw
+something yet greater, when he puts in the mouth of God the Father, the
+warning: “The wise lover thinks not of the gift, but of the love of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>
+giver. He rests not in the reward, but in Me, beyond all
+rewards.”<a name="FNanchor_275-1_180" id="FNanchor_275-1_180" href="#Footnote_275-1_180" class="fnanchor">275-1</a> The mystery of great godliness is, that he who has it
+is as one who seeking nothing yet finds all things, who asking naught
+for his own sake, neither in the life here nor yet hereafter, gains that
+alone which is of worth in either.</p>
+
+<p>Pressed by such considerations, the pious Schleiermacher threw down the
+glaive on the side of religion half a century ago when he wrote: “Life
+to come, as popularly conceived, is the last enemy which speculative
+criticism has to encounter, and, if possible, to overcome.” The course
+he marked out, however, was not that which promises success. Recurring
+to the austere theses of Spinoza, he sought to bring them into accord
+with a religion of emotion. The result was a refined Pantheism with its
+usual deceptive solutions.</p>
+
+<p>What recourse is left? Where are we to look for the intellectual moment
+of religion in the future? Let us review the situation.</p>
+
+<p>The religious sentiment has been shown to be the expression of
+unfulfilled desire, but this desire peculiar as dependent on unknown
+power. Material advantages do not gratify it, nor even<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> spiritual joy
+when regarded as a personal sentiment. Preservation by and through
+relation with absolute intelligence has appeared to be the meaning of
+that “love of God” which alone yields it satisfaction. Even this is
+severed from its received doctrinal sense by the recognition of the
+speculative as above the numerical unity of that intelligence, and the
+limitation of personality which spiritual thought demands. The eternal
+laws of mind guarantee perpetuity to the extent they are obeyed&mdash;and no
+farther. They differ from the laws of force in that they convey a
+message which cannot be doubted concerning the purport of the order in
+nature, which is itself “the will of God.” That message in its
+application is the same which with more or less articulate utterance
+every religion speaks&mdash;Seek truth: do good. Faith in that message,
+confidence in and willing submission to that order, this is all the
+religious sentiment needs to bring forth its sweetest flowers, its
+richest fruits.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the ample and satisfying ground which remains for the religion
+of the future to build upon. It is a result long foreseen by the clearer
+minds of Christendom. One who more than any other deserves to be classed
+among these writes: “Resignation to the will of God is the whole of
+piety. * * * Our resignation may be said to be perfect when we rest in
+his will as our end, as being itself most just and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> right and good.
+Neither is this at bottom anything more than faith, and honesty and
+fairness of mind; in a more enlarged sense, indeed, than these words are
+commonly used.”<a name="FNanchor_277-1_181" id="FNanchor_277-1_181" href="#Footnote_277-1_181" class="fnanchor">277-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Goethe, who studied and reflected on religious questions more than is
+generally supposed, saw that in such a disposition of mind lie the
+native and strongest elements of religion. In one of his conversations
+with Chancellor Müller, he observed: “Confidence and resignation, the
+sense of subjection to a higher will which rules the course of events
+but which we do not fully comprehend, are the fundamental principles of
+every better religion.”<a name="FNanchor_277-2_182" id="FNanchor_277-2_182" href="#Footnote_277-2_182" class="fnanchor">277-2</a></p>
+
+<p>By the side of two such remarkable men, I might place the opinion of a
+third not less eminent than they&mdash;Blaise Pascal. In one part of his
+writings he sets forth the “marks of a true religion.” Sifted from its
+physical ingredients, the faith he defines is one which rests on love
+and submission to God, and a clear recognition of the nature of man.</p>
+
+<p>Here I close these studies on the Religious Sentiment. They show it to
+be a late and probably a final development of mind. The intellect first
+reaches entire self-consciousness, the emotions first attain perfection
+of purpose,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> when guided by its highest manifestation. Man’s history
+seems largely to have been a series of efforts to give it satisfaction.
+This will be possible only when he rises to a practical appreciation of
+the identity of truth, love and life.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_236-1_154" id="Footnote_236-1_154" href="#FNanchor_236-1_154">236-1</a> <i>Essay on the use of Anthropomorphism.</i> Mr. Spencer’s
+argument, in his own words, is this:&mdash;“From the inability under which we
+labor to conceive of a Deity save as some idealization of ourselves, it
+inevitably results that in each age, among each people, and to a great
+extent in each individual, there must arise just that conception of
+Deity best adapted to the needs of the case.” “All are good for their
+times and places.” “All were beneficent in their effects on those who
+held them.” It would be hard to quote from the records of theory-making
+an example of more complete indifference to acknowledged facts than
+these quotations set forth.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_239-1_155" id="Footnote_239-1_155" href="#FNanchor_239-1_155">239-1</a> <i>De Veritate</i>, p. 216.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_241-1_156" id="Footnote_241-1_156" href="#FNanchor_241-1_156">241-1</a> August Neander, <i>Geschichte der Christlichen Religion
+und Kirche</i>, Bd. i., ss. 160, 346. (Gotha, 1856.) St. Clement’s
+description of Christ is <span class="greek" title="Ton opsin aischron">Τον οψιν αισχρον</span>. Tertullian says: “Nec humanæ
+honestatis corpus fuit, nedum celestis claritatis.”</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_243-1_157" id="Footnote_243-1_157" href="#FNanchor_243-1_157">243-1</a> Novalis, <i>Schriften</i>, B. i., s. 244.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_244-1_158" id="Footnote_244-1_158" href="#FNanchor_244-1_158">244-1</a> A. Bain, <i>The Senses and the Intellect</i>, p. 607.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_245-1_159" id="Footnote_245-1_159" href="#FNanchor_245-1_159">245-1</a> Dr. T. Laycock, <i>On some Organic Laws of Memory</i>, in
+the <i>Journal of Mental Science</i>, July, 1875, p. 178.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_246-1_160" id="Footnote_246-1_160" href="#FNanchor_246-1_160">246-1</a> Speaking of the mission of the artist, Wilhelm von
+Humboldt says: “Die ganze Natur, treu und vollständig beobachtet, mit
+sich hinüber zu tragen, d. h. den Stoff seiner Erfahrungen dem Umfange
+der Welt gleich zu machen, diese ungeheure Masse einzelner und
+abgerissener Erscheinungen in eine l’ungetrennte Einheit und ein
+organisirtes Ganzes zu verwandeln; und dies durch alle die Organe zu
+thun, die ihm hierzu verliehen sind,&mdash;ist das letzte Ziel seines
+intellectuellen Bemühen.” <i>Ueber Goethe’s Hermann und Dorothea</i>, Ab.
+IV.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_246-2_161" id="Footnote_246-2_161" href="#FNanchor_246-2_161">246-2</a> <i>Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie</i>, B. I. s. 48.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_247-1_162" id="Footnote_247-1_162" href="#FNanchor_247-1_162">247-1</a> <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>. Bd. VII., s. 63.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_249-1_163" id="Footnote_249-1_163" href="#FNanchor_249-1_163">249-1</a> See this forcibly brought out and abundantly
+illustrated in the work of M. Coulange, <i>La Cité Antique</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_249-2_164" id="Footnote_249-2_164" href="#FNanchor_249-2_164">249-2</a> W. von Humboldt, <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>. Bd. VII., p. 72.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_250-1_165" id="Footnote_250-1_165" href="#FNanchor_250-1_165">250-1</a> H. L. Liddon, Canon of St. Paul’s. <i>Some Elements of
+Religion</i>, p. 84.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_251-1_166" id="Footnote_251-1_166" href="#FNanchor_251-1_166">251-1</a> The Chevalier Bunsen completed the moral estimate of
+the one-man-power, thus acknowledged by Machiavelli, in these words:
+“Alles Grosse geht aus vom Einzelnen, <i>aber nur in dem Masse, als dieser
+das Ich dem Ganzen opfert</i>.” <i>Gott in der Geschichte</i>, Bd. I., s. 38.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_252-1_167" id="Footnote_252-1_167" href="#FNanchor_252-1_167">252-1</a> W. von Humboldt, <i>Ideen zu einem Vorsuch, die Gränzen
+der Wirksamkeit des Staats zu bestimmen</i>, Breslau, 1851. Auguste Comte,
+<i>Système de Politique Positive</i>, Paris, 1851-4. The former was written
+many years before its publication.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_256-1_168" id="Footnote_256-1_168" href="#FNanchor_256-1_168">256-1</a> <i>Lectures on Metaphysics</i>, Vol. I., p. 23.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_256-2_169" id="Footnote_256-2_169" href="#FNanchor_256-2_169">256-2</a> <i>The Koran</i>, Suras xi., xvi.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_258-1_170" id="Footnote_258-1_170" href="#FNanchor_258-1_170">258-1</a> <i>The Myths of the New World</i>, Chap. IX.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_259-1_171" id="Footnote_259-1_171" href="#FNanchor_259-1_171">259-1</a> Jacob Grimm quite overlooked this important element in
+the religion of the ancient Germans. It is ably set forth by Adolf
+Holtzmann, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, s. 196 sqq. (Leipzig, 1874).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_260-1_172" id="Footnote_260-1_172" href="#FNanchor_260-1_172">260-1</a> The seemingly heartless reply he made to one of his
+disciples, who asked permission to perform the funeral rites at his
+father’s grave: “Follow me; and let the dead bury their dead,” is an
+obvious condemnation of one of the most widespread superstitions of the
+ancient world. So, according to an ingenious suggestion of Lord Herbert
+of Cherbury, was the fifth commandment of Moses: “Ne parentum seriem
+tanquam primam aliquam causam suspicerent homines, et proinde cultum
+aliquem Divinum illis deferrent, qualem ex honore parentum sperare
+liceat benedictionem, docuit.” <i>De Veritate</i>, p. 231.
+</p><p>
+Herbert Spencer in his <i>Essay on the Origin of Animal Worship</i>, calls
+ancestral worship “the universal first form of religious belief.” This
+is very far from correct, but it is easy to see how a hasty thinker
+would be led into the error by the prominence of the ancient funereal
+ceremonies.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_262-1_173" id="Footnote_262-1_173" href="#FNanchor_262-1_173">262-1</a> Dhammapada, 21.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_263-1_174" id="Footnote_263-1_174" href="#FNanchor_263-1_174">263-1</a> <i>La Vie Eternelle</i>, p. 339.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_264-1_175" id="Footnote_264-1_175" href="#FNanchor_264-1_175">264-1</a> <i>The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, Vol. I.,
+ch. XV.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_264-2_176" id="Footnote_264-2_176" href="#FNanchor_264-2_176">264-2</a> <i>Address to the Clergy</i>, p. 16.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_267-1_177" id="Footnote_267-1_177" href="#FNanchor_267-1_177">267-1</a> “Toute religion, qu’on se permet de défendre comme une
+croyance qu’il est utile de laisser au peuple, ne peut plus espérer
+qu’une agonie plus ou moins prolongée.” Condorcet, <i>De l’Esprit Humain</i>,
+Ep. V.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_274-1_178" id="Footnote_274-1_178" href="#FNanchor_274-1_178">274-1</a> <i>Romans</i>, ch. ix., v. 3.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_274-2_179" id="Footnote_274-2_179" href="#FNanchor_274-2_179">274-2</a> “Beata quippe vita est gaudium de veritate.” Augustini
+<i>Confessionum</i>, Lib. x., caps. xxii., xxiii.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_275-1_180" id="Footnote_275-1_180" href="#FNanchor_275-1_180">275-1</a> “Prudens amator non tam donum amantis considerat, quam
+dantis amorem. Nobilis amator non quiescit in dono, sed in me super omne
+donum.” <i>De Imitatione Christi</i>, Lib. iii., cap. vi.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_277-1_181" id="Footnote_277-1_181" href="#FNanchor_277-1_181">277-1</a> <i>Fifteen Sermons</i> by Joseph Butler, Lord Bishop of
+Durham. Sermon “On the love of God.”</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_277-2_182" id="Footnote_277-2_182" href="#FNanchor_277-2_182">277-2</a> <i>Unterhaltungen</i>, p. 131.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="INDICES" id="INDICES"></a>INDICES.</h2>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<p>I. AUTHORS QUOTED.</p>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Allen, H., <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+  <li>Anaxagoras, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+  <li>Arnold, M., <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+  <li>Aristotle, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+  <li>Augustine, St., <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Bain, A., <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+  <li>Barlow, H. C., <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+  <li>Baxter, Richard, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+  <li>Boehmer, H., <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+  <li>Boole, Geo., <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+  <li>Bunsen, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+  <li>Butler, Bishop, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Carlyle, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+  <li>Catlow, J. P., <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+  <li>Chateaubriand, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+  <li>Comte, A., <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+  <li>Condorcet, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cory, J. P., <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+  <li>Coulange, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+  <li>Creuzer, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cussans, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Dante, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+  <li>Darwin, C., <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li>Dick, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+  <li>Dickson, J. T., <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Etheridge, J. W., <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Ferguson, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li>Ferrier, J. F., <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+  <li>Feuchtersleben, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+  <li>Feuerbach, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+  <li>Fothergill, J. M., <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Gibbon, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+  <li>Goethe, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
+  <li>Gurney, J. J., <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Hall, Bishop, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hamilton, Sir W., <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+  <li>Helmholtz, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hegel, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li>Herbert of Cherbury, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hobbes, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hodgson, S. N., <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+  <li>Holtzmann, A., <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+  <li>Humboldt, A. von, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+  <li>Humboldt, W. von, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hume, David, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hunter, John, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Jacobi, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li>Jevons, W. S., <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+  <li>Kant, I., <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Kolk, Schroeder van der, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+  <li>Kitto, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+  <li>Koppen, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Law, Wm., <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+  <li>Laycock, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+  <li>Lessing, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+  <li>Lewes, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+  <li>Liddon, H. L., <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Mansel, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li>Maudsley, H., <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mill, J. S., <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mohammed, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+  <li>Morell, J. D., <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li>Morley, J., <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span>Müller, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+  <li>Müller, Max, <a href="#PREFACE"><i>preface</i></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Naville, E., <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+  <li>Neander, A., <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+  <li>Novalis, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Oersted, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+  <li>Oken, L., <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Paget, J., <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+  <li>Parker, Theo., <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li>Pascal, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+  <li>Plath, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+  <li>Rousseau, J. J., <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+  <li>Saussure, Necker de, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+  <li>Schlagintweit, E., <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+  <li>Schleiermacher, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
+  <li>Schoolcraft, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+  <li>Schopenhauer, A., <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+  <li>Schwarz, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+  <li>Senancourt de, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+  <li>Spinoza, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+  <li>Spencer, Herbert, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+  <li>Swedenborg, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+  <li>Steinthal, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tertullian, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+  <li>Theophilus, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+  <li>Thompson, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+  <li>Todhunter, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tyndall, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+  <li>Voltaire, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+  <li>Westropp, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+  <li>Wigan, A. L., <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+  <li>Williams, J., <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+  <li>Wordsworth, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+  <li>Windelband, Dr., <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>II. SUBJECTS.</p>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Absolute, the, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+    <li class="subhead">consciousness of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+  <li>Adam, as prophet of the moon, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+  <li>Adjita, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+  <li>Adonis, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+  <li>Aeon, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+  <li>Agdistis, an epicene deity, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+  <li>Ahura-Mazda, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+  <li>Allah, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+  <li>Amitabha, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+  <li>Analytic propositions, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+  <li>Androgynous deities, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li>Animism, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+  <li>Anointed, the, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li>Anya-Mainyus, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+  <li>Anthropomorphism, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+  <li>Antinomies, of Kant, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+  <li>Aphrodite, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+  <li>Apocalypse, the, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+  <li>Apollo, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+  <li>Apperception, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+  <li>Apprehension, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+  <li>Arab idea of time, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+  <li>Argumentum de appetitu, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+  <li>Aronhiate, a Huron deity, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+  <li>Arrenothele deities, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li>Art, religious, in Orient, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">in Greece, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">Christian, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">useless and immoral, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+  <li>Assyria, flood myth of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+  <li>Athanasius, his doctrine of the Trinity, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+  <li>Atonement, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+  <li>Avalokitesvara, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+  <li>Aztecs, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Baghavad Gita, the, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+  <li>Babylon, rites of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+  <li>Baldur, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li>Baptism, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+  <li>Beauty, the line of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+    <li class="subhead">the religion of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+  <li>Belief, its kinds, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+  <li>Brahma, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+  <li>Brahmans, highest bliss of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">doctrines, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+  <li>Breidablick, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li>Brutes, religious feeling in, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li><a name="Buddha" id="Buddha"></a>Buddha, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+  <li>Buddhism, four truths of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">theories of prayer, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">last day, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">myths, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">monotheism of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+  <li>Bull, as a symbol, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Cabala, Jehova in, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+  <li>Canting arms, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cause, not a reason, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">in physical science, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+  <li>Celibacy, Romish, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cerebration, unconscious, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+  <li>Chance, the idea of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+  <li>Chinese character for prayer, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>Christ, <i>see</i> <a href="#Jesus">Jesus</a>.</li>
+  <li>Christianity, doctrines of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">symbol of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+  <li>Christmas tree, the, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cockatrice, the, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+  <li>Commonwealth, ideal of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+  <li>Consciousness, forms of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+  <li>Confucius, doctrine, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, sq.</li>
+  <li>Continuity, law of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">principle of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+  <li>Contradiction, law of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+  <li>Correspondences, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cosmical relations of man, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cotytto, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cow, as a symbol, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+  <li>Craoshanç, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li>Creation, myth of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+  <li>Crescent, a phallic symbol, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cross, a phallic symbol, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as phonetic symbol, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">variants of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cult, the, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> sq.</li>
+  <li>Culture, religion of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cybele, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; priests of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Dactyli, the, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+  <li>Darkness, terror of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+  <li>Day of Judgment, the, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+  <li>Deity, <i>see</i> <a href="#God">God</a>.</li>
+  <li>Design, argument from, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+  <li>Desire, meaning of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+  <li>Deus, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>; triformis, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+  <li>Deva, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+  <li>Didactic rites, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+  <li>Divination and prayer, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+  <li>Dramatic rites, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+  <li>Dual law of thought, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">division of the gods, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Edda, mythology of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+  <li>Eden, garden of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Ego, the, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+  <li>Egoism of religion, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+  <li>Egyptians, doctrines of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">prayers, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">pyramids, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">lotus of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+  <li>Emotions, origin of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">exclude thought, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">in religion, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of fear and hope, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">esthetic, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+  <li>Entheasm, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+  <li>Epochs of nature, <a href="#Page_164">164</a> sq.</li>
+  <li>Epicene deities, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li>Epilepsy and religious delusions, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+  <li>Eros, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+  <li>Esculapius, emblem of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+  <li>Esthetic emotions, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+  <li>Ethics, grounds of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+  <li>Excluded middle, law of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, sqq.</li>
+  <li>Expectant attention, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+  <li>Explanation, limits of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Faith in religion, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+  <li>Fascination, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+  <li>Fear, in religion, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, sqq.</li>
+  <li>Female principle in religion, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+  <li>Feridun, garden of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Flood, myth of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, sq.</li>
+  <li>Fingers, as gods, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+  <li>Force, orders of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+  <li>Freedom, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+  <li>Friends, sect of, <i>see</i> <a href="#Quakers">Quakers</a>.</li>
+  <li>Future life, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, sq.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Gallican confession, the, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+  <li>Generative function in religion, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+  <li>Genius as inspiration, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+  <li>Gnosis, the genuine, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+  <li>Gnostic doctrines, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+  <li><a name="God" id="God"></a>God, as father, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">spouses of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">mother of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">sexless, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">earliest notions of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">incomprehensible, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">throne of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">love of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+  <li>Gods,</li>
+    <li class="subhead">hierarchy of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">quantification of the, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of lightning, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+  <li>Good, final victory of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+  <li>Grasshoppers, prayers against, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+  <li>Greeks, art of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">doctrines of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">sophists, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+  <li>Gudmund, King, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Hades, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hare, the Great, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hell, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hercules, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hermaphrodite deities, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hesperides, the, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hierarchy of the gods, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+  <li>High places, worship of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+  <li>Historic ideas, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+  <li>Holy spirit, as inspiring, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">brooding, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hope, in religion, <a href="#Page_51">51</a> sqq.</li>
+  <li>Horæ, the, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+  <li>Humanity, the religion of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Ignorance, in relation to religion, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+  <li>Illumination, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+  <li>Immortality, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+  <li>Indians, American, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>Insanity, religious, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+  <li>Inspiration, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+  <li>Intelligence, one in kind, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as the first cause, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+  <li>Irmin, pillars of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+  <li>Ischomachus, prayer of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+  <li>Israelites, the Messiah of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Janus, an epicene deity, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+  <li>Jehovah, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+  <li>Jemschid, king, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li><a name="Jesus" id="Jesus"></a>Jesus, face of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">conception of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">wounds of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">wisdom of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as second Noah, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">teachings, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">prayer to, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">execution of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">death of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+  <li>Judaism, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+  <li>Judgment, day of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Kalpa, of Brahmans, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+  <li>Knowledge, forms of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+  <li>Kosmos, the, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Lateau, Louise, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+  <li>Law, defined, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of excluded middle, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">oldest, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+  <li>Laws, the, of thought, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, sq.; <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, sq.;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">not restrictive, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as purposive, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+  <li>Light, as object of worship, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+  <li>Lightning, the, in symbolic art, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+  <li>Life, the perfect, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+  <li>Lingam, the, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li>Lingayets, sect of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li>Logic, applied, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">abstract or formal, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">mathematical, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">laws of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, sq.</li>
+  <li>Logos, the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+  <li>Lotus, as symbol, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, sq.</li>
+  <li>Love, as religious emotion, defined, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of sex, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">law of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of God, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Ma, a goddess, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+  <li>Maitreya, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mamona, a Haitian deity, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+  <li>Märchen, the, defined, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+  <li>Marriage condemned, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+  <li>Maypole, as a symbol, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+  <li>Melitta, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+  <li>Memory, physical basis of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">ancestral, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+  <li>Memorial, rites, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+  <li>Messiah, the, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li>Millennium, the, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+  <li>Michabo, an Algonkin deity, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mind,</li>
+    <li class="subhead">growth of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">extent of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as seat of law, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+  <li>Miracles, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mithras, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mohammed,</li>
+    <li class="subhead">notion of god, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">inspired, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mohammedanism, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+  <li>Monotheism, origin of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>; <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, sq.</li>
+  <li>Moral government of the world, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+  <li>Morality, independent of religion, dualism of deities, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mormonism, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+  <li>Motion, first law of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">relation to time and space, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">manifestations of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+  <li>Myth, the, defined, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Names, sacred, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+  <li>Natural selection, in sensation, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">in logic, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+  <li>Nature,</li>
+    <li class="subhead">meaning of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">epochs of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+  <li>Nemqueteba, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+  <li>Neo-Hegelian doctrine, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+  <li>Nirvana, the, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+  <li>Noah, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+  <li>Nous, the, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Oannes, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+  <li>Obelisk as symbol, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+  <li>Odainsakr, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Odin, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+  <li>Optimism, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+  <li>Order, in things, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, sq.</li>
+  <li>Osiris, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Pain, defined, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+  <li>Parsees, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+  <li>Pantheism, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+  <li>Papas, a Phrygian god, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+  <li>Paradise, lost and regained, myths of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, sq;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">future, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+  <li>Pentalpha, the, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+  <li>Perfected commonwealth, idea of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+  <li>Perfected individual, idea of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+  <li>Personal survival, idea of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+  <li>Pessimism, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+  <li>Persians, ancient, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li>Personality, the, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+  <li>Phallus, worship of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+  <li>Phanes, the orphic principle, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+  <li>Philosophy of religion, defined, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of mythology, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of history, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+  <li>Phrygian divinities, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+  <li>Pillar worship, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+  <li>Pleasure, defined, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>Polarization, as a principle of thought, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+  <li>Porte Royale, miracles of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+  <li>Postulates of religion, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+  <li>Prayer, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, sq.</li>
+  <li>Progression of development, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+  <li>Protestantism, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+  <li>Protogonus, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+  <li>Psyche, and love, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+  <li>Pythagoras, his thoughts on number, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li><a name="Quakers" id="Quakers"></a>Quakers, sect of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+  <li>Quantification of the predicate, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of the gods, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+  <li>Quetzalcoatl, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Reason in religion, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">drawn from sight, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+  <li>Rebus in symbolism, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+  <li>Regin, as name of gods, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+  <li>Relative, the, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+  <li>Religion, science of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">philosophy of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">personal factor of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">not concerned with phenomena, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+  <li>Reproductive function in religion, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+  <li>Res per accidens, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+  <li>Resignation, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+  <li>Revelation, marks of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+  <li>Rig Veda, the, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+  <li>Rite, the, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, seq.</li>
+  <li>Roland, pillars of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+  <li>Roman Catholics, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Sabians, myths of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sacraments, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sacrifice, idea in, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">vicarious, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+  <li>Saga, the, defined, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+  <li>Saint Brigida, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+  <li>Saint Gertrude of Nivelles, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sakyamuni, <i>see</i> <a href="#Buddha">Buddha</a>.</li>
+  <li>Saturnian Era, the, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Science of Religion, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as knowledge of system, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of mythology, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+  <li>Secularization of symbols, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sensation, defined, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">excludes thought, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of pain and pleasure, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sentiment, the religious, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">emotional elements of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">rational postulates of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">religion of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+  <li>Serpent, as emblem and symbol, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sev, an Egyptian deity, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sex, love of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">in nature, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+  <li>Shekinah, the, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li>Siddartha, a name of Buddha, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+  <li>Similars, law of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sin, sense of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sight, as the light-sense, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+  <li>Siva, worship of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+  <li>Soul, the, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+  <li>Specific performance in rites, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, sq.</li>
+  <li>Stigmata, the, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sufficient reason, principle of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sukhavati, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Supernatural, defined, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">its relation to symbols, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+  <li>Swedenborg, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+  <li>Symbol, the phonetic, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">origin of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">related and coincident, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+  <li>Symbolism, defined, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+  <li>Synthesis of contraries, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+  <li>Synthetic propositions, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Tathagata, a name of Buddha, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tau, the Egyptian, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+  <li>Theology, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+  <li>Thor, hammer of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+  <li>Thought, as a function, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">laws of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, sq.;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as purposive, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tien, Mongolian deity, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+  <li>Time, not a force, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">but believed to be one, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tlapallan, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tree worship, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+  <li>Triads, the Celtic, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">Platonic, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+  <li>Triangle, the equilateral, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+  <li>Trinity, the doctrine of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">symbol of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+  <li>Triplicate relation of numbers, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tritheism, of Christianity, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+  <li>Truth, what is, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">eternal, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as answer to prayer, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tulan, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Unconditioned, the, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+  <li>Uniformity of sequence, as cause, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+  <li>Unknowable, the, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Valkyria, the, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+  <li>Valhalla, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+  <li>Varuna, an Aryan god, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+  <li>Vendidad, the, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Venereal sense, the, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+  <li>Vicarious sacrifice, theory of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+  <li>Virginity, sacredness of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+  <li>Virgin Mother, the, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+  <li>Volition, <i>see</i> <a href="#Will">Will</a>.</li>
+  <li>Voluspa, the, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>Wabose, Catherine, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+  <li>Water, as the primitive substance, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+  <li><a name="Will" id="Will"></a>Will, the, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of God, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as a cause, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+  <li>Wish, the religious, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">definition of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+  <li>World, moral government of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">creation and changes, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">light of the, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Xisuthrus, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Year, the Great, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+  <li>Yima, reign of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Ynglyngasaga, the, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+  <li>Yocauna, a Haitian deity, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Zarathustra, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+  <li>Zeruana akerana, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+  <li>Zweckgesetze, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<h2 class="sectionhead"><i>PUBLISHED BY HENRY HOLT &amp; CO.</i></h2>
+
+
+<p class="ads1st"><b>BRINTON’S (D. G.) WORKS. The Myths of the New World.</b> A Treatise on the
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+
+<p class="adsquote">“The philosophical spirit in which it is written is deserving of
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+will continue to reflect credit upon himself and his country.”&mdash;<i>N. A.
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+<p class="ads1st"><b>DEUTSCH’S (E.) LITERARY REMAINS.</b> With a Brief Memoir. 8vo. $4.00.</p>
+
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+kind.”&mdash;<i>Atlantic Monthly.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+
+<div class="tn">
+<p class="titlepage"><a name="trans_note" id="trans_note"></a><b>Transcriber&rsquo;s&nbsp;Note</b></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following errors and inconsistencies have been maintained.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Misspelled words and typographical errors:</p>
+
+<table style="margin-left: 0;" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="typos">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">Page</td>
+  <td>Error</td>
+  <td>Correction</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr1">2</a></td>
+  <td> expres ion</td>
+  <td>expression</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr2">15</a></td>
+  <td>mind,whose</td>
+  <td>mind, whose</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr3">34</a></td>
+  <td>positive,and</td>
+  <td>positive, and</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr4">fn. 39-1</a></td>
+  <td>Systèmede</td>
+  <td>Système de</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr5">fn. 71-1</a></td>
+  <td>Suras,</td>
+  <td>Suras</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr6">91</a></td>
+  <td>reason’</td>
+  <td>reason”</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr7">108</a></td>
+  <td>108-1</td>
+  <td>108-2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr8">146</a></td>
+  <td>devil,before</td>
+  <td>devil, before</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr9">193</a></td>
+  <td>plantasm</td>
+  <td>phantasm</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr10">193</a></td>
+  <td>anthropomorphism,which</td>
+  <td>anthropomorphism, which</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr11">205</a></td>
+  <td>supernatual</td>
+  <td>supernatural</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr12">221</a></td>
+  <td>corrollary</td>
+  <td>corollary</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr13">fn. 214-3</a></td>
+  <td>and</td>
+  <td>und</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr14">Ads. p. 1</a></td>
+  <td>clergy.</td>
+  <td>clergy.”</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr15">Ads. p. 2</a></td>
+  <td>(His</td>
+  <td>His</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="noindent">Accents in foreign words are inconsistent and have been left as
+originally printed.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following words were inconsistently hyphenated.</p>
+
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>develop / develope</li>
+  <li>key-stone / keystone</li>
+  <li>May-pole / Maypole</li>
+  <li>re-gained / regained</li>
+  <li>thunder-storm / thunderstorm</li>
+  <li><i>u. s.</i> / u. s.</li>
+  <li>Voelker / Vœlker</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 30061 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
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+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
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+status under the laws that apply to them.
diff --git a/README.md b/README.md
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--- /dev/null
+++ b/README.md
@@ -0,0 +1,2 @@
+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #30061 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/30061)
diff --git a/old/30061-0.txt b/old/30061-0.txt
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Religious Sentiment, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Religious Sentiment
+       Its Source and Aim: A Contribution to the Science and
+       Philosophy of Religion
+
+Author: Daniel G. Brinton
+
+Release Date: September 22, 2009 [EBook #30061]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber’s Note
+
+A number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of
+this book. They have been marked with a [TN-#], which refers to a
+description in the complete list found at the end of the text.
+
+The following less common character is used. If it doesn't display
+properly, please try changing your font.
+
+  √  square root sign
+
+
+
+
+_BY THE SAME AUTHOR._
+
+  THE MYTHS OF THE NEW WORLD: A Treatise on the Symbolism and Mythology
+    of the Red Race of America. _Second edition, revised._ Large 12mo,
+    $2.50.
+
+  THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT: Its Source and Aim. A Contribution to the
+    Science and Philosophy of Religion. Large 12mo, $2.50.
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+
+  RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT
+
+  ITS SOURCE AND AIM
+
+  _A CONTRIBUTION TO THE SCIENCE AND
+  PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION._
+
+  BY
+
+  DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D.
+
+  _Member of the American Philosophical Society, the American Philological
+  Society, etc.; author of “The Myths of the New World,” etc._
+
+  [Colophon]
+
+  NEW YORK
+  HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
+  1876.
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT,
+  BY HENRY HOLT
+  1876.
+
+  JOHN F. TROW & SON, PRINTERS,
+  205-213 EAST 12TH ST., NEW YORK.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Mythology, since it began to receive a scientific handling at all, has
+been treated as a subordinate branch of history or of ethnology. The
+“science of religion,” as we know it in the works of Burnouf, Müller,
+and others, is a comparison of systems of worship in their historic
+development. The deeper inquiry as to what in the mind of man gave birth
+to religion in any of its forms, what spirit breathed and is ever
+breathing life into these dry bones, this, the final and highest
+question of all, has had but passing or prejudiced attention. To its
+investigation this book is devoted.
+
+The analysis of the religious sentiment I offer is an inductive one,
+whose outlines were furnished by a preliminary study of the religions of
+the native race of America, a field selected as most favorable by reason
+of the simplicity of many of its cults, and the absence of theories
+respecting them. This study was embodied in “The Myths of the New World;
+a Treatise on the Symbolism and Mythology of the Red Race of America”
+(second edition, N. Y. 1876).
+
+The results thus obtained I have in the present work expanded by
+including in the survey the historic religions of the Old World, and
+submitted the whole for solution to the Laws of Mind, regarded as
+physiological elements of growth, and to the Laws of Thought, these, as
+formal only, being held as nowise a development of those. This latter
+position, which is not conceded by the reigning school of psychology, I
+have taken pains to explain and defend as far as consistent with the
+plan of this treatise; but I am well aware that to say all that can be
+said in proof of it, would take much more space than here allowed.
+
+The main questions I have had before me in writing this volume have an
+interest beyond those which mere science propounds. What led men to
+imagine gods at all? What still prompts enlightened nations to worship?
+Is prayer of any avail, or of none? Is faith the last ground of
+adoration, or is reason? Is religion a transient phase of development,
+or is it the chief end of man? What is its warrant of continuance? If it
+overlive this day of crumbling theologies, whence will come its
+reprieve?
+
+To such inquiries as these, answers satisfactory to thinking men of this
+time can, I believe, be given only by an inductive study of religions,
+supported by a sound psychology, and conducted in a spirit which
+acknowledges as possibly rightful, the reverence which every system
+claims. Those I propose, inadequate though they may be, can at any rate
+pretend to be the result of honest labor.
+
+PHILADELPHIA, _January, 1876_.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                          PAGE.
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  THE BEARING OF THE LAWS OF MIND ON RELIGION                3
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT         47
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  THE RATIONAL POSTULATES OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT        87
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  THE PRAYER AND ITS ANSWER                                117
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  THE MYTH AND THE MYTHICAL CYCLES                         155
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+  THE CULT, ITS SYMBOLS AND RITES                          199
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+  THE MOMENTA OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT                         231
+
+
+
+
+THE BEARING OF THE LAWS OF MIND ON RELIGION
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     The distinction between the Science and the Philosophy of religion.
+     It is assumed (1) that religions are products of thought, (2) that
+     they have a unity of kind and purpose. They can be studied by the
+     methods of natural science applied to Mind.
+
+     Mind is co-extensive with organism. Sensation and Emotion are
+     prominent marks of it. These are either pleasurable or painful; the
+     latter _diminish_ vital motions, the former _increase_ them. This
+     is a product of natural selection. A mis-reading of these facts is
+     the fallacy of Buddhism and other pessimistic systems. Pleasure
+     comes from continuous action. This is illustrated by the esthetic
+     emotions, volition and consciousness.
+
+     The climax of mind is Intellect. Physical changes accompany thought
+     but cannot measure it. Relations of thought and feeling. _Truth_ is
+     its only measure. Truth, like pleasure, is desired for its
+     preservative powers. It is reached through the laws of thought.
+
+     These laws are: (1) the natural order of the association of ideas,
+     (2) the methods of applied logic, (3) the forms of correct
+     reasoning. The last allow of mathematical expression. They are
+     three in number, called those of Determination, Limitation and
+     Excluded Middle.
+
+     The last is the key-stone of religious philosophy. Its diverse
+     interpretations. Its mathematical expres ion[TN-1] shows that it
+     does not relate to contradictories. But certain concrete analytic
+     propositions, relating to contraries, do have this form. The
+     contrary as distinguished from the privative. The Conditioned and
+     Unconditioned, the Knowable and Unknowable are not true
+     contradictions. The synthesis of contraries is theoretic only.
+
+     Errors as to the limits of possible explanation corrected by these
+     distinctions. The formal law is the last and complete explanation.
+     The relations of thought, belief and being.
+
+
+
+
+THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE BEARING OF THE LAWS OF MIND ON RELIGION.
+
+
+The Science of Religion is one of the branches of general historical
+science. It embraces, as the domain of its investigation, all recorded
+facts relating to the displays of the Religious Sentiment. Its limits
+are defined by those facts, and the legitimate inferences from them. Its
+aim is to ascertain the constitutive laws of the origin and spread of
+religions, and to depict the influence they have exerted on the general
+life of mankind.
+
+The question whether a given religion is true or false cannot present
+itself in this form as a proper subject of scientific inquiry. The most
+that can be asked is, whether some one system is best suited to a
+specified condition of the individual or the community.
+
+The higher inquiry is the object of the Philosophy of Religion. This
+branch of study aims to pass beyond recorded facts and local adjustments
+in order to weigh the theoretical claims of religions, and measure their
+greater or less conformity with abstract truth. The formal or regulative
+laws of religious thought occupy it.
+
+Theology, dogmatic or polemic, is an explanatory defence of some
+particular faith. Together with mythology and symbolism, it furnishes
+the material from which the Science and Philosophy of Religion seek to
+educe the laws and frame the generalizations which will explain the
+source and aim of religion in general.
+
+The common source of all devotional displays is the Religious Sentiment,
+a complex feeling, a thorough understanding of which is an essential
+preliminary to the study of religious systems.
+
+Such a study proceeds on the assumption that all religions are products
+of thought, commenced and continued in accordance with the laws of the
+human mind, and, therefore, comprehensible to the extent to which these
+laws are known. No one disputes this, except in reference to his own
+religion. This, he is apt to assert, had something “supernatural” about
+its origin. If this word be correctly used, it may stand without cavil.
+The “natural” is that of which we know in whole or in part the laws; the
+“supernatural” means that of which we do not at present know in any
+degree the laws. The domain of the supernatural diminishes in the ratio
+of the increase of knowledge; and the inference that it also is
+absolutely under the control of law, is not only allowable but
+obligatory.
+
+A second assumption must be that there is a unity of kind and purpose in
+all religions. Without this, no common law can exist for them. Such a
+law must hold good in all ages, in every condition of society, and in
+each instance. Hence those who explain religious systems as forms of
+government, or as systems of ethics, or as misconceived history, or as
+theories of natural philosophy, must be prepared to make their view good
+when it is universally applied, or else renounce the possibility of a
+Science of Religion; while those who would except their own system from
+what they grant is the law of all others, violate the principles of
+investigation and thereby the canons of truth.
+
+The methods of science are everywhere alike. Has the naturalist to
+explain an organism, he begins with its elements or proximate principles
+as obtained by analysis; he thence passes to the tissues and fluids
+which compose its members; these he considers first in a state of
+repose, their structure and their connections; then he examines their
+functions, the laws of their growth and action; and finally he has
+recourse to the doctrine of relations, _la théorie des milieux_, to
+define the conditions of its existence. Were such a method applied to a
+religion, it would lead us first to study its psychological elements,
+then the various expressions in word and act to which these give
+occasion, next the record of its growth and decay, and finally from
+these to gather the circumstantials of human life and culture which led
+to its historic existence.
+
+Some have urged that such a method should not be summoned to questions
+in mental philosophy. To do so, say they, is to confound things
+distinct, requiring distinct plans of study. Such a criticism might have
+had weight in the days when the mind was supposed to inhabit the body as
+a tenant a house, and have no relation to it other than that of a casual
+occupant. But that opinion is antiquated. More than three-fourths of a
+century ago the far-seeing thinker, Wilhelm von Humboldt, laid down the
+maxim that the phenomena of mind and matter obey laws identical in
+kind;[6-1] and a recent historian of science sums up the result of the
+latest research in these words:
+
+“The old dualism of mind and body, which for centuries struggled in vain
+for reconciliation, finds it now, not indeed in the unity of substance,
+but in the unity of laws.”[6-2]
+
+It is, therefore, as a question in mental philosophy to be treated by
+the methods of natural science, that I shall approach the discussion of
+the religious sentiment. As it is a part, or at least a manifestation of
+mind, I must preface its more particular consideration with some words
+on the mind in general, words which I shall make as few and as clear as
+possible.
+
+At the beginning of this century, the naturalist Oken hazarded the
+assertion: “The human mind is a memberment of infusorial
+sensation,”[7-1] a phrase which has been the guiding principle of
+scientific psychology ever since. That in the course of this memberment
+or growth wholly new faculties are acquired, is conceded. As the union
+of two inorganic substances may yield a third different in every respect
+from either; or, as in the transition of inorganic to organic matter,
+the power of reproduction is attained; so, positively new powers may
+attend the development of mind. From sensations it progresses to
+emotions, from emotions to reason. The one is the psychical climax of
+the other. “We have still to do with the one mind,whose[TN-2] action
+developes itself with perception, through discrimination, till it
+arrives at notions, wherein its most general scheme, ‘truth and error,’
+serves as the principle.”[8-1]
+
+Extravagant as Oken’s expression seemed to many when it was published,
+it now falls short of the legitimate demands of science, and I may add,
+of religion. _Mind is co-extensive with organism_; in the language of
+logic, one “connotes” the other; this statement, and nothing short of
+it, satisfies the conditions of the problem. Wherever we see Form
+preserved amid the change of substance, _there_ is mind; it alone can
+work that miracle; only it gives Life. Matter suffers no increase;
+therefore the new is but a redistribution of the old; it is new in
+_form_ only; and the maintenance of form under changes of substance is
+the one distinguishing mark of organism. To it is added the yet more
+wonderful power of transmitting form by reproduction. Wherever these
+are, are also the rudiments of mind. The distinction between the animal
+and the vegetable worlds, between the reasoning and unreasoning animals,
+is one of degree only. Whether, in a somewhat different sense, we should
+not go yet further, and say that mind is co-extensive with motion, and
+hence with phenomena, is a speculative inquiry which may have to be
+answered in the affirmative, but it does not concern us here.
+
+The first and most general mark of Mind is sensation or common feeling.
+In technical language a sensation is defined to be the result of an
+impression on an organism, producing some molecular change in its nerve
+or life centres. It is the consequence of a contact with another
+existence. Measured by its effects upon the individual the common law of
+sensation is: Every impression, however slight, either adds to or takes
+from the sum of the life-force of the system; in the former case it
+produces a pleasurable, in the latter a painful sensation. The
+exceptions to this rule, though many, are such in appearance only.[9-1]
+
+In the human race the impression can often be made quite as forcibly by
+a thought as by an act. “I am confident,” says John Hunter, the
+anatomist, “that I can fix my attention to any part, until I have a
+sensation in that part.” This is what is called the influence of the
+mind upon the body. Its extent is much greater than used to be imagined,
+and it has been a fertile source of religious delusions. Such sensations
+are called subjective; those produced by external force, objective.
+
+The immediate consequent of a sensation is _reflex action_, the object
+of which is either to avoid pain or increase pleasure, in other words,
+either to preserve or augment the individual life.
+
+The molecular changes incident to a sensation leave permanent traces,
+which are the physical bases of memory. One or several such remembered
+sensations, evoked by a present sensation, combine with it to form an
+Emotion. Characteristic of their origin is it that the emotions fall
+naturally into a dual classification, in which the one involves
+pleasurable or elevating, the other painful or depressing conditions.
+Thus we have the pairs joy and grief, hope and fear, love and hate, etc.
+
+The question of pleasure and pain is thus seen to be the primary one of
+mental science. We must look to it to explain the meaning of sensation
+as a common quality of organism. What is the significance of pleasure
+and pain?
+
+The question involves that of Life. Not to stray into foreign topics, it
+may broadly be said that as all change resolves itself into motion,
+and, as Helmholtz remarks, all science merges itself into mechanics, we
+should commence by asking what vital motions these sensations stand for
+or correspond to.
+
+Every organism, and each of its parts, is the resultant of innumerable
+motions, a composition of forces. As such, each obeys the first law of
+motion, to wit, indefinite continuance of action until interfered with.
+This is a modification of Newton’s “law of continuance,” which, with the
+other primary laws of motion, must be taken as the foundation of biology
+as well as of astronomy.[11-1]
+
+The diminution or dispersion of organic motion is expressed in
+physiological terms as _waste_; we are admonished of waste by _pain_;
+and thus admonished we supply the waste or avoid the injury as far as we
+can. But this connection of pain with waste is not a necessary one, nor
+is it the work of a _Providentia particularis_, as the schoolmen said.
+It is a simple result of natural selection. Many organisms have been
+born, no doubt, in which waste did not cause pain; caused, perhaps,
+pleasure. Consequently, they indulged their preferences and soon
+perished. Only those lived to propagate their kind in whom a different
+sensation was associated with waste, and they transmitted this
+sensitiveness increased by ancestral impression to their offspring. The
+curses of the human race to-day are alcohol, opium and tobacco, and they
+are so because they cause waste, but do not immediately produce painful
+but rather pleasurable feelings.
+
+Pain, as the sensation of waste, is the precursor of death, of the part
+or system. By parity of evolution, pleasure came to be the sensation of
+continuance, of uninterrupted action, of increasing vigor and life.
+Every action, however, is accompanied by waste, and hence every pleasure
+developes pain. But it is all important to note that the latter is the
+mental correlative not of the action but of its cessation, not of the
+life of the part but of its ceasing to live. Pain, it is true, in
+certain limits excites to action; but it is by awakening the
+self-preservative tendencies, which are the real actors. This
+physiological distinction, capable of illustration from sensitive
+vegetable as well as the lowest animal organisms, has had an intimate
+connection with religious theories. The problems of suffering and death
+are precisely the ones which all religions set forth to solve in theory
+and in practice. Their creeds and myths are based on what they make of
+pain. The theory of Buddhism, which now has more followers than any
+other faith, is founded on four axioms, which are called “the four
+excellent truths.” The first and fundamental one is: “Pain is
+inseparable from existence.” This is the principle of all pessimism,
+ancient and modern. Schopenhauer, an out-and-out pessimist, lays down
+the allied maxim, “All pleasure is negative, that is, it consists in
+getting rid of a want or pain,”[13-1] a principle expressed before his
+time in the saying “the highest pleasure is the relief from pain.”
+
+Consistently with this, Buddhism holds out as the ultimate of hope the
+state of Nirvana, in which existence is not, where the soul is “blown
+out” like the flame of a candle.
+
+But physiology demolishes the corner-stone of this edifice when it shows
+that pain, so far from being inseparable from existence, has merely
+become, through transmitted experience, nearly inseparable from the
+progressive cessation of existence. While action and reaction are equal
+in inorganic nature, the principle of life modifies the operation of
+this universal law of force by bringing in _nutrition_, which, were it
+complete, would antagonize reaction. In such a case, pleasure would be
+continuous, pain null; action constant, reaction hypothetical. As,
+however, nutrition in fact never wholly and at once replaces the
+elements altered by vital action, both physicians and metaphysicians
+have observed that pleasure is the fore-runner of pain, and has the
+latter as its certain sequel.[14-1]
+
+Physiologically and practically, the definition of pleasure is, _maximum
+action with minimum waste_.
+
+This latter generalization is the explanation of the esthetic emotions.
+The modern theory of art rests not on a psychological but a
+physiological, and this in turn on a physical basis. Helmholtz’s theory
+of musical harmony depends on the experimental fact that a continued
+impression gives a pleasant, a discontinuous an unpleasant sensation.
+The mechanics of muscular structure prove that what are called graceful
+motions are those which are the mechanical resultant of the force of
+the muscle,--those which it can perform at least waste. The pleasure we
+take in curves, especially “the line of beauty,” is because our eyes can
+follow them with a minimum action of its muscles of attachment. The
+popular figure called the Grecian figure or the walls of Troy, is
+pleasant because each straight line is shorter, and at right angles to
+the preceding one, thus giving the greatest possible change of action to
+the muscles of the eye.
+
+Such a mechanical view of physiology presents other suggestions. The
+laws of vibratory motion lead to the inference that action in accordance
+with those laws gives maximum intensity and minimum waste. Hence the
+pleasure the mind takes in harmonies of sound, of color and of odors.
+
+The correct physiological conception of the most perfect physical life
+is that which will continue the longest in use, not that which can
+display the greatest muscular force. The ideal is one of extension, not
+of intension.
+
+Religious art indicates the gradual recognition of these principles.
+True to their ideal of inaction, the Oriental nations represent their
+gods as mighty in stature, with prominent muscles, but sitting or
+reclining, often with closed eyes or folded hands, wrapped in robes, and
+lost in meditation. The Greeks, on the other hand, portrayed their
+deities of ordinary stature, naked, awake and erect, but the limbs
+smooth and round, the muscular lines and the veins hardly visible, so
+that in every attitude an indefinite sense of repose pervades the whole
+figure. Movement without effort, action without waste, is the
+immortality these incomparable works set forth. They are meant to teach
+that the ideal life is one, not of painless ease, but of joyous action.
+
+The law of continuity to which I have alluded is not confined to simple
+motions. It is a general mathematical law, that the longer anything
+lasts the longer it is likely to last. If a die turns ace a dozen times
+handrunning, the chances are large that it will turn ace again. The
+Theory of Probabilities is founded upon this, and the value of
+statistics is based on an allied principle. Every condition opposes
+change through inertia. By this law, as the motion caused by a
+pleasurable sensation excites by the physical laws of associated motions
+the reminiscences of former pleasures and pains, a tendency to
+permanence is acquired, which gives the physical basis for Volition.
+Experience and memory are, therefore, necessary to volition, and
+practically self restraint is secured by calling numerous past
+sensations to mind, deterrent ones, “the pains which are indirect
+pleasures,” or else pleasurable ones. The Will is an exhibition under
+complex relations of the tendency to continuance which is expressed in
+the first law of motion. Its normal action is the maintenance of the
+individual life, the prolongation of the pleasurable sensations, the
+support of the forces which combat death.
+
+Whatever the action, whether conscious or reflex, its real though often
+indirect and unaccomplished object is the preservation or the
+augmentation of the individual life. Such is the dictum of natural
+science, and it coincides singularly with the famous maxim of Spinoza:
+_Unaquaeque res, quantum in se est, in suo esse perseverare conatur._
+
+The consciousness which accompanies volitional action is derived from
+the common feeling which an organism has, as the result of all its parts
+deriving their nutrition from the same centre. Rising into the sphere of
+emotions, this at first muscular sensation becomes “self-feeling.” The
+Individual is another name for the boundaries of reflex action.
+
+Through memory and consciousness we reach that function of the mind
+called the intellect or reason, the product of which is _thought_. Its
+physical accompaniments are chemical action, and an increase of
+temperature in the brain. But the sum of the physical forces thus
+evolved is not the measure of the results of intellectual action. These
+differ from other forms of force in being incommensurate with extension.
+They cannot be appraised in units of quantity, but in quality only. The
+chemico-vital forces by which a thought rises into consciousness bear
+not the slightest relation to the value of the thought itself. It is
+here as in those ancient myths where an earthly maiden brings forth a
+god. The power of the thought is dependent on another test than physical
+force, to wit, its _truth_. This is measured by its conformity to the
+laws of right reasoning, laws clearly ascertained, which are the common
+basis of all science, and to which it is the special province of the
+science of logic to give formal expression.
+
+Physical force itself, in whatever form it appears, is only known to us
+as feeling or as thought; these alone we know to be real; all else is at
+least less real.[18-1] Not only is this true of the external world, but
+also of that assumed something, the reason, the soul, the ego, or the
+intellect. For the sake of convenience these words may be used; but it
+is well to know that this introduction of something that thinks, back
+of thought itself, is a mere figure of speech. We say, “_I_ think,” as
+if the “I” was something else than the thinking. At most, it is but the
+relation of the thoughts. Pushed further, it becomes the limitation of
+thought by sensation, the higher by the lower. The Cartesian maxim,
+_cogito ergo sum_, has perpetuated this error, and the modern philosophy
+of the _ego_ and _non-ego_ has prevented its detection. A false reading
+of self-consciousness led to this assumption of “a thinking mind.” Our
+personality is but the perception of the solidarity of our thoughts and
+feelings; it is itself a thought.
+
+These three manifestations of mind--sensations, emotions and
+thoughts--are mutually exclusive in their tendencies. The patient
+forgets the fear of the result in the pain of the operation; in intense
+thought the pulse falls, the senses do not respond, emotions and action
+are absent. We may say that ideally the unimpeded exercise of the
+intellect forbids either sensation or emotion.
+
+Contrasting sensation and emotion, on the one side, with intellect
+on the other, feeling with thought, they are seen to be polar or
+antithetical manifestations of mind. Each requires the other for its
+existence, yet in such wise that the one is developed at the expense
+of the other. The one waxes as the other wanes. This is seen to
+advantage when their most similar elements are compared. Thus
+consciousness in sensation is keenest when impressions are strongest;
+but this consciousness is a bar to intellectual self-consciousness,
+as was pointed out by Professor Ferrier in his general Law of
+consciousness.[20-1] When emotion and sensation are at their minimum,
+one is most conscious of the solidarity of one’s thoughts; and just in
+proportion to the vividness of self-consciousness is thought lucid and
+strong. In an ideal intelligence, self-consciousness would be
+infinite, sensation infinitesimal.
+
+Yet there is a parallelism between feeling and thought, as well as a
+contrast. As pain and pleasure indicate opposite tendencies in the
+forces which guide sensation and emotion, so do the true and the untrue
+direct thought, and bear the same relation to it. For as pain is the
+warning of death, so the untrue is the detrimental, the destructive. The
+man who reasons falsely, will act unwisely and run into danger thereby.
+To know the truth is to be ready for the worst. Who reasons correctly
+will live the longest. To love pleasure is not more in the grain of man
+than to desire truth. “I have known many,” says St. Augustine, “who like
+to deceive; to be deceived, none.” Pleasure, joy, truth, are the
+respective measures of life in sensation, emotion, intellect; one or the
+other of these every organism seeks with all its might, its choice
+depending on which of these divisions of mind is prominently its own. As
+the last mentioned is the climax, truth presents itself as in some way
+the perfect expression of life.
+
+We have seen what pleasure is, but what is truth? The question of Pilate
+remains, not indeed unanswered, but answered vaguely and
+discrepantly.[21-1] We may pass it by as one of speculative interest
+merely, and turn our attention to its practical paraphrase, what is
+true?
+
+The rules of evidence as regards events are well known, and also the
+principles of reaching the laws of phenomena by inductive methods. Many
+say that the mind can go no further than this, that the truth thus
+reached, if not the highest, is at least the highest for man. It is at
+best relative, but it is real. The correctness of this statement may be
+tested by analyzing the processes by which we acquire knowledge.
+
+Knowledge reaches the mind in two forms, for which there are in most
+languages, though not in modern English, two distinct expressions,
+_connaitre_ and _savoir_, _kennen_ and _wissen_. The former relates to
+knowledge through sensation, the latter through intellection; the former
+cannot be rendered in words, the latter can be; the former is reached
+through immediate perception, the latter through logical processes. For
+example: an odor is something we may certainly know and can identify,
+but we cannot possibly describe it in words; justice on the other hand
+may be clearly defined to our mind, but it is equally impossible to
+translate it into sensation. Nevertheless, it is generally agreed that
+the one of these processes is, so far as it goes, as conclusive as the
+other, and that they proceed on essentially the same principles.[22-1]
+Religious philosophy has to do only with the second form of knowledge,
+that reached through notions or thoughts.
+
+The enchainment or sequence of thoughts in the mind is at first an
+accidental one. They arise through the two general relations of nearness
+in time or similarity in sensation. Their succession is prescribed by
+these conditions, and without conscious effort cannot be changed. They
+are notions about phenomena only, and hence are infinitely more likely
+to be wrong than right. Of the innumerable associations of thought
+possible, only one can yield the truth. The beneficial effects of this
+one were felt, and thus by experience man slowly came to distinguish the
+true as what is good for him, the untrue as what is injurious.
+
+After he had done this for a while, he attempted to find out some plan
+in accordance with which he could so arrange his thoughts that they
+should always produce this desirable result. He was thus led to
+establish the rules for right reasoning, which are now familiarly known
+as Logic. This science was long looked upon as a completed one, and at
+the commencement of this century we find such a thinker as Coleridge
+expressing an opinion that further development in it was not to be
+expected. Since then it has, however, taken a fresh start, and by its
+growth has laid the foundation for a system of metaphysics which will be
+free from the vagaries and unrealities which have thrown general
+discredit on the name of philosophy.
+
+In one direction, as applied logic and the logic of induction, the
+natural associations of ideas have been thoroughly studied, and the
+methods by which they can be controlled and reduced have been taught
+with eminent success. In this branch, Bentham, Mill, Bain, and others
+have been prominent workers.
+
+Dealing mainly with the subjects and materials of reasoning, with
+thoughts rather than with thinking, these writers, with the tendency of
+specialists, have not appreciated the labors of another school of
+logicians, who have made the investigation of the process of thinking
+itself their especial province. This is abstract logic, or pure logic,
+sometimes called, inasmuch as it deals with forms only, “formal logic,”
+or because it deals with names and not things, “the logic of names.” It
+dates its rise as an independent science from the discovery of what is
+known as “the quantification of the predicate,” claimed by Sir William
+Hamilton. Of writers upon it may be mentioned Professor De Morgan, W.
+Stanley Jevons, and especially Professor George Boole of Belfast. The
+latter, one of the subtlest thinkers of this age, and eminent as a
+mathematician, succeeded in making an ultimate analysis of the laws of
+thinking, and in giving them a symbolic notation, by which not only the
+truth of a simple proposition but the relative degree of truth in
+complex propositions may be accurately estimated.[24-1]
+
+This he did by showing that the laws of correct thinking can be
+expressed in algebraic notation, and, thus expressed, will be subject to
+all the mathematical laws of an algebra whose symbols bear the uniform
+value of unity or nought (1 or 0)--a limitation required by the fact
+that pure logic deals in notions of quality only, not of quantity.
+
+This mathematical form of logic was foreseen by Kant when he declared
+that all mathematical reasoning derives its validity from the logical
+laws; but no one before Professor Boole had succeeded in reaching the
+notation which subordinated these two divisions of abstract thought to
+the same formal types. His labors have not yet borne fruit in proportion
+to their value, and they are, I believe, comparatively little known. But
+in the future they will be regarded as epochal in the science of mind.
+They make us to see the same law governing mind and matter, thought and
+extension.
+
+Not the least important result thus achieved was in emphasizing the
+contrast between the natural laws of mental association, and the laws of
+thinking which are the foundation of the syllogism.
+
+By attending to this distinction we are enabled to keep the form and the
+matter of thought well apart--a neglect to do which, or rather a studied
+attempt to ignore which, is the radical error of the logic devised by
+Hegel, as I shall show more fully a little later.
+
+All applied logic, inductive as well as deductive, is based on formal
+logic, and this in turn on the “laws of thought,” or rather of thinking.
+These are strictly regulative or abstract, and differ altogether from
+the natural laws of thought, such as those of similarity, contiguity and
+harmony, as well as from the rules of applied logic, such as those of
+agreement and difference. The fundamental laws of thinking are three in
+number, and their bearing on all the higher questions of religious
+philosophy is so immediate that their consideration becomes of the last
+moment in such a study as this. They are called the laws of
+Determination, Limitation and Excluded Middle.
+
+The first affirms that every object thought about must be conceived as
+itself, and not as some other thing. “A is A,” or “_x_ = _x_,” is its
+formal expression. This teaches us that whatever we think of, must be
+thought as one or a unity. It is important, however, to note that this
+does not mean a mathematical unit, but a logical one, that is, identity
+and not contrast. So true is this that in mathematical logic the only
+value which can satisfy the formula is a concept which does not admit of
+increase, to wit, a Universal.
+
+From this necessity of conceiving a thought under unity has arisen the
+interesting tendency, so frequently observable even in early times, to
+speak of the universe as one whole, the το παν of the Greek philosophers;
+and also the monotheistic leaning of all thinkers, no matter what their
+creed, who have attained very general conceptions. Furthermore, the
+strong liability of confounding this speculative or logical unity with
+the concrete notion of individuality, or mathematical unity, has been,
+as I shall show hereafter, a fruitful source of error in both religious
+and metaphysical theories. Pure logic deals with quality only, not with
+quantity.
+
+The second law is that of Limitation. As the first is sometimes called
+that of Affirmation, so this is called that of Negation. It prescribes
+that a thing is not that which it is not. Its formula is, “A is not
+not-A.” If this seems trivial, it is because it is so familiar.
+
+These two laws are two aspects of the same law. The old maxim is, _omnis
+determinatio est negatio_; a quality can rise into cognition only by
+being limited by that which it is not. It is not a comparison of two
+thoughts, however, nor does it limit the quality itself. For the
+negative is not a thought, and the quality is not _in suo genere
+finita_, to use an expression of the old logicians; it is limited not by
+itself but by that which it is not. These are not idle distinctions, as
+will soon appear.
+
+The third law comes into play when two thoughts are associated and
+compared. There is qualitative identity, or there is not. A is either B
+or not B. An animal is either a man or not a man. There is no middle
+class between the two to which it can be assigned. Superficial truism as
+this appears, we have now come upon the very battle ground of the
+philosophies. This is the famous “Law of the contradictories and
+excluded middle,” on the construction of which the whole fabric of
+religious dogma, and I may add of the higher metaphysics, must depend.
+“One of the principal retarding causes of philosophy,” remarks Professor
+Ferrier, “has been the want of a clear and developed doctrine of the
+contradictory.”[28-1] The want is as old as the days of Heraclitus of
+Ephesus, and lent to his subtle paradoxes that obscurity which has not
+yet been wholly removed.
+
+Founding his arguments on one construction of this law, expressed in the
+maxim, “The conceivable lies between two contradictory extremes,” Sir
+William Hamilton defended with his wide learning those theories of the
+Conditioned and the Unconditioned, the Knowable and Unknowable, which
+banish religion from the realm of reason and knowledge to that of faith,
+and cleave an impassable chasm between the human and the divine
+intelligence. From this unfavorable ground his orthodox followers,
+Mansel and Mozley, defended with ability but poor success their
+Christianity against Herbert Spencer and his disciples, who also
+accepted the same theories, but followed them out to their legitimate
+conclusion--a substantially atheistic one.
+
+Hamilton in this was himself but a follower of Kant, who brought this
+law to support his celebrated “antinomies of the human understanding,”
+warnings set up to all metaphysical explorers to keep off of holy
+ground.
+
+On another construction of it, one which sought to escape the dilemma of
+the contradictories by confining them to matters of the understanding,
+Hegel and Schelling believed they had gained the open field. They taught
+that in the highest domain of thought, there where it deals with
+questions of pure reason, the unity and limits which must be observed in
+matters of the understanding and which give validity to this third law,
+do not obtain. This view has been closely criticized, and, I think, with
+justice. Pretending to deal with matters of pure reason, it constantly
+though surreptitiously proceeds on the methods of applied logic; its
+conclusions are as fallacious logically as they are experimentally. The
+laws of thought are formal, and are as binding in transcendental
+subjects as in those which concern phenomena.
+
+The real bearing of this law can, it appears to me, best be derived from
+a study of its mathematical expression. This is, according to the
+notation of Professor Boole, _x_^{2}=_x_. As such, it presents a
+fundamental equation of thought, and it is because it is of the second
+degree that we classify in pairs or opposites. This equation can only be
+satisfied by assigning to _x_ the value of 1 or 0. The “universal type
+of form” is therefore _x_(1-_x_)=0.
+
+This algebraic notation shows that there is, not two, but only one
+thought in the antithesis; that it is made up of a thought and its
+expressed limit; and, therefore, that the so-called “law of
+contradictories” does not concern contradictories at all, in pure logic.
+This result was seen, though not clearly, by Dr. Thompson, who indicated
+the proper relation of the members of the formula as a positive and a
+privative. He, however, retained Hamilton’s doctrine that “privative
+conceptions enter into and assist the higher processes of the reason in
+all that it can know of the absolute and infinite;” that we must, “from
+the seen realize an unseen world, not by extending to the latter the
+properties of the former, but by assigning to it attributes entirely
+opposite.”[31-1]
+
+The error that vitiates all such reasoning is the assumption that the
+privative is an independent thought, that a thought and its limitation
+are two thoughts; whereas they are but the two aspects of the one
+thought, like two sides to the one disc, and the absurdity of speaking
+of them as separate thoughts is as great as to speak of a curve seen
+from its concavity as a different thing from the same curve regarded
+from its convexity. The privative can help us nowhere and to nothing;
+the positive only can assist our reasoning.
+
+This elevation of the privative into a contrary, or a contradictory, has
+been the bane of metaphysical reasoning. From it has arisen the doctrine
+of the synthesis of an affirmative and a negative into a higher
+conception, reconciling them both. This is the maxim of the Hegelian
+logic, which starts from the synthesis of Being and Not-being into the
+Becoming, a very ancient doctrine, long since offered as an explanation
+of certain phenomena, which I shall now touch upon.
+
+A thought and its privative alone--that is, a quality and its
+negative--cannot lead to a more comprehensive thought. It is devoid of
+relation and barren. In pure logic this is always the case, and must be
+so. In concrete thought it may be otherwise. There are certain
+propositions in which the negative is a reciprocal quality, quite as
+positive as that which it is set over against. The members of such a
+proposition are what are called “true contraries.” To whatever they
+apply as qualities, they leave no middle ground. If a thing is not one
+of them, it is the other. There is no third possibility. An object is
+either red or not red; if not red, it may be one of many colors. But if
+we say that all laws are either concrete or abstract, then we know that
+a law not concrete has all the properties of one which is abstract. We
+must examine, then, this third law of thought in its applied forms in
+order to understand its correct use.
+
+It will be observed that there is an assumption of space or time in many
+propositions having the form of the excluded middle. They are only true
+under given conditions. “All gold is fusible or not,” means that some is
+fusible at the time. If all gold be already fused, it does not hold
+good. This distinction was noted by Kant in his discrimination between
+_synthetic_ judgments, which assume other conditions; and _analytic_
+judgments, which look only at the members of the proposition.
+
+Only the latter satisfy the formal law, for the proposition must not
+look outside of itself for its completion. Most analytic propositions
+cannot extend our knowledge beyond their immediate statement. If A is
+either B or not B, and it is shown not to be B, it is left uncertain
+what A may be. The class of propositions referred to do more than this,
+inasmuch as they present alternative conceptions, mutually exhaustive,
+each the privative of the other. Of these two contraries, the one always
+evokes the other; neither can be thought except in relation to the
+other. They do not arise from the dichotomic process of classification,
+but from the polar relations of things. Their relation is not in the
+mind but in themselves, a real externality. The distinction between such
+as spring from the former and the latter is the most important question
+in philosophy.
+
+To illustrate by examples, we familiarly speak of heat and cold, and to
+say a body is not hot is as much as to say it is cold. But every
+physicist knows that cold is merely a diminution of heat, not a distinct
+form of force. The absolute zero may be reached by the abstraction of
+all heat, and then the cold cannot increase. So, life and death are not
+true contraries, for the latter is not anything real but a mere
+privative, a quantitative diminution of the former, growing less to an
+absolute zero where it is wholly lost.
+
+Thus it is easy to see that the Unconditioned exists only as a part of
+the idea of the Conditioned, the Unknowable as the foil of the Knowable;
+and the erecting of these mere privatives, these negatives, these
+shadows, into substances and realities, and then setting them up as
+impassable barriers to human thought, is one of the worst pieces of work
+that metaphysics has been guilty of.
+
+The like does not hold in true contrasts. Each of them has an existence
+as a positive,and[TN-3] is never lost in a zero of the other. The one is
+always thought in relation to the other. Examples of these are subject
+and object, absolute and relative, mind and matter, person and
+consciousness, time and space. When any one of these is thought, the
+other is assumed. It is vain to attempt their separation. Thus those
+philosophers who assert that all knowledge is relative, are forced to
+maintain this assertion, to wit, All knowledge is relative, is
+nevertheless absolute, and thus they falsify their own position. So
+also, those others who say all mind is a property of matter, assume in
+this sentence the reality of an idea apart from matter. Some have argued
+that space and time can be conceived independently of each other; but
+their experiments to show it do not bear repetition.
+
+All true contraries are universals. A universal concept is one of
+“maximum extension,” as logicians say, that is, it is without limit. The
+logical limitation of such a universal is not its negation, but its
+contrary, which is itself also a universal. The synthesis of the two can
+be in theory only, yet yields a real product. To illustrate this by a
+geometrical example, a straight line produced indefinitely is, logically
+considered, a universal. Its antithesis or true contrary is not a
+crooked line, as might be supposed, but the straight line which runs at
+right angles to it. Their synthesis is not the line which bisects their
+angle but that formed by these contraries continually uniting, that is,
+the arc of a circle, the genesis of which is theoretically the union of
+two such lines. Again, time can only be measured by space, space by
+time; they are true universals and contraries; their synthesis is
+_motion_, a conception which requires them both and is completed by
+them. Or again, the philosophical extremes of downright materialism and
+idealism are each wholly true, yet but half the truth. The insoluble
+enigmas that either meets in standing alone are kindred to those which
+puzzled the old philosophers in the sophisms relating to motion, as, for
+instance, that as a body cannot move where it is and still less where it
+is not, therefore it cannot move at all. Motion must recognise both time
+and space to be comprehensible. As a true contrary constantly implies
+the existence of its opposite, we cannot take a step in right reasoning
+without a full recognition of both.
+
+This relation of contraries to the higher conception which logically
+must include them is one of the well-worn problems of the higher
+metaphysics.
+
+The proper explanation would seem to be, as suggested above, that the
+synthesis of contraries is capable of formal expression only, but not of
+interpretation. In pursuing the search for their union we pass into a
+realm of thought not unlike that of the mathematician when he deals with
+hypothetical quantities, those which can only be expressed in symbols--,
+√1 for example,--but uses them to good purpose in reaching
+real results. The law does not fail, but its operations can no longer be
+expressed under material images. They are symbolic and for speculative
+thought alone, though pregnant with practical applications.
+
+As I have hinted, in all real contraries it is theoretically possible to
+accept either the one or the other. As in mathematics, all motion can be
+expressed either under formulas of initial motion (mechanics), or of
+continuous motion (kinematics), or as all force can be expressed as
+either static or as dynamic force; in either case the other form
+assuming a merely hypothetical or negative position; so the logic of
+quality is competent to represent all existence as ideal or as material,
+all truth as absolute or all as relative, or even to express the
+universe in formulæ of being or of not-being. This perhaps was what
+Heraclitus meant when he propounded his dark saying: “All things are
+_and_ are not.” He added that “All is not,” is truer than “All is.”
+Previous to his day, Buddha Sakyamuni had said: “He who has risen to the
+perception of the not-Being, to the Unconditioned, the Universal, his
+path is difficult to understand, like the flight of birds in the
+air.”[37-1] Perhaps even he learned his lore from some older song of the
+Veda, one of which ends, “Thus have the sages, meditating in their
+souls, explained away the fetters of being by the not-being.”[37-2] The
+not-being, as alone free from space and time, impressed these sages as
+the more real of the two, the only absolute.
+
+The error of assigning to the one universal a preponderance over the
+other arose from the easy confusion of pure with applied thought. The
+synthesis of contraries exists in the formal law alone, and this is
+difficult to keep before the mind. In concrete displays they are forever
+incommensurate. One seems to exclude the other. To see them correctly we
+must there treat them as alternates. We may be competent, for instance,
+to explain all phenomena of mind by organic processes; and equally
+competent to explain all organism as effects of mind; but we must never
+suppose an immediate identity of the two; this is only to be found in
+the formal law common to both; still less should we deny the reality of
+either. Each exhausts the universe; but at every step each presupposes
+the other; their synthesis is life, a concept hopelessly puzzling unless
+regarded in all its possible displays as made up of both.
+
+This indicates also the limits of explanation. By no means every man’s
+reason knows when it has had enough. The less it is developed, the
+further is it from such knowledge. This is plainly seen in children, who
+often do not rest satisfied with a really satisfactory explanation. It
+is of first importance to be able to recognize what is a good reason.
+
+I may first say what it is _not_. It is not a _cause_. This is nothing
+more than a prior arrangement of the effect; the reason for an
+occurrence is never assigned by showing its cause. Nor is it a
+_caprice_, that is, motiveless volition, or will as a motor. In this
+sense, the “will of God” is no good reason for an occurrence. Nor is it
+_fate_, or physical necessity. This is denying there is any explanation
+to give.
+
+The reason can only be satisfied with an aliment consubstantial with
+itself. Nothing material like cause, nor anything incomprehensible like
+caprice, meets its demands. Reason is allied to order, system and
+purpose above all things. That which most completely answers to these
+will alone satisfy its requirements. They are for an ideal of order.
+Their complete satisfaction is obtained in universal types and measures,
+pure abstractions, which are not and cannot be real. The _formal law_ is
+the limit of explanation of phenomena, beyond which a sound intellect
+will ask nothing. It fulfils all the requirements of reason, and leaves
+nothing to be desired.
+
+Those philosophers, such as Herbert Spencer, who teach that there is
+some incogitable “nature” of something which is the immanent “cause” of
+phenomena, delude themselves with words. The history and the laws of a
+phenomenon _are_ its nature, and there is no chimerical something beyond
+them. They are exhaustive. They fully answer the question _why_, as well
+as the question _how_.[39-1]
+
+For it is important to note that the word “law” is not here used in the
+sense which Blackstone gives to it, a “rule of conduct;” nor yet in that
+which science assigns to it, a “physical necessity.” Law in its highest
+sense is the type or form, perceived by reason as that toward which
+phenomena tend, but which they always fail to reach. It was shown by
+Kant that all physical laws depend for their validity on logical laws.
+These are not authoritative, like the former, but purposive only. But
+their purpose is clear, to wit, the attainment of proportion,
+consistency or truth. As this purpose is reached only in the abstract
+form, this alone gives us the absolutely true in which reason can rest.
+
+In the concrete, matter shows the law in its efforts toward form, mind
+in its struggle for the true. The former is guided by physical force,
+and the extinction of the aberrant. The latter, in its highest
+exhibition in a conscious intelligence, can alone guide itself by the
+representation of law, by the sense of Duty. Such an intelligence has
+both the faculty to see and the power to choose and appropriate to its
+own behoof, and thus to build itself up out of those truths which are
+“from everlasting unto everlasting.”
+
+A purely formal truth of this kind as something wholly apart from
+phenomena, not in any way connected with the knowledge derived through
+the senses, does not admit of doubt and can never be changed by future
+conquests of the reasoning powers. We may rest upon it as something more
+permanent than matter, greater than Nature.
+
+Such was the vision that inspired the noble lines of Wordsworth:--
+
+    “What are things eternal?--Powers depart,
+    Possessions vanish, and opinions change,
+    And passions hold a fluctuating seat;
+    But, by the storms of circumstance unshaken,
+    And subject neither to eclipse nor wane,
+    Duty exists; immutably survive
+    For our support, the measures and the forms
+    Which an abstract intelligence supplies;
+    Whose kingdom is where time and space are not.”
+
+There is no danger that we shall not know what is thus true when we see
+it. The sane reason cannot reject it. “The true,” says Novalis, “is that
+which we cannot help believing.” It is the _perceptio per solam
+essentiam_ of Spinoza. It asks not faith nor yet testimony; it stands in
+need of neither.
+
+Mathematical truth is of this nature. We cannot, if we try, believe
+that twice two is five. Hence the unceasing effort of all science is to
+give its results mathematical expression. Such truth so informs itself
+with will that once received, it is never thereafter alienated;
+obedience to it does not impair freedom. Necessity and servitude do not
+arise from correct reasoning, but through the limitation of fallacies.
+They have nothing to do with
+
+          “Those transcendent truths
+    Of the pure intellect, that stand as laws
+    Even to Thy Being’s infinite majesty.”
+
+It is not derogatory, but on the contrary essential to the conception of
+the Supreme Reason, the Divine Logos, to contemplate its will as in
+accord and one with the forms of abstract truth. “The ‘will of God’”
+says Spinoza, “is the refuge of ignorance; the true Will is the spirit
+of right reasoning.”
+
+This identification of the forms of thought with the Absolute is almost
+as old as philosophy itself. The objections to it have been that no
+independent existence attaches to these forms; that they prescribe the
+conditions of thought but are not thought itself, still less being; that
+they hold good to thought as known to man’s reason, but perchance not to
+thought in other intelligences; and, therefore, that even if through the
+dialectical development of thought a consistent idea of the universe
+were framed, that is, one wherein every fact was referred to its
+appropriate law, still would remain the inquiry, Is this the last and
+absolute truth?
+
+The principal points in these objections are that abstract thought does
+not postulate being; and that possibly all intelligence is not one in
+kind. To the former objection the most satisfactory, reply has been
+offered by Professor J. F. Ferrier. He has shown that the conception of
+object, even ideal object, implies the conception of self in the
+subject; and upon this proposition which has been fully recognized even
+by those who differ from him widely, he grounds the existence of Supreme
+Thought as a logical unity. Those who would pursue this branch of the
+subject further, I would refer to his singularly able work.[43-1]
+
+The latter consideration will come up in a later chapter. If it be shown
+that all possible intelligence proceeds on the same laws as that of man,
+and that the essence of this is activity, permanence, or
+truth--synonymous terms--then the limitation of time ceases, and
+existence not in time but without regard to time, is a necessary
+consequence. Knowledge through intellection can alone reach a truth
+independent of time; that through sensation is always relative, true
+for the time only. The former cannot be expressed without the
+implication of the conceptions of the universal and the eternal as
+“dominant among the subjects of thought with which Logic is
+concerned;”[44-1] and hence the relation which the intellect bears to
+the absolute is a real and positive one.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6-1] In his essay entitled, _Ueber den Geschlechtsunterschied und
+dessen Einfluss auf die organische Natur_, first published in 1795.
+
+[6-2] “Der alte Dualismus von Geist und Körper, der Jahrhunderte
+hindurch nach Versöhnung gerungen, findet diese heute nicht
+zwar in der Einheit der Substanz, wohl aber in der Einheit des
+Gesetzes.” Dr. Heinrich Boehmer, _Geschichte der Entwickelung der
+Naturwissenschaftlichen Weltanschauung in Deutschland_, s. 201 (Gotha,
+1872).
+
+[7-1] _Elements of Physio-Philosophy_, §3589. Eng. trans., London, 1847.
+
+[8-1] Von Feuchtersleben, _The Principles of Medical Psychology_, p. 130
+(Eng. trans., London, 1847).
+
+[9-1] “The fundamental property of organic structure is to seek what is
+beneficial, and to shun what is hurtful to it.” Dr. Henry Maudsley,
+_Body and Mind_, p. 22.
+
+“The most essential nature of a sentient being is to move _to_ pleasure
+and _from_ pain.” A. Bain, _On the Study of Character_, p. 292 (London,
+1861).
+
+“States of Pleasure are connected with an increase, states of Pain with
+an abatement of some or all of the vital functions.” A. Bain, _Mind and
+Body_, p. 59.
+
+“Affectus est confusa idea, quâ Mens majorem, vel minorem sui corporis,
+vel alicujus ejus partis, existendi vim affirmat.” Spinoza, _Ethices_,
+Lib. III. _ad finem_.
+
+[11-1] The extension of the mechanical laws of motion to organic motion
+was, I believe, first carried out by Comte. His biological form of the
+first law is as follows: “Tout état, statique ou dynamique, tend à
+persister spontanément, sans aucune altération, en resistant aux
+perturbations extérieures.” _Système de Politique Positive_, Tome iv. p.
+178. The metaphysical ground of this law has, I think, been very well
+shown by Schopenhauer to be in the Kantian principle that time is not a
+force, nor a quality of matter, but a condition of perception, and hence
+it can exert no physical influence. See Schopenhauer, _Parerga und
+Paralipomena_, Bd. II, s. 37.
+
+[13-1] “Aller Genuss, seiner Natur nach, ist negativ, d. h., in
+Befreiung von einer Noth oder Pein besteht.” _Parerga und Paralipomena._
+Bd. II, s. 482.
+
+[14-1] “No impression whatever is pleasant beyond the instant of its
+realization; since, at that very instant, commences the change of
+susceptibility, which suggests the desire for a change of impression or
+for a renewal of that impression which is fading away.” Dr. J. P.
+Catlow, _The Principles of Aesthetic Medicine_, p. 155 (London, 1867).
+
+“Dum re, quem appetamus fruimur, corpus ex ea fruitione novam acquirat
+constitutionem, á quá aliter determinatur, et aliæ rerum imagines in eo
+excitantur,” etc. Spinoza, _Ethices_, Pars III, Prop. lix.
+
+[18-1] “Feeling and thought are much more real than anything else; they
+are the only things which we directly know to be real.”--John Stuart
+Mill.--_Theism_, p. 202. How very remote external objects are from what
+we take them to be, is constantly shown in physiological studies. As
+Helmholtz remarks: “No kind and no degree of similarity exists between
+the quality of a sensation, and the quality of the agent inducing it and
+portrayed by it.”--_Lectures on Scientific Subjects_, p. 390.
+
+[20-1] _The Philosophy of Consciousness_, p. 72.
+
+[21-1] The Gospel of John (ch. xviii.) leaves the impression that Pilate
+either did not wait for an answer but asked the question in contempt, as
+Bacon understood, or else that waiting he received no answer. The Gospel
+of Nicodemus, however, written according to Tischendorf in the second
+century, probably from tradition, gives the rest of the conversation as
+follows: “Pilate says to him: What is truth? Jesus says: Truth is from
+heaven. Pilate says: Is not there truth upon earth? Jesus says to
+Pilate: See how one who speaks truth is judged by those who have power
+upon earth!” [ch. iii.]
+
+[22-1] The most acute recent discussion of this subject is by Helmholtz,
+in his essay entitled, “_Recent Progress in the Theory of Vision_.”
+
+[24-1] George Boole, Professor of Mathematics in Queen’s College, Cork,
+was born Nov. 2, 1815, died Dec. 8, 1864. He was the author of several
+contributions to the higher mathematics, but his principal production is
+entitled: _An Investigation into the Laws of Thought, on which are
+founded the mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities_ [London,
+1854.] Though the reputation he gained was so limited that one may seek
+his name in vain in the _New American Cyclopedia_ [1875], or the
+_Dictionnaire des Contemporains_ [1859], the few who can appreciate his
+treatise place the very highest estimate upon it. Professor Todhunter,
+in the preface to his _History of the Theory of Probabilities_, calls it
+“a marvellous work,” and in similar language Professor W. Stanley Jevons
+speaks of it as “one of the most marvellous and admirable pieces of
+reasoning ever put together” (_Pure Logic_, p. 75). Professor Bain, who
+gives a synopsis of it in his _Deductive Logic_, wholly misapprehends
+the author’s purpose, and is unable to appraise justly his conclusions.
+
+[28-1] _The Institutes of Metaphysic_, p. 459, (2nd edition.)
+
+[31-1] _An Outline of the Necessary Laws of Thought_, p. 113 (New York,
+1860).
+
+[37-1] _The Dhamapada_, verse 93.
+
+[37-2] Koppen, _Der Buddhismus_, s. 30.
+
+[39-1] Spencer in assuming an “unknowable universal causal agent and
+source of things,” as “the nature of the power manifested in phenomena,”
+and in calling this the idea common to both religion and “ideal
+science,” fell far behind Comte, who expressed the immovable position,
+not only of positive science but of all intelligence, in these words:
+“Le véritable esprit positif consiste surtout à substituer toujours
+l’étude des _lois_ invariables des phénomènes à celles de leurs _causes_
+proprement dites, premières ou finales, en un mot la determination du
+_comment_ à celle du _pourquoi_.”--_Systèmede[TN-4] Politique Positive_,
+i. p. 47. Compare Spencer’s Essay entitled, “Reasons for dissenting from
+Comte.” The purposive law is the only final cause which reason allows.
+Comte’s error lay in ignoring this class of laws.
+
+[43-1] _The Institutes of Metaphysic_, 2d Ed. See also Bain, _The
+Emotions and the Will_, the closing note.
+
+[44-1] Boole, _Laws of Thought_, p. 401.
+
+
+
+
+THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     The Religious Sentiment is made up of emotions and thoughts. The
+     emotions are historically first and most prominent. Of all
+     concerned, Fear is the most obvious. Hope is its correlate. Both
+     suppose Experience, and a desire to repeat or avoid it. Hence a
+     Wish is the source of both emotions, and the proximate element of
+     religion. The significance of desire as the postulate of
+     development. The influence of fear and hope. The conditions which
+     encourage them.
+
+     The success of desire fails to gratify the religious sentiment. The
+     alternative left is eternal repose, or else action, unending yet
+     which aims at nothing beyond. The latter is reached through Love.
+     The result of love is _continuance_. Illustrations of this. Sexual
+     love and the venereal sense in religions. The hermaphrodite gods.
+     The virgin mother. Mohammed was the first to proclaim a deity above
+     sex. The conversion of sexual and religious emotion exemplified
+     from insane delusions. The element of fascination. The love of God.
+     Other emotional elements in religions.
+
+     The religious wish defined to be one _whose fruition depends upon
+     unknown power_. To be religious, one must desire and be ignorant.
+     The unknown power is of religious interest only in so far as it is
+     believed to be in relation to men’s desires. In what sense
+     ignorance is the mother of devotion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+The discussion in the last chapter illustrated how closely pain and
+pleasure, truth and error, and thought and its laws have been related to
+the forms of religions, and their dogmatic expressions. The character of
+the relatively and absolutely true was touched upon, and the latter, it
+was indicated, if attainable at all by human intelligence, must be found
+in the formal laws of that intelligence, those which constitute its
+nature and essence, and in the conclusions which such a premise forces
+upon the reason. The necessity of this preliminary inquiry arose from
+the fact that every historical religion claims the monopoly of the
+absolutely true, and such claims can be tested only when we have decided
+as to whether there is such truth, and if there is, where it is to be
+sought. Moreover, as religions arise from some mental demand, the
+different manifestations of mind,--sensation, emotion and
+intellect--must be recognized and understood.
+
+Passing now to a particular description of the Religious Sentiment, it
+may roughly be defined to be the feeling which prompts to thoughts or
+acts of worship. It is, as I have said, a complex product, made up of
+emotions and ideas, developing with the growth of mind, wide-reaching in
+its maturity, but meagre enough at the start. We need not expect to find
+in its simplest phases that insight and tender feeling which we
+attribute to the developed religious character. “The scent of the
+blossom is not in the bulb.” Its early and ruder forms, however, will
+best teach the mental elements which are at its root.
+
+The problem is, to find out why the primitive man figured to himself any
+gods at all; what necessity of his nature or his condition led him so
+universally to assume their existence, and seek their aid or their
+mercy? The conditions of the solution are, that it hold good everywhere
+and at all times; that it enable us to trace in every creed and cult the
+same sentiments which first impelled man to seek a god and adore him.
+Why is it that now and in remotest history, here and in the uttermost
+regions, there is and always has been this that we call _religion_?
+There must be some common reason, some universal peculiarity in man’s
+mental formation which prompts, which forces him, him alone of animals,
+and him without exception, to this discourse and observance of religion.
+What this is, it is my present purpose to try to find out.
+
+In speaking of the development of mind through organism, it was seen
+that the emotions precede the reason in point of time. This is daily
+confirmed by observation. The child is vastly more emotional than the
+man, the savage than his civilized neighbor. Castren, the Russian
+traveller, describes the Tartars and Lapps as a most nervous folk. When
+one shocks them with a sudden noise, they almost fall into convulsions.
+Among the North American Indians, falsely called a phlegmatic race,
+nervous diseases are epidemic to an almost unparalleled extent. Intense
+thought, on the other hand, as I have before said, tends to lessen and
+annul the emotions. Intellectual self-consciousness is adverse to them.
+
+But religion, we are everywhere told, is largely a matter of the
+emotions. The pulpit constantly resounds with appeals to the feelings,
+and not unfrequently with warnings against the intellect. “I acknowledge
+myself,” says the pious non-juror, William Law, “a declared enemy to the
+use of reason in religion;” and he often repeats his condemnation of
+“the labor-learned professors of far-fetched book-riches.”[49-1] As the
+eye is the organ of sight, says one whose thoughts on such matters equal
+in depth those of Pascal, so the heart is the organ of religion.[49-2]
+In popular physiology, the heart is the seat of the emotions as the
+brain is that of intellect. It is appropriate, therefore, that we
+commence our analysis of the religious sentiment with the emotions which
+form such a prominent part of it.
+
+Now, whether we take the experience of an individual or the history of a
+tribe, whether we have recourse to the opinions of religious teachers or
+irreligious philosophers, we find them nigh unanimous that the emotion
+which is the prime motor of religious thought is _fear_. I need not
+depend upon the well-known line of Petronius Arbiter,
+
+    Primus in orbe deos fecit timor;
+
+for there is plenty of less heterodox authority. The worthy Bishop Hall
+says, “Seldom doth God seize upon the heart without a vehement
+concussion going before. There must be some blustering and flashes of
+the law. We cannot be too awful in our fear.”[50-1] Bunyan, in his
+beautiful allegory of the religious life, lets Christian exclaim: “Had
+even Obstinate himself felt what I have felt of the terrors of the yet
+unseen, he would not thus lightly have given us the _back_.” The very
+word for God in the Semitic tongues means “fear;”[50-2] Jacob swore to
+Laban, “by Him whom Isaac feared;” and Moses warned his people that
+“God is come, that his fear may be before your faces.” To _venerate_ is
+from a Sanscrit root (_sêv_), to be afraid of.
+
+But it is needless to amass more evidence on this point. Few will
+question that fear is the most prominent emotion at the awakening of the
+religious sentiments. Let us rather proceed to inquire more minutely
+what fear is.
+
+I remarked in the previous chapter that “the emotions fall naturally
+into a dual classification, in which the one involves pleasurable or
+elevating, the other painful or depressing conditions.” Fear comes of
+course under the latter category, as it is essentially a painful and
+depressing state of mind. But it corresponds with and implies the
+presence of Hope, for he who has nothing to hope has nothing to
+fear.[51-1] “There is no hope without fear, as there is no fear without
+hope,” says Spinoza. “For he who is in fear has some doubt whether what
+he fears will take place, and consequently hopes that it will not.”
+
+We can go a step further, and say that in the mental process the hope
+must necessarily precede the fear. In the immediate moment of losing a
+pleasurable sensation we hope and seek for its repetition. The mind,
+untutored by experience, confidently looks for its return. The hope only
+becomes dashed by fear when experience has been associated with
+disappointment. Hence we must first look to enjoy a good before we can
+be troubled by a fear that we shall not enjoy it; we must first lay a
+plan before we can fear its failure. In modern Christianity hope, hope
+of immortal happiness, is more conspicuous than fear; but that hope is
+also based on the picture of a pleasant life made up from experience.
+
+Both hope and fear, therefore, have been correctly called secondary or
+derived emotions, as they presuppose experience and belief, experience
+of a pleasure akin to that which we hope, belief that we can attain such
+a pleasure. “We do not hope first and enjoy afterwards, but we enjoy
+first and hope afterwards.”[52-1] Having enjoyed, we seek to do so
+again. A desire, in other words, must precede either Hope or Fear. They
+are twin sisters, born of a Wish.
+
+Thus my analysis traces the real source of the religious sentiment, so
+far as the emotions are concerned, to a Wish; and having arrived there,
+I find myself anticipated by the words of one of the most reflective
+minds of this century: “All religion rests on a mental want; we hope,
+we fear, because we wish.”[53-1] And long before this conclusion was
+reached by philosophers, it had been expressed in unconscious religious
+thought in myths, in the Valkyria, the Wish-maidens, for instance, who
+carried the decrees of Odin to earth.
+
+This is no mean origin, for a wish, a desire, conscious or unconscious,
+in sensation only or in emotion as well, is the fundamental postulate of
+every sort of development, of improvement, of any possible future, of
+life of any kind, mental or physical. In its broadest meaning, science
+and history endorse the exclamation of the unhappy Obermann: “_La perte
+vraiment irréparable est celle des désirs._”[53-2]
+
+The sense of unrest, the ceaseless longing for something else, which is
+the general source of all desires and wishes, is also the source of all
+endeavor and of all progress. Physiologically, it is the effort of our
+organization to adapt itself to the ever varying conditions which
+surround it; intellectually, it is the struggle to arrive at truth; in
+both, it is the effort to attain a fuller life.
+
+As stimuli to action, therefore, the commonest and strongest of all
+emotions are Fear and Hope. They are the emotional correlates of
+pleasure and pain, which rule the life of sensation. Their closer
+consideration may well detain us awhile.
+
+In the early stages of religious life, whether in an individual or a
+nation, the latter is half concealed. Fear is more demonstrative, and as
+it is essentially destructive, its effects are more sudden and visible.
+In its acuter forms, as Fright and Terror, it may blanch the hair in a
+night, blight the mind and destroy the life of the individual. As Panic,
+it is eminently epidemic, carrying crowds and armies before it; while in
+the aggravated form of Despair it swallows up all other emotions and
+prompts to self destruction. Its physiological effect is a direct
+impairment of vitality.
+
+Hope is less intense and more lasting than fear. It stimulates the
+system, elates with the confidence of control, strengthens with the
+courage derived from a conviction of success, and bestows in advance the
+imagined joy of possession. As Feuchtersleben happily expresses it:
+“Hope preserves the principle of duration when other parts are
+threatened with destruction, and is a manifestation of the innermost
+psychical energy of Life.”[54-1]
+
+Both emotions powerfully prompt to action, and to that extent are
+opposed to thought. Based on belief, they banish uncertainty, and
+antagonize doubt and with it investigation. The religion in which they
+enter as the principal factors will be one intolerant of opposition,
+energetic in deed, and generally hostile to an unbiased pursuit of the
+truth.
+
+Naturally those temperaments and those physical conditions which chiefly
+foster these emotions will tend to religious systems in which they are
+prominent. Let us see what some of these conditions are.
+
+It has always been noticed that impaired vitality predisposes to fear.
+The sick and feeble are more timorous than the strong and well. Further
+predisposing causes of the same nature are insufficient nourishment,
+cold, gloom, malaria, advancing age and mental worry. For this reason
+nearly invariably after a general financial collapse we witness a
+religious “revival.” Age, full of care and fear, is thus prompted to
+piety, willing, as La Rochefoucauld remarks, to do good by precept when
+it can no longer do evil by example. The inhabitants of swampy,
+fever-ridden districts are usually devout. The female sex, always the
+weaker and often the worsted one in the struggle for existence, is when
+free more religious than the male; but with them hope is more commonly
+the incentive than fear.
+
+Although thus prominent and powerful, desire, so far as its fruition is
+pleasure, has expressed but the lowest emotions of the religious
+sentiment. Something more than this has always been asked by sensitively
+religious minds. Success fails to bring the gratification it promises.
+The wish granted, the mind turns from it in satiety. Not this, after
+all, was what we sought.
+
+The acutest thinkers have felt this. Pascal in his _Pensées_ has such
+expressions as these: “The present is never our aim. The future alone is
+our object.” “Forever getting ready to be happy, it is certain we never
+can be.” “’Tis the combat pleases us and not the victory. As soon as
+that is achieved, we have had enough of the spectacle. So it is in play,
+so it is in the search for truth. We never pursue objects, but we pursue
+the pursuit of objects.” But no one has stated it more boldly than
+Lessing when he wrote: “If God held in his right hand all truth, and in
+his left the one unceasingly active desire for truth, although bound up
+with the law that I should forever err, I should choose with humility
+the left and say: ‘Give me this, Father. The pure truth is for thee
+alone.’”[56-1] The pleasure seems to lie not in the booty but in the
+battle, not in gaining the stakes but in playing the game, not in the
+winning but in the wooing, not in the discovery of truth but in the
+search for it.
+
+What is left for the wise, but to turn, as does the preacher, from this
+delusion of living, where laughter is mad and pleasure is vain, and
+praise the dead which are dead more than the living which are yet alive,
+or to esteem as better than both he that hath never been?
+
+Such is the conclusion of many faiths. Wasted with combat, the mortal
+longs for the rest prepared for the weary. Buddha taught the
+extinguishment in Nirvana; the Brahman portrays the highest bliss as
+_shanti_, complete and eternal repose; and that the same longing was
+familiar to ancient Judaism, and has always been common to Christianity,
+numerous evidences testify.[57-1] Few epitaphs are more common than
+those which speak of the mortal resting _in pace, in quiete_.
+
+The supposition at the root of these longings is that action must bring
+fatigue and pain, and though it bring pleasure too, it is bought too
+dearly. True in fact, I have shown that this conflicts with the theory
+of perfect life, even organic life. The highest form of life is the most
+unceasing living; its functions ask for their completest well being
+constant action, not satisfaction. That general feeling of health and
+strength, that _sens de bien être_, which goes with the most perfect
+physical life, is experienced only when all the organs are in complete
+working order and doing full duty. They impart to the whole frame a
+desire of motion. Hence the activity of the young and healthy as
+contrasted with the inertness of the exhausted and aged.
+
+How is it possible to reconcile this ideal of life, still more the hope
+of everlasting life, with the acknowledged vanity of desire? It is
+accomplished through the medium of an emotion which more than any I have
+touched upon reveals the character of the religious sentiment--Love.
+This mighty but protean feeling I shall attempt to define on broader
+principles than has hitherto been done. The vague and partial meanings
+assigned it have led to sad confusion in the studies of religions. In
+the language of feeling, love is a passion; but it does not spring from
+feeling alone. It is far more fervid when it rises through intellect
+than through sense. “Men have died from time to time, and worms have
+eaten them, but not for love,” says the fair Rosalind; and though her
+saying is not very true as to the love of sense, it is far less true as
+to the love of intellect. The martyrs to science and religion, to
+principles and faith, multiply a hundred-fold those to the garden god.
+The spell of the idea is what
+
+  “Turns ruin into laughter and death into dreaming.”
+
+Such love destroys the baser passion of sense, or transfigures it so
+that we know it no longer. The idea-driven is callous to the
+blandishments of beauty, for his is a love stronger than the love to
+woman. The vestal, the virgin, the eunuch for the kingdom of heaven’s
+sake are the exemplars of the love to God.
+
+What common trait so marks these warring products of mind, that we call
+them by one name? In what is all love the same? The question is
+pertinent, for the love of woman, the love of neighbor, the love of
+country, the love of God, have made the positive side of most religions,
+the burden of their teachings. The priests of Cotytto and Venus, Astarte
+and Melitta, spoke but a more sensuous version of the sermon of the aged
+apostle to the Ephesians,--shortest and best of all sermons--“Little
+children, love one another.”[59-1]
+
+The earliest and most constant sign of reason is “working for a remote
+object.”[59-2] Nearly everything we do is as a step to something beyond.
+Forethought, conscious provision, is the measure of intelligence. But
+there must be something which is the object, the aim, the end-in-view of
+rational action, which is sought for itself alone, not as instrumental
+to something else. Such an object, when recognized, inspires the
+sentiment of love. It springs from the satisfaction of reason.
+
+This conclusion as to the nature of love has long been recognized by
+thinkers. Richard Baxter defined it as “the volition of the end,” “the
+motion of the soul that tendeth to the end,” and more minutely, “the
+will’s volition of good apprehended by the understanding.”[60-1] In
+similar language Bishop Butler explains it as “the resting in an object
+as an end.”[60-2] Perhaps I can better these explanations by the phrase,
+_Love is the mental impression of rational action whose end is in
+itself_.
+
+Now this satisfaction is found only in one class of efforts, namely,
+those whose result is continuity, persistence, in fine, _preservation_.
+This may be toward the individual, self-love, whose object is the
+continuance of personal existence; toward the other sex, where the
+hidden aim is the perpetuation of the race; toward one’s fellows, where
+the giving of pleasure and the prevention of pain mean the maintenance
+of life; toward one’s country, as patriotism; and finally toward the
+eternally true, which as alone the absolutely permanent and
+preservative, inspires a love adequate and exhaustive of its conception,
+casting out both hope and fear, the pangs of desire as well as the
+satiety of fruition.
+
+In one or other of these forms love has at all times been the burden of
+religion: the glad tidings it has always borne have been “love on
+earth.” The Phœnix in Egyptian myth appeared yearly as newly risen,
+but was ever the same bird, and bore the egg from which its _parent_ was
+to have birth. So religions have assumed the guise in turn of self-love,
+sex-love, love of country and love of humanity, cherishing in each the
+germ of that highest love which alone is the parent of its last and only
+perfect embodiment.
+
+Favorite of these forms was sex-love. “We find,” observes a recent
+writer, “that all religions have engaged and concerned themselves with
+the sexual passion. From the times of phallic worship through Romish
+celibacy down to Mormonism, theology has linked itself with man’s
+reproductive instincts.”[61-1] The remark is just, and is most
+conspicuously correct in strongly emotional temperaments. “The
+devotional feelings,” writes the Rev. Frederick Robertson in one of his
+essays, “are often singularly allied to the animal nature; they conduct
+the unconscious victim of feelings that appear divine into a state of
+life at which the world stands aghast.” Fanaticism is always united with
+either excessive lewdness or desperate asceticism. The physiological
+performance of the generative function is sure to be attacked by
+religious bigotry.
+
+So prominent is this feature that attempts have been made to explain
+nearly all symbolism and mythology as types of the generative procedure
+and the reproductive faculty of organism. Not only the pyramids and
+sacred mountains, the obelisks of the Nile and the myths of light have
+received this interpretation, but even such general symbols as the
+spires of churches, the cross of Christendom and the crescent of
+Islam.[62-1]
+
+Without falling into the error of supposing that any one meaning or
+origin can be assigned such frequent symbols, we may acknowledge that
+love, in its philosophical sense, is closely akin to the mystery of
+every religion. That, on occasions, love of sex gained the mastery over
+all other forms, is not to be doubted; but that at all times this was
+so, is a narrow, erroneous view, not consistent with a knowledge of the
+history of psychical development.
+
+Sex-love, as a sentiment, is a cultivated growth. All it is at first is
+a rude satisfaction of the erethism. The wild tribes of California had
+their pairing seasons when the sexes were in heat, “as regularly as the
+deer, the elk and the antelope.”[63-1] In most tongues of the savages of
+North America there are no tender words, as “dear,” “darling,” and the
+like.[63-2] No desire of offspring led to their unions. The women had
+few children, and their fathers paid them little attention. The family
+instinct appears in conditions of higher culture, in Judea, Greece, Rome
+and ancient Germany. Procreation instead of lust was there the aim of
+marriage. To-day, mere sentiment is so much in the ascendant that both
+these elements are often absent. There is warm affection without even
+instinctive knowledge of the design of the bond assumed.[63-3]
+
+Those who would confine the promptings of the passion of reproduction as
+it appears in man to its objects as shown in lower animals, know little
+how this wondrous emotion has acted as man’s mentor as well as paraclete
+in his long and toilsome conflict with the physical forces.
+
+The venereal sense is unlike the other special senses in that it is
+general, as well as referable to special organs and nerves. In its
+psychological action it “especially contributes to the development of
+sympathies which connect man not only with his coevals, but with his
+fellows of all preceding and succeeding generations as well. Upon it is
+erected this vast superstructure of intellect, of social and moral
+sentiment, of voluntary effort and endeavor.”[64-1] Of all the
+properties of organized matter, that of transmitting form and life is
+the most wonderful; and if we examine critically the physical basis of
+the labors and hopes of mankind, if we ask what prompts its noblest and
+holiest longings, we shall find them, in the vast majority of instances,
+directly traceable to this power. No wonder then that religion, which we
+have seen springs from man’s wants and wishes, very often bears the
+distinct trace of their origin in his reproductive functions. The liens
+of the family are justly deemed sacred, and are naturally associated
+with whatever the mind considers holy.
+
+The duty of a citizen to become a father was a prominent feature in
+many ancient religions. How much honor the sire of many sons had in Rome
+and Palestine is familiar to all readers. No warrior, according to
+German faith, could gain entrance to Valhalla unless he had begotten a
+son. Thus the preservation of the species was placed under the immediate
+guardianship of religion.
+
+Such considerations explain the close connection of sexual thoughts with
+the most sacred mysteries of faith. In polytheisms, the divinities are
+universally represented as male or female, virile and fecund. The
+processes of nature were often held to be maintained through such
+celestial nuptials.
+
+Yet stranger myths followed those of the loves of the gods. Religion, as
+the sentiment of continuance, finding its highest expression in the
+phenomenon of generation, had to reconcile this with the growing concept
+of a divine unity. Each separate god was magnified in praises as
+self-sufficient. Earth, or nature, or the season is one, yet brings
+forth all. How embody this in concrete form?
+
+The startling refuge was had in the image of a deity at once of both
+sexes. Such avowedly were Mithras, Janus, Melitta, Cybele, Aphrodite,
+Agdistis; indeed nearly all the Syrian, Egyptian, and Italic gods, as
+well as Brahma, and, in the esoteric doctrine of the Cabala, even
+Jehovah, whose female aspect is represented by the “Shekinah.” To this
+abnormal condition the learned have applied the adjectives epicene,
+androgynous, hermaphrodite, arrenothele. In art it is represented by a
+blending of the traits of both sexes. In the cult it was dramatically
+set forth by the votaries assuming the attire of the other sex, and
+dallying with both.[66-1] The phallic symbol superseded all others; and
+in Cyprus, Babylonia and Phrygia, once in her life, at least, must every
+woman submit to the embrace of a stranger.
+
+Such rites were not mere sensualities. The priests of these divinities
+often voluntarily suffered emasculation. None but a eunuch could become
+high priest of Cybele. Among the sixteen million worshippers of Siva,
+whose symbol is the Lingam, impurity is far less prevalent than among
+the sister sects of Hindoo religions.[66-2] To the Lingayets, the member
+typifies abstractly the idea of life. Therefore they carve it on
+sepulchres, or, like the ancient nations of Asia Minor, they lay clay
+images of it on graves to intimate the hope of existence beyond the
+tomb.
+
+This notion of a hermaphrodite deity is not “monstrous,” as it has been
+called. There lies a deep meaning in it. The gods are spirits, beings
+of another order, which the cultivated esthetic sense protests against
+classing as of one or the other gender. Never can the ideal of beauty,
+either physical or moral, be reached until the characteristics of sex
+are lost in the concept of the purely human. In the noblest men of
+history there has often been noted something feminine, a gentleness
+which is not akin to weakness; and the women whose names are ornaments
+to nations have displayed a calm greatness, not unwomanly but something
+more than belongs to woman. Art acknowledges this. In the Vatican Apollo
+we see masculine strength united with maidenly softness; and in the
+traditional face and figure of Christ a still more striking example how
+the devout mind conjoins the traits of both sexes to express the highest
+possibility of the species. “Soaring above the struggle in which the
+real is involved with its limitations, and free from the characteristics
+of gender, the ideal of beauty as well as the ideal of humanity, alike
+maintain a perfect sexual equilibrium.”[67-1]
+
+Another and more familiar expression of the religious emotion, akin to
+the belief in double-sexed deities,--nay, in its physiological aspect
+identical with it, as assuming sexual self-sufficiency, is the myth of
+the Virgin-Mother.
+
+When Columbus first planted the cross on the shores of San Domingo, the
+lay brother Roman Pane, whom he sent forth to convert the natives of
+that island, found among them a story of a virgin Mamóna, whose son
+Yocaúna, a hero and a god, was chief among divinities, and had in the
+old times taught this simple people the arts of peace and guided them
+through the islands.[68-1] When the missionaries penetrated to the
+Iroquois, the Aztecs, the Mayas, and many other tribes, this same story
+was told them with such startling likeness to one they came to tell,
+that they felt certain either St. Thomas or Satan had got the start of
+them in America.
+
+But had these pious men known as well as we do the gentile religions of
+the Old World, they would have seasoned their admiration. Long before
+Christianity was thought of, the myth of the Virgin-Mother of God was in
+the faith of millions, as we have had abundantly shown us of late years
+by certain expounders of Christian dogmas.
+
+How is this strange, impossible belief to be explained? Of what secret,
+unconscious, psychological working was it the expression? Look at its
+result. It is that wherever this doctrine is developed the _status
+matrimonialis_ is held to be less pure, less truly religious, than the
+_status virginitatis_. Such is the teaching to-day in Lhassa, in Rome;
+so it was in Yucatan, where, too, there were nunneries filled with
+spouses of God. I connect it with the general doctrine that chastity in
+either sex is more agreeable to God than marriage, and this belief, I
+think, very commonly arises at a certain stage of development of the
+religious sentiment, when it unconsciously recognises the indisputable
+fact that sex-love, whether in its form of love of woman, family, or
+nation, is not what that sentiment craves. This is first shown by
+rejecting the idea of sex-love in the birth of the god; then his priests
+and priestesses refuse its allurements, and deny all its claims, those
+of kindred, of country, of race, until the act of generation itself is
+held unholy and the thought of sex a sin. By such forcible though rude
+displays do they set forth their unconscious acknowledgment of that
+eternal truth: “He that loveth son or daughter more than Me, is not
+worthy of Me.”
+
+The significance of these words is not that there is an antagonism in
+the forms of love. It is not that man should hate himself, as Pascal,
+following the teachings of the Church, so ably argued; nor that the one
+sex should be set over against the other in sterile abhorrence; nor yet
+that love of country and of kindred is incompatible with that toward the
+Supreme of thought; but it is that each of these lower, shallower,
+evanescent forms of emotion is and must be lost in, subordinated to,
+that highest form to which these words have reference. Reconciliation,
+not abnegation, is what they mean.
+
+Even those religions which teach in its strictness the oneness of God
+have rarely separated from his personality the attribute of sex. He is
+the father, _pater et genitor_, of all beings. The monotheism which we
+find in Greece and India generally took this form. The ancient Hebrews
+emphasized the former, not the latter sense of the word, and thus
+depriving it of its more distinctive characteristics of sex, prepared
+the way for the teachings of Christianity, in which the Supreme Being
+always appears with the attributes of the male, but disconnected from
+the idea of generation.
+
+Singularly enough, the efforts to which this latent incongruity prompts,
+even in persons speaking English, in which tongue the articles and
+adjectives have no genders, point back to the errors of an earlier age.
+A recent prayer by an eminent spiritualist commences:--“Oh Eternal
+Spirit, our Father and our Mother!” The expression illustrates how
+naturally arises the belief in a hermaphrodite god, when once sex is
+associated with deity.
+
+Of all founders of religions, Mohammed first proclaimed a divinity
+without relation to sex. One of his earliest suras reads:
+
+    “He is God alone,
+    God the eternal.
+    He begetteth not, and is not begotten;
+    And there is none like unto him.”
+
+And elsewhere:--
+
+    “He hath no spouse, neither hath he any offspring.”[71-1]
+
+While he expressly acknowledged the divine conception of Jesus, he
+denied the coarse and literal version of that doctrine in vogue among
+the ignorant Christians around him. Enlightened christendom, to-day,
+does not, I believe, differ from him on this point.
+
+Such sexual religions do not arise, as the theory has hitherto been,
+from study and observation of the generative agencies in nature, but
+from the identity of object between love in sense and love in intellect,
+profane and sacred passion. The essence of each is _continuance_,
+preservation; the origin of each is subjective, personal; but the former
+has its root in sensation, the latter in reason.
+
+The sex-difference in organisms, the “abhorrence of self-fertilization”
+which Mr. Darwin speaks of as so conspicuous and inexplicable a
+phenomenon, is but one example of the sway of a law which as action and
+reaction, thesis and antithesis, is common to both elementary motion and
+thought. The fertile and profound fancy of Greece delighted to prefigure
+this truth in significant symbols and myths. Love, Eros, is shown
+carrying the globe, or wielding the club of Hercules; he is the unknown
+spouse of Psyche, the soul; and from the primitive chaos he brings forth
+the ordered world, the Kosmos.
+
+The intimate and strange relation between sensuality and religion, so
+often commented upon and denied, again proven, and always
+misinterpreted, thus receives a satisfactory explanation. Some singular
+manifestations of it, of significance in religious history, are
+presented by the records of insane delusions. They confirm what I have
+above urged, that the association is not one derived from observation
+through intellectual processes, but is a consequence of physiological
+connections, of identity of aim in the distinct realms of thought and
+emotion.
+
+That eminent writer on mental diseases, Schroeder van der Kolk, when
+speaking of the forms of melancholy which arise from physical
+conditions, remarks: “The patient who is melancholy from disorders of
+the generative organs considers himself sinful. His depressed tone of
+mind passes over into religious melancholy; ‘he is forsaken by God; he
+is lost.’ All his afflictions have a religious color.” In a similar
+strain, Feuchtersleben says: “In the female sex especially, the erotic
+delusion, unknown to the patient herself, often assumes the color of the
+religious.”[73-1] “The unaccomplished sexual designs of nature,”
+observes a later author speaking of the effects of the single life,
+“lead to brooding over supposed miseries which suggest devotion and
+religious exercise as the nepenthe to soothe the morbid longings.”[73-2]
+
+Stimulate the religious sentiment and you arouse the passion of love,
+which will be directed as the temperament and individual culture prompt.
+Develope very prominently any one form of love, and by a native affinity
+it will seize upon and consecrate to its own use whatever religious
+aspirations the individual has. This is the general law of their
+relation.
+
+All the lower forms of love point to one to which they are the gradual
+ascent, both of the individual and on a grander scale of the race, to
+wit, the love of God. This is the passion for the highest attainable
+truth, a passion which, as duty, prompts to the strongest action and to
+the utter sacrifice of all other longings. No speculative acquaintance
+with propositions satisfies it, no egotistic construction of systems,
+but the truth expressed in life, the truth as that which alone either
+has or can give being and diuturnity, this is its food, for which it
+thirsts with holy ardor. Here is the genuine esoteric gnosis, the sacred
+secret, which the rude and selfish wishes of the savage, the sensual
+rites of Babylon, “mother of harlots,” and the sublimely unselfish
+dreams of a “religion of humanity,” have alike had in their hearts, but
+had no capacity to interpret, no words to articulate.
+
+Related to this emotional phase of the religious sentiment is the
+theurgic power of certain natural objects over some persons. The
+biblical scholar Kitto confesses that the moon exerted a strange
+influence on his mind, stirring his devotional nature, and he owns that
+it would not have been hard for him to join the worshippers of the
+goddess of the night. Wilhelm von Humboldt in one of his odes refers to
+similar feelings excited in him by the gloom and murmur of groves. The
+sacred poets and the religious arts generally acknowledge this
+_fascination_, as it has been called, which certain phenomena have for
+religious temperaments.
+
+The explanation which suggests itself is that of individual and
+ancestral association. In the case of Kitto it was probably the latter.
+His sensitively religious nature experienced in gazing at the moon an
+impression inherited from some remote ancestor who had actually made it
+the object of ardent worship. The study of the laws of inherited memory,
+so successfully pursued of late by Professor Laycock, take away anything
+eccentric about this explanation, though I scarcely expect it will be
+received by one unacquainted with those laws.
+
+The emotional aspect of religion is not exhausted by the varieties of
+fear and hope and love. Wonder, awe, admiration, the æsthetic emotions,
+in fact all the active principles of man’s mental economy are at times
+excited and directed by the thought of supernatural power. Some have
+attempted to trace the religious sentiment exclusively to one or the
+other of these. But they are all incidental and subsidiary emotions.
+
+Certain mental diseases, by abnormally stimulating the emotions,
+predispose strongly to religious fervor. Epilepsy is one of these, and
+in Swedenborg and Mohammed, both epileptics, we see distinguished
+examples of religious mystics, who, no doubt honestly, accepted the
+visions which accompanied their disease as revelations from another
+world. Very many epileptics are subject to such delusions, and their
+insanity is usually of a religious character.
+
+On the other hand, devotional excitement is apt to bring about mental
+alienation. Every violent revival has left after it a small crop of
+religious melancholies and lunatics. Competent authorities state that in
+modern communities religious insanity is most frequent in those sects
+who are given to emotional forms of religion, the Methodists and
+Baptists for example; whereas it is least known among Roman Catholics,
+where doubt and anxiety are at once allayed by an infallible referee,
+and among the Quakers, where enthusiasm is discouraged and with whom the
+restraint of emotion is a part of discipline.[76-1] Authoritative
+assurance in many disturbed conditions of mind is sufficient to relieve
+the mental tension and restore health.
+
+If, by what has been said, it is clear that the religious sentiment has
+its origin in a wish, it is equally clear that not every wish is
+concerned in it. The objects which a man can attain by his own unaided
+efforts, are not those which he makes the subjects of his prayers; nor
+are the periodic and regular occurrences in nature, how impressive they
+may be, much thought of in devotional moods. The moment that an event is
+recognized to be under fixed law, it is seen to be inappropriate to seek
+by supplication to alter it. No devotee, acquainted with the theory of
+the tides, would, like Canute the King, think of staying their waves
+with words. Eclipses and comets, once matters of superstitious terror,
+have been entirely shorn of this attribute by astronomical discovery.
+Even real and tragic misfortunes, if believed to be such as flow from
+fixed law, and especially if they can be predicted sometime before they
+arrive, do not excite religious feeling. As Bishop Hall quaintly
+observes, referring to a curious medieval superstition: “Crosses, after
+the nature of the cockatrice, die if they be foreseen.”
+
+Only when the event suggests the direct action of _mind_, of some free
+intelligence, is it possible for the religious sentiment to throw around
+it the aureole of sanctity. Obviously when natural law was little known,
+this included vastly more occurrences than civilized men now think of
+holding to be of religious import. Hence the objective and material form
+of religion is always fostered by ignorance, and this is the form which
+prevails exclusively in uncultivated societies.
+
+The manifestations of motion which the child first notices, or which the
+savage chiefly observes, relate to himself. They are associated with the
+individuals around him who minister to his wants; the gratification of
+these depend on the volitions of others. As he grows in strength he
+learns to supply his own wants, and to make good his own volitions as
+against those of his fellows. But he soon learns that many events occur
+to thwart him, out of connection with any known individual, and these
+of a dreadful nature, hurricanes and floods, hunger, sickness and death.
+These pursue him everywhere, foiling his plans, and frustrating his
+hopes. It is not the show of power, the manifestations of might, that he
+cares for in these events, but that they touch _him_, that they spoil
+_his_ projects, and render vain _his_ desires; _this_ forces him to cast
+about for some means to protect himself against them.
+
+In accordance with the teaching of his experience, and true moreover to
+the laws of mind, he refers them, collectively, to a mental source, to a
+vague individuality. This loose, undefined conception of an unknown
+volition or power forms the earliest notion of Deity. It is hardly
+associated with personality, yet it is broadly separated from the human
+and the known. In the languages of savage tribes, as I have elsewhere
+remarked, “a word is usually found comprehending all manifestations of
+the unseen world, yet conveying no sense of personal unity.”[78-1]
+
+By some means to guard against this undefined marplot to the
+accomplishment of his wishes, is the object of his religion. Its
+primitive forms are therefore defensive and conciliatory. The hopes of
+the savage extend little beyond the reach of his own arm, and the tenor
+of his prayers is that the gods be neuter. If they do not interfere he
+can take care of himself. His religion is a sort of assurance of life.
+
+Not only the religion of the savage, but every religion is this and not
+much but this. With nobler associations and purer conceptions of life,
+the religious sentiment ever contains these same elements and depends
+upon them for its vigor and growth. It everywhere springs from _a desire
+whose fruition depends upon unknown power_. To give the religious wish a
+definition in the technic of psychology, I define it as: _Expectant
+Attention, directed toward an event not under known control, with a
+concomitant idea of Cause or Power_.
+
+Three elements are embraced in this definition, a wish, an idea of
+power, ignorance of the nature of that power. The first term prompts the
+hope, the third suggests the fear, and the second creates the
+personality, which we see set forth in every religious system. Without
+these three, religion as dogma becomes impossible.
+
+If a man wishes for nothing, neither the continuance of present comforts
+nor future blessings, why need he care for the gods? Who can hurt him,
+so long as he stays in his frame of mind? He may well shake off all
+religions and every fear, for he is stronger than God, and the universe
+holds nothing worth his effort to get. This was the doctrine taught by
+Buddha Sakyanuni, a philosopher opposed to every form of religion, but
+who is the reputed founder of the most numerous sect now on the globe.
+He sought to free the minds of his day from the burden of the Brahmanic
+ritual, by cultivating a frame of mind beyond desire or admiration, and
+hence beyond the need of a creed.
+
+The second element, the idea of power, is an intellectual abstraction.
+Its character is fluctuating. At first it is most vague, corresponding
+to what in its most general sense we term “the supernatural.” Later, it
+is regarded under its various exhibitions as separable phenomena, as in
+polytheisms, in which must be included trinitarian systems and the
+dualistic doctrine of the Parsees. But among the Egyptians, Greeks and
+Aztecs, as well as in the words of Zarathustra and in the theology of
+Christianity, we frequently meet with the distinct recognition of the
+fundamental unity of all power. At core, all religions have seeds of
+monotheism. When we generalize the current concepts of motion or force
+beyond individual displays and relative measures of quantity, we
+recognize their qualitative identity, and appreciate the logical unity
+under which we must give them abstract expression. This is the process,
+often unconscious, which has carried most original thinkers to
+monotheistic doctrines, no matter whence they started.
+
+The idea of power controlling the unknown would of itself have been of
+no interest to man had he not assumed certain relations to exist between
+him and it on the one hand, and it and things on the other. A
+dispassionate inquiry disproves entirely the view maintained by various
+modern writers, prominently by Bain, Spencer and Darwin, that the
+contemplation of power or majesty in external nature prompts of itself
+the religious sentiment, or could have been its historical origin. Such
+a view overlooks the most essential because the personal factor of
+religion--the wish. Far more correct are the words of David Hume, in the
+last century, by which he closes his admirable _Natural History of
+Religions_: “We may conclude, therefore, that in all nations the first
+ideas of religion arose not from a contemplation of the works of nature,
+but from a concern with regard to the events of life, and from the
+incessant hopes and fears which actuate the human mind.” A century
+before him Hobbes had written in his terse way: “The natural seed of
+religion lies in these four things: the fear of spirits, ignorance of
+secondary causes, the conciliation of those we fear, and the assumption
+of accidents for omens.”[81-1] The sentiment of religion is in its
+origin and nature purely personal and subjective. The aspect of power
+would never have led man to worship, unless he had assumed certain
+relations between the unseen author or authors of that power and
+himself. What these assumptions were, I shall discuss in the next
+chapter.
+
+Finally, as has so often been remarked in a flippant and contemptuous
+way,[82-1] which the fact when rightly understood nowise justifies,
+religion cannot exist without the aid of ignorance. It is really and
+truly the mother of devotion. The sentiment of religious fear does not
+apply to a _known_ power--to the movement of an opposing army, or the
+action of gravity in an avalanche for example. The prayer which under
+such circumstances is offered, is directed to an unknown intelligence,
+supposed to control the visible forces. As science--which is the
+knowledge of physical laws--extends, the object of prayer becomes more
+and more intangible and remote. What we formerly feared, we learn to
+govern. No one would pray God to avert the thunderbolt, if lightning
+rods invariably protected houses. The Swiss clergy opposed the system of
+insuring growing crops because it made their parishioners indifferent to
+prayers for the harvest. With increasing knowledge and the security
+which it brings, religious terror lessens, and the wants which excite
+the sentiment of devotion diminish in number and change in character.
+
+This is apt to cast general discredit on religion. When we make the
+discovery that so many events which excited religious apprehension in
+the minds of our forefathers are governed by inflexible laws which we
+know all about, we not only smile in pity at their superstitions, but
+make the mental inference that the diminished emotion of this kind we
+yet experience is equally groundless. If at the bottom of all displays
+of power lies a physical necessity, our qualms are folly. Therefore, to
+the pious soul which still finds the bulk of its religious aspirations
+and experiences in the regions of the emotions and sensations, the
+progress of science seems and really does threaten its cherished
+convictions. The audacious mind of man robs the gods of power when he
+can shield himself from their anger. The much-talked-of conflict between
+religion and science is no fiction; it exists, and is bound to go on,
+and religion will ever get the worst of it until it learns that the
+wishes to which it is its proper place to minister are not those for
+pleasure and prosperity, not for abundant harvests and seasonable
+showers, not success in battle and public health, not preservation from
+danger and safety on journeys, not much of anything that is spoken of
+in litanies and books of devotion.
+
+Let a person who still clings to this form of religion imagine that
+science had reached perfection in the arts of life; that by skilled
+adaptations of machinery, accidents by sea and land were quite avoided;
+that observation and experience had taught to foresee with certainty and
+to protect effectively against all meteoric disturbances; that a
+perfected government insured safety of person and property; that a
+consummate agriculture rendered want and poverty unknown; that a
+developed hygiene completely guarded against disease; and that a
+painless extinction of life in advanced age could surely be calculated
+upon; let him imagine this, and then ask himself what purpose religion
+would subserve in such a state of things? For whatever would occupy it
+then--if it could exist at all--should _alone_ occupy it now.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[49-1] _Address to the Clergy_, pp. 42, 43, 67, 106, etc.
+
+[49-2] E. von Hardenberg [Novalis], _Werke_, s. 364.
+
+[50-1] _Treatises Devotional and Practical_, p. 188. London, 1836.
+
+[50-2] In Aramaic _dachla_ means either a god or fear. The Arabic Allah
+and the Hebrew Eloah are by some traced to a common root, signifying to
+tremble, to show fear, though the more usual derivation is from one
+meaning to be strong.
+
+[51-1] “Wen die Hoffnung, den hat auch die Furcht verlassen.” Arthur
+Schopenhauer, _Parerga und Paralipomena_. Bd. ii. s. 474.
+
+[52-1] Alexander Bain, _On the Study of Character_, p. 128. See also his
+remarks in his work, _The Emotions and the Will_, p. 84, and in his
+notes to James Mill’s _Analysis of the Mind_, vol. i., pp. 124-125.
+
+[53-1] Wilhelm von Humboldt’s _Gesammelte Werke_, Bd. vii., s. 62.
+
+[53-2] De Senancourt, _Obermann_, Lettre xli.
+
+[54-1] _Elements of Medical Psychology_, p. 331.
+
+[56-1] Lessing’s _Gesammelte Werke_. B. ii. s. 443 (Leipzig, 1855).
+
+[57-1] See Exodus, xxiii. 12; Psalms, lv. 6; Isaiah, xxx. 15; Jeremiah,
+vi. 16; Hebrews, v. 9. So St. Augustine: “et nos post opera nostra
+sabbato vitæ eternæ requiescamus in te.” _Confessionum Lib._ xiii. cap.
+36.
+
+[59-1] “Filioli, diligite alterutrum.” This is the “testamentum
+Johannis,” as recorded from tradition by St. Jerome in his notes to the
+Epistle to the Galatians.
+
+[59-2] Alexander Bain, _The Senses and the Intellect_, Chap. I.
+
+[60-1] _A Christian Directory._ Part I. Chap. III.
+
+[60-2] “The very nature of affection, the idea itself, necessarily
+implies resting in its object as an end.” _Fifteen Sermons by Joseph
+Butler, late Lord Bishop of Durham_, Preface, and p. 147 (London, 1841).
+
+[61-1] Dr. J. Milner Fothergill, _Journal of Mental Science_, Oct. 1874,
+p. 198.
+
+[62-1] The most recent work on the topic is that of Messrs. Westropp and
+Wake, _The Influence of the Phallic Idea on the Religions of Antiquity_,
+London, 1874.
+
+[63-1] Schoolcraft’s _History and Statistics of the Indian Tribes_, Vol.
+iv. p. 224.
+
+[63-2] Richardson, _Arctic Expedition_, p. 412.
+
+[63-3] Most physicians have occasion to notice the almost entire loss in
+modern life of the instinctive knowledge of the sex relation. Sir James
+Paget has lately treated of the subject in one of his _Clinical
+Lectures_ (London, 1875).
+
+[64-1] Dr. J. P. Catlow, _Principles of Aesthetic Medicine_, p. 112.
+This thoughtful though obscure writer has received little recognition
+even in the circle of professional readers.
+
+[66-1] This is probably what was condemned in Deuteronomy xxii. 5, and
+Romans, i. 26.
+
+[66-2] “The worship of Siva is too severe, too stern for the softer
+emotions of love, and all his temples are quite free from any allusions
+to it.”--Ferguson, _Tree and Serpent Worship_, p. 71.
+
+[67-1] W. von Humboldt, in his admirable essay _Ueber die Männliche und
+Weibliche Form_ (_Werke, Bd. I._). Elsewhere he adds: “In der Natur des
+Gœttlichen strebt alles der Reinheit und Vollkommenheit des
+Gattungsbegriff entgegen.”
+
+[68-1] I have collected the Haitian myths, chiefly from the manuscript
+_Historia Apologetica de las Indias Occidentales_ of Las Casas, in an
+essay published in 1871, _The Arawack Language of Guiana in its
+Linguistic and Ethnological Relations_.
+
+[71-1] _The Koran_, Suras,[TN-5] cxii., lxii., and especially xix.
+
+[73-1] _Elements of Medical Psychology_, p. 281.
+
+[73-2] J. Thompson Dickson, _The Science and Practice of Medicine in
+relation to Mind_, p. 383 (New York, 1874).
+
+[76-1] Dr. Joseph Williams, _Insanity, its Causes, Prevention and Cure_,
+pp. 68, 69; Dr. A. L. Wigan, _The Duality of the Mind_, p. 437.
+
+[78-1] _The Myths of the New World, a Treatise on the Symbolism and
+Mythology of the Red Race of America_, p. 145.
+
+[81-1] _Leviathan, De Homine_, cap. xii.
+
+[82-1] For instance, of later writers from whom we might expect better
+things, Arthur Schopenhauer. He says in his _Parerga_ (Bd. ii. s. 290):
+“Ein gewisser Grad allgemeiner Unwissenheit ist die Bedingung aller
+Religionen;” a correct remark, and equally correct of the pursuit of
+science and philosophy. But the ignorance which is the condition of such
+pursuit is not a part of science or philosophy, and no more is it of
+religion.
+
+
+
+
+THE RATIONAL POSTULATES OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     Religion often considered merely an affair of the feelings. On the
+     contrary, it must assume at least three premises in reason, its
+     “rational postulates.”
+
+     I. There is Order in things.
+
+     The religious wish involves the idea of cause. This idea not
+     exhausted by uniformity of sequence, but by quantitative relation,
+     that is, Order as opposed to Chance. Both science and religion
+     assume order in things; but the latter includes the Will of God in
+     this order, while the former rejects it.
+
+     II. This order is one of Intelligence.
+
+     The order is assumed to be a comprehensible one, whether it be of
+     law wholly or of volition also.
+
+     III. All Intelligence is one in kind.
+
+     This postulate indispensable to religion, although it has been
+     attacked by religious as well as irreligious philosophers. Its
+     decision must rest on the absoluteness of the formal laws of
+     thought. The theory that these are products of natural selections
+     disproved by showing, (1) that they hold true throughout the
+     material universe, and (2) that they do not depend on it for their
+     verity. Reason sees beyond phenomena, but descries nothing alien to
+     itself.
+
+     The formal laws of reason are purposive. They therefore afford a
+     presumption of a moral government of the Universe, and point to an
+     Intelligence fulfilling an end through the order in physical laws.
+     Such an assumption, common to all historic religions, is thus
+     justified by induction.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE RATIONAL POSTULATES OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+In philosophical discussions of religion as well as in popular
+exhortations upon it, too exclusive stress has been laid upon its
+emotional elements. “It is,” says Professor Bain, “an affair of the
+feelings.”[87-1] “The essence of religion,” observes John Stuart Mill,
+“is the strong and earnest direction of the emotions and desires towards
+an ideal object.” “It must be allowed,” says Dr. Mansel,[87-2] “that it
+is not through reasoning that men obtain their first intimation of their
+relation to a deity.” In writers and preachers of the semi-mystical
+school, which embraces most of the ardent revivalists of the day, we
+constantly hear the “feeling of dependence” quoted as the radical
+element of religious thought.[87-3] In America Theodore Parker, and in
+Germany Schleiermacher, were brilliant exponents of this doctrine. To
+the latter the philosopher Hegel replied that if religion is a matter of
+feeling, an affectionate dog is the best Christian.
+
+This answer was not flippant, but founded on the true and only worthy
+conception of the religious sentiment. We have passed in review the
+emotions which form a part of it, and recognize their power. But neither
+these nor any other mere emotions, desires or feelings can explain even
+the lowest religion. It depends for its existence on the essential
+nature of reason. We cannot at all allow, as Dr. Mansel asks of us, that
+man’s first intimations of Deity came in any other way than as one of
+the ripest fruits of reason. Were such the case, we should certainly
+find traces of them among brutes and idiots, which we do not. The slight
+signs of religious actions thought to have been noticed by some in the
+lower animals, by Sir John Lubbock in ants, and by Charles Darwin in
+dogs, if authenticated, would vindicate for these species a much closer
+mental kinship to man than we have yet supposed.
+
+If we dispassionately analyze any religion whatever, paying less
+attention to what its professed teachers say it is, than to what the
+mass of the votaries believe it to be, we shall see that every form of
+adoration unconsciously assumes certain premises in reason, which give
+impulse and character to its emotional and active manifestations. They
+are its data or axioms, or, as I shall call them, its “rational
+postulates.” They can, I believe, be reduced to three, but not to a
+lesser number.
+
+Before the religious feeling acquires the distinctness of a notion and
+urges to conscious action, it must assume at least these three
+postulates, and without them it cannot rise into cognition. These, their
+necessary character and their relations, I shall set forth in this
+chapter.
+
+They are as follows:--
+
+    I. There is Order in things.
+   II. This order is one of Intelligence.
+  III. All Intelligence is one in kind.
+
+I. The conscious or unconscious purpose of the religious sentiment, as
+I have shown in the last chapter, is the _fruition of a wish_, the
+success of which depends upon unknown power. The votary asks help where
+he cannot help himself. He expects it through an exertion of power,
+through an efficient cause. Obviously therefore, he is acting on the
+logical idea of Causality. This underlies and is essential to the
+simplest prayer. He extends it, moreover, out of the limits of
+experience into the regions of hypothesis. He has carried the analogy
+of observation into the realm of abstract conceptions. No matter if he
+does believe that the will of God is the efficient cause. Perhaps he is
+right; at any rate he cannot be denied the privilege of regarding
+volition as a co-operating cause. Limited at first to the transactions
+which most concerned men, the conception of order as a divine act
+extended itself to the known universe. Herodotus derives the Greek word
+for God θεος from a root which gives the meaning “to set in order,” and
+the Scandinavians gave the same sense to their word, _Regin_.[90-1]
+Thus the abstract idea of cause or power is a postulate of all
+religious thought. Let us examine its meaning.
+
+Every reader, the least versed in the history of speculative thought for
+the last hundred years, knows how long and violent the discussions have
+been of the relations of “cause and effect.” Startled by the criticisms
+of Hume, Kant sought to elude them by distinguishing between two spheres
+of thought, the understanding and the reason. Sir William Hamilton at
+first included the “principle of sufficient reason’[TN-6] in the laws of
+thought, but subsequently rejected it as pertaining to judgments, and
+therefore material, not formal. Schopenhauer claimed to have traced it
+to a fourfold root, and Mill with most of the current English schools,
+Bain, Austin, Spencer, &c., maintained that it meant nothing but
+“uniformity of sequence.”
+
+It would be vain to touch upon a discussion so extended as this. In the
+first chapter I have remarked that the idea of cause does not enter into
+the conceptions of pure logic or thought. It is, as Hamilton saw,
+material. I shall only pause to show what is meant by the term “cause”
+in the physical sciences. When one event follows another, time after
+time, we have “uniformity of sequence.” Suppose the constitution of the
+race were so happy that we slept at night only, and always awoke a few
+moments before sunrise. Such a sequence quite without exception, should,
+if uniform experience is the source of the idea of cause, justly lead to
+the opinion that the sun rises because man awakes. As we know this
+conclusion would be erroneous, some other element beside sequence must
+complete a real cause. If now, it were shown that the relation of cause
+to effect which we actually entertain and cannot help entertaining is in
+some instances flatly contrary to all experience, then we must
+acknowledge that the idea of cause asks to confirm it something quite
+independent of experience, that is abstract. But such examples are
+common. We never saw two objects continue to approach without meeting;
+but we are constrained to believe that lines of certain descriptions can
+forever approach and never meet.
+
+The uniformity of sequence is, in fact, in the physical sciences never
+assumed to express the relation of cause and effect, until the
+connection between the antecedent and consequent can be set forth
+abstractly in mathematical formulæ. The sequence of the planetary
+motions was discovered by Kepler, but it was reserved for Newton to
+prove the theoretical necessity of this motion and establish its
+mathematical relations. The sequence of sensations to impressions is
+well known, but the law of the sequence remains the desideratum in
+psychology.[92-1]
+
+Science, therefore, has been correctly defined as “the knowledge of
+system.” Its aim is to ascertain the laws of phenomena, to define the
+“order in things.” Its fundamental postulate is that order exists, that
+all things are “lapped in universal law.” It acknowledges no exception,
+and it considers that all law is capable of final expression in
+quantity, in mathematical symbols. It is the manifest of reason, “whose
+unceasing endeavor is to banish the idea of Chance.”[93-1]
+
+We thus see that its postulate is the same as that of the religious
+sentiment. Wherein then do they differ? Not in the recognition of
+chance. Accident, chance, does not exist for the religious sense in any
+stage of its growth. Everywhere religion proclaims in the words of
+Dante:--
+
+              “le cose tutte quante,
+    Hann’ ordine tra loro;”
+
+everywhere in the more optimistic faiths it holds this order, in the
+words of St. Augustine, to be one “most fair, of excellent
+things.”[93-2]
+
+What we call “the element of chance” is in its scientific sense that of
+which we do not know the law; while to the untutored religious mind it
+is the manifestation of divine will. The Kamschatkan, when his boat is
+lost in the storm, attributes it to the vengeance of a god angered
+because he scraped the snow from his shoes with a knife, instead of
+using a piece of wood; if a Dakota has bad luck in hunting, he says it
+is caused by his wife stepping over a bone and thus irritating a
+spirit. The idea of cause, the sentiment of order, is as strong as ever,
+but it differs from that admitted by science in recognizing as a
+possible efficient motor that which is incapable of mathematical
+expression, namely, a volition, a will. _Voluntas Dei asylum
+ignorantiæ_, is no unkind description of such an opinion.
+
+So long as this recognition is essential to the life of a religious
+system, just so long it will and must be in conflict with science, with
+every prospect of the latter gaining the victory. Is the belief in
+volition as an efficient cause indispensable to the religious sentiment
+in general? For this vital question we are not yet prepared, but must
+first consider the remaining rational postulates it assumes. The second
+is
+
+II. This order is one of intelligence.
+
+By this is not meant that the order is one of _an_ Intelligence, but
+simply that the order which exists in things is conformable to man’s
+thinking power,--that if he knows the course of events he can appreciate
+their relations,--that facts can be subsumed under thoughts. Whatever
+scheme of order there were, would be nothing to him unless it were
+conformable to his intellectual functions. It could not form the matter
+of his thought.[94-1]
+
+Science, which deals in the first instance exclusively with phenomena,
+also assumes this postulate. It recognizes that when the formal laws,
+which it is its mission to define, are examined apart from their
+material expression, when they are emptied of their phenomenal contents,
+they show themselves to be logical constructions, reasoned truths, in
+other words, forms of intelligence. The votary who assumes the order one
+of volition alone, or volition with physical necessity, still assumes
+the volitions are as comprehensible as are his own; that they are
+purposive; that the order, even if not clear to him, is both real and
+reasonable. Were it not so, did he believe that the gods carried out
+their schemes through a series of caprices inconceivable to
+intelligence, through absolute chance, insane caprice, or blind fate, he
+could neither see in occurrences the signs of divine rule, nor hope for
+aid in obtaining his wishes. In fact, order is only conceivable to man
+at all as an order conformable to his own intelligence.
+
+This second postulate embraces what has been recently called the
+“Principle of continuity,” indispensable to sane thought of any kind. A
+late work defines it as “the trust that the Supreme Governor of the
+Universe will not put us to permanent intellectual confusion.”[96-1]
+Looked at closely, it is the identification of order with reason.
+
+The third and final postulate of the religious sentiment is that
+
+III. All intelligence is one in kind.
+
+Religion demands that there be a truth which is absolutely true, and
+that there be a goodness which is universally and eternally good. Each
+system claims the possession, and generally the exclusive possession,
+of this goodness and truth. They are right in maintaining these views,
+for unless such is the case, unless there is an absolute truth,
+cognizable to man, yet not transcended by any divine intelligence, all
+possible religion becomes mere child’s play, and its professed
+interpretation of mysteries but trickery.
+
+The Grecian sophists used to meet the demonstrations of the
+mathematicians and philosophers by conceding that they did indeed set
+forth the truth, so far as man’s intelligence goes, but that to the
+intelligence of other beings--a bat or an angel, for example--they might
+not hold good at all; that there is a different truth for different
+intelligences; that the intelligence makes the truth; and that as for
+the absolutely true, true to every intelligence, there is no such thing.
+They acknowledged that a simple syllogism, constructed on these
+premises, made their own assertions partake of the doubtful character
+that was by them ascribed to other human knowledge. But this they
+gracefully accepted as the inevitable conclusion of reasoning. Their
+position is defended to-day by the advocates of “positivism,” who
+maintain the relativity of all truth.
+
+But such a conclusion is wholly incompatible with the religious mind. It
+must assume that there are some common truths, true infinitely, and
+therefore, that in all intelligence there is an essential unity of kind.
+“This postulation,” says a close thinker, “is the very foundation and
+essence of religion. Destroy it, and you destroy the very possibility of
+religion.”[97-1]
+
+Clear as this would seem to be to any reflective mind, yet, strange to
+say, it is to-day the current fashion for religious teachers to deny it.
+Scared by a phantasm of their own creation, they have deserted the only
+position in which it is possible to defend religion at all. Afraid of
+the accusation that they make God like man, they have removed Him
+beyond the pale of all intelligence, and logically, therefore,
+annihilated every conception of Him.
+
+Teachers and preachers do not tire of telling their followers that God
+is incomprehensible; that his ways are past finding out; that he is the
+Unconditioned, the Infinite, the Unknowable. They really mean that he is
+another order of intelligence, which, to quote a famous comparison of
+Spinoza, has the same name as ours, but is no more one with it than the
+dog is one with his namesake, the dog-star!
+
+They are eagerly seconded in this position by a school of writers who
+distinctly see where such a doctrine leads, and who do not hesitate to
+carry it home. Mr. Mill is right in his scorn for those who “erect the
+incurable limitations of the human conceptive faculty into laws of the
+outward universe,” if there are such limitations. And Mr. Spencer is
+justified in condemning “the transcendent audacity which passes current
+as piety,” if his definition of the underlying verity of religion is
+admitted--that it is “the consciousness of an inscrutable power which,
+in its nature, transcends intuition, and is beyond imagination.”[98-1]
+They are but following the orthodox Sir William Hamilton, who says:
+“Creation must be thought as the incomprehensible evolution of power
+into energy.”[99-1] We are to think that which by the terms of the
+proposition is unthinkable! A most wise master!
+
+Let it be noted that the expressions such as inscrutable,
+incomprehensible, unknowable, etc., which such writers use, are avowedly
+not limited to man’s intelligence in its present state of cultivation,
+but are applied to his _kind_ of intelligence, no matter how far
+trained. They mean that the inscrutable, etc., is not merely not _at
+present_ open to man’s observation--that were a truism--but that it
+cannot be subsumed under the laws of his reasoning powers. In other
+words, they deny that all intelligence is one in _kind_. Some accept
+this fully, and concede that what are called the laws of order, as shown
+by science, are only matters of experience, true here and now, not
+necessarily and absolutely true.
+
+This is a consistent inference, and applies, of course, with equal force
+to all moral laws and religious dogmas.
+
+The arguments brought against such opinions have been various. The old
+reply to the sophists has been dressed in modern garb, and it has been
+repeatedly put that if no statement is really true, then this one, to
+wit “no statement is really true,” also is not true; and if that is the
+case, then there are statements which really are true. The theory of
+evolution as a dogma has been attacked by its own maxims; in asserting
+that all knowledge is imperfect, it calls its own verity into question.
+If all truth is relative, then this at least is absolutely true.
+
+It has also been noted that all such words as incomprehensible,
+unconditioned, infinite, unknowable, are in their nature privatives,
+they are not a thought but are only one element of a thought. As has
+been shown in the first chapter, every thought is made up of a positive
+and a privative, and it is absurd and unnatural to separate the one from
+the other. The concept man, regarded as a division of the higher concept
+animal, is made up of man and not-man. In so far as other animals are
+included under the term “not-man” they do not come into intelligent
+cognition; but that does not mean that they cannot do so. So “the
+unconditioned” is really a part of the thought of “the conditioned,” the
+“unknowable” a part of the “knowable,” the “infinite” a part of the
+thought of the “finite.” Under material images these privatives, as
+such, cannot be expressed; but in pure thought which deals with symbols
+and types alone, they can be.
+
+But if the abstract laws of thought themselves are confined in the
+limits of one kind of intelligence, then we cannot take an appeal to
+them to attack this sophism. Therefore on maintaining their integrity
+the discussion must finally rest. This has been fully recognized by
+thinkers, one of whom has not long since earnestly called attention to
+“the urgent necessity of fathoming the psychical mechanism on which
+rests all our intellectual life.”[101-1]
+
+In this endeavor the attempt has been made to show that the logical laws
+are derived in accordance with the general theory of evolution from the
+natural or material laws of thinking. These, as I have previously
+remarked, are those of the association of ideas, and come under the
+general heads of contiguity and similarity. Such combinations are
+independent of the aim of the logical laws, which is _correct_ thinking.
+A German writer, Dr. Windelband, has therefore argued that as
+experience, strengthened by hereditary transmission, continued to show
+that the particular combinations which are in accord with what we call
+the laws of thought furnished the best, that is, the most useful
+results, they were adopted in preference to others and finally assumed
+as the criteria of truth.
+
+Of course it follows from this that as these laws are merely the outcome
+of human experience they can have no validity outside of it.
+Consequently, adds the writer I have quoted, just as the study of optics
+teaches us that the human eye yields a very different picture of the
+external world from that given by the eye of a fly, for instance, and
+as each of them is equally far from the reality, so the truth which our
+intelligence enables us to reach is not less remote from that which is
+the absolutely true. He considers that this is proven by the very nature
+of the “law of contradiction” itself, which must be inconsistent with
+the character of absolute thought. For in the latter, positive truth
+only can exist, therefore no negation, and no law about the relation of
+affirmative to negative.[102-1]
+
+The latter criticism assumes that negation is of the nature of error, a
+mistake drawn from the use of the negative in applied logic. For in
+formal logic, whether as quantity or quality, that is, in pure
+mathematics or abstract thought, the reasoning is just as correct when
+negatives are employed as when positives, as I have remarked before. The
+other criticism is more important, for if we can reach the conclusion
+that the real laws of the universe are other than as we understand them,
+then our intelligence is not of a kind to represent them.
+
+Such an opinion can be refuted directly. The laws which we profess to
+know are as operative in the remotest nebulae as in the planet we
+inhabit. It is altogether likely that countless forms of intelligent
+beings inhabit the starry wastes, receiving through sensory apparatus
+widely different from ours very diverse impressions of the external
+world. All this we know, but we also know that if those beings have
+defined the laws which underlie phenomena, they have found them to be
+the same that we have; for were they in the least different, in
+principle or application, they could not furnish the means, as those we
+know do, of predicting the recurrence of the celestial motions with
+unfailing accuracy. Therefore the demonstrations of pure mathematics,
+such as the relation of an absciss to an ordinate, or of the diameter to
+the circumference, must be universally true; and hence the logical laws
+which are the ultimate criteria of these truths must also be true to
+every intelligence, real or possible.[103-1]
+
+Another and forcible reply to these objections is that the laws which
+our intelligence has reached and recognizes as universally true are not
+only not derived from experience, but are in direct opposition to and
+are constantly contradicted by it. Neither sense nor imagination has
+ever portrayed a perfect circle in which the diameter bore to the
+circumference the exact proportion which we know it does bear. The very
+fact that we have learned that our senses are wholly untrustworthy, and
+that experience is always fallacious, shows that we have tests of truth
+depending on some other faculty. “Each series of connected facts in
+nature furnishes the intimation of an order more exact than that which
+it directly manifests.”[104-1]
+
+But, it has been urged, granted that we have reached something like
+positive knowledge of those laws which are the _order_ of the
+manifestation of phenomena, the real Inscrutable, the mysterious
+Unknowable, escapes us still; this is the _nature_ of phenomenal
+manifestation, “the secret of the Power manifested in Existence.”[104-2]
+At this point the physicist trips and falls; and here, too, the
+metaphysician stumbles.
+
+I have already spoken of our aptitude to be frightened by a chimera, and
+deceived by such words as “nature” and “cause.” Laws and rules, by which
+we express Order, are restrictive only in a condition of intelligence
+short of completeness, only therefore in that province of thought which
+concerns itself with material facts. The musician is not fettered by the
+laws of harmony, but only by those of discord. The truly virtuous man,
+remarks Aristotle, never has occasion to practise self-denial. Hence,
+mathematically, “the theory of the intellectual action involves the
+recognition of a sphere of thought from which all limits are
+withdrawn.”[105-1] True freedom, real being, is only possible when law
+as such is inexistent. Only the lawless makes the law. When the idea of
+the laws of order thus disappears in that of free function consistent
+with perfect order, when, as Kant expresses it, we ascend from the
+contemplation of things acting according to law, to action according to
+the representation of law,[105-2] we can, without audacity, believe that
+we have penetrated the secret of existence, that we have reached the
+limits of explanation and found one wholly satisfying the highest
+reason. Intelligence, not apart from phenomena, but parallel with them,
+not under law, but through perfect harmony above it, _power one with
+being_, the will which is “the essence of reason,” the emanant cause of
+phenomena, immanent only by the number of its relations we have not
+learned, this is the satisfying and exhaustive solution. The folly lies
+not in claiming reason as the absolute, but in assuming that the
+absolute is beyond and against reason.
+
+There is nothing new in this explanation; and it is none the worse for
+being old. If Anaxagoras discerned it dimly, and many a one since him
+has spoken of Intelligence, Reason, Nous or Logos as the constructive
+factor of the creation; if “all the riper religions of the Orient
+assumed as their fundamental principle that unless the Highest
+penetrates all parts of the Universe, and itself conditions whatever is
+conditioned, no universal order, no Kosmos, no real existence is
+thinkable;”[106-1] such inadequate expressions should never obscure the
+truth that reason in its loftiest flights descries nothing nobler than
+itself.
+
+The relative, as its name implies, for ever presupposes and points to
+the absolute, the latter an Intelligence also, not one that renders ours
+futile and fallacious, but one that imparts to ours the capacity we
+possess of reaching eternal and ubiquitous truth. The severest
+mathematical reasoning forces us to this conclusion, and we can dispense
+with speculation about it.
+
+Only on the principle which here receives its proof, that man has
+something in him of God, that the norm of the true holds good
+throughout, can he know or care anything about divinity. “It takes a
+god to discern a god,” profoundly wrote Novalis.
+
+When a religion teaches what reason disclaims, not through lack of
+testimony but through a denial of the rights of reason, then that
+religion wars against itself and will fall. Faith is not the acceptance
+of what intelligence rejects, but a suspension of judgment for want of
+evidence. A thoroughly religious mind will rejoice when its faith is
+shaken with doubt; for the doubt indicates increased light rendering
+perceptible some possible error not before seen.
+
+Least of all should a believer in a divine revelation deny the oneness
+of intelligence. For if he is right, then the revealed truth he talks
+about is but relative and partial, and those inspired men who claimed
+for it the sign manual of the Absolute were fools, insane or liars.
+
+If the various arguments I have rehearsed indicate conclusively that in
+the laws of thought we have the norms of absolute truth--and skepticism
+on this point can be skepticism and not belief only by virtue of the
+very law which it doubts--some important corollaries present themselves.
+
+Regarding in the first place the nature of these laws, we find them very
+different from those of physical necessity--those which are called the
+laws of nature. The latter are authoritative, they are never means to an
+end, they admit no exception, they leave no room for error. Not so with
+the laws of reasoning. Man far more frequently disregards than obeys
+them; they leave a wide field for fallacy. Wherein then lies that
+theoretical necessity which is the essence of law? The answer is that
+the laws of reasoning are _purposive_ only, they are regulative, not
+constitutive, and their theoretical necessity lies in the end, the
+result of reasoning, that is, in the knowing, in the recognition of
+truth. They are what the Germans call _Zweckgesetze_.[108-1]
+
+But in mathematical reasoning and in the processes of physical nature
+the absolute character of the laws which prevail depends for its final
+necessity on their consistency, their entire correspondence with the
+laws of right reasoning. Applied to them the purposive character of the
+laws is not seen, for their ends are fulfilled. We are brought,
+therefore, to the momentous conclusion that the manifestation of Order,
+whether in material or mental processes, “affords a presumption, not
+measurable indeed but real, of the fulfilment of an end or
+purpose;”[108-1][TN-7] and this purpose, one which has other objects in
+view than the continuance of physical processes. The history of mind,
+from protoplasmic sensation upward, must be a progression, whose end
+will be worth more than was its beginning, a process, which has for its
+purpose the satisfaction of the laws of mind. This is nothing else than
+correct thinking, the attainment of truth.
+
+But this conclusion, reached by a searching criticism of the validity of
+scientific laws, is precisely that which is the postulate of all
+developed creeds. “The faith of all historical religions,” says Bunsen,
+“starts from the assumption of a universal moral order, in which the
+good is alone the true, and the true is the only good.”[109-1]
+
+The purposive nature of the processes of thought, as well as the manner
+in which they govern the mind, is illustrated by the history of man. His
+actions, whether as an individual or as a nation, are guided by ideas
+not derived from the outer world, for they do not correspond to actual
+objects, but from mental pictures of things as he wants them to exist.
+These are his hopes, his wishes, his ideals; they are the more potent,
+and prompt to more vigorous action, the clearer they are to his mind.
+Even when he is unconscious of them, they exist as tendencies, or
+instincts, inherited often from some remote ancestor, perhaps even the
+heir-loom of a stage of lower life, for they occur where sensation
+alone is present, and are an important factor in general evolution.
+
+It is usually conceded that this theory of organic development very much
+attenuates the evidence of what is known as the argument from design in
+nature, by which the existence of an intelligent Creator is sought to be
+shown. If the distinction between the formal laws of mathematics, which
+are those of nature, and logic, which are those of mind, be fully
+understood, no one will seek such an argument in the former but in the
+latter only, for they alone, as I have shown, are purposive, and they
+are wholly so. The only God that nature points to is an adamantine Fate.
+
+If religion has indeed the object which Bunsen assigns it, physical
+phenomena cannot concern it. Its votaries should not look to change the
+operation of natural laws by incantations, prayers or miracles.
+
+Whenever in the material world there presents itself a seeming
+confusion, it is certain to turn out but an incompleteness of our
+observation, and on closer inspection it resolves itself into some
+higher scheme of Order. This is not so in the realm of thought. Wrong
+thinking never can become right thinking. A profound writer has said:
+“One explanation only of these facts can be given, viz., that the
+distinction between _true_ and _false_, between _correct_ and
+_incorrect_, exists in the processes of the intellect, but not in the
+region of a physical necessity.”[111-1] A religion therefore which
+claims as its mission the discovery of the true and its identification
+with the good,--in other words the persuading man that he should always
+act in accordance with the dictates of right reasoning--should be
+addressed primarily to the intellect.
+
+As man can attain to certain truths which are without any mixture of
+fallacy, which when once he comprehends them he can never any more
+doubt, and which though thus absolute do not fetter his intellect but
+first give it the use of all its powers to the extent of those truths;
+so he can conceive of an Intelligence in which all truth is thus without
+taint of error. Not only is such an Intelligence conceivable, it is
+necessary to conceive it, in order to complete the scientific induction
+of “a sphere of thought from which all limits are withdrawn,” forced
+upon us by the demonstrations of the exact sciences.[111-2]
+
+Thus do we reach the foundation for the faith in a moral government of
+the world, which it has been the uniform characteristic of religions to
+assert; but a government, as thus analytically reached, not easily
+corresponding with that which popular religion speaks of. Such feeble
+sentiments as mercy, benevolence and effusive love, scarcely find place
+in this conception of the source of universal order. In this cosmical
+dust-cloud we inhabit, whose each speck is a sun, man’s destiny plays a
+microscopic part. The vexed question whether ours is the best possible
+or the worst possible world, drops into startling insignificance.
+Religion has taught the abnegation of self; science is first to teach
+the humiliation of the race. Not for man’s behoof were created the
+greater and the lesser lights, not for his deeds will the sun grow dark
+or the stars fall, not with any reference to his pains or pleasure was
+this universe spread upon the night. That Intelligence which pursues its
+own ends in this All, which sees from first to last the chain of causes
+which mould human action, measures not its purposes by man’s halting
+sensations. Such an Intelligence is fitly described by the
+philosopher-poet as one,
+
+    “Wo die Gerechtigkeit so Wurzel schläget,
+    Und Schuld und Unschuld so erhaben wäget
+    Dass sie vertritt die Stelle aller Güte.”[112-1]
+
+In the scheme of the universe, pain and pleasure, truth and error, has
+each its fitness, and no single thought or act can be judged apart from
+all others that ever have been and ever shall be.
+
+Such was the power that was contemplated by the Hebrew prophet, one from
+which all evil things and all good things come, and who disposes them
+all to the fulfilment of a final purpose:
+
+     “I am the Lord and there is none else. I form the light and create
+     darkness; I make peace and create evil.”
+
+     “I am God and there is none like me, declaring the end from the
+     beginning, and from ancient times the things which are not yet
+     done.”[113-1]
+
+In a similar strain the ancient Aryan sang:--
+
+    “This do I ask thee, tell me, O Ahura!
+    Who is he, working good, made the light and also darkness?
+    Who is he, working good, made the sleep as well as waking?
+    Who the night, as well as noon and the morning?”
+
+And the reply came:
+
+     “Know also this, O pure Zarathustra: through my wisdom, through
+     which was the beginning of the world, so also its end shall
+     be.”[113-2]
+
+Or as the Arabian apostle wrote, inspired by the same idea:--
+
+    “Praise the name of thy Lord, the Most High,
+    Who hath created and balanced all things,
+    Who hath fixed their destinies and guideth them.”
+
+     “The Revelation of this book is from the Mighty, the Wise. We have
+     not created the Heavens and the Earth and all that is between them
+     otherwise than with a purpose and for a settled term.”[113-3]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[87-1] _The Emotions and Will_, p. 594. So Professor Tyndall speaks of
+confining the religious sentiment to “the region of emotion, which is
+its proper sphere.”
+
+[87-2] H. L. Mansel, _The Limits of Religious Thought_, p. 115. (Boston,
+1859.)
+
+[87-3] “The _one relation_ which is the ground of all true religion is a
+total dependence upon God.” William Law, _Address to the Clergy_, p. 12.
+“The essential germ of the religious life is concentrated in the
+absolute feeling of dependence on infinite power.” J. D. Morell, _The
+Philosophy of Religion_, p. 94. (New York, 1849.) This accomplished
+author, well known for his _History of Philosophy_, is the most able
+English exponent of the religious views of Schleiermacher and Jacobi.
+
+[90-1] “Weil sie die Welt _eingerichtet_ haben.” Creuzer, _Symbolik und
+Mythologie der alten Vœlker_, Bd. I. s. 169. It is not of any importance
+that Herodotus’ etymology is incorrect: what I wish to show is that he
+and his contemporaries entertained the conception of the gods as the
+authors of order.
+
+[92-1] This distinction is well set forth by A. von Humboldt, _Kosmos_,
+p. 388 (Phila., 1869).
+
+[93-1] “Ueberall den Zufall zu verbannen, zu verhindern, dass in dem
+Gebiete des Beobachtens und Denkens er nicht zu herrschen scheine, im
+Gebiete des Handelns nicht herrsche, ist das Streben der Vernunft.”
+Wilhelm von Humboldt, _Ueber Goethe’s Hermann und Dorothea_, iv.
+
+[93-2] “Iste ordo pulcherrimus rerum valde bonarum.” _Confessiones_,
+Lib. xiii. cap. xxxv.
+
+[94-1] “The notion of a God is not contained in the mere notion of
+Cause, that is the notion of Fate or Power. To this must be added
+Intelligence,” etc. Sir Wm. Hamilton, _Lectures on Metaphysics_, Lecture
+ii.
+
+[96-1] _The Unseen Universe_, p. 60.
+
+[97-1] James Frederick Ferrier, _Lectures on Greek Philosophy_, p. 13
+(Edinburgh, 1866). On a question growing directly out of this, to wit,
+the relative character of good and evil, Mr. J. S. Mill expresses
+himself thus: “My opinion of this doctrine is, that it is beyond all
+others which now engage speculative minds, the decisive one between
+moral good and evil for the Christian world.” _Examination of Hamilton’s
+Philosophy_, p. 90.
+
+[98-1] _First Principles_, pp. 108, 127.
+
+[99-1] _Lectures on Metaphysics_, Vol. I., p. 690.
+
+[101-1] Professor Steinthal in the _Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie_.
+
+[102-1] Dr. W. Windelband, _Die Erkenntnissiehre unter dem
+voelkerpsychologischem Gesichtspunkte_, in the _Zeitschrift für
+Völkerpsychologie_, 1874, _Bd. VIII._ S. 165 _sqq._
+
+[103-1] I would ask the reader willing to pursue this reasoning further,
+to peruse the charming essay of Oersted, entitled _Das ganze Dasein Ein
+Vernunftreich_.
+
+[104-1] Geo. Boole, _An Investigation of the Laws of Thought_, p. 407.
+
+[104-2] Herbert Spencer, _First Principles_, p. 112. Spinoza’s famous
+proposition, previously quoted, _Unaquæque res quantum in se est, in suo
+esse perseverare conatur_, (_Ethices, Pars III., Prop. VI._,) expresses
+also the ultimate of modern investigation. A recent critic considers it
+is a fallacy because the conatus “surreptitiously implies a sense of
+effort or struggle for existence,” whereas the logical concept of a res
+does not involve effort (S. N. Hodgson, _The Theory of Practice_, vol.
+I. pp. 134-6, London, 1870.) The answer is that identity implies
+continuance. In organic life we have the fact of nutrition, a function
+whose duty is to supply waste, and hence offer direct opposition to
+perturbing forces.
+
+[105-1] Geo. Boole, _The Laws of Thought_, p. 419.
+
+[105-2] Kant, _The Metaphysic of Ethics_, p. 23 (Eng. Trans. London,
+1869.)
+
+[106-1] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Voelker_, Bd. I. s.
+291.
+
+[108-1] See this distinction between physical and thought laws fully set
+forth by Prof. Boole in the appendix to _The Laws of Thought_, and by
+Dr. Windelband, _Zeitschrift für Voelkerpsychologie_, Bd. VIII., s. 165
+sqq.
+
+[108-2] Geo. Boole, u. s. p. 399.
+
+[109-1] “Der Glaube aller geschichtlichen Religionen geht aus von dieser
+Annahme einer sittlichen, in Gott bewusst lebenden, Weltordnung, wonach
+das Gute das allein Wahre ist, and das Wahre das allein Gute.” _Gott in
+der Geschichte_, Bd. I. s. xl. Leipzig, 1857.
+
+[111-1] Geo. Boole, _Laws of Thought_, p. 410.
+
+[111-2] The latest researches in natural science confirm the expressions
+of W. von Humboldt: “Das Streben der Natur ist auf etwas Unbeschränktes
+gerichtet.” “Die Natur mit endlichen Mitteln unendliche Zwecke
+verfolgt.” _Ueber den Geschlechtsunterschied, etc._
+
+[112-1] Wilhelm von Humboldt, _Sonnette_, “Höchste Gerechtigkeit.”
+
+[113-1] Isaiah, xlv. 7; xlvi. 10.
+
+[113-2] _Khordah--avesta_, _Ormazd--Yasht_, 38, and _Yaçna_, 42.
+
+[113-3] _The Koran_, Suras lxxxvii., xlvi.
+
+
+
+
+THE PRAYER AND ITS ANSWER.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     Religion starts with a Prayer. This is an appeal to the unknown,
+     and is indispensable in religious thought. The apparent exceptions
+     of Buddhism and Confucianism.
+
+     All prayers relate to the fulfilment of a wish. At first its direct
+     object is alone thought of. This so frequently fails that the
+     indirect object rises into view. This stated to be the increase of
+     the pleasurable emotions. The inadequacy of this statement.
+
+     The answers to prayer. As a form of Expectant Attention, it exerts
+     much subjective power. Can it influence external phenomena? It is
+     possible. Deeply religious minds reject both these answers,
+     however. They claim the objective answer to be Inspiration. All
+     religions unite in this claim.
+
+     Inspirations have been contradictory. That is genuine which teaches
+     truths which cannot be doubted concerning duty and deity. A certain
+     mental condition favors the attainment of such truths. This
+     simulated in religious entheasm. Examples. It is allied to the most
+     intense intellectual action, but its steps remain unknown.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE PRAYER AND ITS ANSWER.
+
+
+The foregoing analysis of the religious sentiment results in finding it,
+even in its simplest forms, a product of complicated reasoning forced
+into action by some of the strongest emotions, and maintaining its
+position indefeasibly through the limitations of the intellect. This it
+does, however, with a certain nobleness, for while it wraps the unknown
+in sacred mystery, it proclaims man one in nature with the Highest, by
+birthright a son of the gods, of an intelligence akin to theirs, and
+less than they only in degree. Through thus presenting at once his
+strength and his feebleness, his grandeur and his degradation, religion
+goes beyond philosophy or utility in suggesting motives for exertion,
+stimuli to labor. This phase of it will now occupy us.
+
+The Religious Sentiment manifests itself in thought, in word and in act
+through the respective media of the Prayer, the Myth and the Cult. The
+first embraces the personal relations of the individual to the object
+of his worship, the second expresses the opinions current in a community
+about the nature and actions of that object, the last includes the
+symbols and ceremonies under and by which it is represented and
+propitiated.
+
+The first has the logical priority. Man cares nothing for God--_can_
+care nothing for him practically--except as an aid to the fulfilment of
+his desires, the satisfaction of his wants, as the “ground of his
+hopes.” The root of the religious sentiment, I have said, is “a wish
+whose fruition depends upon unknown power.” An appeal for aid to this
+unknown power, is the first form of prayer in its religious sense. It is
+not merely “the soul’s sincere desire.” This may well be and well
+directed, and yet not religious, as the devotion of the mathematician to
+the solution of an important problem. With the desire must be the
+earnest appeal to the unknown. A theological dictionary I have at hand
+almost correctly defines it as “a petition for spiritual or physical
+benefits which [we believe] we cannot obtain without divine
+co-operation.” The words in brackets must be inserted to complete the
+definition.
+
+It need not be expressed in language. Rousseau, in his _Confessions_,
+tells of a bishop who, in visiting his diocese, came across an old woman
+who was troubled because she could frame no prayer in words, but only
+cry, “Oh!” “Good mother,” said the wise bishop, “Pray always so. Your
+prayers are better than ours.”[119-1]
+
+A petition for assistance is, as I have said, one of its first forms;
+but not its only one. The assistance asked in simple prayers is often
+nothing more than the neutrality of the gods, their non-interference;
+“no preventing Providence,” as the expression is in our popular
+religion. Prayers of fear are of this kind:
+
+    “And they say, God be merciful,
+    Who ne’er said, God be praised.”
+
+Some of the Egyptian formulæ even threaten the gods if they prevent
+success.[119-2] The wish accomplished, the prayer may be one of
+gratitude, often enough of that kind described by La Rochefoucauld, of
+which a prominent element is “a lively sense of possible favors to
+come.”[119-3]
+
+Or again, self-abasement being so natural a form of flattery that to
+call ourselves “obedient and humble servants” of others, has passed
+into one of the commonest forms of address, many prayers are made up of
+similar expressions of humility and contrition, the votary calling
+himself a “miserable sinner” and a “vile worm,” and on the other hand
+magnifying his Lord as greater than all other gods, mighty and helpful
+to those who assiduously worship him.
+
+In some form or other, as of petition, gratitude or contrition, uttered
+in words or confined to the aspirations of the soul, prayer is a
+necessary factor in the religious life. It always has been, and it must
+be present.
+
+The exceptions which may be taken to this in religious systems are
+chiefly two, those supposed to have been founded by Buddha Sakyamuni and
+Confucius.
+
+It is undoubtedly correct that Buddha discouraged prayer. He permitted
+it at best in the inferior grades of discipleship. For himself, and all
+who reached his stage of culture, he pronounced it futile.
+
+But Buddha did not set out to teach a religion, but rather the inutility
+of all creeds. He struck shrewdly at the root of them by placing the
+highest condition of man in the total extinguishment of desire. He bound
+the gods in fetters by establishing a theory of causal connection (the
+twelve Nidana) which does away with the necessity of ruling powers. He
+then swept both matter and spirit into unreality by establishing the
+canon of ignorance, that the highest knowledge is to know that nothing
+is; that there is neither being nor not-being, nor yet the becoming.
+After this wholesale iconoclasm the only possible object in life for the
+sage is the negative one of avoiding pain, which though as unreal as
+anything else, interferes with his meditations on its unreality. To this
+negative end the only aid he can expect is from other sages who have
+gone farther in self-cultivation. Self, therefore, is the first, the
+collective body of sages is the second, and the written instruction of
+Buddha is the third; and these three are the only sources to which the
+consistent Buddhist looks for aid.
+
+This was Buddha’s teaching. But it is not Buddhism as professed by the
+hundreds of millions in Ceylon, in Thibet, China, Japan, and Siberia,
+who claim Sakyamuni under his names Buddha, the awakened, Tathagata,
+thus gone, or gone before, Siddartha, the accomplisher of the wish, and
+threescore and ten others of like purport, as their inspired teacher.
+Millions of saints, holy men, Buddhas, they believe, are ready to aid in
+every way the true believer, and incessant, constant prayer is, they
+maintain, the one efficient means to insure this aid. Repetition,
+dinning the divinities and wearying them into answering, is their
+theory. Therefore they will repeat a short formula of four words (_om
+mani padme hum_--Om! the jewel in the lotus, amen) thousands of times a
+day; or, as they correctly think it not a whit more mechanical, they
+write it a million times on strips of paper, fasten it around a
+cylinder, attach this to a water or a wind-wheel, and thus sleeping or
+waking, at home or abroad, keep up a steady fire of prayer at the gods,
+which finally, they sanguinely hope, will bring them to submission.
+
+No sect has such entire confidence in the power of prayer as the
+Buddhists. The most pious Mahometan or Christian does not approach their
+faith. After all is said and done, the latter has room to doubt the
+efficacy of his prayer. It may be refused. Not so the Buddhists. They
+have a syllogism which covers the case completely, as follows:--
+
+    All things are in the power of the gods.
+    The gods are in the power of prayer.
+    Prayer is at the will of the saint.
+    Therefore all things are in the power of the saint.
+
+The only reason that any prayer fails is that it is not repeated often
+enough--a statement difficult to refute.
+
+The case with Confucius was different.[122-1] No speculative dreamer,
+but a practical man, bent on improving his fellows by teaching them
+self-reliance, industry, honesty, good feeling and the attainment of
+material comfort, he did not see in the religious systems and doctrines
+of his time any assistance to these ends. Therefore, like Socrates and
+many other men of ancient and modern times, without actually condemning
+the faiths around him, or absolutely neglecting some external respect to
+their usages, he taught his followers to turn away from religious topics
+and occupy themselves with subjects of immediate utility. For questions
+of duty, man, he taught, has a sufficient guide within himself. “What
+you do not like,” he said, “when done to yourself, do not to others.”
+The wishes, he adds, should be limited to the attainable; thus their
+disappointment can be avoided by a just estimate of one’s own powers. He
+used to compare a wise man to an archer: “When the archer misses the
+target, he seeks for the cause of his failure within himself.” He did
+not like to talk about spiritual beings. When asked whether the dead had
+knowledge, he replied: “There is no present urgency about the matter. If
+they have, you will know it for yourself in time.” He did not deny the
+existence of unseen powers; on the contrary, he said: “The _kwei shin_
+(the most general term for supernatural beings) enter into all things,
+and there is nothing without them;” but he added, “We look for them and
+do not see them; we listen, but do not hear them.” In speaking of deity,
+he dropped the personal syllable (_te_) and only spoke of heaven, in the
+indefinite sense. Such was this extraordinary man. The utilitarian
+theory, what we call the common sense view of life, was never better
+taught. But his doctrine is not a religion. His followers erect temples,
+and from filial respect pay the usual honors to their ancestors, as
+Confucius himself did. But they ignore religious observances, strictly
+so-called.
+
+These examples, therefore, do not at all conflict with the general
+statement that no religion can exist without prayer. On the contrary, it
+is the native expression of the religious sentiment, that to which we
+must look for its most hidden meaning. The thoughtful Novalis, whose
+meditations are so rich in reflections on the religious nature of man,
+well said: “Prayer is to religion what thought is to philosophy. To pray
+is to make religion. The religious sense prays with like necessity that
+the reason thinks.”
+
+Whatever the form of the prayer, it has direct or indirect relation to
+the accomplishment of a wish. David prays to the Lord as the one who
+“satisfies the desire of every living thing,” who “will fulfil the
+desire of them that fear him,” and it is with the like faith that the
+heart of every votary is stirred when he approaches in prayer the
+divinity he adores.
+
+Widely various are the things wished for. Their character is the test of
+religions. In primitive faiths and in uncultivated minds, prayers are
+confined to the nearest material advantages; they are directed to the
+attainment of food, of victory in combat, of safety in danger, of
+personal prosperity. They may all be summed up in a line of one which
+occurs in the Rig Veda: “O Lord Varuna! Grant that we may prosper in
+_getting and keeping_!”
+
+Beyond this point of “getting and keeping,” few primitive prayers take
+us. Those of the American Indians, as I have elsewhere shown, remained
+in this stage among the savage tribes, and rose above it only in the
+civilized states of Mexico and Peru. Prayers for health, for plenteous
+harvests, for safe voyages and the like are of this nature, though from
+their familiarity to us they seem less crude than the simple-hearted
+petition of the old Aryan, which I have quoted. They mean the same.
+
+The more thoughtful votaries of the higher forms of religion have,
+however, frequently drawn the distinction between the direct and
+indirect fulfilment of the wish. An abundant harvest, restoration to
+health, or a victory in battle is the object of our hopes, not in
+itself, but for its results upon ourselves. These, in their final
+expression, can mean nothing else than agreeable sensations and
+pleasurable emotions. These, therefore, are the real though indirect
+objects of such prayers; often unconsciously so, because the ordinary
+devotee has little capacity and less inclination to analyze the nature
+of his religious feelings.
+
+A recent writer, Mr. Hodgson, has said: “The real answer to prayer is
+the increase of the joyful emotions, the decrease of the painful
+ones.”[126-1] It would seem a simpler plan to make this directly the
+purport of our petitions; but to the modern mind this naked simplicity
+would be distasteful.
+
+Nor is the ordinary supplicant willing to look so far. The direct, not
+the indirect object of the wish, is what he wants. The lazzarone of
+Naples prays to his patron saint to favor his choice of a lottery
+ticket; if it turn out an unlucky number he will take the little leaden
+image of the saint from his pocket, revile it, spit on it, and trample
+it in the mud. Another man, when his prayer for success is not followed
+by victory, sends gifts to the church, flogs himself in public and
+fasts. Xenophon gives us in his _Economics_ the prayer of a pious
+Athenian of his time, in the person of Ischomachus. “I seek to obtain,”
+says the latter, “from the gods by just prayers, strength and health,
+the respect of the community, the love of my friends, an honorable
+termination to my combats, and riches, the fruit of honest industry.”
+Xenophon evidently considered these appropriate objects for prayer, and
+from the petitions in many recent manuals of devotion, I should suppose
+most Christians of to-day would not see in them anything inappropriate.
+
+In spite of the effort that has been made by Professor Creuzer[127-1] to
+show that the classical nations rose to a higher use of prayer, one
+which made spiritual growth in the better sense of the phrase its main
+end; I think such instances were confined to single philosophers and
+poets. They do not represent the prayers of the average votary. Then and
+now he, as a rule, has little or no idea of any other answer to his
+prayer than the attainment of his wish.
+
+As such petitions, however, more frequently fail than succeed in their
+direct object, and as the alternative of considering them impotent is
+not open to the votary, some other explanation of their failure was
+taught in very early day. At first, it was that the god was angered, and
+refused the petition out of revenge. Later, the indirect purpose of such
+a prayer asserted itself more clearly, and aided by a nobler conception
+of Divinity, suggested that the refusal of the lower is a preparation
+for a higher reward. Children, in well-ordered households, are
+frequently refused by parents who love them well; this present analogy
+was early seized to explain the failure of prayer. Unquestioning
+submission to the divine will was inculcated. Some even went so far as
+to think it improper to define any wish at all, and subsumed all prayer
+under the one formula, “Thy will be done.” Such was the teaching of St.
+Augustine, whose favorite prayer was _Da quod jubes, et jube quod vis_,
+a phrase much criticized by Pelagius and others of his time as too
+quietistic.[128-1] The usual Christian doctrine of resignation proceeds
+in theory to this extent. Such a notion of the purpose of prayer leads
+to a cheerful acceptance of the effects of physical laws, effects which
+an enlightened religious mind never asks to be altered in its favor, for
+the promises and aims of religion should be wholly outside the arena of
+their operation. The ideal prayer has quite other objects than to work
+material changes.
+
+To say, as does Mr. Hodgson, that its aim is the increase of the joyful
+emotions is far from sufficient. The same may be said of most human
+effort, the effort to make money, for instance. The indirect object of
+money-making is also the increase of the agreeable feelings. The
+similarity of purpose might lead to a belief that the aims of religion
+and business are identical.
+
+Before we can fully decide on what, in the specifically religious sense
+of the word, is the answer to prayer, we should inquire as a matter of
+fact what effect it actually exerts, and to do this we should understand
+what it is as a psychological process. The reply to this is that prayer,
+in its psychological definition, is a form of Expectant Attention. It is
+always urged by religious teachers that it must be very earnest and
+continuous to be successful. “Importunity is of the essence of
+successful prayer,” says Canon Liddon in a recent sermon. In the New
+Testament it is likened to a constant knocking at a door; and by a
+curious parity of thought the Chinese character for prayer is composed
+of the signs for a spirit and an axe or hammer.[129-1] We must “keep
+hammering” as a colloquial phrase has it. Strong belief is also
+required. To pray with faith we must expect with confidence.
+
+Now that such a condition of expectant attention, prolonged and earnest,
+will have a very powerful subjective effect, no one acquainted with the
+functions of the human economy can doubt. “Any state of the body,”
+observes the physiologist Müller, “expected with certain confidence is
+very prone to ensue.” A pill of bread-crumbs, which the patient supposes
+to contain a powerful cathartic, will often produce copious evacuations.
+No one who studies the history of medicine can question that scrofulous
+swellings and ulcerations were cured by the royal touch, that paralytics
+have regained the use of their limbs by touching the relics of the
+saints, and that in many countries beside Judea the laying on of hands
+and the words of a holy man have made issues to heal and the lame to
+walk.[130-1]
+
+Such effects are not disputed by physicians as probable results of
+prayer or faith considered as expectant attention. The stigmata of St.
+Francis d’Assisi are more than paralleled by those of Louise Lateau, now
+living at Bois d’Haine in Belgium, whose hands, feet and side bleed
+every Friday like those of Christ on the cross. A commission of medical
+men after the most careful precautions against deception attributed
+these hemorrhages to the effect of expectation (prayer) vastly
+increased in force by repetition.[131-1] If human testimony is worth
+anything, the cures of Porte Royale are not open to dispute.[131-2]
+
+The mental consequences of a prayerful condition of mind are to inspire
+patience under afflictions, hope in adversity, courage in the presence
+of danger and a calm confidence in the face of death itself. How
+mightily such influences have worked in history is shown in every
+religious war, and in the lives of the martyrs of all faiths. It matters
+not what they believed, so only that they believed it thoroughly, and
+the gates of Hades could not prevail against them.
+
+No one will question that these various and momentous results are the
+legitimate effects or answers to prayers. But whether prayer can
+influence the working of the material forces external to the individual
+is a disputed point. If it cannot in some way do this, prayers for rain,
+for harvests, for safety at sea, for restoration to health, for delivery
+from grasshoppers[131-3] and pestilence, whether for our own benefit or
+others, are hardly worth reciting. A physicist expresses the one opinion
+in these words: “Science asserts that without a disturbance of natural
+law, quite as serious as the stoppage of an eclipse or the rolling of
+the St. Lawrence up the Falls of Niagara, no act of humiliation,
+individual or national, could call one shower from heaven or deflect
+toward us a single beam of the sun.” “Assuming the efficacy of free
+prayer to produce changes in external nature, it necessarily follows
+that natural laws are more or less at the mercy of man’s
+volition.”[132-1]
+
+This authoritative statement, much discussed at the time it was
+published, does not in fact express the assertion of science. To the
+scientific apprehension, man’s volitions and his prayers are states of
+emotion, inseparably connected in their manifestations with changes in
+his cerebral structure, with relative elevation of temperature, and with
+the elimination of oxygen and phosphorus, in other words with
+chemico-vital phenomena and the transformation of force. Science also
+adds that there is a constant interaction of all force, and it is not
+prepared to deny that the force expended by a national or individual
+prayer may become a co-operating cause in the material change asked
+for, even if the latter be a rain shower. This would not affect a
+natural law but only its operation, and that much every act of our life
+does. The fact that persistency and earnestness in prayer--_i. e._, the
+increased development of force--add to its efficacy, would accord with
+such a scientific view. It would further be very materially corroborated
+by the accepted doctrine of the orders of force. A unit of electrical or
+magnetic force equals many of the force of gravity; a number of
+electrical units are required to make one of chemical force; and
+chemico-vital or “metabolic” force is still higher; whereas thought
+regarded as a form of force must be vastly beyond this again.
+
+To render a loadstone, which lifts filings of iron by its magnetic
+force, capable of doing the same by the force of gravity, its density
+would have to be increased more than a thousand million times. All
+forces differ in like degree. Professor Faraday calculated that the
+force latent in the chemical composition of one drop of water, equals
+that manifested in an average thunderstorm. In our limited knowledge of
+the relation of forces therefore, a scientific man is rash to deny that
+the chemico-vital forces set loose by an earnest prayer may affect the
+operation of natural laws outside the body as they confessedly do in
+it.
+
+Experience alone can decide such a question, and I for one, from theory
+and from observation, believe in the material efficacy of prayer. In a
+certain percentage of the cases where the wished-for material result
+followed, the physical force of the active cerebral action has seemed to
+me a co-operating cause. A physician can observe this to best advantage
+in the sickness of children, as they are free from subjective bias,
+their constitutions are delicately susceptible, and the prayers for them
+are in their immediate vicinity and very earnest.
+
+But this admission after all is a barren one to the truly devout mind.
+The effect gained does not depend on the God to whom the prayer is
+offered. Blind physical laws bring it about, and any event that comes
+through their compulsive force is gelded of its power to fecundate the
+germs of the better religious life. The knowledge of this would paralyze
+faith.
+
+Further to attenuate the value of my admission, another consideration
+arises, this time prompted not by speculative criticism, but by
+reverence itself. A scholar whom I have already quoted justly observes:
+“Whenever we prefer a request as a means of obtaining what we wish for,
+we are not praying in the religious sense of the term.”[134-1] Or, as a
+recent theologian puts the same idea: “Every true prayer prays to be
+refused, if the granting of it would be hurtful to us or subversive of
+God’s glory.”[135-1] The real answer to prayer can never be an event or
+occurrence. Only in moments of spiritual weakness and obscured vision,
+when governed by his emotions or sensations, will the reverent soul ask
+a definite transaction, a modification in the operation of natural laws,
+still less such vulgar objects as victory, wealth or health.
+
+The prayer of faith finds its only true objective answer in itself, in
+accepting whatever befalls as the revelation of the will of God as to
+what is best. This temper of mind as the real meaning of prayer was
+beautifully set forth by St. John: “If we know that he hear us,
+whatsoever we ask, we know that we have the petitions that we desired of
+him.”[135-2]
+
+But this solution of the problem does not go far enough. Prayer is
+claimed to have a positive effect on the mind other than resignation.
+Joyful emotions are its fruits, _spiritual enlightenment_ its reward.
+These are more than cheerful acquiescence, nor can the latter come from
+objects of sense.
+
+The most eminent teachers agree in banishing material pleasure and
+prosperity from holy desires. They are of one mind in warning against
+what the world and the flesh can offer, against the pursuit of riches,
+power and lust. Many counsel poverty and deliberate renunciation of all
+such things. Nor is the happiness they talk of that which the pursuit of
+intellectual truth brings. This, indeed, confers joy, of which whoever
+has tasted will not hastily return to the fleshpots of the senses, but
+it is easy to see that it is not religious. Prayer and veneration have
+not a part in it. Great joy is likewise given by the exercise of the
+imagination when stirred by art in some of its varied forms, and a joy
+more nearly allied to religion than is that of scientific investigation.
+But the esthetic emotions are well defined, and are distinctly apart
+from those concerned with the religious sentiment. Their most complete
+satisfaction rather excludes than encourages pious meditations. That
+which prayer ought to seek outside of itself is different from all of
+these, its dower must be divine.
+
+We need not look long for it. Though hidden from the wise, it has ever
+been familiar to the unlearned. Man has never been in doubt as to what
+it is. He has been only too willing to believe he has received it.
+
+In barbarism and civilization, in the old and new worlds, the final
+answer to prayer has ever been acknowledged to be _inspiration_,
+revelation, the thought of God made clear to the mind of man, the
+mystical hypostasis through which the ideas of the human coincide with
+those of universal Intelligence. This is what the Pythian priestess, the
+Siberian shaman, the Roman sibyl, the Voluspan prophetess, the Indian
+medicine-man, all claimed in various degrees along with the Hebrew seers
+and the Mahometan teacher.[137-1]
+
+The TRUTH, the last and absolute truth, is what is everywhere recognized
+as, if not the only, at least the completest, the highest answer to
+prayer. “Where I found the truth, there I found my God, himself the
+truth,” says St. Augustine; and in a prayer by St. Chrysostom, the
+“Golden Mouth,” unsurpassed in its grand simplicity, it is said:
+“Almighty Father, * * grant us in this world _knowledge of Thy truth_,
+and in the world to come, life everlasting.” Never has the loftiest
+purpose of prayer been more completely stated. This it was that had been
+promised them by Him, to whom they looked as an Intercessor for their
+petitions, who had said: “I will send unto you the Comforter. * * When
+he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you unto all truth.”
+
+The belief that this answer is at all times attainable has always been
+recognized by the Christian Church, Apostolic, Catholic, and Protestant.
+Baptism was called by the Greek fathers, “enlightenment” (Φωτισμος), as
+by it the believer received the spirit of truth. The Romanist, in the
+dogma of infallibility, proclaims the perpetual inspiration of a living
+man; the Protestant Churches in many creeds and doctrinal works extend a
+substantial infallibility to all true believers, at least to the extent
+that they can be inspired to recognize, if not to receive divine verity.
+
+The Gallican Confession of Faith, adopted in 1561, rests the principal
+evidence of the truth of the Scriptures on “_le témoignage et
+l’intérieure persuasion du Saint Esprit_,” and the Westminster
+Confession on “the inward work of the holy spirit.” The Society of
+Friends maintain it as “a leading principle, that the work of the Holy
+Spirit in the soul is not only immediate and direct, but perceptible;”
+that it imparts truth “without any mixture of error;” and thus is
+something quite distinct from conscience, which is common to the race,
+while this “inward light” is given only to the favored of God.[138-1]
+
+The non-juror, William Law, emphatically says: “The Christian that
+rejects the necessity of immediate divine inspiration, pleads the whole
+cause of infidelity; he has nothing to prove the goodness of his own
+Christianity, but that which equally proves to the Deist the goodness of
+his infidelity.”[139-1] That by prayer the path of duty will be made
+clear, is a universal doctrine.
+
+The extent to which the gift of inspiration is supposed to be granted is
+largely a matter of church government. Where authority prevails, it is
+apt to be confined to those in power. Where religion is regarded as
+chiefly subjective and individual, it is conceded that any pious votary
+may become the receptacle of such special light.
+
+Experience, however, has too often shown that inspiration teaches such
+contradictory doctrines that they are incompatible with any standard.
+The indefinite splitting of Protestant sects has convinced all clear
+thinkers that the claim of the early Confessions to a divinely given
+power of distinguishing the true from the false has been a mistaken
+supposition. As a proof to an unbeliever, such a gift could avail
+nothing; and as evidence to one’s own mind, it can only be accepted by
+those who deliberately shut their eyes to the innumerable contradictions
+it offers.[140-1]
+
+While, therefore, in this, if anywhere, we perceive the only at once fit
+and definite answer to prayer, and find that this is acknowledged by all
+faiths, from the savage to the Christian, it would seem that this answer
+is a fallacious and futile one. The teachings of inspiration are
+infinitely discrepant and contradictory, and often plainly world-wide
+from the truth they pretend to embody. The case seems hopeless; yet, as
+religion of any kind without prayer is empty, there has been a proper
+unwillingness to adopt the conclusion just stated.
+
+The distinction has been made that “the inspiration of the Christian is
+altogether _subjective_, and directed to the moral improvement of the
+individual,”[140-2] not to facts of history or questions of science,
+even exegetic science. The term _illumination_ has been preferred for
+it, and while it is still defined as “a spiritual intelligence which
+brings truth within the range of mental apprehension by a kind of
+intuition,”[141-1] this truth has reference only to immediate matters of
+individual faith and practice. The Roman church allows more latitude
+than this, as it sanctions revelations concerning events, but not
+concerning doctrines.[141-2]
+
+Looked at narrowly, the advantage which inspiration has been to
+religions has not so much depended on what it taught, as on its strength
+as a psychological motive power. As a general mental phenomenon it does
+not so much concern knowledge as belief; its province is to teach faith
+rather than facts. No conviction can equal that which arises from an
+assertion of God directly to ourselves. The force of the argument lies
+not in the question whether he did address us, but whether we believe he
+did. As a stimulus to action, prayer thus rises to a prime power.
+
+Belief is considered by Professor Bain and his school to be the ultimate
+postulate, the final ground of intellection. It is of the utmost
+importance, however,--and this Professor Bain fails to do--to
+distinguish between two kinds of belief. There are men who believe and
+others who disbelieve the Koran or the Bible; I can accept or reject
+the historical existence of King Arthur or Napoleon; but, if I
+understand them, I cannot disbelieve the demonstrations of Euclid, nor
+the relations of subject and object, nor the formal laws of thought. No
+sane man, acquainted with the properties of numbers, can believe that
+twice three are ten, or that a thing can be thought as other than
+itself. These truths that “we cannot help believing,” I have defined in
+the first chapter as absolute truths. They do not come to us through
+testimony and induction, but through a process variously called
+“immediate perception,” “apprehension,” or “intuition,” a process long
+known but never satisfactorily explained.
+
+All such truths are analytic, that is, they are true, not merely for a
+given time or place, but at all times and places conceivable, or, time
+and space out of the question, they still remain formally true. Of
+course, therefore, they cannot refer to historic occurrences nor
+phenomena. The modern position, that truth lies in facts, must be
+forsaken, and with the ancients, we must place it in ideas.
+
+If we define inspiration as that condition of mind which is in the
+highest degree sensitive to the presence of such truth, we have of it
+the only worthy idea which it is possible to frame. The object of
+scientific investigation is to reach a truth which can neither be denied
+nor doubted. If religion is willing to content itself with any lower
+form of truth, it cannot support its claims to respect, let alone
+reverence.
+
+It may be said that the subjects with which the religious sentiment
+concerns itself are not such as are capable of this absolute expression.
+This is, however, disclaimed by all great reformers, and by none more
+emphatically than by him who said: “Heaven and earth shall pass away,
+but my statements (λογοι) shall not pass away.” There is clear reference
+here to absolute truths. If what we know of God, duty and life, is not
+capable of expression except in historic narrative and synthetic terms,
+the sooner we drop their consideration the better. That form sufficed
+for a time, but can no longer, when a higher is generally known. As the
+mathematical surpasses the historic truth, so the former is in turn
+transcended by the purely logical, and in this, if anywhere, religion
+must rest its claims for recognition. Here is the arena of the theology
+of the future, not in the decrees of councils, nor in the records of
+past time.
+
+Inspiration, in its religious sense, we may, therefore, define to be
+that condition of mind in which the truths relating to deity and duty
+become in whole or in part the subjects of immediate perception.
+
+That such a condition is possible will be granted. Every reformer who
+has made a permanent betterment in the religion of his time has
+possessed it in some degree. He who first conceived the Kosmos under
+logical unity as an orderly whole, had it in singular power; so too had
+he who looking into the mind became aware of its purposive laws which
+are the everlasting warrants of duty. Some nations have possessed it in
+remarkable fulness, none more so than the descendants of Abraham, from
+himself, who left his kindred and his father’s house at the word of God,
+through many eminent seers down to Spinoza, who likewise forsook his
+tribe to obey the inspirations vouchsafed him; surpassing them all,
+Jesus of Nazareth, to whose mind, as he waxed in wisdom, the truth
+unfolded itself in such surpassing clearness that neither his immediate
+disciples nor any generations since have fathomed all the significance
+of his words.
+
+Such minds do not need development and organic transmission of thought
+to enrich their stores. We may suppose the organization of their brains
+to be so perfect that their functions are always accordant with true
+reasoning, so self-prompting, that a hint of the problem is all they ask
+to arrive at its demonstration. Blaise Pascal, when a boy of twelve,
+whose education had been carefully restrained, once asked his father
+what is geometry. The latter replied that it is a method devised to draw
+figures correctly, but forbade any further inquiry about it. On this
+hint Pascal, by himself, unassisted, without so much as knowing the name
+of a line or circle, reached in a few weeks to the demonstration of the
+thirty-second problem of the first book of Euclid! Is it not possible
+for a mind equally productive of religious truth to surpass with no less
+ease its age on such subjects?
+
+As what Newton so well called “patient thought,” constant application,
+prolonged attention, is the means on which even great minds must rely in
+order to reach the sempiternal verities of science, so earnest continued
+prayer is that which all teachers prescribe as the only avenue to
+inspiration in its religious sense. While this may be conceded,
+collaterals of the prayer have too often been made to appear trivial and
+ridiculous.
+
+In the pursuit of inspiration the methods observed present an
+interesting similarity. The votary who aspires to a communion with the
+god, shuts himself out from the distraction of social intercourse and
+the disturbing allurements of the senses. In the solitude of the forest
+or the cell, with complete bodily inaction, he gives himself to fasting
+and devotion, to a concentration of all his mind on the one object of
+his wish, the expected revelation. Waking and sleeping he banishes all
+other topics of thought, perhaps by an incessant repetition of a
+formula, until at last the moment comes, as it surely will come in some
+access of hallucination, furor or ecstasy, the unfailing accompaniments
+of excessive mental strain, when the mist seems to roll away from the
+mortal vision, the inimical powers which darkened the mind are baffled,
+and the word of the Creator makes itself articulate to the creature.
+
+Take any connected account of the revelation of the divine will, and
+this history is substantially the same. It differs but little whether
+told of Buddha Sakyamuni, the royal seer of Kapilavastu, or by Catherine
+Wabose, the Chipeway squaw,[146-1] concerning the _Revelations_ of St.
+Gertrude of Nivelles or of Saint Brigida, or in the homely language of
+the cobbler George Fox.
+
+For six years did Sakyamuni wander in the forest, practising the
+mortifications of the flesh and combatting the temptations of the
+devil,before[TN-8] the final night when, after overcoming the crowning
+enticements of beauty, power and wealth, at a certain moment he became
+the “awakened,” and knew himself in all his previous births, and with
+that knowledge soared above the “divine illusion” of existence. In the
+cave of Hari, Mohammed fasted and prayed until “the night of the divine
+decisions;” then he saw the angel Gabriel approach and inspire him:
+
+    “A revelation was revealed to him:
+    One terrible in power taught it him,
+    Endowed with wisdom. With firm step stood he,
+    There, where the horizon is highest,
+    Then came he near and nearer,
+    A matter of two bowshots or closer,
+    And he revealed to his servant a revelation;
+    He has falsified not what he saw.”[147-1]
+
+With not dissimilar preparation did George Fox seek the “openings” which
+revealed to him the hollowness of the Christianity of his day, in
+contrast to the truth he found. In his _Journal_ he records that for
+months he “fasted much, walked around in solitary places, and sate in
+hollow trees and lonesome places, and frequently in the night walked
+mournfully about.” When the word of truth came to him it was of a
+sudden, “through the immediate opening of the invisible spirit.” Then a
+new life commenced for him: “Now was I come up in Spirit through the
+flaming sword into the Paradise of God. All things were new: all the
+creation gave another smell unto me than before.” The healing virtues of
+all herbs were straightway made known to him, and the needful truths
+about the kingdom of God.[147-2]
+
+These are portraitures of the condition of _entheasm_. Its lineaments
+are the same, find it where we may.
+
+How is this similarity to be explained? Is it that this alleged
+inspiration is always but the dream of a half-crazed brain? The deep and
+real truths it has now and then revealed, the noble results it has
+occasionally achieved, do not allow this view. A more worthy explanation
+is at hand.
+
+These preliminaries of inspiration are in fact but a parody, sometimes a
+caricature, of the most intense intellectual action as shown in the
+efforts of creative thought. The physiological characteristics of such
+mental episodes indicate a lowering of the animal life, the respiration
+is faint and slow, the pulse loses in force and frequency, the nerves of
+special sense are almost inhibited, the eye is fixed and records no
+impression, the ear registers no sound, necessary motions are performed
+unconsciously, the condition approaches that of trance. There is also an
+alarming similarity at times between the action of genius and of
+madness, as is well known to alienists.
+
+When the creative thought appears, it does so suddenly; it breaks upon
+the mind when partly engaged with something else as an instantaneous
+flash, apparently out of connection with previous efforts. This is the
+history of all great discoveries, and it has been abundantly illustrated
+from the lives of inventors, artists, poets and mathematicians. The
+links of such a mental procedure we do not know. “The product of
+inspiration, genius, is incomprehensible to itself. Its activity
+proceeds on no beaten track, and we seek in vain to trace its footsteps.
+There is no warrant for the value of its efforts. This it can alone
+secure through voluntary submission to law. All its powers are centred
+in the energy of production, and none is left for idle watching of the
+process.”[149-1]
+
+The prevalent theory of the day is that this mental action is one
+essentially hidden from the mind itself. The name “unconscious
+cerebration” has been proposed for it by Dr. Carpenter, and he has amply
+and ably illustrated its peculiarities. But his theory has encountered
+just criticism, and I am persuaded does not meet the requirements of the
+case. Whether at such moments the mind actually receives some impulse
+from without, as is the religious theory, or, as science more willingly
+teaches, certain associations are more easily achieved when the mind is
+partially engaged with other trains of ideas, we cannot be sure. We can
+only say of it, in the words of Dr. Henry Maudsley, the result “is truly
+an inspiration, coming we know not whence.” Whatever it is, we recognize
+in it the original of that of which religious hallucination is the
+counterfeit presentment. So similar are the processes that their
+liability to be confounded has been expressly guarded against.[150-1]
+
+The prevalence of such caricatures does not prove the absence of the
+sterling article. They rather show that the mind is conscious of the
+possibility of reaching a frame or mood in which it perceives what it
+seeks, immediately and correctly. Buddhism distinctly asserts this to be
+the condition of “the stage of intuitive insight;” and Protestant
+Christianity commenced with the same opinion. Every prayer for guidance
+in the path of duty assumes it. The error is in applying such a method
+where it is incompatible, to facts of history and the phenomena of
+physical force. Confined to the realm of ideas, to which alone the norm
+of the true and untrue is applicable, there is no valid evidence
+against, and many theoretical reasons for, respecting prayer as a fit
+psychological preparation for those obscure and unconscious processes,
+through which the mind accomplishes its best work.
+
+The intellect, exalted by dwelling upon the sublimest subjects of
+thought, warmed into highest activity by the flames of devotion,
+spurning as sterile and vain the offers of time and the enticements of
+sense, may certainly be then in the mood fittest to achieve its greatest
+victories. But no narrowed heaven must cloud it, no man-made god
+obstruct its gaze. Free from superstition and prejudice, it must be
+ready to follow wherever the voice of reason shall lead it. All inspired
+men have commenced by freeing themselves from inherited forms of Belief
+in order that with undiverted attention they might listen to the
+promptings of the divinity within their souls. One of the greatest of
+them and one the most free from the charge of prejudice, has said that
+to this end prayer is the means.[151-1]
+
+He who believes that the ultimate truth is commensurate with reason,
+finds no stumbling-block in the doctrine that there may be laws through
+whose action inspiration is the enlightenment of mind as it exists in
+man, by mind as it underlies the motions which make up matter. The truth
+thus reached is not the formulæ of the Calculus, nor the verbiage of the
+Dialectic, still less the events of history, but that which gives what
+validity they have to all of these, and moreover imparts to the will and
+the conscience their power to govern conduct.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[119-1] The “silent worship” of the Quakers is defended by the writers
+of that sect, on the ground that prayer is “often very imperfectly
+performed and sometimes materially interrupted by the use of words.”
+Joseph John Gurney, _The Distinguishing Views and Practice of the
+Society of Friends_, p. 300. (London, 1834.)
+
+[119-2] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Völker_, Bd. I., s.
+162.
+
+[119-3] The learned Bishop Butler, author of the _Analogy of Religion_,
+justly gives prominence to “our expectation of future benefits,” as a
+reason for gratitude to God. _Sermons_, p. 155. (London, 1841.)
+
+[122-1] The expressions of Confucius’ religious views may be found in
+_The Doctrine of the Mean_, chaps. xiii., xvi., the _Analects_, i., 99,
+100, vii., and in a few other passages of the canonical books.
+
+[126-1] _An Inquiry into the Theory of Practice_, p. 330.
+
+[127-1] _Symbolik und Mythologie der Alten Völker._ Bd. I., ss. 165,
+sqq. One of the most favorable examples (not mentioned by Creuzer) is
+the formula with which Apollonius of Tyana closed every prayer and gave
+as the summary of all: “Give me, ye Gods, what I deserve”--Δοιητε μοι τα
+οφειλομενα. The Christian’s comment on this would be in the words of
+Hamlet’s reply to Polonius: “God’s bodkin, man! use every man after his
+desert and who should ’scape whipping?”
+
+[128-1] Aurelii Augustini, _De Dono Perseverantiæ_, cap. xx. Comte
+remarks “Depuis St. Augustin toutes les âmes pures ont de plus en plus
+senti, à travers l’égoisme Chrétien, que prier peut n’être pas
+demander.” _Système de Politique Positive_, I., p. 260. Popular
+Protestantism has retrograded in this respect.
+
+[129-1] Plath, _Die Religion und Cultus der alten Chineser_, s. 836.
+This author observes that the Chinese prayers are confined to temporal
+benefits only, and are all either prayers of petition or gratitude.
+Prayers of contrition are unknown.
+
+[130-1] Numerous examples can be found in medical text books, for
+instance in Dr. Tuke’s, _The Influence of the Mind on the Body_. London,
+1873.
+
+[131-1] The commission appointed by the Royal Academy of Medicine of
+Belgium on Louise Lateau reported in March, 1875, and most of the
+medical periodicals of that year contain abstracts of its paper.
+
+[131-2] They may be found in the life of Pascal, written by his sister,
+and in many other works of the time.
+
+[131-3] It is worthy of note, as an exponent of the condition of
+religious thought in 1875, that in May of that year the Governor of the
+State of Missouri appointed by official proclamation a day of prayer to
+check the advance of the grasshoppers. He should also have requested the
+clergy to pronounce the ban of the Church against them, as the Bishop of
+Rheims did in the ninth century.
+
+[132-1] Tyndall, _On Prayer and Natural Law_, 1872.
+
+[134-1] S. M. Hodgson, _An Inquiry into the Theory of Practice_, pp.
+329, 330.
+
+[135-1] The Rev. Dr. Thomas K. Conrad, _Thoughts on Prayer_, p. 54: New
+York, 1875.
+
+[135-2] I. John, v. 15. “There are millions of prayers,” says Richard
+Baxter, “that will all be found answered at death and judgment, which we
+know not to be answered any way but by believing it.” _A Christian
+Directory_, Part II. chap. xxiii.
+
+[137-1] “So wie das Gebet ein Hauptwurzel alter Lehre war, so war das
+Deuten und Offenbaren ihre ursprüngliche Form.” Creuzer, _Symbolik und
+Mythologie der alten Völker_, Bd. I., s. 10. It were more accurate to
+say that divination is the answer to, rather than a form of prayer.
+
+[138-1] Joseph John Gurney, _The Distinguishing Views and Practices of
+the Society of Friends_, pp. 58, 59, 76, 78. An easy consequence of this
+view was to place the decrees of the internal monitor above the written
+word. This was advocated mainly by Elias Hicks, who expressed his
+doctrine in the words: “As no spring can rise higher than its fountain,
+so likewise the Scriptures can only direct to the fountain whence they
+originated--the Spirit of Truth.” _Letters of Elias Hicks_, p. 228
+(Phila., 1861).
+
+[139-1] _Address to the Clergy_, p. 67.
+
+[140-1] See an intelligent note on this subject in the Rev. Wm. Lee’s
+work, entitled _The Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures_, pp. 44, 47
+(London and New York, 1857).
+
+[140-2] Rev. William Lee, _u. s._, p. 243.
+
+[141-1] Blunt, _Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology_, s. v.
+
+[141-2] There is a carefully written essay on the views of the Romish
+Church on this subject, preceding _The Revelations of Saint Brigida_ (N.
+Y. 1875).
+
+[146-1] Chusco or Catherine Wabose, “the prophetess of Chegoimegon,” has
+left a full and psychologically most valuable account of her
+inspiration. It is published in Schoolcraft’s _History and Statistics of
+the Indian Tribes_, Vol. I., p. 390, sqq.
+
+[147-1] _The Koran_, Sura liii. This is in date one of the earliest
+suras.
+
+[147-2] _The Journal of George Fox_, pp. 59, 67, 69.
+
+[149-1] Wilhelm von Humboldt, _Gesammelte Werke_, Bd. iv., s. 278.
+
+[150-1] In his treatise _De Veritate_, itself the subject, as its author
+thought, of a special revelation, Lord Herbert of Cherbury, gives as one
+of the earmarks of a real revelation: “ut afflatum Divini numinis
+sentias, ita enim internæ Facultatum circa veritatem operationes a
+revelationibus externis distinguuntur.” p. 226.
+
+[151-1] Spinoza, _Espistolæ et Responsionnes_, Ep. xxxiv.
+
+
+
+
+THE MYTH AND THE MYTHICAL CYCLES.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     Myths are inspirations concerning the Unknown. Science treats them
+     as apperceptions of the relations of man and nature. Moments of
+     their growth, as treated by mythological science. Their similar
+     forms, explained variously, the topic of the philosophy of
+     mythology. The ante-mythical period. Myths have centred chiefly
+     around three subjects, each giving rise to a Mythical Cycle.
+
+     I. The Epochs of Nature.
+
+     The idea of Time led to the myth of a creation. This starting the
+     question, What was going on before creation? recourse was had to
+     the myth of recurrent epochs. The last epoch gave origin to the
+     Flood Myths; the coming one to that of the Day of Judgment.
+
+     II. The Paradise lost and to be re-gained.
+
+     To man, the past and the future are ever better than the present.
+     He imagines a Golden Age in the past and believes it will return.
+     The material Paradise he dreams of in his ruder conditions, becomes
+     a spiritual one with intellectual advancement. The basis of this
+     belief.
+
+     III. The Hierarchy of the Gods.
+
+     The earliest hierarchy is a dual classification of the gods into
+     those who help and those who hinder the fruition of desire. Light
+     and darkness typify the contrast. Divinity thus conceived under
+     numerical separateness. Monotheisms do not escape this. The triune
+     nature of single gods. The truly religious and only philosophic
+     notion of divinity is under logical, not mathematical unity. This
+     discards mythical conceptions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE MYTH AND THE MYTHICAL CYCLES.
+
+
+Returning again to the definition of the elemental religious
+sentiment--“a Wish whose fruition depends upon unknown power”--it
+enables us to class all those notions, opinions and narratives, which
+constitute mythologies, creeds and dogmas, as theories respecting the
+nature and action of the unknown power. Of course they are not
+recognized as theories. They arise unconsciously or are received by
+tradition, oral or written, and always come with the stamp of divinity
+through inspiration and revelation. None but a god can tell the secrets
+of the gods.
+
+Therefore they are the most sacred of all things, and they partake of
+the holiness and immutability which belong to the unknown power itself.
+To misplace a vowel point in copying the sacred books was esteemed a sin
+by the Rabbis, and a pious Mussulman will not employ the same pen to
+copy a verse of the Koran and an ordinary letter. There are many
+Christians who suppose the saying: “Heaven and earth shall pass away,
+but My Words shall not pass away,” has reference to the words of the Old
+and New Testament. “What shall remain to us,” asked Ananda, the disciple
+of Buddha, “when thou shalt have gone hence into Nirvana?” “My Word
+(_dharma_),” replied the Master. Names thus came to be as holy as the
+objects to which they referred. So sacred was that of Jehovah to the
+Israelites that its original sound was finally lost. Such views are
+consistent enough to the Buddhist, who, assuming all existence to be but
+imaginary, justly infers that the name is full as much as the object.
+
+The science of mythology has made long strides in the last half century.
+It has left far behind it the old euphemeristic view that the myth is a
+distorted historical tradition, as well as the theories not long since
+in vogue, that it was a system of natural philosophy, a device of shrewd
+rulers, or as Bacon thought, a series of “instructive fables.” The
+primitive form of the myth is now recognized to be made up from the
+notions which man gains of the manifestations of force in external
+nature, in their supposed relations to himself. In technical language it
+may be defined as _the apperception of man and nature under synthetic
+conceptions_.[156-1]
+
+This primitive form undergoes numerous changes, to trace and illustrate
+which, has been the special task assumed by the many recent writers on
+mythology. In some instances these changes are owing to the blending of
+the myth with traditions of facts, forming a quasi-historical narrative,
+the _saga;_ in others, elaborated by a poetic fancy and enriched by the
+imagination, it becomes a fairy tale, the _märchen_. Again, the myth
+being a product of creative thought, existing in words only, as language
+changes, it alters through forgetfulness of the earlier meanings of
+words, through similarities in sounds deceiving the ear, or through a
+confusion of the literal with the metaphorical signification of the same
+word. The character of languages also favors or retards such changes,
+pliable and easily modified ones, such as those of the American Indians,
+and in a less degree those of the Aryan nations, favoring a developed
+mythology, while rigid and monosyllabic ones, as the Chinese and Semitic
+types, offer fewer facilities to such variations. Furthermore, tribal or
+national history, the peculiar difficulties which retard the growth of
+a community, and the geographical and climatic character of its
+surroundings, give prominence to certain features in its mythology, and
+to the absence of others. Myths originally diverse are blended, either
+unconsciously, as that of the Roman Saturn with the Greek Cronus; or
+consciously, as when the medieval missionaries transferred the deeds of
+the German gods to Christian saints. Lastly, the prevailing temperament
+of a nation, its psychology, gives a strong color to its mythical
+conceptions, and imprints upon them the national peculiarities.
+
+The judicious student of mythology must carefully weigh all these
+formative agents, and assign each its value. They are all present in
+every mythology, but in varying force. His object is accomplished when
+he can point out the causal relation between the various features of a
+myth and these governing agencies.
+
+Such is the science of mythology. The philosophy of mythology undertakes
+to set forth the unities of form which exist in various myths, and
+putting aside whatever of this uniformity is explainable historically,
+proposes to illustrate from what remains the intellectual need myths
+were unconsciously framed to gratify, to measure their success in this
+attempt, and if they have not been wholly successful, to point out why
+and in what respect they have failed. In a study preliminary to the
+present one, I have attempted to apply the rules of mythological science
+to the limited area of the native American race; in the present chapter
+I shall deal mainly with the philosophy of mythology.
+
+The objection may be urged at starting that there is no such unity of
+form in myths as the philosophy of mythology assumes; that if it
+appears, it is always explainable historically.
+
+A little investigation sets this objection aside. Certain features must
+be common to all myths. A divinity must appear in them and his doings
+with men must be recorded. A reasonable being can hardly think at all
+without asking himself, “Whence come I, my fellows, and these things
+which I see? And what will become of us all?” So some myth is sure to be
+created at an early stage of thought which the parent can tell the
+child, the wise man his disciple, containing responses to such
+questions.
+
+But this reasoning from probability is needless, for the similarity of
+mythical tales in very distant nations, where no hypothesis of ancient
+intercourse is justified, is one of the best ascertained and most
+striking discoveries of modern mythological investigation.[159-1] The
+general character of “solar myths” is familiar to most readers, and the
+persistency with which they have been applied to the explanation of
+generally received historical facts, as well as to the familiar fairy
+tales of childhood, has been pushed so far as to become the subject of
+satire and caricature. The myths of the Dawn have been so frequently
+brought to public notice in the popular writings of Professor Max
+Müller, that their general distribution may be taken as well known. The
+same may be said of the storm myths. Wilhelm von Humboldt, who thought
+deeply on the religious nature of man, said early in this century:
+“Wholly similar myths can very readily arise in different localities,
+each independent of the others.”[160-1]
+
+This similarity is in a measure owing to the similar impressions which
+the same phenomenon, the sunrise or the thunder-storm for instance,
+makes on the mind--and to this extent the science of mythology is
+adequate to its explanation. But that it falls short is so generally
+acknowledged, that various other explanations have been offered.
+
+These may be classed as the skeptical explanation, which claims that the
+likeness of the myths is vastly exaggerated and much more the work of
+the scholar at his desk than of the honest worshipper; the historical
+explanation, which suggests unrecorded proselytisms, forgotten
+communications and the possible original unity of widely separated
+nations; the theological explanations, often discrepant, one suggesting
+caricatures of the sacred narrative inspired by the Devil, another
+reminiscences of a primeval inspiration, and a third the unconscious
+testimony of heathendom to orthodoxy;[161-1] and lastly the metaphysical
+explanation, which seems at present to be the fashionable one, expressed
+nearly alike by Steinthal and Max Müller, which cuts the knot by
+crediting man with “an innate consciousness of the Absolute,” or as
+Renan puts it, “a profound instinct of deity.”
+
+The philosophy of mythology, differing from all these, finding beyond
+question similarities which history cannot unriddle, interprets them by
+no incomprehensible assumption, but by the identity of the laws of
+thought acting on similar impressions under the guidance of known
+categories of thought. Nor does it stop here, but proceeds to appraise
+these results by the general scheme of truth and error. It asks for
+what psychological purpose man has so universally imagined for himself
+gods--pure creations of his fancy;--whether that purpose can now or will
+ultimately be better attained by an exercise of his intellect more in
+accordance with the laws of right reasoning; and thus seeking to define
+the genuine food of the religious desire, estimates the quality and
+value of each mythological system by the nearness of its approach to
+this standard.
+
+The philosophy of mythology, starting with the wish or prayer as the
+unit of religious thought, regards all myths as theories about the
+unknown power which is supposed to grant or withhold the accomplishment
+of the wish. These theories are all based upon the postulate of the
+religious sentiment, that there is order in things; but they differ from
+scientific theories in recognizing volition as an efficient cause of
+order.
+
+The very earliest efforts at religious thought do not rise to the
+formation of myths, that is, connected narratives about supernatural
+beings. All unknown power is embraced under a word which does not convey
+the notion of personality; single exhibitions of power which threaten
+man’s life are supposed to be the doings of an unseen person, often of a
+deceased man, whose memory survives; but any general theory of a
+hierarchy, or of the world or man, is not yet visible. Even such
+immature notions are, however, so far as they go, framed within the
+category of causality; only, the will of the god takes the place of all
+other force. This stage of religious thought has been called Animism, a
+name which does not express its peculiarity, which is, that all force is
+not only supposed to proceed from mind, but through what metaphysicians
+call “immanent volition,” that is, through will independent of relation.
+Mind as “emanant volition,” in unison with matter and law, the “seat of
+law,” to use an expression of Professor Boole’s, may prove the highest
+conception of force.
+
+As the slowly growing reason reached more general notions, the law which
+prescribes unity as a condition of thought led man early in his history
+to look upon nature as one, and to seek for some one law of its changes;
+the experience of social order impressed him with the belief that the
+unseen agencies around him also bore relations to each other, and
+acknowledged subjection to a leader; and the pangs of sickness, hunger
+and terror to which he was daily exposed, and more than all the “last
+and greatest of all terribles, death,” which he so often witnessed,
+turned his early meditations toward his own origin and destiny.
+
+Around these three subjects of thought his fancy busied itself, striving
+to fabricate some theory which would solve the enigmas which his reason
+everywhere met, some belief which would relieve him from the haunting
+horror of the unknown. Hence arose three great cycles of myths, which
+recur with strangely similar physiognomies in all continents and among
+all races. They are the myths of the Epochs of Nature, the Hierarchy of
+the Gods, and of the Paradise lost but to be regained. Wherever we turn,
+whether to the Assyrian tablets or to the verses of the Voluspa, to the
+crude fancies of the red man of the new world or the black man of the
+African plateau, to the sacred books of the modern Christian or of the
+ancient Brahman, we find these same questions occupying his mind, and in
+meaning and in form the same solutions proffered. Through what
+intellectual operations he reached these solutions, and their validity,
+as tested by the known criteria of truth, it is the province of the
+philosophy of mythology to determine.
+
+Let us study the psychological growth of the myth of the Epochs of
+Nature. This tells of the World, its beginning, its convulsions and its
+ending, and thus embraces the three minor cycles of the cosmogonical,
+the cataclysmal and the eschatological myths.
+
+Nature is known to man only as _force_, which manifests itself in
+_change_. He is so constituted that “the idea of an event, a change,
+without the idea of a cause, is impossible” to him. But in passing from
+the occurrence to its cause the idea of Time is unavoidable; it presents
+itself as the one inevitable condition of change; itself unwearing, it
+wears out all else; it includes all existence, as the greater does the
+less; and as “causation is necessarily within existence,”[165-1] time is
+beyond existence and includes the nonexistent as well. Whatever it
+creates, it also destroys; and as even the gods are but existences, it
+will swallow them. It renders vain all pleasures, and carries the balm
+of a certain oblivion for all woes.
+
+This oppressive sense of time, regarded not in its real meaning as one
+of the conditions of perception, but as an active force destroying
+thought as well as motion, recurs continually in mythology. To the
+Greek, indefinite time as Cronos, was the oldest of the gods, begetting
+numberless children, but with unnatural act consuming them again; while
+definite time, as the Horæ, were the blithe goddesses of the order in
+nature and the recurrent seasons. Osiris, supreme god of the Egyptians,
+was born of a yet older god, Sev, Time. Adonis and Aeon acknowledge the
+same parentage.[165-2] The ancient Arab spoke of time (_dahr_, _zaman_)
+as the final, defining principle; as uniting and separating all things;
+and as swallowing one thing after another as the camel drains the water
+from a trough.[166-1] In the Koran it is written: “Time alone destroys
+us.” Here and there, through the sacred songs of the Parsees, composed
+long before Aristotle wrote, beyond all the dust and noise of the
+everlasting conflict of good and evil, of Ahura Mazda and Anya-Mainyus,
+there are glimpses of a deeper power, Zeruana Akerana, Eternal Duration,
+unmoved by act or thought, in the face of which these bitter opponents
+are seen to be children, brethren, “twin sons of Time.”[166-2] The
+Alexandrian Gnostics, in their explanations of Christian dogmas,
+identify Aeon, infinite time, with God the Father, as the source and
+fount of existence; not merely as a predicate of the highest, but the
+Highest himself.
+
+This heavy-weighing sense of the infinity of duration, and the urgency
+of escaping from the weariness of thinking it, led to the construction
+of the myth of the Creation. Man devised it so that he might be able to
+say, “in the beginning.” But a new difficulty met him at the
+threshold--as change must be in existence, “we cannot think of a change
+from non-existence to existence.” His only refuge was to select some
+apparently primordial, simple, homogeneous substance from which, by the
+exertion of volition, things came into being. The one which most
+naturally suggested itself was _water_.[167-1] This does in fact cover
+and hide the land, and the act of creation was often described as the
+emerging of the dry land from the water; it dissolves and wears away the
+hard rock; and, diminishing all things, itself neither diminishes nor
+increases. Therefore nearly all cosmogonical myths are but variations of
+that one familiar to us all: “And God said, Let the waters under the
+heaven be gathered together in one place, and let the dry land appear;
+and it was so.” The manifestation of the primordial energy was supposed
+to have been akin to that which is shown in organic reproduction. The
+myths of the primeval egg from which life proceeded, of the mighty bird
+typical of the Holy Spirit which “brooded” upon the waters, of Love
+developing the Kosmos from the Chaos, of the bull bringing the world
+from the waters, of Protogonus, the “egg-born,” the “multispermed,” and
+countless others, point to the application of one or the other, or of
+both these explanations.[167-2]
+
+In them the early thinkers found some rest: but not for long. The
+perplexity of the presence of this immediate order of things seemed
+solved; but another kept obtruding itself: what was going on before that
+“beginning?” Vain to stifle the inquiry by replying, “nothing.”[168-1]
+For time, which knows no beginning, was there, still building, still
+destroying; nothing can be put to it, nor anything taken from it. What
+then is left but the conclusion of the Preacher: “That which hath been,
+is now; and that which is to be, hath already been?” Regarding time as a
+form of force, the only possible history of the material universe is
+that it is a series of destructions and restorations, force latent
+evolving into force active or energy, and this dissipated and absorbed
+again into latency.
+
+Expressed in myths, these destructions and restorations are the Epochs
+of Nature. They are an essential part of the religious traditions of the
+Brahmans, Persians, Parsees, Greeks, Egyptians, Jews, Mexicans, Mayas,
+and of all nations who have reached a certain stage of culture. The
+length of the intervening periods may widely differ. The kalpa or great
+year of the Brahmans is so long that were a cube of granite a hundred
+yards each way brushed once in a century by a soft cloth, it would be
+quite worn to dust before the kalpa would close: or, as some Christians
+believe, there may be but six thousand years, six days of God in whose
+sight “a thousand years are as one day,” between the creation and the
+cremation of the world, from when it rose from the waters until it shall
+be consumed by the fire.
+
+There were also various views about the agents and the completeness of
+these periodical destructions. In the Norse mythology and in the
+doctrine of Buddhism, not one of the gods can survive the fire of the
+last day. Among the Greeks, great Jove alone will await the appearance
+of the virgin world after the icy winter and the fiery summer of the
+Great Year. The Brahmans hold that the higher classes of gods outlive
+the wreck of things which, at the close of the day of Brahm, involves
+all men and many divinities in elemental chaos; while elsewhere, in the
+later Puranas and in the myths of Mexico, Peru, and Assyria, one or a
+few of the race of man escape a deluge which is universal, and serve to
+people the new-made earth. This latter supposition, in its application
+to the last epoch of nature, is the origin of the myth of the Flood.
+
+In its general features and even in many details, the story of a vast
+overflow which drowned the world, and from which by the timely succor
+of divinity some man was preserved, and after the waters had subsided
+became the progenitor of the race, is exceedingly common among distant
+tribes, where it is impossible to explain it as a reminiscence of a
+historic occurrence, or by community of religious doctrine. In Judea
+Noah, in India Manu, in Chaldea Xisuthrus, in Assyria Oannes, in Aztlan
+Nata, in Algonkin tradition Messou, in Brazil Monan, etc., are all
+heroes of similar alleged occurrences. In all of them the story is but a
+modification of that of the creation in time from the primeval
+waters.[170-1]
+
+“As it was once, so it shall be again,” and as the present age of the
+world wears out, the myth teaches that things will once more fall back
+to universal chaos. “The expectation of the end of the world is a
+natural complement to the belief in its periodical destructions.” It is
+taught with distinctness by all religious systems, by the prophetess in
+the Voluspa, by the Hebrew seers,[171-1] by the writer of the
+Apocalypse, by the Eastern sages, Persian and Indian, by the Roman
+Sibyl, and among the savage and semi-civilized races of the New World.
+
+Often that looked for destruction was associated with the divine plans
+for man. This was an addition to the simplicity of the original myth,
+but an easy and a popular one. The Indian of our prairies still looks
+forward to the time when the rivers shall rise, and submerging the land
+sweep from its surface the pale-faced intruders, and restore it to its
+original owners. Impatient under the ceaseless disappointments of life,
+and worn out with the pains which seem inseparable from this condition
+of things, the believer gives up his hopes for this world, and losing
+his faith in the final conquest of the good, thinks it only attainable
+by the total annihilation of the present conditions. He looks for it,
+therefore, in the next great age, in the new heaven and the new earth,
+when the spirit of evil shall be bound and shut up, and the chosen
+people possess the land, “and grow up as calves of the stall.”[172-1]
+
+This is to be inaugurated by the Day of Judgment, “the day of wrath, the
+dreadful day,” in which God is to come in his power and pronounce his
+final decrees on those who have neglected the observance due him. The
+myth, originally one relating to the procession of natural forces, thus
+assumed with the increasing depth of the religious sentiment more and
+more a moral and subjective coloring, until finally its old and simple
+form was altogether discarded, or treated as symbolic only.
+
+The myth of the Epochs of Nature was at first a theory to account for
+the existing order of nature. For a long time it satisfied the inquiring
+mind, if not with a solution at least with an answer to its queries.
+After geologic science had learned to decipher the facts of the world’s
+growth as written on the stones which orb it, the religious mind fondly
+identified the upheavals and cataclysms there recorded with those which
+its own fancy had long since fabricated. The stars and suns, which the
+old seer thought would fall from heaven in the day of wrath, were seen
+to be involved in motions far beyond the pale of man’s welfare, and,
+therefore, the millennial change was confined to the limits of our
+planet. Losing more and more of its original form as an attempted
+explanation of natural phenomena, the myth now exists in civilized
+nations as an allegorical type of man’s own history and destiny, and
+thus is slowly merging into an episode of the second great cycle of the
+mythus, that of the Paradise lost and regained. It, too, finds its
+interpretation in psychology.
+
+Broadly surveying the life of man, philosophers have found in it much
+matter fit either for mockery or tears. We are born with a thirst for
+pleasure; we learn that pain alone is felt. We ask health; and having
+it, never notice it till it is gone. In the ardent pursuit of enjoyment,
+we waste our capacity of appreciation. Every sweet we gain is sauced
+with a bitter. Our eyes forever bent on the future, which can never be
+ours, we fritter away the present, which alone we possess. Ere we have
+got ourselves ready to live, we must die. Fooling ourselves even here,
+we represent death as the portal to joy unspeakable; and forthwith
+discredit our words by avoiding it in every possible way.
+
+Pitiable spectacle of weakness and folly, is it capable of any
+explanation which can redeem man from the imputation of unreason? Is
+Wisdom even here justified of her children by some deeper law of being?
+
+The theologian explains it as the unrest of the soul penned in its house
+of clay; the physiologist attributes it to the unceasing effort of
+organic functions to adapt themselves to ever varying external
+conditions. They are both right, for the theologian, were his words
+translated into the language of science, refers to the _effort to adapt
+condition to function_, which is the peculiar faculty of intelligence,
+and which alone renders man unable to accept the comfort of merely
+animal existence, an inability which he need never expect to outlive,
+for it will increase in exact proportion to his mental development.
+Action, not rest, as I have elsewhere said, must be his ideal of life.
+
+In even his lowest levels man experiences this dissatisfaction. It may
+there be confined to a pain he would be free from, or a pleasure he
+dreams of. Always the future charms him, and as advancing years increase
+the number of his disappointments and bring with them the pains of
+decrepitude, he also recurs to the past, when youth was his, and the
+world was bright and gay. Thus it comes that most nations speak of some
+earlier period of their history as one characterized by purer public
+virtues than the present, one when the fires of patriotism burned
+brighter and social harmony was more conspicuous. In rude stages of
+society this fancy receives real credit and ranks as a veritable record
+of the past, forming a Golden Age or Saturnian Era. Turned in the
+kaleidoscope of the mythus, it assumes yet more gorgeous hues, and
+becomes a state of pure felicity, an Eden or a Paradise, wherein man
+dwelt in joy, and from which he wandered or was driven in the old days.
+
+It is almost needless to quote examples to show the wide distribution of
+this myth. The first pages of the Vendidad describe the reign of Yima in
+“the garden of delight,” where “there was no cold wind nor violent heat,
+no disease and no death.” The northern Buddhist tells of “the land of
+joy,” Sukhavati, in the far west, where ruled Amitabha, “infinite
+Light.”[175-1] The Edda wistfully recalls the pleasant days of good King
+Gudmund who once held sway in Odainsakr, where death came not.[175-2]
+Persian story has glad reminiscences of the seven hundred years that
+Jemschid sat on the throne of Iran, when peace and plenty were in the
+land.
+
+The garden “eastward in Eden” of the Pentateuch, the land of Tulan or
+Tlapallan in Aztec myth, the islands of the Hesperides, the rose garden
+of Feridun, and a score of other legends attest with what strong
+yearning man seeks in the past the picture of that perfect felicity
+which the present never yields.
+
+Nor can he be persuaded that the golden age has gone, no more to return.
+In all conditions of progress, and especially where the load of the
+present was the most wearying, has he counted on a restoration to that
+past felicity. The paradise lost is to be regained. How it is to be done
+the sages are not agreed. But they of old were unanimous that some
+divinity must lend his aid, that some god-sent guide is needed to rescue
+man from the slough of wretchedness in which he hopelessly struggles.
+
+Therefore in the new world the red men looked for the ruler who had
+governed their happy forefathers in the golden age, and who had not died
+but withdrawn mysteriously from view, to return to them, protect them,
+and insure them long bliss and ease. The ancient Persians expected as
+much from the coming of Craoshanç; the Thibetan Buddhists look to the
+advent of a Buddha 5000 years after Sakyamuni, one whose fortunate names
+are Maîtrêya, the Loving one, and Adjita, the Unconquerable;[176-1] and
+even the practical Roman, as we learn from Virgil, was not a stranger to
+this dream. Very many nations felt it quite as strongly as the
+Israelites, who from early time awaited a mighty king, the Messiah, the
+Anointed, of whom the Targums say: “In his days shall peace be
+multiplied;” “He shall execute the judgment of truth and justice on the
+earth;” “He shall rule over all kingdoms.”
+
+The early forms of this conception, such as here referred to, looked
+forward to an earthly kingdom, identified with that of the past when
+this was vigorous in the national mythology. Material success and the
+utmost physical comfort were to characterize it. It was usually to be a
+national apotheosis, and was not generally supposed to include the human
+race, though traces of this wider view might easily be quoted from
+Avestan, Roman, and Israelitic sources. Those who were to enjoy it were
+not the dead, but those who shall be living.
+
+As the myth grew, it coalesced with that of the Epochs of Nature, and
+assumed grander proportions. The deliverer was to come at the close of
+this epoch, at the end of the world; he was to embrace the whole human
+kind in his kingdom; even those who died before his coming, if they had
+obeyed his mandates, should rise to join the happy throng; instead of a
+mere earthly king, he should be a supernatural visitant, even God
+himself; and instead of temporal pleasures only, others of a spiritual
+character were to be conferred. There are reasons to believe that even
+in this developed form the myth was familiar to the most enlightened
+worshippers of ancient Egypt; but it was not till some time after the
+doctrines of Christianity had been cast into mythical moulds by the
+oriental fancy, that it was introduced in its completed form to modern
+thought. Although expressly repudiated by Jesus of Nazareth himself, and
+applied in maxim and parable as a universal symbol of intelligence to
+the religious growth of the individual and race, his followers reverted
+to the coarser and literal meaning, and ever since teach to a greater or
+less extent the chiliastic or millennial dogma, often mathematically
+computing, in direct defiance of his words, the exact date that event is
+to be expected.
+
+If we ask the psychological construction of this myth, and the ever
+present conditions of man’s life which have rendered him always ready to
+create it and loath to renounce it, we trace the former distinctly to
+his sense of the purposive nature of the laws of thought, and the latter
+to the wide difference between desire and fulfilment. His intellectual
+nature is framed to accord with laws which are ever present but are not
+authoritative; they admonish but they do not coerce; _that_ is done
+surely though oft remotely by the consequences of their violation. At
+first, unaware of the true character of these laws, he fancies that if
+he were altogether comfortable physically, his every wish would be
+gratified. Slowly it dawns upon him that no material gratification can
+supply an intellectual craving; that this is the real want which haunts
+him; and that its only satisfaction is _to think rightly_, to learn the
+truth. Then he sees that the millennial kingdom is “not of this world;”
+that heaven and earth may pass away, but that such truth as he seeks
+cannot pass away; and that his first and only care should be as a
+faithful and wise servant to learn and revere it.
+
+The sentiments which created this mythical cycle, based as they are now
+seen to be on ultimate psychological laws, are as active to-day as ever.
+This century has witnessed the rise of a school of powerful thinkers and
+true philanthropists who maintained that the noblest object is the
+securing to our fellow-men the greatest material comfort possible; that
+the religious aspirations will do well to content themselves with this
+gospel of humanity; and that the approach of the material millennium,
+the perfectibility of the human race, the complete adaptation of
+function to condition, the “distant but not uncertain final victory of
+Good,”[179-1] is susceptible of demonstration. At present, these views
+are undergoing modification. It is perceived with more or less
+distinctness that complete physical comfort is not enough to make a man
+happy; that in proportion as this comfort is attained new wants develope
+themselves, quite as importunate, which ask what material comfort
+cannot give, and whose demand is neither for utility nor pleasurable
+sensation. Such wants are created by the sense of duty and the love of
+truth.
+
+The main difference between the latest exponents of the utilitarian
+doctrines and the heralds of distinctively religious thought, is that
+the former consider that it is most important in the present condition
+of man for him to look after his material welfare; while the latter
+teach that if he first subject thought and life to truth and duty, “all
+these things will be added unto him.” Wordsworth has cast this latter
+opinion, and the myths which are its types, into eloquent verse:
+
+                        “Paradise and groves
+    Elysian, Fortunate Fields--like those of old
+    Sought in the Atlantic main, why should they be
+    A history only of departed things,
+    Or a mere fiction of what never was?
+    For the discerning intellect of man,
+    When wedded to this goodly universe
+    In love and holy passion, shall find these
+    A simple produce of the common day.”
+
+The incredulity and even derision with which the latter doctrine is
+received by “practical men,” should not affright the collected thinker,
+as it certainly is not so chimerical as they pretend. The writer De
+Senancourt, not at all of a religious turn, in speculating on the
+shortest possible road to general happiness, concluded that if we were
+able to foretell the weather a reasonable time ahead, and if men would
+make it a rule to speak the truth as near as they can, these two
+conditions would remove nine-tenths of the misery in the world. The
+more carefully I meditate on this speculation, the better grounded it
+seems. The weather we are learning to know much more about than when the
+solitary Obermann penned his despondent dreams; but who shall predict
+the time when men will tell the truth?
+
+I now pass to the third great mythical cyclus, which I have called that
+of the Hierarchy of the Gods. This was created in order to define that
+unknown power which was supposed to give to the wish frustration or
+fruition. It includes every statement in reference to the number,
+nature, history and character of supernatural beings.
+
+The precise form under which the intellect, when the religious
+conception of unknown power first dawns upon it, imagines this unknown,
+is uncertain. Some have maintained that the earliest religions are
+animal worships, others that the spirits of ancestors or chiefs are the
+primitive gods. Local divinities and personal spirits are found in the
+rudest culture, while simple fetichism, or the vague shapes presented by
+dreams, play a large part in the most inchoate systems. The prominence
+of one or the other of these elements depends upon local and national
+momenta, which are a proper study for the science of mythology, but need
+not detain us here. The underlying principle in all these conceptions of
+divinity is that of the _res per accidens_, an accidental relation of
+the thought to the symbol, not a general or necessary one. This is seen
+in the nature of these primitive gods. They have no decided character as
+propitious or the reverse other than the objects they typify, but are
+supposed to send bad or good fortune as they happen to be pleased or
+displeased with the votary. No classification as good and evil deities
+is as yet perceptible.
+
+This undeveloped stage of religious thought faded away, as general
+conceptions of man and his surroundings arose. Starting always from his
+wish dependent on unknown control, man found certain phenomena usually
+soothed his fears and favored his wishes, while others interfered with
+their attainment and excited his alarm. This distinction, directly
+founded on his sensations of pleasure and pain, led to a general, more
+or less rigid, classification of the unknown, into two opposing classes
+of beings, the one kindly disposed, beneficent, good, the other
+untoward, maleficent, evil.
+
+At first this distinction had in it nothing of a _moral_ character. It
+is in fact a long time before this is visible, and to-day but two or
+three religions acknowledge it even theoretically. All, however, which
+claim historical position set up a dual hierarchy in the divine realms.
+Ahura-mazda and Anya-mainyus, God and Satan, Jove and Pluto, Pachacamac
+and Supay, Enigorio and Enigohatgea are examples out of hundreds that
+might be adduced.
+
+The fundamental contrast of pleasure and pain might be considered enough
+to explain this duality. But in fact it is even farther reaching. The
+emotions are dual as well as the sensations, as we have seen in the
+first chapter. All the operations of the intellect are dichotomic, and
+in mathematical logic must be expressed by an equation of the second
+degree. Subject and object must be understood as polar pairs, and in
+physical science polarization, contrast of properties corresponding to
+contrast of position, is a universal phenomenon. Analogy, therefore,
+vindicates the assumption that the unknown, like the known, is the field
+of the operation of contradictory powers.
+
+A variety of expression is given this philosophic notion in myths. In
+Egypt, Syria, Greece and India the contrast was that of the sexes, the
+male and female principles as displayed in the operations of nature. The
+type of all is that very ancient Phrygian cult in which by the side of
+Ma, mother of mountains and mistress of herds, stood Papas, father of
+the race of shepherds and inventor of the rustic pipe.[183-1] Quite
+characteristic was the classification of the gods worshipped by the
+miners and metal workers of Phrygian Ida. This was into right and left,
+and the general name of Dactyli, Fingers, was given them. The right gods
+broke the spells which the left wove, the right pointed out the ore
+which the left had buried, the right disclosed the remedies for the
+sickness which the left had sent. This venerable division is still
+retained when we speak of a _sinister_ portent, or a _right_ judgment.
+It is of physiological interest as showing that “dextral pre-eminence”
+or right-handedness was prevalent in earliest historic times, though it
+is unknown in any lower animal.
+
+The thoughtful dwellers in Farsistan also developed a religion close to
+man’s wants by dividing the gods into those who aid and those who harm
+him, subject the one class to Ahura-Mazda, the other to Anya-Mainyus.
+Early in their history this assumed almost a moral aspect, and there is
+little to be added to one of the most ancient precepts of their
+law--“Happiness be to the man who conduces to the happiness of
+all.”[184-1]
+
+When this dual classification sought expression through natural
+contrasts, there was one which nigh everywhere offered itself as the
+most appropriate. The savage, the nomad, limited to the utmost in
+artificial contrivances, met nothing which more signally aided the
+accomplishment of his wishes than _light_; nothing which more certainly
+frustrated them than _darkness_. From these two sources flow numerous
+myths, symbols, and rites, as narratives or acts which convey religious
+thought to the eye or the ear of sense.
+
+As the bringers of light, man adored the sun, the dawn, and fire;
+associated with warmth and spring, his further meditations saw in it the
+source of his own and of all life, and led him to connect with its
+worship that of the reproductive principle. As it comes from above, and
+seems to dwell in the far-off sky, he located there his good gods, and
+lifted his hands or his eyes when he prayed. As light is necessary to
+sight, and as to see is to know, the faculty of knowing was typified as
+enlightenment, an inward god-given light. The great and beneficent
+deities are always the gods of light. Their names often show this. Deva,
+Deus, means the shining one; Michabo, the great white one; the Mongols
+call Tien, the chief Turanian god, the bright one, the luminous one; the
+northern Buddhist prays to Amitabha, Infinite Light; and the Christian
+to the Light of the World.
+
+On the other hand, darkness was connected with feelings of helplessness
+and terror. It exposed him to attacks of wild beasts and all accidents.
+It was the precursor of the storm. It was like to death and the grave.
+The realm of the departed was supposed to be a land of shadows, an
+underground region, an unseeing Hades or hell.
+
+The task would be easy to show many strange corroborations of these
+early chosen symbols by the exacter studies of later ages. Light, as the
+indispensable condition of life, is no dream, but a fact; sight is the
+highest sentient faculty; and the luminous rays are real intellectual
+stimulants.[186-1] But such reflections will not escape the
+contemplative reader.
+
+I hasten to an important consequence of this dual classification of
+divinities. It led to what I may call the _quantification of the gods_,
+that is, to conceiving divinity under notions of number or quantity, a
+step which has led to profound deterioration of the religious sentiment.
+I do not mean by this the distinction between polytheism and monotheism.
+The latter is as untrue and as injurious as the former, nor does it
+contain a whit the more the real elements of religious progress.
+
+It is indeed singular that this subject has been so misunderstood. Much
+has been written by Christian theologians to show the superiority of
+monotheisms; and by their opponents much has been made of Comte’s _loi
+des trois états_, which defines religious progress to be first
+fetichism, secondly polytheism, finally monotheism. Of this Mr. Lewes
+says: “The theological system arrived at the highest perfection of which
+it is capable when it substituted the providential action of a single
+being, for the varied operations of the numerous divinities which had
+before been imagined.”[187-1] Nothing could be more erroneous than the
+spirit of this statement; nothing is more correct, if the ordinary talk
+of the superiority of monotheism in religion be admitted.
+
+History and long experience show that monotheistic religions have no
+special good effect either on the morals or the religious sensibility of
+races.[187-2] Buddhism,[187-3] Mohammedanism and Judaism are, at least
+in theory, uncompromising monotheisms; modern Christianity is less so,
+as many Catholics pray to the Virgin and Saints, and many Protestants to
+Christ. So long as _the mathematical conception of number_, whether one
+or many, is applied to deity by a theological system, it has not yet
+“arrived at the highest perfection of which it is capable.”
+
+For let us inquire what a monotheism is? It is a belief in one god as
+distinct from the belief in several gods. In other words, it applies to
+God the mathematical concept of unity, a concept which can only come
+into cognition by virtue of contrasts and determinations, and which
+forces therefore the believer either to Pantheism or anthropomorphism to
+reconcile his belief with his reason. No other resource is left him.
+With monotheism there must always be the idea of numerical separateness,
+which is incompatible with universal conceptions.
+
+Let him, however, clear his mind of the current admiration for
+monotheisms, and impress upon himself that he who would form a
+conception of supreme intelligence must do so under the rules of pure
+thought, not numerical relation. The logical, not the mathematical,
+unity of the divine is the perfection of theological reasoning. Logical
+unity does not demand a determination by contrasts; it conveys only the
+idea of identity with self. As the logical attainment of truth is the
+recognition of identities in apparent diversity, thus leading from the
+logically many to the logically one, the assumption of the latter is
+eminently justified. Every act of reasoning is an additional proof of
+it.[188-1]
+
+Nor does the duality of nature and thought, to which I have alluded, in
+any wise contradict this. In pure thought we must understand the
+dichotomic process to be the distinction of a positive by a privative,
+both logical elements of the same thought, as I have elsewhere shown.
+The opposites or contraries referred to as giving rise to the dualistic
+conceptions of divinity are thus readily harmonized with the conception
+of logical unity. This was recognized by the Hindoo sage who composed
+the Bhagavad Gità, early in our era. Krishna, the Holy One, addressing
+the King Ardjuna says: “All beings fall into error as to the nature of
+creation, O Bharata, by reason of that delusion of natural opposites
+which springs from liking and disliking, oh thou tormentor of thy
+foes!”[189-1]
+
+The substitution of the conception of mathematical for logical unity in
+this connection has left curious traces in both philosophy and religion.
+It has led to a belief in the triplicate nature of the supreme Being,
+and to those philosophical triads which have often attracted thinkers,
+from Pythagoras and Heraclitus down to Hegel and Ghiberti.
+
+Pythagoras, who had thought profoundly on numbers and their relations,
+is credited with the obscure maxim that every thought is made up of a
+definite one and an indefinite two (a μονας and an αοριστος δυας). Some
+of his commentators have added to rather than lessened the darkness of
+this saying. But applied to concrete number, it seems clear enough. Take
+any number, ten, for example, and it is ten by virtue of being a _one_,
+one ten, and because on either side counting upward or downward, a
+different number appears, which two are its logical determinants, but,
+as not expressed, make up an _indefinite two_.
+
+So the number one, thought as concrete unity, is really a trinity, made
+up of its definite self and its indefinite next greater and lesser
+determinants. The obscure consciousness of this has made itself felt in
+many religions when they have progressed to a certain plane of thought.
+The ancient Egyptian gods were nearly all triune; Phanes, in the Orphic
+hymns the first principle of things, was tripartite; the Indian
+trinities are well known; the Celtic triads applied to divine as well as
+human existence; the Jews distinguished between Jehovah, his Wisdom and
+his Word; and in Christian religion and philosophy the doctrine of the
+trinity, though nowhere taught by Christ, has found a lasting foothold,
+and often presents itself as an actual tritheism.[190-1]
+
+The triplicate nature of number, thus alluded to by Pythagoras, springs
+from the third law of thought, and holds true of all concrete notions.
+Every such notion stands in necessary relation to its privative, and to
+the logical concept of next greater extension, _i. e._, that which
+includes the notion and its privative, as I explained in the first
+chapter. This was noted by the early Platonists, who describe a certain
+concrete expression of it as “the intelligential triad;” and it has been
+repeatedly commented upon by later philosophers, some of whom avowedly
+derive from it the proof of the trinitarian dogma as formulated by
+Athanasius. Even modern mathematical investigations have been supposed
+to point to a _Deus triformis_, though of course quite another one from
+that which ancient Rome honored. A late work of much ability makes the
+statement: “The doctrine of the Trinity, or something analogous to it,
+forms, as it were, the avenue through which the universe itself leads us
+up to the conception of the Infinite and Eternal One.”[191-1] The
+explanation of this notion is the same as that of the “Trinity of the
+Gentiles,” always hitherto a puzzling mythological concept.
+
+For reasons previously given, an analysis of the formal law itself does
+not yield these elements. They belong to a certain class of values
+assigned it, not to the law itself; hence it is only when deity is
+conceived under the conditions of numerical oneness that the tripartite
+constitution of a whole number makes itself felt, and is applied to the
+divine nature.
+
+The essence of a logical unit is identity, of a mathematical,
+difference. The qualities of the latter are limitations--_so much of a
+thing_; those of the former are coincidences--_that kind of a thing_.
+
+To be sure it is no easy matter to free ourselves from the habit of
+confounding identity and individuality. We must cultivate a much greater
+familiarity with the forms of thought, and the character of universals,
+than every-day life requires of us, before the distinction grows facile.
+The individual, not the species, exists; our own personality, our
+thinking faculty is what we are most certain of. On it rests the reality
+of everything, the Unknown as well. But the rejection of a mathematical
+unity does not at all depreciate the force of such an argument.
+Individuality regarded as mathematical unity rests on the deeper law of
+logical identity from which the validity of numbers rises; it is not
+the least diminished, but intensified, in the conception of a Supreme
+Intelligence, as the font of truth, though the confinements and
+limitations of the mathematical unit fall away, and all contrasts
+disappear.
+
+The reverse conception, however, has prevailed in religious systems,
+polytheistic or monotheistic. Man has projected on the cloudy unknown
+the magnified picture of his own individuality and shuddered with terror
+at the self-created plantasm,[TN-9] like the peasant frightened by the
+spectre of the Brocken, formed by the distorted image of himself. In his
+happier moments, with his hopes gratified, the same vice of thought,
+still active, prevented him from conceiving any higher ideal than his
+better self. “Everywhere the same tendency was observed; the gods,
+always exaggerations of human power and passions, became more and more
+personifications of what was most admirable and lovable in human nature,
+till in Christianity there emerged the avowed ideal man.” What could it
+end in but anthropomorphism, or pantheism, or, rejecting both, a
+Religion of Humanity, with a background of an imbecile Unknowable?
+
+Is it necessary to point out how none of these conclusions can satisfy
+the enlightened religious sentiment? How anthropomorphism,which[TN-10]
+makes God in the image of man, instead of acknowledging that man is
+made in the image of God, belittles divinity to a creature of passions
+and caprices? How pantheism, increasing God at the expense of man, wipes
+out the fundamental difference of true and false, calls bad “good in the
+making,” and virtually extinguishes the sense of duty and the permanence
+of personality? And how the denial of all possible knowledge of the
+absolute digs away the only foundation on which sanity can establish a
+religion, and then palms off material comfort as the proper food for
+religious longing?
+
+The long story of religious effort is not from fetichism to monotheism,
+as Comte read it; nor is its only possible goal inside the limits of the
+ego, as Feuerbach and the other Neo-Hegelians assert; but it is on its
+theoretical side to develope with greater and greater distinctness the
+immeasurable reality of pure thought, to dispense more and more with the
+quantification of the absolute, and to avoid in the representation of
+that Being the use of the technic of concrete existence.
+
+Little by little we learn that the really true is never true in fact,
+that the really good is never good in act.[194-1] Carefully cherishing
+this distinction taught by mathematics and ethics, the religious mind
+learns to recognize in that only reality darkly seen through the glass
+of material things, that which should fix and fill its meditations.
+Passing beyond the domain of physical law, it occupies itself with that
+which defines the conditions of law. It contemplates an eternal
+activity, before which its own self-consciousness seems a flickering
+shadow, yet in that contemplation is not lost but gains an evergrowing
+personality.
+
+This is the goal of religious striving, the hidden aim of the wars and
+persecutions, the polemics and martyrdoms, which have so busied and
+bloodied the world. This satisfies the rational postulates of religion.
+Does some one say that it does not stimulate its emotional elements,
+that it does not supply the impulses of action which must ever be the
+criteria of the true faith? Is it not a religion at all, but a
+philosophy, a search, or if you prefer, a love for the truth?
+
+Let such doubter ponder well the signification of truth, its relation to
+life, its identity with the good, and the paramount might of wisdom and
+a clear understanding, and he will be ready to exclaim with the
+passionate piety of St. Augustine: “_Ubi inveni veritatem, ibi inveni
+Deum meum, ipsam veritatem, quam, ex quo didici, non sum oblitus._”
+
+From this brief review of its character, the Myth will be seen to be one
+of the transitory expressions of the religious sentiment, which in
+enlightened lands it has already outgrown and should lay aside. So far
+as it relates to events, real or alleged, historic or geologic, it deals
+with that which is indifferent to pure religion; and so far as it
+assumes to reveal the character, plans and temper of divinity, it is too
+evidently a reflex of man’s personality to be worthy of serious
+refutation where it conflicts with the better guide he has within him.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[156-1] In this definition the word _apperception_ is used in the sense
+assigned it by Professor Lazarus--the perception modified by imagination
+and memory. “Mythologie ist eine Apperceptionsform der Natur und des
+Menschen.” (_Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie_, Bd. i., s. 44). Most
+recent mythologists omit the latter branch of the definition; for
+instance, “A myth is in its origin an explanation by the uncivilized
+mind of some natural phenomenon.” (John Fiske, _Myths and Myth Makers_,
+p. 21). This is to omit that which gives the myth its only claim to be a
+product of the religious sentiment. Schopenhauer, in calling dogmas and
+myths “the metaphysics of the people,” fell into the same error.
+Religion, as such, is always concrete.
+
+[159-1] Half a century ago the learned Mr. Faber, in his _Origin of
+Pagan Idolatry_, expressed his astonishment at “the singular, minute and
+regular accordance” between the classical myths. That accordance has now
+been discovered to be world-wide.
+
+[160-1] “Ganz gleiche Mythen können sehr füglich, jede selbstständig, an
+verschiedenen Oerter emporkommen.” _Briefe an Woelcker._
+
+[161-1] The last two are the modern orthodox theories, supported by
+Bryant, Faber, Trench, De Maistre and Sepp. Medieval Christianity
+preferred the direct agency of the Devil. Primitive Christianity leaned
+to the opinion that the Grecian and Roman myth makers had stolen from
+the sacred writings of the Jews.
+
+[165-1] Sir Wm. Hamilton, _Lectures on Metaphysics_. Appendix, p. 691.
+
+[165-2] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie_, Bd. ii., s. 107.
+
+[166-1] Th. Nöldeke, _Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie_, Bd. iii., s.
+131.
+
+[166-2] See a note of Prof. Spiegel to Yaçna, 29, of the _Khordah-Avesta_.
+
+[167-1] Ἡ υγρα φυσις αρχη και γενεσις παντων.
+
+  Plutarch, _De Iside_.
+
+According to the Koran and the Jewish Rabbis, the throne of God rested
+on the primeval waters from which the earth was produced. See a note in
+Rodwell’s translation of the Koran, _Sura_. xi.
+
+[167-2] I have discussed some of these myths in the seventh chapter of
+the _Myths of the New World_.
+
+[168-1] How it troubled the early Christians who dared not adopt the
+refuge of the Epochs of Nature, may be seen in the _Confessions_ of St.
+Augustine, Lib. XI, cap. 10, et seq. He quotes the reply of one pushed
+by the inquiry, what God was doing before creation: “He was making a
+hell for inquisitive busy-bodies.” _Alta spectantibus gehennas parabat._
+
+[170-1] Many interesting references to the Oriental flood-myth may be
+found in Cory’s _Ancient Fragments_. See also, Dr. Fr. Windischmann,
+_Die Ursagen der Arischen Völker_, pp. 4-10. It is probable that in very
+ancient Semitic tradition Adam was represented as the survivor of a
+flood anterior to that of Noah. Maimonides relates that the Sabians
+believed the world to be eternal, and called Adam “the Prophet of the
+Moon,” which symbolized, as we know from other sources, the deity of
+water. Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon, _More Nevochim_, cap. iv. In early
+Christian symbolism Christ was called “the true Noah”; the dove
+accompanied him also, and as through Noah came “salvation by wood and
+water,” so through Christ came “salvation by spirit and water.” (See St.
+Cyril of Jerusalem’s _Catechetical Lectures_, Lect. xvii., cap. 10). The
+fish (ιχθυς) was the symbol of Christ as well as of Oannes. As the
+second coming of Christ was to be the destruction of the world, how
+plainly appear the germs of the myth of the Epochs of Nature in the
+Judæo-Christian mind!
+
+[171-1] Besides the expressions in the Book of Ecclesiastes and the
+later prophets, the doctrine is distinctly announced in one of the most
+sublime of the Psalms (xc), one attributed to “Moses the Man of God.”
+
+[172-1] Malachi, ch. iv., v. 2.
+
+[175-1] C. F. Koppen, _Die Lamaische Hierarchie_, s. 28.
+
+[175-2] Odainsakr, ô privative, _dain_ death, _akr_ land, “the land of
+immortal life.” Saxo Grammaticus speaks of it also. Another such land
+faintly referred to in the Edda is Breidablick, governed by Baldur, the
+Light-god.
+
+[176-1] C. F. Koppen, _Die Lamaische Hierarchie und Kirche_, p. 17.
+
+[179-1] John Stuart Mill, _Theism_, p. 256.
+
+[183-1] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie_, Bd. II., s. 47
+
+[184-1] This is the first line of Yaçna, 42, of the _Khordah-Avesta_.
+The Parsees believe that it is the salutation which meets the soul of
+the good on entering the next world.
+
+[186-1] “Sight is the light sense. Through it we become acquainted with
+universal relations, this being _reason_. Without the eye there would be
+no reason.” Lorenz Oken, _Elements of Physio-Philosophy_, p. 475.
+
+[187-1] _History of Philosophy_, Vol. II. p. 638 (4th ed.)
+
+[187-2] “The intolerance of almost all religions which have maintained
+the unity of God, is as remarkable as the contrary principle in
+polytheism.” Hume, _Nat. Hist. of Religion_, Sec. ix.
+
+[187-3] “The Lamas emphatically maintain monotheism to be the real
+character of Buddhism.” Emil Schlagintweit, _Buddhism in Tibet_, p. 108.
+
+[188-1] No one has seen the error here pointed out, and its injurious
+results on thought, more clearly than Comte himself. He is emphatic in
+condemning “le tendance involontaire à constituer l’unité spéculative
+par l’ascendant universel des plus grossières contemplations numérique,
+geométrique ou mécaniques.” _Systême de Politique Positive_; Tome I., p.
+51. But he was too biassed to apply this warning to Christian thought.
+The conception of the Universe in the logic of Professor De Morgan and
+Boole is an example of speculative unity.
+
+[189-1] _Bhagavad Gità_, ch. iv.
+
+[190-1] See the introduction by Mr. J. W. Etheridge to _The Targums of
+Onkelos and Jonathan Ben Uzziel_ (London, 1862). St. Augustine believed
+the trinity is referred to in the opening verses of Genesis.
+_Confessiones_, Lib. xiii. cap. 5. The early Christian writer,
+Theophilus of Antioch (circa 225), in his _Apologia_, recognizes the
+Jewish trinity only. It was a century later that the dogma was defined
+in its Athanasian form. See further, Isaac Preston Cory, _Ancient
+Fragments, with an Inquiry into the Trinity of the Gentiles_ (London,
+1832).
+
+[191-1] _The Unseen Universe_, p. 194.
+
+[194-1] “A good will is the only altogether good thing in the
+world.”--_Kant._ “What man conceives in himself is always superior to
+that reality which it precedes and prepares.”--_Comte._
+
+
+
+
+THE CULT, ITS SYMBOLS AND RITES.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     The Symbol represents the unknown; the Rite is the ceremony of
+     worship.
+
+     A symbol stands for the supernatural, an emblem for something
+     known. The elucidation of symbolism is in the laws of the
+     association of ideas. Associations of similarity give related
+     symbols, of contiguity coincident symbols. Symbols tend either
+     toward personification (iconolatry), or toward secularization. The
+     symbol has no fixed interpretation. Its indefiniteness shown by the
+     serpent symbol, and the cross. The physiological relations of
+     certain symbols. Their classification. The Lotus. The Pillar.
+     Symbols discarded by the higher religious thought. Esthetic and
+     scientific symbolism (the “Doctrine of Correspondences”).
+
+     Rites are either propitiatory or memorial. The former spring either
+     from the idea of sacrifice or of specific performance. A sacrifice
+     is a gift, but its measure is what it costs the giver. Specific
+     performance means that a religious act should have no ulterior aim.
+     Vicarious sacrifice and the idea of sin.
+
+     Memorial rites are intended to recall the myth, or else to keep up
+     the organization. The former are dramatic or imitative, the latter
+     institutionary. Tendency of memorial rites to become propitiatory.
+     Examples.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE CULT, ITS SYMBOLS AND RITES.
+
+
+As the side which a religious system presents to the intellect is shown
+in the Myth, so the side that it presents to sense is exhibited in the
+Cult. This includes the representation and forms of worship of the
+unknown power which presides over the fruition of the Prayer or
+religious wish. The representation is effected by the Symbol, the
+worship by the Rite. The development of these two, and their relation to
+religious thought, will be the subject of the present chapter.
+
+The word Symbolism has a technical sense in theological writings, to
+wit, the discussion of creeds, quite different from that in which it is
+used in mythological science. Here it means the discussion of the
+natural objects which have been used to represent to sense supposed
+supernatural beings. As some conception of such beings must first be
+formed, the symbol is necessarily founded upon the myth, and must be
+explained by it.
+
+A symbol is closely allied to an emblem, the distinction being that the
+latter is intended to represent some abstract conception or concrete
+fact, not supposed to be supernatural. Thus the serpent is the emblem of
+Esculapius, or, abstractly, of the art of healing; but in its use as a
+symbol in Christian art it stands for the Evil One, a supernatural
+being. The heraldric insignia of the Middle Ages were emblematic
+devices; but the architecture of the cathedrals was largely symbolic.
+Both agree in aiming to aid the imagination and the memory, and both may
+appeal to any special sense, although the majority are addressed to
+sight alone.
+
+Symbolism has not received the scientific treatment which has been so
+liberally bestowed on mythology. The first writer who approached it in
+the proper spirit was Professor Creuzer.[200-1] Previous to his labors
+the distinction between pictographic and symbolic art was not well
+defined. He drew the line sharply, and illustrated it abundantly; but he
+did not preserve so clearly the relations of the symbol and the myth.
+Indeed, he regarded the latter as a symbol, a “phonetic” one, to be
+treated by the same processes of analysis. Herein later students have
+not consented to follow him. The contrast between these two expressions
+of the religious sentiment becomes apparent when we examine their
+psychological origin. This Professor Creuzer did not include in his
+researches, nor is it dwelt upon at any length in the more recent works
+on the subject.[201-1] The neglect to do this has given rise to an
+arbitrariness in the interpretation of many symbols, which has often
+obscured their position in religious history.
+
+What these principles are I shall endeavor to indicate; and first of the
+laws of the origin of symbols, the rules which guided the early
+intellect in choosing from the vast number of objects appealing to sense
+those fit to shadow forth the supernatural.
+
+It may safely be assumed that this was not done capriciously, as the
+modern parvenue makes for himself a heraldric device. The simple and
+devout intellect of the primitive man imagined a real connection between
+the god and the symbol. Were this questioned, yet the wonderful
+unanimity with which the same natural objects, the serpent, the bird,
+the tree, for example, were everywhere chosen, proves that their
+selection was not the work of chance. The constant preference of these
+objects points conclusively to some strong and frequent connection of
+their images with mythical concepts.
+
+The question of the origin of symbols therefore resolves itself into one
+of the association of ideas, and we start from sure ground in applying
+to their interpretation the established canons of association. These, as
+I have elsewhere said, are those of contiguity and similarity, the
+former producing association by the closeness of succession of
+impressions or thoughts, the latter through impressions or thoughts
+recalling like ones in previous experience. When the same occurrence
+affects different senses simultaneously, or nearly so, the association
+is one of _contiguity_, as thunder and lightning, for a sound cannot be
+_like_ a sight; when the same sense is affected in such a manner as to
+recall a previous impression, the association is one of _similarity_, as
+when the red autumn leaves recall the hue of sunset. Nearness in time or
+nearness in kind is the condition of association.
+
+The intensity or permanence of the association depends somewhat on
+temperament, but chiefly on repetition or continuance. Not having an ear
+for music, I may find it difficult to recall a song from hearing its
+tune; but by dint of frequent repetition I learn to associate them.
+Light and heat, smoke and fire, poverty and hunger so frequently occur
+together, that the one is apt to recall the other. So do a large number
+of antithetical associations, as light and darkness, heat and cold, by
+_inverse similarity_, opposite impressions reviving each other, in
+accordance with the positive and privative elements of a notion.
+
+This brief reference to the laws of applied thought,--too brief, did I
+not take for granted that they are generally familiar--furnishes the
+clue to guide us through the labyrinth of symbolism, to wit, the
+repeated association of the event or power recorded in the myth with
+some sensuous image. Where there is a connection in kind between the
+symbol and that for which it stands, there is _related_ symbolism; where
+the connection is one of juxtaposition in time, there is _coincident_
+symbolism. Mother Earth, fertile and fecund, was a popular deity in many
+nations, and especially among the Egyptians, who worshipped her under
+the symbol of a cow; this is related symbolism; the historical event of
+the execution of Christ occurred by crucifixion, one of several methods
+common in that age, and since then the cross has been the symbol of
+Christianity; this is coincident symbolism. It is easy for the two to
+merge, as when the cross was identified with a somewhat similar and much
+older symbol, one of the class I have called “related,” signifying the
+reproductive principle, and became the “tree of life.” As a coincident
+symbol is to a certain extent accidental in origin, related symbols
+have always been most agreeable to the religious sentiment.
+
+This remark embodies the explanation of the growth of religious
+symbolism, and also its gradual decay into decorative art and mnemonic
+design. The tendency of related symbolism is toward the identification
+of the symbol with that for which it stands, toward personification or
+prosopopeia; while what I may call the _secularization_ of symbols is
+brought about by regarding them more and more as accidental connections,
+by giving them conventional forms, and treating them as elements of
+architectural or pictorial design, or as aids to memory.
+
+This tendency of related symbolism depends on a law of applied thought
+which has lately been formulated by a distinguished logician in the
+following words: “What is true of a thing, is true of its like.”[204-1]
+The similarity of the symbol to its prototype assumed, the qualities of
+the symbol, even those which had no share in deciding its selection, no
+likeness to the original, were lumped, and transferred to the divinity.
+As those like by similarity, so those unlike, were identified by
+contiguity, as traits of the unknown power. This is the active element
+in the degeneracy of religious idealism. The cow or the bull, chosen
+first as a symbol of creation or fecundity, led to a worship of the
+animal itself, and a transfer of its traits, even to its horns, to the
+god. In a less repulsive form, the same tendency shows itself in the
+pietistic ingenuity of such poets as Adam de Sancto Victore and George
+Herbert, who delight in taking some biblical symbol, and developing from
+it a score of applications which the original user never dreamt of. In
+such hands a chance simile grows to an elaborate myth.
+
+Correct thought would prevent the extension of the value of the symbol
+beyond the original element of similarity. More than this, it would
+recognize the fact that similarity does not suppose identity, but the
+reverse, to wit, defect of likeness; and this dissimilitude must be the
+greater, as the original and symbol are naturally discrepant. The
+supernatual,[TN-11] however, whether by this term we mean the unknown or
+the universal--still more if we mean the incomprehensible--is utterly
+discrepant with the known, except by an indefinitely faint analogy. In
+the higher thought, therefore, the symbol loses all trace of identity
+and becomes merely emblematic.
+
+The ancients defended symbolic teaching on this very ground, that the
+symbol left so much unexplained, that it stimulated the intellect and
+trained it to profounder thinking;[205-1] practically it had the
+reverse effect, the symbol being accepted as the thing itself.
+
+Passing from these general rules of the selection of symbols, to the
+history of the symbol when chosen, this presents itself to us in a
+reciprocal form, first as the myth led to the adoption and changes in
+the symbol, and as the latter in turn altered and reformed the myth.
+
+The tropes and figures of rhetoric by which the conceptions of the
+supernatural were first expressed, give the clue to primitive symbolism.
+A very few examples will be sufficient. No one can doubt that the figure
+of the serpent was sometimes used in pictorial art to represent the
+lightning, when he reads that the Algonkins _straightly_ called the
+latter a snake; when he sees the same adjective, spiral or winding,
+(ἑλικοιεδης) applied by the Greeks to the lightning and a snake; when
+the Quiché call the electric flash a strong serpent; and many other such
+examples. The Pueblo Indians represent lightning in their pictographs by
+a zigzag line. A zigzag fence is called in the Middle States a worm or
+“snake” fence. Besides this, adjectives which describe the line traced
+by the serpent in motion are applied to many twisting or winding
+objects, as a river, a curl or lock of hair, the tendrils of a vine, the
+intestines, a trailing plant, the mazes of a dance, a bracelet, a broken
+ray of light, a sickle, a crooked limb, an anfractuous path, the
+phallus, etc. Hence the figure of a serpent may, and in fact has been,
+used with direct reference to every one of these, as could easily be
+shown. How short-sighted then the expounder of symbolism who would
+explain the frequent recurrence of the symbol or the myth of the serpent
+wherever he finds it by any one of these!
+
+This narrowness of exposition becomes doubly evident when we give
+consideration to two other elements in primitive symbolism--the
+multivocal nature of early designs, and the misapprehensions due to
+contiguous association.
+
+To illustrate the first, let us suppose, with Schwarz[207-1] and others,
+that the serpent was at first the symbol of the lightning. Its most
+natural representation would be in motion; it might then stand for the
+other serpentine objects I have mentioned; but once accepted as an
+acknowledged symbol, the other qualities and properties of the serpent
+would present themselves to the mind, and the effort would be made to
+discover or to imagine likenesses to these in the electric flash. The
+serpent is venomous; it casts its skin and thus seems to renew its life;
+it is said to fascinate its prey; it lives in the ground; it hisses or
+rattles when disturbed: none of these properties is present to the mind
+of the savage who scratches on the rock a zigzag line to represent the
+lightning god. But after-thought brings them up, and the association of
+contiguity can apply them all to the lightning, and actually has done so
+over and over again; and not only to it, but also to other objects
+originally represented by a broken line, for example, the river gods and
+the rays of light.
+
+This complexity is increased by the ambiguous representation of symbolic
+designs. The serpent, no longer chosen for its motion alone, will be
+expressed in art in that form best suited to the meaning of the symbol
+present in the mind of the artist. Realism is never the aim of religious
+art. The zigzag line, the coil, the spiral, the circle and the straight
+line, are all geometrical radicals of various serpentine forms. Any one
+of these may be displayed with fanciful embellishments and artistic
+aids. Or the artist, proceeding by synecdoche, takes a part for the
+whole, and instead of portraying the entire animal, contents himself
+with one prominent feature or one aspect of it. A striking instance of
+this has been developed by Dr. Harrison Allen, in the prevalence of what
+he calls the “crotalean curve,” in aboriginal American art, a line which
+is the radical of the profile view of the head of the rattlesnake
+(_crotalus_).[208-1] This he has detected in the architectural monuments
+of Mexico and Yucatan, in the Maya phonetic scrip, and even in the rude
+efforts of the savage tribes. Each of these elective methods of
+representing the serpent, would itself, by independent association,
+call up ideas out of all connection whatever with that which the figure
+first symbolized. These, in the mind entertaining them, will supersede
+and efface the primitive meaning. Thus the circle is used in
+conventional symbolic art to designate the serpent; but also the eye,
+the ear, the open mouth, the mamma, the sun, the moon, a wheel, the
+womb, the vagina, the return of the seasons, time, continued life, hence
+health, and many other things. Whichever of these ideas is easiest
+recalled will first appear on looking at a circle. The error of those
+who have discussed mythological symbolism has been to trace a connection
+of such adventitious ideas beyond the symbol to its original meaning;
+whereas the symbol itself is the starting-point. To one living in a
+region where venomous serpents abound, the figure of one will recall the
+sense of danger, the dread of the bite, and the natural hostility we
+feel to those who hurt us; whereas no such ideas would occur to the
+native of a country where there are no snakes, or where they are
+harmless, unless taught this association.
+
+Few symbols have received more extended study than that of the cross,
+owing to its prominence in Christian art. This, as I have said, was
+coincident or incidental only. It corresponded, however, to a current
+“phonetic symbol,” in the expression common to the Greeks and Romans of
+that day, “to take up one’s cross,” meaning to prepare for the worst, a
+metaphor used by Christ himself.
+
+Now there is no agreement as to what was the precise form of the cross
+on which he suffered. Three materially unlike crosses are each equally
+probable. In symbolic art these have been so multiplied that now _two
+hundred and twenty-two_ variants of the figure are described![210-1] Of
+course there is nothing easier than to find among these similarities,
+with many other conventional symbols, the Egyptian Tau, the Hammer of
+Thor, the “Tree of Fertility,” on which the Aztecs nailed their victims,
+the crossed lines which are described on Etruscan tombs, or the logs
+crossed at rectangles, on which the Muskogee Indians built the sacred
+fire. The four cardinal points are so generally objects of worship, that
+more than any other mythical conception they have been represented by
+cruciform figures. But to connect these in any way with the symbol as it
+appears in Christian art, is to violate every scientific principle.
+
+Each variant of a symbol may give rise to myths quite independent of its
+original meaning. A symbol once adopted is preserved by its sacred
+character, exists long as a symbol, but with ever fluctuating
+significations. It always takes that which is uppermost in the mind of
+the votary and the congregation. Hence, psychology, and especially the
+psychology of races, is the only true guide in symbolic exegesis.
+
+Nor is the wide adoption and preservation of symbols alone due to an
+easily noticed similarity between certain objects and the earliest
+conceptions of the supernatural, or to the preservative power of
+religious veneration.
+
+I have previously referred to the associations of ideas arising from
+ancestral reversions of memory, and from the principles of minimum
+muscular action and harmonic excitation. Such laws make themselves felt
+unconsciously from the commencement of life, with greater or less power,
+dependent on the susceptibility of the nervous system. They go far
+toward explaining the recurrence and permanence of symbols, whether of
+sight or sound. Thus I attribute the prevalence of the serpentine curve
+in early religious art largely to its approach to the “line of beauty,”
+which is none other than that line which the eye, owing to the
+arrangement of its muscles, can follow with the minimum expenditure of
+nervous energy. The satisfaction of the mind in viewing symmetrical
+figures or harmonious coloring, as also that of the ear, in hearing
+accordant sounds, is, as I have remarked, based on the principle of
+maximum action with minimum waste. The mind gets the most at the least
+cost.
+
+The equilateral triangle, which is the simplest geometrical figure which
+can enclose a space, thus satisfying the mind the easiest of any, is
+nigh universal in symbolism. It is seen in the Egyptian pyramids, whose
+sides are equilateral triangles with a common apex, in the mediæval
+cathedrals, whose designs are combinations of such triangles, in the
+sign for the trinity, the pentalpha, etc.
+
+The classification of some symbols of less extensive prevalence must be
+made from their phonetic values. One class was formed as were the
+“canting arms” in heraldry, that is, by a rebus. This is in its simpler
+form, direct, as when Quetzalcoatl, the mystical hero-god of Atzlan, is
+represented by a bird on a serpent, _quetzal_ signifying a bird, _coatl_
+a serpent; or composite, two or more of such rebus symbols being blended
+by synecdoche, like the “marshalling” of arms in heraldry, as when the
+same god is portrayed by a feathered serpent; or the rebus may occur
+with paronymy, especially when the literal meaning of a name of the god
+is lost, as when the Algonkins forgot the sense of the word _wabish_,
+white or bright, as applied to their chief divinity, and confounding it
+with _wabos_, a rabbit, wove various myths about their ancestor, the
+Great Hare, and chose the hare or rabbit as a totemic badge.[212-1]
+
+It is almost needless to add further that the ideas most frequently
+associated with the unknown object of religion are those, which,
+struggling after material expression, were most fecund in symbols. We
+have but to turn to the Orphic hymns, or those of the Vedas or the
+Hebrew Psalms, to see how inexhaustible was the poetic fancy, stirred by
+religious awe, in the discovery of similitudes, any of which, under
+favoring circumstances, might become a symbol.
+
+Before leaving this branch of my subject, I may illustrate some of the
+preceding comments by applying them to one or two well known subjects of
+religious art.
+
+A pleasing symbol, which has played a conspicuous part in many
+religions, is the Egyptian lotus, or “lily of the Nile.” It is an
+aquatic plant, with white, roseate or blue flowers, which float upon the
+water, and send up from their centre long stamens. In Egypt it grows
+with the rising of the Nile, and as its appearance was coincident with
+that important event, it came to take prominence in the worship of Isis
+and Osiris as the symbol of fertility. Their mystical marriage took
+place in its blossom. In the technical language of the priests, however,
+it bore a profounder meaning, that of the supremacy of reason above
+matter, the contrast being between the beautiful flower and the muddy
+water which bears it.[214-1] In India the lotus bears other and
+manifold meanings. It is a symbol of the sacred river Ganges, and of the
+morally pure. No prayer in the world has ever been more frequently
+repeated than this: “Om! the jewel in the lotus. Amen” (_om mani padme
+hum_). Many millions of times, every hour, for centuries, has this been
+iterated by the Buddhists of Thibet and the countries north of it. What
+it means, they can only explain by fantastic and mystical guesses.
+Probably it refers to the legendary birth of their chief saint,
+Avalokitesvara, who is said to have been born of a lotus flower. But
+some say it is a piece of symbolism not strange to its meaning in
+Egypt,[214-2] and borrowed by Buddhism from the Siva worship. In the
+symbolic language of this sect the lotus is the symbol of the vagina,
+while the phallus is called “the jewel.” With this interpretation the
+Buddhist prayer would refer to the reproductive act; but it is
+illustrative of the necessity of attributing wholly diverse meanings to
+the same symbol, that the Buddhists neither now nor at any past time
+attached any such signification to the expression, and it would be most
+discrepant with their doctrines to do so.[214-3]
+
+Another symbol has frequently been open to this duplicate
+interpretation, that is, the upright pillar. The Egyptian obelisk, the
+pillars of “Irmin” or of “Roland,” set up now of wood, now of stone by
+the ancient Germans, the “red-painted great warpole” of the American
+Indians, the May-pole of Old England, the spire of sacred edifices, the
+staff planted on the grave, the terminus of the Roman landholders, all
+these objects have been interpreted to be symbols of life, or the
+life-force. As they were often of wood, the trunk of a tree for
+instance, they have often been called by titles equivalent to the “tree
+of life,” and are thus connected with the nigh innumerable myths which
+relate to some mystic tree as the source of life. The ash Ygdrasyl of
+the Edda, the oak of Dordona and of the Druid, the modern Christmas
+tree, the sacred banyan, the holy groves, illustrate but faintly the
+prevalence of tree worship. Even so late as the time of Canute, it had
+to be forbidden in England by royal edict.
+
+Now, the general meaning of this symbol I take to be the same as that
+which led to the choice of hills and “high places,” as sites for altars
+and temples, and to the assigning of mountain tops as the abodes of the
+chief gods. It is seen in adjectives applied, I believe, in all
+languages, certainly all developed ones, to such deities themselves.
+These adjectives are related to adverbs of place, signifying _above_,
+_up_ or _over_. We speak of the supernatural, or supernal powers, the
+Supreme Being, the Most High, He in Heaven, and such like. So do all
+Aryan and Semitic tongues. Beyond them, the Chinese name for the Supreme
+Deity, Tien, means _up_. I have elsewhere illustrated the same fact in
+native American tongues. The association of light and the sky above, the
+sun and the heaven, is why we raise our hands and eyes in confident
+prayer to divinity. That at times, however, a religion of sex-love did
+identify these erect symbols with the phallus as the life-giver, is very
+true, but this was a temporary and adventitious meaning assigned a
+symbol far more ancient than this form of religion.
+
+In this review of the principles of religious symbolism, I have
+attempted mainly to exhibit the part it has sustained in the development
+of the religious sentiment. It has been generally unfavorable to the
+growth of higher thought. The symbol, in what it is above the emblem,
+assumes more than a similarity, a closer relation than analogy; to some
+degree it pretends to a hypostatic union or identity of the material
+with the divine, the known to sense with the unknown. Fully seen, this
+becomes object worship; partially so, personification.
+
+There is no exception to this. The refined symbolisms which pass current
+to day as religious philosophies exemplify it. The one, esthetic
+symbolism, has its field in musical and architectural art, in the study
+and portraiture of the beautiful; the other, scientific symbolism,
+claims to discover in the morphology of organisms, in the harmonic laws
+of physics, and in the processes of the dialectic, the proof that
+symbolism, if not a revelation, is at least an unconscious inspiration
+of universal truth. This is the “Doctrine of Correspondences,” much in
+favor with Swedenborgians, but by no means introduced by the founder of
+that sect. The recognition of the identity in form of the fundamental
+laws of motion and thought, and the clearer understanding of the
+character of harmony which the experiments of Helmholtz and others give
+us, disperse most of the mystery about these similarities. The religion
+of art, as such, will come up for consideration in the next chapter.
+
+The second form of the Cult is the Rite. This includes the acts or
+ceremonies of worship. Considered in the gross, they can be classed as
+of two kinds, the first and earliest propitiatory, the second and later
+memorial or institutionary.
+
+We have but to bear in mind the one aspiration of commencing religious
+thought, to wit, the attainment of a wish, to see that whatever action
+arose therefrom must be directed to that purpose. Hence, when we analyze
+the rude ceremonies of savage cults, the motive is extremely apparent.
+They, like their prayers, all point to the securing of some material
+advantage. They are designed
+
+                                    “to cozen
+    The gods that constrain us and curse.”
+
+The motives which underlie these simplest as well as the most elaborate
+rituals, and impress upon them their distinctively religious character
+can be reduced to two, the idea of _sacrifice_ and the idea of _specific
+performance_.
+
+The simplest notion involved in a sacrifice is that of _giving_. The
+value of the gift is not, however, the intrinsic worth of the thing
+given, nor even the pleasure or advantage the recipient derives
+therefrom, but, singularly enough, the amount of pain the giver
+experiences in depriving himself of it! This is also often seen in
+ordinary transactions. A rich man who subscribes a hundred dollars to a
+charity, is thought to merit less commendation than the widow who gives
+her mite. Measured by motive, this reasoning is correct. There is a
+justice which can be vindicated in holding self-denial to be a standard
+of motive. All developed religions have demanded the renunciation of
+what is dearest. The Ynglyngasaga tells us that in a time of famine, the
+first sacrifice offered to the gods was of beasts only; if this failed,
+men were slain to appease them; and if this did not mitigate their
+anger, the king himself was obliged to die that they might send plenty.
+The Latin writers have handed it down that among the Germans and Gauls a
+human sacrifice was deemed the more efficacious the more distinguished
+the victim, and the nearer his relationship to him who offered the
+rite.[219-1] The slaughter of children and wives to please the gods was
+common in many religions, and the self-emasculation of the priests of
+Cybele, with other such painful rites, indicates that the measure of the
+sacrifice was very usually not what the god needed, but the willingness
+of the worshipper to give.
+
+The second idea, that of _specific performance_, has been well expressed
+and humorously commented upon by Hume in his _Natural History of
+Religions_. He says: “Here I cannot forbear observing a fact which may
+be worth the attention of those who make human nature the object of
+their inquiry. It is certain that in every religion, many of the
+votaries, perhaps the greatest number, will seek the divine favor, not
+by virtue and good morals, but either by frivolous observances, by
+intemperate zeal, by rapturous ecstasies, or by the belief of mysterious
+and absurd opinions.
+
+* * * In all this [_i. e._, in virtue and good morals], a superstitious
+man finds nothing, which he has properly performed for the sake of his
+deity, or which can peculiarly recommend him to divine favor and
+protection. * * * * But if he fast or give himself a sound whipping,
+this has a direct reference, in his opinion, to the service of God. No
+other motive could engage him to such austerities.”
+
+The philosopher here sets forth in his inimitable style a marked
+characteristic of religious acts. But he touches upon it with his usual
+superficiality. It is true that no religion has ever been content with
+promoting the happiness of man, and that the vast majority of votaries
+are always seeking to do something specifically religious, and are not
+satisfied with the moral only. The simple explanation of it is that the
+religious sentiment has a purpose entirely distinct from ethics, a
+purpose constantly felt as something peculiar to itself, though
+obscurely seen and often wholly misconceived. It is only when an action
+is utterly dissevered from other ends, and is purely and solely
+religious, that it can satisfy this sentiment. “_La religion_,” most
+truly observes Madame Necker de Saussure, “_ne doit point avoir d’autre
+bût qu’elle même_.”
+
+The uniform prevalence of these ideas in rites may be illustrated from
+the simplest or the most elaborate. Father Brebeuf, missionary to the
+Hurons in 1636, has a chapter on their superstitions. He there tells us
+that this nation had two sorts of ceremonies, the one to induce the
+gods to grant good fortune, the other to appease them when some ill-luck
+had occurred. Before running a dangerous rapid in their frail canoes
+they would lay tobacco on a certain rock where the deity of the rapid
+was supposed to reside, and ask for safety in their voyage. They took
+tobacco and cast it in the fire, saying: “O Heaven (_Aronhiaté_), see, I
+give you something; aid me; cure this sickness of mine.” When one was
+drowned or died of cold, a feast was called, and the soft parts of the
+corpse were cut from the bones and burned to conciliate the personal
+god, while the women danced and chanted a melancholy strain. Here one
+sacrifice was to curry favor with the gods, another to soothe their
+anger, and the third was a rite, not a sacrifice, but done for a
+religious end, whose merit was specific performance.
+
+As the gift was valued at what it cost the giver, and was supposed to be
+efficacious in this same ratio, self-denial soon passed into
+self-torture, prolonged fasts, scourging and lacerations, thus becoming
+legitimate exhibitions of religious fervor. As mental pain is as keen as
+bodily pain, the suffering of Jephthah was quite as severe as that of
+the Flagellants, and was expected to find favor in the eyes of the gods.
+
+A significant corrollary[TN-12] from such a theory follows: that which is
+the efficacious part of the sacrifice is the suffering; given a certain
+degree of this, the desired effect will follow. As to what or who
+suffers, or in what manner he or it suffers, these are secondary
+considerations, even unimportant ones, so far as the end to be obtained
+is concerned. This is the germ of _vicarious_ sacrifice, a plan
+frequently observed in even immature religions. What seems the
+diabolical cruelty of some superstitious rites, those of the
+Carthaginians and Celts, for example, is thoroughly consistent with the
+abstract theory of sacrifice, and did not spring from capricious malice.
+The Death of Christ, regarded as a general vicarious atonement, has had
+its efficiency explained directly by the theory that the pain he
+suffered partook of the infinity of his divine nature; as thus it was
+excruciating beyond measure, so it was infinitely effectual toward
+appeasing divinity.
+
+It is well known that this doctrine was no innovation on the religious
+sentiment of the age when it was preached by the Greek fathers. For
+centuries the Egyptian priests had taught the incarnation and sufferings
+of Osiris, and his death for the salvation of his people. Similar myths
+were common throughout the Orient, all drawn from the reasoning I have
+mentioned.[222-1]
+
+They have been variously criticized. Apart from the equivocal traits
+this theory of atonement attributes to the supernatural powers--a
+feature counterbalanced, in modern religion, by subduing its harshest
+features--it is rooted essentially in the material view of religion. The
+religious value of an act is to be appraised by the extent to which it
+follows recognition of duty. To acknowledge an error is unpleasant; to
+renounce it still more so, for it breaks a habit; to see our own errors
+in their magnitude, sullying our whole nature and reaching far ahead to
+generations yet unborn, is consummately bitter, and in proportion as it
+is bitter, will keep us from erring.[223-1] This is the “sacrifice of a
+contrite heart,” which alone is not despicable; and this no one can do
+for us. We may be sure that neither the physical pain of victims burning
+in a slow fire, nor the mental pain of yielding up whatever we hold
+dearest upon earth, will make our views of duty a particle clearer or
+our notion of divinity a jot nobler; and whatever does neither of these
+is not of true religion.
+
+The theory of sacrifice is intimately related with the idea of sin. In
+the quotation I have made from Father Brebeuf we see that the Hurons
+recognized a distinct form of rite as appropriate to appease a god when
+angered. It is a matter of national temperament which of these forms
+takes the lead. Joutel tells of a tribe in Texas who paid attention only
+to the gods who worked them harm, saying that the good gods were good
+anyhow. By parity of reasoning, one sect of Mohammedans worship the
+devil only. It is well to make friends with your enemy, and then he will
+not hurt you; and if a man is shielded from his enemies, he is safe
+enough.
+
+But where, as in most Semitic, Celtic and various other religions, the
+chief gods frowned or smiled as they were propitiated or neglected, and
+when a certain amount of pain was the propitiation they demanded, the
+necessity of rendering this threw a dark shadow on life. What is the
+condition of man, that only through sorrow he can reach joy? He must be
+under a curse.
+
+Physical and mental processes aided by analogy this gloomy deduction. It
+is only through pain that we are stimulated to the pursuit of pleasure,
+and the latter is a phantom we never catch. The laws of correct
+reasoning are those which alone should guide us; but the natural laws of
+the association of ideas do not at all correspond with the one
+association which reason accepts. Truth is what we are born for, error
+is what is given us.
+
+Instead of viewing this state of things as one inseparable to the
+relative as another than the universal, and, instead of seeing the means
+of correcting it in the mental element of attention, continuance or
+volition, guided by experience and the growing clearness of the purposes
+of the laws of thought, the problem was given up as hopeless, and man
+was placed under a ban from which a god alone could set him free; he was
+sunk in original sin, chained to death.
+
+To reach this result it is evident that a considerable effort at
+reasoning, a peculiar view of the nature of the gods, and a temperament
+not the most common, must be combined. Hence it was adopted as a
+religious dogma by but a few nations. The Chinese know nothing of the
+“sense of sin,” nor did the Greeks and Romans. The Parsees do not
+acknowledge it, nor do the American tribes. “To sin,” in their
+languages, does not mean to offend the deity, but to make a mistake, to
+miss the mark, to loose one’s way as in a wood, and the missionaries
+have exceeding difficulty in making them understand the theological
+signification of the word.
+
+The second class of rites are memorial in character. As the former were
+addressed to the gods, so these are chiefly for the benefit of the
+people. They are didactic, to preserve the myth, or institutionary, to
+keep alive the discipline and forms of the church.
+
+Of this class of rites it may broadly be said they are the myth
+dramatized. Indeed, the drama owes its origin to the mimicry by
+worshippers of the supposed doings of the gods. The most ancient
+festivals have reference to the recurrence of the seasons, and the
+ceremonies which mark them represent the mythical transactions which are
+supposed to govern the yearly changes. The god himself was often
+represented by the
+
+high priest, and masked figures took the parts of attendant deities.
+
+Institutionary rites are those avowedly designed to commemorate a myth
+or event, and to strengthen thereby the religious organization.
+Christian baptism is by some denominations looked upon as a
+commemorative or institutionary rite only; and the same is the case with
+the Lord’s Supper. These seem to have been the only rites recommended,
+though the former was not practiced by Christ. In any ordinary meaning
+of his words, he regarded them both as institutionary.
+
+The tendency of memorial to become propitiatory rites is visible in all
+materialistic religions. The procedure, from a simple commemorative act,
+acquires a mystic efficacy, a supernatural or spiritual power, often
+supposed to extend to the deity as well as the votary. Thus the Indian
+“rain-maker” will rattle his gourd, beat his drum, and blow through his
+pipe, to represent the thunder, lightning, and wind of the storm; and
+he believes that by this mimicry of the rain-god’s proceedings he can
+force him to send the wished-for showers. The charms, spells and
+incantations of sorcery have the same foundation. Equally visible is it
+in the reception of the Christian rites above mentioned, baptism and the
+Eucharist, as “sacraments,” as observances of divine efficacy in
+themselves. All such views arise from the material character of the
+religious wants.
+
+The conclusion is that, while emblems and memorial rites have nothing in
+them which can mar, they also have nothing which can aid the growth and
+purity of the religious sentiment, beyond advancing its social
+relations; while symbols, in the proper sense of the term, and
+propitiatory rites, as necessarily false and without foundation, always
+degrade and obscure religious thought. Their prominence in a cult
+declines, as it rises in quality; and in a perfected scheme of worship
+they would have no place whatever.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[200-1] In his chapter _Ideen zu einer Physik des Symbols und des
+Mythus_, of his _Symbolik und Mythologie_.
+
+[201-1] Dr. H. C. Barlow’s _Essays on Symbolism_ (London, 1866),
+deserves mention as one of the best of these.
+
+[204-1] W. S. Jevons, _The Substitution of Similars_, p. 15 (London,
+1869.)
+
+[205-1] Creuzer, _Symbolik_, Bd. I, s. 59.
+
+[207-1] _Ursprung der Mythologie_ (Berlin, 1862).
+
+[208-1] Harrison Allen, M. D., _The Life Form in Art_, Phila. 1874.
+
+[210-1] Cussans, _Grammar of Heraldry_, p. 16.
+
+[212-1] Numerous examples from classical antiquity are given by Creuzer,
+_Symbolik_, Bd. i. s. 114. sqq.
+
+[214-1] W. von Humboldt, _Gesammelte Werke_, Bd. iv., s. 332.
+
+[214-2] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie_, Bd. i., s. 282.
+
+[214-3] Carl Frederick Koppen, _Die Lamaische Hierarchie and[TN-13]
+Kirche_, ss. 59, 60, 61.
+
+[219-1] Adolph Holtzmann, _Deutsche Mythologie_, p. 232 (Leipzig, 1874).
+
+[222-1] “Es ist so gewissermassen in allen ernsten orientalischen Lehren
+das Christenthum in seinem Keime vorgebildet.” Creuzer, _Symbolik und
+Mythologie der Alten Völker_, Bd. i., s. 297.
+
+[223-1] In a conversation reported by Mr. John Morley, John Stuart Mill
+expressed his belief that “the coming modification of religion” will be
+controlled largely through men becoming “more and more impressed with
+the awful fact that a piece of conduct to-day may prove a curse to men
+and women scores and even hundreds of years after the author of it is
+dead.”
+
+
+
+
+THE MOMENTA OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     National impulses and aims as historic ideas. Their recurrence and
+     its explanation. Their permanence in relation to their truth and
+     consciousness. The historic ideas in religious progress are chiefly
+     three.
+
+     I. The Idea of the Perfected Individual.
+
+     First placed in physical strength. This gave way in Southern Europe
+     to the idea of physical symmetry, a religion of beauty and art.
+     Later days have produced the idea of mental symmetry, the religion
+     of culture. All have failed, and why? The momenta of true religion
+     in each.
+
+     II. The Idea of the Perfected Commonwealth.
+
+     Certain national temperaments predispose to individualism, others
+     to communism. The social relations governed at first by divine law.
+     Later, morality represents this law. The religion of conduct. The
+     religion of sentiment and of humanity. Advantages and disadvantages
+     in this idea.
+
+     Comparisons of these two ideas as completed respectively by Wilhelm
+     von Humboldt and Auguste Comte.
+
+     III. The Idea of Personal Survival.
+
+     The doctrine of immortality the main moment in Christianity, Islam
+     and Buddhism. Unfamiliar to old and simple faiths. Its energy and
+     speculative relations. It is decreasing as a religious moment owing
+     to, (1) a better understanding of ethics, (2) more accurate
+     cosmical conceptions, (3) the clearer defining of life, (4) the
+     increasing immateriality of religions.
+
+     The future and final moments of religious thought.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE MOMENTA OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT.
+
+
+The records of the past can be studied variously. Events can be arranged
+in the order of their occurrence: this is chronology or annals; in
+addition to this, their connections and mutual relations as cause and
+effect may be shown: this is historical science; or, thirdly, from a
+general view of trains of related events some abstract aim as their
+final cause may be theoretically deduced and confirmed by experience:
+this is the philosophy of history. The doctrine of final causes, in its
+old form as the _argumentum de appetitu_, has been superseded. Function
+is not purpose; desire comes from the experience of pleasure, and
+realizes its dreams, if at all, by the slow development of capacity. The
+wish carries no warrant of gratification with it. No “argument from
+design” can be adduced from the region where the laws of physical
+necessity prevail. Those laws are not designed for an end.
+
+When, however, in the unfolding of mind we reach the stage of notions,
+we observe a growing power to accomplish desire, not only by altering
+the individual or race organism, but also by bringing external objects
+into unison with the desire, reversing the process common in the life of
+sensation. This spectacle, however, is confined to man alone, and man as
+guided by prospective volition, that is, by an object ahead.
+
+When some such object is common to a nation or race, it exercises a wide
+influence on its destiny, and is the key to much that otherwise would be
+inexplicable in its actions. What we call national hopes, ambitions and
+ideals are such objects. Sometimes they are distinctly recognized by the
+nation, sometimes they are pursued almost unconsciously. They do not
+correspond to things as they are, but as they are wished to be. Hence
+there is nothing in them to insure their realization. They are like an
+appetite, which may and may not develope the function which can gratify
+it. They have been called “historic ideas,” and their consideration is a
+leading topic in modern historical science.
+
+Reason claims the power of criticizing such ideas, and of distinguishing
+in them between what is true and therefore obtainable, and what is false
+and therefore chimerical or even destructive. This is the province of
+the philosophy of history. It guides itself by those general principles
+for the pursuit of truth which have been noticed in brief in the earlier
+pages of this book. Looking before as well as after, it aspires in the
+united light of experience and the laws of mind, to construct for the
+race an ideal within the reach of its capacities, yet which will
+develope them to the fullest extent, a pole-star to which it can trust
+in this night teeming with will-o’-the wisps.
+
+The opinion that the history of mind is a progress whose end will be
+worth more than was its beginning, may not prove true in fact--the
+concrete expression never wholly covers the abstract requirements--but
+it is undoubtedly true in theory. The progress, so far, has been by no
+means a lineal one--each son a better man than his father--nor even, as
+some would have it, a spiral one--periodical recurrences to the same
+historical ideas, but each recurrence a nearer approach to the
+philosophical idea--but it has been far more complex and irregular than
+any geometrical figure will illustrate. These facile generalizations do
+not express it.
+
+Following the natural laws of thought man has erred infinitely, and his
+errors have worked their sure result--they have destroyed him. There is
+no “relish of salvation” in an error; otherwise than that it is sure to
+kill him who obstructs the light by harboring it. There is no sort of
+convertability of the false into the true, as shallow thinkers of the
+day teach.
+
+Man has only escaped death when at first by a lucky chance, and then by
+personal and inherited experience, his thoughts drifted or were forced
+into conformity with the logical laws of thought.
+
+A historic idea is a complex product formed of numerous conceptions,
+some true and others false. Its permanency and efficacy are in direct
+proportion to the number and clearness of the former it embraces. When
+it is purging itself of the latter, the nation is progressive; when the
+false are retained, their poison spreads and the nation decays.
+
+The _periodical recurrence_ of historic ideas is one of their most
+striking features. The explanations offered for it have been various.
+The ancient doctrines of an exact repetition of events in the cycles of
+nature, and of the transmigration of souls, drew much support from it;
+and the modern modification of the latter theory as set forth by
+Wordsworth and Lessing, are distinctly derived from the same source.
+Rightly elucidated, the philosophical historian will find in it an
+invaluable clue to the unravelment of the tangled skein of human
+endeavor.
+
+Historic periodicity is on the one side an organic law of memory,
+dependent upon the revival of transmitted ancestral impressions. A
+prevailing idea though over-cultivation exhausts its organic correlate,
+and leads to defective nutrition of that part in the offspring. Hence
+they do not pursue the same idea as their fathers, but revert to a
+remoter ancestral historic idea, the organic correlate of which has
+lain fallow, thus gained strength. It is brought forth as new, receives
+additions by contiguity and similarity, is ardently pursued,
+over-cultivated, and in time supplanted by another revival.
+
+But this material side corresponds to an all-important mental one. As an
+organic process only, the history of periodic ideas is thus
+satisfactorily explained, but he who holds this explanation to be
+exhaustive sees but half the problem.
+
+The permanence of a historic idea, I have stated, is in direct
+proportion to the number of true ideas in its composition; the
+impression it makes on the organic substrata of memory is in turn in
+proportion to its permanence. The element of decay is the destructive
+effects of natural trains of thought out of accord with the logically
+true trains. These cause defective cerebral nutrition, which is thus
+seen to arise, so far as influenced by the operations of the memory,
+from relations of truth and error. There is a physiological tendency in
+the former to preserve and maintain in activity; in the latter to
+disappear. The percentage of true concepts which makes up the complexity
+of a historic idea gives the principal factor towards calculating its
+probable recurrence. Of course, a second factor is the physiological one
+of nutrition itself.
+
+The next important distinction in discussing historic ideas is between
+those which are held consciously, and those which operate
+unconsciously. The former are always found to be more active, and more
+amenable to correction. An unconscious idea is a product of the natural,
+not the logical laws of mind, and is therefore very apt to be largely
+false. It is always displaced with advantage by a conscious aim.
+
+One of the superficial fallacies of the day, which pass under the name
+of philosophy, is to maintain that any such historic idea is the best
+possible one for the time and place in which it is found. I am led to
+refer to this by the false light it has thrown on religious history.
+Herbert Spencer remarks in one of his essays:[236-1] “All religious
+creeds, during the eras in which they are severally held, are the best
+that could be held.” “All are good for their times and places.” So far
+from this being the case, there never has been a religion but that an
+improvement in it would have straightway exerted a beneficent effect.
+Man, no matter what his condition, can always derive immediate good
+from higher conceptions of Deity than he himself has elaborated. Nor is
+the highest conception possible an idealization of self, as I have
+sufficiently shown in a previous chapter, but is one drawn wholly from
+the realm of the abstract. Moreover, as a matter of history, we know
+that in abundant instances, the decay of nations can be traced largely
+to the base teachings of their religious instructors. To maintain that
+such religions were “the best possible ones” for the time and place is
+the absurdest optimism. In what a religion shares of the abstractly true
+it is beneficent; in what it partakes of the untrue it is deleterious.
+This, and no other canon, must be our guide.
+
+The ideas of religious history obey the same laws as other historic
+ideas. They grow, decay, are supplanted and revive again in varying
+guises, in accordance with the processes of organic nutrition as
+influenced by the truth or falsity of their component ideas. Their
+tendency to personification is stronger, because of the much greater
+nearness they have to the individual desire. The one aspiration of a
+high-spirited people when subjugated will be freedom; and in the lower
+stages of culture they will be very certain to fabricate a myth of a
+deliverer to come.
+
+In like manner, every member of a community shares with his fellow
+members some wish, hope or ambition dependent on unknown control and
+therefore religious in character, which will become the “formative idea”
+of the national religious development.
+
+Of the various ideas in religious history there are three which, through
+their permanence and frequent revival, we may justly suppose in
+accordance with the above-mentioned canons to contain a large measure of
+truth, and yet to be far from wholly true. They may be considered as
+leading moments in religious growth, yet withal lacking something or
+other essential to the satisfaction of the religious sentiment. The
+first of these is the idea of the _perfected individual_; the second the
+idea of the _perfected commonwealth_; the third, that of _personal
+survival_. These have been the formative ideas (_Ideen der Gestaltung_)
+in the prayers, myths, rites and religious institutions of many nations
+at widely separated times.
+
+Of the two first mentioned it may be said that every extended faith has
+accepted them to some degree. They are the secret of the alliances of
+religion with art, with government, with ethics, with science, education
+and sentiment.
+
+These alliances have often been taken by historians to contain the vital
+elements of religion itself, and many explanations based on one or
+another assumption of the kind have been proffered. Religion, while it
+may embrace any of them, is independent of them all. Its relations to
+them have been transitory, and the more so as their aims have been
+local and material. The brief duration of the subjection of religion to
+such incongenial ties was well compared by Lord Herbert of Cherbury to
+the early maturity of brutes, who attain their full growth in a year or
+two, while man needs a quarter of a century.[239-1] The inferior aims of
+the religious sentiment were discarded one after another to make way for
+higher ones, which were slowly dawning upon it. In this progress it was
+guided largely by the three ideas I have mentioned, which have been in
+many forms leading stimuli of the religious thought of the race.
+
+First, of the _idea of the perfected individual_.
+
+Many writers have supposed that the contemplation of Power in nature
+first stirred religious thought in man. Though this is not the view
+taken in this book, no one will question that the leading trait in the
+gods of barbarism is physical strength. The naive anthropomorphism of
+the savage makes his a god of a mighty arm, a giant in stature, puissant
+and terrible. He hurls the thunderbolt, and piles up the mountains in
+sport. His name is often The Strong One, as in the Allah, Eloah of the
+Semitic tongues. Hercules, Chon, Melkarth, Dorsanes, Thor and others
+were of the most ancient divinities in Greece, Egypt, Phœnicia, India,
+and Scandinavia, and were all embodiments of physical force. Such, too,
+was largely the character of the Algonkin Messou, who scooped out the
+great lakes with his hands and tore up the largest trees by the roots.
+The huge boulders from the glacial epoch which are scattered over their
+country are the pebbles he tossed in play or in anger. The cleft in the
+Andes, through which flows the river Funha, was opened by a single blow
+of Nemqueteba, chief god of the Muyscas. In all such and a hundred
+similar legends, easy to quote, we see the notion of strength, brute
+force, muscular power, was that deemed most appropriate to divinity, and
+that which he who would be godlike must most sedulously seek. When
+filled with the god, the votary felt a surpassing vigor. The Berserker
+fury was found in the wilds of America and Africa, as well as among the
+Fiords. Sickness and weakness, on the contrary, were signs that the gods
+were against him. Therefore, in all early stages of culture, the office
+of priest and physician was one. Conciliation of the gods was the
+catholicon.
+
+Such deities were fearful to behold. They are represented as mighty of
+stature and terrible of mien, calculated to appal, not attract, to
+inspire fear, not to kindle love. In tropical America, in Egypt, in
+Thibet, almost where you will, there is little to please the eye in the
+pictures and statues of deities.
+
+In Greece alone, a national temperament, marvellously sensitive to
+symmetry, developed the combination of maximum strength with perfect
+form in the sun-god, Apollo, and of grace with beauty in Aphrodite. The
+Greeks were the apostles of the religion of beauty. Their philosophic
+thought saw the permanent in the Form, which outlives strength, and is
+that alone in which the race has being. In its transmission love is the
+agent, and Aphrodite, unmatched in beauty and mother of love, was a
+creation worthy of their devotion. Thus with them the religious
+sentiment still sought its satisfaction in the individual, not indeed in
+the muscle, but in the feature and expression.
+
+When the old gods fell, the Christian fathers taught their flocks to
+abhor the beautiful as one with the sensual. St. Clement of Alexandria
+and Tertullian describe Christ as ugly of visage and undersized, a sort
+of Socrates in appearance.[241-1] Christian art was long in getting
+recognition. The heathens were the first to represent in picture and
+statues Christ and the apostles, and for long the fathers of the church
+opposed the multiplication of such images, saying that the inward beauty
+was alone desirable. Christian art reached its highest inspiration under
+the influence of Greek culture after the fall of Constantinople. In the
+very year, however, that Rafaello Sanzio met his premature death, Luther
+burned the decretals of the pope in the market-place of Wittenberg, and
+preached a doctrine as hostile to art as was that of Eusebius and
+Chrysostom. There was no longer any hope for the religion of beauty.
+
+Nevertheless, under the influence of the revival of ancient art which
+arose with Winckelmann towards the close of the last century, a gospel
+of esthetics was preached. Its apostles were chiefly Germans, and among
+them Schiller and Goethe are not inconspicuous names. The latter, before
+his long life was closed, began to see the emptiness of such teachings,
+and the violence perpetrated on the mind by forcing on the religious
+sentiment the food fit only for the esthetic emotions.
+
+The highest conception of individual perfection is reached in a
+character whose physical and mental powers are symmetrically trained,
+and always directed by conscious reason to their appropriate ends.
+Self-government, founded on self-knowledge, wards off the pangs of
+disappointment by limiting ambition to the attainable. The affections
+and emotions, and the pleasures of sensation as well, are indulged in or
+abstained from, but never to the darkening of the intellect. All the
+talents are placed at usury; every power exercised systematically and
+fruitfully with a consecration to a noble purpose.
+
+This is the religion of culture. None other ranks among its adherents so
+many great minds; men, as Carlyle expresses it, of much religiosity, if
+of little religion. The ideal is a taking one. Such utter self-reliance,
+not from ignorance, but from the perfection of knowledge, was that which
+Buddha held up to his followers: “Self is the God of self; who else
+should be the God?” In this century Goethe, Wordsworth, beyond all
+others Wilhelm von Humboldt, have set forth this ideal. Less strongly
+intellectual natures, as Maine de Biran, De Senancourt, and Matthew
+Arnold, listen with admiration, but feel how unknown to the mass of
+human kind must remain the tongue these masters speak.
+
+Thus did the religious sentiment seek its satisfaction in the
+idealization, first of physical force, then of form, and last of mental
+force, but in each case turned away unsatisfied. Wherein did these
+ideals fail? The first mentioned in exalting power over principle, might
+over right. As was well said by the philosophical Novalis: “The ideal of
+morality has no more dangerous rival than the ideal of physical
+strength, of the most vigorous life. Through it man is transformed into
+a reasoning beast, whose brutal cleverness has a fascination for weak
+minds.”[243-1] The religion of beauty failed in that it addressed the
+esthetic emotions, not the reasoning power. Art does not promote the
+good; it owes no fealty to either utility or ethics: in itself, it must
+be, in the negative sense of the words, at once useless and immoral.
+“Nature is not its standard, nor is truth its chief end.”[244-1] Its
+spirit is repose, “the perfect form in perfect rest;” whereas the spirit
+of religion is action because of imperfection. Even the gods must know
+of suffering, and partake, in incarnations, of the miseries of men.
+
+In the religion of culture what can we blame? That it is lacking in the
+impulses of action through the isolation it fosters; that it is and must
+be limited to a few, for it provides no defense for the weaknesses the
+many inherit; that its tendency is antagonistic to religion, as it cuts
+away the feeling of dependence, and the trust in the unknown; that it
+allows too little to enthusiasm ever to become a power.
+
+On the other hand, what momenta of true religious thought have these
+ideals embraced? Each presents some. Physical vigor, regarded as a sign
+of complete nutrition, is an indispensable preliminary to the highest
+religion. Correct thought cannot be, without sufficient and appropriate
+food. If the nourishment is inadequate, defective energy of the brain
+will be transmitted, and the offspring will revert ancestrally to a
+lower plane of thought. “It thus happens that the minds of persons of
+high religious culture by ancestral descent, and the intermarriage of
+religious families, so strangely end in the production of children
+totally devoid of moral sense and religious sentiment--moral imbeciles
+in short.”[245-1] From such considerations of the necessity of physical
+vigor to elevated thought, Descartes predicted that if the human race
+ever attain perfection it will be chiefly through the art of medicine.
+Not alone from emotions of sympathy did the eminent religious teachers
+of past ages maintain that the alleviation and prevention of suffering
+is the first practical duty of man; but it was from a perhaps
+unconscious perception of the antagonism of bodily degeneration to
+mental progress.
+
+So, too, the religion of beauty and art contains an indefeasible germ of
+true religious thought. Art sees the universal in the isolated fact; it
+redeemed the coarse symbol of earlier days by associating it with the
+emotions of joy, instead of fear; commencing with an exaltation of the
+love to sex, it etherealized and ennobled passion; it taught man to look
+elsewhere than to material things for his highest pleasure, for the work
+of art always has its fortune in the imagination and not in the senses
+of the observer; conceptions of order and harmony are familiar to it;
+its best efforts seek to bring all the affairs of life under unity and
+system;[246-1] and thus it strengthens the sentiment of moral
+government, which is the first postulate of religion.
+
+The symmetry of the individual, as understood in the religion of
+culture, is likewise a cherished article of true religion. Thus only can
+it protect personality against the pitfalls of self-negation and
+absorption, which communism and pantheism dig for it. The integrity and
+permanence of the person is the keystone to religion, as it is to
+philosophy and ethics. None but a false teacher would measure our duty
+to our neighbor by a higher standard than our love to ourselves. The
+love of God alone is worthy to obscure it.
+
+Professor Steinthal has said: “Every people has its own religion. The
+national temperament hears the tidings and interprets them as it
+can.”[246-2] On the other hand, Humboldt--perhaps the profoundest
+thinker on these subjects of his generation--doubted whether religions
+can be measured in reference to nations and sects, because “religion is
+altogether subjective, and rests solely on the conceptive powers of the
+individual.”[247-1] Whatever the creed, a pure mind will attach itself
+to its better elements, a base one to its brutal and narrow doctrines. A
+national religion can only be regarded as an average, applicable to the
+majority, not entirely correct of the belief of any one individual,
+wholly incorrect as to a few. Yet it is indubitable that the national
+temperament creates the ideal which gives the essence of religion. Races
+like the Tartar Mongols, who, as we are informed by the Abbé Huc, not
+unfrequently move their tents several times a day, out of simple
+restlessness, cannot desire the same stability that is sought by other
+races, who have the beaver’s instinct for building and colonizing, such
+as the Romans. Buddhism, which sets up the ideal of the individual, is
+an acceptable theory to the former, while the latter, from earliest
+ages, fostered religious views which taught the subordination of the
+individual to the community, in other words, the _idea of the perfected
+commonwealth_.
+
+This is the conception at the base of all theocracies, forms of
+government whose statutes are identified with the precepts of religion.
+Instead of a constitution there is the Law, given and sanctioned by God
+as a rule of action.
+
+The Law is at first the Myth applied. Its object is as much to
+propitiate the gods as to preserve social order. It is absolute because
+it is inspired. Many of its ordinances as drawn from the myth are
+inapplicable to man, and are unjust or frivolous. Yet such as it is, it
+rules the conduct of the commonwealth and expresses the ideal of its
+perfected condition.
+
+All the oldest codes of laws are religious, and are alleged revelations.
+The Pentateuch, the Avesta, the Laws of Manu, the Twelve Tables, the
+Laws of Seleucus, all carry the endorsement, “And God said.” Their real
+intention is to teach the relation of man to God, rather than the
+relations of man to man. On practical points--on the rights of property,
+on succession and wills, on contracts, on the adoption of neighbors, and
+on the treatment of enemies--they often violate the plainest dictates of
+natural justice, of common humanity, even of family affection. Their
+precepts are frequently frivolous, sometimes grossly immoral. But if
+these laws are compared with the earliest myths and cults, and the
+opinions then entertained of the gods, and how to propitiate them, it
+becomes easy to see how the precepts of the law flowed from these
+inchoate imaginings of the religious sentiment.[249-1]
+
+The improvement of civil statutes did not come through religion.
+Experience, observation and free thought taught man justice, and his
+kindlier emotions were educated by the desire to cherish and preserve
+which arose from family and social ties. As these came to be recognized
+as necessary relations of society, religion appropriated them,
+incorporated them into her ideal, and even claimed them as her
+revelations. History largely invalidates this claim. The moral progress
+of mankind has been mainly apart from dogmatic teachings, often in
+conflict with them. An established rule of faith may enforce obedience
+to its statutes, but can never develop morals. “True virtue is
+independent of every religion, and incompatible with any which is
+accepted on authority.”[249-2]
+
+Yet thinkers, even the best of them, appear to have had difficulty in
+discerning any nobler arena for the religious sentiment than the social
+one. “Religion,” says Matthew Arnold, “is conduct.” It is the power
+“which makes for righteousness.” “As civil law,” said Voltaire,
+“enforces morality in public, so the use of religion is to compel it in
+private life.” “A complete morality,” observes a contemporary Christian
+writer, “meets all the practical ends of religion.”[250-1] In such
+expressions man’s social relations, his duty to his neighbor, are taken
+to exhaust religion. It is still the idea of the commonwealth, the
+religion of morality, the submission to a law recognized as divine.
+Whether the law is a code of ethics, the decision of a general council,
+or the ten commandments, it is alike held to be written by the finger of
+God, and imperative. Good works are the demands of such religion.
+
+Catholicism, which is altogether theocratic and authoritative, which
+pictures the church as an ideal commonwealth, has always most flourished
+in those countries where the Roman colonies left their more important
+traces. The reformation of Protestantism was a reversion to the ideal of
+the individual, which was that of ancient Teutonic faith. In more recent
+times Catholicism itself has modified the rigidity of its teachings in
+favor of the religion of sentiment, as it has been called, inaugurated
+by Chateaubriand, and which is that attractive form seen in the writings
+of Madame Swetchine and the La Ferronnais. These elevated souls throw a
+charm around the immolation of self, which the egotism of the Protestant
+rarely matches.
+
+Thus the ideal of the commonwealth is found in those creeds which give
+prominence to law, to ethics, and to sentiment, the altruistic elements
+of mind. It fails, because its authority is antagonistic to morality in
+that it impedes the search for the true. Neither is morality religion,
+for it deals with the relative, while religion should guide itself by
+the absolute. Every great religious teacher has violated the morality of
+his day. Even sentiment, attractive as it is, is no ground on which to
+build a church. It is, at best, one of the lower emotional planes of
+action. Love itself, which must be the kernel of every true religion, is
+not in earthly relations an altruistic sentiment. The measure and the
+source of all such love, is self-love. The creed which rejects this as
+its corner stone will build in vain.
+
+While, therefore, the advantages of organization and action are on the
+side of the faiths which see in religion a form of government, they
+present fewer momenta of religious thought than those which encourage
+the greater individuality. All forms and reforms, remarks Machiavelli,
+in one of his notes to Livy, have been brought about by the exertions of
+one man.[251-1] Religious reforms, especially, never have originated in
+majorities. The reformatory decrees of the Council of Trent are due to
+Martin Luther.
+
+Either ideal, raised to its maximum, not only fails to satisfy the
+religious sentiment, but puts upon it a forced meaning, and is therefore
+not what this sentiment asks. This may be illustrated by comparing two
+remarkable works, which, by a singular coincidence, were published in
+the same year, and which better than any others present these ideals
+pushed to their extreme. It is characteristic of them that neither
+professes to treat of religion, but of politics. The one is entitled,
+“_An Attempt to define the limits of Government_,” and is by Wilhelm von
+Humboldt; the other is the better known work of Auguste Comte, his
+“_System of Positive Polity_.”[252-1]
+
+The first lays down the principle that the highest end of man is the
+utmost symmetrical education of his own powers in their individual
+peculiarities. To accomplish this, he must enjoy the largest freedom of
+thought and action consistent with the recognition of the same right in
+others. In regard to religion, the state should have nothing to do with
+aiding it, but should protect the individual in his opposition to any
+authoritative form of it. As a wholly personal and subjective matter,
+social relations do not concern it. In fine, the aim of both government
+and education should be the development of an individualism in which an
+enlightened intellect controls and directs all the powers toward an
+exalted self-cultivation.
+
+Comte reverses this picture. His fundamental principle is to subordinate
+the sum total of our existence to our social relations; real life is to
+live in others; not the individual but humanity is the only worthy
+object of effort. Social polity therefore includes the whole of
+development; the intellect should have no other end but to subserve the
+needs of the race, and always be second to the altruistic sentiments.
+Love toward others should absorb self-love. “_Il est encore meilleur
+d’aimer que d’être aimé._”
+
+Such is the contrast between the ideal of the individual as exhibited by
+the Religion of Culture, and the ideal of the commonwealth as portrayed
+in the Religion of Humanity.
+
+The whole duty of man, says the one school, is to live for others; nay,
+says the other, it is to live intelligently for himself; the intellect,
+says the former, should always be subordinated to society, and be led by
+the emotions; intellect, says the latter, should ever be in the
+ascendant, and absolutely control and direct the emotions; the
+theoretical object of government, says the former, is to enable the
+affections and thoughts to pass into action; not so, says the latter,
+its only use is to give the individual secure leisure to develope his
+own affections and thoughts. Mutual relation is the key note of the
+former, independence of the latter; the former is the apotheosis of
+love, the latter of reason.
+
+Strictly and literally the apotheosis. For, differing as they do on such
+vital points, they both agree in dispensing with the ideas of God and
+immortality as conceptions superfluous in the realization of the
+theoretical perfection they contemplate. Not that either scheme omits
+the religious sentiment. On the contrary, it is especially prominent in
+one, and very well marked in the other. Both assume its growing
+prominence, never its extinction. Both speak of it as an integral part
+of man’s highest nature.
+
+Comte and Humboldt were thinkers too profound to be caught by the facile
+fallacy that the rapid changes in religious thought betoken the early
+abrogation of all creeds. Lessing, the philosophers of the French
+revolution, James Mill, Schopenhauer and others fell into this error.
+They were not wiser than the clown of Horace, who seated himself by the
+rushing stream, thinking it must soon run itself out--
+
+    Expectat rusticus dum defluat amnis; at ille
+    Labitur et labetur in omne volubilis ævum.
+
+Vain is the dream that man will ever reach the point when he will think
+no more of the gods. Dogmas may disappear, but religion will flourish;
+destroy the temple and sow it with salt, in a few days it rises again
+built for aye on the solid ground of man’s nature.
+
+So long as the race is upon earth, just so long will the religious
+sentiment continue to crave its appropriate food, and this at last is
+recognized even by those who estimate it at the lowest. “To yield this
+sentiment reasonable satisfaction,” observes Professor Tyndall in one of
+his best known addresses, “is the problem of problems at the present
+hour. It is vain to oppose it with a view to its extirpation.” The
+“general thaw of theological creeds,” which Spencer remarks upon, is no
+sign of the loss of interest in religious subjects, but the reverse.
+Coldness and languor are the premonitions of death, not strife and
+defence.
+
+But as the two moments of religious thought which I have now discussed
+have both reached their culmination in a substantial repudiation of
+religion, that which stimulates the religious sentiment to-day must be
+something different from either. This I take to be the _idea of personal
+survival_ after physical death, or, as it is generally called, the
+doctrine of the immortality of the soul.
+
+This is the main dogma in the leading religions of the world to-day. “A
+God,” remarks Sir William Hamilton, speaking for the enlightened
+Christians of his generation, “is to us of practical interest, only
+inasmuch as he is the condition of our immortality.”[256-1] In his
+attractive work, _La Vie Eternelle_, whose large popularity shows it to
+express the prevailing views of modern Protestant thought, Ernest
+Naville takes pains to distinguish that Christianity is not a means of
+living a holy life so much as one of gaining a blessed hereafter. The
+promises of a life after death are numerous and distinct in the New
+Testament. Most of the recommendations of action and suffering in this
+world are based on the doctrine of compensation in the world to come.
+
+Mohammed taught the same tenet with equal or even greater emphasis. In
+one sura he says: “To whatever is evil may they be likened who believe
+not in a future life;” and elsewhere: “As for the blessed ones--their
+place is Paradise. There shall they dwell so long as the heavens and the
+earth endure, enjoying the imperishable bounties of God. But as for
+those who shall be consigned to misery, their place is the Fire. There
+shall they abide so long as the heavens and the earth shall last, unless
+God wills it otherwise.”[256-2]
+
+In Buddhism, as generally understood, the doctrine of a future life is
+just as clear. Not only does the soul wander from one to another animal
+body, but when it has completed its peregrinations and reaches its final
+abode, it revels in all sorts of bliss. For the condition of Nirvana,
+understood by philosophical Buddhists as that of the extinction of
+desires even to the desire of life, and of the complete enlightenment of
+the mind even to the recognition that existence itself is an illusion,
+has no such meaning to the millions who profess themselves the followers
+of the sage of Kapilavastu. They take it to be a material Paradise with
+pleasures as real as those painted by Mohammed, wherein they will dwell
+beyond all time, a reward for their devotions and faith in this life.
+
+These three religions embrace three-fourths of the human race and all
+its civilized nations, with trifling exceptions. They displaced and
+extinguished the older creeds and in a few centuries controlled the
+earth; but as against each other their strife has been of little avail.
+The reason is, they share the same momentum of religious thought,
+differing in its interpretation not more among themselves than do
+orthodox members of either faith in their own fold. Many enlightened
+Muslims and Christians, for example, consider the descriptions of
+Paradise given in the Koran and the Apocalypse to convey wholly
+spiritual meanings.
+
+There has been so much to surprise in the rapid extension of these
+faiths that the votaries of each claim manifest miraculous
+interposition. The religious idea of an after life is a sufficient
+moment to account for the phenomenon. I say the _religious_ idea, for,
+with one or two exceptions, however distinct had been the belief in a
+hereafter, that belief had not a religious coloring until they gave it
+such. This distinction is an important one.
+
+Students of religions have hitherto attributed too much weight to the
+primitive notion of an existence after death. It is common enough, but
+it rarely has anything at all to do with the simpler manifestations of
+the religious sentiment. These are directed to the immediate desires of
+the individual or the community, and do not look beyond the present
+life. The doctrine of compensation hereafter is foreign to them. I have
+shown this at length so far as the religions of America were concerned.
+“Neither the delights of a heaven on the one hand, nor the terrors of a
+hell on the other were ever held out by priests or sages as an incentive
+to well doing, or a warning to the evil disposed.”[258-1] The same is
+true of the classical religions of Greece and Rome, of Carthage and
+Assyria. Even in Egypt the manner of death and the rites of interment
+had much more to do with the fate of the soul, than had its thoughts
+and deeds in the flesh. The opinions of Socrates and Plato on the soul
+as something which always existed and whose after life is affected by
+its experiences here, struck the Athenians as novel and innovating.
+
+On the other hand, the ancient Germans had a most lively faith in the
+life hereafter. Money was loaned in this world to be repaid in the next.
+But with them also, as with the Aztecs, the future was dependent on the
+character or mode of death rather than the conduct of life. He who died
+the “straw-death” on the couch of sickness looked for little joy in the
+hereafter; but he who met the “spear-death” on the field of battle went
+at once to Odin, to the hall of Valhalla, where the heroes of all time
+assembled to fight, eat boar’s fat and drink beer. Even this rude belief
+gave them such an ascendancy over the materialistic Romans, that these
+distinctly felt that in the long run they must succumb to a bravery
+which rested on such a mighty moment as this.[259-1]
+
+The Israelites do not seem to have entertained any general opinion on an
+existence after death. No promise in the Old Testament refers to a
+future life. The religion there taught nowhere looks beyond the grave.
+It is materialistic to the fullest extent. Hence, a large body of
+orthodox Jewish philosophers, the Sadducees, denied the existence of the
+soul apart from the body.
+
+The central doctrine of the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, the leading
+impulse which he gave to the religious thought of his age, was that the
+thinking part of man survives his physical death, and that its condition
+does not depend on the rites of interment, as other religions then
+taught,[260-1] but on the character of its thoughts during life here.
+Filled with this new and sublime idea, he developed it in its numerous
+applications, and drew from it those startling inferences, which, to
+this day, stagger his followers, and have been in turn, the terror and
+derision of his foes. This he saw, that against a mind inwardly
+penetrated with the full conviction of a life hereafter, obtainable
+under known conditions, the powers of this world are utterly futile, and
+its pleasures hollow phantoms.
+
+The practical energy of this doctrine was immensely strengthened by
+another, which is found very obscurely, if at all, stated in his own
+words, but which was made the central point of their teaching by his
+immediate followers. The Christianity they preached was not a
+philosophical scheme for improving the race, but rested on the
+historical fact of a transaction between God and man, and while they
+conceded everlasting existence to all men, all would pass it in the
+utmost conceivable misery, except those who had learned of these
+historical events, and understood them as the church prescribed.
+
+As the ancient world placed truth in ideas and not in facts, no teaching
+could well have been more radically contrary to its modes of thought;
+and the doctrine once accepted, the spirit of proselytizing came with
+it.
+
+I have called this idea a new one to the first century of our era, and
+so it was in Europe and Syria. But in India, Sakyamuni, probably five
+hundred years before, had laid down in sententious maxims the
+philosophical principle which underlies the higher religious doctrine of
+a future life. These are his words, and if through the efforts of
+reasoning we ever reach a demonstration of the immortality of the soul,
+we shall do it by pursuing the argument here indicated: “Right thought
+is the path to life everlasting. Those who think do not die.”[262-1]
+
+Truth alone contains the elements of indefinite continuity; and truth is
+found only in the idea, in correct thought.
+
+Error in the intellectual processes corresponds to pain in sensation; it
+is the premonition of waning life, of threatened annihilation; it
+contains the seed of cessation of action or death. False reasoning is
+self-destructive. The man who believes himself invulnerable will
+scarcely survive his first combat. A man’s true ideas are the most he
+can hope, and all that he should wish, to carry with him to a life
+hereafter. Falsehood, sin, is the efficient agent of death. As Bishop
+Hall says: “There is a kind of not-being in sin; for sin is not an
+existence of somewhat that is, but a deficiency of that rectitude which
+should be; it is a privation, as blindness is a privation of sight.”
+
+While the religious doctrine of personal survival has thus a position
+defensible on grounds of reason as being that of the inherent permanence
+of self-conscious truth, it also calls to its aid and indefinitely
+elevates the most powerful of all the emotions, _love_. This, as I have
+shown in the second chapter, is the sentiment which is characteristic
+of _preservative_ acts. Self-love, which is prominent in the idea of the
+perfected individual, sex-love, which is the spirit of the multiform
+religious symbolism of the reproductive act, and the love of race, which
+is the chief motor in the religion of humanity, are purified of their
+grosser demands and assigned each its meet post in the labor of uniting
+the conceptions of the true under the relation of personality.
+
+The highest development of which such love is capable arises through the
+contemplation of those verities which are abstract and eternal, and
+which thus set forth, to the extent the individual mind is capable of
+receiving it, the completed notion of diuturnity. This highest love is
+the “love of God.” A Supreme Intelligence, one to which all truth is
+perfect, must forever dwell in such contemplation. Therefore the deeper
+minds of Christianity define man’s love of God, as God’s love to
+himself. “Eternal life,” says Ernest Naville, “is in its principle the
+union with God and the joy that results from that union.”[263-1] The
+pious William Law wrote: “No man can reach God with his love, or have
+union with Him by it, but he who is inspired with that one same spirit
+of love, with which God loved himself from all eternity, before there
+was any creation.”[264-1]
+
+Attractive as the idea of personal survival is in itself, and potent as
+it has been as a moment of religious thought, it must be ranked among
+those that are past. While the immortality of the soul retains its
+interest as a speculative inquiry, I venture to believe that as an idea
+in religious history, it is nigh inoperative; that as an element in
+devotional life it is of not much weight; and that it will gradually
+become less so, as the real meaning of religion reaches clearer
+interpretations.
+
+Its decay has been progressive, and common to all the creeds which
+taught it as a cardinal doctrine, though most marked in Christianity. A
+century ago Gibbon wrote: “The ancient Christians were animated by a
+contempt for their present existence, and by a just confidence of
+immortality, of which the doubtful but imperfect faith of modern ages
+cannot give us any adequate notion.”[264-2] How true this is can be
+appreciated only by those who study this doctrine in the lives and
+writings of the martyrs and fathers of the primitive church.
+
+The breach which Gibbon remarked has been indefinitely widened since his
+time. What has brought this about, and what new moment in religious
+thought seems about to supply its place, will form an appropriate close
+to the present series of studies. In its examination, I shall speak only
+of Christian thought, since it leads the way which other systems will
+ultimately follow.
+
+In depicting the influences which have led and are daily leading with
+augmented force to the devitalizing of the doctrine of immortality, I
+may with propriety confine myself to those which are themselves strictly
+religious. For the change I refer to is not one brought about by the
+opponents of religion, by materialistic doctrines, but is owing to the
+development of the religious sentiment itself. Instead of tending to an
+abrogation of that sentiment, it may be expected to ennoble its
+emotional manifestations and elevate its intellectual conceptions.
+
+Some of these influences are historical, as the repeated disappointments
+in the second coming of Christ, and the interest of proselytizing
+churches to interpret this event allegorically. Those which I deem of
+more importance, however, are such as are efficient to-day, and probably
+will continue to be the main agents in the immediate future of religious
+development. They are:
+
+(1.) The recognition of the grounds of ethics.
+
+(2.) The recognition of the cosmical relations.
+
+(3.) The clearer defining of life.
+
+(4.) The growing immateriality of religious thought.
+
+(1.) The authority of the Law was assumed in the course of time by most
+Christian churches, and the interests of morality and religion were
+claimed to be identical. The Roman church with its developed casuistry
+is ready to prescribe the proper course of conduct in every emergency;
+and if we turn to many theological writers of other churches, Dick’s
+_Philosophy of Religion_ for instance, we find moral conduct regarded as
+the important aim of the Christian life. Morality without religion,
+works without faith, are pronounced to be of no avail in a religious,
+and of very questionable value in a social sense. Some go so far as to
+deny that a person indifferent to the prevailing tenets of religion can
+lead a pure and moral life. Do away with the belief in a hereafter of
+rewards and punishments, say these, and there is nothing left to
+restrain men from the worst excesses, or at least from private sin.
+
+Now, however, the world is growing to perceive that morality is
+separable from religion; that it arose independently, from a gradual
+study of the relations of man to man, from principles of equity inherent
+in the laws of thought, and from considerations of expediency which
+deprive its precepts of the character of universality. Religion is
+subjective, and that in which it exerts an influence on morality is not
+its contents, but the reception of them peculiar to the individual.
+Experience alone has taught man morals; pain and pleasure are the forms
+of its admonitions; and each generation sees more clearly that the
+principles of ethics are based on immutable physical laws. Moreover, it
+has been shown to be dangerous to rest morality on the doctrine of a
+future life; for apart from the small effect the terrors of a hereafter
+have on many sinners, as that doctrine is frequently rejected, social
+interests suffer. And, finally, it is debasing and hurtful to religion
+to make it a substitute for police magistracy.[267-1]
+
+The highest religion would certainly enforce the purest morality; but it
+is equally true that such a religion would enjoin much not approved by
+the current opinions of the day. The spirit of the reform inaugurated by
+Luther was a protest against the subjection of the religious sentiment
+to a moral code. With the independence thus achieved, it came to be
+recognized that to the full extent that morality is essential to
+religion, it can be reached as well or better without a system of
+rewards and punishments after death, than with one. Both religion and
+morality stand higher, when a conception of an after life for this
+purpose is dropped.
+
+(2.) The recognition of the cosmical relations has also modified the
+views of personal survival. The expansion of the notions of space and
+time by the sciences of geology and astronomy has, as I before remarked,
+done away with the ancient belief that the culminating catastrophe of
+the universe will be the destruction of this world. An insignificant
+satellite of a third rate sun, which, with the far grander suns whose
+light we dimly discern at night, may all be swept away in some flurry of
+“cosmical weather,” that the formation or the dissolution of such a body
+would be an event of any beyond the most insignificant importance, is
+now known to be almost ridiculous. To assert that at the end of a few or
+a few thousand years, on account of events transpiring on the surface of
+this planet, the whole relationship of the universe will be altered, a
+new heaven and a new earth be formed, and all therein be made
+subservient to the joys of man, becomes an indication of an arrogance
+which deserves to be called a symptom of insanity. Thus, much of the
+teleology both of the individual and the race taught by the primitive
+and medieval church undergoes serious alterations. The literal meaning
+of the millennium, the New Jerusalem, and the reign of God on earth has
+been practically discarded.
+
+With the disappearance of the ancient opinion that the universe was
+created for man, the sun to light him by day and the stars by night,
+disappeared also the later thesis that the happiness or the education of
+man was the aim of the Order in Things. The extent and duration of
+matter, if they indicate any purpose at all, suggest one incomparably
+vaster than this; while the laws of mind, which alone distinctly point
+to purpose, reveal one in which pain and pleasure have no part or lot,
+and one in which man has so small a share that it seems as if it must be
+indifferent what his fate may be. The slightest change in the atmosphere
+of the globe will sweep away his species forever.
+
+Schopenhauer classified all religions as optimisms or pessimisms. The
+faith of the future will be neither. What is agreeable or disagreeable
+to man will not be its standard of the excellence of the universe.
+However unwillingly, he is at last brought to confess that his comfort
+is not the chief nor even any visible aim of the order in things. In the
+course of that order it may be, nay, it is nigh certain, that the human
+species will pass through decadence to extinction along with so many
+other organisms. Neither as individuals nor as a race, neither in regard
+to this life nor to the next, does the idea of God, when ennobled by a
+contemplation of the cosmical relations, permit to man the effrontery
+of claiming that this universe and all that therein is was made with an
+eye to his wants and wishes, whether to gratify or to defeat them.
+
+(3.) The closer defining of life as a result of physical force, and the
+recognition of mind as a connotation of organism, promise to be active
+in elevating religious conceptions, but at the expense of the current
+notions of personality. Sensation and voluntary motion are common to the
+fetus, the brute and the plant, as well as to man. They are not part of
+his “soul.” Intellect and consciousness, as I have shown, exclude
+sensation, and in these, if anywhere, he must look for his immortal
+part. Even here, error works destruction, and ignorance plants no seed
+of life. We are driven back to the teaching of Buddha, that true thought
+alone is that which does not die.
+
+Why should we ask more? What else is worth saving? Our present
+personality is a train of ideas base and noble, true and false, coherent
+through the contiguity of organs nourished from a common center. Another
+personality is possible, one of true ideas coherent through conscious
+similarity, independent of sensation, as dealing with topics not
+commensurate with it. Yet were this refuge gained, it leaves not much of
+the dogma that every man has an indestructible conscious soul, which
+will endure always, no matter what his conduct or thoughts have been.
+Rather does it favor the opinion expressed so well by Matthew Arnold in
+one of his sonnets:
+
+    “He who flagged not in the earthly strife
+    From strength to strength advancing--only he,
+    His soul well knit and all his battles won,
+    Mounts, and that hardly, to eternal life.”
+
+Not only has the received doctrine of a “soul,” as an undying something
+different from mind and peculiar to man, received no support from a
+closer study of nature,--rather objections amounting to refutation,--but
+it has reacted injuriously on morals, and through them on religion
+itself. Buddha taught that the same spark of immortality exists in man
+and brute, and actuated by this belief laid down the merciful rule to
+his disciples: “Do harm to no breathing thing.” The apostle Paul on the
+other hand, recognizing in the lower animals no such claim on our
+sympathy, asks with scorn: “Doth God care for oxen?” and actually strips
+from a humane provision of the old Mosaic code its spirit of charity, in
+order to make it subserve a point in his polemic.
+
+(4.) As the arrogance of the race has thus met a rebuke, so has the
+egotism of the individual. His religion at first was a means of securing
+material benefits; then a way to a joyous existence beyond the tomb: the
+love of self all the time in the ascendant.
+
+This egoism in the doctrine of personal survival has been repeatedly
+flung at it by satirists, and commented on by philosophers. The
+Christian who “hopes to be saved by grossly believing” has been felt on
+all hands to be as mean in his hope, as he is contemptible in his way of
+attaining it. To center all our religious efforts to the one end of
+getting joy--however we may define it--for our individual selves, has
+something repulsive in it to a deeply religious mind. Yet that such in
+the real significance of the doctrine of personal survival is granted by
+its ablest defenders. “The general expectation of future happiness can
+afford satisfaction only as it is a present object to the principle of
+self-love,” says Dr. Butler, the eminent Lord Bishop of Durham, than
+whom no acuter analyst has written on the religious nature of man.
+
+Yet nothing is more certain than that the spirit of true religion wages
+constant war with the predominance or even presence of selfish aims.
+Self-love is the first and rudest form of the instinct of preservation.
+It is sublimed and sacrificed on the altar of holy passion. “Self,”
+exclaims the fervid William Law, “is both atheist and idolater; atheist,
+because it rejects God; idolater, because it is its own idol.” Even when
+this lowest expression of the preservative instinct rises but to the
+height of sex-love, it renounces self, and rejoices in martyrdom. “All
+for love, or the world well lost,” has been the motto of too many
+tragedies to be doubted now. By the side of the ancient Roman or the
+soldier of the French revolution, who through mere love of country
+marched joyously to certain death from which he expected no waking, does
+not the martyr compare unfavorably, who meets the same death, but does
+so because he believes that thereby he secures endless and joyous life?
+Is his love as real, as noble, as unselfish?
+
+Even the resistless physical energy which the clear faith in the life
+hereafter has so often imparted, becomes something uncongenial to the
+ripened religious meditation. Such faith brings about mighty effects in
+the arena of man’s struggles, but it does so through a sort of
+mechanical action. An ulterior purpose is ahead, to wit, the salvation
+of the soul, and it may be regarded as one of the best established
+principles of human effort that every business is better done, when it
+is done for its own sake, out of liking for it, than for results
+expected from it.
+
+Of nothing is this more just than religion. Those blossoms of spiritual
+perfection, the purified reason, the submissive will, the sanctifying
+grace of abstract ideas, find no propitious airs amid the violent toil
+for personal survival, whether that is to be among the mead jugs of
+Valhalla, the dark-eyed houris of Paradise, or the “solemn troops and
+sweet society” of Christian dreams. Unmindful of these, the saintly
+psyche looks to nothing beyond truth; it asks no definite, still less
+personal, end to which this truth is to be applied; to find it is to
+love it, and to love it is enough.
+
+The doctrine I here broach, is no strange one to Christian thought. To
+be sure the exhortation, “Save your soul from Hell,” was almost the sole
+incentive to religion in the middle ages, and is still the burden of
+most sermons. But St. Paul was quickened with a holier fire, that
+consumed and swept away such a personal motive, when he wrote: “Yea, I
+could wish that I myself were cast out from Christ as accursed, for the
+sake of my brethren, my kinsmen according to the flesh.”[274-1] St.
+Augustine reveals the touch of the same inspiration in his passionate
+exclamation: “Far, O Lord, far from the heart of thy servant be it that
+I should rejoice in any joy whatever. The blessed life is the joy in
+truth alone.”[274-2] And amid the pæans to everlasting life which fill
+the pages of the _De Imitatione Christi_, the medieval monk saw
+something yet greater, when he puts in the mouth of God the Father, the
+warning: “The wise lover thinks not of the gift, but of the love of the
+giver. He rests not in the reward, but in Me, beyond all
+rewards.”[275-1] The mystery of great godliness is, that he who has it
+is as one who seeking nothing yet finds all things, who asking naught
+for his own sake, neither in the life here nor yet hereafter, gains that
+alone which is of worth in either.
+
+Pressed by such considerations, the pious Schleiermacher threw down the
+glaive on the side of religion half a century ago when he wrote: “Life
+to come, as popularly conceived, is the last enemy which speculative
+criticism has to encounter, and, if possible, to overcome.” The course
+he marked out, however, was not that which promises success. Recurring
+to the austere theses of Spinoza, he sought to bring them into accord
+with a religion of emotion. The result was a refined Pantheism with its
+usual deceptive solutions.
+
+What recourse is left? Where are we to look for the intellectual moment
+of religion in the future? Let us review the situation.
+
+The religious sentiment has been shown to be the expression of
+unfulfilled desire, but this desire peculiar as dependent on unknown
+power. Material advantages do not gratify it, nor even spiritual joy
+when regarded as a personal sentiment. Preservation by and through
+relation with absolute intelligence has appeared to be the meaning of
+that “love of God” which alone yields it satisfaction. Even this is
+severed from its received doctrinal sense by the recognition of the
+speculative as above the numerical unity of that intelligence, and the
+limitation of personality which spiritual thought demands. The eternal
+laws of mind guarantee perpetuity to the extent they are obeyed--and no
+farther. They differ from the laws of force in that they convey a
+message which cannot be doubted concerning the purport of the order in
+nature, which is itself “the will of God.” That message in its
+application is the same which with more or less articulate utterance
+every religion speaks--Seek truth: do good. Faith in that message,
+confidence in and willing submission to that order, this is all the
+religious sentiment needs to bring forth its sweetest flowers, its
+richest fruits.
+
+Such is the ample and satisfying ground which remains for the religion
+of the future to build upon. It is a result long foreseen by the clearer
+minds of Christendom. One who more than any other deserves to be classed
+among these writes: “Resignation to the will of God is the whole of
+piety. * * * Our resignation may be said to be perfect when we rest in
+his will as our end, as being itself most just and right and good.
+Neither is this at bottom anything more than faith, and honesty and
+fairness of mind; in a more enlarged sense, indeed, than these words are
+commonly used.”[277-1]
+
+Goethe, who studied and reflected on religious questions more than is
+generally supposed, saw that in such a disposition of mind lie the
+native and strongest elements of religion. In one of his conversations
+with Chancellor Müller, he observed: “Confidence and resignation, the
+sense of subjection to a higher will which rules the course of events
+but which we do not fully comprehend, are the fundamental principles of
+every better religion.”[277-2]
+
+By the side of two such remarkable men, I might place the opinion of a
+third not less eminent than they--Blaise Pascal. In one part of his
+writings he sets forth the “marks of a true religion.” Sifted from its
+physical ingredients, the faith he defines is one which rests on love
+and submission to God, and a clear recognition of the nature of man.
+
+Here I close these studies on the Religious Sentiment. They show it to
+be a late and probably a final development of mind. The intellect first
+reaches entire self-consciousness, the emotions first attain perfection
+of purpose, when guided by its highest manifestation. Man’s history
+seems largely to have been a series of efforts to give it satisfaction.
+This will be possible only when he rises to a practical appreciation of
+the identity of truth, love and life.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[236-1] _Essay on the use of Anthropomorphism._ Mr. Spencer’s argument,
+in his own words, is this:--“From the inability under which we labor to
+conceive of a Deity save as some idealization of ourselves, it
+inevitably results that in each age, among each people, and to a great
+extent in each individual, there must arise just that conception of
+Deity best adapted to the needs of the case.” “All are good for their
+times and places.” “All were beneficent in their effects on those who
+held them.” It would be hard to quote from the records of theory-making
+an example of more complete indifference to acknowledged facts than
+these quotations set forth.
+
+[239-1] _De Veritate_, p. 216.
+
+[241-1] August Neander, _Geschichte der Christlichen Religion und
+Kirche_, Bd. i., ss. 160, 346. (Gotha, 1856.) St. Clement’s description
+of Christ is Τον οψιν αισχρον. Tertullian says: “Nec humanæ honestatis
+corpus fuit, nedum celestis claritatis.”
+
+[243-1] Novalis, _Schriften_, B. i., s. 244.
+
+[244-1] A. Bain, _The Senses and the Intellect_, p. 607.
+
+[245-1] Dr. T. Laycock, _On some Organic Laws of Memory_, in the
+_Journal of Mental Science_, July, 1875, p. 178.
+
+[246-1] Speaking of the mission of the artist, Wilhelm von Humboldt
+says: “Die ganze Natur, treu und vollständig beobachtet, mit sich
+hinüber zu tragen, d. h. den Stoff seiner Erfahrungen dem Umfange der
+Welt gleich zu machen, diese ungeheure Masse einzelner und abgerissener
+Erscheinungen in eine l’ungetrennte Einheit und ein organisirtes Ganzes
+zu verwandeln; und dies durch alle die Organe zu thun, die ihm hierzu
+verliehen sind,--ist das letzte Ziel seines intellectuellen Bemühen.”
+_Ueber Goethe’s Hermann und Dorothea_, Ab. IV.
+
+[246-2] _Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie_, B. I. s. 48.
+
+[247-1] _Gesammelte Werke_. Bd. VII., s. 63.
+
+[249-1] See this forcibly brought out and abundantly illustrated in the
+work of M. Coulange, _La Cité Antique_.
+
+[249-2] W. von Humboldt, _Gesammelte Werke_. Bd. VII., p. 72.
+
+[250-1] H. L. Liddon, Canon of St. Paul’s. _Some Elements of Religion_,
+p. 84.
+
+[251-1] The Chevalier Bunsen completed the moral estimate of the
+one-man-power, thus acknowledged by Machiavelli, in these words: “Alles
+Grosse geht aus vom Einzelnen, _aber nur in dem Masse, als dieser das
+Ich dem Ganzen opfert_.” _Gott in der Geschichte_, Bd. I., s. 38.
+
+[252-1] W. von Humboldt, _Ideen zu einem Vorsuch, die Gränzen der
+Wirksamkeit des Staats zu bestimmen_, Breslau, 1851. Auguste Comte,
+_Système de Politique Positive_, Paris, 1851-4. The former was written
+many years before its publication.
+
+[256-1] _Lectures on Metaphysics_, Vol. I., p. 23.
+
+[256-2] _The Koran_, Suras xi., xvi.
+
+[258-1] _The Myths of the New World_, Chap. IX.
+
+[259-1] Jacob Grimm quite overlooked this important element in the
+religion of the ancient Germans. It is ably set forth by Adolf
+Holtzmann, _Deutsche Mythologie_, s. 196 sqq. (Leipzig, 1874).
+
+[260-1] The seemingly heartless reply he made to one of his disciples,
+who asked permission to perform the funeral rites at his father’s grave:
+“Follow me; and let the dead bury their dead,” is an obvious
+condemnation of one of the most widespread superstitions of the ancient
+world. So, according to an ingenious suggestion of Lord Herbert of
+Cherbury, was the fifth commandment of Moses: “Ne parentum seriem
+tanquam primam aliquam causam suspicerent homines, et proinde cultum
+aliquem Divinum illis deferrent, qualem ex honore parentum sperare
+liceat benedictionem, docuit.” _De Veritate_, p. 231.
+
+Herbert Spencer in his _Essay on the Origin of Animal Worship_, calls
+ancestral worship “the universal first form of religious belief.” This
+is very far from correct, but it is easy to see how a hasty thinker
+would be led into the error by the prominence of the ancient funereal
+ceremonies.
+
+[262-1] Dhammapada, 21.
+
+[263-1] _La Vie Eternelle_, p. 339.
+
+[264-1] _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, Vol. I., ch. XV.
+
+[264-2] _Address to the Clergy_, p. 16.
+
+[267-1] “Toute religion, qu’on se permet de défendre comme une croyance
+qu’il est utile de laisser au peuple, ne peut plus espérer qu’une agonie
+plus ou moins prolongée.” Condorcet, _De l’Esprit Humain_, Ep. V.
+
+[274-1] _Romans_, ch. ix., v. 3.
+
+[274-2] “Beata quippe vita est gaudium de veritate.” Augustini
+_Confessionum_, Lib. x., caps. xxii., xxiii.
+
+[275-1] “Prudens amator non tam donum amantis considerat, quam dantis
+amorem. Nobilis amator non quiescit in dono, sed in me super omne
+donum.” _De Imitatione Christi_, Lib. iii., cap. vi.
+
+[277-1] _Fifteen Sermons_ by Joseph Butler, Lord Bishop of Durham.
+Sermon “On the love of God.”
+
+[277-2] _Unterhaltungen_, p. 131.
+
+
+
+
+INDICES.
+
+
+I. AUTHORS QUOTED.
+
+  Allen, H., 208.
+
+  Anaxagoras, 106.
+
+  Arnold, M., 249, 271.
+
+  Aristotle, 105.
+
+  Augustine, St., 20, 57, 93, 128, 191, 194, 274.
+
+
+  Bain, A., 9, 25, 52, 59, 87, 91, 244.
+
+  Barlow, H. C., 201.
+
+  Baxter, Richard, 60.
+
+  Boehmer, H., 7.
+
+  Boole, Geo., 24, 44, 104, 105, 108, 111.
+
+  Bunsen, 109, 251.
+
+  Butler, Bishop, 60, 119, 276.
+
+
+  Carlyle, 243.
+
+  Catlow, J. P., 14, 64.
+
+  Chateaubriand, 250.
+
+  Comte, A., 11, 39, 128, 187, 194, 252.
+
+  Condorcet, 267.
+
+  Cory, J. P., 191.
+
+  Coulange, 245.
+
+  Creuzer, 90, 106, 119, 127, 200, 212, 222.
+
+  Cussans, 210.
+
+
+  Dante, 93.
+
+  Darwin, C., 71, 88.
+
+  Dick, 266.
+
+  Dickson, J. T., 73.
+
+
+  Etheridge, J. W., 190.
+
+
+  Ferguson, 66.
+
+  Ferrier, J. F., 20, 28, 43, 97.
+
+  Feuchtersleben, 8, 54, 73.
+
+  Feuerbach, 194.
+
+  Fothergill, J. M., 61.
+
+
+  Gibbon, 264.
+
+  Goethe, 277.
+
+  Gurney, J. J., 119.
+
+
+  Hall, Bishop, 50, 77.
+
+  Hamilton, Sir W., 24, 29, 91, 95, 99, 256.
+
+  Helmholtz, 11, 14, 18, 22.
+
+  Hegel, 29, 88.
+
+  Herbert of Cherbury, 149, 260.
+
+  Hobbes, 81.
+
+  Hodgson, S. N., 104, 126, 128, 134.
+
+  Holtzmann, A., 259.
+
+  Humboldt, A. von, 92.
+
+  Humboldt, W. von, 6, 53, 67, 93, 112, 113, 214, 246, 252.
+
+  Hume, David, 81, 187, 219.
+
+  Hunter, John, 9.
+
+
+  Jacobi, 88.
+
+  Jevons, W. S., 25, 204.
+
+  Kant, I., 25, 29, 32, 40, 91, 105, 194.
+
+
+  Kolk, Schroeder van der, 72.
+
+  Kitto, 74.
+
+  Koppen, 37, 214.
+
+
+  Law, Wm., 49, 87, 263, 272.
+
+  Laycock, 75, 245.
+
+  Lessing, 56, 254.
+
+  Lewes, 187.
+
+  Liddon, H. L., 129, 250.
+
+
+  Mansel, 87, 88.
+
+  Maudsley, H., 9, 150.
+
+  Mill, J. S., 18, 87, 91, 97, 223.
+
+  Mohammed, 71, 75, 114, 256.
+
+  Morell, J. D., 88.
+
+  Morley, J., 223.
+
+  Müller, 130.
+
+  Müller, Max, _preface_.
+
+
+  Naville, E., 256, 263.
+
+  Neander, A., 241.
+
+  Novalis, 41, 49, 107, 124, 243.
+
+
+  Oersted, 103.
+
+  Oken, L., 7, 186.
+
+
+  Paget, J., 63.
+
+  Parker, Theo., 88.
+
+  Pascal, 56.
+
+  Plath, 129.
+
+  Rousseau, J. J., 118.
+
+  Saussure, Necker de, 220.
+
+  Schlagintweit, E., 187.
+
+  Schleiermacher, 88, 275.
+
+  Schoolcraft, 63, 146.
+
+  Schopenhauer, A., 11, 13, 51, 82, 91, 269.
+
+  Schwarz, 207.
+
+  Senancourt de, 53, 180.
+
+  Spinoza, 9, 14, 17, 41, 42, 51, 98, 104.
+
+  Spencer, Herbert, 29, 39, 98, 104, 236, 260.
+
+  Swedenborg, 75.
+
+  Steinthal, 101, 246.
+
+  Tertullian, 241.
+
+  Theophilus, 191.
+
+  Thompson, 31.
+
+  Todhunter, 25.
+
+  Tyndall, 87, 132, 255.
+
+  Voltaire, 249.
+
+  Westropp, 62.
+
+  Wigan, A. L., 76.
+
+  Williams, J., 76.
+
+  Wordsworth, 41, 42, 180.
+
+  Windelband, Dr., 101, 102, 108.
+
+
+  II. SUBJECTS.
+
+  Absolute, the, 102, 106.
+    consciousness of, 161.
+
+  Adam, as prophet of the moon, 170.
+
+  Adjita, 178.
+
+  Adonis, 165.
+
+  Aeon, 163, 166.
+
+  Agdistis, an epicene deity, 65.
+
+  Ahura-Mazda, 113, 166, 184.
+
+  Allah, 239.
+
+  Amitabha, 175, 185.
+
+  Analytic propositions, 32.
+
+  Androgynous deities, 66.
+
+  Animism, 163.
+
+  Anointed, the, 176.
+
+  Anya-Mainyus, 166, 184.
+
+  Anthropomorphism, 193.
+
+  Antinomies, of Kant, 29.
+
+  Aphrodite, 65, 241.
+
+  Apocalypse, the, 171.
+
+  Apollo, 67, 241.
+
+  Apperception, 156.
+
+  Apprehension, 142.
+
+  Arab idea of time, 165.
+
+  Argumentum de appetitu, 231.
+
+  Aronhiate, a Huron deity, 221.
+
+  Arrenothele deities, 66.
+
+  Art, religious, in Orient, 15;
+    in Greece, 16;
+    Christian, 209, 241;
+    useless and immoral, 244.
+
+  Assyria, flood myth of, 169.
+
+  Athanasius, his doctrine of the Trinity, 191.
+
+  Atonement, doctrine of, 222.
+
+  Avalokitesvara, 214.
+
+  Aztecs, 80.
+
+
+  Baghavad Gita, the, 189.
+
+  Babylon, rites of, 74.
+
+  Baldur, 176.
+
+  Baptism, 138, 226.
+
+  Beauty, the line of, 15, 211.
+    the religion of, 241, 244, 245.
+
+  Belief, its kinds, 141.
+
+  Brahma, 65, 169.
+
+  Brahmans, highest bliss of, 57;
+    doctrines, 168, 169.
+
+  Breidablick, 176.
+
+  Brutes, religious feeling in, 88.
+
+  Buddha, 37, 57, 80, 120, 146, 156, 261, 271.
+
+  Buddhism, four truths of, 13;
+    theories of prayer, 121, 150, 214;
+    last day, 169;
+    myths, 175, 176;
+    monotheism of, 187, 247, 256.
+
+  Bull, as a symbol, 204.
+
+
+  Cabala, Jehova in, 65.
+
+  Canting arms, 212.
+
+  Cause, not a reason, 38;
+    in physical science, 91.
+
+  Celibacy, Romish, 61.
+
+  Cerebration, unconscious, 149.
+
+  Chance, the idea of, 93.
+
+  Chinese character for prayer, 129.
+
+  Christ, _see_ Jesus.
+
+  Christianity, doctrines of, 190, 257, 264, 274;
+    symbol of, 203.
+
+  Christmas tree, the, 215.
+
+  Cockatrice, the, 77.
+
+  Commonwealth, ideal of, 247.
+
+  Consciousness, forms of, 17, 20.
+
+  Confucius, doctrine, 122, sq.
+
+  Continuity, law of, 11, 16;
+    principle of, 95.
+
+  Contradiction, law of, 27, 102.
+
+  Correspondences, doctrine of, 217.
+
+  Cosmical relations of man, 112, 268.
+
+  Cotytto, 65.
+
+  Cow, as a symbol, 204.
+
+  Craoshanç, 176.
+
+  Creation, myth of, 166.
+
+  Crescent, a phallic symbol, 62.
+
+  Cross, a phallic symbol, 62;
+    as phonetic symbol, 210;
+    variants of, 210.
+
+  Cult, the, 199 sq.
+
+  Culture, religion of, 243, 244, 253.
+
+  Cybele, 65; priests of, 66, 219.
+
+
+  Dactyli, the, 184.
+
+  Darkness, terror of, 185.
+
+  Day of Judgment, the, 172.
+
+  Deity, _see_ God.
+
+  Design, argument from, 110.
+
+  Desire, meaning of, 53.
+
+  Deus, 185; triformis, 191.
+
+  Deva, 185.
+
+  Didactic rites, 225.
+
+  Divination and prayer, 137.
+
+  Dramatic rites, 226.
+
+  Dual law of thought, 27, 102;
+    division of the gods, 182, 183.
+
+
+  Edda, mythology of, 175, 215.
+
+  Eden, garden of, 175.
+
+  Ego, the, 19.
+
+  Egoism of religion, 272.
+
+  Egyptians, doctrines of, 80, 222;
+    prayers, 115;
+    pyramids, 212;
+    lotus of, 214.
+
+  Emotions, origin of, 10;
+    exclude thought, 19;
+    in religion, 49;
+    of fear and hope, 50, 51;
+    esthetic, 14.
+
+  Entheasm, 148.
+
+  Epochs of nature, 164 sq.
+
+  Epicene deities, 66.
+
+  Epilepsy and religious delusions, 75.
+
+  Eros, 72.
+
+  Esculapius, emblem of, 200.
+
+  Esthetic emotions, 14, 244.
+
+  Ethics, grounds of, 266.
+
+  Excluded middle, law of, 27, sqq.
+
+  Expectant attention, 74, 129.
+
+  Explanation, limits of, 38.
+
+
+  Faith in religion, 107.
+
+  Fascination, 74.
+
+  Fear, in religion, 50, sqq.
+
+  Female principle in religion, 62, 183.
+
+  Feridun, garden of, 175.
+
+  Flood, myth of, 169, sq.
+
+  Fingers, as gods, 184.
+
+  Force, orders of, 133.
+
+  Freedom, 105.
+
+  Friends, sect of, _see_ Quakers.
+
+  Future life, doctrine of, 256, sq.
+
+
+  Gallican confession, the, 138.
+
+  Generative function in religion, 62, 72, 73.
+
+  Genius as inspiration, 149.
+
+  Gnosis, the genuine, 74.
+
+  Gnostic doctrines, 166.
+
+  God, as father, 70;
+    spouses of, 69, 71;
+    mother of, 68;
+    sexless, 71;
+    earliest notions of, 78;
+    incomprehensible, 98;
+    throne of, 167;
+    love of, 73, 263, 276.
+
+  Gods,
+    hierarchy of, 181;
+    quantification of the, 186;
+    of lightning, 207.
+
+  Good, final victory of, 179.
+
+  Grasshoppers, prayers against, 131.
+
+  Greeks, art of, 16;
+    doctrines of, 80;
+    sophists, 96.
+
+  Gudmund, King, 175.
+
+
+  Hades, 186.
+
+  Hare, the Great, 212.
+
+  Hell, 186, 258, 274.
+
+  Hercules, 72.
+
+  Hermaphrodite deities, 66.
+
+  Hesperides, the, 175.
+
+  Hierarchy of the gods, 181.
+
+  High places, worship of, 215, 216.
+
+  Historic ideas, 232.
+
+  Holy spirit, as inspiring, 138;
+    brooding, 167.
+
+  Hope, in religion, 51 sqq.
+
+  Horæ, the, 165.
+
+  Humanity, the religion of, 194, 253.
+
+
+  Ignorance, in relation to religion, 82.
+
+  Illumination, 140.
+
+  Immortality, doctrine of, 255.
+
+  Indians, American, 125, 157.
+
+  Insanity, religious, 76.
+
+  Inspiration, 137.
+
+  Intelligence, one in kind, 96;
+    as the first cause, 106, 111.
+
+  Irmin, pillars of, 215.
+
+  Ischomachus, prayer of, 126.
+
+  Israelites, the Messiah of, 176.
+
+
+  Janus, an epicene deity, 65.
+
+  Jehovah, 65, 156.
+
+  Jemschid, king, 175.
+
+  Jesus, face of, 67, 241;
+    conception of, 71;
+    wounds of, 130;
+    wisdom of, 144;
+    as second Noah, 170;
+    teachings, 178, 260;
+    prayer to, 187;
+    execution of, 203;
+    death of, 222.
+
+  Judaism, 187.
+
+  Judgment, day of, 172.
+
+
+  Kalpa, of Brahmans, 168.
+
+  Knowledge, forms of, 21.
+
+  Kosmos, the, 72, 144, 167.
+
+
+  Lateau, Louise, 130.
+
+  Law, defined, 40;
+    of excluded middle, 27;
+    oldest, 248.
+
+  Laws, the, of thought, 26, sq.; 101, sq.;
+    not restrictive, 105;
+    as purposive, 108.
+
+  Light, as object of worship, 185.
+
+  Lightning, the, in symbolic art, 207.
+
+  Life, the perfect, 57.
+
+  Lingam, the, 66.
+
+  Lingayets, sect of, 66.
+
+  Logic, applied, 23;
+    abstract or formal, 24;
+    mathematical, 24;
+    laws of, 101, sq.
+
+  Logos, the, 42, 106.
+
+  Lotus, as symbol, 213, sq.
+
+  Love, as religious emotion, defined, 58, 60, 262;
+    of sex, 61, 63;
+    law of, 73;
+    of God, 73, 263, 276.
+
+
+  Ma, a goddess, 183.
+
+  Maitreya, 176.
+
+  Mamona, a Haitian deity, 68.
+
+  Märchen, the, defined, 157.
+
+  Marriage condemned, 69.
+
+  Maypole, as a symbol, 215.
+
+  Melitta, 65.
+
+  Memory, physical basis of, 10;
+    ancestral, 75.
+
+  Memorial, rites, 225.
+
+  Messiah, the, 176.
+
+  Millennium, the, 173, 268.
+
+  Michabo, an Algonkin deity, 185.
+
+  Mind,
+    growth of, 7;
+    extent of, 8, 271;
+    as seat of law, 163.
+
+  Miracles, 110, 130.
+
+  Mithras, 65.
+
+  Mohammed,
+    notion of god, 71;
+    inspired, 146.
+
+  Mohammedanism, 187, 224.
+
+  Monotheism, origin of, 80, 81; 186, sq.
+
+  Moral government of the world, 112.
+
+  Morality, independent of religion, dualism of deities, 182, 249, 266, 267.
+
+  Mormonism, 61.
+
+  Motion, first law of, 11;
+    relation to time and space, 35;
+    manifestations of, 77.
+
+  Myth, the, defined, 156.
+
+
+  Names, sacred, 156.
+
+  Natural selection, in sensation, 10;
+    in logic, 101.
+
+  Nature,
+    meaning of, 4, 39, 105;
+    epochs of, 164.
+
+  Nemqueteba, 240.
+
+  Neo-Hegelian doctrine, 194.
+
+  Nirvana, the, 13, 57, 257.
+
+  Noah, 170.
+
+  Nous, the, 106.
+
+
+  Oannes, 170.
+
+  Obelisk as symbol, 215.
+
+  Odainsakr, 175.
+
+  Odin, 53, 259.
+
+  Optimism, 112, 269.
+
+  Order, in things, 90, sq.
+
+  Osiris, 165.
+
+
+  Pain, defined, 17.
+
+  Parsees, doctrine of, 80, 166, 184.
+
+  Pantheism, 188, 194, 247.
+
+  Papas, a Phrygian god, 183.
+
+  Paradise, lost and regained, myths of, 173, sq;
+    future, 257.
+
+  Pentalpha, the, 212.
+
+  Perfected commonwealth, idea of, 247.
+
+  Perfected individual, idea of, 239.
+
+  Personal survival, idea of, 255.
+
+  Pessimism, 11, 112, 269.
+
+  Persians, ancient, 176.
+
+  Personality, the, 19, 270.
+
+  Phallus, worship of, 62, 66, 214, 216.
+
+  Phanes, the orphic principle, 190.
+
+  Philosophy of religion, defined, 3;
+    of mythology, 159;
+    of history, 232.
+
+  Phrygian divinities, 183.
+
+  Pillar worship, 215.
+
+  Pleasure, defined, 14.
+
+  Polarization, as a principle of thought, 183.
+
+  Porte Royale, miracles of, 131.
+
+  Postulates of religion, 89.
+
+  Prayer, 117, sq.
+
+  Progression of development, 109.
+
+  Protestantism, 128, 139, 250.
+
+  Protogonus, 167.
+
+  Psyche, and love, 72.
+
+  Pythagoras, his thoughts on number, 189.
+
+
+  Quakers, sect of, 76, 115, 138, 147.
+
+  Quantification of the predicate, 22;
+    of the gods, 186.
+
+  Quetzalcoatl, 212.
+
+
+  Reason in religion, 106, 107;
+    drawn from sight, 186.
+
+  Rebus in symbolism, 212.
+
+  Regin, as name of gods, 90.
+
+  Relative, the, 106.
+
+  Religion, science of, 3;
+    philosophy of, 3;
+    personal factor of, 81;
+    not concerned with phenomena, 110.
+
+  Reproductive function in religion, 62.
+
+  Res per accidens, 182.
+
+  Resignation, doctrine of, 128, 135.
+
+  Revelation, marks of, 149.
+
+  Rig Veda, the, 125.
+
+  Rite, the, 217, seq.
+
+  Roland, pillars of, 215.
+
+  Roman Catholics, 76, 138, 141, 187, 250.
+
+
+  Sabians, myths of, 170.
+
+  Sacraments, 227.
+
+  Sacrifice, idea in, 218;
+    vicarious, 222.
+
+  Saga, the, defined, 157.
+
+  Saint Brigida, 146.
+
+  Saint Gertrude of Nivelles, 146.
+
+  Sakyamuni, _see_ Buddha.
+
+  Saturnian Era, the, 175.
+
+  Science of Religion, 3;
+    as knowledge of system, 92;
+    of mythology, 158.
+
+  Secularization of symbols, 204.
+
+  Sensation, defined, 9;
+    excludes thought, 19;
+    of pain and pleasure, 10.
+
+  Sentiment, the religious, 3;
+    emotional elements of, 79;
+    rational postulates of, 87;
+    religion of, 250.
+
+  Serpent, as emblem and symbol, 200, 206, 207.
+
+  Sev, an Egyptian deity, 165.
+
+  Sex, love of, 61, 63;
+    in nature, 71, 72, 216.
+
+  Shekinah, the, 66.
+
+  Siddartha, a name of Buddha, 121.
+
+  Similars, law of, 204.
+
+  Sin, sense of, 225.
+
+  Sight, as the light-sense, 186.
+
+  Siva, worship of, 66, 214.
+
+  Soul, the, 19, 271.
+
+  Specific performance in rites, 218, sq.
+
+  Stigmata, the, 130.
+
+  Sufficient reason, principle of, 91.
+
+  Sukhavati, 175.
+
+  Supernatural, defined, 4;
+    its relation to symbols, 205.
+
+  Swedenborg, 75, 217.
+
+  Symbol, the phonetic, 200;
+    origin of, 202;
+    related and coincident, 203.
+
+  Symbolism, defined, 200.
+
+  Synthesis of contraries, 37.
+
+  Synthetic propositions, 32.
+
+
+  Tathagata, a name of Buddha, 121.
+
+  Tau, the Egyptian, 210.
+
+  Theology, 4.
+
+  Thor, hammer of, 210, 239.
+
+  Thought, as a function, 17;
+    laws of, 26, 101, sq.;
+    as purposive, 108.
+
+  Tien, Mongolian deity, 185, 216.
+
+  Time, not a force, 11;
+    but believed to be one, 165.
+
+  Tlapallan, 175.
+
+  Tree worship, 215.
+
+  Triads, the Celtic, 190;
+    Platonic, 191.
+
+  Triangle, the equilateral, 212.
+
+  Trinity, the doctrine of, 191;
+    symbol of, 212.
+
+  Triplicate relation of numbers, 190.
+
+  Tritheism, of Christianity, 190.
+
+  Truth, what is, 21;
+    eternal, 41;
+    as answer to prayer, 137.
+
+  Tulan, 175.
+
+
+  Unconditioned, the, 29, 34, 37, 98, 100.
+
+  Uniformity of sequence, as cause, 91, 92.
+
+  Unknowable, the, 29, 34, 99, 100.
+
+
+  Valkyria, the, 53.
+
+  Valhalla, 259.
+
+  Varuna, an Aryan god, 125.
+
+  Vendidad, the, 175.
+
+  Venereal sense, the, 64.
+
+  Vicarious sacrifice, theory of, 222.
+
+  Virginity, sacredness of, 69.
+
+  Virgin Mother, the, 68.
+
+  Volition, _see_ Will.
+
+  Voluspa, the, 171.
+
+
+  Wabose, Catherine, 146.
+
+  Water, as the primitive substance, 167.
+
+  Will, the, 16;
+    of God, 38, 42;
+    as a cause, 90.
+
+  Wish, the religious, 52;
+    definition of, 79.
+
+  World, moral government of, 112;
+    creation and changes, 164;
+    light of the, 185.
+
+
+  Xisuthrus, 170.
+
+
+  Year, the Great, 169.
+
+  Yima, reign of, 175.
+
+  Ynglyngasaga, the, 218.
+
+  Yocauna, a Haitian deity, 68.
+
+
+  Zarathustra, 80, 114.
+
+  Zeruana akerana, 166.
+
+  Zweckgesetze, 108.
+
+
+
+
+_PUBLISHED BY HENRY HOLT & CO._
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+     Trismegistus--Judeo-Arabic Metaphysics--Semitic
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+
+
+Transcriber’s Note
+
+
+The following misspellings and typographical errors were maintained.
+
+       Page       Error
+TN-1     2   expres ion should read expression
+TN-2    15   mind,whose should read mind, whose
+TN-3    34   positive,and should read positive, and
+TN-4   fn. 39-1   Systèmede should read Système de
+TN-5   fn. 71-1   Suras, should read Suras
+TN-6    91   reason’ should read reason”
+TN-7   108   [108-1] should read [108-2]
+TN-8   146   devil,before should read devil, before
+TN-9   193   plantasm should read phantasm
+TN-10  193   anthropomorphism,which should read anthropomorphism, which
+TN-11  205   supernatual should read supernatural
+TN-12  221   corrollary should read corollary
+TN-13  fn. 214-3   and should read und
+TN-14  Ads. p. 1   clergy. should read clergy.”
+TN-15  Ads. p. 2   (His should read His
+
+Accents in foreign words are inconsistent and have been left as
+originally printed.
+
+The following words were inconsistenly spelled or hyphenated:
+
+  develop / develope
+  key-stone / keystone
+  May-pole / Maypole
+  re-gained / regained
+  thunder-storm / thunderstorm
+  _u. s._ / u. s.
+  Voelker / Vœlker
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Religious Sentiment, by Daniel G. Brinton
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Religious Sentiment, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Religious Sentiment
+       Its Source and Aim: A Contribution to the Science and
+       Philosophy of Religion
+
+Author: Daniel G. Brinton
+
+Release Date: September 22, 2009 [EBook #30061]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+A number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of
+this book. They have been marked with a [TN-#], which refers to a
+description in the complete list found at the end of the text.
+
+Words originally printed in Greek are surrounded with ~. Oe ligatures
+have been expanded.
+
+The following code was used for a character not available in the
+character set used for this book.
+
+  [square root]  square root sign
+
+
+
+
+_BY THE SAME AUTHOR._
+
+  THE MYTHS OF THE NEW WORLD: A Treatise on the Symbolism and Mythology
+    of the Red Race of America. _Second edition, revised._ Large 12mo,
+    $2.50.
+
+  THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT: Its Source and Aim. A Contribution to the
+    Science and Philosophy of Religion. Large 12mo, $2.50.
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+
+  RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT
+
+  ITS SOURCE AND AIM
+
+
+  _A CONTRIBUTION TO THE SCIENCE AND
+  PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION._
+
+
+  BY
+
+  DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D.
+
+  _Member of the American Philosophical Society, the American Philological
+  Society, etc.; author of "The Myths of the New World," etc._
+
+
+  [Colophon]
+
+
+  NEW YORK
+  HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
+  1876.
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT,
+  BY HENRY HOLT
+  1876.
+
+
+  JOHN F. TROW & SON, PRINTERS,
+  205-213 EAST 12TH ST., NEW YORK.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Mythology, since it began to receive a scientific handling at all, has
+been treated as a subordinate branch of history or of ethnology. The
+"science of religion," as we know it in the works of Burnouf, M�ller,
+and others, is a comparison of systems of worship in their historic
+development. The deeper inquiry as to what in the mind of man gave birth
+to religion in any of its forms, what spirit breathed and is ever
+breathing life into these dry bones, this, the final and highest
+question of all, has had but passing or prejudiced attention. To its
+investigation this book is devoted.
+
+The analysis of the religious sentiment I offer is an inductive one,
+whose outlines were furnished by a preliminary study of the religions of
+the native race of America, a field selected as most favorable by reason
+of the simplicity of many of its cults, and the absence of theories
+respecting them. This study was embodied in "The Myths of the New World;
+a Treatise on the Symbolism and Mythology of the Red Race of America"
+(second edition, N. Y. 1876).
+
+The results thus obtained I have in the present work expanded by
+including in the survey the historic religions of the Old World, and
+submitted the whole for solution to the Laws of Mind, regarded as
+physiological elements of growth, and to the Laws of Thought, these, as
+formal only, being held as nowise a development of those. This latter
+position, which is not conceded by the reigning school of psychology, I
+have taken pains to explain and defend as far as consistent with the
+plan of this treatise; but I am well aware that to say all that can be
+said in proof of it, would take much more space than here allowed.
+
+The main questions I have had before me in writing this volume have an
+interest beyond those which mere science propounds. What led men to
+imagine gods at all? What still prompts enlightened nations to worship?
+Is prayer of any avail, or of none? Is faith the last ground of
+adoration, or is reason? Is religion a transient phase of development,
+or is it the chief end of man? What is its warrant of continuance? If it
+overlive this day of crumbling theologies, whence will come its
+reprieve?
+
+To such inquiries as these, answers satisfactory to thinking men of this
+time can, I believe, be given only by an inductive study of religions,
+supported by a sound psychology, and conducted in a spirit which
+acknowledges as possibly rightful, the reverence which every system
+claims. Those I propose, inadequate though they may be, can at any rate
+pretend to be the result of honest labor.
+
+PHILADELPHIA, _January, 1876_.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                          PAGE.
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  THE BEARING OF THE LAWS OF MIND ON RELIGION                3
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT         47
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  THE RATIONAL POSTULATES OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT        87
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  THE PRAYER AND ITS ANSWER                                117
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  THE MYTH AND THE MYTHICAL CYCLES                         155
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+  THE CULT, ITS SYMBOLS AND RITES                          199
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+  THE MOMENTA OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT                         231
+
+
+
+
+THE BEARING OF THE LAWS OF MIND ON RELIGION
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     The distinction between the Science and the Philosophy of religion.
+     It is assumed (1) that religions are products of thought, (2) that
+     they have a unity of kind and purpose. They can be studied by the
+     methods of natural science applied to Mind.
+
+     Mind is co-extensive with organism. Sensation and Emotion are
+     prominent marks of it. These are either pleasurable or painful; the
+     latter _diminish_ vital motions, the former _increase_ them. This
+     is a product of natural selection. A mis-reading of these facts is
+     the fallacy of Buddhism and other pessimistic systems. Pleasure
+     comes from continuous action. This is illustrated by the esthetic
+     emotions, volition and consciousness.
+
+     The climax of mind is Intellect. Physical changes accompany thought
+     but cannot measure it. Relations of thought and feeling. _Truth_ is
+     its only measure. Truth, like pleasure, is desired for its
+     preservative powers. It is reached through the laws of thought.
+
+     These laws are: (1) the natural order of the association of ideas,
+     (2) the methods of applied logic, (3) the forms of correct
+     reasoning. The last allow of mathematical expression. They are
+     three in number, called those of Determination, Limitation and
+     Excluded Middle.
+
+     The last is the key-stone of religious philosophy. Its diverse
+     interpretations. Its mathematical expres ion[TN-1] shows that it
+     does not relate to contradictories. But certain concrete analytic
+     propositions, relating to contraries, do have this form. The
+     contrary as distinguished from the privative. The Conditioned and
+     Unconditioned, the Knowable and Unknowable are not true
+     contradictions. The synthesis of contraries is theoretic only.
+
+     Errors as to the limits of possible explanation corrected by these
+     distinctions. The formal law is the last and complete explanation.
+     The relations of thought, belief and being.
+
+
+
+
+THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE BEARING OF THE LAWS OF MIND ON RELIGION.
+
+
+The Science of Religion is one of the branches of general historical
+science. It embraces, as the domain of its investigation, all recorded
+facts relating to the displays of the Religious Sentiment. Its limits
+are defined by those facts, and the legitimate inferences from them. Its
+aim is to ascertain the constitutive laws of the origin and spread of
+religions, and to depict the influence they have exerted on the general
+life of mankind.
+
+The question whether a given religion is true or false cannot present
+itself in this form as a proper subject of scientific inquiry. The most
+that can be asked is, whether some one system is best suited to a
+specified condition of the individual or the community.
+
+The higher inquiry is the object of the Philosophy of Religion. This
+branch of study aims to pass beyond recorded facts and local adjustments
+in order to weigh the theoretical claims of religions, and measure their
+greater or less conformity with abstract truth. The formal or regulative
+laws of religious thought occupy it.
+
+Theology, dogmatic or polemic, is an explanatory defence of some
+particular faith. Together with mythology and symbolism, it furnishes
+the material from which the Science and Philosophy of Religion seek to
+educe the laws and frame the generalizations which will explain the
+source and aim of religion in general.
+
+The common source of all devotional displays is the Religious Sentiment,
+a complex feeling, a thorough understanding of which is an essential
+preliminary to the study of religious systems.
+
+Such a study proceeds on the assumption that all religions are products
+of thought, commenced and continued in accordance with the laws of the
+human mind, and, therefore, comprehensible to the extent to which these
+laws are known. No one disputes this, except in reference to his own
+religion. This, he is apt to assert, had something "supernatural" about
+its origin. If this word be correctly used, it may stand without cavil.
+The "natural" is that of which we know in whole or in part the laws; the
+"supernatural" means that of which we do not at present know in any
+degree the laws. The domain of the supernatural diminishes in the ratio
+of the increase of knowledge; and the inference that it also is
+absolutely under the control of law, is not only allowable but
+obligatory.
+
+A second assumption must be that there is a unity of kind and purpose in
+all religions. Without this, no common law can exist for them. Such a
+law must hold good in all ages, in every condition of society, and in
+each instance. Hence those who explain religious systems as forms of
+government, or as systems of ethics, or as misconceived history, or as
+theories of natural philosophy, must be prepared to make their view good
+when it is universally applied, or else renounce the possibility of a
+Science of Religion; while those who would except their own system from
+what they grant is the law of all others, violate the principles of
+investigation and thereby the canons of truth.
+
+The methods of science are everywhere alike. Has the naturalist to
+explain an organism, he begins with its elements or proximate principles
+as obtained by analysis; he thence passes to the tissues and fluids
+which compose its members; these he considers first in a state of
+repose, their structure and their connections; then he examines their
+functions, the laws of their growth and action; and finally he has
+recourse to the doctrine of relations, _la th�orie des milieux_, to
+define the conditions of its existence. Were such a method applied to a
+religion, it would lead us first to study its psychological elements,
+then the various expressions in word and act to which these give
+occasion, next the record of its growth and decay, and finally from
+these to gather the circumstantials of human life and culture which led
+to its historic existence.
+
+Some have urged that such a method should not be summoned to questions
+in mental philosophy. To do so, say they, is to confound things
+distinct, requiring distinct plans of study. Such a criticism might have
+had weight in the days when the mind was supposed to inhabit the body as
+a tenant a house, and have no relation to it other than that of a casual
+occupant. But that opinion is antiquated. More than three-fourths of a
+century ago the far-seeing thinker, Wilhelm von Humboldt, laid down the
+maxim that the phenomena of mind and matter obey laws identical in
+kind;[6-1] and a recent historian of science sums up the result of the
+latest research in these words:
+
+"The old dualism of mind and body, which for centuries struggled in vain
+for reconciliation, finds it now, not indeed in the unity of substance,
+but in the unity of laws."[6-2]
+
+It is, therefore, as a question in mental philosophy to be treated by
+the methods of natural science, that I shall approach the discussion of
+the religious sentiment. As it is a part, or at least a manifestation of
+mind, I must preface its more particular consideration with some words
+on the mind in general, words which I shall make as few and as clear as
+possible.
+
+At the beginning of this century, the naturalist Oken hazarded the
+assertion: "The human mind is a memberment of infusorial
+sensation,"[7-1] a phrase which has been the guiding principle of
+scientific psychology ever since. That in the course of this memberment
+or growth wholly new faculties are acquired, is conceded. As the union
+of two inorganic substances may yield a third different in every respect
+from either; or, as in the transition of inorganic to organic matter,
+the power of reproduction is attained; so, positively new powers may
+attend the development of mind. From sensations it progresses to
+emotions, from emotions to reason. The one is the psychical climax of
+the other. "We have still to do with the one mind,whose[TN-2] action
+developes itself with perception, through discrimination, till it
+arrives at notions, wherein its most general scheme, 'truth and error,'
+serves as the principle."[8-1]
+
+Extravagant as Oken's expression seemed to many when it was published,
+it now falls short of the legitimate demands of science, and I may add,
+of religion. _Mind is co-extensive with organism_; in the language of
+logic, one "connotes" the other; this statement, and nothing short of
+it, satisfies the conditions of the problem. Wherever we see Form
+preserved amid the change of substance, _there_ is mind; it alone can
+work that miracle; only it gives Life. Matter suffers no increase;
+therefore the new is but a redistribution of the old; it is new in
+_form_ only; and the maintenance of form under changes of substance is
+the one distinguishing mark of organism. To it is added the yet more
+wonderful power of transmitting form by reproduction. Wherever these
+are, are also the rudiments of mind. The distinction between the animal
+and the vegetable worlds, between the reasoning and unreasoning animals,
+is one of degree only. Whether, in a somewhat different sense, we should
+not go yet further, and say that mind is co-extensive with motion, and
+hence with phenomena, is a speculative inquiry which may have to be
+answered in the affirmative, but it does not concern us here.
+
+The first and most general mark of Mind is sensation or common feeling.
+In technical language a sensation is defined to be the result of an
+impression on an organism, producing some molecular change in its nerve
+or life centres. It is the consequence of a contact with another
+existence. Measured by its effects upon the individual the common law of
+sensation is: Every impression, however slight, either adds to or takes
+from the sum of the life-force of the system; in the former case it
+produces a pleasurable, in the latter a painful sensation. The
+exceptions to this rule, though many, are such in appearance only.[9-1]
+
+In the human race the impression can often be made quite as forcibly by
+a thought as by an act. "I am confident," says John Hunter, the
+anatomist, "that I can fix my attention to any part, until I have a
+sensation in that part." This is what is called the influence of the
+mind upon the body. Its extent is much greater than used to be imagined,
+and it has been a fertile source of religious delusions. Such sensations
+are called subjective; those produced by external force, objective.
+
+The immediate consequent of a sensation is _reflex action_, the object
+of which is either to avoid pain or increase pleasure, in other words,
+either to preserve or augment the individual life.
+
+The molecular changes incident to a sensation leave permanent traces,
+which are the physical bases of memory. One or several such remembered
+sensations, evoked by a present sensation, combine with it to form an
+Emotion. Characteristic of their origin is it that the emotions fall
+naturally into a dual classification, in which the one involves
+pleasurable or elevating, the other painful or depressing conditions.
+Thus we have the pairs joy and grief, hope and fear, love and hate, etc.
+
+The question of pleasure and pain is thus seen to be the primary one of
+mental science. We must look to it to explain the meaning of sensation
+as a common quality of organism. What is the significance of pleasure
+and pain?
+
+The question involves that of Life. Not to stray into foreign topics, it
+may broadly be said that as all change resolves itself into motion,
+and, as Helmholtz remarks, all science merges itself into mechanics, we
+should commence by asking what vital motions these sensations stand for
+or correspond to.
+
+Every organism, and each of its parts, is the resultant of innumerable
+motions, a composition of forces. As such, each obeys the first law of
+motion, to wit, indefinite continuance of action until interfered with.
+This is a modification of Newton's "law of continuance," which, with the
+other primary laws of motion, must be taken as the foundation of biology
+as well as of astronomy.[11-1]
+
+The diminution or dispersion of organic motion is expressed in
+physiological terms as _waste_; we are admonished of waste by _pain_;
+and thus admonished we supply the waste or avoid the injury as far as we
+can. But this connection of pain with waste is not a necessary one, nor
+is it the work of a _Providentia particularis_, as the schoolmen said.
+It is a simple result of natural selection. Many organisms have been
+born, no doubt, in which waste did not cause pain; caused, perhaps,
+pleasure. Consequently, they indulged their preferences and soon
+perished. Only those lived to propagate their kind in whom a different
+sensation was associated with waste, and they transmitted this
+sensitiveness increased by ancestral impression to their offspring. The
+curses of the human race to-day are alcohol, opium and tobacco, and they
+are so because they cause waste, but do not immediately produce painful
+but rather pleasurable feelings.
+
+Pain, as the sensation of waste, is the precursor of death, of the part
+or system. By parity of evolution, pleasure came to be the sensation of
+continuance, of uninterrupted action, of increasing vigor and life.
+Every action, however, is accompanied by waste, and hence every pleasure
+developes pain. But it is all important to note that the latter is the
+mental correlative not of the action but of its cessation, not of the
+life of the part but of its ceasing to live. Pain, it is true, in
+certain limits excites to action; but it is by awakening the
+self-preservative tendencies, which are the real actors. This
+physiological distinction, capable of illustration from sensitive
+vegetable as well as the lowest animal organisms, has had an intimate
+connection with religious theories. The problems of suffering and death
+are precisely the ones which all religions set forth to solve in theory
+and in practice. Their creeds and myths are based on what they make of
+pain. The theory of Buddhism, which now has more followers than any
+other faith, is founded on four axioms, which are called "the four
+excellent truths." The first and fundamental one is: "Pain is
+inseparable from existence." This is the principle of all pessimism,
+ancient and modern. Schopenhauer, an out-and-out pessimist, lays down
+the allied maxim, "All pleasure is negative, that is, it consists in
+getting rid of a want or pain,"[13-1] a principle expressed before his
+time in the saying "the highest pleasure is the relief from pain."
+
+Consistently with this, Buddhism holds out as the ultimate of hope the
+state of Nirvana, in which existence is not, where the soul is "blown
+out" like the flame of a candle.
+
+But physiology demolishes the corner-stone of this edifice when it shows
+that pain, so far from being inseparable from existence, has merely
+become, through transmitted experience, nearly inseparable from the
+progressive cessation of existence. While action and reaction are equal
+in inorganic nature, the principle of life modifies the operation of
+this universal law of force by bringing in _nutrition_, which, were it
+complete, would antagonize reaction. In such a case, pleasure would be
+continuous, pain null; action constant, reaction hypothetical. As,
+however, nutrition in fact never wholly and at once replaces the
+elements altered by vital action, both physicians and metaphysicians
+have observed that pleasure is the fore-runner of pain, and has the
+latter as its certain sequel.[14-1]
+
+Physiologically and practically, the definition of pleasure is, _maximum
+action with minimum waste_.
+
+This latter generalization is the explanation of the esthetic emotions.
+The modern theory of art rests not on a psychological but a
+physiological, and this in turn on a physical basis. Helmholtz's theory
+of musical harmony depends on the experimental fact that a continued
+impression gives a pleasant, a discontinuous an unpleasant sensation.
+The mechanics of muscular structure prove that what are called graceful
+motions are those which are the mechanical resultant of the force of
+the muscle,--those which it can perform at least waste. The pleasure we
+take in curves, especially "the line of beauty," is because our eyes can
+follow them with a minimum action of its muscles of attachment. The
+popular figure called the Grecian figure or the walls of Troy, is
+pleasant because each straight line is shorter, and at right angles to
+the preceding one, thus giving the greatest possible change of action to
+the muscles of the eye.
+
+Such a mechanical view of physiology presents other suggestions. The
+laws of vibratory motion lead to the inference that action in accordance
+with those laws gives maximum intensity and minimum waste. Hence the
+pleasure the mind takes in harmonies of sound, of color and of odors.
+
+The correct physiological conception of the most perfect physical life
+is that which will continue the longest in use, not that which can
+display the greatest muscular force. The ideal is one of extension, not
+of intension.
+
+Religious art indicates the gradual recognition of these principles.
+True to their ideal of inaction, the Oriental nations represent their
+gods as mighty in stature, with prominent muscles, but sitting or
+reclining, often with closed eyes or folded hands, wrapped in robes, and
+lost in meditation. The Greeks, on the other hand, portrayed their
+deities of ordinary stature, naked, awake and erect, but the limbs
+smooth and round, the muscular lines and the veins hardly visible, so
+that in every attitude an indefinite sense of repose pervades the whole
+figure. Movement without effort, action without waste, is the
+immortality these incomparable works set forth. They are meant to teach
+that the ideal life is one, not of painless ease, but of joyous action.
+
+The law of continuity to which I have alluded is not confined to simple
+motions. It is a general mathematical law, that the longer anything
+lasts the longer it is likely to last. If a die turns ace a dozen times
+handrunning, the chances are large that it will turn ace again. The
+Theory of Probabilities is founded upon this, and the value of
+statistics is based on an allied principle. Every condition opposes
+change through inertia. By this law, as the motion caused by a
+pleasurable sensation excites by the physical laws of associated motions
+the reminiscences of former pleasures and pains, a tendency to
+permanence is acquired, which gives the physical basis for Volition.
+Experience and memory are, therefore, necessary to volition, and
+practically self restraint is secured by calling numerous past
+sensations to mind, deterrent ones, "the pains which are indirect
+pleasures," or else pleasurable ones. The Will is an exhibition under
+complex relations of the tendency to continuance which is expressed in
+the first law of motion. Its normal action is the maintenance of the
+individual life, the prolongation of the pleasurable sensations, the
+support of the forces which combat death.
+
+Whatever the action, whether conscious or reflex, its real though often
+indirect and unaccomplished object is the preservation or the
+augmentation of the individual life. Such is the dictum of natural
+science, and it coincides singularly with the famous maxim of Spinoza:
+_Unaquaeque res, quantum in se est, in suo esse perseverare conatur._
+
+The consciousness which accompanies volitional action is derived from
+the common feeling which an organism has, as the result of all its parts
+deriving their nutrition from the same centre. Rising into the sphere of
+emotions, this at first muscular sensation becomes "self-feeling." The
+Individual is another name for the boundaries of reflex action.
+
+Through memory and consciousness we reach that function of the mind
+called the intellect or reason, the product of which is _thought_. Its
+physical accompaniments are chemical action, and an increase of
+temperature in the brain. But the sum of the physical forces thus
+evolved is not the measure of the results of intellectual action. These
+differ from other forms of force in being incommensurate with extension.
+They cannot be appraised in units of quantity, but in quality only. The
+chemico-vital forces by which a thought rises into consciousness bear
+not the slightest relation to the value of the thought itself. It is
+here as in those ancient myths where an earthly maiden brings forth a
+god. The power of the thought is dependent on another test than physical
+force, to wit, its _truth_. This is measured by its conformity to the
+laws of right reasoning, laws clearly ascertained, which are the common
+basis of all science, and to which it is the special province of the
+science of logic to give formal expression.
+
+Physical force itself, in whatever form it appears, is only known to us
+as feeling or as thought; these alone we know to be real; all else is at
+least less real.[18-1] Not only is this true of the external world, but
+also of that assumed something, the reason, the soul, the ego, or the
+intellect. For the sake of convenience these words may be used; but it
+is well to know that this introduction of something that thinks, back
+of thought itself, is a mere figure of speech. We say, "_I_ think," as
+if the "I" was something else than the thinking. At most, it is but the
+relation of the thoughts. Pushed further, it becomes the limitation of
+thought by sensation, the higher by the lower. The Cartesian maxim,
+_cogito ergo sum_, has perpetuated this error, and the modern philosophy
+of the _ego_ and _non-ego_ has prevented its detection. A false reading
+of self-consciousness led to this assumption of "a thinking mind." Our
+personality is but the perception of the solidarity of our thoughts and
+feelings; it is itself a thought.
+
+These three manifestations of mind--sensations, emotions and
+thoughts--are mutually exclusive in their tendencies. The patient
+forgets the fear of the result in the pain of the operation; in intense
+thought the pulse falls, the senses do not respond, emotions and action
+are absent. We may say that ideally the unimpeded exercise of the
+intellect forbids either sensation or emotion.
+
+Contrasting sensation and emotion, on the one side, with intellect on the
+other, feeling with thought, they are seen to be polar or antithetical
+manifestations of mind. Each requires the other for its existence, yet in
+such wise that the one is developed at the expense of the other. The one
+waxes as the other wanes. This is seen to advantage when their most
+similar elements are compared. Thus consciousness in sensation is keenest
+when impressions are strongest; but this consciousness is a bar to
+intellectual self-consciousness, as was pointed out by Professor Ferrier
+in his general Law of consciousness.[20-1] When emotion and sensation are
+at their minimum, one is most conscious of the solidarity of one's
+thoughts; and just in proportion to the vividness of self-consciousness
+is thought lucid and strong. In an ideal intelligence, self-consciousness
+would be infinite, sensation infinitesimal.
+
+Yet there is a parallelism between feeling and thought, as well as a
+contrast. As pain and pleasure indicate opposite tendencies in the
+forces which guide sensation and emotion, so do the true and the untrue
+direct thought, and bear the same relation to it. For as pain is the
+warning of death, so the untrue is the detrimental, the destructive. The
+man who reasons falsely, will act unwisely and run into danger thereby.
+To know the truth is to be ready for the worst. Who reasons correctly
+will live the longest. To love pleasure is not more in the grain of man
+than to desire truth. "I have known many," says St. Augustine, "who like
+to deceive; to be deceived, none." Pleasure, joy, truth, are the
+respective measures of life in sensation, emotion, intellect; one or the
+other of these every organism seeks with all its might, its choice
+depending on which of these divisions of mind is prominently its own. As
+the last mentioned is the climax, truth presents itself as in some way
+the perfect expression of life.
+
+We have seen what pleasure is, but what is truth? The question of Pilate
+remains, not indeed unanswered, but answered vaguely and
+discrepantly.[21-1] We may pass it by as one of speculative interest
+merely, and turn our attention to its practical paraphrase, what is
+true?
+
+The rules of evidence as regards events are well known, and also the
+principles of reaching the laws of phenomena by inductive methods. Many
+say that the mind can go no further than this, that the truth thus
+reached, if not the highest, is at least the highest for man. It is at
+best relative, but it is real. The correctness of this statement may be
+tested by analyzing the processes by which we acquire knowledge.
+
+Knowledge reaches the mind in two forms, for which there are in most
+languages, though not in modern English, two distinct expressions,
+_connaitre_ and _savoir_, _kennen_ and _wissen_. The former relates to
+knowledge through sensation, the latter through intellection; the former
+cannot be rendered in words, the latter can be; the former is reached
+through immediate perception, the latter through logical processes. For
+example: an odor is something we may certainly know and can identify,
+but we cannot possibly describe it in words; justice on the other hand
+may be clearly defined to our mind, but it is equally impossible to
+translate it into sensation. Nevertheless, it is generally agreed that
+the one of these processes is, so far as it goes, as conclusive as the
+other, and that they proceed on essentially the same principles.[22-1]
+Religious philosophy has to do only with the second form of knowledge,
+that reached through notions or thoughts.
+
+The enchainment or sequence of thoughts in the mind is at first an
+accidental one. They arise through the two general relations of nearness
+in time or similarity in sensation. Their succession is prescribed by
+these conditions, and without conscious effort cannot be changed. They
+are notions about phenomena only, and hence are infinitely more likely
+to be wrong than right. Of the innumerable associations of thought
+possible, only one can yield the truth. The beneficial effects of this
+one were felt, and thus by experience man slowly came to distinguish the
+true as what is good for him, the untrue as what is injurious.
+
+After he had done this for a while, he attempted to find out some plan
+in accordance with which he could so arrange his thoughts that they
+should always produce this desirable result. He was thus led to
+establish the rules for right reasoning, which are now familiarly known
+as Logic. This science was long looked upon as a completed one, and at
+the commencement of this century we find such a thinker as Coleridge
+expressing an opinion that further development in it was not to be
+expected. Since then it has, however, taken a fresh start, and by its
+growth has laid the foundation for a system of metaphysics which will be
+free from the vagaries and unrealities which have thrown general
+discredit on the name of philosophy.
+
+In one direction, as applied logic and the logic of induction, the
+natural associations of ideas have been thoroughly studied, and the
+methods by which they can be controlled and reduced have been taught
+with eminent success. In this branch, Bentham, Mill, Bain, and others
+have been prominent workers.
+
+Dealing mainly with the subjects and materials of reasoning, with
+thoughts rather than with thinking, these writers, with the tendency of
+specialists, have not appreciated the labors of another school of
+logicians, who have made the investigation of the process of thinking
+itself their especial province. This is abstract logic, or pure logic,
+sometimes called, inasmuch as it deals with forms only, "formal logic,"
+or because it deals with names and not things, "the logic of names." It
+dates its rise as an independent science from the discovery of what is
+known as "the quantification of the predicate," claimed by Sir William
+Hamilton. Of writers upon it may be mentioned Professor De Morgan, W.
+Stanley Jevons, and especially Professor George Boole of Belfast. The
+latter, one of the subtlest thinkers of this age, and eminent as a
+mathematician, succeeded in making an ultimate analysis of the laws of
+thinking, and in giving them a symbolic notation, by which not only the
+truth of a simple proposition but the relative degree of truth in
+complex propositions may be accurately estimated.[24-1]
+
+This he did by showing that the laws of correct thinking can be
+expressed in algebraic notation, and, thus expressed, will be subject to
+all the mathematical laws of an algebra whose symbols bear the uniform
+value of unity or nought (1 or 0)--a limitation required by the fact
+that pure logic deals in notions of quality only, not of quantity.
+
+This mathematical form of logic was foreseen by Kant when he declared
+that all mathematical reasoning derives its validity from the logical
+laws; but no one before Professor Boole had succeeded in reaching the
+notation which subordinated these two divisions of abstract thought to
+the same formal types. His labors have not yet borne fruit in proportion
+to their value, and they are, I believe, comparatively little known. But
+in the future they will be regarded as epochal in the science of mind.
+They make us to see the same law governing mind and matter, thought and
+extension.
+
+Not the least important result thus achieved was in emphasizing the
+contrast between the natural laws of mental association, and the laws of
+thinking which are the foundation of the syllogism.
+
+By attending to this distinction we are enabled to keep the form and the
+matter of thought well apart--a neglect to do which, or rather a studied
+attempt to ignore which, is the radical error of the logic devised by
+Hegel, as I shall show more fully a little later.
+
+All applied logic, inductive as well as deductive, is based on formal
+logic, and this in turn on the "laws of thought," or rather of thinking.
+These are strictly regulative or abstract, and differ altogether from
+the natural laws of thought, such as those of similarity, contiguity and
+harmony, as well as from the rules of applied logic, such as those of
+agreement and difference. The fundamental laws of thinking are three in
+number, and their bearing on all the higher questions of religious
+philosophy is so immediate that their consideration becomes of the last
+moment in such a study as this. They are called the laws of
+Determination, Limitation and Excluded Middle.
+
+The first affirms that every object thought about must be conceived as
+itself, and not as some other thing. "A is A," or "_x_ = _x_," is its
+formal expression. This teaches us that whatever we think of, must be
+thought as one or a unity. It is important, however, to note that this
+does not mean a mathematical unit, but a logical one, that is, identity
+and not contrast. So true is this that in mathematical logic the only
+value which can satisfy the formula is a concept which does not admit of
+increase, to wit, a Universal.
+
+From this necessity of conceiving a thought under unity has arisen the
+interesting tendency, so frequently observable even in early times, to
+speak of the universe as one whole, the ~to pan~ of the Greek
+philosophers; and also the monotheistic leaning of all thinkers, no
+matter what their creed, who have attained very general conceptions.
+Furthermore, the strong liability of confounding this speculative or
+logical unity with the concrete notion of individuality, or mathematical
+unity, has been, as I shall show hereafter, a fruitful source of error
+in both religious and metaphysical theories. Pure logic deals with
+quality only, not with quantity.
+
+The second law is that of Limitation. As the first is sometimes called
+that of Affirmation, so this is called that of Negation. It prescribes
+that a thing is not that which it is not. Its formula is, "A is not
+not-A." If this seems trivial, it is because it is so familiar.
+
+These two laws are two aspects of the same law. The old maxim is, _omnis
+determinatio est negatio_; a quality can rise into cognition only by
+being limited by that which it is not. It is not a comparison of two
+thoughts, however, nor does it limit the quality itself. For the
+negative is not a thought, and the quality is not _in suo genere
+finita_, to use an expression of the old logicians; it is limited not by
+itself but by that which it is not. These are not idle distinctions, as
+will soon appear.
+
+The third law comes into play when two thoughts are associated and
+compared. There is qualitative identity, or there is not. A is either B
+or not B. An animal is either a man or not a man. There is no middle
+class between the two to which it can be assigned. Superficial truism as
+this appears, we have now come upon the very battle ground of the
+philosophies. This is the famous "Law of the contradictories and
+excluded middle," on the construction of which the whole fabric of
+religious dogma, and I may add of the higher metaphysics, must depend.
+"One of the principal retarding causes of philosophy," remarks Professor
+Ferrier, "has been the want of a clear and developed doctrine of the
+contradictory."[28-1] The want is as old as the days of Heraclitus of
+Ephesus, and lent to his subtle paradoxes that obscurity which has not
+yet been wholly removed.
+
+Founding his arguments on one construction of this law, expressed in the
+maxim, "The conceivable lies between two contradictory extremes," Sir
+William Hamilton defended with his wide learning those theories of the
+Conditioned and the Unconditioned, the Knowable and Unknowable, which
+banish religion from the realm of reason and knowledge to that of faith,
+and cleave an impassable chasm between the human and the divine
+intelligence. From this unfavorable ground his orthodox followers,
+Mansel and Mozley, defended with ability but poor success their
+Christianity against Herbert Spencer and his disciples, who also
+accepted the same theories, but followed them out to their legitimate
+conclusion--a substantially atheistic one.
+
+Hamilton in this was himself but a follower of Kant, who brought this
+law to support his celebrated "antinomies of the human understanding,"
+warnings set up to all metaphysical explorers to keep off of holy
+ground.
+
+On another construction of it, one which sought to escape the dilemma of
+the contradictories by confining them to matters of the understanding,
+Hegel and Schelling believed they had gained the open field. They taught
+that in the highest domain of thought, there where it deals with
+questions of pure reason, the unity and limits which must be observed in
+matters of the understanding and which give validity to this third law,
+do not obtain. This view has been closely criticized, and, I think, with
+justice. Pretending to deal with matters of pure reason, it constantly
+though surreptitiously proceeds on the methods of applied logic; its
+conclusions are as fallacious logically as they are experimentally. The
+laws of thought are formal, and are as binding in transcendental
+subjects as in those which concern phenomena.
+
+The real bearing of this law can, it appears to me, best be derived from
+a study of its mathematical expression. This is, according to the
+notation of Professor Boole, _x_^{2}=_x_. As such, it presents a
+fundamental equation of thought, and it is because it is of the second
+degree that we classify in pairs or opposites. This equation can only be
+satisfied by assigning to _x_ the value of 1 or 0. The "universal type
+of form" is therefore _x_(1-_x_)=0.
+
+This algebraic notation shows that there is, not two, but only one
+thought in the antithesis; that it is made up of a thought and its
+expressed limit; and, therefore, that the so-called "law of
+contradictories" does not concern contradictories at all, in pure logic.
+This result was seen, though not clearly, by Dr. Thompson, who indicated
+the proper relation of the members of the formula as a positive and a
+privative. He, however, retained Hamilton's doctrine that "privative
+conceptions enter into and assist the higher processes of the reason in
+all that it can know of the absolute and infinite;" that we must, "from
+the seen realize an unseen world, not by extending to the latter the
+properties of the former, but by assigning to it attributes entirely
+opposite."[31-1]
+
+The error that vitiates all such reasoning is the assumption that the
+privative is an independent thought, that a thought and its limitation
+are two thoughts; whereas they are but the two aspects of the one
+thought, like two sides to the one disc, and the absurdity of speaking
+of them as separate thoughts is as great as to speak of a curve seen
+from its concavity as a different thing from the same curve regarded
+from its convexity. The privative can help us nowhere and to nothing;
+the positive only can assist our reasoning.
+
+This elevation of the privative into a contrary, or a contradictory, has
+been the bane of metaphysical reasoning. From it has arisen the doctrine
+of the synthesis of an affirmative and a negative into a higher
+conception, reconciling them both. This is the maxim of the Hegelian
+logic, which starts from the synthesis of Being and Not-being into the
+Becoming, a very ancient doctrine, long since offered as an explanation
+of certain phenomena, which I shall now touch upon.
+
+A thought and its privative alone--that is, a quality and its
+negative--cannot lead to a more comprehensive thought. It is devoid of
+relation and barren. In pure logic this is always the case, and must be
+so. In concrete thought it may be otherwise. There are certain
+propositions in which the negative is a reciprocal quality, quite as
+positive as that which it is set over against. The members of such a
+proposition are what are called "true contraries." To whatever they
+apply as qualities, they leave no middle ground. If a thing is not one
+of them, it is the other. There is no third possibility. An object is
+either red or not red; if not red, it may be one of many colors. But if
+we say that all laws are either concrete or abstract, then we know that
+a law not concrete has all the properties of one which is abstract. We
+must examine, then, this third law of thought in its applied forms in
+order to understand its correct use.
+
+It will be observed that there is an assumption of space or time in many
+propositions having the form of the excluded middle. They are only true
+under given conditions. "All gold is fusible or not," means that some is
+fusible at the time. If all gold be already fused, it does not hold
+good. This distinction was noted by Kant in his discrimination between
+_synthetic_ judgments, which assume other conditions; and _analytic_
+judgments, which look only at the members of the proposition.
+
+Only the latter satisfy the formal law, for the proposition must not
+look outside of itself for its completion. Most analytic propositions
+cannot extend our knowledge beyond their immediate statement. If A is
+either B or not B, and it is shown not to be B, it is left uncertain
+what A may be. The class of propositions referred to do more than this,
+inasmuch as they present alternative conceptions, mutually exhaustive,
+each the privative of the other. Of these two contraries, the one always
+evokes the other; neither can be thought except in relation to the
+other. They do not arise from the dichotomic process of classification,
+but from the polar relations of things. Their relation is not in the
+mind but in themselves, a real externality. The distinction between such
+as spring from the former and the latter is the most important question
+in philosophy.
+
+To illustrate by examples, we familiarly speak of heat and cold, and to
+say a body is not hot is as much as to say it is cold. But every
+physicist knows that cold is merely a diminution of heat, not a distinct
+form of force. The absolute zero may be reached by the abstraction of
+all heat, and then the cold cannot increase. So, life and death are not
+true contraries, for the latter is not anything real but a mere
+privative, a quantitative diminution of the former, growing less to an
+absolute zero where it is wholly lost.
+
+Thus it is easy to see that the Unconditioned exists only as a part of
+the idea of the Conditioned, the Unknowable as the foil of the Knowable;
+and the erecting of these mere privatives, these negatives, these
+shadows, into substances and realities, and then setting them up as
+impassable barriers to human thought, is one of the worst pieces of work
+that metaphysics has been guilty of.
+
+The like does not hold in true contrasts. Each of them has an existence
+as a positive,and[TN-3] is never lost in a zero of the other. The one is
+always thought in relation to the other. Examples of these are subject
+and object, absolute and relative, mind and matter, person and
+consciousness, time and space. When any one of these is thought, the
+other is assumed. It is vain to attempt their separation. Thus those
+philosophers who assert that all knowledge is relative, are forced to
+maintain this assertion, to wit, All knowledge is relative, is
+nevertheless absolute, and thus they falsify their own position. So
+also, those others who say all mind is a property of matter, assume in
+this sentence the reality of an idea apart from matter. Some have argued
+that space and time can be conceived independently of each other; but
+their experiments to show it do not bear repetition.
+
+All true contraries are universals. A universal concept is one of
+"maximum extension," as logicians say, that is, it is without limit. The
+logical limitation of such a universal is not its negation, but its
+contrary, which is itself also a universal. The synthesis of the two can
+be in theory only, yet yields a real product. To illustrate this by a
+geometrical example, a straight line produced indefinitely is, logically
+considered, a universal. Its antithesis or true contrary is not a
+crooked line, as might be supposed, but the straight line which runs at
+right angles to it. Their synthesis is not the line which bisects their
+angle but that formed by these contraries continually uniting, that is,
+the arc of a circle, the genesis of which is theoretically the union of
+two such lines. Again, time can only be measured by space, space by
+time; they are true universals and contraries; their synthesis is
+_motion_, a conception which requires them both and is completed by
+them. Or again, the philosophical extremes of downright materialism and
+idealism are each wholly true, yet but half the truth. The insoluble
+enigmas that either meets in standing alone are kindred to those which
+puzzled the old philosophers in the sophisms relating to motion, as, for
+instance, that as a body cannot move where it is and still less where it
+is not, therefore it cannot move at all. Motion must recognise both time
+and space to be comprehensible. As a true contrary constantly implies
+the existence of its opposite, we cannot take a step in right reasoning
+without a full recognition of both.
+
+This relation of contraries to the higher conception which logically
+must include them is one of the well-worn problems of the higher
+metaphysics.
+
+The proper explanation would seem to be, as suggested above, that the
+synthesis of contraries is capable of formal expression only, but not of
+interpretation. In pursuing the search for their union we pass into a
+realm of thought not unlike that of the mathematician when he deals with
+hypothetical quantities, those which can only be expressed in symbols--,
+[square root] 1 for example,--but uses them to good purpose in reaching
+real results. The law does not fail, but its operations can no longer be
+expressed under material images. They are symbolic and for speculative
+thought alone, though pregnant with practical applications.
+
+As I have hinted, in all real contraries it is theoretically possible to
+accept either the one or the other. As in mathematics, all motion can be
+expressed either under formulas of initial motion (mechanics), or of
+continuous motion (kinematics), or as all force can be expressed as
+either static or as dynamic force; in either case the other form
+assuming a merely hypothetical or negative position; so the logic of
+quality is competent to represent all existence as ideal or as material,
+all truth as absolute or all as relative, or even to express the
+universe in formul� of being or of not-being. This perhaps was what
+Heraclitus meant when he propounded his dark saying: "All things are
+_and_ are not." He added that "All is not," is truer than "All is."
+Previous to his day, Buddha Sakyamuni had said: "He who has risen to the
+perception of the not-Being, to the Unconditioned, the Universal, his
+path is difficult to understand, like the flight of birds in the
+air."[37-1] Perhaps even he learned his lore from some older song of the
+Veda, one of which ends, "Thus have the sages, meditating in their
+souls, explained away the fetters of being by the not-being."[37-2] The
+not-being, as alone free from space and time, impressed these sages as
+the more real of the two, the only absolute.
+
+The error of assigning to the one universal a preponderance over the
+other arose from the easy confusion of pure with applied thought. The
+synthesis of contraries exists in the formal law alone, and this is
+difficult to keep before the mind. In concrete displays they are forever
+incommensurate. One seems to exclude the other. To see them correctly we
+must there treat them as alternates. We may be competent, for instance,
+to explain all phenomena of mind by organic processes; and equally
+competent to explain all organism as effects of mind; but we must never
+suppose an immediate identity of the two; this is only to be found in
+the formal law common to both; still less should we deny the reality of
+either. Each exhausts the universe; but at every step each presupposes
+the other; their synthesis is life, a concept hopelessly puzzling unless
+regarded in all its possible displays as made up of both.
+
+This indicates also the limits of explanation. By no means every man's
+reason knows when it has had enough. The less it is developed, the
+further is it from such knowledge. This is plainly seen in children, who
+often do not rest satisfied with a really satisfactory explanation. It
+is of first importance to be able to recognize what is a good reason.
+
+I may first say what it is _not_. It is not a _cause_. This is nothing
+more than a prior arrangement of the effect; the reason for an
+occurrence is never assigned by showing its cause. Nor is it a
+_caprice_, that is, motiveless volition, or will as a motor. In this
+sense, the "will of God" is no good reason for an occurrence. Nor is it
+_fate_, or physical necessity. This is denying there is any explanation
+to give.
+
+The reason can only be satisfied with an aliment consubstantial with
+itself. Nothing material like cause, nor anything incomprehensible like
+caprice, meets its demands. Reason is allied to order, system and
+purpose above all things. That which most completely answers to these
+will alone satisfy its requirements. They are for an ideal of order.
+Their complete satisfaction is obtained in universal types and measures,
+pure abstractions, which are not and cannot be real. The _formal law_ is
+the limit of explanation of phenomena, beyond which a sound intellect
+will ask nothing. It fulfils all the requirements of reason, and leaves
+nothing to be desired.
+
+Those philosophers, such as Herbert Spencer, who teach that there is
+some incogitable "nature" of something which is the immanent "cause" of
+phenomena, delude themselves with words. The history and the laws of a
+phenomenon _are_ its nature, and there is no chimerical something beyond
+them. They are exhaustive. They fully answer the question _why_, as well
+as the question _how_.[39-1]
+
+For it is important to note that the word "law" is not here used in the
+sense which Blackstone gives to it, a "rule of conduct;" nor yet in that
+which science assigns to it, a "physical necessity." Law in its highest
+sense is the type or form, perceived by reason as that toward which
+phenomena tend, but which they always fail to reach. It was shown by
+Kant that all physical laws depend for their validity on logical laws.
+These are not authoritative, like the former, but purposive only. But
+their purpose is clear, to wit, the attainment of proportion,
+consistency or truth. As this purpose is reached only in the abstract
+form, this alone gives us the absolutely true in which reason can rest.
+
+In the concrete, matter shows the law in its efforts toward form, mind
+in its struggle for the true. The former is guided by physical force,
+and the extinction of the aberrant. The latter, in its highest
+exhibition in a conscious intelligence, can alone guide itself by the
+representation of law, by the sense of Duty. Such an intelligence has
+both the faculty to see and the power to choose and appropriate to its
+own behoof, and thus to build itself up out of those truths which are
+"from everlasting unto everlasting."
+
+A purely formal truth of this kind as something wholly apart from
+phenomena, not in any way connected with the knowledge derived through
+the senses, does not admit of doubt and can never be changed by future
+conquests of the reasoning powers. We may rest upon it as something more
+permanent than matter, greater than Nature.
+
+Such was the vision that inspired the noble lines of Wordsworth:--
+
+    "What are things eternal?--Powers depart,
+    Possessions vanish, and opinions change,
+    And passions hold a fluctuating seat;
+    But, by the storms of circumstance unshaken,
+    And subject neither to eclipse nor wane,
+    Duty exists; immutably survive
+    For our support, the measures and the forms
+    Which an abstract intelligence supplies;
+    Whose kingdom is where time and space are not."
+
+There is no danger that we shall not know what is thus true when we see
+it. The sane reason cannot reject it. "The true," says Novalis, "is that
+which we cannot help believing." It is the _perceptio per solam
+essentiam_ of Spinoza. It asks not faith nor yet testimony; it stands in
+need of neither.
+
+Mathematical truth is of this nature. We cannot, if we try, believe
+that twice two is five. Hence the unceasing effort of all science is to
+give its results mathematical expression. Such truth so informs itself
+with will that once received, it is never thereafter alienated;
+obedience to it does not impair freedom. Necessity and servitude do not
+arise from correct reasoning, but through the limitation of fallacies.
+They have nothing to do with
+
+          "Those transcendent truths
+    Of the pure intellect, that stand as laws
+    Even to Thy Being's infinite majesty."
+
+It is not derogatory, but on the contrary essential to the conception of
+the Supreme Reason, the Divine Logos, to contemplate its will as in
+accord and one with the forms of abstract truth. "The 'will of God'"
+says Spinoza, "is the refuge of ignorance; the true Will is the spirit
+of right reasoning."
+
+This identification of the forms of thought with the Absolute is almost
+as old as philosophy itself. The objections to it have been that no
+independent existence attaches to these forms; that they prescribe the
+conditions of thought but are not thought itself, still less being; that
+they hold good to thought as known to man's reason, but perchance not to
+thought in other intelligences; and, therefore, that even if through the
+dialectical development of thought a consistent idea of the universe
+were framed, that is, one wherein every fact was referred to its
+appropriate law, still would remain the inquiry, Is this the last and
+absolute truth?
+
+The principal points in these objections are that abstract thought does
+not postulate being; and that possibly all intelligence is not one in
+kind. To the former objection the most satisfactory, reply has been
+offered by Professor J. F. Ferrier. He has shown that the conception of
+object, even ideal object, implies the conception of self in the
+subject; and upon this proposition which has been fully recognized even
+by those who differ from him widely, he grounds the existence of Supreme
+Thought as a logical unity. Those who would pursue this branch of the
+subject further, I would refer to his singularly able work.[43-1]
+
+The latter consideration will come up in a later chapter. If it be shown
+that all possible intelligence proceeds on the same laws as that of man,
+and that the essence of this is activity, permanence, or
+truth--synonymous terms--then the limitation of time ceases, and
+existence not in time but without regard to time, is a necessary
+consequence. Knowledge through intellection can alone reach a truth
+independent of time; that through sensation is always relative, true
+for the time only. The former cannot be expressed without the
+implication of the conceptions of the universal and the eternal as
+"dominant among the subjects of thought with which Logic is
+concerned;"[44-1] and hence the relation which the intellect bears to
+the absolute is a real and positive one.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6-1] In his essay entitled, _Ueber den Geschlechtsunterschied und
+dessen Einfluss auf die organische Natur_, first published in 1795.
+
+[6-2] "Der alte Dualismus von Geist und K�rper, der Jahrhunderte
+hindurch nach Vers�hnung gerungen, findet diese heute nicht zwar in
+der Einheit der Substanz, wohl aber in der Einheit des Gesetzes."
+Dr. Heinrich Boehmer, _Geschichte der Entwickelung der
+Naturwissenschaftlichen Weltanschauung in Deutschland_, s. 201 (Gotha,
+1872).
+
+[7-1] _Elements of Physio-Philosophy_, �3589. Eng. trans., London, 1847.
+
+[8-1] Von Feuchtersleben, _The Principles of Medical Psychology_, p. 130
+(Eng. trans., London, 1847).
+
+[9-1] "The fundamental property of organic structure is to seek what is
+beneficial, and to shun what is hurtful to it." Dr. Henry Maudsley,
+_Body and Mind_, p. 22.
+
+"The most essential nature of a sentient being is to move _to_ pleasure
+and _from_ pain." A. Bain, _On the Study of Character_, p. 292 (London,
+1861).
+
+"States of Pleasure are connected with an increase, states of Pain with
+an abatement of some or all of the vital functions." A. Bain, _Mind and
+Body_, p. 59.
+
+"Affectus est confusa idea, qu� Mens majorem, vel minorem sui corporis,
+vel alicujus ejus partis, existendi vim affirmat." Spinoza, _Ethices_,
+Lib. III. _ad finem_.
+
+[11-1] The extension of the mechanical laws of motion to organic motion
+was, I believe, first carried out by Comte. His biological form of the
+first law is as follows: "Tout �tat, statique ou dynamique, tend �
+persister spontan�ment, sans aucune alt�ration, en resistant aux
+perturbations ext�rieures." _Syst�me de Politique Positive_, Tome iv. p.
+178. The metaphysical ground of this law has, I think, been very well
+shown by Schopenhauer to be in the Kantian principle that time is not a
+force, nor a quality of matter, but a condition of perception, and hence
+it can exert no physical influence. See Schopenhauer, _Parerga und
+Paralipomena_, Bd. II, s. 37.
+
+[13-1] "Aller Genuss, seiner Natur nach, ist negativ, d. h., in
+Befreiung von einer Noth oder Pein besteht." _Parerga und Paralipomena._
+Bd. II, s. 482.
+
+[14-1] "No impression whatever is pleasant beyond the instant of its
+realization; since, at that very instant, commences the change of
+susceptibility, which suggests the desire for a change of impression or
+for a renewal of that impression which is fading away." Dr. J. P.
+Catlow, _The Principles of Aesthetic Medicine_, p. 155 (London, 1867).
+
+"Dum re, quem appetamus fruimur, corpus ex ea fruitione novam acquirat
+constitutionem, � qu� aliter determinatur, et ali� rerum imagines in eo
+excitantur," etc. Spinoza, _Ethices_, Pars III, Prop. lix.
+
+[18-1] "Feeling and thought are much more real than anything else; they
+are the only things which we directly know to be real."--John Stuart
+Mill.--_Theism_, p. 202. How very remote external objects are from what
+we take them to be, is constantly shown in physiological studies. As
+Helmholtz remarks: "No kind and no degree of similarity exists between
+the quality of a sensation, and the quality of the agent inducing it and
+portrayed by it."--_Lectures on Scientific Subjects_, p. 390.
+
+[20-1] _The Philosophy of Consciousness_, p. 72.
+
+[21-1] The Gospel of John (ch. xviii.) leaves the impression that Pilate
+either did not wait for an answer but asked the question in contempt, as
+Bacon understood, or else that waiting he received no answer. The Gospel
+of Nicodemus, however, written according to Tischendorf in the second
+century, probably from tradition, gives the rest of the conversation as
+follows: "Pilate says to him: What is truth? Jesus says: Truth is from
+heaven. Pilate says: Is not there truth upon earth? Jesus says to
+Pilate: See how one who speaks truth is judged by those who have power
+upon earth!" [ch. iii.]
+
+[22-1] The most acute recent discussion of this subject is by Helmholtz,
+in his essay entitled, "_Recent Progress in the Theory of Vision_."
+
+[24-1] George Boole, Professor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Cork,
+was born Nov. 2, 1815, died Dec. 8, 1864. He was the author of several
+contributions to the higher mathematics, but his principal production is
+entitled: _An Investigation into the Laws of Thought, on which are
+founded the mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities_ [London,
+1854.] Though the reputation he gained was so limited that one may seek
+his name in vain in the _New American Cyclopedia_ [1875], or the
+_Dictionnaire des Contemporains_ [1859], the few who can appreciate his
+treatise place the very highest estimate upon it. Professor Todhunter,
+in the preface to his _History of the Theory of Probabilities_, calls it
+"a marvellous work," and in similar language Professor W. Stanley Jevons
+speaks of it as "one of the most marvellous and admirable pieces of
+reasoning ever put together" (_Pure Logic_, p. 75). Professor Bain, who
+gives a synopsis of it in his _Deductive Logic_, wholly misapprehends
+the author's purpose, and is unable to appraise justly his conclusions.
+
+[28-1] _The Institutes of Metaphysic_, p. 459, (2nd edition.)
+
+[31-1] _An Outline of the Necessary Laws of Thought_, p. 113 (New York,
+1860).
+
+[37-1] _The Dhamapada_, verse 93.
+
+[37-2] Koppen, _Der Buddhismus_, s. 30.
+
+[39-1] Spencer in assuming an "unknowable universal causal agent and
+source of things," as "the nature of the power manifested in phenomena,"
+and in calling this the idea common to both religion and "ideal
+science," fell far behind Comte, who expressed the immovable position,
+not only of positive science but of all intelligence, in these words:
+"Le v�ritable esprit positif consiste surtout � substituer toujours
+l'�tude des _lois_ invariables des ph�nom�nes � celles de leurs _causes_
+proprement dites, premi�res ou finales, en un mot la determination du
+_comment_ � celle du _pourquoi_."--_Syst�mede[TN-4] Politique Positive_,
+i. p. 47. Compare Spencer's Essay entitled, "Reasons for dissenting from
+Comte." The purposive law is the only final cause which reason allows.
+Comte's error lay in ignoring this class of laws.
+
+[43-1] _The Institutes of Metaphysic_, 2d Ed. See also Bain, _The
+Emotions and the Will_, the closing note.
+
+[44-1] Boole, _Laws of Thought_, p. 401.
+
+
+
+
+THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     The Religious Sentiment is made up of emotions and thoughts. The
+     emotions are historically first and most prominent. Of all
+     concerned, Fear is the most obvious. Hope is its correlate. Both
+     suppose Experience, and a desire to repeat or avoid it. Hence a
+     Wish is the source of both emotions, and the proximate element of
+     religion. The significance of desire as the postulate of
+     development. The influence of fear and hope. The conditions which
+     encourage them.
+
+     The success of desire fails to gratify the religious sentiment. The
+     alternative left is eternal repose, or else action, unending yet
+     which aims at nothing beyond. The latter is reached through Love.
+     The result of love is _continuance_. Illustrations of this. Sexual
+     love and the venereal sense in religions. The hermaphrodite gods.
+     The virgin mother. Mohammed was the first to proclaim a deity above
+     sex. The conversion of sexual and religious emotion exemplified
+     from insane delusions. The element of fascination. The love of God.
+     Other emotional elements in religions.
+
+     The religious wish defined to be one _whose fruition depends upon
+     unknown power_. To be religious, one must desire and be ignorant.
+     The unknown power is of religious interest only in so far as it is
+     believed to be in relation to men's desires. In what sense
+     ignorance is the mother of devotion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+The discussion in the last chapter illustrated how closely pain and
+pleasure, truth and error, and thought and its laws have been related to
+the forms of religions, and their dogmatic expressions. The character of
+the relatively and absolutely true was touched upon, and the latter, it
+was indicated, if attainable at all by human intelligence, must be found
+in the formal laws of that intelligence, those which constitute its
+nature and essence, and in the conclusions which such a premise forces
+upon the reason. The necessity of this preliminary inquiry arose from
+the fact that every historical religion claims the monopoly of the
+absolutely true, and such claims can be tested only when we have decided
+as to whether there is such truth, and if there is, where it is to be
+sought. Moreover, as religions arise from some mental demand, the
+different manifestations of mind,--sensation, emotion and
+intellect--must be recognized and understood.
+
+Passing now to a particular description of the Religious Sentiment, it
+may roughly be defined to be the feeling which prompts to thoughts or
+acts of worship. It is, as I have said, a complex product, made up of
+emotions and ideas, developing with the growth of mind, wide-reaching in
+its maturity, but meagre enough at the start. We need not expect to find
+in its simplest phases that insight and tender feeling which we
+attribute to the developed religious character. "The scent of the
+blossom is not in the bulb." Its early and ruder forms, however, will
+best teach the mental elements which are at its root.
+
+The problem is, to find out why the primitive man figured to himself any
+gods at all; what necessity of his nature or his condition led him so
+universally to assume their existence, and seek their aid or their
+mercy? The conditions of the solution are, that it hold good everywhere
+and at all times; that it enable us to trace in every creed and cult the
+same sentiments which first impelled man to seek a god and adore him.
+Why is it that now and in remotest history, here and in the uttermost
+regions, there is and always has been this that we call _religion_?
+There must be some common reason, some universal peculiarity in man's
+mental formation which prompts, which forces him, him alone of animals,
+and him without exception, to this discourse and observance of religion.
+What this is, it is my present purpose to try to find out.
+
+In speaking of the development of mind through organism, it was seen
+that the emotions precede the reason in point of time. This is daily
+confirmed by observation. The child is vastly more emotional than the
+man, the savage than his civilized neighbor. Castren, the Russian
+traveller, describes the Tartars and Lapps as a most nervous folk. When
+one shocks them with a sudden noise, they almost fall into convulsions.
+Among the North American Indians, falsely called a phlegmatic race,
+nervous diseases are epidemic to an almost unparalleled extent. Intense
+thought, on the other hand, as I have before said, tends to lessen and
+annul the emotions. Intellectual self-consciousness is adverse to them.
+
+But religion, we are everywhere told, is largely a matter of the
+emotions. The pulpit constantly resounds with appeals to the feelings,
+and not unfrequently with warnings against the intellect. "I acknowledge
+myself," says the pious non-juror, William Law, "a declared enemy to the
+use of reason in religion;" and he often repeats his condemnation of
+"the labor-learned professors of far-fetched book-riches."[49-1] As the
+eye is the organ of sight, says one whose thoughts on such matters equal
+in depth those of Pascal, so the heart is the organ of religion.[49-2]
+In popular physiology, the heart is the seat of the emotions as the
+brain is that of intellect. It is appropriate, therefore, that we
+commence our analysis of the religious sentiment with the emotions which
+form such a prominent part of it.
+
+Now, whether we take the experience of an individual or the history of a
+tribe, whether we have recourse to the opinions of religious teachers or
+irreligious philosophers, we find them nigh unanimous that the emotion
+which is the prime motor of religious thought is _fear_. I need not
+depend upon the well-known line of Petronius Arbiter,
+
+    Primus in orbe deos fecit timor;
+
+for there is plenty of less heterodox authority. The worthy Bishop Hall
+says, "Seldom doth God seize upon the heart without a vehement
+concussion going before. There must be some blustering and flashes of
+the law. We cannot be too awful in our fear."[50-1] Bunyan, in his
+beautiful allegory of the religious life, lets Christian exclaim: "Had
+even Obstinate himself felt what I have felt of the terrors of the yet
+unseen, he would not thus lightly have given us the _back_." The very
+word for God in the Semitic tongues means "fear;"[50-2] Jacob swore to
+Laban, "by Him whom Isaac feared;" and Moses warned his people that
+"God is come, that his fear may be before your faces." To _venerate_ is
+from a Sanscrit root (_s�v_), to be afraid of.
+
+But it is needless to amass more evidence on this point. Few will
+question that fear is the most prominent emotion at the awakening of the
+religious sentiments. Let us rather proceed to inquire more minutely
+what fear is.
+
+I remarked in the previous chapter that "the emotions fall naturally
+into a dual classification, in which the one involves pleasurable or
+elevating, the other painful or depressing conditions." Fear comes of
+course under the latter category, as it is essentially a painful and
+depressing state of mind. But it corresponds with and implies the
+presence of Hope, for he who has nothing to hope has nothing to
+fear.[51-1] "There is no hope without fear, as there is no fear without
+hope," says Spinoza. "For he who is in fear has some doubt whether what
+he fears will take place, and consequently hopes that it will not."
+
+We can go a step further, and say that in the mental process the hope
+must necessarily precede the fear. In the immediate moment of losing a
+pleasurable sensation we hope and seek for its repetition. The mind,
+untutored by experience, confidently looks for its return. The hope only
+becomes dashed by fear when experience has been associated with
+disappointment. Hence we must first look to enjoy a good before we can
+be troubled by a fear that we shall not enjoy it; we must first lay a
+plan before we can fear its failure. In modern Christianity hope, hope
+of immortal happiness, is more conspicuous than fear; but that hope is
+also based on the picture of a pleasant life made up from experience.
+
+Both hope and fear, therefore, have been correctly called secondary or
+derived emotions, as they presuppose experience and belief, experience
+of a pleasure akin to that which we hope, belief that we can attain such
+a pleasure. "We do not hope first and enjoy afterwards, but we enjoy
+first and hope afterwards."[52-1] Having enjoyed, we seek to do so
+again. A desire, in other words, must precede either Hope or Fear. They
+are twin sisters, born of a Wish.
+
+Thus my analysis traces the real source of the religious sentiment, so
+far as the emotions are concerned, to a Wish; and having arrived there,
+I find myself anticipated by the words of one of the most reflective
+minds of this century: "All religion rests on a mental want; we hope,
+we fear, because we wish."[53-1] And long before this conclusion was
+reached by philosophers, it had been expressed in unconscious religious
+thought in myths, in the Valkyria, the Wish-maidens, for instance, who
+carried the decrees of Odin to earth.
+
+This is no mean origin, for a wish, a desire, conscious or unconscious,
+in sensation only or in emotion as well, is the fundamental postulate of
+every sort of development, of improvement, of any possible future, of
+life of any kind, mental or physical. In its broadest meaning, science
+and history endorse the exclamation of the unhappy Obermann: "_La perte
+vraiment irr�parable est celle des d�sirs._"[53-2]
+
+The sense of unrest, the ceaseless longing for something else, which is
+the general source of all desires and wishes, is also the source of all
+endeavor and of all progress. Physiologically, it is the effort of our
+organization to adapt itself to the ever varying conditions which
+surround it; intellectually, it is the struggle to arrive at truth; in
+both, it is the effort to attain a fuller life.
+
+As stimuli to action, therefore, the commonest and strongest of all
+emotions are Fear and Hope. They are the emotional correlates of
+pleasure and pain, which rule the life of sensation. Their closer
+consideration may well detain us awhile.
+
+In the early stages of religious life, whether in an individual or a
+nation, the latter is half concealed. Fear is more demonstrative, and as
+it is essentially destructive, its effects are more sudden and visible.
+In its acuter forms, as Fright and Terror, it may blanch the hair in a
+night, blight the mind and destroy the life of the individual. As Panic,
+it is eminently epidemic, carrying crowds and armies before it; while in
+the aggravated form of Despair it swallows up all other emotions and
+prompts to self destruction. Its physiological effect is a direct
+impairment of vitality.
+
+Hope is less intense and more lasting than fear. It stimulates the
+system, elates with the confidence of control, strengthens with the
+courage derived from a conviction of success, and bestows in advance the
+imagined joy of possession. As Feuchtersleben happily expresses it:
+"Hope preserves the principle of duration when other parts are
+threatened with destruction, and is a manifestation of the innermost
+psychical energy of Life."[54-1]
+
+Both emotions powerfully prompt to action, and to that extent are
+opposed to thought. Based on belief, they banish uncertainty, and
+antagonize doubt and with it investigation. The religion in which they
+enter as the principal factors will be one intolerant of opposition,
+energetic in deed, and generally hostile to an unbiased pursuit of the
+truth.
+
+Naturally those temperaments and those physical conditions which chiefly
+foster these emotions will tend to religious systems in which they are
+prominent. Let us see what some of these conditions are.
+
+It has always been noticed that impaired vitality predisposes to fear.
+The sick and feeble are more timorous than the strong and well. Further
+predisposing causes of the same nature are insufficient nourishment,
+cold, gloom, malaria, advancing age and mental worry. For this reason
+nearly invariably after a general financial collapse we witness a
+religious "revival." Age, full of care and fear, is thus prompted to
+piety, willing, as La Rochefoucauld remarks, to do good by precept when
+it can no longer do evil by example. The inhabitants of swampy,
+fever-ridden districts are usually devout. The female sex, always the
+weaker and often the worsted one in the struggle for existence, is when
+free more religious than the male; but with them hope is more commonly
+the incentive than fear.
+
+Although thus prominent and powerful, desire, so far as its fruition is
+pleasure, has expressed but the lowest emotions of the religious
+sentiment. Something more than this has always been asked by sensitively
+religious minds. Success fails to bring the gratification it promises.
+The wish granted, the mind turns from it in satiety. Not this, after
+all, was what we sought.
+
+The acutest thinkers have felt this. Pascal in his _Pens�es_ has such
+expressions as these: "The present is never our aim. The future alone is
+our object." "Forever getting ready to be happy, it is certain we never
+can be." "'Tis the combat pleases us and not the victory. As soon as
+that is achieved, we have had enough of the spectacle. So it is in play,
+so it is in the search for truth. We never pursue objects, but we pursue
+the pursuit of objects." But no one has stated it more boldly than
+Lessing when he wrote: "If God held in his right hand all truth, and in
+his left the one unceasingly active desire for truth, although bound up
+with the law that I should forever err, I should choose with humility
+the left and say: 'Give me this, Father. The pure truth is for thee
+alone.'"[56-1] The pleasure seems to lie not in the booty but in the
+battle, not in gaining the stakes but in playing the game, not in the
+winning but in the wooing, not in the discovery of truth but in the
+search for it.
+
+What is left for the wise, but to turn, as does the preacher, from this
+delusion of living, where laughter is mad and pleasure is vain, and
+praise the dead which are dead more than the living which are yet alive,
+or to esteem as better than both he that hath never been?
+
+Such is the conclusion of many faiths. Wasted with combat, the mortal
+longs for the rest prepared for the weary. Buddha taught the
+extinguishment in Nirvana; the Brahman portrays the highest bliss as
+_shanti_, complete and eternal repose; and that the same longing was
+familiar to ancient Judaism, and has always been common to Christianity,
+numerous evidences testify.[57-1] Few epitaphs are more common than
+those which speak of the mortal resting _in pace, in quiete_.
+
+The supposition at the root of these longings is that action must bring
+fatigue and pain, and though it bring pleasure too, it is bought too
+dearly. True in fact, I have shown that this conflicts with the theory
+of perfect life, even organic life. The highest form of life is the most
+unceasing living; its functions ask for their completest well being
+constant action, not satisfaction. That general feeling of health and
+strength, that _sens de bien �tre_, which goes with the most perfect
+physical life, is experienced only when all the organs are in complete
+working order and doing full duty. They impart to the whole frame a
+desire of motion. Hence the activity of the young and healthy as
+contrasted with the inertness of the exhausted and aged.
+
+How is it possible to reconcile this ideal of life, still more the hope
+of everlasting life, with the acknowledged vanity of desire? It is
+accomplished through the medium of an emotion which more than any I have
+touched upon reveals the character of the religious sentiment--Love.
+This mighty but protean feeling I shall attempt to define on broader
+principles than has hitherto been done. The vague and partial meanings
+assigned it have led to sad confusion in the studies of religions. In
+the language of feeling, love is a passion; but it does not spring from
+feeling alone. It is far more fervid when it rises through intellect
+than through sense. "Men have died from time to time, and worms have
+eaten them, but not for love," says the fair Rosalind; and though her
+saying is not very true as to the love of sense, it is far less true as
+to the love of intellect. The martyrs to science and religion, to
+principles and faith, multiply a hundred-fold those to the garden god.
+The spell of the idea is what
+
+  "Turns ruin into laughter and death into dreaming."
+
+Such love destroys the baser passion of sense, or transfigures it so
+that we know it no longer. The idea-driven is callous to the
+blandishments of beauty, for his is a love stronger than the love to
+woman. The vestal, the virgin, the eunuch for the kingdom of heaven's
+sake are the exemplars of the love to God.
+
+What common trait so marks these warring products of mind, that we call
+them by one name? In what is all love the same? The question is
+pertinent, for the love of woman, the love of neighbor, the love of
+country, the love of God, have made the positive side of most religions,
+the burden of their teachings. The priests of Cotytto and Venus, Astarte
+and Melitta, spoke but a more sensuous version of the sermon of the aged
+apostle to the Ephesians,--shortest and best of all sermons--"Little
+children, love one another."[59-1]
+
+The earliest and most constant sign of reason is "working for a remote
+object."[59-2] Nearly everything we do is as a step to something beyond.
+Forethought, conscious provision, is the measure of intelligence. But
+there must be something which is the object, the aim, the end-in-view of
+rational action, which is sought for itself alone, not as instrumental
+to something else. Such an object, when recognized, inspires the
+sentiment of love. It springs from the satisfaction of reason.
+
+This conclusion as to the nature of love has long been recognized by
+thinkers. Richard Baxter defined it as "the volition of the end," "the
+motion of the soul that tendeth to the end," and more minutely, "the
+will's volition of good apprehended by the understanding."[60-1] In
+similar language Bishop Butler explains it as "the resting in an object
+as an end."[60-2] Perhaps I can better these explanations by the phrase,
+_Love is the mental impression of rational action whose end is in
+itself_.
+
+Now this satisfaction is found only in one class of efforts, namely,
+those whose result is continuity, persistence, in fine, _preservation_.
+This may be toward the individual, self-love, whose object is the
+continuance of personal existence; toward the other sex, where the
+hidden aim is the perpetuation of the race; toward one's fellows, where
+the giving of pleasure and the prevention of pain mean the maintenance
+of life; toward one's country, as patriotism; and finally toward the
+eternally true, which as alone the absolutely permanent and
+preservative, inspires a love adequate and exhaustive of its conception,
+casting out both hope and fear, the pangs of desire as well as the
+satiety of fruition.
+
+In one or other of these forms love has at all times been the burden of
+religion: the glad tidings it has always borne have been "love on
+earth." The Phoenix in Egyptian myth appeared yearly as newly risen,
+but was ever the same bird, and bore the egg from which its _parent_ was
+to have birth. So religions have assumed the guise in turn of self-love,
+sex-love, love of country and love of humanity, cherishing in each the
+germ of that highest love which alone is the parent of its last and only
+perfect embodiment.
+
+Favorite of these forms was sex-love. "We find," observes a recent
+writer, "that all religions have engaged and concerned themselves with
+the sexual passion. From the times of phallic worship through Romish
+celibacy down to Mormonism, theology has linked itself with man's
+reproductive instincts."[61-1] The remark is just, and is most
+conspicuously correct in strongly emotional temperaments. "The
+devotional feelings," writes the Rev. Frederick Robertson in one of his
+essays, "are often singularly allied to the animal nature; they conduct
+the unconscious victim of feelings that appear divine into a state of
+life at which the world stands aghast." Fanaticism is always united with
+either excessive lewdness or desperate asceticism. The physiological
+performance of the generative function is sure to be attacked by
+religious bigotry.
+
+So prominent is this feature that attempts have been made to explain
+nearly all symbolism and mythology as types of the generative procedure
+and the reproductive faculty of organism. Not only the pyramids and
+sacred mountains, the obelisks of the Nile and the myths of light have
+received this interpretation, but even such general symbols as the
+spires of churches, the cross of Christendom and the crescent of
+Islam.[62-1]
+
+Without falling into the error of supposing that any one meaning or
+origin can be assigned such frequent symbols, we may acknowledge that
+love, in its philosophical sense, is closely akin to the mystery of
+every religion. That, on occasions, love of sex gained the mastery over
+all other forms, is not to be doubted; but that at all times this was
+so, is a narrow, erroneous view, not consistent with a knowledge of the
+history of psychical development.
+
+Sex-love, as a sentiment, is a cultivated growth. All it is at first is
+a rude satisfaction of the erethism. The wild tribes of California had
+their pairing seasons when the sexes were in heat, "as regularly as the
+deer, the elk and the antelope."[63-1] In most tongues of the savages of
+North America there are no tender words, as "dear," "darling," and the
+like.[63-2] No desire of offspring led to their unions. The women had
+few children, and their fathers paid them little attention. The family
+instinct appears in conditions of higher culture, in Judea, Greece, Rome
+and ancient Germany. Procreation instead of lust was there the aim of
+marriage. To-day, mere sentiment is so much in the ascendant that both
+these elements are often absent. There is warm affection without even
+instinctive knowledge of the design of the bond assumed.[63-3]
+
+Those who would confine the promptings of the passion of reproduction as
+it appears in man to its objects as shown in lower animals, know little
+how this wondrous emotion has acted as man's mentor as well as paraclete
+in his long and toilsome conflict with the physical forces.
+
+The venereal sense is unlike the other special senses in that it is
+general, as well as referable to special organs and nerves. In its
+psychological action it "especially contributes to the development of
+sympathies which connect man not only with his coevals, but with his
+fellows of all preceding and succeeding generations as well. Upon it is
+erected this vast superstructure of intellect, of social and moral
+sentiment, of voluntary effort and endeavor."[64-1] Of all the
+properties of organized matter, that of transmitting form and life is
+the most wonderful; and if we examine critically the physical basis of
+the labors and hopes of mankind, if we ask what prompts its noblest and
+holiest longings, we shall find them, in the vast majority of instances,
+directly traceable to this power. No wonder then that religion, which we
+have seen springs from man's wants and wishes, very often bears the
+distinct trace of their origin in his reproductive functions. The liens
+of the family are justly deemed sacred, and are naturally associated
+with whatever the mind considers holy.
+
+The duty of a citizen to become a father was a prominent feature in
+many ancient religions. How much honor the sire of many sons had in Rome
+and Palestine is familiar to all readers. No warrior, according to
+German faith, could gain entrance to Valhalla unless he had begotten a
+son. Thus the preservation of the species was placed under the immediate
+guardianship of religion.
+
+Such considerations explain the close connection of sexual thoughts with
+the most sacred mysteries of faith. In polytheisms, the divinities are
+universally represented as male or female, virile and fecund. The
+processes of nature were often held to be maintained through such
+celestial nuptials.
+
+Yet stranger myths followed those of the loves of the gods. Religion, as
+the sentiment of continuance, finding its highest expression in the
+phenomenon of generation, had to reconcile this with the growing concept
+of a divine unity. Each separate god was magnified in praises as
+self-sufficient. Earth, or nature, or the season is one, yet brings
+forth all. How embody this in concrete form?
+
+The startling refuge was had in the image of a deity at once of both
+sexes. Such avowedly were Mithras, Janus, Melitta, Cybele, Aphrodite,
+Agdistis; indeed nearly all the Syrian, Egyptian, and Italic gods, as
+well as Brahma, and, in the esoteric doctrine of the Cabala, even
+Jehovah, whose female aspect is represented by the "Shekinah." To this
+abnormal condition the learned have applied the adjectives epicene,
+androgynous, hermaphrodite, arrenothele. In art it is represented by a
+blending of the traits of both sexes. In the cult it was dramatically
+set forth by the votaries assuming the attire of the other sex, and
+dallying with both.[66-1] The phallic symbol superseded all others; and
+in Cyprus, Babylonia and Phrygia, once in her life, at least, must every
+woman submit to the embrace of a stranger.
+
+Such rites were not mere sensualities. The priests of these divinities
+often voluntarily suffered emasculation. None but a eunuch could become
+high priest of Cybele. Among the sixteen million worshippers of Siva,
+whose symbol is the Lingam, impurity is far less prevalent than among
+the sister sects of Hindoo religions.[66-2] To the Lingayets, the member
+typifies abstractly the idea of life. Therefore they carve it on
+sepulchres, or, like the ancient nations of Asia Minor, they lay clay
+images of it on graves to intimate the hope of existence beyond the
+tomb.
+
+This notion of a hermaphrodite deity is not "monstrous," as it has been
+called. There lies a deep meaning in it. The gods are spirits, beings
+of another order, which the cultivated esthetic sense protests against
+classing as of one or the other gender. Never can the ideal of beauty,
+either physical or moral, be reached until the characteristics of sex
+are lost in the concept of the purely human. In the noblest men of
+history there has often been noted something feminine, a gentleness
+which is not akin to weakness; and the women whose names are ornaments
+to nations have displayed a calm greatness, not unwomanly but something
+more than belongs to woman. Art acknowledges this. In the Vatican Apollo
+we see masculine strength united with maidenly softness; and in the
+traditional face and figure of Christ a still more striking example how
+the devout mind conjoins the traits of both sexes to express the highest
+possibility of the species. "Soaring above the struggle in which the
+real is involved with its limitations, and free from the characteristics
+of gender, the ideal of beauty as well as the ideal of humanity, alike
+maintain a perfect sexual equilibrium."[67-1]
+
+Another and more familiar expression of the religious emotion, akin to
+the belief in double-sexed deities,--nay, in its physiological aspect
+identical with it, as assuming sexual self-sufficiency, is the myth of
+the Virgin-Mother.
+
+When Columbus first planted the cross on the shores of San Domingo, the
+lay brother Roman Pane, whom he sent forth to convert the natives of
+that island, found among them a story of a virgin Mam�na, whose son
+Yoca�na, a hero and a god, was chief among divinities, and had in the
+old times taught this simple people the arts of peace and guided them
+through the islands.[68-1] When the missionaries penetrated to the
+Iroquois, the Aztecs, the Mayas, and many other tribes, this same story
+was told them with such startling likeness to one they came to tell,
+that they felt certain either St. Thomas or Satan had got the start of
+them in America.
+
+But had these pious men known as well as we do the gentile religions of
+the Old World, they would have seasoned their admiration. Long before
+Christianity was thought of, the myth of the Virgin-Mother of God was in
+the faith of millions, as we have had abundantly shown us of late years
+by certain expounders of Christian dogmas.
+
+How is this strange, impossible belief to be explained? Of what secret,
+unconscious, psychological working was it the expression? Look at its
+result. It is that wherever this doctrine is developed the _status
+matrimonialis_ is held to be less pure, less truly religious, than the
+_status virginitatis_. Such is the teaching to-day in Lhassa, in Rome;
+so it was in Yucatan, where, too, there were nunneries filled with
+spouses of God. I connect it with the general doctrine that chastity in
+either sex is more agreeable to God than marriage, and this belief, I
+think, very commonly arises at a certain stage of development of the
+religious sentiment, when it unconsciously recognises the indisputable
+fact that sex-love, whether in its form of love of woman, family, or
+nation, is not what that sentiment craves. This is first shown by
+rejecting the idea of sex-love in the birth of the god; then his priests
+and priestesses refuse its allurements, and deny all its claims, those
+of kindred, of country, of race, until the act of generation itself is
+held unholy and the thought of sex a sin. By such forcible though rude
+displays do they set forth their unconscious acknowledgment of that
+eternal truth: "He that loveth son or daughter more than Me, is not
+worthy of Me."
+
+The significance of these words is not that there is an antagonism in
+the forms of love. It is not that man should hate himself, as Pascal,
+following the teachings of the Church, so ably argued; nor that the one
+sex should be set over against the other in sterile abhorrence; nor yet
+that love of country and of kindred is incompatible with that toward the
+Supreme of thought; but it is that each of these lower, shallower,
+evanescent forms of emotion is and must be lost in, subordinated to,
+that highest form to which these words have reference. Reconciliation,
+not abnegation, is what they mean.
+
+Even those religions which teach in its strictness the oneness of God
+have rarely separated from his personality the attribute of sex. He is
+the father, _pater et genitor_, of all beings. The monotheism which we
+find in Greece and India generally took this form. The ancient Hebrews
+emphasized the former, not the latter sense of the word, and thus
+depriving it of its more distinctive characteristics of sex, prepared
+the way for the teachings of Christianity, in which the Supreme Being
+always appears with the attributes of the male, but disconnected from
+the idea of generation.
+
+Singularly enough, the efforts to which this latent incongruity prompts,
+even in persons speaking English, in which tongue the articles and
+adjectives have no genders, point back to the errors of an earlier age.
+A recent prayer by an eminent spiritualist commences:--"Oh Eternal
+Spirit, our Father and our Mother!" The expression illustrates how
+naturally arises the belief in a hermaphrodite god, when once sex is
+associated with deity.
+
+Of all founders of religions, Mohammed first proclaimed a divinity
+without relation to sex. One of his earliest suras reads:
+
+    "He is God alone,
+    God the eternal.
+    He begetteth not, and is not begotten;
+    And there is none like unto him."
+
+And elsewhere:--
+
+    "He hath no spouse, neither hath he any offspring."[71-1]
+
+While he expressly acknowledged the divine conception of Jesus, he
+denied the coarse and literal version of that doctrine in vogue among
+the ignorant Christians around him. Enlightened christendom, to-day,
+does not, I believe, differ from him on this point.
+
+Such sexual religions do not arise, as the theory has hitherto been,
+from study and observation of the generative agencies in nature, but
+from the identity of object between love in sense and love in intellect,
+profane and sacred passion. The essence of each is _continuance_,
+preservation; the origin of each is subjective, personal; but the former
+has its root in sensation, the latter in reason.
+
+The sex-difference in organisms, the "abhorrence of self-fertilization"
+which Mr. Darwin speaks of as so conspicuous and inexplicable a
+phenomenon, is but one example of the sway of a law which as action and
+reaction, thesis and antithesis, is common to both elementary motion and
+thought. The fertile and profound fancy of Greece delighted to prefigure
+this truth in significant symbols and myths. Love, Eros, is shown
+carrying the globe, or wielding the club of Hercules; he is the unknown
+spouse of Psyche, the soul; and from the primitive chaos he brings forth
+the ordered world, the Kosmos.
+
+The intimate and strange relation between sensuality and religion, so
+often commented upon and denied, again proven, and always
+misinterpreted, thus receives a satisfactory explanation. Some singular
+manifestations of it, of significance in religious history, are
+presented by the records of insane delusions. They confirm what I have
+above urged, that the association is not one derived from observation
+through intellectual processes, but is a consequence of physiological
+connections, of identity of aim in the distinct realms of thought and
+emotion.
+
+That eminent writer on mental diseases, Schroeder van der Kolk, when
+speaking of the forms of melancholy which arise from physical
+conditions, remarks: "The patient who is melancholy from disorders of
+the generative organs considers himself sinful. His depressed tone of
+mind passes over into religious melancholy; 'he is forsaken by God; he
+is lost.' All his afflictions have a religious color." In a similar
+strain, Feuchtersleben says: "In the female sex especially, the erotic
+delusion, unknown to the patient herself, often assumes the color of the
+religious."[73-1] "The unaccomplished sexual designs of nature,"
+observes a later author speaking of the effects of the single life,
+"lead to brooding over supposed miseries which suggest devotion and
+religious exercise as the nepenthe to soothe the morbid longings."[73-2]
+
+Stimulate the religious sentiment and you arouse the passion of love,
+which will be directed as the temperament and individual culture prompt.
+Develope very prominently any one form of love, and by a native affinity
+it will seize upon and consecrate to its own use whatever religious
+aspirations the individual has. This is the general law of their
+relation.
+
+All the lower forms of love point to one to which they are the gradual
+ascent, both of the individual and on a grander scale of the race, to
+wit, the love of God. This is the passion for the highest attainable
+truth, a passion which, as duty, prompts to the strongest action and to
+the utter sacrifice of all other longings. No speculative acquaintance
+with propositions satisfies it, no egotistic construction of systems,
+but the truth expressed in life, the truth as that which alone either
+has or can give being and diuturnity, this is its food, for which it
+thirsts with holy ardor. Here is the genuine esoteric gnosis, the sacred
+secret, which the rude and selfish wishes of the savage, the sensual
+rites of Babylon, "mother of harlots," and the sublimely unselfish
+dreams of a "religion of humanity," have alike had in their hearts, but
+had no capacity to interpret, no words to articulate.
+
+Related to this emotional phase of the religious sentiment is the
+theurgic power of certain natural objects over some persons. The
+biblical scholar Kitto confesses that the moon exerted a strange
+influence on his mind, stirring his devotional nature, and he owns that
+it would not have been hard for him to join the worshippers of the
+goddess of the night. Wilhelm von Humboldt in one of his odes refers to
+similar feelings excited in him by the gloom and murmur of groves. The
+sacred poets and the religious arts generally acknowledge this
+_fascination_, as it has been called, which certain phenomena have for
+religious temperaments.
+
+The explanation which suggests itself is that of individual and
+ancestral association. In the case of Kitto it was probably the latter.
+His sensitively religious nature experienced in gazing at the moon an
+impression inherited from some remote ancestor who had actually made it
+the object of ardent worship. The study of the laws of inherited memory,
+so successfully pursued of late by Professor Laycock, take away anything
+eccentric about this explanation, though I scarcely expect it will be
+received by one unacquainted with those laws.
+
+The emotional aspect of religion is not exhausted by the varieties of
+fear and hope and love. Wonder, awe, admiration, the �sthetic emotions,
+in fact all the active principles of man's mental economy are at times
+excited and directed by the thought of supernatural power. Some have
+attempted to trace the religious sentiment exclusively to one or the
+other of these. But they are all incidental and subsidiary emotions.
+
+Certain mental diseases, by abnormally stimulating the emotions,
+predispose strongly to religious fervor. Epilepsy is one of these, and
+in Swedenborg and Mohammed, both epileptics, we see distinguished
+examples of religious mystics, who, no doubt honestly, accepted the
+visions which accompanied their disease as revelations from another
+world. Very many epileptics are subject to such delusions, and their
+insanity is usually of a religious character.
+
+On the other hand, devotional excitement is apt to bring about mental
+alienation. Every violent revival has left after it a small crop of
+religious melancholies and lunatics. Competent authorities state that in
+modern communities religious insanity is most frequent in those sects
+who are given to emotional forms of religion, the Methodists and
+Baptists for example; whereas it is least known among Roman Catholics,
+where doubt and anxiety are at once allayed by an infallible referee,
+and among the Quakers, where enthusiasm is discouraged and with whom the
+restraint of emotion is a part of discipline.[76-1] Authoritative
+assurance in many disturbed conditions of mind is sufficient to relieve
+the mental tension and restore health.
+
+If, by what has been said, it is clear that the religious sentiment has
+its origin in a wish, it is equally clear that not every wish is
+concerned in it. The objects which a man can attain by his own unaided
+efforts, are not those which he makes the subjects of his prayers; nor
+are the periodic and regular occurrences in nature, how impressive they
+may be, much thought of in devotional moods. The moment that an event is
+recognized to be under fixed law, it is seen to be inappropriate to seek
+by supplication to alter it. No devotee, acquainted with the theory of
+the tides, would, like Canute the King, think of staying their waves
+with words. Eclipses and comets, once matters of superstitious terror,
+have been entirely shorn of this attribute by astronomical discovery.
+Even real and tragic misfortunes, if believed to be such as flow from
+fixed law, and especially if they can be predicted sometime before they
+arrive, do not excite religious feeling. As Bishop Hall quaintly
+observes, referring to a curious medieval superstition: "Crosses, after
+the nature of the cockatrice, die if they be foreseen."
+
+Only when the event suggests the direct action of _mind_, of some free
+intelligence, is it possible for the religious sentiment to throw around
+it the aureole of sanctity. Obviously when natural law was little known,
+this included vastly more occurrences than civilized men now think of
+holding to be of religious import. Hence the objective and material form
+of religion is always fostered by ignorance, and this is the form which
+prevails exclusively in uncultivated societies.
+
+The manifestations of motion which the child first notices, or which the
+savage chiefly observes, relate to himself. They are associated with the
+individuals around him who minister to his wants; the gratification of
+these depend on the volitions of others. As he grows in strength he
+learns to supply his own wants, and to make good his own volitions as
+against those of his fellows. But he soon learns that many events occur
+to thwart him, out of connection with any known individual, and these
+of a dreadful nature, hurricanes and floods, hunger, sickness and death.
+These pursue him everywhere, foiling his plans, and frustrating his
+hopes. It is not the show of power, the manifestations of might, that he
+cares for in these events, but that they touch _him_, that they spoil
+_his_ projects, and render vain _his_ desires; _this_ forces him to cast
+about for some means to protect himself against them.
+
+In accordance with the teaching of his experience, and true moreover to
+the laws of mind, he refers them, collectively, to a mental source, to a
+vague individuality. This loose, undefined conception of an unknown
+volition or power forms the earliest notion of Deity. It is hardly
+associated with personality, yet it is broadly separated from the human
+and the known. In the languages of savage tribes, as I have elsewhere
+remarked, "a word is usually found comprehending all manifestations of
+the unseen world, yet conveying no sense of personal unity."[78-1]
+
+By some means to guard against this undefined marplot to the
+accomplishment of his wishes, is the object of his religion. Its
+primitive forms are therefore defensive and conciliatory. The hopes of
+the savage extend little beyond the reach of his own arm, and the tenor
+of his prayers is that the gods be neuter. If they do not interfere he
+can take care of himself. His religion is a sort of assurance of life.
+
+Not only the religion of the savage, but every religion is this and not
+much but this. With nobler associations and purer conceptions of life,
+the religious sentiment ever contains these same elements and depends
+upon them for its vigor and growth. It everywhere springs from _a desire
+whose fruition depends upon unknown power_. To give the religious wish a
+definition in the technic of psychology, I define it as: _Expectant
+Attention, directed toward an event not under known control, with a
+concomitant idea of Cause or Power_.
+
+Three elements are embraced in this definition, a wish, an idea of
+power, ignorance of the nature of that power. The first term prompts the
+hope, the third suggests the fear, and the second creates the
+personality, which we see set forth in every religious system. Without
+these three, religion as dogma becomes impossible.
+
+If a man wishes for nothing, neither the continuance of present comforts
+nor future blessings, why need he care for the gods? Who can hurt him,
+so long as he stays in his frame of mind? He may well shake off all
+religions and every fear, for he is stronger than God, and the universe
+holds nothing worth his effort to get. This was the doctrine taught by
+Buddha Sakyanuni, a philosopher opposed to every form of religion, but
+who is the reputed founder of the most numerous sect now on the globe.
+He sought to free the minds of his day from the burden of the Brahmanic
+ritual, by cultivating a frame of mind beyond desire or admiration, and
+hence beyond the need of a creed.
+
+The second element, the idea of power, is an intellectual abstraction.
+Its character is fluctuating. At first it is most vague, corresponding
+to what in its most general sense we term "the supernatural." Later, it
+is regarded under its various exhibitions as separable phenomena, as in
+polytheisms, in which must be included trinitarian systems and the
+dualistic doctrine of the Parsees. But among the Egyptians, Greeks and
+Aztecs, as well as in the words of Zarathustra and in the theology of
+Christianity, we frequently meet with the distinct recognition of the
+fundamental unity of all power. At core, all religions have seeds of
+monotheism. When we generalize the current concepts of motion or force
+beyond individual displays and relative measures of quantity, we
+recognize their qualitative identity, and appreciate the logical unity
+under which we must give them abstract expression. This is the process,
+often unconscious, which has carried most original thinkers to
+monotheistic doctrines, no matter whence they started.
+
+The idea of power controlling the unknown would of itself have been of
+no interest to man had he not assumed certain relations to exist between
+him and it on the one hand, and it and things on the other. A
+dispassionate inquiry disproves entirely the view maintained by various
+modern writers, prominently by Bain, Spencer and Darwin, that the
+contemplation of power or majesty in external nature prompts of itself
+the religious sentiment, or could have been its historical origin. Such
+a view overlooks the most essential because the personal factor of
+religion--the wish. Far more correct are the words of David Hume, in the
+last century, by which he closes his admirable _Natural History of
+Religions_: "We may conclude, therefore, that in all nations the first
+ideas of religion arose not from a contemplation of the works of nature,
+but from a concern with regard to the events of life, and from the
+incessant hopes and fears which actuate the human mind." A century
+before him Hobbes had written in his terse way: "The natural seed of
+religion lies in these four things: the fear of spirits, ignorance of
+secondary causes, the conciliation of those we fear, and the assumption
+of accidents for omens."[81-1] The sentiment of religion is in its
+origin and nature purely personal and subjective. The aspect of power
+would never have led man to worship, unless he had assumed certain
+relations between the unseen author or authors of that power and
+himself. What these assumptions were, I shall discuss in the next
+chapter.
+
+Finally, as has so often been remarked in a flippant and contemptuous
+way,[82-1] which the fact when rightly understood nowise justifies,
+religion cannot exist without the aid of ignorance. It is really and
+truly the mother of devotion. The sentiment of religious fear does not
+apply to a _known_ power--to the movement of an opposing army, or the
+action of gravity in an avalanche for example. The prayer which under
+such circumstances is offered, is directed to an unknown intelligence,
+supposed to control the visible forces. As science--which is the
+knowledge of physical laws--extends, the object of prayer becomes more
+and more intangible and remote. What we formerly feared, we learn to
+govern. No one would pray God to avert the thunderbolt, if lightning
+rods invariably protected houses. The Swiss clergy opposed the system of
+insuring growing crops because it made their parishioners indifferent to
+prayers for the harvest. With increasing knowledge and the security
+which it brings, religious terror lessens, and the wants which excite
+the sentiment of devotion diminish in number and change in character.
+
+This is apt to cast general discredit on religion. When we make the
+discovery that so many events which excited religious apprehension in
+the minds of our forefathers are governed by inflexible laws which we
+know all about, we not only smile in pity at their superstitions, but
+make the mental inference that the diminished emotion of this kind we
+yet experience is equally groundless. If at the bottom of all displays
+of power lies a physical necessity, our qualms are folly. Therefore, to
+the pious soul which still finds the bulk of its religious aspirations
+and experiences in the regions of the emotions and sensations, the
+progress of science seems and really does threaten its cherished
+convictions. The audacious mind of man robs the gods of power when he
+can shield himself from their anger. The much-talked-of conflict between
+religion and science is no fiction; it exists, and is bound to go on,
+and religion will ever get the worst of it until it learns that the
+wishes to which it is its proper place to minister are not those for
+pleasure and prosperity, not for abundant harvests and seasonable
+showers, not success in battle and public health, not preservation from
+danger and safety on journeys, not much of anything that is spoken of
+in litanies and books of devotion.
+
+Let a person who still clings to this form of religion imagine that
+science had reached perfection in the arts of life; that by skilled
+adaptations of machinery, accidents by sea and land were quite avoided;
+that observation and experience had taught to foresee with certainty and
+to protect effectively against all meteoric disturbances; that a
+perfected government insured safety of person and property; that a
+consummate agriculture rendered want and poverty unknown; that a
+developed hygiene completely guarded against disease; and that a
+painless extinction of life in advanced age could surely be calculated
+upon; let him imagine this, and then ask himself what purpose religion
+would subserve in such a state of things? For whatever would occupy it
+then--if it could exist at all--should _alone_ occupy it now.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[49-1] _Address to the Clergy_, pp. 42, 43, 67, 106, etc.
+
+[49-2] E. von Hardenberg [Novalis], _Werke_, s. 364.
+
+[50-1] _Treatises Devotional and Practical_, p. 188. London, 1836.
+
+[50-2] In Aramaic _dachla_ means either a god or fear. The Arabic Allah
+and the Hebrew Eloah are by some traced to a common root, signifying to
+tremble, to show fear, though the more usual derivation is from one
+meaning to be strong.
+
+[51-1] "Wen die Hoffnung, den hat auch die Furcht verlassen." Arthur
+Schopenhauer, _Parerga und Paralipomena_. Bd. ii. s. 474.
+
+[52-1] Alexander Bain, _On the Study of Character_, p. 128. See also his
+remarks in his work, _The Emotions and the Will_, p. 84, and in his
+notes to James Mill's _Analysis of the Mind_, vol. i., pp. 124-125.
+
+[53-1] Wilhelm von Humboldt's _Gesammelte Werke_, Bd. vii., s. 62.
+
+[53-2] De Senancourt, _Obermann_, Lettre xli.
+
+[54-1] _Elements of Medical Psychology_, p. 331.
+
+[56-1] Lessing's _Gesammelte Werke_. B. ii. s. 443 (Leipzig, 1855).
+
+[57-1] See Exodus, xxiii. 12; Psalms, lv. 6; Isaiah, xxx. 15; Jeremiah,
+vi. 16; Hebrews, v. 9. So St. Augustine: "et nos post opera nostra
+sabbato vit� etern� requiescamus in te." _Confessionum Lib._ xiii. cap.
+36.
+
+[59-1] "Filioli, diligite alterutrum." This is the "testamentum
+Johannis," as recorded from tradition by St. Jerome in his notes to the
+Epistle to the Galatians.
+
+[59-2] Alexander Bain, _The Senses and the Intellect_, Chap. I.
+
+[60-1] _A Christian Directory._ Part I. Chap. III.
+
+[60-2] "The very nature of affection, the idea itself, necessarily
+implies resting in its object as an end." _Fifteen Sermons by Joseph
+Butler, late Lord Bishop of Durham_, Preface, and p. 147 (London, 1841).
+
+[61-1] Dr. J. Milner Fothergill, _Journal of Mental Science_, Oct. 1874,
+p. 198.
+
+[62-1] The most recent work on the topic is that of Messrs. Westropp and
+Wake, _The Influence of the Phallic Idea on the Religions of Antiquity_,
+London, 1874.
+
+[63-1] Schoolcraft's _History and Statistics of the Indian Tribes_, Vol.
+iv. p. 224.
+
+[63-2] Richardson, _Arctic Expedition_, p. 412.
+
+[63-3] Most physicians have occasion to notice the almost entire loss in
+modern life of the instinctive knowledge of the sex relation. Sir James
+Paget has lately treated of the subject in one of his _Clinical
+Lectures_ (London, 1875).
+
+[64-1] Dr. J. P. Catlow, _Principles of Aesthetic Medicine_, p. 112.
+This thoughtful though obscure writer has received little recognition
+even in the circle of professional readers.
+
+[66-1] This is probably what was condemned in Deuteronomy xxii. 5, and
+Romans, i. 26.
+
+[66-2] "The worship of Siva is too severe, too stern for the softer
+emotions of love, and all his temples are quite free from any allusions
+to it."--Ferguson, _Tree and Serpent Worship_, p. 71.
+
+[67-1] W. von Humboldt, in his admirable essay _Ueber die M�nnliche und
+Weibliche Form_ (_Werke, Bd. I._). Elsewhere he adds: "In der Natur des
+Goettlichen strebt alles der Reinheit und Vollkommenheit des
+Gattungsbegriff entgegen."
+
+[68-1] I have collected the Haitian myths, chiefly from the manuscript
+_Historia Apologetica de las Indias Occidentales_ of Las Casas, in an
+essay published in 1871, _The Arawack Language of Guiana in its
+Linguistic and Ethnological Relations_.
+
+[71-1] _The Koran_, Suras,[TN-5] cxii., lxii., and especially xix.
+
+[73-1] _Elements of Medical Psychology_, p. 281.
+
+[73-2] J. Thompson Dickson, _The Science and Practice of Medicine in
+relation to Mind_, p. 383 (New York, 1874).
+
+[76-1] Dr. Joseph Williams, _Insanity, its Causes, Prevention and Cure_,
+pp. 68, 69; Dr. A. L. Wigan, _The Duality of the Mind_, p. 437.
+
+[78-1] _The Myths of the New World, a Treatise on the Symbolism and
+Mythology of the Red Race of America_, p. 145.
+
+[81-1] _Leviathan, De Homine_, cap. xii.
+
+[82-1] For instance, of later writers from whom we might expect better
+things, Arthur Schopenhauer. He says in his _Parerga_ (Bd. ii. s. 290):
+"Ein gewisser Grad allgemeiner Unwissenheit ist die Bedingung aller
+Religionen;" a correct remark, and equally correct of the pursuit of
+science and philosophy. But the ignorance which is the condition of such
+pursuit is not a part of science or philosophy, and no more is it of
+religion.
+
+
+
+
+THE RATIONAL POSTULATES OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     Religion often considered merely an affair of the feelings. On the
+     contrary, it must assume at least three premises in reason, its
+     "rational postulates."
+
+     I. There is Order in things.
+
+     The religious wish involves the idea of cause. This idea not
+     exhausted by uniformity of sequence, but by quantitative relation,
+     that is, Order as opposed to Chance. Both science and religion
+     assume order in things; but the latter includes the Will of God in
+     this order, while the former rejects it.
+
+     II. This order is one of Intelligence.
+
+     The order is assumed to be a comprehensible one, whether it be of
+     law wholly or of volition also.
+
+     III. All Intelligence is one in kind.
+
+     This postulate indispensable to religion, although it has been
+     attacked by religious as well as irreligious philosophers. Its
+     decision must rest on the absoluteness of the formal laws of
+     thought. The theory that these are products of natural selections
+     disproved by showing, (1) that they hold true throughout the
+     material universe, and (2) that they do not depend on it for their
+     verity. Reason sees beyond phenomena, but descries nothing alien to
+     itself.
+
+     The formal laws of reason are purposive. They therefore afford a
+     presumption of a moral government of the Universe, and point to an
+     Intelligence fulfilling an end through the order in physical laws.
+     Such an assumption, common to all historic religions, is thus
+     justified by induction.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE RATIONAL POSTULATES OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+In philosophical discussions of religion as well as in popular
+exhortations upon it, too exclusive stress has been laid upon its
+emotional elements. "It is," says Professor Bain, "an affair of the
+feelings."[87-1] "The essence of religion," observes John Stuart Mill,
+"is the strong and earnest direction of the emotions and desires towards
+an ideal object." "It must be allowed," says Dr. Mansel,[87-2] "that it
+is not through reasoning that men obtain their first intimation of their
+relation to a deity." In writers and preachers of the semi-mystical
+school, which embraces most of the ardent revivalists of the day, we
+constantly hear the "feeling of dependence" quoted as the radical
+element of religious thought.[87-3] In America Theodore Parker, and in
+Germany Schleiermacher, were brilliant exponents of this doctrine. To
+the latter the philosopher Hegel replied that if religion is a matter of
+feeling, an affectionate dog is the best Christian.
+
+This answer was not flippant, but founded on the true and only worthy
+conception of the religious sentiment. We have passed in review the
+emotions which form a part of it, and recognize their power. But neither
+these nor any other mere emotions, desires or feelings can explain even
+the lowest religion. It depends for its existence on the essential
+nature of reason. We cannot at all allow, as Dr. Mansel asks of us, that
+man's first intimations of Deity came in any other way than as one of
+the ripest fruits of reason. Were such the case, we should certainly
+find traces of them among brutes and idiots, which we do not. The slight
+signs of religious actions thought to have been noticed by some in the
+lower animals, by Sir John Lubbock in ants, and by Charles Darwin in
+dogs, if authenticated, would vindicate for these species a much closer
+mental kinship to man than we have yet supposed.
+
+If we dispassionately analyze any religion whatever, paying less
+attention to what its professed teachers say it is, than to what the
+mass of the votaries believe it to be, we shall see that every form of
+adoration unconsciously assumes certain premises in reason, which give
+impulse and character to its emotional and active manifestations. They
+are its data or axioms, or, as I shall call them, its "rational
+postulates." They can, I believe, be reduced to three, but not to a
+lesser number.
+
+Before the religious feeling acquires the distinctness of a notion and
+urges to conscious action, it must assume at least these three
+postulates, and without them it cannot rise into cognition. These, their
+necessary character and their relations, I shall set forth in this
+chapter.
+
+They are as follows:--
+
+    I. There is Order in things.
+   II. This order is one of Intelligence.
+  III. All Intelligence is one in kind.
+
+I. The conscious or unconscious purpose of the religious sentiment, as I
+have shown in the last chapter, is the _fruition of a wish_, the success
+of which depends upon unknown power. The votary asks help where he
+cannot help himself. He expects it through an exertion of power, through
+an efficient cause. Obviously therefore, he is acting on the logical
+idea of Causality. This underlies and is essential to the simplest
+prayer. He extends it, moreover, out of the limits of experience into
+the regions of hypothesis. He has carried the analogy of observation
+into the realm of abstract conceptions. No matter if he does believe
+that the will of God is the efficient cause. Perhaps he is right; at any
+rate he cannot be denied the privilege of regarding volition as a
+co-operating cause. Limited at first to the transactions which most
+concerned men, the conception of order as a divine act extended itself
+to the known universe. Herodotus derives the Greek word for God ~Theos~
+from a root which gives the meaning "to set in order," and the
+Scandinavians gave the same sense to their word, _Regin_.[90-1] Thus the
+abstract idea of cause or power is a postulate of all religious thought.
+Let us examine its meaning.
+
+Every reader, the least versed in the history of speculative thought for
+the last hundred years, knows how long and violent the discussions have
+been of the relations of "cause and effect." Startled by the criticisms
+of Hume, Kant sought to elude them by distinguishing between two spheres
+of thought, the understanding and the reason. Sir William Hamilton at
+first included the "principle of sufficient reason'[TN-6] in the laws of
+thought, but subsequently rejected it as pertaining to judgments, and
+therefore material, not formal. Schopenhauer claimed to have traced it
+to a fourfold root, and Mill with most of the current English schools,
+Bain, Austin, Spencer, &c., maintained that it meant nothing but
+"uniformity of sequence."
+
+It would be vain to touch upon a discussion so extended as this. In the
+first chapter I have remarked that the idea of cause does not enter into
+the conceptions of pure logic or thought. It is, as Hamilton saw,
+material. I shall only pause to show what is meant by the term "cause"
+in the physical sciences. When one event follows another, time after
+time, we have "uniformity of sequence." Suppose the constitution of the
+race were so happy that we slept at night only, and always awoke a few
+moments before sunrise. Such a sequence quite without exception, should,
+if uniform experience is the source of the idea of cause, justly lead to
+the opinion that the sun rises because man awakes. As we know this
+conclusion would be erroneous, some other element beside sequence must
+complete a real cause. If now, it were shown that the relation of cause
+to effect which we actually entertain and cannot help entertaining is in
+some instances flatly contrary to all experience, then we must
+acknowledge that the idea of cause asks to confirm it something quite
+independent of experience, that is abstract. But such examples are
+common. We never saw two objects continue to approach without meeting;
+but we are constrained to believe that lines of certain descriptions can
+forever approach and never meet.
+
+The uniformity of sequence is, in fact, in the physical sciences never
+assumed to express the relation of cause and effect, until the
+connection between the antecedent and consequent can be set forth
+abstractly in mathematical formul�. The sequence of the planetary
+motions was discovered by Kepler, but it was reserved for Newton to
+prove the theoretical necessity of this motion and establish its
+mathematical relations. The sequence of sensations to impressions is
+well known, but the law of the sequence remains the desideratum in
+psychology.[92-1]
+
+Science, therefore, has been correctly defined as "the knowledge of
+system." Its aim is to ascertain the laws of phenomena, to define the
+"order in things." Its fundamental postulate is that order exists, that
+all things are "lapped in universal law." It acknowledges no exception,
+and it considers that all law is capable of final expression in
+quantity, in mathematical symbols. It is the manifest of reason, "whose
+unceasing endeavor is to banish the idea of Chance."[93-1]
+
+We thus see that its postulate is the same as that of the religious
+sentiment. Wherein then do they differ? Not in the recognition of
+chance. Accident, chance, does not exist for the religious sense in any
+stage of its growth. Everywhere religion proclaims in the words of
+Dante:--
+
+              "le cose tutte quante,
+    Hann' ordine tra loro;"
+
+everywhere in the more optimistic faiths it holds this order, in the
+words of St. Augustine, to be one "most fair, of excellent
+things."[93-2]
+
+What we call "the element of chance" is in its scientific sense that of
+which we do not know the law; while to the untutored religious mind it
+is the manifestation of divine will. The Kamschatkan, when his boat is
+lost in the storm, attributes it to the vengeance of a god angered
+because he scraped the snow from his shoes with a knife, instead of
+using a piece of wood; if a Dakota has bad luck in hunting, he says it
+is caused by his wife stepping over a bone and thus irritating a
+spirit. The idea of cause, the sentiment of order, is as strong as ever,
+but it differs from that admitted by science in recognizing as a
+possible efficient motor that which is incapable of mathematical
+expression, namely, a volition, a will. _Voluntas Dei asylum
+ignoranti�_, is no unkind description of such an opinion.
+
+So long as this recognition is essential to the life of a religious
+system, just so long it will and must be in conflict with science, with
+every prospect of the latter gaining the victory. Is the belief in
+volition as an efficient cause indispensable to the religious sentiment
+in general? For this vital question we are not yet prepared, but must
+first consider the remaining rational postulates it assumes. The second
+is
+
+II. This order is one of intelligence.
+
+By this is not meant that the order is one of _an_ Intelligence, but
+simply that the order which exists in things is conformable to man's
+thinking power,--that if he knows the course of events he can appreciate
+their relations,--that facts can be subsumed under thoughts. Whatever
+scheme of order there were, would be nothing to him unless it were
+conformable to his intellectual functions. It could not form the matter
+of his thought.[94-1]
+
+Science, which deals in the first instance exclusively with phenomena,
+also assumes this postulate. It recognizes that when the formal laws,
+which it is its mission to define, are examined apart from their
+material expression, when they are emptied of their phenomenal contents,
+they show themselves to be logical constructions, reasoned truths, in
+other words, forms of intelligence. The votary who assumes the order one
+of volition alone, or volition with physical necessity, still assumes
+the volitions are as comprehensible as are his own; that they are
+purposive; that the order, even if not clear to him, is both real and
+reasonable. Were it not so, did he believe that the gods carried out
+their schemes through a series of caprices inconceivable to
+intelligence, through absolute chance, insane caprice, or blind fate, he
+could neither see in occurrences the signs of divine rule, nor hope for
+aid in obtaining his wishes. In fact, order is only conceivable to man
+at all as an order conformable to his own intelligence.
+
+This second postulate embraces what has been recently called the
+"Principle of continuity," indispensable to sane thought of any kind. A
+late work defines it as "the trust that the Supreme Governor of the
+Universe will not put us to permanent intellectual confusion."[96-1]
+Looked at closely, it is the identification of order with reason.
+
+The third and final postulate of the religious sentiment is that
+
+III. All intelligence is one in kind.
+
+Religion demands that there be a truth which is absolutely true, and
+that there be a goodness which is universally and eternally good. Each
+system claims the possession, and generally the exclusive possession,
+of this goodness and truth. They are right in maintaining these views,
+for unless such is the case, unless there is an absolute truth,
+cognizable to man, yet not transcended by any divine intelligence, all
+possible religion becomes mere child's play, and its professed
+interpretation of mysteries but trickery.
+
+The Grecian sophists used to meet the demonstrations of the
+mathematicians and philosophers by conceding that they did indeed set
+forth the truth, so far as man's intelligence goes, but that to the
+intelligence of other beings--a bat or an angel, for example--they might
+not hold good at all; that there is a different truth for different
+intelligences; that the intelligence makes the truth; and that as for
+the absolutely true, true to every intelligence, there is no such thing.
+They acknowledged that a simple syllogism, constructed on these
+premises, made their own assertions partake of the doubtful character
+that was by them ascribed to other human knowledge. But this they
+gracefully accepted as the inevitable conclusion of reasoning. Their
+position is defended to-day by the advocates of "positivism," who
+maintain the relativity of all truth.
+
+But such a conclusion is wholly incompatible with the religious mind. It
+must assume that there are some common truths, true infinitely, and
+therefore, that in all intelligence there is an essential unity of kind.
+"This postulation," says a close thinker, "is the very foundation and
+essence of religion. Destroy it, and you destroy the very possibility of
+religion."[97-1]
+
+Clear as this would seem to be to any reflective mind, yet, strange to
+say, it is to-day the current fashion for religious teachers to deny it.
+Scared by a phantasm of their own creation, they have deserted the only
+position in which it is possible to defend religion at all. Afraid of
+the accusation that they make God like man, they have removed Him
+beyond the pale of all intelligence, and logically, therefore,
+annihilated every conception of Him.
+
+Teachers and preachers do not tire of telling their followers that God
+is incomprehensible; that his ways are past finding out; that he is the
+Unconditioned, the Infinite, the Unknowable. They really mean that he is
+another order of intelligence, which, to quote a famous comparison of
+Spinoza, has the same name as ours, but is no more one with it than the
+dog is one with his namesake, the dog-star!
+
+They are eagerly seconded in this position by a school of writers who
+distinctly see where such a doctrine leads, and who do not hesitate to
+carry it home. Mr. Mill is right in his scorn for those who "erect the
+incurable limitations of the human conceptive faculty into laws of the
+outward universe," if there are such limitations. And Mr. Spencer is
+justified in condemning "the transcendent audacity which passes current
+as piety," if his definition of the underlying verity of religion is
+admitted--that it is "the consciousness of an inscrutable power which,
+in its nature, transcends intuition, and is beyond imagination."[98-1]
+They are but following the orthodox Sir William Hamilton, who says:
+"Creation must be thought as the incomprehensible evolution of power
+into energy."[99-1] We are to think that which by the terms of the
+proposition is unthinkable! A most wise master!
+
+Let it be noted that the expressions such as inscrutable,
+incomprehensible, unknowable, etc., which such writers use, are avowedly
+not limited to man's intelligence in its present state of cultivation,
+but are applied to his _kind_ of intelligence, no matter how far
+trained. They mean that the inscrutable, etc., is not merely not _at
+present_ open to man's observation--that were a truism--but that it
+cannot be subsumed under the laws of his reasoning powers. In other
+words, they deny that all intelligence is one in _kind_. Some accept
+this fully, and concede that what are called the laws of order, as shown
+by science, are only matters of experience, true here and now, not
+necessarily and absolutely true.
+
+This is a consistent inference, and applies, of course, with equal force
+to all moral laws and religious dogmas.
+
+The arguments brought against such opinions have been various. The old
+reply to the sophists has been dressed in modern garb, and it has been
+repeatedly put that if no statement is really true, then this one, to
+wit "no statement is really true," also is not true; and if that is the
+case, then there are statements which really are true. The theory of
+evolution as a dogma has been attacked by its own maxims; in asserting
+that all knowledge is imperfect, it calls its own verity into question.
+If all truth is relative, then this at least is absolutely true.
+
+It has also been noted that all such words as incomprehensible,
+unconditioned, infinite, unknowable, are in their nature privatives,
+they are not a thought but are only one element of a thought. As has
+been shown in the first chapter, every thought is made up of a positive
+and a privative, and it is absurd and unnatural to separate the one from
+the other. The concept man, regarded as a division of the higher concept
+animal, is made up of man and not-man. In so far as other animals are
+included under the term "not-man" they do not come into intelligent
+cognition; but that does not mean that they cannot do so. So "the
+unconditioned" is really a part of the thought of "the conditioned," the
+"unknowable" a part of the "knowable," the "infinite" a part of the
+thought of the "finite." Under material images these privatives, as
+such, cannot be expressed; but in pure thought which deals with symbols
+and types alone, they can be.
+
+But if the abstract laws of thought themselves are confined in the
+limits of one kind of intelligence, then we cannot take an appeal to
+them to attack this sophism. Therefore on maintaining their integrity
+the discussion must finally rest. This has been fully recognized by
+thinkers, one of whom has not long since earnestly called attention to
+"the urgent necessity of fathoming the psychical mechanism on which
+rests all our intellectual life."[101-1]
+
+In this endeavor the attempt has been made to show that the logical laws
+are derived in accordance with the general theory of evolution from the
+natural or material laws of thinking. These, as I have previously
+remarked, are those of the association of ideas, and come under the
+general heads of contiguity and similarity. Such combinations are
+independent of the aim of the logical laws, which is _correct_ thinking.
+A German writer, Dr. Windelband, has therefore argued that as
+experience, strengthened by hereditary transmission, continued to show
+that the particular combinations which are in accord with what we call
+the laws of thought furnished the best, that is, the most useful
+results, they were adopted in preference to others and finally assumed
+as the criteria of truth.
+
+Of course it follows from this that as these laws are merely the outcome
+of human experience they can have no validity outside of it.
+Consequently, adds the writer I have quoted, just as the study of optics
+teaches us that the human eye yields a very different picture of the
+external world from that given by the eye of a fly, for instance, and
+as each of them is equally far from the reality, so the truth which our
+intelligence enables us to reach is not less remote from that which is
+the absolutely true. He considers that this is proven by the very nature
+of the "law of contradiction" itself, which must be inconsistent with
+the character of absolute thought. For in the latter, positive truth
+only can exist, therefore no negation, and no law about the relation of
+affirmative to negative.[102-1]
+
+The latter criticism assumes that negation is of the nature of error, a
+mistake drawn from the use of the negative in applied logic. For in
+formal logic, whether as quantity or quality, that is, in pure
+mathematics or abstract thought, the reasoning is just as correct when
+negatives are employed as when positives, as I have remarked before. The
+other criticism is more important, for if we can reach the conclusion
+that the real laws of the universe are other than as we understand them,
+then our intelligence is not of a kind to represent them.
+
+Such an opinion can be refuted directly. The laws which we profess to
+know are as operative in the remotest nebulae as in the planet we
+inhabit. It is altogether likely that countless forms of intelligent
+beings inhabit the starry wastes, receiving through sensory apparatus
+widely different from ours very diverse impressions of the external
+world. All this we know, but we also know that if those beings have
+defined the laws which underlie phenomena, they have found them to be
+the same that we have; for were they in the least different, in
+principle or application, they could not furnish the means, as those we
+know do, of predicting the recurrence of the celestial motions with
+unfailing accuracy. Therefore the demonstrations of pure mathematics,
+such as the relation of an absciss to an ordinate, or of the diameter to
+the circumference, must be universally true; and hence the logical laws
+which are the ultimate criteria of these truths must also be true to
+every intelligence, real or possible.[103-1]
+
+Another and forcible reply to these objections is that the laws which
+our intelligence has reached and recognizes as universally true are not
+only not derived from experience, but are in direct opposition to and
+are constantly contradicted by it. Neither sense nor imagination has
+ever portrayed a perfect circle in which the diameter bore to the
+circumference the exact proportion which we know it does bear. The very
+fact that we have learned that our senses are wholly untrustworthy, and
+that experience is always fallacious, shows that we have tests of truth
+depending on some other faculty. "Each series of connected facts in
+nature furnishes the intimation of an order more exact than that which
+it directly manifests."[104-1]
+
+But, it has been urged, granted that we have reached something like
+positive knowledge of those laws which are the _order_ of the
+manifestation of phenomena, the real Inscrutable, the mysterious
+Unknowable, escapes us still; this is the _nature_ of phenomenal
+manifestation, "the secret of the Power manifested in Existence."[104-2]
+At this point the physicist trips and falls; and here, too, the
+metaphysician stumbles.
+
+I have already spoken of our aptitude to be frightened by a chimera, and
+deceived by such words as "nature" and "cause." Laws and rules, by which
+we express Order, are restrictive only in a condition of intelligence
+short of completeness, only therefore in that province of thought which
+concerns itself with material facts. The musician is not fettered by the
+laws of harmony, but only by those of discord. The truly virtuous man,
+remarks Aristotle, never has occasion to practise self-denial. Hence,
+mathematically, "the theory of the intellectual action involves the
+recognition of a sphere of thought from which all limits are
+withdrawn."[105-1] True freedom, real being, is only possible when law
+as such is inexistent. Only the lawless makes the law. When the idea of
+the laws of order thus disappears in that of free function consistent
+with perfect order, when, as Kant expresses it, we ascend from the
+contemplation of things acting according to law, to action according to
+the representation of law,[105-2] we can, without audacity, believe that
+we have penetrated the secret of existence, that we have reached the
+limits of explanation and found one wholly satisfying the highest
+reason. Intelligence, not apart from phenomena, but parallel with them,
+not under law, but through perfect harmony above it, _power one with
+being_, the will which is "the essence of reason," the emanant cause of
+phenomena, immanent only by the number of its relations we have not
+learned, this is the satisfying and exhaustive solution. The folly lies
+not in claiming reason as the absolute, but in assuming that the
+absolute is beyond and against reason.
+
+There is nothing new in this explanation; and it is none the worse for
+being old. If Anaxagoras discerned it dimly, and many a one since him
+has spoken of Intelligence, Reason, Nous or Logos as the constructive
+factor of the creation; if "all the riper religions of the Orient
+assumed as their fundamental principle that unless the Highest
+penetrates all parts of the Universe, and itself conditions whatever is
+conditioned, no universal order, no Kosmos, no real existence is
+thinkable;"[106-1] such inadequate expressions should never obscure the
+truth that reason in its loftiest flights descries nothing nobler than
+itself.
+
+The relative, as its name implies, for ever presupposes and points to
+the absolute, the latter an Intelligence also, not one that renders ours
+futile and fallacious, but one that imparts to ours the capacity we
+possess of reaching eternal and ubiquitous truth. The severest
+mathematical reasoning forces us to this conclusion, and we can dispense
+with speculation about it.
+
+Only on the principle which here receives its proof, that man has
+something in him of God, that the norm of the true holds good
+throughout, can he know or care anything about divinity. "It takes a
+god to discern a god," profoundly wrote Novalis.
+
+When a religion teaches what reason disclaims, not through lack of
+testimony but through a denial of the rights of reason, then that
+religion wars against itself and will fall. Faith is not the acceptance
+of what intelligence rejects, but a suspension of judgment for want of
+evidence. A thoroughly religious mind will rejoice when its faith is
+shaken with doubt; for the doubt indicates increased light rendering
+perceptible some possible error not before seen.
+
+Least of all should a believer in a divine revelation deny the oneness
+of intelligence. For if he is right, then the revealed truth he talks
+about is but relative and partial, and those inspired men who claimed
+for it the sign manual of the Absolute were fools, insane or liars.
+
+If the various arguments I have rehearsed indicate conclusively that in
+the laws of thought we have the norms of absolute truth--and skepticism
+on this point can be skepticism and not belief only by virtue of the
+very law which it doubts--some important corollaries present themselves.
+
+Regarding in the first place the nature of these laws, we find them very
+different from those of physical necessity--those which are called the
+laws of nature. The latter are authoritative, they are never means to an
+end, they admit no exception, they leave no room for error. Not so with
+the laws of reasoning. Man far more frequently disregards than obeys
+them; they leave a wide field for fallacy. Wherein then lies that
+theoretical necessity which is the essence of law? The answer is that
+the laws of reasoning are _purposive_ only, they are regulative, not
+constitutive, and their theoretical necessity lies in the end, the
+result of reasoning, that is, in the knowing, in the recognition of
+truth. They are what the Germans call _Zweckgesetze_.[108-1]
+
+But in mathematical reasoning and in the processes of physical nature
+the absolute character of the laws which prevail depends for its final
+necessity on their consistency, their entire correspondence with the
+laws of right reasoning. Applied to them the purposive character of the
+laws is not seen, for their ends are fulfilled. We are brought,
+therefore, to the momentous conclusion that the manifestation of Order,
+whether in material or mental processes, "affords a presumption, not
+measurable indeed but real, of the fulfilment of an end or
+purpose;"[108-1][TN-7] and this purpose, one which has other objects in
+view than the continuance of physical processes. The history of mind,
+from protoplasmic sensation upward, must be a progression, whose end
+will be worth more than was its beginning, a process, which has for its
+purpose the satisfaction of the laws of mind. This is nothing else than
+correct thinking, the attainment of truth.
+
+But this conclusion, reached by a searching criticism of the validity of
+scientific laws, is precisely that which is the postulate of all
+developed creeds. "The faith of all historical religions," says Bunsen,
+"starts from the assumption of a universal moral order, in which the
+good is alone the true, and the true is the only good."[109-1]
+
+The purposive nature of the processes of thought, as well as the manner
+in which they govern the mind, is illustrated by the history of man. His
+actions, whether as an individual or as a nation, are guided by ideas
+not derived from the outer world, for they do not correspond to actual
+objects, but from mental pictures of things as he wants them to exist.
+These are his hopes, his wishes, his ideals; they are the more potent,
+and prompt to more vigorous action, the clearer they are to his mind.
+Even when he is unconscious of them, they exist as tendencies, or
+instincts, inherited often from some remote ancestor, perhaps even the
+heir-loom of a stage of lower life, for they occur where sensation
+alone is present, and are an important factor in general evolution.
+
+It is usually conceded that this theory of organic development very much
+attenuates the evidence of what is known as the argument from design in
+nature, by which the existence of an intelligent Creator is sought to be
+shown. If the distinction between the formal laws of mathematics, which
+are those of nature, and logic, which are those of mind, be fully
+understood, no one will seek such an argument in the former but in the
+latter only, for they alone, as I have shown, are purposive, and they
+are wholly so. The only God that nature points to is an adamantine Fate.
+
+If religion has indeed the object which Bunsen assigns it, physical
+phenomena cannot concern it. Its votaries should not look to change the
+operation of natural laws by incantations, prayers or miracles.
+
+Whenever in the material world there presents itself a seeming
+confusion, it is certain to turn out but an incompleteness of our
+observation, and on closer inspection it resolves itself into some
+higher scheme of Order. This is not so in the realm of thought. Wrong
+thinking never can become right thinking. A profound writer has said:
+"One explanation only of these facts can be given, viz., that the
+distinction between _true_ and _false_, between _correct_ and
+_incorrect_, exists in the processes of the intellect, but not in the
+region of a physical necessity."[111-1] A religion therefore which
+claims as its mission the discovery of the true and its identification
+with the good,--in other words the persuading man that he should always
+act in accordance with the dictates of right reasoning--should be
+addressed primarily to the intellect.
+
+As man can attain to certain truths which are without any mixture of
+fallacy, which when once he comprehends them he can never any more
+doubt, and which though thus absolute do not fetter his intellect but
+first give it the use of all its powers to the extent of those truths;
+so he can conceive of an Intelligence in which all truth is thus without
+taint of error. Not only is such an Intelligence conceivable, it is
+necessary to conceive it, in order to complete the scientific induction
+of "a sphere of thought from which all limits are withdrawn," forced
+upon us by the demonstrations of the exact sciences.[111-2]
+
+Thus do we reach the foundation for the faith in a moral government of
+the world, which it has been the uniform characteristic of religions to
+assert; but a government, as thus analytically reached, not easily
+corresponding with that which popular religion speaks of. Such feeble
+sentiments as mercy, benevolence and effusive love, scarcely find place
+in this conception of the source of universal order. In this cosmical
+dust-cloud we inhabit, whose each speck is a sun, man's destiny plays a
+microscopic part. The vexed question whether ours is the best possible
+or the worst possible world, drops into startling insignificance.
+Religion has taught the abnegation of self; science is first to teach
+the humiliation of the race. Not for man's behoof were created the
+greater and the lesser lights, not for his deeds will the sun grow dark
+or the stars fall, not with any reference to his pains or pleasure was
+this universe spread upon the night. That Intelligence which pursues its
+own ends in this All, which sees from first to last the chain of causes
+which mould human action, measures not its purposes by man's halting
+sensations. Such an Intelligence is fitly described by the
+philosopher-poet as one,
+
+    "Wo die Gerechtigkeit so Wurzel schl�get,
+    Und Schuld und Unschuld so erhaben w�get
+    Dass sie vertritt die Stelle aller G�te."[112-1]
+
+In the scheme of the universe, pain and pleasure, truth and error, has
+each its fitness, and no single thought or act can be judged apart from
+all others that ever have been and ever shall be.
+
+Such was the power that was contemplated by the Hebrew prophet, one from
+which all evil things and all good things come, and who disposes them
+all to the fulfilment of a final purpose:
+
+     "I am the Lord and there is none else. I form the light and create
+     darkness; I make peace and create evil."
+
+     "I am God and there is none like me, declaring the end from the
+     beginning, and from ancient times the things which are not yet
+     done."[113-1]
+
+In a similar strain the ancient Aryan sang:--
+
+    "This do I ask thee, tell me, O Ahura!
+    Who is he, working good, made the light and also darkness?
+    Who is he, working good, made the sleep as well as waking?
+    Who the night, as well as noon and the morning?"
+
+And the reply came:
+
+     "Know also this, O pure Zarathustra: through my wisdom, through
+     which was the beginning of the world, so also its end shall
+     be."[113-2]
+
+Or as the Arabian apostle wrote, inspired by the same idea:--
+
+    "Praise the name of thy Lord, the Most High,
+    Who hath created and balanced all things,
+    Who hath fixed their destinies and guideth them."
+
+     "The Revelation of this book is from the Mighty, the Wise. We have
+     not created the Heavens and the Earth and all that is between them
+     otherwise than with a purpose and for a settled term."[113-3]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[87-1] _The Emotions and Will_, p. 594. So Professor Tyndall speaks of
+confining the religious sentiment to "the region of emotion, which is
+its proper sphere."
+
+[87-2] H. L. Mansel, _The Limits of Religious Thought_, p. 115. (Boston,
+1859.)
+
+[87-3] "The _one relation_ which is the ground of all true religion is a
+total dependence upon God." William Law, _Address to the Clergy_, p. 12.
+"The essential germ of the religious life is concentrated in the
+absolute feeling of dependence on infinite power." J. D. Morell, _The
+Philosophy of Religion_, p. 94. (New York, 1849.) This accomplished
+author, well known for his _History of Philosophy_, is the most able
+English exponent of the religious views of Schleiermacher and Jacobi.
+
+[90-1] "Weil sie die Welt _eingerichtet_ haben." Creuzer, _Symbolik und
+Mythologie der alten Voelker_, Bd. I. s. 169. It is not of any
+importance that Herodotus' etymology is incorrect: what I wish to show
+is that he and his contemporaries entertained the conception of the gods
+as the authors of order.
+
+[92-1] This distinction is well set forth by A. von Humboldt, _Kosmos_,
+p. 388 (Phila., 1869).
+
+[93-1] "Ueberall den Zufall zu verbannen, zu verhindern, dass in dem
+Gebiete des Beobachtens und Denkens er nicht zu herrschen scheine, im
+Gebiete des Handelns nicht herrsche, ist das Streben der Vernunft."
+Wilhelm von Humboldt, _Ueber Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea_, iv.
+
+[93-2] "Iste ordo pulcherrimus rerum valde bonarum." _Confessiones_,
+Lib. xiii. cap. xxxv.
+
+[94-1] "The notion of a God is not contained in the mere notion of
+Cause, that is the notion of Fate or Power. To this must be added
+Intelligence," etc. Sir Wm. Hamilton, _Lectures on Metaphysics_, Lecture
+ii.
+
+[96-1] _The Unseen Universe_, p. 60.
+
+[97-1] James Frederick Ferrier, _Lectures on Greek Philosophy_, p. 13
+(Edinburgh, 1866). On a question growing directly out of this, to wit,
+the relative character of good and evil, Mr. J. S. Mill expresses
+himself thus: "My opinion of this doctrine is, that it is beyond all
+others which now engage speculative minds, the decisive one between
+moral good and evil for the Christian world." _Examination of Hamilton's
+Philosophy_, p. 90.
+
+[98-1] _First Principles_, pp. 108, 127.
+
+[99-1] _Lectures on Metaphysics_, Vol. I., p. 690.
+
+[101-1] Professor Steinthal in the _Zeitschrift f�r V�lkerpsychologie_.
+
+[102-1] Dr. W. Windelband, _Die Erkenntnissiehre unter dem
+voelkerpsychologischem Gesichtspunkte_, in the _Zeitschrift f�r
+V�lkerpsychologie_, 1874, _Bd. VIII._ S. 165 _sqq._
+
+[103-1] I would ask the reader willing to pursue this reasoning further,
+to peruse the charming essay of Oersted, entitled _Das ganze Dasein Ein
+Vernunftreich_.
+
+[104-1] Geo. Boole, _An Investigation of the Laws of Thought_, p. 407.
+
+[104-2] Herbert Spencer, _First Principles_, p. 112. Spinoza's famous
+proposition, previously quoted, _Unaqu�que res quantum in se est, in suo
+esse perseverare conatur_, (_Ethices, Pars III., Prop. VI._,) expresses
+also the ultimate of modern investigation. A recent critic considers it
+is a fallacy because the conatus "surreptitiously implies a sense of
+effort or struggle for existence," whereas the logical concept of a res
+does not involve effort (S. N. Hodgson, _The Theory of Practice_, vol.
+I. pp. 134-6, London, 1870.) The answer is that identity implies
+continuance. In organic life we have the fact of nutrition, a function
+whose duty is to supply waste, and hence offer direct opposition to
+perturbing forces.
+
+[105-1] Geo. Boole, _The Laws of Thought_, p. 419.
+
+[105-2] Kant, _The Metaphysic of Ethics_, p. 23 (Eng. Trans. London,
+1869.)
+
+[106-1] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Voelker_, Bd. I. s.
+291.
+
+[108-1] See this distinction between physical and thought laws fully set
+forth by Prof. Boole in the appendix to _The Laws of Thought_, and by
+Dr. Windelband, _Zeitschrift f�r Voelkerpsychologie_, Bd. VIII., s. 165
+sqq.
+
+[108-2] Geo. Boole, u. s. p. 399.
+
+[109-1] "Der Glaube aller geschichtlichen Religionen geht aus von dieser
+Annahme einer sittlichen, in Gott bewusst lebenden, Weltordnung, wonach
+das Gute das allein Wahre ist, and das Wahre das allein Gute." _Gott in
+der Geschichte_, Bd. I. s. xl. Leipzig, 1857.
+
+[111-1] Geo. Boole, _Laws of Thought_, p. 410.
+
+[111-2] The latest researches in natural science confirm the expressions
+of W. von Humboldt: "Das Streben der Natur ist auf etwas Unbeschr�nktes
+gerichtet." "Die Natur mit endlichen Mitteln unendliche Zwecke
+verfolgt." _Ueber den Geschlechtsunterschied, etc._
+
+[112-1] Wilhelm von Humboldt, _Sonnette_, "H�chste Gerechtigkeit."
+
+[113-1] Isaiah, xlv. 7; xlvi. 10.
+
+[113-2] _Khordah--avesta_, _Ormazd--Yasht_, 38, and _Ya�na_, 42.
+
+[113-3] _The Koran_, Suras lxxxvii., xlvi.
+
+
+
+
+THE PRAYER AND ITS ANSWER.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     Religion starts with a Prayer. This is an appeal to the unknown,
+     and is indispensable in religious thought. The apparent exceptions
+     of Buddhism and Confucianism.
+
+     All prayers relate to the fulfilment of a wish. At first its direct
+     object is alone thought of. This so frequently fails that the
+     indirect object rises into view. This stated to be the increase of
+     the pleasurable emotions. The inadequacy of this statement.
+
+     The answers to prayer. As a form of Expectant Attention, it exerts
+     much subjective power. Can it influence external phenomena? It is
+     possible. Deeply religious minds reject both these answers,
+     however. They claim the objective answer to be Inspiration. All
+     religions unite in this claim.
+
+     Inspirations have been contradictory. That is genuine which teaches
+     truths which cannot be doubted concerning duty and deity. A certain
+     mental condition favors the attainment of such truths. This
+     simulated in religious entheasm. Examples. It is allied to the most
+     intense intellectual action, but its steps remain unknown.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE PRAYER AND ITS ANSWER.
+
+
+The foregoing analysis of the religious sentiment results in finding it,
+even in its simplest forms, a product of complicated reasoning forced
+into action by some of the strongest emotions, and maintaining its
+position indefeasibly through the limitations of the intellect. This it
+does, however, with a certain nobleness, for while it wraps the unknown
+in sacred mystery, it proclaims man one in nature with the Highest, by
+birthright a son of the gods, of an intelligence akin to theirs, and
+less than they only in degree. Through thus presenting at once his
+strength and his feebleness, his grandeur and his degradation, religion
+goes beyond philosophy or utility in suggesting motives for exertion,
+stimuli to labor. This phase of it will now occupy us.
+
+The Religious Sentiment manifests itself in thought, in word and in act
+through the respective media of the Prayer, the Myth and the Cult. The
+first embraces the personal relations of the individual to the object
+of his worship, the second expresses the opinions current in a community
+about the nature and actions of that object, the last includes the
+symbols and ceremonies under and by which it is represented and
+propitiated.
+
+The first has the logical priority. Man cares nothing for God--_can_
+care nothing for him practically--except as an aid to the fulfilment of
+his desires, the satisfaction of his wants, as the "ground of his
+hopes." The root of the religious sentiment, I have said, is "a wish
+whose fruition depends upon unknown power." An appeal for aid to this
+unknown power, is the first form of prayer in its religious sense. It is
+not merely "the soul's sincere desire." This may well be and well
+directed, and yet not religious, as the devotion of the mathematician to
+the solution of an important problem. With the desire must be the
+earnest appeal to the unknown. A theological dictionary I have at hand
+almost correctly defines it as "a petition for spiritual or physical
+benefits which [we believe] we cannot obtain without divine
+co-operation." The words in brackets must be inserted to complete the
+definition.
+
+It need not be expressed in language. Rousseau, in his _Confessions_,
+tells of a bishop who, in visiting his diocese, came across an old woman
+who was troubled because she could frame no prayer in words, but only
+cry, "Oh!" "Good mother," said the wise bishop, "Pray always so. Your
+prayers are better than ours."[119-1]
+
+A petition for assistance is, as I have said, one of its first forms;
+but not its only one. The assistance asked in simple prayers is often
+nothing more than the neutrality of the gods, their non-interference;
+"no preventing Providence," as the expression is in our popular
+religion. Prayers of fear are of this kind:
+
+    "And they say, God be merciful,
+    Who ne'er said, God be praised."
+
+Some of the Egyptian formul� even threaten the gods if they prevent
+success.[119-2] The wish accomplished, the prayer may be one of
+gratitude, often enough of that kind described by La Rochefoucauld, of
+which a prominent element is "a lively sense of possible favors to
+come."[119-3]
+
+Or again, self-abasement being so natural a form of flattery that to
+call ourselves "obedient and humble servants" of others, has passed
+into one of the commonest forms of address, many prayers are made up of
+similar expressions of humility and contrition, the votary calling
+himself a "miserable sinner" and a "vile worm," and on the other hand
+magnifying his Lord as greater than all other gods, mighty and helpful
+to those who assiduously worship him.
+
+In some form or other, as of petition, gratitude or contrition, uttered
+in words or confined to the aspirations of the soul, prayer is a
+necessary factor in the religious life. It always has been, and it must
+be present.
+
+The exceptions which may be taken to this in religious systems are
+chiefly two, those supposed to have been founded by Buddha Sakyamuni and
+Confucius.
+
+It is undoubtedly correct that Buddha discouraged prayer. He permitted
+it at best in the inferior grades of discipleship. For himself, and all
+who reached his stage of culture, he pronounced it futile.
+
+But Buddha did not set out to teach a religion, but rather the inutility
+of all creeds. He struck shrewdly at the root of them by placing the
+highest condition of man in the total extinguishment of desire. He bound
+the gods in fetters by establishing a theory of causal connection (the
+twelve Nidana) which does away with the necessity of ruling powers. He
+then swept both matter and spirit into unreality by establishing the
+canon of ignorance, that the highest knowledge is to know that nothing
+is; that there is neither being nor not-being, nor yet the becoming.
+After this wholesale iconoclasm the only possible object in life for the
+sage is the negative one of avoiding pain, which though as unreal as
+anything else, interferes with his meditations on its unreality. To this
+negative end the only aid he can expect is from other sages who have
+gone farther in self-cultivation. Self, therefore, is the first, the
+collective body of sages is the second, and the written instruction of
+Buddha is the third; and these three are the only sources to which the
+consistent Buddhist looks for aid.
+
+This was Buddha's teaching. But it is not Buddhism as professed by the
+hundreds of millions in Ceylon, in Thibet, China, Japan, and Siberia,
+who claim Sakyamuni under his names Buddha, the awakened, Tathagata,
+thus gone, or gone before, Siddartha, the accomplisher of the wish, and
+threescore and ten others of like purport, as their inspired teacher.
+Millions of saints, holy men, Buddhas, they believe, are ready to aid in
+every way the true believer, and incessant, constant prayer is, they
+maintain, the one efficient means to insure this aid. Repetition,
+dinning the divinities and wearying them into answering, is their
+theory. Therefore they will repeat a short formula of four words (_om
+mani padme hum_--Om! the jewel in the lotus, amen) thousands of times a
+day; or, as they correctly think it not a whit more mechanical, they
+write it a million times on strips of paper, fasten it around a
+cylinder, attach this to a water or a wind-wheel, and thus sleeping or
+waking, at home or abroad, keep up a steady fire of prayer at the gods,
+which finally, they sanguinely hope, will bring them to submission.
+
+No sect has such entire confidence in the power of prayer as the
+Buddhists. The most pious Mahometan or Christian does not approach their
+faith. After all is said and done, the latter has room to doubt the
+efficacy of his prayer. It may be refused. Not so the Buddhists. They
+have a syllogism which covers the case completely, as follows:--
+
+    All things are in the power of the gods.
+    The gods are in the power of prayer.
+    Prayer is at the will of the saint.
+    Therefore all things are in the power of the saint.
+
+The only reason that any prayer fails is that it is not repeated often
+enough--a statement difficult to refute.
+
+The case with Confucius was different.[122-1] No speculative dreamer,
+but a practical man, bent on improving his fellows by teaching them
+self-reliance, industry, honesty, good feeling and the attainment of
+material comfort, he did not see in the religious systems and doctrines
+of his time any assistance to these ends. Therefore, like Socrates and
+many other men of ancient and modern times, without actually condemning
+the faiths around him, or absolutely neglecting some external respect to
+their usages, he taught his followers to turn away from religious topics
+and occupy themselves with subjects of immediate utility. For questions
+of duty, man, he taught, has a sufficient guide within himself. "What
+you do not like," he said, "when done to yourself, do not to others."
+The wishes, he adds, should be limited to the attainable; thus their
+disappointment can be avoided by a just estimate of one's own powers. He
+used to compare a wise man to an archer: "When the archer misses the
+target, he seeks for the cause of his failure within himself." He did
+not like to talk about spiritual beings. When asked whether the dead had
+knowledge, he replied: "There is no present urgency about the matter. If
+they have, you will know it for yourself in time." He did not deny the
+existence of unseen powers; on the contrary, he said: "The _kwei shin_
+(the most general term for supernatural beings) enter into all things,
+and there is nothing without them;" but he added, "We look for them and
+do not see them; we listen, but do not hear them." In speaking of deity,
+he dropped the personal syllable (_te_) and only spoke of heaven, in the
+indefinite sense. Such was this extraordinary man. The utilitarian
+theory, what we call the common sense view of life, was never better
+taught. But his doctrine is not a religion. His followers erect temples,
+and from filial respect pay the usual honors to their ancestors, as
+Confucius himself did. But they ignore religious observances, strictly
+so-called.
+
+These examples, therefore, do not at all conflict with the general
+statement that no religion can exist without prayer. On the contrary, it
+is the native expression of the religious sentiment, that to which we
+must look for its most hidden meaning. The thoughtful Novalis, whose
+meditations are so rich in reflections on the religious nature of man,
+well said: "Prayer is to religion what thought is to philosophy. To pray
+is to make religion. The religious sense prays with like necessity that
+the reason thinks."
+
+Whatever the form of the prayer, it has direct or indirect relation to
+the accomplishment of a wish. David prays to the Lord as the one who
+"satisfies the desire of every living thing," who "will fulfil the
+desire of them that fear him," and it is with the like faith that the
+heart of every votary is stirred when he approaches in prayer the
+divinity he adores.
+
+Widely various are the things wished for. Their character is the test of
+religions. In primitive faiths and in uncultivated minds, prayers are
+confined to the nearest material advantages; they are directed to the
+attainment of food, of victory in combat, of safety in danger, of
+personal prosperity. They may all be summed up in a line of one which
+occurs in the Rig Veda: "O Lord Varuna! Grant that we may prosper in
+_getting and keeping_!"
+
+Beyond this point of "getting and keeping," few primitive prayers take
+us. Those of the American Indians, as I have elsewhere shown, remained
+in this stage among the savage tribes, and rose above it only in the
+civilized states of Mexico and Peru. Prayers for health, for plenteous
+harvests, for safe voyages and the like are of this nature, though from
+their familiarity to us they seem less crude than the simple-hearted
+petition of the old Aryan, which I have quoted. They mean the same.
+
+The more thoughtful votaries of the higher forms of religion have,
+however, frequently drawn the distinction between the direct and
+indirect fulfilment of the wish. An abundant harvest, restoration to
+health, or a victory in battle is the object of our hopes, not in
+itself, but for its results upon ourselves. These, in their final
+expression, can mean nothing else than agreeable sensations and
+pleasurable emotions. These, therefore, are the real though indirect
+objects of such prayers; often unconsciously so, because the ordinary
+devotee has little capacity and less inclination to analyze the nature
+of his religious feelings.
+
+A recent writer, Mr. Hodgson, has said: "The real answer to prayer is
+the increase of the joyful emotions, the decrease of the painful
+ones."[126-1] It would seem a simpler plan to make this directly the
+purport of our petitions; but to the modern mind this naked simplicity
+would be distasteful.
+
+Nor is the ordinary supplicant willing to look so far. The direct, not
+the indirect object of the wish, is what he wants. The lazzarone of
+Naples prays to his patron saint to favor his choice of a lottery
+ticket; if it turn out an unlucky number he will take the little leaden
+image of the saint from his pocket, revile it, spit on it, and trample
+it in the mud. Another man, when his prayer for success is not followed
+by victory, sends gifts to the church, flogs himself in public and
+fasts. Xenophon gives us in his _Economics_ the prayer of a pious
+Athenian of his time, in the person of Ischomachus. "I seek to obtain,"
+says the latter, "from the gods by just prayers, strength and health,
+the respect of the community, the love of my friends, an honorable
+termination to my combats, and riches, the fruit of honest industry."
+Xenophon evidently considered these appropriate objects for prayer, and
+from the petitions in many recent manuals of devotion, I should suppose
+most Christians of to-day would not see in them anything inappropriate.
+
+In spite of the effort that has been made by Professor Creuzer[127-1] to
+show that the classical nations rose to a higher use of prayer, one
+which made spiritual growth in the better sense of the phrase its main
+end; I think such instances were confined to single philosophers and
+poets. They do not represent the prayers of the average votary. Then and
+now he, as a rule, has little or no idea of any other answer to his
+prayer than the attainment of his wish.
+
+As such petitions, however, more frequently fail than succeed in their
+direct object, and as the alternative of considering them impotent is
+not open to the votary, some other explanation of their failure was
+taught in very early day. At first, it was that the god was angered, and
+refused the petition out of revenge. Later, the indirect purpose of such
+a prayer asserted itself more clearly, and aided by a nobler conception
+of Divinity, suggested that the refusal of the lower is a preparation
+for a higher reward. Children, in well-ordered households, are
+frequently refused by parents who love them well; this present analogy
+was early seized to explain the failure of prayer. Unquestioning
+submission to the divine will was inculcated. Some even went so far as
+to think it improper to define any wish at all, and subsumed all prayer
+under the one formula, "Thy will be done." Such was the teaching of St.
+Augustine, whose favorite prayer was _Da quod jubes, et jube quod vis_,
+a phrase much criticized by Pelagius and others of his time as too
+quietistic.[128-1] The usual Christian doctrine of resignation proceeds
+in theory to this extent. Such a notion of the purpose of prayer leads
+to a cheerful acceptance of the effects of physical laws, effects which
+an enlightened religious mind never asks to be altered in its favor, for
+the promises and aims of religion should be wholly outside the arena of
+their operation. The ideal prayer has quite other objects than to work
+material changes.
+
+To say, as does Mr. Hodgson, that its aim is the increase of the joyful
+emotions is far from sufficient. The same may be said of most human
+effort, the effort to make money, for instance. The indirect object of
+money-making is also the increase of the agreeable feelings. The
+similarity of purpose might lead to a belief that the aims of religion
+and business are identical.
+
+Before we can fully decide on what, in the specifically religious sense
+of the word, is the answer to prayer, we should inquire as a matter of
+fact what effect it actually exerts, and to do this we should understand
+what it is as a psychological process. The reply to this is that prayer,
+in its psychological definition, is a form of Expectant Attention. It is
+always urged by religious teachers that it must be very earnest and
+continuous to be successful. "Importunity is of the essence of
+successful prayer," says Canon Liddon in a recent sermon. In the New
+Testament it is likened to a constant knocking at a door; and by a
+curious parity of thought the Chinese character for prayer is composed
+of the signs for a spirit and an axe or hammer.[129-1] We must "keep
+hammering" as a colloquial phrase has it. Strong belief is also
+required. To pray with faith we must expect with confidence.
+
+Now that such a condition of expectant attention, prolonged and earnest,
+will have a very powerful subjective effect, no one acquainted with the
+functions of the human economy can doubt. "Any state of the body,"
+observes the physiologist M�ller, "expected with certain confidence is
+very prone to ensue." A pill of bread-crumbs, which the patient supposes
+to contain a powerful cathartic, will often produce copious evacuations.
+No one who studies the history of medicine can question that scrofulous
+swellings and ulcerations were cured by the royal touch, that paralytics
+have regained the use of their limbs by touching the relics of the
+saints, and that in many countries beside Judea the laying on of hands
+and the words of a holy man have made issues to heal and the lame to
+walk.[130-1]
+
+Such effects are not disputed by physicians as probable results of
+prayer or faith considered as expectant attention. The stigmata of St.
+Francis d'Assisi are more than paralleled by those of Louise Lateau, now
+living at Bois d'Haine in Belgium, whose hands, feet and side bleed
+every Friday like those of Christ on the cross. A commission of medical
+men after the most careful precautions against deception attributed
+these hemorrhages to the effect of expectation (prayer) vastly
+increased in force by repetition.[131-1] If human testimony is worth
+anything, the cures of Porte Royale are not open to dispute.[131-2]
+
+The mental consequences of a prayerful condition of mind are to inspire
+patience under afflictions, hope in adversity, courage in the presence
+of danger and a calm confidence in the face of death itself. How
+mightily such influences have worked in history is shown in every
+religious war, and in the lives of the martyrs of all faiths. It matters
+not what they believed, so only that they believed it thoroughly, and
+the gates of Hades could not prevail against them.
+
+No one will question that these various and momentous results are the
+legitimate effects or answers to prayers. But whether prayer can
+influence the working of the material forces external to the individual
+is a disputed point. If it cannot in some way do this, prayers for rain,
+for harvests, for safety at sea, for restoration to health, for delivery
+from grasshoppers[131-3] and pestilence, whether for our own benefit or
+others, are hardly worth reciting. A physicist expresses the one opinion
+in these words: "Science asserts that without a disturbance of natural
+law, quite as serious as the stoppage of an eclipse or the rolling of
+the St. Lawrence up the Falls of Niagara, no act of humiliation,
+individual or national, could call one shower from heaven or deflect
+toward us a single beam of the sun." "Assuming the efficacy of free
+prayer to produce changes in external nature, it necessarily follows
+that natural laws are more or less at the mercy of man's
+volition."[132-1]
+
+This authoritative statement, much discussed at the time it was
+published, does not in fact express the assertion of science. To the
+scientific apprehension, man's volitions and his prayers are states of
+emotion, inseparably connected in their manifestations with changes in
+his cerebral structure, with relative elevation of temperature, and with
+the elimination of oxygen and phosphorus, in other words with
+chemico-vital phenomena and the transformation of force. Science also
+adds that there is a constant interaction of all force, and it is not
+prepared to deny that the force expended by a national or individual
+prayer may become a co-operating cause in the material change asked
+for, even if the latter be a rain shower. This would not affect a
+natural law but only its operation, and that much every act of our life
+does. The fact that persistency and earnestness in prayer--_i. e._, the
+increased development of force--add to its efficacy, would accord with
+such a scientific view. It would further be very materially corroborated
+by the accepted doctrine of the orders of force. A unit of electrical or
+magnetic force equals many of the force of gravity; a number of
+electrical units are required to make one of chemical force; and
+chemico-vital or "metabolic" force is still higher; whereas thought
+regarded as a form of force must be vastly beyond this again.
+
+To render a loadstone, which lifts filings of iron by its magnetic
+force, capable of doing the same by the force of gravity, its density
+would have to be increased more than a thousand million times. All
+forces differ in like degree. Professor Faraday calculated that the
+force latent in the chemical composition of one drop of water, equals
+that manifested in an average thunderstorm. In our limited knowledge of
+the relation of forces therefore, a scientific man is rash to deny that
+the chemico-vital forces set loose by an earnest prayer may affect the
+operation of natural laws outside the body as they confessedly do in
+it.
+
+Experience alone can decide such a question, and I for one, from theory
+and from observation, believe in the material efficacy of prayer. In a
+certain percentage of the cases where the wished-for material result
+followed, the physical force of the active cerebral action has seemed to
+me a co-operating cause. A physician can observe this to best advantage
+in the sickness of children, as they are free from subjective bias,
+their constitutions are delicately susceptible, and the prayers for them
+are in their immediate vicinity and very earnest.
+
+But this admission after all is a barren one to the truly devout mind.
+The effect gained does not depend on the God to whom the prayer is
+offered. Blind physical laws bring it about, and any event that comes
+through their compulsive force is gelded of its power to fecundate the
+germs of the better religious life. The knowledge of this would paralyze
+faith.
+
+Further to attenuate the value of my admission, another consideration
+arises, this time prompted not by speculative criticism, but by
+reverence itself. A scholar whom I have already quoted justly observes:
+"Whenever we prefer a request as a means of obtaining what we wish for,
+we are not praying in the religious sense of the term."[134-1] Or, as a
+recent theologian puts the same idea: "Every true prayer prays to be
+refused, if the granting of it would be hurtful to us or subversive of
+God's glory."[135-1] The real answer to prayer can never be an event or
+occurrence. Only in moments of spiritual weakness and obscured vision,
+when governed by his emotions or sensations, will the reverent soul ask
+a definite transaction, a modification in the operation of natural laws,
+still less such vulgar objects as victory, wealth or health.
+
+The prayer of faith finds its only true objective answer in itself, in
+accepting whatever befalls as the revelation of the will of God as to
+what is best. This temper of mind as the real meaning of prayer was
+beautifully set forth by St. John: "If we know that he hear us,
+whatsoever we ask, we know that we have the petitions that we desired of
+him."[135-2]
+
+But this solution of the problem does not go far enough. Prayer is
+claimed to have a positive effect on the mind other than resignation.
+Joyful emotions are its fruits, _spiritual enlightenment_ its reward.
+These are more than cheerful acquiescence, nor can the latter come from
+objects of sense.
+
+The most eminent teachers agree in banishing material pleasure and
+prosperity from holy desires. They are of one mind in warning against
+what the world and the flesh can offer, against the pursuit of riches,
+power and lust. Many counsel poverty and deliberate renunciation of all
+such things. Nor is the happiness they talk of that which the pursuit of
+intellectual truth brings. This, indeed, confers joy, of which whoever
+has tasted will not hastily return to the fleshpots of the senses, but
+it is easy to see that it is not religious. Prayer and veneration have
+not a part in it. Great joy is likewise given by the exercise of the
+imagination when stirred by art in some of its varied forms, and a joy
+more nearly allied to religion than is that of scientific investigation.
+But the esthetic emotions are well defined, and are distinctly apart
+from those concerned with the religious sentiment. Their most complete
+satisfaction rather excludes than encourages pious meditations. That
+which prayer ought to seek outside of itself is different from all of
+these, its dower must be divine.
+
+We need not look long for it. Though hidden from the wise, it has ever
+been familiar to the unlearned. Man has never been in doubt as to what
+it is. He has been only too willing to believe he has received it.
+
+In barbarism and civilization, in the old and new worlds, the final
+answer to prayer has ever been acknowledged to be _inspiration_,
+revelation, the thought of God made clear to the mind of man, the
+mystical hypostasis through which the ideas of the human coincide with
+those of universal Intelligence. This is what the Pythian priestess, the
+Siberian shaman, the Roman sibyl, the Voluspan prophetess, the Indian
+medicine-man, all claimed in various degrees along with the Hebrew seers
+and the Mahometan teacher.[137-1]
+
+The TRUTH, the last and absolute truth, is what is everywhere recognized
+as, if not the only, at least the completest, the highest answer to
+prayer. "Where I found the truth, there I found my God, himself the
+truth," says St. Augustine; and in a prayer by St. Chrysostom, the
+"Golden Mouth," unsurpassed in its grand simplicity, it is said:
+"Almighty Father, * * grant us in this world _knowledge of Thy truth_,
+and in the world to come, life everlasting." Never has the loftiest
+purpose of prayer been more completely stated. This it was that had been
+promised them by Him, to whom they looked as an Intercessor for their
+petitions, who had said: "I will send unto you the Comforter. * * When
+he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you unto all truth."
+
+The belief that this answer is at all times attainable has always been
+recognized by the Christian Church, Apostolic, Catholic, and Protestant.
+Baptism was called by the Greek fathers, "enlightenment" (~Ph�tismos~),
+as by it the believer received the spirit of truth. The Romanist, in the
+dogma of infallibility, proclaims the perpetual inspiration of a living
+man; the Protestant Churches in many creeds and doctrinal works extend a
+substantial infallibility to all true believers, at least to the extent
+that they can be inspired to recognize, if not to receive divine verity.
+
+The Gallican Confession of Faith, adopted in 1561, rests the principal
+evidence of the truth of the Scriptures on "_le t�moignage et
+l'int�rieure persuasion du Saint Esprit_," and the Westminster
+Confession on "the inward work of the holy spirit." The Society of
+Friends maintain it as "a leading principle, that the work of the Holy
+Spirit in the soul is not only immediate and direct, but perceptible;"
+that it imparts truth "without any mixture of error;" and thus is
+something quite distinct from conscience, which is common to the race,
+while this "inward light" is given only to the favored of God.[138-1]
+
+The non-juror, William Law, emphatically says: "The Christian that
+rejects the necessity of immediate divine inspiration, pleads the whole
+cause of infidelity; he has nothing to prove the goodness of his own
+Christianity, but that which equally proves to the Deist the goodness of
+his infidelity."[139-1] That by prayer the path of duty will be made
+clear, is a universal doctrine.
+
+The extent to which the gift of inspiration is supposed to be granted is
+largely a matter of church government. Where authority prevails, it is
+apt to be confined to those in power. Where religion is regarded as
+chiefly subjective and individual, it is conceded that any pious votary
+may become the receptacle of such special light.
+
+Experience, however, has too often shown that inspiration teaches such
+contradictory doctrines that they are incompatible with any standard.
+The indefinite splitting of Protestant sects has convinced all clear
+thinkers that the claim of the early Confessions to a divinely given
+power of distinguishing the true from the false has been a mistaken
+supposition. As a proof to an unbeliever, such a gift could avail
+nothing; and as evidence to one's own mind, it can only be accepted by
+those who deliberately shut their eyes to the innumerable contradictions
+it offers.[140-1]
+
+While, therefore, in this, if anywhere, we perceive the only at once fit
+and definite answer to prayer, and find that this is acknowledged by all
+faiths, from the savage to the Christian, it would seem that this answer
+is a fallacious and futile one. The teachings of inspiration are
+infinitely discrepant and contradictory, and often plainly world-wide
+from the truth they pretend to embody. The case seems hopeless; yet, as
+religion of any kind without prayer is empty, there has been a proper
+unwillingness to adopt the conclusion just stated.
+
+The distinction has been made that "the inspiration of the Christian is
+altogether _subjective_, and directed to the moral improvement of the
+individual,"[140-2] not to facts of history or questions of science,
+even exegetic science. The term _illumination_ has been preferred for
+it, and while it is still defined as "a spiritual intelligence which
+brings truth within the range of mental apprehension by a kind of
+intuition,"[141-1] this truth has reference only to immediate matters of
+individual faith and practice. The Roman church allows more latitude
+than this, as it sanctions revelations concerning events, but not
+concerning doctrines.[141-2]
+
+Looked at narrowly, the advantage which inspiration has been to
+religions has not so much depended on what it taught, as on its strength
+as a psychological motive power. As a general mental phenomenon it does
+not so much concern knowledge as belief; its province is to teach faith
+rather than facts. No conviction can equal that which arises from an
+assertion of God directly to ourselves. The force of the argument lies
+not in the question whether he did address us, but whether we believe he
+did. As a stimulus to action, prayer thus rises to a prime power.
+
+Belief is considered by Professor Bain and his school to be the ultimate
+postulate, the final ground of intellection. It is of the utmost
+importance, however,--and this Professor Bain fails to do--to
+distinguish between two kinds of belief. There are men who believe and
+others who disbelieve the Koran or the Bible; I can accept or reject
+the historical existence of King Arthur or Napoleon; but, if I
+understand them, I cannot disbelieve the demonstrations of Euclid, nor
+the relations of subject and object, nor the formal laws of thought. No
+sane man, acquainted with the properties of numbers, can believe that
+twice three are ten, or that a thing can be thought as other than
+itself. These truths that "we cannot help believing," I have defined in
+the first chapter as absolute truths. They do not come to us through
+testimony and induction, but through a process variously called
+"immediate perception," "apprehension," or "intuition," a process long
+known but never satisfactorily explained.
+
+All such truths are analytic, that is, they are true, not merely for a
+given time or place, but at all times and places conceivable, or, time
+and space out of the question, they still remain formally true. Of
+course, therefore, they cannot refer to historic occurrences nor
+phenomena. The modern position, that truth lies in facts, must be
+forsaken, and with the ancients, we must place it in ideas.
+
+If we define inspiration as that condition of mind which is in the
+highest degree sensitive to the presence of such truth, we have of it
+the only worthy idea which it is possible to frame. The object of
+scientific investigation is to reach a truth which can neither be denied
+nor doubted. If religion is willing to content itself with any lower
+form of truth, it cannot support its claims to respect, let alone
+reverence.
+
+It may be said that the subjects with which the religious sentiment
+concerns itself are not such as are capable of this absolute expression.
+This is, however, disclaimed by all great reformers, and by none more
+emphatically than by him who said: "Heaven and earth shall pass away,
+but my statements (~logoi~) shall not pass away." There is clear
+reference here to absolute truths. If what we know of God, duty and
+life, is not capable of expression except in historic narrative and
+synthetic terms, the sooner we drop their consideration the better. That
+form sufficed for a time, but can no longer, when a higher is generally
+known. As the mathematical surpasses the historic truth, so the former
+is in turn transcended by the purely logical, and in this, if anywhere,
+religion must rest its claims for recognition. Here is the arena of the
+theology of the future, not in the decrees of councils, nor in the
+records of past time.
+
+Inspiration, in its religious sense, we may, therefore, define to be
+that condition of mind in which the truths relating to deity and duty
+become in whole or in part the subjects of immediate perception.
+
+That such a condition is possible will be granted. Every reformer who
+has made a permanent betterment in the religion of his time has
+possessed it in some degree. He who first conceived the Kosmos under
+logical unity as an orderly whole, had it in singular power; so too had
+he who looking into the mind became aware of its purposive laws which
+are the everlasting warrants of duty. Some nations have possessed it in
+remarkable fulness, none more so than the descendants of Abraham, from
+himself, who left his kindred and his father's house at the word of God,
+through many eminent seers down to Spinoza, who likewise forsook his
+tribe to obey the inspirations vouchsafed him; surpassing them all,
+Jesus of Nazareth, to whose mind, as he waxed in wisdom, the truth
+unfolded itself in such surpassing clearness that neither his immediate
+disciples nor any generations since have fathomed all the significance
+of his words.
+
+Such minds do not need development and organic transmission of thought
+to enrich their stores. We may suppose the organization of their brains
+to be so perfect that their functions are always accordant with true
+reasoning, so self-prompting, that a hint of the problem is all they ask
+to arrive at its demonstration. Blaise Pascal, when a boy of twelve,
+whose education had been carefully restrained, once asked his father
+what is geometry. The latter replied that it is a method devised to draw
+figures correctly, but forbade any further inquiry about it. On this
+hint Pascal, by himself, unassisted, without so much as knowing the name
+of a line or circle, reached in a few weeks to the demonstration of the
+thirty-second problem of the first book of Euclid! Is it not possible
+for a mind equally productive of religious truth to surpass with no less
+ease its age on such subjects?
+
+As what Newton so well called "patient thought," constant application,
+prolonged attention, is the means on which even great minds must rely in
+order to reach the sempiternal verities of science, so earnest continued
+prayer is that which all teachers prescribe as the only avenue to
+inspiration in its religious sense. While this may be conceded,
+collaterals of the prayer have too often been made to appear trivial and
+ridiculous.
+
+In the pursuit of inspiration the methods observed present an
+interesting similarity. The votary who aspires to a communion with the
+god, shuts himself out from the distraction of social intercourse and
+the disturbing allurements of the senses. In the solitude of the forest
+or the cell, with complete bodily inaction, he gives himself to fasting
+and devotion, to a concentration of all his mind on the one object of
+his wish, the expected revelation. Waking and sleeping he banishes all
+other topics of thought, perhaps by an incessant repetition of a
+formula, until at last the moment comes, as it surely will come in some
+access of hallucination, furor or ecstasy, the unfailing accompaniments
+of excessive mental strain, when the mist seems to roll away from the
+mortal vision, the inimical powers which darkened the mind are baffled,
+and the word of the Creator makes itself articulate to the creature.
+
+Take any connected account of the revelation of the divine will, and
+this history is substantially the same. It differs but little whether
+told of Buddha Sakyamuni, the royal seer of Kapilavastu, or by Catherine
+Wabose, the Chipeway squaw,[146-1] concerning the _Revelations_ of St.
+Gertrude of Nivelles or of Saint Brigida, or in the homely language of
+the cobbler George Fox.
+
+For six years did Sakyamuni wander in the forest, practising the
+mortifications of the flesh and combatting the temptations of the
+devil,before[TN-8] the final night when, after overcoming the crowning
+enticements of beauty, power and wealth, at a certain moment he became
+the "awakened," and knew himself in all his previous births, and with
+that knowledge soared above the "divine illusion" of existence. In the
+cave of Hari, Mohammed fasted and prayed until "the night of the divine
+decisions;" then he saw the angel Gabriel approach and inspire him:
+
+    "A revelation was revealed to him:
+    One terrible in power taught it him,
+    Endowed with wisdom. With firm step stood he,
+    There, where the horizon is highest,
+    Then came he near and nearer,
+    A matter of two bowshots or closer,
+    And he revealed to his servant a revelation;
+    He has falsified not what he saw."[147-1]
+
+With not dissimilar preparation did George Fox seek the "openings" which
+revealed to him the hollowness of the Christianity of his day, in
+contrast to the truth he found. In his _Journal_ he records that for
+months he "fasted much, walked around in solitary places, and sate in
+hollow trees and lonesome places, and frequently in the night walked
+mournfully about." When the word of truth came to him it was of a
+sudden, "through the immediate opening of the invisible spirit." Then a
+new life commenced for him: "Now was I come up in Spirit through the
+flaming sword into the Paradise of God. All things were new: all the
+creation gave another smell unto me than before." The healing virtues of
+all herbs were straightway made known to him, and the needful truths
+about the kingdom of God.[147-2]
+
+These are portraitures of the condition of _entheasm_. Its lineaments
+are the same, find it where we may.
+
+How is this similarity to be explained? Is it that this alleged
+inspiration is always but the dream of a half-crazed brain? The deep and
+real truths it has now and then revealed, the noble results it has
+occasionally achieved, do not allow this view. A more worthy explanation
+is at hand.
+
+These preliminaries of inspiration are in fact but a parody, sometimes a
+caricature, of the most intense intellectual action as shown in the
+efforts of creative thought. The physiological characteristics of such
+mental episodes indicate a lowering of the animal life, the respiration
+is faint and slow, the pulse loses in force and frequency, the nerves of
+special sense are almost inhibited, the eye is fixed and records no
+impression, the ear registers no sound, necessary motions are performed
+unconsciously, the condition approaches that of trance. There is also an
+alarming similarity at times between the action of genius and of
+madness, as is well known to alienists.
+
+When the creative thought appears, it does so suddenly; it breaks upon
+the mind when partly engaged with something else as an instantaneous
+flash, apparently out of connection with previous efforts. This is the
+history of all great discoveries, and it has been abundantly illustrated
+from the lives of inventors, artists, poets and mathematicians. The
+links of such a mental procedure we do not know. "The product of
+inspiration, genius, is incomprehensible to itself. Its activity
+proceeds on no beaten track, and we seek in vain to trace its footsteps.
+There is no warrant for the value of its efforts. This it can alone
+secure through voluntary submission to law. All its powers are centred
+in the energy of production, and none is left for idle watching of the
+process."[149-1]
+
+The prevalent theory of the day is that this mental action is one
+essentially hidden from the mind itself. The name "unconscious
+cerebration" has been proposed for it by Dr. Carpenter, and he has amply
+and ably illustrated its peculiarities. But his theory has encountered
+just criticism, and I am persuaded does not meet the requirements of the
+case. Whether at such moments the mind actually receives some impulse
+from without, as is the religious theory, or, as science more willingly
+teaches, certain associations are more easily achieved when the mind is
+partially engaged with other trains of ideas, we cannot be sure. We can
+only say of it, in the words of Dr. Henry Maudsley, the result "is truly
+an inspiration, coming we know not whence." Whatever it is, we recognize
+in it the original of that of which religious hallucination is the
+counterfeit presentment. So similar are the processes that their
+liability to be confounded has been expressly guarded against.[150-1]
+
+The prevalence of such caricatures does not prove the absence of the
+sterling article. They rather show that the mind is conscious of the
+possibility of reaching a frame or mood in which it perceives what it
+seeks, immediately and correctly. Buddhism distinctly asserts this to be
+the condition of "the stage of intuitive insight;" and Protestant
+Christianity commenced with the same opinion. Every prayer for guidance
+in the path of duty assumes it. The error is in applying such a method
+where it is incompatible, to facts of history and the phenomena of
+physical force. Confined to the realm of ideas, to which alone the norm
+of the true and untrue is applicable, there is no valid evidence
+against, and many theoretical reasons for, respecting prayer as a fit
+psychological preparation for those obscure and unconscious processes,
+through which the mind accomplishes its best work.
+
+The intellect, exalted by dwelling upon the sublimest subjects of
+thought, warmed into highest activity by the flames of devotion,
+spurning as sterile and vain the offers of time and the enticements of
+sense, may certainly be then in the mood fittest to achieve its greatest
+victories. But no narrowed heaven must cloud it, no man-made god
+obstruct its gaze. Free from superstition and prejudice, it must be
+ready to follow wherever the voice of reason shall lead it. All inspired
+men have commenced by freeing themselves from inherited forms of Belief
+in order that with undiverted attention they might listen to the
+promptings of the divinity within their souls. One of the greatest of
+them and one the most free from the charge of prejudice, has said that
+to this end prayer is the means.[151-1]
+
+He who believes that the ultimate truth is commensurate with reason,
+finds no stumbling-block in the doctrine that there may be laws through
+whose action inspiration is the enlightenment of mind as it exists in
+man, by mind as it underlies the motions which make up matter. The truth
+thus reached is not the formul� of the Calculus, nor the verbiage of the
+Dialectic, still less the events of history, but that which gives what
+validity they have to all of these, and moreover imparts to the will and
+the conscience their power to govern conduct.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[119-1] The "silent worship" of the Quakers is defended by the writers
+of that sect, on the ground that prayer is "often very imperfectly
+performed and sometimes materially interrupted by the use of words."
+Joseph John Gurney, _The Distinguishing Views and Practice of the
+Society of Friends_, p. 300. (London, 1834.)
+
+[119-2] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie der alten V�lker_, Bd. I., s.
+162.
+
+[119-3] The learned Bishop Butler, author of the _Analogy of Religion_,
+justly gives prominence to "our expectation of future benefits," as a
+reason for gratitude to God. _Sermons_, p. 155. (London, 1841.)
+
+[122-1] The expressions of Confucius' religious views may be found in
+_The Doctrine of the Mean_, chaps. xiii., xvi., the _Analects_, i., 99,
+100, vii., and in a few other passages of the canonical books.
+
+[126-1] _An Inquiry into the Theory of Practice_, p. 330.
+
+[127-1] _Symbolik und Mythologie der Alten V�lker._ Bd. I., ss. 165,
+sqq. One of the most favorable examples (not mentioned by Creuzer) is
+the formula with which Apollonius of Tyana closed every prayer and gave
+as the summary of all: "Give me, ye Gods, what I deserve"--~Doi�te moi
+ta opheilomena~. The Christian's comment on this would be in the words
+of Hamlet's reply to Polonius: "God's bodkin, man! use every man after
+his desert and who should 'scape whipping?"
+
+[128-1] Aurelii Augustini, _De Dono Perseveranti�_, cap. xx. Comte
+remarks "Depuis St. Augustin toutes les �mes pures ont de plus en plus
+senti, � travers l'�goisme Chr�tien, que prier peut n'�tre pas
+demander." _Syst�me de Politique Positive_, I., p. 260. Popular
+Protestantism has retrograded in this respect.
+
+[129-1] Plath, _Die Religion und Cultus der alten Chineser_, s. 836.
+This author observes that the Chinese prayers are confined to temporal
+benefits only, and are all either prayers of petition or gratitude.
+Prayers of contrition are unknown.
+
+[130-1] Numerous examples can be found in medical text books, for
+instance in Dr. Tuke's, _The Influence of the Mind on the Body_. London,
+1873.
+
+[131-1] The commission appointed by the Royal Academy of Medicine of
+Belgium on Louise Lateau reported in March, 1875, and most of the
+medical periodicals of that year contain abstracts of its paper.
+
+[131-2] They may be found in the life of Pascal, written by his sister,
+and in many other works of the time.
+
+[131-3] It is worthy of note, as an exponent of the condition of
+religious thought in 1875, that in May of that year the Governor of the
+State of Missouri appointed by official proclamation a day of prayer to
+check the advance of the grasshoppers. He should also have requested the
+clergy to pronounce the ban of the Church against them, as the Bishop of
+Rheims did in the ninth century.
+
+[132-1] Tyndall, _On Prayer and Natural Law_, 1872.
+
+[134-1] S. M. Hodgson, _An Inquiry into the Theory of Practice_, pp.
+329, 330.
+
+[135-1] The Rev. Dr. Thomas K. Conrad, _Thoughts on Prayer_, p. 54: New
+York, 1875.
+
+[135-2] I. John, v. 15. "There are millions of prayers," says Richard
+Baxter, "that will all be found answered at death and judgment, which we
+know not to be answered any way but by believing it." _A Christian
+Directory_, Part II. chap. xxiii.
+
+[137-1] "So wie das Gebet ein Hauptwurzel alter Lehre war, so war das
+Deuten und Offenbaren ihre urspr�ngliche Form." Creuzer, _Symbolik und
+Mythologie der alten V�lker_, Bd. I., s. 10. It were more accurate to
+say that divination is the answer to, rather than a form of prayer.
+
+[138-1] Joseph John Gurney, _The Distinguishing Views and Practices of
+the Society of Friends_, pp. 58, 59, 76, 78. An easy consequence of this
+view was to place the decrees of the internal monitor above the written
+word. This was advocated mainly by Elias Hicks, who expressed his
+doctrine in the words: "As no spring can rise higher than its fountain,
+so likewise the Scriptures can only direct to the fountain whence they
+originated--the Spirit of Truth." _Letters of Elias Hicks_, p. 228
+(Phila., 1861).
+
+[139-1] _Address to the Clergy_, p. 67.
+
+[140-1] See an intelligent note on this subject in the Rev. Wm. Lee's
+work, entitled _The Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures_, pp. 44, 47
+(London and New York, 1857).
+
+[140-2] Rev. William Lee, _u. s._, p. 243.
+
+[141-1] Blunt, _Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology_, s. v.
+
+[141-2] There is a carefully written essay on the views of the Romish
+Church on this subject, preceding _The Revelations of Saint Brigida_ (N.
+Y. 1875).
+
+[146-1] Chusco or Catherine Wabose, "the prophetess of Chegoimegon," has
+left a full and psychologically most valuable account of her
+inspiration. It is published in Schoolcraft's _History and Statistics of
+the Indian Tribes_, Vol. I., p. 390, sqq.
+
+[147-1] _The Koran_, Sura liii. This is in date one of the earliest
+suras.
+
+[147-2] _The Journal of George Fox_, pp. 59, 67, 69.
+
+[149-1] Wilhelm von Humboldt, _Gesammelte Werke_, Bd. iv., s. 278.
+
+[150-1] In his treatise _De Veritate_, itself the subject, as its author
+thought, of a special revelation, Lord Herbert of Cherbury, gives as one
+of the earmarks of a real revelation: "ut afflatum Divini numinis
+sentias, ita enim intern� Facultatum circa veritatem operationes a
+revelationibus externis distinguuntur." p. 226.
+
+[151-1] Spinoza, _Espistol� et Responsionnes_, Ep. xxxiv.
+
+
+
+
+THE MYTH AND THE MYTHICAL CYCLES.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     Myths are inspirations concerning the Unknown. Science treats them
+     as apperceptions of the relations of man and nature. Moments of
+     their growth, as treated by mythological science. Their similar
+     forms, explained variously, the topic of the philosophy of
+     mythology. The ante-mythical period. Myths have centred chiefly
+     around three subjects, each giving rise to a Mythical Cycle.
+
+     I. The Epochs of Nature.
+
+     The idea of Time led to the myth of a creation. This starting the
+     question, What was going on before creation? recourse was had to
+     the myth of recurrent epochs. The last epoch gave origin to the
+     Flood Myths; the coming one to that of the Day of Judgment.
+
+     II. The Paradise lost and to be re-gained.
+
+     To man, the past and the future are ever better than the present.
+     He imagines a Golden Age in the past and believes it will return.
+     The material Paradise he dreams of in his ruder conditions, becomes
+     a spiritual one with intellectual advancement. The basis of this
+     belief.
+
+     III. The Hierarchy of the Gods.
+
+     The earliest hierarchy is a dual classification of the gods into
+     those who help and those who hinder the fruition of desire. Light
+     and darkness typify the contrast. Divinity thus conceived under
+     numerical separateness. Monotheisms do not escape this. The triune
+     nature of single gods. The truly religious and only philosophic
+     notion of divinity is under logical, not mathematical unity. This
+     discards mythical conceptions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE MYTH AND THE MYTHICAL CYCLES.
+
+
+Returning again to the definition of the elemental religious
+sentiment--"a Wish whose fruition depends upon unknown power"--it
+enables us to class all those notions, opinions and narratives, which
+constitute mythologies, creeds and dogmas, as theories respecting the
+nature and action of the unknown power. Of course they are not
+recognized as theories. They arise unconsciously or are received by
+tradition, oral or written, and always come with the stamp of divinity
+through inspiration and revelation. None but a god can tell the secrets
+of the gods.
+
+Therefore they are the most sacred of all things, and they partake of
+the holiness and immutability which belong to the unknown power itself.
+To misplace a vowel point in copying the sacred books was esteemed a sin
+by the Rabbis, and a pious Mussulman will not employ the same pen to
+copy a verse of the Koran and an ordinary letter. There are many
+Christians who suppose the saying: "Heaven and earth shall pass away,
+but My Words shall not pass away," has reference to the words of the Old
+and New Testament. "What shall remain to us," asked Ananda, the disciple
+of Buddha, "when thou shalt have gone hence into Nirvana?" "My Word
+(_dharma_)," replied the Master. Names thus came to be as holy as the
+objects to which they referred. So sacred was that of Jehovah to the
+Israelites that its original sound was finally lost. Such views are
+consistent enough to the Buddhist, who, assuming all existence to be but
+imaginary, justly infers that the name is full as much as the object.
+
+The science of mythology has made long strides in the last half century.
+It has left far behind it the old euphemeristic view that the myth is a
+distorted historical tradition, as well as the theories not long since
+in vogue, that it was a system of natural philosophy, a device of shrewd
+rulers, or as Bacon thought, a series of "instructive fables." The
+primitive form of the myth is now recognized to be made up from the
+notions which man gains of the manifestations of force in external
+nature, in their supposed relations to himself. In technical language it
+may be defined as _the apperception of man and nature under synthetic
+conceptions_.[156-1]
+
+This primitive form undergoes numerous changes, to trace and illustrate
+which, has been the special task assumed by the many recent writers on
+mythology. In some instances these changes are owing to the blending of
+the myth with traditions of facts, forming a quasi-historical narrative,
+the _saga;_ in others, elaborated by a poetic fancy and enriched by the
+imagination, it becomes a fairy tale, the _m�rchen_. Again, the myth
+being a product of creative thought, existing in words only, as language
+changes, it alters through forgetfulness of the earlier meanings of
+words, through similarities in sounds deceiving the ear, or through a
+confusion of the literal with the metaphorical signification of the same
+word. The character of languages also favors or retards such changes,
+pliable and easily modified ones, such as those of the American Indians,
+and in a less degree those of the Aryan nations, favoring a developed
+mythology, while rigid and monosyllabic ones, as the Chinese and Semitic
+types, offer fewer facilities to such variations. Furthermore, tribal or
+national history, the peculiar difficulties which retard the growth of
+a community, and the geographical and climatic character of its
+surroundings, give prominence to certain features in its mythology, and
+to the absence of others. Myths originally diverse are blended, either
+unconsciously, as that of the Roman Saturn with the Greek Cronus; or
+consciously, as when the medieval missionaries transferred the deeds of
+the German gods to Christian saints. Lastly, the prevailing temperament
+of a nation, its psychology, gives a strong color to its mythical
+conceptions, and imprints upon them the national peculiarities.
+
+The judicious student of mythology must carefully weigh all these
+formative agents, and assign each its value. They are all present in
+every mythology, but in varying force. His object is accomplished when
+he can point out the causal relation between the various features of a
+myth and these governing agencies.
+
+Such is the science of mythology. The philosophy of mythology undertakes
+to set forth the unities of form which exist in various myths, and
+putting aside whatever of this uniformity is explainable historically,
+proposes to illustrate from what remains the intellectual need myths
+were unconsciously framed to gratify, to measure their success in this
+attempt, and if they have not been wholly successful, to point out why
+and in what respect they have failed. In a study preliminary to the
+present one, I have attempted to apply the rules of mythological science
+to the limited area of the native American race; in the present chapter
+I shall deal mainly with the philosophy of mythology.
+
+The objection may be urged at starting that there is no such unity of
+form in myths as the philosophy of mythology assumes; that if it
+appears, it is always explainable historically.
+
+A little investigation sets this objection aside. Certain features must
+be common to all myths. A divinity must appear in them and his doings
+with men must be recorded. A reasonable being can hardly think at all
+without asking himself, "Whence come I, my fellows, and these things
+which I see? And what will become of us all?" So some myth is sure to be
+created at an early stage of thought which the parent can tell the
+child, the wise man his disciple, containing responses to such
+questions.
+
+But this reasoning from probability is needless, for the similarity of
+mythical tales in very distant nations, where no hypothesis of ancient
+intercourse is justified, is one of the best ascertained and most
+striking discoveries of modern mythological investigation.[159-1] The
+general character of "solar myths" is familiar to most readers, and the
+persistency with which they have been applied to the explanation of
+generally received historical facts, as well as to the familiar fairy
+tales of childhood, has been pushed so far as to become the subject of
+satire and caricature. The myths of the Dawn have been so frequently
+brought to public notice in the popular writings of Professor Max
+M�ller, that their general distribution may be taken as well known. The
+same may be said of the storm myths. Wilhelm von Humboldt, who thought
+deeply on the religious nature of man, said early in this century:
+"Wholly similar myths can very readily arise in different localities,
+each independent of the others."[160-1]
+
+This similarity is in a measure owing to the similar impressions which
+the same phenomenon, the sunrise or the thunder-storm for instance,
+makes on the mind--and to this extent the science of mythology is
+adequate to its explanation. But that it falls short is so generally
+acknowledged, that various other explanations have been offered.
+
+These may be classed as the skeptical explanation, which claims that the
+likeness of the myths is vastly exaggerated and much more the work of
+the scholar at his desk than of the honest worshipper; the historical
+explanation, which suggests unrecorded proselytisms, forgotten
+communications and the possible original unity of widely separated
+nations; the theological explanations, often discrepant, one suggesting
+caricatures of the sacred narrative inspired by the Devil, another
+reminiscences of a primeval inspiration, and a third the unconscious
+testimony of heathendom to orthodoxy;[161-1] and lastly the metaphysical
+explanation, which seems at present to be the fashionable one, expressed
+nearly alike by Steinthal and Max M�ller, which cuts the knot by
+crediting man with "an innate consciousness of the Absolute," or as
+Renan puts it, "a profound instinct of deity."
+
+The philosophy of mythology, differing from all these, finding beyond
+question similarities which history cannot unriddle, interprets them by
+no incomprehensible assumption, but by the identity of the laws of
+thought acting on similar impressions under the guidance of known
+categories of thought. Nor does it stop here, but proceeds to appraise
+these results by the general scheme of truth and error. It asks for
+what psychological purpose man has so universally imagined for himself
+gods--pure creations of his fancy;--whether that purpose can now or will
+ultimately be better attained by an exercise of his intellect more in
+accordance with the laws of right reasoning; and thus seeking to define
+the genuine food of the religious desire, estimates the quality and
+value of each mythological system by the nearness of its approach to
+this standard.
+
+The philosophy of mythology, starting with the wish or prayer as the
+unit of religious thought, regards all myths as theories about the
+unknown power which is supposed to grant or withhold the accomplishment
+of the wish. These theories are all based upon the postulate of the
+religious sentiment, that there is order in things; but they differ from
+scientific theories in recognizing volition as an efficient cause of
+order.
+
+The very earliest efforts at religious thought do not rise to the
+formation of myths, that is, connected narratives about supernatural
+beings. All unknown power is embraced under a word which does not convey
+the notion of personality; single exhibitions of power which threaten
+man's life are supposed to be the doings of an unseen person, often of a
+deceased man, whose memory survives; but any general theory of a
+hierarchy, or of the world or man, is not yet visible. Even such
+immature notions are, however, so far as they go, framed within the
+category of causality; only, the will of the god takes the place of all
+other force. This stage of religious thought has been called Animism, a
+name which does not express its peculiarity, which is, that all force is
+not only supposed to proceed from mind, but through what metaphysicians
+call "immanent volition," that is, through will independent of relation.
+Mind as "emanant volition," in unison with matter and law, the "seat of
+law," to use an expression of Professor Boole's, may prove the highest
+conception of force.
+
+As the slowly growing reason reached more general notions, the law which
+prescribes unity as a condition of thought led man early in his history
+to look upon nature as one, and to seek for some one law of its changes;
+the experience of social order impressed him with the belief that the
+unseen agencies around him also bore relations to each other, and
+acknowledged subjection to a leader; and the pangs of sickness, hunger
+and terror to which he was daily exposed, and more than all the "last
+and greatest of all terribles, death," which he so often witnessed,
+turned his early meditations toward his own origin and destiny.
+
+Around these three subjects of thought his fancy busied itself, striving
+to fabricate some theory which would solve the enigmas which his reason
+everywhere met, some belief which would relieve him from the haunting
+horror of the unknown. Hence arose three great cycles of myths, which
+recur with strangely similar physiognomies in all continents and among
+all races. They are the myths of the Epochs of Nature, the Hierarchy of
+the Gods, and of the Paradise lost but to be regained. Wherever we turn,
+whether to the Assyrian tablets or to the verses of the Voluspa, to the
+crude fancies of the red man of the new world or the black man of the
+African plateau, to the sacred books of the modern Christian or of the
+ancient Brahman, we find these same questions occupying his mind, and in
+meaning and in form the same solutions proffered. Through what
+intellectual operations he reached these solutions, and their validity,
+as tested by the known criteria of truth, it is the province of the
+philosophy of mythology to determine.
+
+Let us study the psychological growth of the myth of the Epochs of
+Nature. This tells of the World, its beginning, its convulsions and its
+ending, and thus embraces the three minor cycles of the cosmogonical,
+the cataclysmal and the eschatological myths.
+
+Nature is known to man only as _force_, which manifests itself in
+_change_. He is so constituted that "the idea of an event, a change,
+without the idea of a cause, is impossible" to him. But in passing from
+the occurrence to its cause the idea of Time is unavoidable; it presents
+itself as the one inevitable condition of change; itself unwearing, it
+wears out all else; it includes all existence, as the greater does the
+less; and as "causation is necessarily within existence,"[165-1] time is
+beyond existence and includes the nonexistent as well. Whatever it
+creates, it also destroys; and as even the gods are but existences, it
+will swallow them. It renders vain all pleasures, and carries the balm
+of a certain oblivion for all woes.
+
+This oppressive sense of time, regarded not in its real meaning as one
+of the conditions of perception, but as an active force destroying
+thought as well as motion, recurs continually in mythology. To the
+Greek, indefinite time as Cronos, was the oldest of the gods, begetting
+numberless children, but with unnatural act consuming them again; while
+definite time, as the Hor�, were the blithe goddesses of the order in
+nature and the recurrent seasons. Osiris, supreme god of the Egyptians,
+was born of a yet older god, Sev, Time. Adonis and Aeon acknowledge the
+same parentage.[165-2] The ancient Arab spoke of time (_dahr_, _zaman_)
+as the final, defining principle; as uniting and separating all things;
+and as swallowing one thing after another as the camel drains the water
+from a trough.[166-1] In the Koran it is written: "Time alone destroys
+us." Here and there, through the sacred songs of the Parsees, composed
+long before Aristotle wrote, beyond all the dust and noise of the
+everlasting conflict of good and evil, of Ahura Mazda and Anya-Mainyus,
+there are glimpses of a deeper power, Zeruana Akerana, Eternal Duration,
+unmoved by act or thought, in the face of which these bitter opponents
+are seen to be children, brethren, "twin sons of Time."[166-2] The
+Alexandrian Gnostics, in their explanations of Christian dogmas,
+identify Aeon, infinite time, with God the Father, as the source and
+fount of existence; not merely as a predicate of the highest, but the
+Highest himself.
+
+This heavy-weighing sense of the infinity of duration, and the urgency
+of escaping from the weariness of thinking it, led to the construction
+of the myth of the Creation. Man devised it so that he might be able to
+say, "in the beginning." But a new difficulty met him at the
+threshold--as change must be in existence, "we cannot think of a change
+from non-existence to existence." His only refuge was to select some
+apparently primordial, simple, homogeneous substance from which, by the
+exertion of volition, things came into being. The one which most
+naturally suggested itself was _water_.[167-1] This does in fact cover
+and hide the land, and the act of creation was often described as the
+emerging of the dry land from the water; it dissolves and wears away the
+hard rock; and, diminishing all things, itself neither diminishes nor
+increases. Therefore nearly all cosmogonical myths are but variations of
+that one familiar to us all: "And God said, Let the waters under the
+heaven be gathered together in one place, and let the dry land appear;
+and it was so." The manifestation of the primordial energy was supposed
+to have been akin to that which is shown in organic reproduction. The
+myths of the primeval egg from which life proceeded, of the mighty bird
+typical of the Holy Spirit which "brooded" upon the waters, of Love
+developing the Kosmos from the Chaos, of the bull bringing the world
+from the waters, of Protogonus, the "egg-born," the "multispermed," and
+countless others, point to the application of one or the other, or of
+both these explanations.[167-2]
+
+In them the early thinkers found some rest: but not for long. The
+perplexity of the presence of this immediate order of things seemed
+solved; but another kept obtruding itself: what was going on before that
+"beginning?" Vain to stifle the inquiry by replying, "nothing."[168-1]
+For time, which knows no beginning, was there, still building, still
+destroying; nothing can be put to it, nor anything taken from it. What
+then is left but the conclusion of the Preacher: "That which hath been,
+is now; and that which is to be, hath already been?" Regarding time as a
+form of force, the only possible history of the material universe is
+that it is a series of destructions and restorations, force latent
+evolving into force active or energy, and this dissipated and absorbed
+again into latency.
+
+Expressed in myths, these destructions and restorations are the Epochs
+of Nature. They are an essential part of the religious traditions of the
+Brahmans, Persians, Parsees, Greeks, Egyptians, Jews, Mexicans, Mayas,
+and of all nations who have reached a certain stage of culture. The
+length of the intervening periods may widely differ. The kalpa or great
+year of the Brahmans is so long that were a cube of granite a hundred
+yards each way brushed once in a century by a soft cloth, it would be
+quite worn to dust before the kalpa would close: or, as some Christians
+believe, there may be but six thousand years, six days of God in whose
+sight "a thousand years are as one day," between the creation and the
+cremation of the world, from when it rose from the waters until it shall
+be consumed by the fire.
+
+There were also various views about the agents and the completeness of
+these periodical destructions. In the Norse mythology and in the
+doctrine of Buddhism, not one of the gods can survive the fire of the
+last day. Among the Greeks, great Jove alone will await the appearance
+of the virgin world after the icy winter and the fiery summer of the
+Great Year. The Brahmans hold that the higher classes of gods outlive
+the wreck of things which, at the close of the day of Brahm, involves
+all men and many divinities in elemental chaos; while elsewhere, in the
+later Puranas and in the myths of Mexico, Peru, and Assyria, one or a
+few of the race of man escape a deluge which is universal, and serve to
+people the new-made earth. This latter supposition, in its application
+to the last epoch of nature, is the origin of the myth of the Flood.
+
+In its general features and even in many details, the story of a vast
+overflow which drowned the world, and from which by the timely succor
+of divinity some man was preserved, and after the waters had subsided
+became the progenitor of the race, is exceedingly common among distant
+tribes, where it is impossible to explain it as a reminiscence of a
+historic occurrence, or by community of religious doctrine. In Judea
+Noah, in India Manu, in Chaldea Xisuthrus, in Assyria Oannes, in Aztlan
+Nata, in Algonkin tradition Messou, in Brazil Monan, etc., are all
+heroes of similar alleged occurrences. In all of them the story is but a
+modification of that of the creation in time from the primeval
+waters.[170-1]
+
+"As it was once, so it shall be again," and as the present age of the
+world wears out, the myth teaches that things will once more fall back
+to universal chaos. "The expectation of the end of the world is a
+natural complement to the belief in its periodical destructions." It is
+taught with distinctness by all religious systems, by the prophetess in
+the Voluspa, by the Hebrew seers,[171-1] by the writer of the
+Apocalypse, by the Eastern sages, Persian and Indian, by the Roman
+Sibyl, and among the savage and semi-civilized races of the New World.
+
+Often that looked for destruction was associated with the divine plans
+for man. This was an addition to the simplicity of the original myth,
+but an easy and a popular one. The Indian of our prairies still looks
+forward to the time when the rivers shall rise, and submerging the land
+sweep from its surface the pale-faced intruders, and restore it to its
+original owners. Impatient under the ceaseless disappointments of life,
+and worn out with the pains which seem inseparable from this condition
+of things, the believer gives up his hopes for this world, and losing
+his faith in the final conquest of the good, thinks it only attainable
+by the total annihilation of the present conditions. He looks for it,
+therefore, in the next great age, in the new heaven and the new earth,
+when the spirit of evil shall be bound and shut up, and the chosen
+people possess the land, "and grow up as calves of the stall."[172-1]
+
+This is to be inaugurated by the Day of Judgment, "the day of wrath, the
+dreadful day," in which God is to come in his power and pronounce his
+final decrees on those who have neglected the observance due him. The
+myth, originally one relating to the procession of natural forces, thus
+assumed with the increasing depth of the religious sentiment more and
+more a moral and subjective coloring, until finally its old and simple
+form was altogether discarded, or treated as symbolic only.
+
+The myth of the Epochs of Nature was at first a theory to account for
+the existing order of nature. For a long time it satisfied the inquiring
+mind, if not with a solution at least with an answer to its queries.
+After geologic science had learned to decipher the facts of the world's
+growth as written on the stones which orb it, the religious mind fondly
+identified the upheavals and cataclysms there recorded with those which
+its own fancy had long since fabricated. The stars and suns, which the
+old seer thought would fall from heaven in the day of wrath, were seen
+to be involved in motions far beyond the pale of man's welfare, and,
+therefore, the millennial change was confined to the limits of our
+planet. Losing more and more of its original form as an attempted
+explanation of natural phenomena, the myth now exists in civilized
+nations as an allegorical type of man's own history and destiny, and
+thus is slowly merging into an episode of the second great cycle of the
+mythus, that of the Paradise lost and regained. It, too, finds its
+interpretation in psychology.
+
+Broadly surveying the life of man, philosophers have found in it much
+matter fit either for mockery or tears. We are born with a thirst for
+pleasure; we learn that pain alone is felt. We ask health; and having
+it, never notice it till it is gone. In the ardent pursuit of enjoyment,
+we waste our capacity of appreciation. Every sweet we gain is sauced
+with a bitter. Our eyes forever bent on the future, which can never be
+ours, we fritter away the present, which alone we possess. Ere we have
+got ourselves ready to live, we must die. Fooling ourselves even here,
+we represent death as the portal to joy unspeakable; and forthwith
+discredit our words by avoiding it in every possible way.
+
+Pitiable spectacle of weakness and folly, is it capable of any
+explanation which can redeem man from the imputation of unreason? Is
+Wisdom even here justified of her children by some deeper law of being?
+
+The theologian explains it as the unrest of the soul penned in its house
+of clay; the physiologist attributes it to the unceasing effort of
+organic functions to adapt themselves to ever varying external
+conditions. They are both right, for the theologian, were his words
+translated into the language of science, refers to the _effort to adapt
+condition to function_, which is the peculiar faculty of intelligence,
+and which alone renders man unable to accept the comfort of merely
+animal existence, an inability which he need never expect to outlive,
+for it will increase in exact proportion to his mental development.
+Action, not rest, as I have elsewhere said, must be his ideal of life.
+
+In even his lowest levels man experiences this dissatisfaction. It may
+there be confined to a pain he would be free from, or a pleasure he
+dreams of. Always the future charms him, and as advancing years increase
+the number of his disappointments and bring with them the pains of
+decrepitude, he also recurs to the past, when youth was his, and the
+world was bright and gay. Thus it comes that most nations speak of some
+earlier period of their history as one characterized by purer public
+virtues than the present, one when the fires of patriotism burned
+brighter and social harmony was more conspicuous. In rude stages of
+society this fancy receives real credit and ranks as a veritable record
+of the past, forming a Golden Age or Saturnian Era. Turned in the
+kaleidoscope of the mythus, it assumes yet more gorgeous hues, and
+becomes a state of pure felicity, an Eden or a Paradise, wherein man
+dwelt in joy, and from which he wandered or was driven in the old days.
+
+It is almost needless to quote examples to show the wide distribution of
+this myth. The first pages of the Vendidad describe the reign of Yima in
+"the garden of delight," where "there was no cold wind nor violent heat,
+no disease and no death." The northern Buddhist tells of "the land of
+joy," Sukhavati, in the far west, where ruled Amitabha, "infinite
+Light."[175-1] The Edda wistfully recalls the pleasant days of good King
+Gudmund who once held sway in Odainsakr, where death came not.[175-2]
+Persian story has glad reminiscences of the seven hundred years that
+Jemschid sat on the throne of Iran, when peace and plenty were in the
+land.
+
+The garden "eastward in Eden" of the Pentateuch, the land of Tulan or
+Tlapallan in Aztec myth, the islands of the Hesperides, the rose garden
+of Feridun, and a score of other legends attest with what strong
+yearning man seeks in the past the picture of that perfect felicity
+which the present never yields.
+
+Nor can he be persuaded that the golden age has gone, no more to return.
+In all conditions of progress, and especially where the load of the
+present was the most wearying, has he counted on a restoration to that
+past felicity. The paradise lost is to be regained. How it is to be done
+the sages are not agreed. But they of old were unanimous that some
+divinity must lend his aid, that some god-sent guide is needed to rescue
+man from the slough of wretchedness in which he hopelessly struggles.
+
+Therefore in the new world the red men looked for the ruler who had
+governed their happy forefathers in the golden age, and who had not died
+but withdrawn mysteriously from view, to return to them, protect them,
+and insure them long bliss and ease. The ancient Persians expected as
+much from the coming of Craoshan�; the Thibetan Buddhists look to the
+advent of a Buddha 5000 years after Sakyamuni, one whose fortunate names
+are Ma�tr�ya, the Loving one, and Adjita, the Unconquerable;[176-1] and
+even the practical Roman, as we learn from Virgil, was not a stranger to
+this dream. Very many nations felt it quite as strongly as the
+Israelites, who from early time awaited a mighty king, the Messiah, the
+Anointed, of whom the Targums say: "In his days shall peace be
+multiplied;" "He shall execute the judgment of truth and justice on the
+earth;" "He shall rule over all kingdoms."
+
+The early forms of this conception, such as here referred to, looked
+forward to an earthly kingdom, identified with that of the past when
+this was vigorous in the national mythology. Material success and the
+utmost physical comfort were to characterize it. It was usually to be a
+national apotheosis, and was not generally supposed to include the human
+race, though traces of this wider view might easily be quoted from
+Avestan, Roman, and Israelitic sources. Those who were to enjoy it were
+not the dead, but those who shall be living.
+
+As the myth grew, it coalesced with that of the Epochs of Nature, and
+assumed grander proportions. The deliverer was to come at the close of
+this epoch, at the end of the world; he was to embrace the whole human
+kind in his kingdom; even those who died before his coming, if they had
+obeyed his mandates, should rise to join the happy throng; instead of a
+mere earthly king, he should be a supernatural visitant, even God
+himself; and instead of temporal pleasures only, others of a spiritual
+character were to be conferred. There are reasons to believe that even
+in this developed form the myth was familiar to the most enlightened
+worshippers of ancient Egypt; but it was not till some time after the
+doctrines of Christianity had been cast into mythical moulds by the
+oriental fancy, that it was introduced in its completed form to modern
+thought. Although expressly repudiated by Jesus of Nazareth himself, and
+applied in maxim and parable as a universal symbol of intelligence to
+the religious growth of the individual and race, his followers reverted
+to the coarser and literal meaning, and ever since teach to a greater or
+less extent the chiliastic or millennial dogma, often mathematically
+computing, in direct defiance of his words, the exact date that event is
+to be expected.
+
+If we ask the psychological construction of this myth, and the ever
+present conditions of man's life which have rendered him always ready to
+create it and loath to renounce it, we trace the former distinctly to
+his sense of the purposive nature of the laws of thought, and the latter
+to the wide difference between desire and fulfilment. His intellectual
+nature is framed to accord with laws which are ever present but are not
+authoritative; they admonish but they do not coerce; _that_ is done
+surely though oft remotely by the consequences of their violation. At
+first, unaware of the true character of these laws, he fancies that if
+he were altogether comfortable physically, his every wish would be
+gratified. Slowly it dawns upon him that no material gratification can
+supply an intellectual craving; that this is the real want which haunts
+him; and that its only satisfaction is _to think rightly_, to learn the
+truth. Then he sees that the millennial kingdom is "not of this world;"
+that heaven and earth may pass away, but that such truth as he seeks
+cannot pass away; and that his first and only care should be as a
+faithful and wise servant to learn and revere it.
+
+The sentiments which created this mythical cycle, based as they are now
+seen to be on ultimate psychological laws, are as active to-day as ever.
+This century has witnessed the rise of a school of powerful thinkers and
+true philanthropists who maintained that the noblest object is the
+securing to our fellow-men the greatest material comfort possible; that
+the religious aspirations will do well to content themselves with this
+gospel of humanity; and that the approach of the material millennium,
+the perfectibility of the human race, the complete adaptation of
+function to condition, the "distant but not uncertain final victory of
+Good,"[179-1] is susceptible of demonstration. At present, these views
+are undergoing modification. It is perceived with more or less
+distinctness that complete physical comfort is not enough to make a man
+happy; that in proportion as this comfort is attained new wants develope
+themselves, quite as importunate, which ask what material comfort
+cannot give, and whose demand is neither for utility nor pleasurable
+sensation. Such wants are created by the sense of duty and the love of
+truth.
+
+The main difference between the latest exponents of the utilitarian
+doctrines and the heralds of distinctively religious thought, is that
+the former consider that it is most important in the present condition
+of man for him to look after his material welfare; while the latter
+teach that if he first subject thought and life to truth and duty, "all
+these things will be added unto him." Wordsworth has cast this latter
+opinion, and the myths which are its types, into eloquent verse:
+
+                        "Paradise and groves
+    Elysian, Fortunate Fields--like those of old
+    Sought in the Atlantic main, why should they be
+    A history only of departed things,
+    Or a mere fiction of what never was?
+    For the discerning intellect of man,
+    When wedded to this goodly universe
+    In love and holy passion, shall find these
+    A simple produce of the common day."
+
+The incredulity and even derision with which the latter doctrine is
+received by "practical men," should not affright the collected thinker,
+as it certainly is not so chimerical as they pretend. The writer De
+Senancourt, not at all of a religious turn, in speculating on the
+shortest possible road to general happiness, concluded that if we were
+able to foretell the weather a reasonable time ahead, and if men would
+make it a rule to speak the truth as near as they can, these two
+conditions would remove nine-tenths of the misery in the world. The
+more carefully I meditate on this speculation, the better grounded it
+seems. The weather we are learning to know much more about than when the
+solitary Obermann penned his despondent dreams; but who shall predict
+the time when men will tell the truth?
+
+I now pass to the third great mythical cyclus, which I have called that
+of the Hierarchy of the Gods. This was created in order to define that
+unknown power which was supposed to give to the wish frustration or
+fruition. It includes every statement in reference to the number,
+nature, history and character of supernatural beings.
+
+The precise form under which the intellect, when the religious
+conception of unknown power first dawns upon it, imagines this unknown,
+is uncertain. Some have maintained that the earliest religions are
+animal worships, others that the spirits of ancestors or chiefs are the
+primitive gods. Local divinities and personal spirits are found in the
+rudest culture, while simple fetichism, or the vague shapes presented by
+dreams, play a large part in the most inchoate systems. The prominence
+of one or the other of these elements depends upon local and national
+momenta, which are a proper study for the science of mythology, but need
+not detain us here. The underlying principle in all these conceptions of
+divinity is that of the _res per accidens_, an accidental relation of
+the thought to the symbol, not a general or necessary one. This is seen
+in the nature of these primitive gods. They have no decided character as
+propitious or the reverse other than the objects they typify, but are
+supposed to send bad or good fortune as they happen to be pleased or
+displeased with the votary. No classification as good and evil deities
+is as yet perceptible.
+
+This undeveloped stage of religious thought faded away, as general
+conceptions of man and his surroundings arose. Starting always from his
+wish dependent on unknown control, man found certain phenomena usually
+soothed his fears and favored his wishes, while others interfered with
+their attainment and excited his alarm. This distinction, directly
+founded on his sensations of pleasure and pain, led to a general, more
+or less rigid, classification of the unknown, into two opposing classes
+of beings, the one kindly disposed, beneficent, good, the other
+untoward, maleficent, evil.
+
+At first this distinction had in it nothing of a _moral_ character. It
+is in fact a long time before this is visible, and to-day but two or
+three religions acknowledge it even theoretically. All, however, which
+claim historical position set up a dual hierarchy in the divine realms.
+Ahura-mazda and Anya-mainyus, God and Satan, Jove and Pluto, Pachacamac
+and Supay, Enigorio and Enigohatgea are examples out of hundreds that
+might be adduced.
+
+The fundamental contrast of pleasure and pain might be considered enough
+to explain this duality. But in fact it is even farther reaching. The
+emotions are dual as well as the sensations, as we have seen in the
+first chapter. All the operations of the intellect are dichotomic, and
+in mathematical logic must be expressed by an equation of the second
+degree. Subject and object must be understood as polar pairs, and in
+physical science polarization, contrast of properties corresponding to
+contrast of position, is a universal phenomenon. Analogy, therefore,
+vindicates the assumption that the unknown, like the known, is the field
+of the operation of contradictory powers.
+
+A variety of expression is given this philosophic notion in myths. In
+Egypt, Syria, Greece and India the contrast was that of the sexes, the
+male and female principles as displayed in the operations of nature. The
+type of all is that very ancient Phrygian cult in which by the side of
+Ma, mother of mountains and mistress of herds, stood Papas, father of
+the race of shepherds and inventor of the rustic pipe.[183-1] Quite
+characteristic was the classification of the gods worshipped by the
+miners and metal workers of Phrygian Ida. This was into right and left,
+and the general name of Dactyli, Fingers, was given them. The right gods
+broke the spells which the left wove, the right pointed out the ore
+which the left had buried, the right disclosed the remedies for the
+sickness which the left had sent. This venerable division is still
+retained when we speak of a _sinister_ portent, or a _right_ judgment.
+It is of physiological interest as showing that "dextral pre-eminence"
+or right-handedness was prevalent in earliest historic times, though it
+is unknown in any lower animal.
+
+The thoughtful dwellers in Farsistan also developed a religion close to
+man's wants by dividing the gods into those who aid and those who harm
+him, subject the one class to Ahura-Mazda, the other to Anya-Mainyus.
+Early in their history this assumed almost a moral aspect, and there is
+little to be added to one of the most ancient precepts of their
+law--"Happiness be to the man who conduces to the happiness of
+all."[184-1]
+
+When this dual classification sought expression through natural
+contrasts, there was one which nigh everywhere offered itself as the
+most appropriate. The savage, the nomad, limited to the utmost in
+artificial contrivances, met nothing which more signally aided the
+accomplishment of his wishes than _light_; nothing which more certainly
+frustrated them than _darkness_. From these two sources flow numerous
+myths, symbols, and rites, as narratives or acts which convey religious
+thought to the eye or the ear of sense.
+
+As the bringers of light, man adored the sun, the dawn, and fire;
+associated with warmth and spring, his further meditations saw in it the
+source of his own and of all life, and led him to connect with its
+worship that of the reproductive principle. As it comes from above, and
+seems to dwell in the far-off sky, he located there his good gods, and
+lifted his hands or his eyes when he prayed. As light is necessary to
+sight, and as to see is to know, the faculty of knowing was typified as
+enlightenment, an inward god-given light. The great and beneficent
+deities are always the gods of light. Their names often show this. Deva,
+Deus, means the shining one; Michabo, the great white one; the Mongols
+call Tien, the chief Turanian god, the bright one, the luminous one; the
+northern Buddhist prays to Amitabha, Infinite Light; and the Christian
+to the Light of the World.
+
+On the other hand, darkness was connected with feelings of helplessness
+and terror. It exposed him to attacks of wild beasts and all accidents.
+It was the precursor of the storm. It was like to death and the grave.
+The realm of the departed was supposed to be a land of shadows, an
+underground region, an unseeing Hades or hell.
+
+The task would be easy to show many strange corroborations of these
+early chosen symbols by the exacter studies of later ages. Light, as the
+indispensable condition of life, is no dream, but a fact; sight is the
+highest sentient faculty; and the luminous rays are real intellectual
+stimulants.[186-1] But such reflections will not escape the
+contemplative reader.
+
+I hasten to an important consequence of this dual classification of
+divinities. It led to what I may call the _quantification of the gods_,
+that is, to conceiving divinity under notions of number or quantity, a
+step which has led to profound deterioration of the religious sentiment.
+I do not mean by this the distinction between polytheism and monotheism.
+The latter is as untrue and as injurious as the former, nor does it
+contain a whit the more the real elements of religious progress.
+
+It is indeed singular that this subject has been so misunderstood. Much
+has been written by Christian theologians to show the superiority of
+monotheisms; and by their opponents much has been made of Comte's _loi
+des trois �tats_, which defines religious progress to be first
+fetichism, secondly polytheism, finally monotheism. Of this Mr. Lewes
+says: "The theological system arrived at the highest perfection of which
+it is capable when it substituted the providential action of a single
+being, for the varied operations of the numerous divinities which had
+before been imagined."[187-1] Nothing could be more erroneous than the
+spirit of this statement; nothing is more correct, if the ordinary talk
+of the superiority of monotheism in religion be admitted.
+
+History and long experience show that monotheistic religions have no
+special good effect either on the morals or the religious sensibility of
+races.[187-2] Buddhism,[187-3] Mohammedanism and Judaism are, at least
+in theory, uncompromising monotheisms; modern Christianity is less so,
+as many Catholics pray to the Virgin and Saints, and many Protestants to
+Christ. So long as _the mathematical conception of number_, whether one
+or many, is applied to deity by a theological system, it has not yet
+"arrived at the highest perfection of which it is capable."
+
+For let us inquire what a monotheism is? It is a belief in one god as
+distinct from the belief in several gods. In other words, it applies to
+God the mathematical concept of unity, a concept which can only come
+into cognition by virtue of contrasts and determinations, and which
+forces therefore the believer either to Pantheism or anthropomorphism to
+reconcile his belief with his reason. No other resource is left him.
+With monotheism there must always be the idea of numerical separateness,
+which is incompatible with universal conceptions.
+
+Let him, however, clear his mind of the current admiration for
+monotheisms, and impress upon himself that he who would form a
+conception of supreme intelligence must do so under the rules of pure
+thought, not numerical relation. The logical, not the mathematical,
+unity of the divine is the perfection of theological reasoning. Logical
+unity does not demand a determination by contrasts; it conveys only the
+idea of identity with self. As the logical attainment of truth is the
+recognition of identities in apparent diversity, thus leading from the
+logically many to the logically one, the assumption of the latter is
+eminently justified. Every act of reasoning is an additional proof of
+it.[188-1]
+
+Nor does the duality of nature and thought, to which I have alluded, in
+any wise contradict this. In pure thought we must understand the
+dichotomic process to be the distinction of a positive by a privative,
+both logical elements of the same thought, as I have elsewhere shown.
+The opposites or contraries referred to as giving rise to the dualistic
+conceptions of divinity are thus readily harmonized with the conception
+of logical unity. This was recognized by the Hindoo sage who composed
+the Bhagavad Git�, early in our era. Krishna, the Holy One, addressing
+the King Ardjuna says: "All beings fall into error as to the nature of
+creation, O Bharata, by reason of that delusion of natural opposites
+which springs from liking and disliking, oh thou tormentor of thy
+foes!"[189-1]
+
+The substitution of the conception of mathematical for logical unity in
+this connection has left curious traces in both philosophy and religion.
+It has led to a belief in the triplicate nature of the supreme Being,
+and to those philosophical triads which have often attracted thinkers,
+from Pythagoras and Heraclitus down to Hegel and Ghiberti.
+
+Pythagoras, who had thought profoundly on numbers and their relations,
+is credited with the obscure maxim that every thought is made up of a
+definite one and an indefinite two (a ~monas~ and an ~aoristos duas~).
+Some of his commentators have added to rather than lessened the darkness
+of this saying. But applied to concrete number, it seems clear enough.
+Take any number, ten, for example, and it is ten by virtue of being a
+_one_, one ten, and because on either side counting upward or downward,
+a different number appears, which two are its logical determinants, but,
+as not expressed, make up an _indefinite two_.
+
+So the number one, thought as concrete unity, is really a trinity, made
+up of its definite self and its indefinite next greater and lesser
+determinants. The obscure consciousness of this has made itself felt in
+many religions when they have progressed to a certain plane of thought.
+The ancient Egyptian gods were nearly all triune; Phanes, in the Orphic
+hymns the first principle of things, was tripartite; the Indian
+trinities are well known; the Celtic triads applied to divine as well as
+human existence; the Jews distinguished between Jehovah, his Wisdom and
+his Word; and in Christian religion and philosophy the doctrine of the
+trinity, though nowhere taught by Christ, has found a lasting foothold,
+and often presents itself as an actual tritheism.[190-1]
+
+The triplicate nature of number, thus alluded to by Pythagoras, springs
+from the third law of thought, and holds true of all concrete notions.
+Every such notion stands in necessary relation to its privative, and to
+the logical concept of next greater extension, _i. e._, that which
+includes the notion and its privative, as I explained in the first
+chapter. This was noted by the early Platonists, who describe a certain
+concrete expression of it as "the intelligential triad;" and it has been
+repeatedly commented upon by later philosophers, some of whom avowedly
+derive from it the proof of the trinitarian dogma as formulated by
+Athanasius. Even modern mathematical investigations have been supposed
+to point to a _Deus triformis_, though of course quite another one from
+that which ancient Rome honored. A late work of much ability makes the
+statement: "The doctrine of the Trinity, or something analogous to it,
+forms, as it were, the avenue through which the universe itself leads us
+up to the conception of the Infinite and Eternal One."[191-1] The
+explanation of this notion is the same as that of the "Trinity of the
+Gentiles," always hitherto a puzzling mythological concept.
+
+For reasons previously given, an analysis of the formal law itself does
+not yield these elements. They belong to a certain class of values
+assigned it, not to the law itself; hence it is only when deity is
+conceived under the conditions of numerical oneness that the tripartite
+constitution of a whole number makes itself felt, and is applied to the
+divine nature.
+
+The essence of a logical unit is identity, of a mathematical,
+difference. The qualities of the latter are limitations--_so much of a
+thing_; those of the former are coincidences--_that kind of a thing_.
+
+To be sure it is no easy matter to free ourselves from the habit of
+confounding identity and individuality. We must cultivate a much greater
+familiarity with the forms of thought, and the character of universals,
+than every-day life requires of us, before the distinction grows facile.
+The individual, not the species, exists; our own personality, our
+thinking faculty is what we are most certain of. On it rests the reality
+of everything, the Unknown as well. But the rejection of a mathematical
+unity does not at all depreciate the force of such an argument.
+Individuality regarded as mathematical unity rests on the deeper law of
+logical identity from which the validity of numbers rises; it is not
+the least diminished, but intensified, in the conception of a Supreme
+Intelligence, as the font of truth, though the confinements and
+limitations of the mathematical unit fall away, and all contrasts
+disappear.
+
+The reverse conception, however, has prevailed in religious systems,
+polytheistic or monotheistic. Man has projected on the cloudy unknown
+the magnified picture of his own individuality and shuddered with terror
+at the self-created plantasm,[TN-9] like the peasant frightened by the
+spectre of the Brocken, formed by the distorted image of himself. In his
+happier moments, with his hopes gratified, the same vice of thought,
+still active, prevented him from conceiving any higher ideal than his
+better self. "Everywhere the same tendency was observed; the gods,
+always exaggerations of human power and passions, became more and more
+personifications of what was most admirable and lovable in human nature,
+till in Christianity there emerged the avowed ideal man." What could it
+end in but anthropomorphism, or pantheism, or, rejecting both, a
+Religion of Humanity, with a background of an imbecile Unknowable?
+
+Is it necessary to point out how none of these conclusions can satisfy
+the enlightened religious sentiment? How anthropomorphism,which[TN-10]
+makes God in the image of man, instead of acknowledging that man is
+made in the image of God, belittles divinity to a creature of passions
+and caprices? How pantheism, increasing God at the expense of man, wipes
+out the fundamental difference of true and false, calls bad "good in the
+making," and virtually extinguishes the sense of duty and the permanence
+of personality? And how the denial of all possible knowledge of the
+absolute digs away the only foundation on which sanity can establish a
+religion, and then palms off material comfort as the proper food for
+religious longing?
+
+The long story of religious effort is not from fetichism to monotheism,
+as Comte read it; nor is its only possible goal inside the limits of the
+ego, as Feuerbach and the other Neo-Hegelians assert; but it is on its
+theoretical side to develope with greater and greater distinctness the
+immeasurable reality of pure thought, to dispense more and more with the
+quantification of the absolute, and to avoid in the representation of
+that Being the use of the technic of concrete existence.
+
+Little by little we learn that the really true is never true in fact,
+that the really good is never good in act.[194-1] Carefully cherishing
+this distinction taught by mathematics and ethics, the religious mind
+learns to recognize in that only reality darkly seen through the glass
+of material things, that which should fix and fill its meditations.
+Passing beyond the domain of physical law, it occupies itself with that
+which defines the conditions of law. It contemplates an eternal
+activity, before which its own self-consciousness seems a flickering
+shadow, yet in that contemplation is not lost but gains an evergrowing
+personality.
+
+This is the goal of religious striving, the hidden aim of the wars and
+persecutions, the polemics and martyrdoms, which have so busied and
+bloodied the world. This satisfies the rational postulates of religion.
+Does some one say that it does not stimulate its emotional elements,
+that it does not supply the impulses of action which must ever be the
+criteria of the true faith? Is it not a religion at all, but a
+philosophy, a search, or if you prefer, a love for the truth?
+
+Let such doubter ponder well the signification of truth, its relation to
+life, its identity with the good, and the paramount might of wisdom and
+a clear understanding, and he will be ready to exclaim with the
+passionate piety of St. Augustine: "_Ubi inveni veritatem, ibi inveni
+Deum meum, ipsam veritatem, quam, ex quo didici, non sum oblitus._"
+
+From this brief review of its character, the Myth will be seen to be one
+of the transitory expressions of the religious sentiment, which in
+enlightened lands it has already outgrown and should lay aside. So far
+as it relates to events, real or alleged, historic or geologic, it deals
+with that which is indifferent to pure religion; and so far as it
+assumes to reveal the character, plans and temper of divinity, it is too
+evidently a reflex of man's personality to be worthy of serious
+refutation where it conflicts with the better guide he has within him.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[156-1] In this definition the word _apperception_ is used in the sense
+assigned it by Professor Lazarus--the perception modified by imagination
+and memory. "Mythologie ist eine Apperceptionsform der Natur und des
+Menschen." (_Zeitschrift f�r V�lkerpsychologie_, Bd. i., s. 44). Most
+recent mythologists omit the latter branch of the definition; for
+instance, "A myth is in its origin an explanation by the uncivilized
+mind of some natural phenomenon." (John Fiske, _Myths and Myth Makers_,
+p. 21). This is to omit that which gives the myth its only claim to be a
+product of the religious sentiment. Schopenhauer, in calling dogmas and
+myths "the metaphysics of the people," fell into the same error.
+Religion, as such, is always concrete.
+
+[159-1] Half a century ago the learned Mr. Faber, in his _Origin of
+Pagan Idolatry_, expressed his astonishment at "the singular, minute and
+regular accordance" between the classical myths. That accordance has now
+been discovered to be world-wide.
+
+[160-1] "Ganz gleiche Mythen k�nnen sehr f�glich, jede selbstst�ndig, an
+verschiedenen Oerter emporkommen." _Briefe an Woelcker._
+
+[161-1] The last two are the modern orthodox theories, supported by
+Bryant, Faber, Trench, De Maistre and Sepp. Medieval Christianity
+preferred the direct agency of the Devil. Primitive Christianity leaned
+to the opinion that the Grecian and Roman myth makers had stolen from
+the sacred writings of the Jews.
+
+[165-1] Sir Wm. Hamilton, _Lectures on Metaphysics_. Appendix, p. 691.
+
+[165-2] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie_, Bd. ii., s. 107.
+
+[166-1] Th. N�ldeke, _Zeitschrift f�r V�lkerpsychologie_, Bd. iii., s.
+131.
+
+[166-2] See a note of Prof. Spiegel to Ya�na, 29, of the
+_Khordah-Avesta_.
+
+[167-1] ~H� ygra physis arch� kai genesis pant�n.~
+
+Plutarch, _De Iside_.
+
+According to the Koran and the Jewish Rabbis, the throne of God rested
+on the primeval waters from which the earth was produced. See a note in
+Rodwell's translation of the Koran, _Sura_. xi.
+
+[167-2] I have discussed some of these myths in the seventh chapter of
+the _Myths of the New World_.
+
+[168-1] How it troubled the early Christians who dared not adopt the
+refuge of the Epochs of Nature, may be seen in the _Confessions_ of St.
+Augustine, Lib. XI, cap. 10, et seq. He quotes the reply of one pushed
+by the inquiry, what God was doing before creation: "He was making a
+hell for inquisitive busy-bodies." _Alta spectantibus gehennas parabat._
+
+[170-1] Many interesting references to the Oriental flood-myth may be
+found in Cory's _Ancient Fragments_. See also, Dr. Fr. Windischmann,
+_Die Ursagen der Arischen V�lker_, pp. 4-10. It is probable that in very
+ancient Semitic tradition Adam was represented as the survivor of a
+flood anterior to that of Noah. Maimonides relates that the Sabians
+believed the world to be eternal, and called Adam "the Prophet of the
+Moon," which symbolized, as we know from other sources, the deity of
+water. Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon, _More Nevochim_, cap. iv. In early
+Christian symbolism Christ was called "the true Noah"; the dove
+accompanied him also, and as through Noah came "salvation by wood and
+water," so through Christ came "salvation by spirit and water." (See St.
+Cyril of Jerusalem's _Catechetical Lectures_, Lect. xvii., cap. 10). The
+fish (~ichthus~) was the symbol of Christ as well as of Oannes. As the
+second coming of Christ was to be the destruction of the world, how
+plainly appear the germs of the myth of the Epochs of Nature in the
+Jud�o-Christian mind!
+
+[171-1] Besides the expressions in the Book of Ecclesiastes and the
+later prophets, the doctrine is distinctly announced in one of the most
+sublime of the Psalms (xc), one attributed to "Moses the Man of God."
+
+[172-1] Malachi, ch. iv., v. 2.
+
+[175-1] C. F. Koppen, _Die Lamaische Hierarchie_, s. 28.
+
+[175-2] Odainsakr, � privative, _dain_ death, _akr_ land, "the land of
+immortal life." Saxo Grammaticus speaks of it also. Another such land
+faintly referred to in the Edda is Breidablick, governed by Baldur, the
+Light-god.
+
+[176-1] C. F. Koppen, _Die Lamaische Hierarchie und Kirche_, p. 17.
+
+[179-1] John Stuart Mill, _Theism_, p. 256.
+
+[183-1] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie_, Bd. II., s. 47
+
+[184-1] This is the first line of Ya�na, 42, of the _Khordah-Avesta_.
+The Parsees believe that it is the salutation which meets the soul of
+the good on entering the next world.
+
+[186-1] "Sight is the light sense. Through it we become acquainted with
+universal relations, this being _reason_. Without the eye there would be
+no reason." Lorenz Oken, _Elements of Physio-Philosophy_, p. 475.
+
+[187-1] _History of Philosophy_, Vol. II. p. 638 (4th ed.)
+
+[187-2] "The intolerance of almost all religions which have maintained
+the unity of God, is as remarkable as the contrary principle in
+polytheism." Hume, _Nat. Hist. of Religion_, Sec. ix.
+
+[187-3] "The Lamas emphatically maintain monotheism to be the real
+character of Buddhism." Emil Schlagintweit, _Buddhism in Tibet_, p. 108.
+
+[188-1] No one has seen the error here pointed out, and its injurious
+results on thought, more clearly than Comte himself. He is emphatic in
+condemning "le tendance involontaire � constituer l'unit� sp�culative
+par l'ascendant universel des plus grossi�res contemplations num�rique,
+geom�trique ou m�caniques." _Syst�me de Politique Positive_; Tome I., p.
+51. But he was too biassed to apply this warning to Christian thought.
+The conception of the Universe in the logic of Professor De Morgan and
+Boole is an example of speculative unity.
+
+[189-1] _Bhagavad Git�_, ch. iv.
+
+[190-1] See the introduction by Mr. J. W. Etheridge to _The Targums of
+Onkelos and Jonathan Ben Uzziel_ (London, 1862). St. Augustine believed
+the trinity is referred to in the opening verses of Genesis.
+_Confessiones_, Lib. xiii. cap. 5. The early Christian writer,
+Theophilus of Antioch (circa 225), in his _Apologia_, recognizes the
+Jewish trinity only. It was a century later that the dogma was defined
+in its Athanasian form. See further, Isaac Preston Cory, _Ancient
+Fragments, with an Inquiry into the Trinity of the Gentiles_ (London,
+1832).
+
+[191-1] _The Unseen Universe_, p. 194.
+
+[194-1] "A good will is the only altogether good thing in the
+world."--_Kant._ "What man conceives in himself is always superior to
+that reality which it precedes and prepares."--_Comte._
+
+
+
+
+THE CULT, ITS SYMBOLS AND RITES.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     The Symbol represents the unknown; the Rite is the ceremony of
+     worship.
+
+     A symbol stands for the supernatural, an emblem for something
+     known. The elucidation of symbolism is in the laws of the
+     association of ideas. Associations of similarity give related
+     symbols, of contiguity coincident symbols. Symbols tend either
+     toward personification (iconolatry), or toward secularization. The
+     symbol has no fixed interpretation. Its indefiniteness shown by the
+     serpent symbol, and the cross. The physiological relations of
+     certain symbols. Their classification. The Lotus. The Pillar.
+     Symbols discarded by the higher religious thought. Esthetic and
+     scientific symbolism (the "Doctrine of Correspondences").
+
+     Rites are either propitiatory or memorial. The former spring either
+     from the idea of sacrifice or of specific performance. A sacrifice
+     is a gift, but its measure is what it costs the giver. Specific
+     performance means that a religious act should have no ulterior aim.
+     Vicarious sacrifice and the idea of sin.
+
+     Memorial rites are intended to recall the myth, or else to keep up
+     the organization. The former are dramatic or imitative, the latter
+     institutionary. Tendency of memorial rites to become propitiatory.
+     Examples.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE CULT, ITS SYMBOLS AND RITES.
+
+
+As the side which a religious system presents to the intellect is shown
+in the Myth, so the side that it presents to sense is exhibited in the
+Cult. This includes the representation and forms of worship of the
+unknown power which presides over the fruition of the Prayer or
+religious wish. The representation is effected by the Symbol, the
+worship by the Rite. The development of these two, and their relation to
+religious thought, will be the subject of the present chapter.
+
+The word Symbolism has a technical sense in theological writings, to
+wit, the discussion of creeds, quite different from that in which it is
+used in mythological science. Here it means the discussion of the
+natural objects which have been used to represent to sense supposed
+supernatural beings. As some conception of such beings must first be
+formed, the symbol is necessarily founded upon the myth, and must be
+explained by it.
+
+A symbol is closely allied to an emblem, the distinction being that the
+latter is intended to represent some abstract conception or concrete
+fact, not supposed to be supernatural. Thus the serpent is the emblem of
+Esculapius, or, abstractly, of the art of healing; but in its use as a
+symbol in Christian art it stands for the Evil One, a supernatural
+being. The heraldric insignia of the Middle Ages were emblematic
+devices; but the architecture of the cathedrals was largely symbolic.
+Both agree in aiming to aid the imagination and the memory, and both may
+appeal to any special sense, although the majority are addressed to
+sight alone.
+
+Symbolism has not received the scientific treatment which has been so
+liberally bestowed on mythology. The first writer who approached it in
+the proper spirit was Professor Creuzer.[200-1] Previous to his labors
+the distinction between pictographic and symbolic art was not well
+defined. He drew the line sharply, and illustrated it abundantly; but he
+did not preserve so clearly the relations of the symbol and the myth.
+Indeed, he regarded the latter as a symbol, a "phonetic" one, to be
+treated by the same processes of analysis. Herein later students have
+not consented to follow him. The contrast between these two expressions
+of the religious sentiment becomes apparent when we examine their
+psychological origin. This Professor Creuzer did not include in his
+researches, nor is it dwelt upon at any length in the more recent works
+on the subject.[201-1] The neglect to do this has given rise to an
+arbitrariness in the interpretation of many symbols, which has often
+obscured their position in religious history.
+
+What these principles are I shall endeavor to indicate; and first of the
+laws of the origin of symbols, the rules which guided the early
+intellect in choosing from the vast number of objects appealing to sense
+those fit to shadow forth the supernatural.
+
+It may safely be assumed that this was not done capriciously, as the
+modern parvenue makes for himself a heraldric device. The simple and
+devout intellect of the primitive man imagined a real connection between
+the god and the symbol. Were this questioned, yet the wonderful
+unanimity with which the same natural objects, the serpent, the bird,
+the tree, for example, were everywhere chosen, proves that their
+selection was not the work of chance. The constant preference of these
+objects points conclusively to some strong and frequent connection of
+their images with mythical concepts.
+
+The question of the origin of symbols therefore resolves itself into one
+of the association of ideas, and we start from sure ground in applying
+to their interpretation the established canons of association. These, as
+I have elsewhere said, are those of contiguity and similarity, the
+former producing association by the closeness of succession of
+impressions or thoughts, the latter through impressions or thoughts
+recalling like ones in previous experience. When the same occurrence
+affects different senses simultaneously, or nearly so, the association
+is one of _contiguity_, as thunder and lightning, for a sound cannot be
+_like_ a sight; when the same sense is affected in such a manner as to
+recall a previous impression, the association is one of _similarity_, as
+when the red autumn leaves recall the hue of sunset. Nearness in time or
+nearness in kind is the condition of association.
+
+The intensity or permanence of the association depends somewhat on
+temperament, but chiefly on repetition or continuance. Not having an ear
+for music, I may find it difficult to recall a song from hearing its
+tune; but by dint of frequent repetition I learn to associate them.
+Light and heat, smoke and fire, poverty and hunger so frequently occur
+together, that the one is apt to recall the other. So do a large number
+of antithetical associations, as light and darkness, heat and cold, by
+_inverse similarity_, opposite impressions reviving each other, in
+accordance with the positive and privative elements of a notion.
+
+This brief reference to the laws of applied thought,--too brief, did I
+not take for granted that they are generally familiar--furnishes the
+clue to guide us through the labyrinth of symbolism, to wit, the
+repeated association of the event or power recorded in the myth with
+some sensuous image. Where there is a connection in kind between the
+symbol and that for which it stands, there is _related_ symbolism; where
+the connection is one of juxtaposition in time, there is _coincident_
+symbolism. Mother Earth, fertile and fecund, was a popular deity in many
+nations, and especially among the Egyptians, who worshipped her under
+the symbol of a cow; this is related symbolism; the historical event of
+the execution of Christ occurred by crucifixion, one of several methods
+common in that age, and since then the cross has been the symbol of
+Christianity; this is coincident symbolism. It is easy for the two to
+merge, as when the cross was identified with a somewhat similar and much
+older symbol, one of the class I have called "related," signifying the
+reproductive principle, and became the "tree of life." As a coincident
+symbol is to a certain extent accidental in origin, related symbols
+have always been most agreeable to the religious sentiment.
+
+This remark embodies the explanation of the growth of religious
+symbolism, and also its gradual decay into decorative art and mnemonic
+design. The tendency of related symbolism is toward the identification
+of the symbol with that for which it stands, toward personification or
+prosopopeia; while what I may call the _secularization_ of symbols is
+brought about by regarding them more and more as accidental connections,
+by giving them conventional forms, and treating them as elements of
+architectural or pictorial design, or as aids to memory.
+
+This tendency of related symbolism depends on a law of applied thought
+which has lately been formulated by a distinguished logician in the
+following words: "What is true of a thing, is true of its like."[204-1]
+The similarity of the symbol to its prototype assumed, the qualities of
+the symbol, even those which had no share in deciding its selection, no
+likeness to the original, were lumped, and transferred to the divinity.
+As those like by similarity, so those unlike, were identified by
+contiguity, as traits of the unknown power. This is the active element
+in the degeneracy of religious idealism. The cow or the bull, chosen
+first as a symbol of creation or fecundity, led to a worship of the
+animal itself, and a transfer of its traits, even to its horns, to the
+god. In a less repulsive form, the same tendency shows itself in the
+pietistic ingenuity of such poets as Adam de Sancto Victore and George
+Herbert, who delight in taking some biblical symbol, and developing from
+it a score of applications which the original user never dreamt of. In
+such hands a chance simile grows to an elaborate myth.
+
+Correct thought would prevent the extension of the value of the symbol
+beyond the original element of similarity. More than this, it would
+recognize the fact that similarity does not suppose identity, but the
+reverse, to wit, defect of likeness; and this dissimilitude must be the
+greater, as the original and symbol are naturally discrepant. The
+supernatual,[TN-11] however, whether by this term we mean the unknown or
+the universal--still more if we mean the incomprehensible--is utterly
+discrepant with the known, except by an indefinitely faint analogy. In
+the higher thought, therefore, the symbol loses all trace of identity
+and becomes merely emblematic.
+
+The ancients defended symbolic teaching on this very ground, that the
+symbol left so much unexplained, that it stimulated the intellect and
+trained it to profounder thinking;[205-1] practically it had the
+reverse effect, the symbol being accepted as the thing itself.
+
+Passing from these general rules of the selection of symbols, to the
+history of the symbol when chosen, this presents itself to us in a
+reciprocal form, first as the myth led to the adoption and changes in
+the symbol, and as the latter in turn altered and reformed the myth.
+
+The tropes and figures of rhetoric by which the conceptions of the
+supernatural were first expressed, give the clue to primitive symbolism.
+A very few examples will be sufficient. No one can doubt that the figure
+of the serpent was sometimes used in pictorial art to represent the
+lightning, when he reads that the Algonkins _straightly_ called the
+latter a snake; when he sees the same adjective, spiral or winding,
+(~helikoied�s~) applied by the Greeks to the lightning and a snake; when
+the Quich� call the electric flash a strong serpent; and many other such
+examples. The Pueblo Indians represent lightning in their pictographs by
+a zigzag line. A zigzag fence is called in the Middle States a worm or
+"snake" fence. Besides this, adjectives which describe the line traced
+by the serpent in motion are applied to many twisting or winding
+objects, as a river, a curl or lock of hair, the tendrils of a vine, the
+intestines, a trailing plant, the mazes of a dance, a bracelet, a broken
+ray of light, a sickle, a crooked limb, an anfractuous path, the
+phallus, etc. Hence the figure of a serpent may, and in fact has been,
+used with direct reference to every one of these, as could easily be
+shown. How short-sighted then the expounder of symbolism who would
+explain the frequent recurrence of the symbol or the myth of the serpent
+wherever he finds it by any one of these!
+
+This narrowness of exposition becomes doubly evident when we give
+consideration to two other elements in primitive symbolism--the
+multivocal nature of early designs, and the misapprehensions due to
+contiguous association.
+
+To illustrate the first, let us suppose, with Schwarz[207-1] and others,
+that the serpent was at first the symbol of the lightning. Its most
+natural representation would be in motion; it might then stand for the
+other serpentine objects I have mentioned; but once accepted as an
+acknowledged symbol, the other qualities and properties of the serpent
+would present themselves to the mind, and the effort would be made to
+discover or to imagine likenesses to these in the electric flash. The
+serpent is venomous; it casts its skin and thus seems to renew its life;
+it is said to fascinate its prey; it lives in the ground; it hisses or
+rattles when disturbed: none of these properties is present to the mind
+of the savage who scratches on the rock a zigzag line to represent the
+lightning god. But after-thought brings them up, and the association of
+contiguity can apply them all to the lightning, and actually has done so
+over and over again; and not only to it, but also to other objects
+originally represented by a broken line, for example, the river gods and
+the rays of light.
+
+This complexity is increased by the ambiguous representation of symbolic
+designs. The serpent, no longer chosen for its motion alone, will be
+expressed in art in that form best suited to the meaning of the symbol
+present in the mind of the artist. Realism is never the aim of religious
+art. The zigzag line, the coil, the spiral, the circle and the straight
+line, are all geometrical radicals of various serpentine forms. Any one
+of these may be displayed with fanciful embellishments and artistic
+aids. Or the artist, proceeding by synecdoche, takes a part for the
+whole, and instead of portraying the entire animal, contents himself
+with one prominent feature or one aspect of it. A striking instance of
+this has been developed by Dr. Harrison Allen, in the prevalence of what
+he calls the "crotalean curve," in aboriginal American art, a line which
+is the radical of the profile view of the head of the rattlesnake
+(_crotalus_).[208-1] This he has detected in the architectural monuments
+of Mexico and Yucatan, in the Maya phonetic scrip, and even in the rude
+efforts of the savage tribes. Each of these elective methods of
+representing the serpent, would itself, by independent association,
+call up ideas out of all connection whatever with that which the figure
+first symbolized. These, in the mind entertaining them, will supersede
+and efface the primitive meaning. Thus the circle is used in
+conventional symbolic art to designate the serpent; but also the eye,
+the ear, the open mouth, the mamma, the sun, the moon, a wheel, the
+womb, the vagina, the return of the seasons, time, continued life, hence
+health, and many other things. Whichever of these ideas is easiest
+recalled will first appear on looking at a circle. The error of those
+who have discussed mythological symbolism has been to trace a connection
+of such adventitious ideas beyond the symbol to its original meaning;
+whereas the symbol itself is the starting-point. To one living in a
+region where venomous serpents abound, the figure of one will recall the
+sense of danger, the dread of the bite, and the natural hostility we
+feel to those who hurt us; whereas no such ideas would occur to the
+native of a country where there are no snakes, or where they are
+harmless, unless taught this association.
+
+Few symbols have received more extended study than that of the cross,
+owing to its prominence in Christian art. This, as I have said, was
+coincident or incidental only. It corresponded, however, to a current
+"phonetic symbol," in the expression common to the Greeks and Romans of
+that day, "to take up one's cross," meaning to prepare for the worst, a
+metaphor used by Christ himself.
+
+Now there is no agreement as to what was the precise form of the cross
+on which he suffered. Three materially unlike crosses are each equally
+probable. In symbolic art these have been so multiplied that now _two
+hundred and twenty-two_ variants of the figure are described![210-1] Of
+course there is nothing easier than to find among these similarities,
+with many other conventional symbols, the Egyptian Tau, the Hammer of
+Thor, the "Tree of Fertility," on which the Aztecs nailed their victims,
+the crossed lines which are described on Etruscan tombs, or the logs
+crossed at rectangles, on which the Muskogee Indians built the sacred
+fire. The four cardinal points are so generally objects of worship, that
+more than any other mythical conception they have been represented by
+cruciform figures. But to connect these in any way with the symbol as it
+appears in Christian art, is to violate every scientific principle.
+
+Each variant of a symbol may give rise to myths quite independent of its
+original meaning. A symbol once adopted is preserved by its sacred
+character, exists long as a symbol, but with ever fluctuating
+significations. It always takes that which is uppermost in the mind of
+the votary and the congregation. Hence, psychology, and especially the
+psychology of races, is the only true guide in symbolic exegesis.
+
+Nor is the wide adoption and preservation of symbols alone due to an
+easily noticed similarity between certain objects and the earliest
+conceptions of the supernatural, or to the preservative power of
+religious veneration.
+
+I have previously referred to the associations of ideas arising from
+ancestral reversions of memory, and from the principles of minimum
+muscular action and harmonic excitation. Such laws make themselves felt
+unconsciously from the commencement of life, with greater or less power,
+dependent on the susceptibility of the nervous system. They go far
+toward explaining the recurrence and permanence of symbols, whether of
+sight or sound. Thus I attribute the prevalence of the serpentine curve
+in early religious art largely to its approach to the "line of beauty,"
+which is none other than that line which the eye, owing to the
+arrangement of its muscles, can follow with the minimum expenditure of
+nervous energy. The satisfaction of the mind in viewing symmetrical
+figures or harmonious coloring, as also that of the ear, in hearing
+accordant sounds, is, as I have remarked, based on the principle of
+maximum action with minimum waste. The mind gets the most at the least
+cost.
+
+The equilateral triangle, which is the simplest geometrical figure which
+can enclose a space, thus satisfying the mind the easiest of any, is
+nigh universal in symbolism. It is seen in the Egyptian pyramids, whose
+sides are equilateral triangles with a common apex, in the medi�val
+cathedrals, whose designs are combinations of such triangles, in the
+sign for the trinity, the pentalpha, etc.
+
+The classification of some symbols of less extensive prevalence must be
+made from their phonetic values. One class was formed as were the
+"canting arms" in heraldry, that is, by a rebus. This is in its simpler
+form, direct, as when Quetzalcoatl, the mystical hero-god of Atzlan, is
+represented by a bird on a serpent, _quetzal_ signifying a bird, _coatl_
+a serpent; or composite, two or more of such rebus symbols being blended
+by synecdoche, like the "marshalling" of arms in heraldry, as when the
+same god is portrayed by a feathered serpent; or the rebus may occur
+with paronymy, especially when the literal meaning of a name of the god
+is lost, as when the Algonkins forgot the sense of the word _wabish_,
+white or bright, as applied to their chief divinity, and confounding it
+with _wabos_, a rabbit, wove various myths about their ancestor, the
+Great Hare, and chose the hare or rabbit as a totemic badge.[212-1]
+
+It is almost needless to add further that the ideas most frequently
+associated with the unknown object of religion are those, which,
+struggling after material expression, were most fecund in symbols. We
+have but to turn to the Orphic hymns, or those of the Vedas or the
+Hebrew Psalms, to see how inexhaustible was the poetic fancy, stirred by
+religious awe, in the discovery of similitudes, any of which, under
+favoring circumstances, might become a symbol.
+
+Before leaving this branch of my subject, I may illustrate some of the
+preceding comments by applying them to one or two well known subjects of
+religious art.
+
+A pleasing symbol, which has played a conspicuous part in many
+religions, is the Egyptian lotus, or "lily of the Nile." It is an
+aquatic plant, with white, roseate or blue flowers, which float upon the
+water, and send up from their centre long stamens. In Egypt it grows
+with the rising of the Nile, and as its appearance was coincident with
+that important event, it came to take prominence in the worship of Isis
+and Osiris as the symbol of fertility. Their mystical marriage took
+place in its blossom. In the technical language of the priests, however,
+it bore a profounder meaning, that of the supremacy of reason above
+matter, the contrast being between the beautiful flower and the muddy
+water which bears it.[214-1] In India the lotus bears other and
+manifold meanings. It is a symbol of the sacred river Ganges, and of the
+morally pure. No prayer in the world has ever been more frequently
+repeated than this: "Om! the jewel in the lotus. Amen" (_om mani padme
+hum_). Many millions of times, every hour, for centuries, has this been
+iterated by the Buddhists of Thibet and the countries north of it. What
+it means, they can only explain by fantastic and mystical guesses.
+Probably it refers to the legendary birth of their chief saint,
+Avalokitesvara, who is said to have been born of a lotus flower. But
+some say it is a piece of symbolism not strange to its meaning in
+Egypt,[214-2] and borrowed by Buddhism from the Siva worship. In the
+symbolic language of this sect the lotus is the symbol of the vagina,
+while the phallus is called "the jewel." With this interpretation the
+Buddhist prayer would refer to the reproductive act; but it is
+illustrative of the necessity of attributing wholly diverse meanings to
+the same symbol, that the Buddhists neither now nor at any past time
+attached any such signification to the expression, and it would be most
+discrepant with their doctrines to do so.[214-3]
+
+Another symbol has frequently been open to this duplicate
+interpretation, that is, the upright pillar. The Egyptian obelisk, the
+pillars of "Irmin" or of "Roland," set up now of wood, now of stone by
+the ancient Germans, the "red-painted great warpole" of the American
+Indians, the May-pole of Old England, the spire of sacred edifices, the
+staff planted on the grave, the terminus of the Roman landholders, all
+these objects have been interpreted to be symbols of life, or the
+life-force. As they were often of wood, the trunk of a tree for
+instance, they have often been called by titles equivalent to the "tree
+of life," and are thus connected with the nigh innumerable myths which
+relate to some mystic tree as the source of life. The ash Ygdrasyl of
+the Edda, the oak of Dordona and of the Druid, the modern Christmas
+tree, the sacred banyan, the holy groves, illustrate but faintly the
+prevalence of tree worship. Even so late as the time of Canute, it had
+to be forbidden in England by royal edict.
+
+Now, the general meaning of this symbol I take to be the same as that
+which led to the choice of hills and "high places," as sites for altars
+and temples, and to the assigning of mountain tops as the abodes of the
+chief gods. It is seen in adjectives applied, I believe, in all
+languages, certainly all developed ones, to such deities themselves.
+These adjectives are related to adverbs of place, signifying _above_,
+_up_ or _over_. We speak of the supernatural, or supernal powers, the
+Supreme Being, the Most High, He in Heaven, and such like. So do all
+Aryan and Semitic tongues. Beyond them, the Chinese name for the Supreme
+Deity, Tien, means _up_. I have elsewhere illustrated the same fact in
+native American tongues. The association of light and the sky above, the
+sun and the heaven, is why we raise our hands and eyes in confident
+prayer to divinity. That at times, however, a religion of sex-love did
+identify these erect symbols with the phallus as the life-giver, is very
+true, but this was a temporary and adventitious meaning assigned a
+symbol far more ancient than this form of religion.
+
+In this review of the principles of religious symbolism, I have
+attempted mainly to exhibit the part it has sustained in the development
+of the religious sentiment. It has been generally unfavorable to the
+growth of higher thought. The symbol, in what it is above the emblem,
+assumes more than a similarity, a closer relation than analogy; to some
+degree it pretends to a hypostatic union or identity of the material
+with the divine, the known to sense with the unknown. Fully seen, this
+becomes object worship; partially so, personification.
+
+There is no exception to this. The refined symbolisms which pass current
+to day as religious philosophies exemplify it. The one, esthetic
+symbolism, has its field in musical and architectural art, in the study
+and portraiture of the beautiful; the other, scientific symbolism,
+claims to discover in the morphology of organisms, in the harmonic laws
+of physics, and in the processes of the dialectic, the proof that
+symbolism, if not a revelation, is at least an unconscious inspiration
+of universal truth. This is the "Doctrine of Correspondences," much in
+favor with Swedenborgians, but by no means introduced by the founder of
+that sect. The recognition of the identity in form of the fundamental
+laws of motion and thought, and the clearer understanding of the
+character of harmony which the experiments of Helmholtz and others give
+us, disperse most of the mystery about these similarities. The religion
+of art, as such, will come up for consideration in the next chapter.
+
+The second form of the Cult is the Rite. This includes the acts or
+ceremonies of worship. Considered in the gross, they can be classed as
+of two kinds, the first and earliest propitiatory, the second and later
+memorial or institutionary.
+
+We have but to bear in mind the one aspiration of commencing religious
+thought, to wit, the attainment of a wish, to see that whatever action
+arose therefrom must be directed to that purpose. Hence, when we analyze
+the rude ceremonies of savage cults, the motive is extremely apparent.
+They, like their prayers, all point to the securing of some material
+advantage. They are designed
+
+                                    "to cozen
+    The gods that constrain us and curse."
+
+The motives which underlie these simplest as well as the most elaborate
+rituals, and impress upon them their distinctively religious character
+can be reduced to two, the idea of _sacrifice_ and the idea of _specific
+performance_.
+
+The simplest notion involved in a sacrifice is that of _giving_. The
+value of the gift is not, however, the intrinsic worth of the thing
+given, nor even the pleasure or advantage the recipient derives
+therefrom, but, singularly enough, the amount of pain the giver
+experiences in depriving himself of it! This is also often seen in
+ordinary transactions. A rich man who subscribes a hundred dollars to a
+charity, is thought to merit less commendation than the widow who gives
+her mite. Measured by motive, this reasoning is correct. There is a
+justice which can be vindicated in holding self-denial to be a standard
+of motive. All developed religions have demanded the renunciation of
+what is dearest. The Ynglyngasaga tells us that in a time of famine, the
+first sacrifice offered to the gods was of beasts only; if this failed,
+men were slain to appease them; and if this did not mitigate their
+anger, the king himself was obliged to die that they might send plenty.
+The Latin writers have handed it down that among the Germans and Gauls a
+human sacrifice was deemed the more efficacious the more distinguished
+the victim, and the nearer his relationship to him who offered the
+rite.[219-1] The slaughter of children and wives to please the gods was
+common in many religions, and the self-emasculation of the priests of
+Cybele, with other such painful rites, indicates that the measure of the
+sacrifice was very usually not what the god needed, but the willingness
+of the worshipper to give.
+
+The second idea, that of _specific performance_, has been well expressed
+and humorously commented upon by Hume in his _Natural History of
+Religions_. He says: "Here I cannot forbear observing a fact which may
+be worth the attention of those who make human nature the object of
+their inquiry. It is certain that in every religion, many of the
+votaries, perhaps the greatest number, will seek the divine favor, not
+by virtue and good morals, but either by frivolous observances, by
+intemperate zeal, by rapturous ecstasies, or by the belief of mysterious
+and absurd opinions.
+
+* * * In all this [_i. e._, in virtue and good morals], a superstitious
+man finds nothing, which he has properly performed for the sake of his
+deity, or which can peculiarly recommend him to divine favor and
+protection. * * * * But if he fast or give himself a sound whipping,
+this has a direct reference, in his opinion, to the service of God. No
+other motive could engage him to such austerities."
+
+The philosopher here sets forth in his inimitable style a marked
+characteristic of religious acts. But he touches upon it with his usual
+superficiality. It is true that no religion has ever been content with
+promoting the happiness of man, and that the vast majority of votaries
+are always seeking to do something specifically religious, and are not
+satisfied with the moral only. The simple explanation of it is that the
+religious sentiment has a purpose entirely distinct from ethics, a
+purpose constantly felt as something peculiar to itself, though
+obscurely seen and often wholly misconceived. It is only when an action
+is utterly dissevered from other ends, and is purely and solely
+religious, that it can satisfy this sentiment. "_La religion_," most
+truly observes Madame Necker de Saussure, "_ne doit point avoir d'autre
+b�t qu'elle m�me_."
+
+The uniform prevalence of these ideas in rites may be illustrated from
+the simplest or the most elaborate. Father Brebeuf, missionary to the
+Hurons in 1636, has a chapter on their superstitions. He there tells us
+that this nation had two sorts of ceremonies, the one to induce the
+gods to grant good fortune, the other to appease them when some ill-luck
+had occurred. Before running a dangerous rapid in their frail canoes
+they would lay tobacco on a certain rock where the deity of the rapid
+was supposed to reside, and ask for safety in their voyage. They took
+tobacco and cast it in the fire, saying: "O Heaven (_Aronhiat�_), see, I
+give you something; aid me; cure this sickness of mine." When one was
+drowned or died of cold, a feast was called, and the soft parts of the
+corpse were cut from the bones and burned to conciliate the personal
+god, while the women danced and chanted a melancholy strain. Here one
+sacrifice was to curry favor with the gods, another to soothe their
+anger, and the third was a rite, not a sacrifice, but done for a
+religious end, whose merit was specific performance.
+
+As the gift was valued at what it cost the giver, and was supposed to be
+efficacious in this same ratio, self-denial soon passed into
+self-torture, prolonged fasts, scourging and lacerations, thus becoming
+legitimate exhibitions of religious fervor. As mental pain is as keen as
+bodily pain, the suffering of Jephthah was quite as severe as that of
+the Flagellants, and was expected to find favor in the eyes of the gods.
+
+A significant corrollary[TN-12] from such a theory follows: that which is
+the efficacious part of the sacrifice is the suffering; given a certain
+degree of this, the desired effect will follow. As to what or who
+suffers, or in what manner he or it suffers, these are secondary
+considerations, even unimportant ones, so far as the end to be obtained
+is concerned. This is the germ of _vicarious_ sacrifice, a plan
+frequently observed in even immature religions. What seems the
+diabolical cruelty of some superstitious rites, those of the
+Carthaginians and Celts, for example, is thoroughly consistent with the
+abstract theory of sacrifice, and did not spring from capricious malice.
+The Death of Christ, regarded as a general vicarious atonement, has had
+its efficiency explained directly by the theory that the pain he
+suffered partook of the infinity of his divine nature; as thus it was
+excruciating beyond measure, so it was infinitely effectual toward
+appeasing divinity.
+
+It is well known that this doctrine was no innovation on the religious
+sentiment of the age when it was preached by the Greek fathers. For
+centuries the Egyptian priests had taught the incarnation and sufferings
+of Osiris, and his death for the salvation of his people. Similar myths
+were common throughout the Orient, all drawn from the reasoning I have
+mentioned.[222-1]
+
+They have been variously criticized. Apart from the equivocal traits
+this theory of atonement attributes to the supernatural powers--a
+feature counterbalanced, in modern religion, by subduing its harshest
+features--it is rooted essentially in the material view of religion. The
+religious value of an act is to be appraised by the extent to which it
+follows recognition of duty. To acknowledge an error is unpleasant; to
+renounce it still more so, for it breaks a habit; to see our own errors
+in their magnitude, sullying our whole nature and reaching far ahead to
+generations yet unborn, is consummately bitter, and in proportion as it
+is bitter, will keep us from erring.[223-1] This is the "sacrifice of a
+contrite heart," which alone is not despicable; and this no one can do
+for us. We may be sure that neither the physical pain of victims burning
+in a slow fire, nor the mental pain of yielding up whatever we hold
+dearest upon earth, will make our views of duty a particle clearer or
+our notion of divinity a jot nobler; and whatever does neither of these
+is not of true religion.
+
+The theory of sacrifice is intimately related with the idea of sin. In
+the quotation I have made from Father Brebeuf we see that the Hurons
+recognized a distinct form of rite as appropriate to appease a god when
+angered. It is a matter of national temperament which of these forms
+takes the lead. Joutel tells of a tribe in Texas who paid attention only
+to the gods who worked them harm, saying that the good gods were good
+anyhow. By parity of reasoning, one sect of Mohammedans worship the
+devil only. It is well to make friends with your enemy, and then he will
+not hurt you; and if a man is shielded from his enemies, he is safe
+enough.
+
+But where, as in most Semitic, Celtic and various other religions, the
+chief gods frowned or smiled as they were propitiated or neglected, and
+when a certain amount of pain was the propitiation they demanded, the
+necessity of rendering this threw a dark shadow on life. What is the
+condition of man, that only through sorrow he can reach joy? He must be
+under a curse.
+
+Physical and mental processes aided by analogy this gloomy deduction. It
+is only through pain that we are stimulated to the pursuit of pleasure,
+and the latter is a phantom we never catch. The laws of correct
+reasoning are those which alone should guide us; but the natural laws of
+the association of ideas do not at all correspond with the one
+association which reason accepts. Truth is what we are born for, error
+is what is given us.
+
+Instead of viewing this state of things as one inseparable to the
+relative as another than the universal, and, instead of seeing the means
+of correcting it in the mental element of attention, continuance or
+volition, guided by experience and the growing clearness of the purposes
+of the laws of thought, the problem was given up as hopeless, and man
+was placed under a ban from which a god alone could set him free; he was
+sunk in original sin, chained to death.
+
+To reach this result it is evident that a considerable effort at
+reasoning, a peculiar view of the nature of the gods, and a temperament
+not the most common, must be combined. Hence it was adopted as a
+religious dogma by but a few nations. The Chinese know nothing of the
+"sense of sin," nor did the Greeks and Romans. The Parsees do not
+acknowledge it, nor do the American tribes. "To sin," in their
+languages, does not mean to offend the deity, but to make a mistake, to
+miss the mark, to loose one's way as in a wood, and the missionaries
+have exceeding difficulty in making them understand the theological
+signification of the word.
+
+The second class of rites are memorial in character. As the former were
+addressed to the gods, so these are chiefly for the benefit of the
+people. They are didactic, to preserve the myth, or institutionary, to
+keep alive the discipline and forms of the church.
+
+Of this class of rites it may broadly be said they are the myth
+dramatized. Indeed, the drama owes its origin to the mimicry by
+worshippers of the supposed doings of the gods. The most ancient
+festivals have reference to the recurrence of the seasons, and the
+ceremonies which mark them represent the mythical transactions which are
+supposed to govern the yearly changes. The god himself was often
+represented by the
+
+high priest, and masked figures took the parts of attendant deities.
+
+Institutionary rites are those avowedly designed to commemorate a myth
+or event, and to strengthen thereby the religious organization.
+Christian baptism is by some denominations looked upon as a
+commemorative or institutionary rite only; and the same is the case with
+the Lord's Supper. These seem to have been the only rites recommended,
+though the former was not practiced by Christ. In any ordinary meaning
+of his words, he regarded them both as institutionary.
+
+The tendency of memorial to become propitiatory rites is visible in all
+materialistic religions. The procedure, from a simple commemorative act,
+acquires a mystic efficacy, a supernatural or spiritual power, often
+supposed to extend to the deity as well as the votary. Thus the Indian
+"rain-maker" will rattle his gourd, beat his drum, and blow through his
+pipe, to represent the thunder, lightning, and wind of the storm; and
+he believes that by this mimicry of the rain-god's proceedings he can
+force him to send the wished-for showers. The charms, spells and
+incantations of sorcery have the same foundation. Equally visible is it
+in the reception of the Christian rites above mentioned, baptism and the
+Eucharist, as "sacraments," as observances of divine efficacy in
+themselves. All such views arise from the material character of the
+religious wants.
+
+The conclusion is that, while emblems and memorial rites have nothing in
+them which can mar, they also have nothing which can aid the growth and
+purity of the religious sentiment, beyond advancing its social
+relations; while symbols, in the proper sense of the term, and
+propitiatory rites, as necessarily false and without foundation, always
+degrade and obscure religious thought. Their prominence in a cult
+declines, as it rises in quality; and in a perfected scheme of worship
+they would have no place whatever.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[200-1] In his chapter _Ideen zu einer Physik des Symbols und des
+Mythus_, of his _Symbolik und Mythologie_.
+
+[201-1] Dr. H. C. Barlow's _Essays on Symbolism_ (London, 1866),
+deserves mention as one of the best of these.
+
+[204-1] W. S. Jevons, _The Substitution of Similars_, p. 15 (London,
+1869.)
+
+[205-1] Creuzer, _Symbolik_, Bd. I, s. 59.
+
+[207-1] _Ursprung der Mythologie_ (Berlin, 1862).
+
+[208-1] Harrison Allen, M. D., _The Life Form in Art_, Phila. 1874.
+
+[210-1] Cussans, _Grammar of Heraldry_, p. 16.
+
+[212-1] Numerous examples from classical antiquity are given by Creuzer,
+_Symbolik_, Bd. i. s. 114. sqq.
+
+[214-1] W. von Humboldt, _Gesammelte Werke_, Bd. iv., s. 332.
+
+[214-2] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie_, Bd. i., s. 282.
+
+[214-3] Carl Frederick Koppen, _Die Lamaische Hierarchie and[TN-13]
+Kirche_, ss. 59, 60, 61.
+
+[219-1] Adolph Holtzmann, _Deutsche Mythologie_, p. 232 (Leipzig, 1874).
+
+[222-1] "Es ist so gewissermassen in allen ernsten orientalischen Lehren
+das Christenthum in seinem Keime vorgebildet." Creuzer, _Symbolik und
+Mythologie der Alten V�lker_, Bd. i., s. 297.
+
+[223-1] In a conversation reported by Mr. John Morley, John Stuart Mill
+expressed his belief that "the coming modification of religion" will be
+controlled largely through men becoming "more and more impressed with
+the awful fact that a piece of conduct to-day may prove a curse to men
+and women scores and even hundreds of years after the author of it is
+dead."
+
+
+
+
+THE MOMENTA OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     National impulses and aims as historic ideas. Their recurrence and
+     its explanation. Their permanence in relation to their truth and
+     consciousness. The historic ideas in religious progress are chiefly
+     three.
+
+     I. The Idea of the Perfected Individual.
+
+     First placed in physical strength. This gave way in Southern Europe
+     to the idea of physical symmetry, a religion of beauty and art.
+     Later days have produced the idea of mental symmetry, the religion
+     of culture. All have failed, and why? The momenta of true religion
+     in each.
+
+     II. The Idea of the Perfected Commonwealth.
+
+     Certain national temperaments predispose to individualism, others
+     to communism. The social relations governed at first by divine law.
+     Later, morality represents this law. The religion of conduct. The
+     religion of sentiment and of humanity. Advantages and disadvantages
+     in this idea.
+
+     Comparisons of these two ideas as completed respectively by Wilhelm
+     von Humboldt and Auguste Comte.
+
+     III. The Idea of Personal Survival.
+
+     The doctrine of immortality the main moment in Christianity, Islam
+     and Buddhism. Unfamiliar to old and simple faiths. Its energy and
+     speculative relations. It is decreasing as a religious moment owing
+     to, (1) a better understanding of ethics, (2) more accurate
+     cosmical conceptions, (3) the clearer defining of life, (4) the
+     increasing immateriality of religions.
+
+     The future and final moments of religious thought.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE MOMENTA OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT.
+
+
+The records of the past can be studied variously. Events can be arranged
+in the order of their occurrence: this is chronology or annals; in
+addition to this, their connections and mutual relations as cause and
+effect may be shown: this is historical science; or, thirdly, from a
+general view of trains of related events some abstract aim as their
+final cause may be theoretically deduced and confirmed by experience:
+this is the philosophy of history. The doctrine of final causes, in its
+old form as the _argumentum de appetitu_, has been superseded. Function
+is not purpose; desire comes from the experience of pleasure, and
+realizes its dreams, if at all, by the slow development of capacity. The
+wish carries no warrant of gratification with it. No "argument from
+design" can be adduced from the region where the laws of physical
+necessity prevail. Those laws are not designed for an end.
+
+When, however, in the unfolding of mind we reach the stage of notions,
+we observe a growing power to accomplish desire, not only by altering
+the individual or race organism, but also by bringing external objects
+into unison with the desire, reversing the process common in the life of
+sensation. This spectacle, however, is confined to man alone, and man as
+guided by prospective volition, that is, by an object ahead.
+
+When some such object is common to a nation or race, it exercises a wide
+influence on its destiny, and is the key to much that otherwise would be
+inexplicable in its actions. What we call national hopes, ambitions and
+ideals are such objects. Sometimes they are distinctly recognized by the
+nation, sometimes they are pursued almost unconsciously. They do not
+correspond to things as they are, but as they are wished to be. Hence
+there is nothing in them to insure their realization. They are like an
+appetite, which may and may not develope the function which can gratify
+it. They have been called "historic ideas," and their consideration is a
+leading topic in modern historical science.
+
+Reason claims the power of criticizing such ideas, and of distinguishing
+in them between what is true and therefore obtainable, and what is false
+and therefore chimerical or even destructive. This is the province of
+the philosophy of history. It guides itself by those general principles
+for the pursuit of truth which have been noticed in brief in the earlier
+pages of this book. Looking before as well as after, it aspires in the
+united light of experience and the laws of mind, to construct for the
+race an ideal within the reach of its capacities, yet which will
+develope them to the fullest extent, a pole-star to which it can trust
+in this night teeming with will-o'-the wisps.
+
+The opinion that the history of mind is a progress whose end will be
+worth more than was its beginning, may not prove true in fact--the
+concrete expression never wholly covers the abstract requirements--but
+it is undoubtedly true in theory. The progress, so far, has been by no
+means a lineal one--each son a better man than his father--nor even, as
+some would have it, a spiral one--periodical recurrences to the same
+historical ideas, but each recurrence a nearer approach to the
+philosophical idea--but it has been far more complex and irregular than
+any geometrical figure will illustrate. These facile generalizations do
+not express it.
+
+Following the natural laws of thought man has erred infinitely, and his
+errors have worked their sure result--they have destroyed him. There is
+no "relish of salvation" in an error; otherwise than that it is sure to
+kill him who obstructs the light by harboring it. There is no sort of
+convertability of the false into the true, as shallow thinkers of the
+day teach.
+
+Man has only escaped death when at first by a lucky chance, and then by
+personal and inherited experience, his thoughts drifted or were forced
+into conformity with the logical laws of thought.
+
+A historic idea is a complex product formed of numerous conceptions,
+some true and others false. Its permanency and efficacy are in direct
+proportion to the number and clearness of the former it embraces. When
+it is purging itself of the latter, the nation is progressive; when the
+false are retained, their poison spreads and the nation decays.
+
+The _periodical recurrence_ of historic ideas is one of their most
+striking features. The explanations offered for it have been various.
+The ancient doctrines of an exact repetition of events in the cycles of
+nature, and of the transmigration of souls, drew much support from it;
+and the modern modification of the latter theory as set forth by
+Wordsworth and Lessing, are distinctly derived from the same source.
+Rightly elucidated, the philosophical historian will find in it an
+invaluable clue to the unravelment of the tangled skein of human
+endeavor.
+
+Historic periodicity is on the one side an organic law of memory,
+dependent upon the revival of transmitted ancestral impressions. A
+prevailing idea though over-cultivation exhausts its organic correlate,
+and leads to defective nutrition of that part in the offspring. Hence
+they do not pursue the same idea as their fathers, but revert to a
+remoter ancestral historic idea, the organic correlate of which has
+lain fallow, thus gained strength. It is brought forth as new, receives
+additions by contiguity and similarity, is ardently pursued,
+over-cultivated, and in time supplanted by another revival.
+
+But this material side corresponds to an all-important mental one. As an
+organic process only, the history of periodic ideas is thus
+satisfactorily explained, but he who holds this explanation to be
+exhaustive sees but half the problem.
+
+The permanence of a historic idea, I have stated, is in direct
+proportion to the number of true ideas in its composition; the
+impression it makes on the organic substrata of memory is in turn in
+proportion to its permanence. The element of decay is the destructive
+effects of natural trains of thought out of accord with the logically
+true trains. These cause defective cerebral nutrition, which is thus
+seen to arise, so far as influenced by the operations of the memory,
+from relations of truth and error. There is a physiological tendency in
+the former to preserve and maintain in activity; in the latter to
+disappear. The percentage of true concepts which makes up the complexity
+of a historic idea gives the principal factor towards calculating its
+probable recurrence. Of course, a second factor is the physiological one
+of nutrition itself.
+
+The next important distinction in discussing historic ideas is between
+those which are held consciously, and those which operate
+unconsciously. The former are always found to be more active, and more
+amenable to correction. An unconscious idea is a product of the natural,
+not the logical laws of mind, and is therefore very apt to be largely
+false. It is always displaced with advantage by a conscious aim.
+
+One of the superficial fallacies of the day, which pass under the name
+of philosophy, is to maintain that any such historic idea is the best
+possible one for the time and place in which it is found. I am led to
+refer to this by the false light it has thrown on religious history.
+Herbert Spencer remarks in one of his essays:[236-1] "All religious
+creeds, during the eras in which they are severally held, are the best
+that could be held." "All are good for their times and places." So far
+from this being the case, there never has been a religion but that an
+improvement in it would have straightway exerted a beneficent effect.
+Man, no matter what his condition, can always derive immediate good
+from higher conceptions of Deity than he himself has elaborated. Nor is
+the highest conception possible an idealization of self, as I have
+sufficiently shown in a previous chapter, but is one drawn wholly from
+the realm of the abstract. Moreover, as a matter of history, we know
+that in abundant instances, the decay of nations can be traced largely
+to the base teachings of their religious instructors. To maintain that
+such religions were "the best possible ones" for the time and place is
+the absurdest optimism. In what a religion shares of the abstractly true
+it is beneficent; in what it partakes of the untrue it is deleterious.
+This, and no other canon, must be our guide.
+
+The ideas of religious history obey the same laws as other historic
+ideas. They grow, decay, are supplanted and revive again in varying
+guises, in accordance with the processes of organic nutrition as
+influenced by the truth or falsity of their component ideas. Their
+tendency to personification is stronger, because of the much greater
+nearness they have to the individual desire. The one aspiration of a
+high-spirited people when subjugated will be freedom; and in the lower
+stages of culture they will be very certain to fabricate a myth of a
+deliverer to come.
+
+In like manner, every member of a community shares with his fellow
+members some wish, hope or ambition dependent on unknown control and
+therefore religious in character, which will become the "formative idea"
+of the national religious development.
+
+Of the various ideas in religious history there are three which, through
+their permanence and frequent revival, we may justly suppose in
+accordance with the above-mentioned canons to contain a large measure of
+truth, and yet to be far from wholly true. They may be considered as
+leading moments in religious growth, yet withal lacking something or
+other essential to the satisfaction of the religious sentiment. The
+first of these is the idea of the _perfected individual_; the second the
+idea of the _perfected commonwealth_; the third, that of _personal
+survival_. These have been the formative ideas (_Ideen der Gestaltung_)
+in the prayers, myths, rites and religious institutions of many nations
+at widely separated times.
+
+Of the two first mentioned it may be said that every extended faith has
+accepted them to some degree. They are the secret of the alliances of
+religion with art, with government, with ethics, with science, education
+and sentiment.
+
+These alliances have often been taken by historians to contain the vital
+elements of religion itself, and many explanations based on one or
+another assumption of the kind have been proffered. Religion, while it
+may embrace any of them, is independent of them all. Its relations to
+them have been transitory, and the more so as their aims have been
+local and material. The brief duration of the subjection of religion to
+such incongenial ties was well compared by Lord Herbert of Cherbury to
+the early maturity of brutes, who attain their full growth in a year or
+two, while man needs a quarter of a century.[239-1] The inferior aims of
+the religious sentiment were discarded one after another to make way for
+higher ones, which were slowly dawning upon it. In this progress it was
+guided largely by the three ideas I have mentioned, which have been in
+many forms leading stimuli of the religious thought of the race.
+
+First, of the _idea of the perfected individual_.
+
+Many writers have supposed that the contemplation of Power in nature
+first stirred religious thought in man. Though this is not the view
+taken in this book, no one will question that the leading trait in the
+gods of barbarism is physical strength. The naive anthropomorphism of
+the savage makes his a god of a mighty arm, a giant in stature, puissant
+and terrible. He hurls the thunderbolt, and piles up the mountains in
+sport. His name is often The Strong One, as in the Allah, Eloah of the
+Semitic tongues. Hercules, Chon, Melkarth, Dorsanes, Thor and others
+were of the most ancient divinities in Greece, Egypt, Phoenicia,
+India, and Scandinavia, and were all embodiments of physical force.
+Such, too, was largely the character of the Algonkin Messou, who
+scooped out the great lakes with his hands and tore up the largest trees
+by the roots. The huge boulders from the glacial epoch which are
+scattered over their country are the pebbles he tossed in play or in
+anger. The cleft in the Andes, through which flows the river Funha, was
+opened by a single blow of Nemqueteba, chief god of the Muyscas. In all
+such and a hundred similar legends, easy to quote, we see the notion of
+strength, brute force, muscular power, was that deemed most appropriate
+to divinity, and that which he who would be godlike must most sedulously
+seek. When filled with the god, the votary felt a surpassing vigor. The
+Berserker fury was found in the wilds of America and Africa, as well as
+among the Fiords. Sickness and weakness, on the contrary, were signs
+that the gods were against him. Therefore, in all early stages of
+culture, the office of priest and physician was one. Conciliation of the
+gods was the catholicon.
+
+Such deities were fearful to behold. They are represented as mighty of
+stature and terrible of mien, calculated to appal, not attract, to
+inspire fear, not to kindle love. In tropical America, in Egypt, in
+Thibet, almost where you will, there is little to please the eye in the
+pictures and statues of deities.
+
+In Greece alone, a national temperament, marvellously sensitive to
+symmetry, developed the combination of maximum strength with perfect
+form in the sun-god, Apollo, and of grace with beauty in Aphrodite. The
+Greeks were the apostles of the religion of beauty. Their philosophic
+thought saw the permanent in the Form, which outlives strength, and is
+that alone in which the race has being. In its transmission love is the
+agent, and Aphrodite, unmatched in beauty and mother of love, was a
+creation worthy of their devotion. Thus with them the religious
+sentiment still sought its satisfaction in the individual, not indeed in
+the muscle, but in the feature and expression.
+
+When the old gods fell, the Christian fathers taught their flocks to
+abhor the beautiful as one with the sensual. St. Clement of Alexandria
+and Tertullian describe Christ as ugly of visage and undersized, a sort
+of Socrates in appearance.[241-1] Christian art was long in getting
+recognition. The heathens were the first to represent in picture and
+statues Christ and the apostles, and for long the fathers of the church
+opposed the multiplication of such images, saying that the inward beauty
+was alone desirable. Christian art reached its highest inspiration under
+the influence of Greek culture after the fall of Constantinople. In the
+very year, however, that Rafaello Sanzio met his premature death, Luther
+burned the decretals of the pope in the market-place of Wittenberg, and
+preached a doctrine as hostile to art as was that of Eusebius and
+Chrysostom. There was no longer any hope for the religion of beauty.
+
+Nevertheless, under the influence of the revival of ancient art which
+arose with Winckelmann towards the close of the last century, a gospel
+of esthetics was preached. Its apostles were chiefly Germans, and among
+them Schiller and Goethe are not inconspicuous names. The latter, before
+his long life was closed, began to see the emptiness of such teachings,
+and the violence perpetrated on the mind by forcing on the religious
+sentiment the food fit only for the esthetic emotions.
+
+The highest conception of individual perfection is reached in a
+character whose physical and mental powers are symmetrically trained,
+and always directed by conscious reason to their appropriate ends.
+Self-government, founded on self-knowledge, wards off the pangs of
+disappointment by limiting ambition to the attainable. The affections
+and emotions, and the pleasures of sensation as well, are indulged in or
+abstained from, but never to the darkening of the intellect. All the
+talents are placed at usury; every power exercised systematically and
+fruitfully with a consecration to a noble purpose.
+
+This is the religion of culture. None other ranks among its adherents so
+many great minds; men, as Carlyle expresses it, of much religiosity, if
+of little religion. The ideal is a taking one. Such utter self-reliance,
+not from ignorance, but from the perfection of knowledge, was that which
+Buddha held up to his followers: "Self is the God of self; who else
+should be the God?" In this century Goethe, Wordsworth, beyond all
+others Wilhelm von Humboldt, have set forth this ideal. Less strongly
+intellectual natures, as Maine de Biran, De Senancourt, and Matthew
+Arnold, listen with admiration, but feel how unknown to the mass of
+human kind must remain the tongue these masters speak.
+
+Thus did the religious sentiment seek its satisfaction in the
+idealization, first of physical force, then of form, and last of mental
+force, but in each case turned away unsatisfied. Wherein did these
+ideals fail? The first mentioned in exalting power over principle, might
+over right. As was well said by the philosophical Novalis: "The ideal of
+morality has no more dangerous rival than the ideal of physical
+strength, of the most vigorous life. Through it man is transformed into
+a reasoning beast, whose brutal cleverness has a fascination for weak
+minds."[243-1] The religion of beauty failed in that it addressed the
+esthetic emotions, not the reasoning power. Art does not promote the
+good; it owes no fealty to either utility or ethics: in itself, it must
+be, in the negative sense of the words, at once useless and immoral.
+"Nature is not its standard, nor is truth its chief end."[244-1] Its
+spirit is repose, "the perfect form in perfect rest;" whereas the spirit
+of religion is action because of imperfection. Even the gods must know
+of suffering, and partake, in incarnations, of the miseries of men.
+
+In the religion of culture what can we blame? That it is lacking in the
+impulses of action through the isolation it fosters; that it is and must
+be limited to a few, for it provides no defense for the weaknesses the
+many inherit; that its tendency is antagonistic to religion, as it cuts
+away the feeling of dependence, and the trust in the unknown; that it
+allows too little to enthusiasm ever to become a power.
+
+On the other hand, what momenta of true religious thought have these
+ideals embraced? Each presents some. Physical vigor, regarded as a sign
+of complete nutrition, is an indispensable preliminary to the highest
+religion. Correct thought cannot be, without sufficient and appropriate
+food. If the nourishment is inadequate, defective energy of the brain
+will be transmitted, and the offspring will revert ancestrally to a
+lower plane of thought. "It thus happens that the minds of persons of
+high religious culture by ancestral descent, and the intermarriage of
+religious families, so strangely end in the production of children
+totally devoid of moral sense and religious sentiment--moral imbeciles
+in short."[245-1] From such considerations of the necessity of physical
+vigor to elevated thought, Descartes predicted that if the human race
+ever attain perfection it will be chiefly through the art of medicine.
+Not alone from emotions of sympathy did the eminent religious teachers
+of past ages maintain that the alleviation and prevention of suffering
+is the first practical duty of man; but it was from a perhaps
+unconscious perception of the antagonism of bodily degeneration to
+mental progress.
+
+So, too, the religion of beauty and art contains an indefeasible germ of
+true religious thought. Art sees the universal in the isolated fact; it
+redeemed the coarse symbol of earlier days by associating it with the
+emotions of joy, instead of fear; commencing with an exaltation of the
+love to sex, it etherealized and ennobled passion; it taught man to look
+elsewhere than to material things for his highest pleasure, for the work
+of art always has its fortune in the imagination and not in the senses
+of the observer; conceptions of order and harmony are familiar to it;
+its best efforts seek to bring all the affairs of life under unity and
+system;[246-1] and thus it strengthens the sentiment of moral
+government, which is the first postulate of religion.
+
+The symmetry of the individual, as understood in the religion of
+culture, is likewise a cherished article of true religion. Thus only can
+it protect personality against the pitfalls of self-negation and
+absorption, which communism and pantheism dig for it. The integrity and
+permanence of the person is the keystone to religion, as it is to
+philosophy and ethics. None but a false teacher would measure our duty
+to our neighbor by a higher standard than our love to ourselves. The
+love of God alone is worthy to obscure it.
+
+Professor Steinthal has said: "Every people has its own religion. The
+national temperament hears the tidings and interprets them as it
+can."[246-2] On the other hand, Humboldt--perhaps the profoundest
+thinker on these subjects of his generation--doubted whether religions
+can be measured in reference to nations and sects, because "religion is
+altogether subjective, and rests solely on the conceptive powers of the
+individual."[247-1] Whatever the creed, a pure mind will attach itself
+to its better elements, a base one to its brutal and narrow doctrines. A
+national religion can only be regarded as an average, applicable to the
+majority, not entirely correct of the belief of any one individual,
+wholly incorrect as to a few. Yet it is indubitable that the national
+temperament creates the ideal which gives the essence of religion. Races
+like the Tartar Mongols, who, as we are informed by the Abb� Huc, not
+unfrequently move their tents several times a day, out of simple
+restlessness, cannot desire the same stability that is sought by other
+races, who have the beaver's instinct for building and colonizing, such
+as the Romans. Buddhism, which sets up the ideal of the individual, is
+an acceptable theory to the former, while the latter, from earliest
+ages, fostered religious views which taught the subordination of the
+individual to the community, in other words, the _idea of the perfected
+commonwealth_.
+
+This is the conception at the base of all theocracies, forms of
+government whose statutes are identified with the precepts of religion.
+Instead of a constitution there is the Law, given and sanctioned by God
+as a rule of action.
+
+The Law is at first the Myth applied. Its object is as much to
+propitiate the gods as to preserve social order. It is absolute because
+it is inspired. Many of its ordinances as drawn from the myth are
+inapplicable to man, and are unjust or frivolous. Yet such as it is, it
+rules the conduct of the commonwealth and expresses the ideal of its
+perfected condition.
+
+All the oldest codes of laws are religious, and are alleged revelations.
+The Pentateuch, the Avesta, the Laws of Manu, the Twelve Tables, the
+Laws of Seleucus, all carry the endorsement, "And God said." Their real
+intention is to teach the relation of man to God, rather than the
+relations of man to man. On practical points--on the rights of property,
+on succession and wills, on contracts, on the adoption of neighbors, and
+on the treatment of enemies--they often violate the plainest dictates of
+natural justice, of common humanity, even of family affection. Their
+precepts are frequently frivolous, sometimes grossly immoral. But if
+these laws are compared with the earliest myths and cults, and the
+opinions then entertained of the gods, and how to propitiate them, it
+becomes easy to see how the precepts of the law flowed from these
+inchoate imaginings of the religious sentiment.[249-1]
+
+The improvement of civil statutes did not come through religion.
+Experience, observation and free thought taught man justice, and his
+kindlier emotions were educated by the desire to cherish and preserve
+which arose from family and social ties. As these came to be recognized
+as necessary relations of society, religion appropriated them,
+incorporated them into her ideal, and even claimed them as her
+revelations. History largely invalidates this claim. The moral progress
+of mankind has been mainly apart from dogmatic teachings, often in
+conflict with them. An established rule of faith may enforce obedience
+to its statutes, but can never develop morals. "True virtue is
+independent of every religion, and incompatible with any which is
+accepted on authority."[249-2]
+
+Yet thinkers, even the best of them, appear to have had difficulty in
+discerning any nobler arena for the religious sentiment than the social
+one. "Religion," says Matthew Arnold, "is conduct." It is the power
+"which makes for righteousness." "As civil law," said Voltaire,
+"enforces morality in public, so the use of religion is to compel it in
+private life." "A complete morality," observes a contemporary Christian
+writer, "meets all the practical ends of religion."[250-1] In such
+expressions man's social relations, his duty to his neighbor, are taken
+to exhaust religion. It is still the idea of the commonwealth, the
+religion of morality, the submission to a law recognized as divine.
+Whether the law is a code of ethics, the decision of a general council,
+or the ten commandments, it is alike held to be written by the finger of
+God, and imperative. Good works are the demands of such religion.
+
+Catholicism, which is altogether theocratic and authoritative, which
+pictures the church as an ideal commonwealth, has always most flourished
+in those countries where the Roman colonies left their more important
+traces. The reformation of Protestantism was a reversion to the ideal of
+the individual, which was that of ancient Teutonic faith. In more recent
+times Catholicism itself has modified the rigidity of its teachings in
+favor of the religion of sentiment, as it has been called, inaugurated
+by Chateaubriand, and which is that attractive form seen in the writings
+of Madame Swetchine and the La Ferronnais. These elevated souls throw a
+charm around the immolation of self, which the egotism of the Protestant
+rarely matches.
+
+Thus the ideal of the commonwealth is found in those creeds which give
+prominence to law, to ethics, and to sentiment, the altruistic elements
+of mind. It fails, because its authority is antagonistic to morality in
+that it impedes the search for the true. Neither is morality religion,
+for it deals with the relative, while religion should guide itself by
+the absolute. Every great religious teacher has violated the morality of
+his day. Even sentiment, attractive as it is, is no ground on which to
+build a church. It is, at best, one of the lower emotional planes of
+action. Love itself, which must be the kernel of every true religion, is
+not in earthly relations an altruistic sentiment. The measure and the
+source of all such love, is self-love. The creed which rejects this as
+its corner stone will build in vain.
+
+While, therefore, the advantages of organization and action are on the
+side of the faiths which see in religion a form of government, they
+present fewer momenta of religious thought than those which encourage
+the greater individuality. All forms and reforms, remarks Machiavelli,
+in one of his notes to Livy, have been brought about by the exertions of
+one man.[251-1] Religious reforms, especially, never have originated in
+majorities. The reformatory decrees of the Council of Trent are due to
+Martin Luther.
+
+Either ideal, raised to its maximum, not only fails to satisfy the
+religious sentiment, but puts upon it a forced meaning, and is therefore
+not what this sentiment asks. This may be illustrated by comparing two
+remarkable works, which, by a singular coincidence, were published in
+the same year, and which better than any others present these ideals
+pushed to their extreme. It is characteristic of them that neither
+professes to treat of religion, but of politics. The one is entitled,
+"_An Attempt to define the limits of Government_," and is by Wilhelm von
+Humboldt; the other is the better known work of Auguste Comte, his
+"_System of Positive Polity_."[252-1]
+
+The first lays down the principle that the highest end of man is the
+utmost symmetrical education of his own powers in their individual
+peculiarities. To accomplish this, he must enjoy the largest freedom of
+thought and action consistent with the recognition of the same right in
+others. In regard to religion, the state should have nothing to do with
+aiding it, but should protect the individual in his opposition to any
+authoritative form of it. As a wholly personal and subjective matter,
+social relations do not concern it. In fine, the aim of both government
+and education should be the development of an individualism in which an
+enlightened intellect controls and directs all the powers toward an
+exalted self-cultivation.
+
+Comte reverses this picture. His fundamental principle is to subordinate
+the sum total of our existence to our social relations; real life is to
+live in others; not the individual but humanity is the only worthy
+object of effort. Social polity therefore includes the whole of
+development; the intellect should have no other end but to subserve the
+needs of the race, and always be second to the altruistic sentiments.
+Love toward others should absorb self-love. "_Il est encore meilleur
+d'aimer que d'�tre aim�._"
+
+Such is the contrast between the ideal of the individual as exhibited by
+the Religion of Culture, and the ideal of the commonwealth as portrayed
+in the Religion of Humanity.
+
+The whole duty of man, says the one school, is to live for others; nay,
+says the other, it is to live intelligently for himself; the intellect,
+says the former, should always be subordinated to society, and be led by
+the emotions; intellect, says the latter, should ever be in the
+ascendant, and absolutely control and direct the emotions; the
+theoretical object of government, says the former, is to enable the
+affections and thoughts to pass into action; not so, says the latter,
+its only use is to give the individual secure leisure to develope his
+own affections and thoughts. Mutual relation is the key note of the
+former, independence of the latter; the former is the apotheosis of
+love, the latter of reason.
+
+Strictly and literally the apotheosis. For, differing as they do on such
+vital points, they both agree in dispensing with the ideas of God and
+immortality as conceptions superfluous in the realization of the
+theoretical perfection they contemplate. Not that either scheme omits
+the religious sentiment. On the contrary, it is especially prominent in
+one, and very well marked in the other. Both assume its growing
+prominence, never its extinction. Both speak of it as an integral part
+of man's highest nature.
+
+Comte and Humboldt were thinkers too profound to be caught by the facile
+fallacy that the rapid changes in religious thought betoken the early
+abrogation of all creeds. Lessing, the philosophers of the French
+revolution, James Mill, Schopenhauer and others fell into this error.
+They were not wiser than the clown of Horace, who seated himself by the
+rushing stream, thinking it must soon run itself out--
+
+    Expectat rusticus dum defluat amnis; at ille
+    Labitur et labetur in omne volubilis �vum.
+
+Vain is the dream that man will ever reach the point when he will think
+no more of the gods. Dogmas may disappear, but religion will flourish;
+destroy the temple and sow it with salt, in a few days it rises again
+built for aye on the solid ground of man's nature.
+
+So long as the race is upon earth, just so long will the religious
+sentiment continue to crave its appropriate food, and this at last is
+recognized even by those who estimate it at the lowest. "To yield this
+sentiment reasonable satisfaction," observes Professor Tyndall in one of
+his best known addresses, "is the problem of problems at the present
+hour. It is vain to oppose it with a view to its extirpation." The
+"general thaw of theological creeds," which Spencer remarks upon, is no
+sign of the loss of interest in religious subjects, but the reverse.
+Coldness and languor are the premonitions of death, not strife and
+defence.
+
+But as the two moments of religious thought which I have now discussed
+have both reached their culmination in a substantial repudiation of
+religion, that which stimulates the religious sentiment to-day must be
+something different from either. This I take to be the _idea of personal
+survival_ after physical death, or, as it is generally called, the
+doctrine of the immortality of the soul.
+
+This is the main dogma in the leading religions of the world to-day. "A
+God," remarks Sir William Hamilton, speaking for the enlightened
+Christians of his generation, "is to us of practical interest, only
+inasmuch as he is the condition of our immortality."[256-1] In his
+attractive work, _La Vie Eternelle_, whose large popularity shows it to
+express the prevailing views of modern Protestant thought, Ernest
+Naville takes pains to distinguish that Christianity is not a means of
+living a holy life so much as one of gaining a blessed hereafter. The
+promises of a life after death are numerous and distinct in the New
+Testament. Most of the recommendations of action and suffering in this
+world are based on the doctrine of compensation in the world to come.
+
+Mohammed taught the same tenet with equal or even greater emphasis. In
+one sura he says: "To whatever is evil may they be likened who believe
+not in a future life;" and elsewhere: "As for the blessed ones--their
+place is Paradise. There shall they dwell so long as the heavens and the
+earth endure, enjoying the imperishable bounties of God. But as for
+those who shall be consigned to misery, their place is the Fire. There
+shall they abide so long as the heavens and the earth shall last, unless
+God wills it otherwise."[256-2]
+
+In Buddhism, as generally understood, the doctrine of a future life is
+just as clear. Not only does the soul wander from one to another animal
+body, but when it has completed its peregrinations and reaches its final
+abode, it revels in all sorts of bliss. For the condition of Nirvana,
+understood by philosophical Buddhists as that of the extinction of
+desires even to the desire of life, and of the complete enlightenment of
+the mind even to the recognition that existence itself is an illusion,
+has no such meaning to the millions who profess themselves the followers
+of the sage of Kapilavastu. They take it to be a material Paradise with
+pleasures as real as those painted by Mohammed, wherein they will dwell
+beyond all time, a reward for their devotions and faith in this life.
+
+These three religions embrace three-fourths of the human race and all
+its civilized nations, with trifling exceptions. They displaced and
+extinguished the older creeds and in a few centuries controlled the
+earth; but as against each other their strife has been of little avail.
+The reason is, they share the same momentum of religious thought,
+differing in its interpretation not more among themselves than do
+orthodox members of either faith in their own fold. Many enlightened
+Muslims and Christians, for example, consider the descriptions of
+Paradise given in the Koran and the Apocalypse to convey wholly
+spiritual meanings.
+
+There has been so much to surprise in the rapid extension of these
+faiths that the votaries of each claim manifest miraculous
+interposition. The religious idea of an after life is a sufficient
+moment to account for the phenomenon. I say the _religious_ idea, for,
+with one or two exceptions, however distinct had been the belief in a
+hereafter, that belief had not a religious coloring until they gave it
+such. This distinction is an important one.
+
+Students of religions have hitherto attributed too much weight to the
+primitive notion of an existence after death. It is common enough, but
+it rarely has anything at all to do with the simpler manifestations of
+the religious sentiment. These are directed to the immediate desires of
+the individual or the community, and do not look beyond the present
+life. The doctrine of compensation hereafter is foreign to them. I have
+shown this at length so far as the religions of America were concerned.
+"Neither the delights of a heaven on the one hand, nor the terrors of a
+hell on the other were ever held out by priests or sages as an incentive
+to well doing, or a warning to the evil disposed."[258-1] The same is
+true of the classical religions of Greece and Rome, of Carthage and
+Assyria. Even in Egypt the manner of death and the rites of interment
+had much more to do with the fate of the soul, than had its thoughts
+and deeds in the flesh. The opinions of Socrates and Plato on the soul
+as something which always existed and whose after life is affected by
+its experiences here, struck the Athenians as novel and innovating.
+
+On the other hand, the ancient Germans had a most lively faith in the
+life hereafter. Money was loaned in this world to be repaid in the next.
+But with them also, as with the Aztecs, the future was dependent on the
+character or mode of death rather than the conduct of life. He who died
+the "straw-death" on the couch of sickness looked for little joy in the
+hereafter; but he who met the "spear-death" on the field of battle went
+at once to Odin, to the hall of Valhalla, where the heroes of all time
+assembled to fight, eat boar's fat and drink beer. Even this rude belief
+gave them such an ascendancy over the materialistic Romans, that these
+distinctly felt that in the long run they must succumb to a bravery
+which rested on such a mighty moment as this.[259-1]
+
+The Israelites do not seem to have entertained any general opinion on an
+existence after death. No promise in the Old Testament refers to a
+future life. The religion there taught nowhere looks beyond the grave.
+It is materialistic to the fullest extent. Hence, a large body of
+orthodox Jewish philosophers, the Sadducees, denied the existence of the
+soul apart from the body.
+
+The central doctrine of the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, the leading
+impulse which he gave to the religious thought of his age, was that the
+thinking part of man survives his physical death, and that its condition
+does not depend on the rites of interment, as other religions then
+taught,[260-1] but on the character of its thoughts during life here.
+Filled with this new and sublime idea, he developed it in its numerous
+applications, and drew from it those startling inferences, which, to
+this day, stagger his followers, and have been in turn, the terror and
+derision of his foes. This he saw, that against a mind inwardly
+penetrated with the full conviction of a life hereafter, obtainable
+under known conditions, the powers of this world are utterly futile, and
+its pleasures hollow phantoms.
+
+The practical energy of this doctrine was immensely strengthened by
+another, which is found very obscurely, if at all, stated in his own
+words, but which was made the central point of their teaching by his
+immediate followers. The Christianity they preached was not a
+philosophical scheme for improving the race, but rested on the
+historical fact of a transaction between God and man, and while they
+conceded everlasting existence to all men, all would pass it in the
+utmost conceivable misery, except those who had learned of these
+historical events, and understood them as the church prescribed.
+
+As the ancient world placed truth in ideas and not in facts, no teaching
+could well have been more radically contrary to its modes of thought;
+and the doctrine once accepted, the spirit of proselytizing came with
+it.
+
+I have called this idea a new one to the first century of our era, and
+so it was in Europe and Syria. But in India, Sakyamuni, probably five
+hundred years before, had laid down in sententious maxims the
+philosophical principle which underlies the higher religious doctrine of
+a future life. These are his words, and if through the efforts of
+reasoning we ever reach a demonstration of the immortality of the soul,
+we shall do it by pursuing the argument here indicated: "Right thought
+is the path to life everlasting. Those who think do not die."[262-1]
+
+Truth alone contains the elements of indefinite continuity; and truth is
+found only in the idea, in correct thought.
+
+Error in the intellectual processes corresponds to pain in sensation; it
+is the premonition of waning life, of threatened annihilation; it
+contains the seed of cessation of action or death. False reasoning is
+self-destructive. The man who believes himself invulnerable will
+scarcely survive his first combat. A man's true ideas are the most he
+can hope, and all that he should wish, to carry with him to a life
+hereafter. Falsehood, sin, is the efficient agent of death. As Bishop
+Hall says: "There is a kind of not-being in sin; for sin is not an
+existence of somewhat that is, but a deficiency of that rectitude which
+should be; it is a privation, as blindness is a privation of sight."
+
+While the religious doctrine of personal survival has thus a position
+defensible on grounds of reason as being that of the inherent permanence
+of self-conscious truth, it also calls to its aid and indefinitely
+elevates the most powerful of all the emotions, _love_. This, as I have
+shown in the second chapter, is the sentiment which is characteristic
+of _preservative_ acts. Self-love, which is prominent in the idea of the
+perfected individual, sex-love, which is the spirit of the multiform
+religious symbolism of the reproductive act, and the love of race, which
+is the chief motor in the religion of humanity, are purified of their
+grosser demands and assigned each its meet post in the labor of uniting
+the conceptions of the true under the relation of personality.
+
+The highest development of which such love is capable arises through the
+contemplation of those verities which are abstract and eternal, and
+which thus set forth, to the extent the individual mind is capable of
+receiving it, the completed notion of diuturnity. This highest love is
+the "love of God." A Supreme Intelligence, one to which all truth is
+perfect, must forever dwell in such contemplation. Therefore the deeper
+minds of Christianity define man's love of God, as God's love to
+himself. "Eternal life," says Ernest Naville, "is in its principle the
+union with God and the joy that results from that union."[263-1] The
+pious William Law wrote: "No man can reach God with his love, or have
+union with Him by it, but he who is inspired with that one same spirit
+of love, with which God loved himself from all eternity, before there
+was any creation."[264-1]
+
+Attractive as the idea of personal survival is in itself, and potent as
+it has been as a moment of religious thought, it must be ranked among
+those that are past. While the immortality of the soul retains its
+interest as a speculative inquiry, I venture to believe that as an idea
+in religious history, it is nigh inoperative; that as an element in
+devotional life it is of not much weight; and that it will gradually
+become less so, as the real meaning of religion reaches clearer
+interpretations.
+
+Its decay has been progressive, and common to all the creeds which
+taught it as a cardinal doctrine, though most marked in Christianity. A
+century ago Gibbon wrote: "The ancient Christians were animated by a
+contempt for their present existence, and by a just confidence of
+immortality, of which the doubtful but imperfect faith of modern ages
+cannot give us any adequate notion."[264-2] How true this is can be
+appreciated only by those who study this doctrine in the lives and
+writings of the martyrs and fathers of the primitive church.
+
+The breach which Gibbon remarked has been indefinitely widened since his
+time. What has brought this about, and what new moment in religious
+thought seems about to supply its place, will form an appropriate close
+to the present series of studies. In its examination, I shall speak only
+of Christian thought, since it leads the way which other systems will
+ultimately follow.
+
+In depicting the influences which have led and are daily leading with
+augmented force to the devitalizing of the doctrine of immortality, I
+may with propriety confine myself to those which are themselves strictly
+religious. For the change I refer to is not one brought about by the
+opponents of religion, by materialistic doctrines, but is owing to the
+development of the religious sentiment itself. Instead of tending to an
+abrogation of that sentiment, it may be expected to ennoble its
+emotional manifestations and elevate its intellectual conceptions.
+
+Some of these influences are historical, as the repeated disappointments
+in the second coming of Christ, and the interest of proselytizing
+churches to interpret this event allegorically. Those which I deem of
+more importance, however, are such as are efficient to-day, and probably
+will continue to be the main agents in the immediate future of religious
+development. They are:
+
+(1.) The recognition of the grounds of ethics.
+
+(2.) The recognition of the cosmical relations.
+
+(3.) The clearer defining of life.
+
+(4.) The growing immateriality of religious thought.
+
+(1.) The authority of the Law was assumed in the course of time by most
+Christian churches, and the interests of morality and religion were
+claimed to be identical. The Roman church with its developed casuistry
+is ready to prescribe the proper course of conduct in every emergency;
+and if we turn to many theological writers of other churches, Dick's
+_Philosophy of Religion_ for instance, we find moral conduct regarded as
+the important aim of the Christian life. Morality without religion,
+works without faith, are pronounced to be of no avail in a religious,
+and of very questionable value in a social sense. Some go so far as to
+deny that a person indifferent to the prevailing tenets of religion can
+lead a pure and moral life. Do away with the belief in a hereafter of
+rewards and punishments, say these, and there is nothing left to
+restrain men from the worst excesses, or at least from private sin.
+
+Now, however, the world is growing to perceive that morality is
+separable from religion; that it arose independently, from a gradual
+study of the relations of man to man, from principles of equity inherent
+in the laws of thought, and from considerations of expediency which
+deprive its precepts of the character of universality. Religion is
+subjective, and that in which it exerts an influence on morality is not
+its contents, but the reception of them peculiar to the individual.
+Experience alone has taught man morals; pain and pleasure are the forms
+of its admonitions; and each generation sees more clearly that the
+principles of ethics are based on immutable physical laws. Moreover, it
+has been shown to be dangerous to rest morality on the doctrine of a
+future life; for apart from the small effect the terrors of a hereafter
+have on many sinners, as that doctrine is frequently rejected, social
+interests suffer. And, finally, it is debasing and hurtful to religion
+to make it a substitute for police magistracy.[267-1]
+
+The highest religion would certainly enforce the purest morality; but it
+is equally true that such a religion would enjoin much not approved by
+the current opinions of the day. The spirit of the reform inaugurated by
+Luther was a protest against the subjection of the religious sentiment
+to a moral code. With the independence thus achieved, it came to be
+recognized that to the full extent that morality is essential to
+religion, it can be reached as well or better without a system of
+rewards and punishments after death, than with one. Both religion and
+morality stand higher, when a conception of an after life for this
+purpose is dropped.
+
+(2.) The recognition of the cosmical relations has also modified the
+views of personal survival. The expansion of the notions of space and
+time by the sciences of geology and astronomy has, as I before remarked,
+done away with the ancient belief that the culminating catastrophe of
+the universe will be the destruction of this world. An insignificant
+satellite of a third rate sun, which, with the far grander suns whose
+light we dimly discern at night, may all be swept away in some flurry of
+"cosmical weather," that the formation or the dissolution of such a body
+would be an event of any beyond the most insignificant importance, is
+now known to be almost ridiculous. To assert that at the end of a few or
+a few thousand years, on account of events transpiring on the surface of
+this planet, the whole relationship of the universe will be altered, a
+new heaven and a new earth be formed, and all therein be made
+subservient to the joys of man, becomes an indication of an arrogance
+which deserves to be called a symptom of insanity. Thus, much of the
+teleology both of the individual and the race taught by the primitive
+and medieval church undergoes serious alterations. The literal meaning
+of the millennium, the New Jerusalem, and the reign of God on earth has
+been practically discarded.
+
+With the disappearance of the ancient opinion that the universe was
+created for man, the sun to light him by day and the stars by night,
+disappeared also the later thesis that the happiness or the education of
+man was the aim of the Order in Things. The extent and duration of
+matter, if they indicate any purpose at all, suggest one incomparably
+vaster than this; while the laws of mind, which alone distinctly point
+to purpose, reveal one in which pain and pleasure have no part or lot,
+and one in which man has so small a share that it seems as if it must be
+indifferent what his fate may be. The slightest change in the atmosphere
+of the globe will sweep away his species forever.
+
+Schopenhauer classified all religions as optimisms or pessimisms. The
+faith of the future will be neither. What is agreeable or disagreeable
+to man will not be its standard of the excellence of the universe.
+However unwillingly, he is at last brought to confess that his comfort
+is not the chief nor even any visible aim of the order in things. In the
+course of that order it may be, nay, it is nigh certain, that the human
+species will pass through decadence to extinction along with so many
+other organisms. Neither as individuals nor as a race, neither in regard
+to this life nor to the next, does the idea of God, when ennobled by a
+contemplation of the cosmical relations, permit to man the effrontery
+of claiming that this universe and all that therein is was made with an
+eye to his wants and wishes, whether to gratify or to defeat them.
+
+(3.) The closer defining of life as a result of physical force, and the
+recognition of mind as a connotation of organism, promise to be active
+in elevating religious conceptions, but at the expense of the current
+notions of personality. Sensation and voluntary motion are common to the
+fetus, the brute and the plant, as well as to man. They are not part of
+his "soul." Intellect and consciousness, as I have shown, exclude
+sensation, and in these, if anywhere, he must look for his immortal
+part. Even here, error works destruction, and ignorance plants no seed
+of life. We are driven back to the teaching of Buddha, that true thought
+alone is that which does not die.
+
+Why should we ask more? What else is worth saving? Our present
+personality is a train of ideas base and noble, true and false, coherent
+through the contiguity of organs nourished from a common center. Another
+personality is possible, one of true ideas coherent through conscious
+similarity, independent of sensation, as dealing with topics not
+commensurate with it. Yet were this refuge gained, it leaves not much of
+the dogma that every man has an indestructible conscious soul, which
+will endure always, no matter what his conduct or thoughts have been.
+Rather does it favor the opinion expressed so well by Matthew Arnold in
+one of his sonnets:
+
+    "He who flagged not in the earthly strife
+    From strength to strength advancing--only he,
+    His soul well knit and all his battles won,
+    Mounts, and that hardly, to eternal life."
+
+Not only has the received doctrine of a "soul," as an undying something
+different from mind and peculiar to man, received no support from a
+closer study of nature,--rather objections amounting to refutation,--but
+it has reacted injuriously on morals, and through them on religion
+itself. Buddha taught that the same spark of immortality exists in man
+and brute, and actuated by this belief laid down the merciful rule to
+his disciples: "Do harm to no breathing thing." The apostle Paul on the
+other hand, recognizing in the lower animals no such claim on our
+sympathy, asks with scorn: "Doth God care for oxen?" and actually strips
+from a humane provision of the old Mosaic code its spirit of charity, in
+order to make it subserve a point in his polemic.
+
+(4.) As the arrogance of the race has thus met a rebuke, so has the
+egotism of the individual. His religion at first was a means of securing
+material benefits; then a way to a joyous existence beyond the tomb: the
+love of self all the time in the ascendant.
+
+This egoism in the doctrine of personal survival has been repeatedly
+flung at it by satirists, and commented on by philosophers. The
+Christian who "hopes to be saved by grossly believing" has been felt on
+all hands to be as mean in his hope, as he is contemptible in his way of
+attaining it. To center all our religious efforts to the one end of
+getting joy--however we may define it--for our individual selves, has
+something repulsive in it to a deeply religious mind. Yet that such in
+the real significance of the doctrine of personal survival is granted by
+its ablest defenders. "The general expectation of future happiness can
+afford satisfaction only as it is a present object to the principle of
+self-love," says Dr. Butler, the eminent Lord Bishop of Durham, than
+whom no acuter analyst has written on the religious nature of man.
+
+Yet nothing is more certain than that the spirit of true religion wages
+constant war with the predominance or even presence of selfish aims.
+Self-love is the first and rudest form of the instinct of preservation.
+It is sublimed and sacrificed on the altar of holy passion. "Self,"
+exclaims the fervid William Law, "is both atheist and idolater; atheist,
+because it rejects God; idolater, because it is its own idol." Even when
+this lowest expression of the preservative instinct rises but to the
+height of sex-love, it renounces self, and rejoices in martyrdom. "All
+for love, or the world well lost," has been the motto of too many
+tragedies to be doubted now. By the side of the ancient Roman or the
+soldier of the French revolution, who through mere love of country
+marched joyously to certain death from which he expected no waking, does
+not the martyr compare unfavorably, who meets the same death, but does
+so because he believes that thereby he secures endless and joyous life?
+Is his love as real, as noble, as unselfish?
+
+Even the resistless physical energy which the clear faith in the life
+hereafter has so often imparted, becomes something uncongenial to the
+ripened religious meditation. Such faith brings about mighty effects in
+the arena of man's struggles, but it does so through a sort of
+mechanical action. An ulterior purpose is ahead, to wit, the salvation
+of the soul, and it may be regarded as one of the best established
+principles of human effort that every business is better done, when it
+is done for its own sake, out of liking for it, than for results
+expected from it.
+
+Of nothing is this more just than religion. Those blossoms of spiritual
+perfection, the purified reason, the submissive will, the sanctifying
+grace of abstract ideas, find no propitious airs amid the violent toil
+for personal survival, whether that is to be among the mead jugs of
+Valhalla, the dark-eyed houris of Paradise, or the "solemn troops and
+sweet society" of Christian dreams. Unmindful of these, the saintly
+psyche looks to nothing beyond truth; it asks no definite, still less
+personal, end to which this truth is to be applied; to find it is to
+love it, and to love it is enough.
+
+The doctrine I here broach, is no strange one to Christian thought. To
+be sure the exhortation, "Save your soul from Hell," was almost the sole
+incentive to religion in the middle ages, and is still the burden of
+most sermons. But St. Paul was quickened with a holier fire, that
+consumed and swept away such a personal motive, when he wrote: "Yea, I
+could wish that I myself were cast out from Christ as accursed, for the
+sake of my brethren, my kinsmen according to the flesh."[274-1] St.
+Augustine reveals the touch of the same inspiration in his passionate
+exclamation: "Far, O Lord, far from the heart of thy servant be it that
+I should rejoice in any joy whatever. The blessed life is the joy in
+truth alone."[274-2] And amid the p�ans to everlasting life which fill
+the pages of the _De Imitatione Christi_, the medieval monk saw
+something yet greater, when he puts in the mouth of God the Father, the
+warning: "The wise lover thinks not of the gift, but of the love of the
+giver. He rests not in the reward, but in Me, beyond all
+rewards."[275-1] The mystery of great godliness is, that he who has it
+is as one who seeking nothing yet finds all things, who asking naught
+for his own sake, neither in the life here nor yet hereafter, gains that
+alone which is of worth in either.
+
+Pressed by such considerations, the pious Schleiermacher threw down the
+glaive on the side of religion half a century ago when he wrote: "Life
+to come, as popularly conceived, is the last enemy which speculative
+criticism has to encounter, and, if possible, to overcome." The course
+he marked out, however, was not that which promises success. Recurring
+to the austere theses of Spinoza, he sought to bring them into accord
+with a religion of emotion. The result was a refined Pantheism with its
+usual deceptive solutions.
+
+What recourse is left? Where are we to look for the intellectual moment
+of religion in the future? Let us review the situation.
+
+The religious sentiment has been shown to be the expression of
+unfulfilled desire, but this desire peculiar as dependent on unknown
+power. Material advantages do not gratify it, nor even spiritual joy
+when regarded as a personal sentiment. Preservation by and through
+relation with absolute intelligence has appeared to be the meaning of
+that "love of God" which alone yields it satisfaction. Even this is
+severed from its received doctrinal sense by the recognition of the
+speculative as above the numerical unity of that intelligence, and the
+limitation of personality which spiritual thought demands. The eternal
+laws of mind guarantee perpetuity to the extent they are obeyed--and no
+farther. They differ from the laws of force in that they convey a
+message which cannot be doubted concerning the purport of the order in
+nature, which is itself "the will of God." That message in its
+application is the same which with more or less articulate utterance
+every religion speaks--Seek truth: do good. Faith in that message,
+confidence in and willing submission to that order, this is all the
+religious sentiment needs to bring forth its sweetest flowers, its
+richest fruits.
+
+Such is the ample and satisfying ground which remains for the religion
+of the future to build upon. It is a result long foreseen by the clearer
+minds of Christendom. One who more than any other deserves to be classed
+among these writes: "Resignation to the will of God is the whole of
+piety. * * * Our resignation may be said to be perfect when we rest in
+his will as our end, as being itself most just and right and good.
+Neither is this at bottom anything more than faith, and honesty and
+fairness of mind; in a more enlarged sense, indeed, than these words are
+commonly used."[277-1]
+
+Goethe, who studied and reflected on religious questions more than is
+generally supposed, saw that in such a disposition of mind lie the
+native and strongest elements of religion. In one of his conversations
+with Chancellor M�ller, he observed: "Confidence and resignation, the
+sense of subjection to a higher will which rules the course of events
+but which we do not fully comprehend, are the fundamental principles of
+every better religion."[277-2]
+
+By the side of two such remarkable men, I might place the opinion of a
+third not less eminent than they--Blaise Pascal. In one part of his
+writings he sets forth the "marks of a true religion." Sifted from its
+physical ingredients, the faith he defines is one which rests on love
+and submission to God, and a clear recognition of the nature of man.
+
+Here I close these studies on the Religious Sentiment. They show it to
+be a late and probably a final development of mind. The intellect first
+reaches entire self-consciousness, the emotions first attain perfection
+of purpose, when guided by its highest manifestation. Man's history
+seems largely to have been a series of efforts to give it satisfaction.
+This will be possible only when he rises to a practical appreciation of
+the identity of truth, love and life.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[236-1] _Essay on the use of Anthropomorphism._ Mr. Spencer's argument,
+in his own words, is this:--"From the inability under which we labor to
+conceive of a Deity save as some idealization of ourselves, it
+inevitably results that in each age, among each people, and to a great
+extent in each individual, there must arise just that conception of
+Deity best adapted to the needs of the case." "All are good for their
+times and places." "All were beneficent in their effects on those who
+held them." It would be hard to quote from the records of theory-making
+an example of more complete indifference to acknowledged facts than
+these quotations set forth.
+
+[239-1] _De Veritate_, p. 216.
+
+[241-1] August Neander, _Geschichte der Christlichen Religion und
+Kirche_, Bd. i., ss. 160, 346. (Gotha, 1856.) St. Clement's description
+of Christ is ~Ton opsin aischron~. Tertullian says: "Nec human�
+honestatis corpus fuit, nedum celestis claritatis."
+
+[243-1] Novalis, _Schriften_, B. i., s. 244.
+
+[244-1] A. Bain, _The Senses and the Intellect_, p. 607.
+
+[245-1] Dr. T. Laycock, _On some Organic Laws of Memory_, in the
+_Journal of Mental Science_, July, 1875, p. 178.
+
+[246-1] Speaking of the mission of the artist, Wilhelm von Humboldt
+says: "Die ganze Natur, treu und vollst�ndig beobachtet, mit sich
+hin�ber zu tragen, d. h. den Stoff seiner Erfahrungen dem Umfange der
+Welt gleich zu machen, diese ungeheure Masse einzelner und abgerissener
+Erscheinungen in eine l'ungetrennte Einheit und ein organisirtes Ganzes
+zu verwandeln; und dies durch alle die Organe zu thun, die ihm hierzu
+verliehen sind,--ist das letzte Ziel seines intellectuellen Bem�hen."
+_Ueber Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea_, Ab. IV.
+
+[246-2] _Zeitschrift f�r V�lkerpsychologie_, B. I. s. 48.
+
+[247-1] _Gesammelte Werke_. Bd. VII., s. 63.
+
+[249-1] See this forcibly brought out and abundantly illustrated in the
+work of M. Coulange, _La Cit� Antique_.
+
+[249-2] W. von Humboldt, _Gesammelte Werke_. Bd. VII., p. 72.
+
+[250-1] H. L. Liddon, Canon of St. Paul's. _Some Elements of Religion_,
+p. 84.
+
+[251-1] The Chevalier Bunsen completed the moral estimate of the
+one-man-power, thus acknowledged by Machiavelli, in these words: "Alles
+Grosse geht aus vom Einzelnen, _aber nur in dem Masse, als dieser das
+Ich dem Ganzen opfert_." _Gott in der Geschichte_, Bd. I., s. 38.
+
+[252-1] W. von Humboldt, _Ideen zu einem Vorsuch, die Gr�nzen der
+Wirksamkeit des Staats zu bestimmen_, Breslau, 1851. Auguste Comte,
+_Syst�me de Politique Positive_, Paris, 1851-4. The former was written
+many years before its publication.
+
+[256-1] _Lectures on Metaphysics_, Vol. I., p. 23.
+
+[256-2] _The Koran_, Suras xi., xvi.
+
+[258-1] _The Myths of the New World_, Chap. IX.
+
+[259-1] Jacob Grimm quite overlooked this important element in the
+religion of the ancient Germans. It is ably set forth by Adolf
+Holtzmann, _Deutsche Mythologie_, s. 196 sqq. (Leipzig, 1874).
+
+[260-1] The seemingly heartless reply he made to one of his disciples,
+who asked permission to perform the funeral rites at his father's grave:
+"Follow me; and let the dead bury their dead," is an obvious
+condemnation of one of the most widespread superstitions of the ancient
+world. So, according to an ingenious suggestion of Lord Herbert of
+Cherbury, was the fifth commandment of Moses: "Ne parentum seriem
+tanquam primam aliquam causam suspicerent homines, et proinde cultum
+aliquem Divinum illis deferrent, qualem ex honore parentum sperare
+liceat benedictionem, docuit." _De Veritate_, p. 231.
+
+Herbert Spencer in his _Essay on the Origin of Animal Worship_, calls
+ancestral worship "the universal first form of religious belief." This
+is very far from correct, but it is easy to see how a hasty thinker
+would be led into the error by the prominence of the ancient funereal
+ceremonies.
+
+[262-1] Dhammapada, 21.
+
+[263-1] _La Vie Eternelle_, p. 339.
+
+[264-1] _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, Vol. I., ch. XV.
+
+[264-2] _Address to the Clergy_, p. 16.
+
+[267-1] "Toute religion, qu'on se permet de d�fendre comme une croyance
+qu'il est utile de laisser au peuple, ne peut plus esp�rer qu'une agonie
+plus ou moins prolong�e." Condorcet, _De l'Esprit Humain_, Ep. V.
+
+[274-1] _Romans_, ch. ix., v. 3.
+
+[274-2] "Beata quippe vita est gaudium de veritate." Augustini
+_Confessionum_, Lib. x., caps. xxii., xxiii.
+
+[275-1] "Prudens amator non tam donum amantis considerat, quam dantis
+amorem. Nobilis amator non quiescit in dono, sed in me super omne
+donum." _De Imitatione Christi_, Lib. iii., cap. vi.
+
+[277-1] _Fifteen Sermons_ by Joseph Butler, Lord Bishop of Durham.
+Sermon "On the love of God."
+
+[277-2] _Unterhaltungen_, p. 131.
+
+
+
+
+INDICES.
+
+
+I. AUTHORS QUOTED.
+
+  Allen, H., 208.
+
+  Anaxagoras, 106.
+
+  Arnold, M., 249, 271.
+
+  Aristotle, 105.
+
+  Augustine, St., 20, 57, 93, 128, 191, 194, 274.
+
+
+  Bain, A., 9, 25, 52, 59, 87, 91, 244.
+
+  Barlow, H. C., 201.
+
+  Baxter, Richard, 60.
+
+  Boehmer, H., 7.
+
+  Boole, Geo., 24, 44, 104, 105, 108, 111.
+
+  Bunsen, 109, 251.
+
+  Butler, Bishop, 60, 119, 276.
+
+
+  Carlyle, 243.
+
+  Catlow, J. P., 14, 64.
+
+  Chateaubriand, 250.
+
+  Comte, A., 11, 39, 128, 187, 194, 252.
+
+  Condorcet, 267.
+
+  Cory, J. P., 191.
+
+  Coulange, 245.
+
+  Creuzer, 90, 106, 119, 127, 200, 212, 222.
+
+  Cussans, 210.
+
+
+  Dante, 93.
+
+  Darwin, C., 71, 88.
+
+  Dick, 266.
+
+  Dickson, J. T., 73.
+
+
+  Etheridge, J. W., 190.
+
+
+  Ferguson, 66.
+
+  Ferrier, J. F., 20, 28, 43, 97.
+
+  Feuchtersleben, 8, 54, 73.
+
+  Feuerbach, 194.
+
+  Fothergill, J. M., 61.
+
+
+  Gibbon, 264.
+
+  Goethe, 277.
+
+  Gurney, J. J., 119.
+
+
+  Hall, Bishop, 50, 77.
+
+  Hamilton, Sir W., 24, 29, 91, 95, 99, 256.
+
+  Helmholtz, 11, 14, 18, 22.
+
+  Hegel, 29, 88.
+
+  Herbert of Cherbury, 149, 260.
+
+  Hobbes, 81.
+
+  Hodgson, S. N., 104, 126, 128, 134.
+
+  Holtzmann, A., 259.
+
+  Humboldt, A. von, 92.
+
+  Humboldt, W. von, 6, 53, 67, 93, 112, 113, 214, 246, 252.
+
+  Hume, David, 81, 187, 219.
+
+  Hunter, John, 9.
+
+
+  Jacobi, 88.
+
+  Jevons, W. S., 25, 204.
+
+  Kant, I., 25, 29, 32, 40, 91, 105, 194.
+
+
+  Kolk, Schroeder van der, 72.
+
+  Kitto, 74.
+
+  Koppen, 37, 214.
+
+
+  Law, Wm., 49, 87, 263, 272.
+
+  Laycock, 75, 245.
+
+  Lessing, 56, 254.
+
+  Lewes, 187.
+
+  Liddon, H. L., 129, 250.
+
+
+  Mansel, 87, 88.
+
+  Maudsley, H., 9, 150.
+
+  Mill, J. S., 18, 87, 91, 97, 223.
+
+  Mohammed, 71, 75, 114, 256.
+
+  Morell, J. D., 88.
+
+  Morley, J., 223.
+
+  M�ller, 130.
+
+  M�ller, Max, _preface_.
+
+
+  Naville, E., 256, 263.
+
+  Neander, A., 241.
+
+  Novalis, 41, 49, 107, 124, 243.
+
+
+  Oersted, 103.
+
+  Oken, L., 7, 186.
+
+
+  Paget, J., 63.
+
+  Parker, Theo., 88.
+
+  Pascal, 56.
+
+  Plath, 129.
+
+  Rousseau, J. J., 118.
+
+  Saussure, Necker de, 220.
+
+  Schlagintweit, E., 187.
+
+  Schleiermacher, 88, 275.
+
+  Schoolcraft, 63, 146.
+
+  Schopenhauer, A., 11, 13, 51, 82, 91, 269.
+
+  Schwarz, 207.
+
+  Senancourt de, 53, 180.
+
+  Spinoza, 9, 14, 17, 41, 42, 51, 98, 104.
+
+  Spencer, Herbert, 29, 39, 98, 104, 236, 260.
+
+  Swedenborg, 75.
+
+  Steinthal, 101, 246.
+
+  Tertullian, 241.
+
+  Theophilus, 191.
+
+  Thompson, 31.
+
+  Todhunter, 25.
+
+  Tyndall, 87, 132, 255.
+
+  Voltaire, 249.
+
+  Westropp, 62.
+
+  Wigan, A. L., 76.
+
+  Williams, J., 76.
+
+  Wordsworth, 41, 42, 180.
+
+  Windelband, Dr., 101, 102, 108.
+
+
+  II. SUBJECTS.
+
+  Absolute, the, 102, 106.
+    consciousness of, 161.
+
+  Adam, as prophet of the moon, 170.
+
+  Adjita, 178.
+
+  Adonis, 165.
+
+  Aeon, 163, 166.
+
+  Agdistis, an epicene deity, 65.
+
+  Ahura-Mazda, 113, 166, 184.
+
+  Allah, 239.
+
+  Amitabha, 175, 185.
+
+  Analytic propositions, 32.
+
+  Androgynous deities, 66.
+
+  Animism, 163.
+
+  Anointed, the, 176.
+
+  Anya-Mainyus, 166, 184.
+
+  Anthropomorphism, 193.
+
+  Antinomies, of Kant, 29.
+
+  Aphrodite, 65, 241.
+
+  Apocalypse, the, 171.
+
+  Apollo, 67, 241.
+
+  Apperception, 156.
+
+  Apprehension, 142.
+
+  Arab idea of time, 165.
+
+  Argumentum de appetitu, 231.
+
+  Aronhiate, a Huron deity, 221.
+
+  Arrenothele deities, 66.
+
+  Art, religious, in Orient, 15;
+    in Greece, 16;
+    Christian, 209, 241;
+    useless and immoral, 244.
+
+  Assyria, flood myth of, 169.
+
+  Athanasius, his doctrine of the Trinity, 191.
+
+  Atonement, doctrine of, 222.
+
+  Avalokitesvara, 214.
+
+  Aztecs, 80.
+
+
+  Baghavad Gita, the, 189.
+
+  Babylon, rites of, 74.
+
+  Baldur, 176.
+
+  Baptism, 138, 226.
+
+  Beauty, the line of, 15, 211.
+    the religion of, 241, 244, 245.
+
+  Belief, its kinds, 141.
+
+  Brahma, 65, 169.
+
+  Brahmans, highest bliss of, 57;
+    doctrines, 168, 169.
+
+  Breidablick, 176.
+
+  Brutes, religious feeling in, 88.
+
+  Buddha, 37, 57, 80, 120, 146, 156, 261, 271.
+
+  Buddhism, four truths of, 13;
+    theories of prayer, 121, 150, 214;
+    last day, 169;
+    myths, 175, 176;
+    monotheism of, 187, 247, 256.
+
+  Bull, as a symbol, 204.
+
+
+  Cabala, Jehova in, 65.
+
+  Canting arms, 212.
+
+  Cause, not a reason, 38;
+    in physical science, 91.
+
+  Celibacy, Romish, 61.
+
+  Cerebration, unconscious, 149.
+
+  Chance, the idea of, 93.
+
+  Chinese character for prayer, 129.
+
+  Christ, _see_ Jesus.
+
+  Christianity, doctrines of, 190, 257, 264, 274;
+    symbol of, 203.
+
+  Christmas tree, the, 215.
+
+  Cockatrice, the, 77.
+
+  Commonwealth, ideal of, 247.
+
+  Consciousness, forms of, 17, 20.
+
+  Confucius, doctrine, 122, sq.
+
+  Continuity, law of, 11, 16;
+    principle of, 95.
+
+  Contradiction, law of, 27, 102.
+
+  Correspondences, doctrine of, 217.
+
+  Cosmical relations of man, 112, 268.
+
+  Cotytto, 65.
+
+  Cow, as a symbol, 204.
+
+  Craoshan�, 176.
+
+  Creation, myth of, 166.
+
+  Crescent, a phallic symbol, 62.
+
+  Cross, a phallic symbol, 62;
+    as phonetic symbol, 210;
+    variants of, 210.
+
+  Cult, the, 199 sq.
+
+  Culture, religion of, 243, 244, 253.
+
+  Cybele, 65; priests of, 66, 219.
+
+
+  Dactyli, the, 184.
+
+  Darkness, terror of, 185.
+
+  Day of Judgment, the, 172.
+
+  Deity, _see_ God.
+
+  Design, argument from, 110.
+
+  Desire, meaning of, 53.
+
+  Deus, 185; triformis, 191.
+
+  Deva, 185.
+
+  Didactic rites, 225.
+
+  Divination and prayer, 137.
+
+  Dramatic rites, 226.
+
+  Dual law of thought, 27, 102;
+    division of the gods, 182, 183.
+
+
+  Edda, mythology of, 175, 215.
+
+  Eden, garden of, 175.
+
+  Ego, the, 19.
+
+  Egoism of religion, 272.
+
+  Egyptians, doctrines of, 80, 222;
+    prayers, 115;
+    pyramids, 212;
+    lotus of, 214.
+
+  Emotions, origin of, 10;
+    exclude thought, 19;
+    in religion, 49;
+    of fear and hope, 50, 51;
+    esthetic, 14.
+
+  Entheasm, 148.
+
+  Epochs of nature, 164 sq.
+
+  Epicene deities, 66.
+
+  Epilepsy and religious delusions, 75.
+
+  Eros, 72.
+
+  Esculapius, emblem of, 200.
+
+  Esthetic emotions, 14, 244.
+
+  Ethics, grounds of, 266.
+
+  Excluded middle, law of, 27, sqq.
+
+  Expectant attention, 74, 129.
+
+  Explanation, limits of, 38.
+
+
+  Faith in religion, 107.
+
+  Fascination, 74.
+
+  Fear, in religion, 50, sqq.
+
+  Female principle in religion, 62, 183.
+
+  Feridun, garden of, 175.
+
+  Flood, myth of, 169, sq.
+
+  Fingers, as gods, 184.
+
+  Force, orders of, 133.
+
+  Freedom, 105.
+
+  Friends, sect of, _see_ Quakers.
+
+  Future life, doctrine of, 256, sq.
+
+
+  Gallican confession, the, 138.
+
+  Generative function in religion, 62, 72, 73.
+
+  Genius as inspiration, 149.
+
+  Gnosis, the genuine, 74.
+
+  Gnostic doctrines, 166.
+
+  God, as father, 70;
+    spouses of, 69, 71;
+    mother of, 68;
+    sexless, 71;
+    earliest notions of, 78;
+    incomprehensible, 98;
+    throne of, 167;
+    love of, 73, 263, 276.
+
+  Gods,
+    hierarchy of, 181;
+    quantification of the, 186;
+    of lightning, 207.
+
+  Good, final victory of, 179.
+
+  Grasshoppers, prayers against, 131.
+
+  Greeks, art of, 16;
+    doctrines of, 80;
+    sophists, 96.
+
+  Gudmund, King, 175.
+
+
+  Hades, 186.
+
+  Hare, the Great, 212.
+
+  Hell, 186, 258, 274.
+
+  Hercules, 72.
+
+  Hermaphrodite deities, 66.
+
+  Hesperides, the, 175.
+
+  Hierarchy of the gods, 181.
+
+  High places, worship of, 215, 216.
+
+  Historic ideas, 232.
+
+  Holy spirit, as inspiring, 138;
+    brooding, 167.
+
+  Hope, in religion, 51 sqq.
+
+  Hor�, the, 165.
+
+  Humanity, the religion of, 194, 253.
+
+
+  Ignorance, in relation to religion, 82.
+
+  Illumination, 140.
+
+  Immortality, doctrine of, 255.
+
+  Indians, American, 125, 157.
+
+  Insanity, religious, 76.
+
+  Inspiration, 137.
+
+  Intelligence, one in kind, 96;
+    as the first cause, 106, 111.
+
+  Irmin, pillars of, 215.
+
+  Ischomachus, prayer of, 126.
+
+  Israelites, the Messiah of, 176.
+
+
+  Janus, an epicene deity, 65.
+
+  Jehovah, 65, 156.
+
+  Jemschid, king, 175.
+
+  Jesus, face of, 67, 241;
+    conception of, 71;
+    wounds of, 130;
+    wisdom of, 144;
+    as second Noah, 170;
+    teachings, 178, 260;
+    prayer to, 187;
+    execution of, 203;
+    death of, 222.
+
+  Judaism, 187.
+
+  Judgment, day of, 172.
+
+
+  Kalpa, of Brahmans, 168.
+
+  Knowledge, forms of, 21.
+
+  Kosmos, the, 72, 144, 167.
+
+
+  Lateau, Louise, 130.
+
+  Law, defined, 40;
+    of excluded middle, 27;
+    oldest, 248.
+
+  Laws, the, of thought, 26, sq.; 101, sq.;
+    not restrictive, 105;
+    as purposive, 108.
+
+  Light, as object of worship, 185.
+
+  Lightning, the, in symbolic art, 207.
+
+  Life, the perfect, 57.
+
+  Lingam, the, 66.
+
+  Lingayets, sect of, 66.
+
+  Logic, applied, 23;
+    abstract or formal, 24;
+    mathematical, 24;
+    laws of, 101, sq.
+
+  Logos, the, 42, 106.
+
+  Lotus, as symbol, 213, sq.
+
+  Love, as religious emotion, defined, 58, 60, 262;
+    of sex, 61, 63;
+    law of, 73;
+    of God, 73, 263, 276.
+
+
+  Ma, a goddess, 183.
+
+  Maitreya, 176.
+
+  Mamona, a Haitian deity, 68.
+
+  M�rchen, the, defined, 157.
+
+  Marriage condemned, 69.
+
+  Maypole, as a symbol, 215.
+
+  Melitta, 65.
+
+  Memory, physical basis of, 10;
+    ancestral, 75.
+
+  Memorial, rites, 225.
+
+  Messiah, the, 176.
+
+  Millennium, the, 173, 268.
+
+  Michabo, an Algonkin deity, 185.
+
+  Mind,
+    growth of, 7;
+    extent of, 8, 271;
+    as seat of law, 163.
+
+  Miracles, 110, 130.
+
+  Mithras, 65.
+
+  Mohammed,
+    notion of god, 71;
+    inspired, 146.
+
+  Mohammedanism, 187, 224.
+
+  Monotheism, origin of, 80, 81; 186, sq.
+
+  Moral government of the world, 112.
+
+  Morality, independent of religion, dualism of deities, 182, 249, 266,
+    267.
+
+  Mormonism, 61.
+
+  Motion, first law of, 11;
+    relation to time and space, 35;
+    manifestations of, 77.
+
+  Myth, the, defined, 156.
+
+
+  Names, sacred, 156.
+
+  Natural selection, in sensation, 10;
+    in logic, 101.
+
+  Nature,
+    meaning of, 4, 39, 105;
+    epochs of, 164.
+
+  Nemqueteba, 240.
+
+  Neo-Hegelian doctrine, 194.
+
+  Nirvana, the, 13, 57, 257.
+
+  Noah, 170.
+
+  Nous, the, 106.
+
+
+  Oannes, 170.
+
+  Obelisk as symbol, 215.
+
+  Odainsakr, 175.
+
+  Odin, 53, 259.
+
+  Optimism, 112, 269.
+
+  Order, in things, 90, sq.
+
+  Osiris, 165.
+
+
+  Pain, defined, 17.
+
+  Parsees, doctrine of, 80, 166, 184.
+
+  Pantheism, 188, 194, 247.
+
+  Papas, a Phrygian god, 183.
+
+  Paradise, lost and regained, myths of, 173, sq;
+    future, 257.
+
+  Pentalpha, the, 212.
+
+  Perfected commonwealth, idea of, 247.
+
+  Perfected individual, idea of, 239.
+
+  Personal survival, idea of, 255.
+
+  Pessimism, 11, 112, 269.
+
+  Persians, ancient, 176.
+
+  Personality, the, 19, 270.
+
+  Phallus, worship of, 62, 66, 214, 216.
+
+  Phanes, the orphic principle, 190.
+
+  Philosophy of religion, defined, 3;
+    of mythology, 159;
+    of history, 232.
+
+  Phrygian divinities, 183.
+
+  Pillar worship, 215.
+
+  Pleasure, defined, 14.
+
+  Polarization, as a principle of thought, 183.
+
+  Porte Royale, miracles of, 131.
+
+  Postulates of religion, 89.
+
+  Prayer, 117, sq.
+
+  Progression of development, 109.
+
+  Protestantism, 128, 139, 250.
+
+  Protogonus, 167.
+
+  Psyche, and love, 72.
+
+  Pythagoras, his thoughts on number, 189.
+
+
+  Quakers, sect of, 76, 115, 138, 147.
+
+  Quantification of the predicate, 22;
+    of the gods, 186.
+
+  Quetzalcoatl, 212.
+
+
+  Reason in religion, 106, 107;
+    drawn from sight, 186.
+
+  Rebus in symbolism, 212.
+
+  Regin, as name of gods, 90.
+
+  Relative, the, 106.
+
+  Religion, science of, 3;
+    philosophy of, 3;
+    personal factor of, 81;
+    not concerned with phenomena, 110.
+
+  Reproductive function in religion, 62.
+
+  Res per accidens, 182.
+
+  Resignation, doctrine of, 128, 135.
+
+  Revelation, marks of, 149.
+
+  Rig Veda, the, 125.
+
+  Rite, the, 217, seq.
+
+  Roland, pillars of, 215.
+
+  Roman Catholics, 76, 138, 141, 187, 250.
+
+
+  Sabians, myths of, 170.
+
+  Sacraments, 227.
+
+  Sacrifice, idea in, 218;
+    vicarious, 222.
+
+  Saga, the, defined, 157.
+
+  Saint Brigida, 146.
+
+  Saint Gertrude of Nivelles, 146.
+
+  Sakyamuni, _see_ Buddha.
+
+  Saturnian Era, the, 175.
+
+  Science of Religion, 3;
+    as knowledge of system, 92;
+    of mythology, 158.
+
+  Secularization of symbols, 204.
+
+  Sensation, defined, 9;
+    excludes thought, 19;
+    of pain and pleasure, 10.
+
+  Sentiment, the religious, 3;
+    emotional elements of, 79;
+    rational postulates of, 87;
+    religion of, 250.
+
+  Serpent, as emblem and symbol, 200, 206, 207.
+
+  Sev, an Egyptian deity, 165.
+
+  Sex, love of, 61, 63;
+    in nature, 71, 72, 216.
+
+  Shekinah, the, 66.
+
+  Siddartha, a name of Buddha, 121.
+
+  Similars, law of, 204.
+
+  Sin, sense of, 225.
+
+  Sight, as the light-sense, 186.
+
+  Siva, worship of, 66, 214.
+
+  Soul, the, 19, 271.
+
+  Specific performance in rites, 218, sq.
+
+  Stigmata, the, 130.
+
+  Sufficient reason, principle of, 91.
+
+  Sukhavati, 175.
+
+  Supernatural, defined, 4;
+    its relation to symbols, 205.
+
+  Swedenborg, 75, 217.
+
+  Symbol, the phonetic, 200;
+    origin of, 202;
+    related and coincident, 203.
+
+  Symbolism, defined, 200.
+
+  Synthesis of contraries, 37.
+
+  Synthetic propositions, 32.
+
+
+  Tathagata, a name of Buddha, 121.
+
+  Tau, the Egyptian, 210.
+
+  Theology, 4.
+
+  Thor, hammer of, 210, 239.
+
+  Thought, as a function, 17;
+    laws of, 26, 101, sq.;
+    as purposive, 108.
+
+  Tien, Mongolian deity, 185, 216.
+
+  Time, not a force, 11;
+    but believed to be one, 165.
+
+  Tlapallan, 175.
+
+  Tree worship, 215.
+
+  Triads, the Celtic, 190;
+    Platonic, 191.
+
+  Triangle, the equilateral, 212.
+
+  Trinity, the doctrine of, 191;
+    symbol of, 212.
+
+  Triplicate relation of numbers, 190.
+
+  Tritheism, of Christianity, 190.
+
+  Truth, what is, 21;
+    eternal, 41;
+    as answer to prayer, 137.
+
+  Tulan, 175.
+
+
+  Unconditioned, the, 29, 34, 37, 98, 100.
+
+  Uniformity of sequence, as cause, 91, 92.
+
+  Unknowable, the, 29, 34, 99, 100.
+
+
+  Valkyria, the, 53.
+
+  Valhalla, 259.
+
+  Varuna, an Aryan god, 125.
+
+  Vendidad, the, 175.
+
+  Venereal sense, the, 64.
+
+  Vicarious sacrifice, theory of, 222.
+
+  Virginity, sacredness of, 69.
+
+  Virgin Mother, the, 68.
+
+  Volition, _see_ Will.
+
+  Voluspa, the, 171.
+
+
+  Wabose, Catherine, 146.
+
+  Water, as the primitive substance, 167.
+
+  Will, the, 16;
+    of God, 38, 42;
+    as a cause, 90.
+
+  Wish, the religious, 52;
+    definition of, 79.
+
+  World, moral government of, 112;
+    creation and changes, 164;
+    light of the, 185.
+
+
+  Xisuthrus, 170.
+
+
+  Year, the Great, 169.
+
+  Yima, reign of, 175.
+
+  Ynglyngasaga, the, 218.
+
+  Yocauna, a Haitian deity, 68.
+
+
+  Zarathustra, 80, 114.
+
+  Zeruana akerana, 166.
+
+  Zweckgesetze, 108.
+
+
+
+
+_PUBLISHED BY HENRY HOLT & CO._
+
+
+=BRINTON'S (D. G.) WORKS. The Myths of the New World.= A Treatise on the
+Symbolism and Mythology of the Red Race of America. Second edition,
+large 12mo, $2.50. Large-paper (first) edition. $6.00.
+
+"The philosophical spirit in which it is written is deserving of
+unstinted praise, and justifies the belief that in whatever Dr. Brinton
+may in future contribute to the literature of Comparative Mythology, he
+will continue to reflect credit upon himself and his country."--_N. A.
+Review._
+
+=The Religious Sentiment, its Source and Aim.= A contribution to the
+science and philosophy of religion. Large 12mo. $2.50. (_Just ready._)
+
+=CONWAY'S (M. D.) Sacred Anthology.= 8vo. $4.00.
+
+"He deserves our hearty thanks for the trouble he has taken in
+collecting these gems, and stringing them together for the use of those
+who have no access to the originals, and we trust that his book will
+arouse a more general interest in a long-neglected and even despised
+branch of literature, the Sacred Books of the East."--_Prof._ MAX
+MULLER.
+
+=DEUTSCH'S (E.) LITERARY REMAINS.= With a Brief Memoir. 8vo. $4.00.
+
+     CONTENTS:--The Talmud--Islam--Egypt. Ancient and Modern--Hermes
+     Trismegistus--Judeo-Arabic Metaphysics--Semitic Pal�ography--Renan's
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+
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+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+
+The following misspellings and typographical errors were maintained.
+
+       Page       Error
+TN-1     2   expres ion should read expression
+TN-2    15   mind,whose should read mind, whose
+TN-3    34   positive,and should read positive, and
+TN-4   fn. 39-1   Syst�mede should read Syst�me de
+TN-5   fn. 71-1   Suras, should read Suras
+TN-6    91   reason' should read reason"
+TN-7   108   [108-1] should read [108-2]
+TN-8   146   devil,before should read devil, before
+TN-9   193   plantasm should read phantasm
+TN-10  193   anthropomorphism,which should read anthropomorphism, which
+TN-11  205   supernatual should read supernatural
+TN-12  221   corrollary should read corollary
+TN-13  fn. 214-3   and should read und
+TN-14  Ads. p. 1   clergy. should read clergy."
+TN-15  Ads. p. 2   (His should read His
+
+Accents in foreign words are inconsistent and have been left as
+originally printed.
+
+The following words were inconsistenly spelled or hyphenated:
+
+  develop / develope
+  key-stone / keystone
+  May-pole / Maypole
+  re-gained / regained
+  thunder-storm / thunderstorm
+  _u. s._ / u. s.
+  Voelker / Voelker
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Religious Sentiment, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
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+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Religious Sentiment, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Religious Sentiment
+       Its Source and Aim: A Contribution to the Science and
+              Philosophy of Religion
+
+Author: Daniel G. Brinton
+
+Release Date: September 22, 2009 [EBook #30061]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: UTF-8
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
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+</pre>
+
+
+
+<div class="tn">
+<p class="titlepage">Transcriber’s Note</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">A number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of
+this book. They are <ins class="correction" title="correction">marked</ins> and the corrected text is shown in the popup.
+A description of the errors is found in the <a href="#trans_note">list</a> at the end of the text.
+Inconsistencies in spelling and hyphenation have been maintained. A <a href="#trans_note">list</a>
+of inconsistently spelled and hyphenated words is found at the end of
+the text.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following less common characters are used in this version of the
+book. If they do not display properly, please try changing your font.</p>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>√&nbsp; square root sign</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+
+<div class="bbox" style="width: 20em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; padding: 1em;">
+<p class="titlepage"><i>BY THE SAME AUTHOR.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<p class="hanging">THE MYTHS OF THE NEW WORLD: A Treatise on the Symbolism and Mythology
+of the Red Race of America. <i>Second edition, revised.</i> Large 12mo,
+$2.50.</p>
+
+<p class="hanging">THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT: Its Source and Aim. A Contribution to the
+Science and Philosophy of Religion. Large 12mo, $2.50.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[i]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<h1 class="sectionhead"><span style="font-size: 50%;">THE</span><br />
+RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT<br />
+<span style="font-size: 80%;">ITS SOURCE AND AIM</span></h1>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 2em;"><i>A CONTRIBUTION TO THE SCIENCE AND<br />
+PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION.</i></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 2em;"><span style="font-size: 80%;">BY</span><br />
+DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D.<br />
+<i>Member of the American Philosophical Society, the American Philological<br />
+Society, etc.; author of “The Myths of the New World,” etc.</i></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter" style="width: 100px; margin-top: 2em;">
+<img src="images/colophon.png" width="100" height="116" alt="colophn" title="" />
+</div>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 2em;">NEW YORK<br />
+HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY<br />
+1876.</p>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[ii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="titlepage"><span class="smcap">Copyright</span>,<br />
+BY HENRY HOLT<br />
+1876.</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="margin-top: 2em;"><span class="smcap">John F. Trow &amp; Son, Printers,</span><br />
+205-213 East 12th St., New York.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[iii]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="PREFACE" id="PREFACE"></a>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Mythology,</span> since it began to receive a scientific handling at all, has
+been treated as a subordinate branch of history or of ethnology. The
+“science of religion,” as we know it in the works of Burnouf, Müller,
+and others, is a comparison of systems of worship in their historic
+development. The deeper inquiry as to what in the mind of man gave birth
+to religion in any of its forms, what spirit breathed and is ever
+breathing life into these dry bones, this, the final and highest
+question of all, has had but passing or prejudiced attention. To its
+investigation this book is devoted.</p>
+
+<p>The analysis of the religious sentiment I offer is an inductive one,
+whose outlines were furnished by a preliminary study of the religions of
+the native race of America, a field selected as most favorable by reason
+of the simplicity of many of its cults, and the absence of theories
+respecting them. This study was embodied in “The Myths of the New World;
+a Treatise on the Symbolism and Mythology of the Red Race of America”
+(second edition, N. Y. 1876).</p>
+
+<p>The results thus obtained I have in the present work expanded by
+including in the survey the historic religions of the Old World, and
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[iv]</a></span>submitted the whole for solution to the Laws of Mind, regarded as
+physiological elements of growth, and to the Laws of Thought, these, as
+formal only, being held as nowise a development of those. This latter
+position, which is not conceded by the reigning school of psychology, I
+have taken pains to explain and defend as far as consistent with the
+plan of this treatise; but I am well aware that to say all that can be
+said in proof of it, would take much more space than here allowed.</p>
+
+<p>The main questions I have had before me in writing this volume have an
+interest beyond those which mere science propounds. What led men to
+imagine gods at all? What still prompts enlightened nations to worship?
+Is prayer of any avail, or of none? Is faith the last ground of
+adoration, or is reason? Is religion a transient phase of development,
+or is it the chief end of man? What is its warrant of continuance? If it
+overlive this day of crumbling theologies, whence will come its
+reprieve?</p>
+
+<p>To such inquiries as these, answers satisfactory to thinking men of this
+time can, I believe, be given only by an inductive study of religions,
+supported by a sound psychology, and conducted in a spirit which
+acknowledges as possibly rightful, the reverence which every system
+claims. Those I propose, inadequate though they may be, can at any rate
+pretend to be the result of honest labor.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Philadelphia</span>, <i>January</i>, 1876.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[v]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CONTENTS" id="CONTENTS"></a>CONTENTS.</h2>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table of contents">
+<tr>
+  <td class="chapnum" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td></td>
+  <td class="tdr" style="font-size: smaller;">PAGE.</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="smcap">The Bearing of the Laws of Mind on Religion</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">3</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="chapnum" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="smcap">The Emotional Elements of the Religious Sentiment</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">47</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="chapnum" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="smcap">The Rational Postulates of the Religious Sentiment</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">87</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="chapnum" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="smcap">The Prayer and its Answer</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">117</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="chapnum" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="smcap">The Myth and the Mythical Cycles</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">155</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="chapnum" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="smcap">The Cult, its Symbols and Rites</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">199</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="chapnum" colspan="2"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII.</a></td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="smcap">The Momenta of Religious Thought</td>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">231</a></td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[vi]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[1]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapdivider"><a name="THE_BEARING_OF_THE_LAWS_OF_MIND_ON_RELIGION" id="THE_BEARING_OF_THE_LAWS_OF_MIND_ON_RELIGION"></a>THE BEARING OF THE LAWS OF MIND ON RELIGION</h2>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[2]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="chapterhead">SUMMARY.</h3>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The distinction between the Science and the Philosophy of religion.
+It is assumed (1) that religions are products of thought, (2) that
+they have a unity of kind and purpose. They can be studied by the
+methods of natural science applied to Mind.</p>
+
+<p>Mind is co-extensive with organism. Sensation and Emotion are
+prominent marks of it. These are either pleasurable or painful; the
+latter <i>diminish</i> vital motions, the former <i>increase</i> them. This
+is a product of natural selection. A mis-reading of these facts is
+the fallacy of Buddhism and other pessimistic systems. Pleasure
+comes from continuous action. This is illustrated by the esthetic
+emotions, volition and consciousness.</p>
+
+<p>The climax of mind is Intellect. Physical changes accompany thought
+but cannot measure it. Relations of thought and feeling. <i>Truth</i> is
+its only measure. Truth, like pleasure, is desired for its
+preservative powers. It is reached through the laws of thought.</p>
+
+<p>These laws are: (1) the natural order of the association of ideas,
+(2) the methods of applied logic, (3) the forms of correct
+reasoning. The last allow of mathematical expression. They are
+three in number, called those of Determination, Limitation and
+Excluded Middle.</p>
+
+<p>The last is the key-stone of religious philosophy. Its diverse
+interpretations. Its mathematical <a name="corr1" id="corr1"></a><ins class="correction" title="expression">expres ion</ins> shows that it
+does not relate to contradictories. But certain concrete analytic
+propositions, relating to contraries, do have this form. The
+contrary as distinguished from the privative. The Conditioned and
+Unconditioned, the Knowable and Unknowable are not true
+contradictions. The synthesis of contraries is theoretic only.</p>
+
+<p>Errors as to the limits of possible explanation corrected by these
+distinctions. The formal law is the last and complete explanation.
+The relations of thought, belief and being.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[3]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2 class="chapdivider"><a name="THE_RELIGIOUS_SENTIMENT" id="THE_RELIGIOUS_SENTIMENT"></a>THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.</h2>
+
+
+
+<hr class="declong" />
+
+
+<h2 class="sectionhead"><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="chaptitle">THE BEARING OF THE LAWS OF MIND ON RELIGION.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> Science of Religion is one of the branches of general historical
+science. It embraces, as the domain of its investigation, all recorded
+facts relating to the displays of the Religious Sentiment. Its limits
+are defined by those facts, and the legitimate inferences from them. Its
+aim is to ascertain the constitutive laws of the origin and spread of
+religions, and to depict the influence they have exerted on the general
+life of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>The question whether a given religion is true or false cannot present
+itself in this form as a proper subject of scientific inquiry. The most
+that can be asked is, whether some one system is best suited to a
+specified condition of the individual or the community.</p>
+
+<p>The higher inquiry is the object of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[4]</a></span> Philosophy of Religion. This
+branch of study aims to pass beyond recorded facts and local adjustments
+in order to weigh the theoretical claims of religions, and measure their
+greater or less conformity with abstract truth. The formal or regulative
+laws of religious thought occupy it.</p>
+
+<p>Theology, dogmatic or polemic, is an explanatory defence of some
+particular faith. Together with mythology and symbolism, it furnishes
+the material from which the Science and Philosophy of Religion seek to
+educe the laws and frame the generalizations which will explain the
+source and aim of religion in general.</p>
+
+<p>The common source of all devotional displays is the Religious Sentiment,
+a complex feeling, a thorough understanding of which is an essential
+preliminary to the study of religious systems.</p>
+
+<p>Such a study proceeds on the assumption that all religions are products
+of thought, commenced and continued in accordance with the laws of the
+human mind, and, therefore, comprehensible to the extent to which these
+laws are known. No one disputes this, except in reference to his own
+religion. This, he is apt to assert, had something “supernatural” about
+its origin. If this word be correctly used, it may stand without cavil.
+The “natural” is that of which we know in whole or in part the laws; the
+“supernatural” means that of which we do not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[5]</a></span> at present know in any
+degree the laws. The domain of the supernatural diminishes in the ratio
+of the increase of knowledge; and the inference that it also is
+absolutely under the control of law, is not only allowable but
+obligatory.</p>
+
+<p>A second assumption must be that there is a unity of kind and purpose in
+all religions. Without this, no common law can exist for them. Such a
+law must hold good in all ages, in every condition of society, and in
+each instance. Hence those who explain religious systems as forms of
+government, or as systems of ethics, or as misconceived history, or as
+theories of natural philosophy, must be prepared to make their view good
+when it is universally applied, or else renounce the possibility of a
+Science of Religion; while those who would except their own system from
+what they grant is the law of all others, violate the principles of
+investigation and thereby the canons of truth.</p>
+
+<p>The methods of science are everywhere alike. Has the naturalist to
+explain an organism, he begins with its elements or proximate principles
+as obtained by analysis; he thence passes to the tissues and fluids
+which compose its members; these he considers first in a state of
+repose, their structure and their connections; then he examines their
+functions, the laws of their growth and action; and finally he has
+recourse to the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[6]</a></span> doctrine of relations, <i>la théorie des milieux</i>, to
+define the conditions of its existence. Were such a method applied to a
+religion, it would lead us first to study its psychological elements,
+then the various expressions in word and act to which these give
+occasion, next the record of its growth and decay, and finally from
+these to gather the circumstantials of human life and culture which led
+to its historic existence.</p>
+
+<p>Some have urged that such a method should not be summoned to questions
+in mental philosophy. To do so, say they, is to confound things
+distinct, requiring distinct plans of study. Such a criticism might have
+had weight in the days when the mind was supposed to inhabit the body as
+a tenant a house, and have no relation to it other than that of a casual
+occupant. But that opinion is antiquated. More than three-fourths of a
+century ago the far-seeing thinker, Wilhelm von Humboldt, laid down the
+maxim that the phenomena of mind and matter obey laws identical in
+kind;<a name="FNanchor_6-1_1" id="FNanchor_6-1_1" href="#Footnote_6-1_1" class="fnanchor">6-1</a> and a recent historian of science sums up the result of the
+latest research in these words:</p>
+
+<p>“The old dualism of mind and body, which for centuries struggled in vain
+for reconciliation, finds it now, not indeed in the unity of substance,
+but in the unity of laws.”<a name="FNanchor_6-2_2" id="FNanchor_6-2_2" href="#Footnote_6-2_2" class="fnanchor">6-2</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[7]</a></span>It is, therefore, as a question in mental philosophy to be treated by
+the methods of natural science, that I shall approach the discussion of
+the religious sentiment. As it is a part, or at least a manifestation of
+mind, I must preface its more particular consideration with some words
+on the mind in general, words which I shall make as few and as clear as
+possible.</p>
+
+<p>At the beginning of this century, the naturalist Oken hazarded the
+assertion: “The human mind is a memberment of infusorial
+sensation,”<a name="FNanchor_7-1_3" id="FNanchor_7-1_3" href="#Footnote_7-1_3" class="fnanchor">7-1</a> a phrase which has been the guiding principle of
+scientific psychology ever since. That in the course of this memberment
+or growth wholly new faculties are acquired, is conceded. As the union
+of two inorganic substances may yield a third different in every respect
+from either; or, as in the transition of inorganic to organic matter,
+the power of reproduction is attained; so, positively new powers may
+attend the development of mind. From sensations it progresses to
+emotions, from emotions to reason. The one is the psychical climax of
+the other. “We have still to do with the one <a name="corr2" id="corr2"></a><ins class="correction" title="mind, whose">mind,whose</ins> action
+devel<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[8]</a></span>opes itself with perception, through discrimination, till it
+arrives at notions, wherein its most general scheme, ‘truth and error,’
+serves as the principle.”<a name="FNanchor_8-1_4" id="FNanchor_8-1_4" href="#Footnote_8-1_4" class="fnanchor">8-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Extravagant as Oken’s expression seemed to many when it was published,
+it now falls short of the legitimate demands of science, and I may add,
+of religion. <i>Mind is co-extensive with organism</i>; in the language of
+logic, one “connotes” the other; this statement, and nothing short of
+it, satisfies the conditions of the problem. Wherever we see Form
+preserved amid the change of substance, <i>there</i> is mind; it alone can
+work that miracle; only it gives Life. Matter suffers no increase;
+therefore the new is but a redistribution of the old; it is new in
+<i>form</i> only; and the maintenance of form under changes of substance is
+the one distinguishing mark of organism. To it is added the yet more
+wonderful power of transmitting form by reproduction. Wherever these
+are, are also the rudiments of mind. The distinction between the animal
+and the vegetable worlds, between the reasoning and unreasoning animals,
+is one of degree only. Whether, in a somewhat different sense, we should
+not go yet further, and say that mind is co-extensive with motion, and
+hence with phenomena, is a speculative inquiry which may have to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[9]</a></span>
+answered in the affirmative, but it does not concern us here.</p>
+
+<p>The first and most general mark of Mind is sensation or common feeling.
+In technical language a sensation is defined to be the result of an
+impression on an organism, producing some molecular change in its nerve
+or life centres. It is the consequence of a contact with another
+existence. Measured by its effects upon the individual the common law of
+sensation is: Every impression, however slight, either adds to or takes
+from the sum of the life-force of the system; in the former case it
+produces a pleasurable, in the latter a painful sensation. The
+exceptions to this rule, though many, are such in appearance only.<a name="FNanchor_9-1_5" id="FNanchor_9-1_5" href="#Footnote_9-1_5" class="fnanchor">9-1</a></p>
+
+<p>In the human race the impression can often be made quite as forcibly by
+a thought as by an act. “I am confident,” says John Hunter, the
+anatomist, “that I can fix my attention to any<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[10]</a></span> part, until I have a
+sensation in that part.” This is what is called the influence of the
+mind upon the body. Its extent is much greater than used to be imagined,
+and it has been a fertile source of religious delusions. Such sensations
+are called subjective; those produced by external force, objective.</p>
+
+<p>The immediate consequent of a sensation is <i>reflex action</i>, the object
+of which is either to avoid pain or increase pleasure, in other words,
+either to preserve or augment the individual life.</p>
+
+<p>The molecular changes incident to a sensation leave permanent traces,
+which are the physical bases of memory. One or several such remembered
+sensations, evoked by a present sensation, combine with it to form an
+Emotion. Characteristic of their origin is it that the emotions fall
+naturally into a dual classification, in which the one involves
+pleasurable or elevating, the other painful or depressing conditions.
+Thus we have the pairs joy and grief, hope and fear, love and hate, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The question of pleasure and pain is thus seen to be the primary one of
+mental science. We must look to it to explain the meaning of sensation
+as a common quality of organism. What is the significance of pleasure
+and pain?</p>
+
+<p>The question involves that of Life. Not to stray into foreign topics, it
+may broadly be said<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[11]</a></span> that as all change resolves itself into motion,
+and, as Helmholtz remarks, all science merges itself into mechanics, we
+should commence by asking what vital motions these sensations stand for
+or correspond to.</p>
+
+<p>Every organism, and each of its parts, is the resultant of innumerable
+motions, a composition of forces. As such, each obeys the first law of
+motion, to wit, indefinite continuance of action until interfered with.
+This is a modification of Newton’s “law of continuance,” which, with the
+other primary laws of motion, must be taken as the foundation of biology
+as well as of astronomy.<a name="FNanchor_11-1_6" id="FNanchor_11-1_6" href="#Footnote_11-1_6" class="fnanchor">11-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The diminution or dispersion of organic motion is expressed in
+physiological terms as <i>waste</i>; we are admonished of waste by <i>pain</i>;
+and thus admonished we supply the waste or avoid the injury as far as we
+can. But this connection of pain with waste is not a necessary one, nor
+is it the work of a <i>Providentia particularis</i>, as the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[12]</a></span> schoolmen said.
+It is a simple result of natural selection. Many organisms have been
+born, no doubt, in which waste did not cause pain; caused, perhaps,
+pleasure. Consequently, they indulged their preferences and soon
+perished. Only those lived to propagate their kind in whom a different
+sensation was associated with waste, and they transmitted this
+sensitiveness increased by ancestral impression to their offspring. The
+curses of the human race to-day are alcohol, opium and tobacco, and they
+are so because they cause waste, but do not immediately produce painful
+but rather pleasurable feelings.</p>
+
+<p>Pain, as the sensation of waste, is the precursor of death, of the part
+or system. By parity of evolution, pleasure came to be the sensation of
+continuance, of uninterrupted action, of increasing vigor and life.
+Every action, however, is accompanied by waste, and hence every pleasure
+developes pain. But it is all important to note that the latter is the
+mental correlative not of the action but of its cessation, not of the
+life of the part but of its ceasing to live. Pain, it is true, in
+certain limits excites to action; but it is by awakening the
+self-preservative tendencies, which are the real actors. This
+physiological distinction, capable of illustration from sensitive
+vegetable as well as the lowest animal organisms, has had an intimate
+connection with religious theories. The problems of suffering and death<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[13]</a></span>
+are precisely the ones which all religions set forth to solve in theory
+and in practice. Their creeds and myths are based on what they make of
+pain. The theory of Buddhism, which now has more followers than any
+other faith, is founded on four axioms, which are called “the four
+excellent truths.” The first and fundamental one is: “Pain is
+inseparable from existence.” This is the principle of all pessimism,
+ancient and modern. Schopenhauer, an out-and-out pessimist, lays down
+the allied maxim, “All pleasure is negative, that is, it consists in
+getting rid of a want or pain,”<a name="FNanchor_13-1_7" id="FNanchor_13-1_7" href="#Footnote_13-1_7" class="fnanchor">13-1</a> a principle expressed before his
+time in the saying “the highest pleasure is the relief from pain.”</p>
+
+<p>Consistently with this, Buddhism holds out as the ultimate of hope the
+state of Nirvana, in which existence is not, where the soul is “blown
+out” like the flame of a candle.</p>
+
+<p>But physiology demolishes the corner-stone of this edifice when it shows
+that pain, so far from being inseparable from existence, has merely
+become, through transmitted experience, nearly inseparable from the
+progressive cessation of existence. While action and reaction are equal
+in inorganic nature, the principle of life modifies the operation of
+this universal law of force by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[14]</a></span> bringing in <i>nutrition</i>, which, were it
+complete, would antagonize reaction. In such a case, pleasure would be
+continuous, pain null; action constant, reaction hypothetical. As,
+however, nutrition in fact never wholly and at once replaces the
+elements altered by vital action, both physicians and metaphysicians
+have observed that pleasure is the fore-runner of pain, and has the
+latter as its certain sequel.<a name="FNanchor_14-1_8" id="FNanchor_14-1_8" href="#Footnote_14-1_8" class="fnanchor">14-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Physiologically and practically, the definition of pleasure is, <i>maximum
+action with minimum waste</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This latter generalization is the explanation of the esthetic emotions.
+The modern theory of art rests not on a psychological but a
+physiological, and this in turn on a physical basis. Helmholtz’s theory
+of musical harmony depends on the experimental fact that a continued
+impression gives a pleasant, a discontinuous an unpleasant sensation.
+The mechanics of muscular structure prove that what are called graceful
+motions are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[15]</a></span> those which are the mechanical resultant of the force of
+the muscle,&mdash;those which it can perform at least waste. The pleasure we
+take in curves, especially “the line of beauty,” is because our eyes can
+follow them with a minimum action of its muscles of attachment. The
+popular figure called the Grecian figure or the walls of Troy, is
+pleasant because each straight line is shorter, and at right angles to
+the preceding one, thus giving the greatest possible change of action to
+the muscles of the eye.</p>
+
+<p>Such a mechanical view of physiology presents other suggestions. The
+laws of vibratory motion lead to the inference that action in accordance
+with those laws gives maximum intensity and minimum waste. Hence the
+pleasure the mind takes in harmonies of sound, of color and of odors.</p>
+
+<p>The correct physiological conception of the most perfect physical life
+is that which will continue the longest in use, not that which can
+display the greatest muscular force. The ideal is one of extension, not
+of intension.</p>
+
+<p>Religious art indicates the gradual recognition of these principles.
+True to their ideal of inaction, the Oriental nations represent their
+gods as mighty in stature, with prominent muscles, but sitting or
+reclining, often with closed eyes or folded hands, wrapped in robes, and
+lost in meditation. The Greeks, on the other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[16]</a></span> hand, portrayed their
+deities of ordinary stature, naked, awake and erect, but the limbs
+smooth and round, the muscular lines and the veins hardly visible, so
+that in every attitude an indefinite sense of repose pervades the whole
+figure. Movement without effort, action without waste, is the
+immortality these incomparable works set forth. They are meant to teach
+that the ideal life is one, not of painless ease, but of joyous action.</p>
+
+<p>The law of continuity to which I have alluded is not confined to simple
+motions. It is a general mathematical law, that the longer anything
+lasts the longer it is likely to last. If a die turns ace a dozen times
+handrunning, the chances are large that it will turn ace again. The
+Theory of Probabilities is founded upon this, and the value of
+statistics is based on an allied principle. Every condition opposes
+change through inertia. By this law, as the motion caused by a
+pleasurable sensation excites by the physical laws of associated motions
+the reminiscences of former pleasures and pains, a tendency to
+permanence is acquired, which gives the physical basis for Volition.
+Experience and memory are, therefore, necessary to volition, and
+practically self restraint is secured by calling numerous past
+sensations to mind, deterrent ones, “the pains which are indirect
+pleasures,” or else pleasurable ones.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[17]</a></span> The Will is an exhibition under
+complex relations of the tendency to continuance which is expressed in
+the first law of motion. Its normal action is the maintenance of the
+individual life, the prolongation of the pleasurable sensations, the
+support of the forces which combat death.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever the action, whether conscious or reflex, its real though often
+indirect and unaccomplished object is the preservation or the
+augmentation of the individual life. Such is the dictum of natural
+science, and it coincides singularly with the famous maxim of Spinoza:
+<i>Unaquaeque res, quantum in se est, in suo esse perseverare conatur.</i></p>
+
+<p>The consciousness which accompanies volitional action is derived from
+the common feeling which an organism has, as the result of all its parts
+deriving their nutrition from the same centre. Rising into the sphere of
+emotions, this at first muscular sensation becomes “self-feeling.” The
+Individual is another name for the boundaries of reflex action.</p>
+
+<p>Through memory and consciousness we reach that function of the mind
+called the intellect or reason, the product of which is <i>thought</i>. Its
+physical accompaniments are chemical action, and an increase of
+temperature in the brain. But the sum of the physical forces thus
+evolved is not the measure of the results of intellectual<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[18]</a></span> action. These
+differ from other forms of force in being incommensurate with extension.
+They cannot be appraised in units of quantity, but in quality only. The
+chemico-vital forces by which a thought rises into consciousness bear
+not the slightest relation to the value of the thought itself. It is
+here as in those ancient myths where an earthly maiden brings forth a
+god. The power of the thought is dependent on another test than physical
+force, to wit, its <i>truth</i>. This is measured by its conformity to the
+laws of right reasoning, laws clearly ascertained, which are the common
+basis of all science, and to which it is the special province of the
+science of logic to give formal expression.</p>
+
+<p>Physical force itself, in whatever form it appears, is only known to us
+as feeling or as thought; these alone we know to be real; all else is at
+least less real.<a name="FNanchor_18-1_9" id="FNanchor_18-1_9" href="#Footnote_18-1_9" class="fnanchor">18-1</a> Not only is this true of the external world, but
+also of that assumed something, the reason, the soul, the ego, or the
+intellect. For the sake of convenience these words may be used; but it
+is well to know that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[19]</a></span> this introduction of something that thinks, back
+of thought itself, is a mere figure of speech. We say, “<i>I</i> think,” as
+if the “I” was something else than the thinking. At most, it is but the
+relation of the thoughts. Pushed further, it becomes the limitation of
+thought by sensation, the higher by the lower. The Cartesian maxim,
+<i>cogito ergo sum</i>, has perpetuated this error, and the modern philosophy
+of the <i>ego</i> and <i>non-ego</i> has prevented its detection. A false reading
+of self-consciousness led to this assumption of “a thinking mind.” Our
+personality is but the perception of the solidarity of our thoughts and
+feelings; it is itself a thought.</p>
+
+<p>These three manifestations of mind&mdash;sensations, emotions and
+thoughts&mdash;are mutually exclusive in their tendencies. The patient
+forgets the fear of the result in the pain of the operation; in intense
+thought the pulse falls, the senses do not respond, emotions and action
+are absent. We may say that ideally the unimpeded exercise of the
+intellect forbids either sensation or emotion.</p>
+
+<p>Contrasting sensation and emotion, on the one side, with intellect on
+the other, feeling with thought, they are seen to be polar or
+antithetical manifestations of mind. Each requires the other for its
+existence, yet in such wise that the one is developed at the expense of
+the other. The one waxes as the other wanes. This is seen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[20]</a></span> to advantage
+when their most similar elements are compared. Thus consciousness in
+sensation is keenest when impressions are strongest; but this
+consciousness is a bar to intellectual self-consciousness, as was
+pointed out by Professor Ferrier in his general Law of
+consciousness.<a name="FNanchor_20-1_10" id="FNanchor_20-1_10" href="#Footnote_20-1_10" class="fnanchor">20-1</a> When emotion and sensation are at their minimum,
+one is most conscious of the solidarity of one’s thoughts; and just in
+proportion to the vividness of self-consciousness is thought lucid and
+strong. In an ideal intelligence, self-consciousness would be infinite,
+sensation infinitesimal.</p>
+
+<p>Yet there is a parallelism between feeling and thought, as well as a
+contrast. As pain and pleasure indicate opposite tendencies in the
+forces which guide sensation and emotion, so do the true and the untrue
+direct thought, and bear the same relation to it. For as pain is the
+warning of death, so the untrue is the detrimental, the destructive. The
+man who reasons falsely, will act unwisely and run into danger thereby.
+To know the truth is to be ready for the worst. Who reasons correctly
+will live the longest. To love pleasure is not more in the grain of man
+than to desire truth. “I have known many,” says St. Augustine, “who like
+to deceive; to be deceived, none.” Pleasure, joy, truth, are the
+respective measures of life in sensation, emotion, intellect; one or the
+other of these every organ<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[21]</a></span>ism seeks with all its might, its choice
+depending on which of these divisions of mind is prominently its own. As
+the last mentioned is the climax, truth presents itself as in some way
+the perfect expression of life.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen what pleasure is, but what is truth? The question of Pilate
+remains, not indeed unanswered, but answered vaguely and
+discrepantly.<a name="FNanchor_21-1_11" id="FNanchor_21-1_11" href="#Footnote_21-1_11" class="fnanchor">21-1</a> We may pass it by as one of speculative interest
+merely, and turn our attention to its practical paraphrase, what is
+true?</p>
+
+<p>The rules of evidence as regards events are well known, and also the
+principles of reaching the laws of phenomena by inductive methods. Many
+say that the mind can go no further than this, that the truth thus
+reached, if not the highest, is at least the highest for man. It is at
+best relative, but it is real. The correctness of this statement may be
+tested by analyzing the processes by which we acquire knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>Knowledge reaches the mind in two forms, for which there are in most
+languages, though not in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[22]</a></span> modern English, two distinct expressions,
+<i>connaitre</i> and <i>savoir</i>, <i>kennen</i> and <i>wissen</i>. The former relates to
+knowledge through sensation, the latter through intellection; the former
+cannot be rendered in words, the latter can be; the former is reached
+through immediate perception, the latter through logical processes. For
+example: an odor is something we may certainly know and can identify,
+but we cannot possibly describe it in words; justice on the other hand
+may be clearly defined to our mind, but it is equally impossible to
+translate it into sensation. Nevertheless, it is generally agreed that
+the one of these processes is, so far as it goes, as conclusive as the
+other, and that they proceed on essentially the same principles.<a name="FNanchor_22-1_12" id="FNanchor_22-1_12" href="#Footnote_22-1_12" class="fnanchor">22-1</a>
+Religious philosophy has to do only with the second form of knowledge,
+that reached through notions or thoughts.</p>
+
+<p>The enchainment or sequence of thoughts in the mind is at first an
+accidental one. They arise through the two general relations of nearness
+in time or similarity in sensation. Their succession is prescribed by
+these conditions, and without conscious effort cannot be changed. They
+are notions about phenomena only, and hence are infinitely more likely
+to be wrong<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[23]</a></span> than right. Of the innumerable associations of thought
+possible, only one can yield the truth. The beneficial effects of this
+one were felt, and thus by experience man slowly came to distinguish the
+true as what is good for him, the untrue as what is injurious.</p>
+
+<p>After he had done this for a while, he attempted to find out some plan
+in accordance with which he could so arrange his thoughts that they
+should always produce this desirable result. He was thus led to
+establish the rules for right reasoning, which are now familiarly known
+as Logic. This science was long looked upon as a completed one, and at
+the commencement of this century we find such a thinker as Coleridge
+expressing an opinion that further development in it was not to be
+expected. Since then it has, however, taken a fresh start, and by its
+growth has laid the foundation for a system of metaphysics which will be
+free from the vagaries and unrealities which have thrown general
+discredit on the name of philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>In one direction, as applied logic and the logic of induction, the
+natural associations of ideas have been thoroughly studied, and the
+methods by which they can be controlled and reduced have been taught
+with eminent success. In this branch, Bentham, Mill, Bain, and others
+have been prominent workers.</p>
+
+<p>Dealing mainly with the subjects and materials<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[24]</a></span> of reasoning, with
+thoughts rather than with thinking, these writers, with the tendency of
+specialists, have not appreciated the labors of another school of
+logicians, who have made the investigation of the process of thinking
+itself their especial province. This is abstract logic, or pure logic,
+sometimes called, inasmuch as it deals with forms only, “formal logic,”
+or because it deals with names and not things, “the logic of names.” It
+dates its rise as an independent science from the discovery of what is
+known as “the quantification of the predicate,” claimed by Sir William
+Hamilton. Of writers upon it may be mentioned Professor De Morgan, W.
+Stanley Jevons, and especially Professor George Boole of Belfast. The
+latter, one of the subtlest thinkers of this age, and eminent as a
+mathematician, succeeded in making an ultimate analysis of the laws of
+thinking, and in giving them a symbolic notation, by which not only the
+truth of a simple proposition but the relative degree of truth in
+complex propositions may be accurately estimated.<a name="FNanchor_24-1_13" id="FNanchor_24-1_13" href="#Footnote_24-1_13" class="fnanchor">24-1</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[25]</a></span>This he did by showing that the laws of correct thinking can be
+expressed in algebraic notation, and, thus expressed, will be subject to
+all the mathematical laws of an algebra whose symbols bear the uniform
+value of unity or nought (1 or 0)&mdash;a limitation required by the fact
+that pure logic deals in notions of quality only, not of quantity.</p>
+
+<p>This mathematical form of logic was foreseen by Kant when he declared
+that all mathematical reasoning derives its validity from the logical
+laws; but no one before Professor Boole had succeeded in reaching the
+notation which subordinated these two divisions of abstract thought to
+the same formal types. His labors have not yet borne fruit in proportion
+to their value, and they are, I believe, comparatively little known. But
+in the future they will be regarded as epochal in the science of mind.
+They make us to see the same law governing mind and matter, thought and
+extension.</p>
+
+<p>Not the least important result thus achieved<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[26]</a></span> was in emphasizing the
+contrast between the natural laws of mental association, and the laws of
+thinking which are the foundation of the syllogism.</p>
+
+<p>By attending to this distinction we are enabled to keep the form and the
+matter of thought well apart&mdash;a neglect to do which, or rather a studied
+attempt to ignore which, is the radical error of the logic devised by
+Hegel, as I shall show more fully a little later.</p>
+
+<p>All applied logic, inductive as well as deductive, is based on formal
+logic, and this in turn on the “laws of thought,” or rather of thinking.
+These are strictly regulative or abstract, and differ altogether from
+the natural laws of thought, such as those of similarity, contiguity and
+harmony, as well as from the rules of applied logic, such as those of
+agreement and difference. The fundamental laws of thinking are three in
+number, and their bearing on all the higher questions of religious
+philosophy is so immediate that their consideration becomes of the last
+moment in such a study as this. They are called the laws of
+Determination, Limitation and Excluded Middle.</p>
+
+<p>The first affirms that every object thought about must be conceived as
+itself, and not as some other thing. “A is A,” or “<i>x</i> = <i>x</i>,” is its
+formal expression. This teaches us that whatever we think of, must be
+thought as one or a unity. It is important, however, to note that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[27]</a></span> this
+does not mean a mathematical unit, but a logical one, that is, identity
+and not contrast. So true is this that in mathematical logic the only
+value which can satisfy the formula is a concept which does not admit of
+increase, to wit, a Universal.</p>
+
+<p>From this necessity of conceiving a thought under unity has arisen the
+interesting tendency, so frequently observable even in early times, to
+speak of the universe as one whole, the <span class="greek" title="to pan">το παν</span> of the Greek philosophers;
+and also the monotheistic leaning of all thinkers, no matter what their
+creed, who have attained very general conceptions. Furthermore, the
+strong liability of confounding this speculative or logical unity with
+the concrete notion of individuality, or mathematical unity, has been,
+as I shall show hereafter, a fruitful source of error in both religious
+and metaphysical theories. Pure logic deals with quality only, not with
+quantity.</p>
+
+<p>The second law is that of Limitation. As the first is sometimes called
+that of Affirmation, so this is called that of Negation. It prescribes
+that a thing is not that which it is not. Its formula is, “A is not
+not-A.” If this seems trivial, it is because it is so familiar.</p>
+
+<p>These two laws are two aspects of the same law. The old maxim is, <i>omnis
+determinatio est negatio</i>; a quality can rise into cognition only by
+being limited by that which it is not.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[28]</a></span> It is not a comparison of two
+thoughts, however, nor does it limit the quality itself. For the
+negative is not a thought, and the quality is not <i>in suo genere
+finita</i>, to use an expression of the old logicians; it is limited not by
+itself but by that which it is not. These are not idle distinctions, as
+will soon appear.</p>
+
+<p>The third law comes into play when two thoughts are associated and
+compared. There is qualitative identity, or there is not. A is either B
+or not B. An animal is either a man or not a man. There is no middle
+class between the two to which it can be assigned. Superficial truism as
+this appears, we have now come upon the very battle ground of the
+philosophies. This is the famous “Law of the contradictories and
+excluded middle,” on the construction of which the whole fabric of
+religious dogma, and I may add of the higher metaphysics, must depend.
+“One of the principal retarding causes of philosophy,” remarks Professor
+Ferrier, “has been the want of a clear and developed doctrine of the
+contradictory.”<a name="FNanchor_28-1_14" id="FNanchor_28-1_14" href="#Footnote_28-1_14" class="fnanchor">28-1</a> The want is as old as the days of Heraclitus of
+Ephesus, and lent to his subtle paradoxes that obscurity which has not
+yet been wholly removed.</p>
+
+<p>Founding his arguments on one construction of this law, expressed in the
+maxim, “The con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[29]</a></span>ceivable lies between two contradictory extremes,” Sir
+William Hamilton defended with his wide learning those theories of the
+Conditioned and the Unconditioned, the Knowable and Unknowable, which
+banish religion from the realm of reason and knowledge to that of faith,
+and cleave an impassable chasm between the human and the divine
+intelligence. From this unfavorable ground his orthodox followers,
+Mansel and Mozley, defended with ability but poor success their
+Christianity against Herbert Spencer and his disciples, who also
+accepted the same theories, but followed them out to their legitimate
+conclusion&mdash;a substantially atheistic one.</p>
+
+<p>Hamilton in this was himself but a follower of Kant, who brought this
+law to support his celebrated “antinomies of the human understanding,”
+warnings set up to all metaphysical explorers to keep off of holy
+ground.</p>
+
+<p>On another construction of it, one which sought to escape the dilemma of
+the contradictories by confining them to matters of the understanding,
+Hegel and Schelling believed they had gained the open field. They taught
+that in the highest domain of thought, there where it deals with
+questions of pure reason, the unity and limits which must be observed in
+matters of the understanding and which give validity to this third law,
+do not obtain. This view has been closely criticized, and, I think, with
+justice.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[30]</a></span> Pretending to deal with matters of pure reason, it constantly
+though surreptitiously proceeds on the methods of applied logic; its
+conclusions are as fallacious logically as they are experimentally. The
+laws of thought are formal, and are as binding in transcendental
+subjects as in those which concern phenomena.</p>
+
+<p>The real bearing of this law can, it appears to me, best be derived from
+a study of its mathematical expression. This is, according to the
+notation of Professor Boole, <i>x</i><sup>2</sup>=<i>x</i>. As such, it presents a
+fundamental equation of thought, and it is because it is of the second
+degree that we classify in pairs or opposites. This equation can only be
+satisfied by assigning to <i>x</i> the value of 1 or 0. The “universal type
+of form” is therefore <i>x</i>(1-<i>x</i>)=0.</p>
+
+<p>This algebraic notation shows that there is, not two, but only one
+thought in the antithesis; that it is made up of a thought and its
+expressed limit; and, therefore, that the so-called “law of
+contradictories” does not concern contradictories at all, in pure logic.
+This result was seen, though not clearly, by Dr. Thompson, who indicated
+the proper relation of the members of the formula as a positive and a
+privative. He, however, retained Hamilton’s doctrine that “privative
+conceptions enter into and assist the higher processes of the reason in
+all that it can know of the absolute and infinite;” that we must,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[31]</a></span> “from
+the seen realize an unseen world, not by extending to the latter the
+properties of the former, but by assigning to it attributes entirely
+opposite.”<a name="FNanchor_31-1_15" id="FNanchor_31-1_15" href="#Footnote_31-1_15" class="fnanchor">31-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The error that vitiates all such reasoning is the assumption that the
+privative is an independent thought, that a thought and its limitation
+are two thoughts; whereas they are but the two aspects of the one
+thought, like two sides to the one disc, and the absurdity of speaking
+of them as separate thoughts is as great as to speak of a curve seen
+from its concavity as a different thing from the same curve regarded
+from its convexity. The privative can help us nowhere and to nothing;
+the positive only can assist our reasoning.</p>
+
+<p>This elevation of the privative into a contrary, or a contradictory, has
+been the bane of metaphysical reasoning. From it has arisen the doctrine
+of the synthesis of an affirmative and a negative into a higher
+conception, reconciling them both. This is the maxim of the Hegelian
+logic, which starts from the synthesis of Being and Not-being into the
+Becoming, a very ancient doctrine, long since offered as an explanation
+of certain phenomena, which I shall now touch upon.</p>
+
+<p>A thought and its privative alone&mdash;that is, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[32]</a></span> quality and its
+negative&mdash;cannot lead to a more comprehensive thought. It is devoid of
+relation and barren. In pure logic this is always the case, and must be
+so. In concrete thought it may be otherwise. There are certain
+propositions in which the negative is a reciprocal quality, quite as
+positive as that which it is set over against. The members of such a
+proposition are what are called “true contraries.” To whatever they
+apply as qualities, they leave no middle ground. If a thing is not one
+of them, it is the other. There is no third possibility. An object is
+either red or not red; if not red, it may be one of many colors. But if
+we say that all laws are either concrete or abstract, then we know that
+a law not concrete has all the properties of one which is abstract. We
+must examine, then, this third law of thought in its applied forms in
+order to understand its correct use.</p>
+
+<p>It will be observed that there is an assumption of space or time in many
+propositions having the form of the excluded middle. They are only true
+under given conditions. “All gold is fusible or not,” means that some is
+fusible at the time. If all gold be already fused, it does not hold
+good. This distinction was noted by Kant in his discrimination between
+<i>synthetic</i> judgments, which assume other conditions; and <i>analytic</i>
+judgments, which look only at the members of the proposition.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[33]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Only the latter satisfy the formal law, for the proposition must not
+look outside of itself for its completion. Most analytic propositions
+cannot extend our knowledge beyond their immediate statement. If A is
+either B or not B, and it is shown not to be B, it is left uncertain
+what A may be. The class of propositions referred to do more than this,
+inasmuch as they present alternative conceptions, mutually exhaustive,
+each the privative of the other. Of these two contraries, the one always
+evokes the other; neither can be thought except in relation to the
+other. They do not arise from the dichotomic process of classification,
+but from the polar relations of things. Their relation is not in the
+mind but in themselves, a real externality. The distinction between such
+as spring from the former and the latter is the most important question
+in philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>To illustrate by examples, we familiarly speak of heat and cold, and to
+say a body is not hot is as much as to say it is cold. But every
+physicist knows that cold is merely a diminution of heat, not a distinct
+form of force. The absolute zero may be reached by the abstraction of
+all heat, and then the cold cannot increase. So, life and death are not
+true contraries, for the latter is not anything real but a mere
+privative, a quantitative diminution of the former, growing less to an
+absolute zero where it is wholly lost.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[34]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Thus it is easy to see that the Unconditioned exists only as a part of
+the idea of the Conditioned, the Unknowable as the foil of the Knowable;
+and the erecting of these mere privatives, these negatives, these
+shadows, into substances and realities, and then setting them up as
+impassable barriers to human thought, is one of the worst pieces of work
+that metaphysics has been guilty of.</p>
+
+<p>The like does not hold in true contrasts. Each of them has an existence
+as a <a name="corr3" id="corr3"></a><ins class="correction" title="positive, and">positive,and</ins> is never lost in a zero of the other. The one is
+always thought in relation to the other. Examples of these are subject
+and object, absolute and relative, mind and matter, person and
+consciousness, time and space. When any one of these is thought, the
+other is assumed. It is vain to attempt their separation. Thus those
+philosophers who assert that all knowledge is relative, are forced to
+maintain this assertion, to wit, All knowledge is relative, is
+nevertheless absolute, and thus they falsify their own position. So
+also, those others who say all mind is a property of matter, assume in
+this sentence the reality of an idea apart from matter. Some have argued
+that space and time can be conceived independently of each other; but
+their experiments to show it do not bear repetition.</p>
+
+<p>All true contraries are universals. A uni<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[35]</a></span>versal concept is one of
+“maximum extension,” as logicians say, that is, it is without limit. The
+logical limitation of such a universal is not its negation, but its
+contrary, which is itself also a universal. The synthesis of the two can
+be in theory only, yet yields a real product. To illustrate this by a
+geometrical example, a straight line produced indefinitely is, logically
+considered, a universal. Its antithesis or true contrary is not a
+crooked line, as might be supposed, but the straight line which runs at
+right angles to it. Their synthesis is not the line which bisects their
+angle but that formed by these contraries continually uniting, that is,
+the arc of a circle, the genesis of which is theoretically the union of
+two such lines. Again, time can only be measured by space, space by
+time; they are true universals and contraries; their synthesis is
+<i>motion</i>, a conception which requires them both and is completed by
+them. Or again, the philosophical extremes of downright materialism and
+idealism are each wholly true, yet but half the truth. The insoluble
+enigmas that either meets in standing alone are kindred to those which
+puzzled the old philosophers in the sophisms relating to motion, as, for
+instance, that as a body cannot move where it is and still less where it
+is not, therefore it cannot move at all. Motion must recognise both time
+and space to be comprehensible. As a true contrary<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[36]</a></span> constantly implies
+the existence of its opposite, we cannot take a step in right reasoning
+without a full recognition of both.</p>
+
+<p>This relation of contraries to the higher conception which logically
+must include them is one of the well-worn problems of the higher
+metaphysics.</p>
+
+<p>The proper explanation would seem to be, as suggested above, that the
+synthesis of contraries is capable of formal expression only, but not of
+interpretation. In pursuing the search for their union we pass into a
+realm of thought not unlike that of the mathematician when he deals with
+hypothetical quantities, those which can only be expressed in symbols&mdash;,
+√1 for example,&mdash;but uses them to good purpose in reaching
+real results. The law does not fail, but its operations can no longer be
+expressed under material images. They are symbolic and for speculative
+thought alone, though pregnant with practical applications.</p>
+
+<p>As I have hinted, in all real contraries it is theoretically possible to
+accept either the one or the other. As in mathematics, all motion can be
+expressed either under formulas of initial motion (mechanics), or of
+continuous motion (kinematics), or as all force can be expressed as
+either static or as dynamic force; in either case the other form
+assuming a merely hypothetical or negative position; so the logic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[37]</a></span> of
+quality is competent to represent all existence as ideal or as material,
+all truth as absolute or all as relative, or even to express the
+universe in formulæ of being or of not-being. This perhaps was what
+Heraclitus meant when he propounded his dark saying: “All things are
+<i>and</i> are not.” He added that “All is not,” is truer than “All is.”
+Previous to his day, Buddha Sakyamuni had said: “He who has risen to the
+perception of the not-Being, to the Unconditioned, the Universal, his
+path is difficult to understand, like the flight of birds in the
+air.”<a name="FNanchor_37-1_16" id="FNanchor_37-1_16" href="#Footnote_37-1_16" class="fnanchor">37-1</a> Perhaps even he learned his lore from some older song of the
+Veda, one of which ends, “Thus have the sages, meditating in their
+souls, explained away the fetters of being by the not-being.”<a name="FNanchor_37-2_17" id="FNanchor_37-2_17" href="#Footnote_37-2_17" class="fnanchor">37-2</a> The
+not-being, as alone free from space and time, impressed these sages as
+the more real of the two, the only absolute.</p>
+
+<p>The error of assigning to the one universal a preponderance over the
+other arose from the easy confusion of pure with applied thought. The
+synthesis of contraries exists in the formal law alone, and this is
+difficult to keep before the mind. In concrete displays they are forever
+incommensurate. One seems to exclude the other. To see them correctly we
+must there treat them as alternates. We may be competent,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[38]</a></span> for instance,
+to explain all phenomena of mind by organic processes; and equally
+competent to explain all organism as effects of mind; but we must never
+suppose an immediate identity of the two; this is only to be found in
+the formal law common to both; still less should we deny the reality of
+either. Each exhausts the universe; but at every step each presupposes
+the other; their synthesis is life, a concept hopelessly puzzling unless
+regarded in all its possible displays as made up of both.</p>
+
+<p>This indicates also the limits of explanation. By no means every man’s
+reason knows when it has had enough. The less it is developed, the
+further is it from such knowledge. This is plainly seen in children, who
+often do not rest satisfied with a really satisfactory explanation. It
+is of first importance to be able to recognize what is a good reason.</p>
+
+<p>I may first say what it is <i>not</i>. It is not a <i>cause</i>. This is nothing
+more than a prior arrangement of the effect; the reason for an
+occurrence is never assigned by showing its cause. Nor is it a
+<i>caprice</i>, that is, motiveless volition, or will as a motor. In this
+sense, the “will of God” is no good reason for an occurrence. Nor is it
+<i>fate</i>, or physical necessity. This is denying there is any explanation
+to give.</p>
+
+<p>The reason can only be satisfied with an aliment consubstantial with
+itself. Nothing<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[39]</a></span> material like cause, nor anything incomprehensible like
+caprice, meets its demands. Reason is allied to order, system and
+purpose above all things. That which most completely answers to these
+will alone satisfy its requirements. They are for an ideal of order.
+Their complete satisfaction is obtained in universal types and measures,
+pure abstractions, which are not and cannot be real. The <i>formal law</i> is
+the limit of explanation of phenomena, beyond which a sound intellect
+will ask nothing. It fulfils all the requirements of reason, and leaves
+nothing to be desired.</p>
+
+<p>Those philosophers, such as Herbert Spencer, who teach that there is
+some incogitable “nature” of something which is the immanent “cause” of
+phenomena, delude themselves with words. The history and the laws of a
+phenomenon <i>are</i> its nature, and there is no chimerical something beyond
+them. They are exhaustive. They fully answer the question <i>why</i>, as well
+as the question <i>how</i>.<a name="FNanchor_39-1_18" id="FNanchor_39-1_18" href="#Footnote_39-1_18" class="fnanchor">39-1</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[40]</a></span>For it is important to note that the word “law” is not here used in the
+sense which Blackstone gives to it, a “rule of conduct;” nor yet in that
+which science assigns to it, a “physical necessity.” Law in its highest
+sense is the type or form, perceived by reason as that toward which
+phenomena tend, but which they always fail to reach. It was shown by
+Kant that all physical laws depend for their validity on logical laws.
+These are not authoritative, like the former, but purposive only. But
+their purpose is clear, to wit, the attainment of proportion,
+consistency or truth. As this purpose is reached only in the abstract
+form, this alone gives us the absolutely true in which reason can rest.</p>
+
+<p>In the concrete, matter shows the law in its efforts toward form, mind
+in its struggle for the true. The former is guided by physical force,
+and the extinction of the aberrant. The latter, in its highest
+exhibition in a conscious intelligence, can alone guide itself by the
+representation of law, by the sense of Duty. Such an intelligence has
+both the faculty to see and the power to choose and appropriate to its
+own be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[41]</a></span>hoof, and thus to build itself up out of those truths which are
+“from everlasting unto everlasting.”</p>
+
+<p>A purely formal truth of this kind as something wholly apart from
+phenomena, not in any way connected with the knowledge derived through
+the senses, does not admit of doubt and can never be changed by future
+conquests of the reasoning powers. We may rest upon it as something more
+permanent than matter, greater than Nature.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the vision that inspired the noble lines of Wordsworth:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“What are things eternal?&mdash;Powers depart,<br />
+Possessions vanish, and opinions change,<br />
+And passions hold a fluctuating seat;<br />
+But, by the storms of circumstance unshaken,<br />
+And subject neither to eclipse nor wane,<br />
+Duty exists; immutably survive<br />
+For our support, the measures and the forms<br />
+Which an abstract intelligence supplies;<br />
+Whose kingdom is where time and space are not.”</p>
+
+<p>There is no danger that we shall not know what is thus true when we see
+it. The sane reason cannot reject it. “The true,” says Novalis, “is that
+which we cannot help believing.” It is the <i>perceptio per solam
+essentiam</i> of Spinoza. It asks not faith nor yet testimony; it stands in
+need of neither.</p>
+
+<p>Mathematical truth is of this nature. We<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[42]</a></span> cannot, if we try, believe
+that twice two is five. Hence the unceasing effort of all science is to
+give its results mathematical expression. Such truth so informs itself
+with will that once received, it is never thereafter alienated;
+obedience to it does not impair freedom. Necessity and servitude do not
+arise from correct reasoning, but through the limitation of fallacies.
+They have nothing to do with</p>
+
+<p class="poem"><span class="i3">“Those transcendent truths</span><br />
+Of the pure intellect, that stand as laws<br />
+Even to Thy Being’s infinite majesty.”</p>
+
+<p>It is not derogatory, but on the contrary essential to the conception of
+the Supreme Reason, the Divine Logos, to contemplate its will as in
+accord and one with the forms of abstract truth. “The ‘will of God’”
+says Spinoza, “is the refuge of ignorance; the true Will is the spirit
+of right reasoning.”</p>
+
+<p>This identification of the forms of thought with the Absolute is almost
+as old as philosophy itself. The objections to it have been that no
+independent existence attaches to these forms; that they prescribe the
+conditions of thought but are not thought itself, still less being; that
+they hold good to thought as known to man’s reason, but perchance not to
+thought in other intelligences; and, therefore, that even if through the
+dialectical development of thought a consistent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[43]</a></span> idea of the universe
+were framed, that is, one wherein every fact was referred to its
+appropriate law, still would remain the inquiry, Is this the last and
+absolute truth?</p>
+
+<p>The principal points in these objections are that abstract thought does
+not postulate being; and that possibly all intelligence is not one in
+kind. To the former objection the most satisfactory, reply has been
+offered by Professor J. F. Ferrier. He has shown that the conception of
+object, even ideal object, implies the conception of self in the
+subject; and upon this proposition which has been fully recognized even
+by those who differ from him widely, he grounds the existence of Supreme
+Thought as a logical unity. Those who would pursue this branch of the
+subject further, I would refer to his singularly able work.<a name="FNanchor_43-1_19" id="FNanchor_43-1_19" href="#Footnote_43-1_19" class="fnanchor">43-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The latter consideration will come up in a later chapter. If it be shown
+that all possible intelligence proceeds on the same laws as that of man,
+and that the essence of this is activity, permanence, or
+truth&mdash;synonymous terms&mdash;then the limitation of time ceases, and
+existence not in time but without regard to time, is a necessary
+consequence. Knowledge through intellection can alone reach a truth
+independent of time; that through sensation is always relative, true<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[44]</a></span>
+for the time only. The former cannot be expressed without the
+implication of the conceptions of the universal and the eternal as
+“dominant among the subjects of thought with which Logic is
+concerned;”<a name="FNanchor_44-1_20" id="FNanchor_44-1_20" href="#Footnote_44-1_20" class="fnanchor">44-1</a> and hence the relation which the intellect bears to
+the absolute is a real and positive one.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_6-1_1" id="Footnote_6-1_1" href="#FNanchor_6-1_1">6-1</a> In his essay entitled, <i>Ueber den Geschlechtsunterschied
+und dessen Einfluss auf die organische Natur</i>, first published in 1795.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_6-2_2" id="Footnote_6-2_2" href="#FNanchor_6-2_2">6-2</a> “Der alte Dualismus von Geist und Körper, der
+Jahrhunderte hindurch nach Versöhnung gerungen, findet diese heute nicht
+zwar in der Einheit der Substanz, wohl aber in der Einheit des
+Gesetzes.” Dr. Heinrich Boehmer, <i>Geschichte der Entwickelung der
+Naturwissenschaftlichen Weltanschauung in Deutschland</i>, s. 201 (Gotha,
+1872).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_7-1_3" id="Footnote_7-1_3" href="#FNanchor_7-1_3">7-1</a> <i>Elements of Physio-Philosophy</i>, §3589. Eng. trans.,
+London, 1847.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_8-1_4" id="Footnote_8-1_4" href="#FNanchor_8-1_4">8-1</a> Von Feuchtersleben, <i>The Principles of Medical
+Psychology</i>, p. 130 (Eng. trans., London, 1847).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_9-1_5" id="Footnote_9-1_5" href="#FNanchor_9-1_5">9-1</a> “The fundamental property of organic structure is to seek
+what is beneficial, and to shun what is hurtful to it.” Dr. Henry
+Maudsley, <i>Body and Mind</i>, p. 22.
+</p><p>
+“The most essential nature of a sentient being is to move <i>to</i> pleasure
+and <i>from</i> pain.” A. Bain, <i>On the Study of Character</i>, p. 292 (London,
+1861).
+</p><p>
+“States of Pleasure are connected with an increase, states of Pain with
+an abatement of some or all of the vital functions.” A. Bain, <i>Mind and
+Body</i>, p. 59.
+</p><p>
+“Affectus est confusa idea, quâ Mens majorem, vel minorem sui corporis,
+vel alicujus ejus partis, existendi vim affirmat.” Spinoza, <i>Ethices</i>,
+Lib. III. <i>ad finem</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_11-1_6" id="Footnote_11-1_6" href="#FNanchor_11-1_6">11-1</a> The extension of the mechanical laws of motion to
+organic motion was, I believe, first carried out by Comte. His
+biological form of the first law is as follows: “Tout état, statique ou
+dynamique, tend à persister spontanément, sans aucune altération, en
+resistant aux perturbations extérieures.” <i>Système de Politique
+Positive</i>, Tome iv. p. 178. The metaphysical ground of this law has, I
+think, been very well shown by Schopenhauer to be in the Kantian
+principle that time is not a force, nor a quality of matter, but a
+condition of perception, and hence it can exert no physical influence.
+See Schopenhauer, <i>Parerga und Paralipomena</i>, Bd. II, s. 37.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_13-1_7" id="Footnote_13-1_7" href="#FNanchor_13-1_7">13-1</a> “Aller Genuss, seiner Natur nach, ist negativ, d. h., in
+Befreiung von einer Noth oder Pein besteht.” <i>Parerga und Paralipomena.</i>
+Bd. II, s. 482.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_14-1_8" id="Footnote_14-1_8" href="#FNanchor_14-1_8">14-1</a> “No impression whatever is pleasant beyond the instant
+of its realization; since, at that very instant, commences the change of
+susceptibility, which suggests the desire for a change of impression or
+for a renewal of that impression which is fading away.” Dr. J. P.
+Catlow, <i>The Principles of Aesthetic Medicine</i>, p. 155 (London, 1867).
+</p><p>
+“Dum re, quem appetamus fruimur, corpus ex ea fruitione novam acquirat
+constitutionem, á quá aliter determinatur, et aliæ rerum imagines in eo
+excitantur,” etc. Spinoza, <i>Ethices</i>, Pars III, Prop. lix.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_18-1_9" id="Footnote_18-1_9" href="#FNanchor_18-1_9">18-1</a> “Feeling and thought are much more real than anything
+else; they are the only things which we directly know to be real.”&mdash;John
+Stuart Mill.&mdash;<i>Theism</i>, p. 202. How very remote external objects are
+from what we take them to be, is constantly shown in physiological
+studies. As Helmholtz remarks: “No kind and no degree of similarity
+exists between the quality of a sensation, and the quality of the agent
+inducing it and portrayed by it.”&mdash;<i>Lectures on Scientific Subjects</i>, p.
+390.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_20-1_10" id="Footnote_20-1_10" href="#FNanchor_20-1_10">20-1</a> <i>The Philosophy of Consciousness</i>, p. 72.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_21-1_11" id="Footnote_21-1_11" href="#FNanchor_21-1_11">21-1</a> The Gospel of John (ch. xviii.) leaves the impression
+that Pilate either did not wait for an answer but asked the question in
+contempt, as Bacon understood, or else that waiting he received no
+answer. The Gospel of Nicodemus, however, written according to
+Tischendorf in the second century, probably from tradition, gives the
+rest of the conversation as follows: “Pilate says to him: What is truth?
+Jesus says: Truth is from heaven. Pilate says: Is not there truth upon
+earth? Jesus says to Pilate: See how one who speaks truth is judged by
+those who have power upon earth!” [ch. iii.]</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_22-1_12" id="Footnote_22-1_12" href="#FNanchor_22-1_12">22-1</a> The most acute recent discussion of this subject is by
+Helmholtz, in his essay entitled, “<i>Recent Progress in the Theory of
+Vision</i>.”</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_24-1_13" id="Footnote_24-1_13" href="#FNanchor_24-1_13">24-1</a> George Boole, Professor of Mathematics in Queen’s
+College, Cork, was born Nov. 2, 1815, died Dec. 8, 1864. He was the
+author of several contributions to the higher mathematics, but his
+principal production is entitled: <i>An Investigation into the Laws of
+Thought, on which are founded the mathematical Theories of Logic and
+Probabilities</i> [London, 1854.] Though the reputation he gained was so
+limited that one may seek his name in vain in the <i>New American
+Cyclopedia</i> [1875], or the <i>Dictionnaire des Contemporains</i> [1859], the
+few who can appreciate his treatise place the very highest estimate upon
+it. Professor Todhunter, in the preface to his <i>History of the Theory of
+Probabilities</i>, calls it “a marvellous work,” and in similar language
+Professor W. Stanley Jevons speaks of it as “one of the most marvellous
+and admirable pieces of reasoning ever put together” (<i>Pure Logic</i>, p.
+75). Professor Bain, who gives a synopsis of it in his <i>Deductive
+Logic</i>, wholly misapprehends the author’s purpose, and is unable to
+appraise justly his conclusions.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_28-1_14" id="Footnote_28-1_14" href="#FNanchor_28-1_14">28-1</a> <i>The Institutes of Metaphysic</i>, p. 459, (2nd edition.)</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_31-1_15" id="Footnote_31-1_15" href="#FNanchor_31-1_15">31-1</a> <i>An Outline of the Necessary Laws of Thought</i>, p. 113
+(New York, 1860).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_37-1_16" id="Footnote_37-1_16" href="#FNanchor_37-1_16">37-1</a> <i>The Dhamapada</i>, verse 93.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_37-2_17" id="Footnote_37-2_17" href="#FNanchor_37-2_17">37-2</a> Koppen, <i>Der Buddhismus</i>, s. 30.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_39-1_18" id="Footnote_39-1_18" href="#FNanchor_39-1_18">39-1</a> Spencer in assuming an “unknowable universal causal
+agent and source of things,” as “the nature of the power manifested in
+phenomena,” and in calling this the idea common to both religion and
+“ideal science,” fell far behind Comte, who expressed the immovable
+position, not only of positive science but of all intelligence, in these
+words: “Le véritable esprit positif consiste surtout à substituer
+toujours l’étude des <i>lois</i> invariables des phénomènes à celles de leurs
+<i>causes</i> proprement dites, premières ou finales, en un mot la
+determination du <i>comment</i> à celle du <i>pourquoi</i>.”&mdash;<i><a name="corr4" id="corr4"></a><ins class="correction" title="Système de">Systèmede</ins>
+Politique Positive</i>, i. p. 47. Compare Spencer’s Essay entitled,
+“Reasons for dissenting from Comte.” The purposive law is the only final
+cause which reason allows. Comte’s error lay in ignoring this class of
+laws.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_43-1_19" id="Footnote_43-1_19" href="#FNanchor_43-1_19">43-1</a> <i>The Institutes of Metaphysic</i>, 2d Ed. See also Bain,
+<i>The Emotions and the Will</i>, the closing note.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_44-1_20" id="Footnote_44-1_20" href="#FNanchor_44-1_20">44-1</a> Boole, <i>Laws of Thought</i>, p. 401.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[45]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapdivider"><a name="THE_EMOTIONAL_ELEMENTS_OF_THE_RELIGIOUS_SENTIMENT" id="THE_EMOTIONAL_ELEMENTS_OF_THE_RELIGIOUS_SENTIMENT"></a>THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.</h2>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[46]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="chapterhead">SUMMARY.</h3>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Religious Sentiment is made up of emotions and thoughts. The
+emotions are historically first and most prominent. Of all
+concerned, Fear is the most obvious. Hope is its correlate. Both
+suppose Experience, and a desire to repeat or avoid it. Hence a
+Wish is the source of both emotions, and the proximate element of
+religion. The significance of desire as the postulate of
+development. The influence of fear and hope. The conditions which
+encourage them.</p>
+
+<p>The success of desire fails to gratify the religious sentiment. The
+alternative left is eternal repose, or else action, unending yet
+which aims at nothing beyond. The latter is reached through Love.
+The result of love is <i>continuance</i>. Illustrations of this. Sexual
+love and the venereal sense in religions. The hermaphrodite gods.
+The virgin mother. Mohammed was the first to proclaim a deity above
+sex. The conversion of sexual and religious emotion exemplified
+from insane delusions. The element of fascination. The love of God.
+Other emotional elements in religions.</p>
+
+<p>The religious wish defined to be one <i>whose fruition depends upon
+unknown power</i>. To be religious, one must desire and be ignorant.
+The unknown power is of religious interest only in so far as it is
+believed to be in relation to men’s desires. In what sense
+ignorance is the mother of devotion.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[47]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="chaptitle">THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> discussion in the last chapter illustrated how closely pain and
+pleasure, truth and error, and thought and its laws have been related to
+the forms of religions, and their dogmatic expressions. The character of
+the relatively and absolutely true was touched upon, and the latter, it
+was indicated, if attainable at all by human intelligence, must be found
+in the formal laws of that intelligence, those which constitute its
+nature and essence, and in the conclusions which such a premise forces
+upon the reason. The necessity of this preliminary inquiry arose from
+the fact that every historical religion claims the monopoly of the
+absolutely true, and such claims can be tested only when we have decided
+as to whether there is such truth, and if there is, where it is to be
+sought. Moreover, as religions arise from some mental demand, the
+different manifestations of mind,&mdash;sensation, emotion and
+intellect&mdash;must be recognized and understood.</p>
+
+<p>Passing now to a particular description of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[48]</a></span> Religious Sentiment, it
+may roughly be defined to be the feeling which prompts to thoughts or
+acts of worship. It is, as I have said, a complex product, made up of
+emotions and ideas, developing with the growth of mind, wide-reaching in
+its maturity, but meagre enough at the start. We need not expect to find
+in its simplest phases that insight and tender feeling which we
+attribute to the developed religious character. “The scent of the
+blossom is not in the bulb.” Its early and ruder forms, however, will
+best teach the mental elements which are at its root.</p>
+
+<p>The problem is, to find out why the primitive man figured to himself any
+gods at all; what necessity of his nature or his condition led him so
+universally to assume their existence, and seek their aid or their
+mercy? The conditions of the solution are, that it hold good everywhere
+and at all times; that it enable us to trace in every creed and cult the
+same sentiments which first impelled man to seek a god and adore him.
+Why is it that now and in remotest history, here and in the uttermost
+regions, there is and always has been this that we call <i>religion</i>?
+There must be some common reason, some universal peculiarity in man’s
+mental formation which prompts, which forces him, him alone of animals,
+and him without exception, to this discourse and observance of religion.
+What this is, it is my present purpose to try to find out.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[49]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>In speaking of the development of mind through organism, it was seen
+that the emotions precede the reason in point of time. This is daily
+confirmed by observation. The child is vastly more emotional than the
+man, the savage than his civilized neighbor. Castren, the Russian
+traveller, describes the Tartars and Lapps as a most nervous folk. When
+one shocks them with a sudden noise, they almost fall into convulsions.
+Among the North American Indians, falsely called a phlegmatic race,
+nervous diseases are epidemic to an almost unparalleled extent. Intense
+thought, on the other hand, as I have before said, tends to lessen and
+annul the emotions. Intellectual self-consciousness is adverse to them.</p>
+
+<p>But religion, we are everywhere told, is largely a matter of the
+emotions. The pulpit constantly resounds with appeals to the feelings,
+and not unfrequently with warnings against the intellect. “I acknowledge
+myself,” says the pious non-juror, William Law, “a declared enemy to the
+use of reason in religion;” and he often repeats his condemnation of
+“the labor-learned professors of far-fetched book-riches.”<a name="FNanchor_49-1_21" id="FNanchor_49-1_21" href="#Footnote_49-1_21" class="fnanchor">49-1</a> As the
+eye is the organ of sight, says one whose thoughts on such matters equal
+in depth those of Pascal, so the heart is the organ of religion.<a name="FNanchor_49-2_22" id="FNanchor_49-2_22" href="#Footnote_49-2_22" class="fnanchor">49-2</a><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[50]</a></span>
+In popular physiology, the heart is the seat of the emotions as the
+brain is that of intellect. It is appropriate, therefore, that we
+commence our analysis of the religious sentiment with the emotions which
+form such a prominent part of it.</p>
+
+<p>Now, whether we take the experience of an individual or the history of a
+tribe, whether we have recourse to the opinions of religious teachers or
+irreligious philosophers, we find them nigh unanimous that the emotion
+which is the prime motor of religious thought is <i>fear</i>. I need not
+depend upon the well-known line of Petronius Arbiter,</p>
+
+<p class="poem">Primus in orbe deos fecit timor;</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">for there is plenty of less heterodox authority. The worthy Bishop Hall
+says, “Seldom doth God seize upon the heart without a vehement
+concussion going before. There must be some blustering and flashes of
+the law. We cannot be too awful in our fear.”<a name="FNanchor_50-1_23" id="FNanchor_50-1_23" href="#Footnote_50-1_23" class="fnanchor">50-1</a> Bunyan, in his
+beautiful allegory of the religious life, lets Christian exclaim: “Had
+even Obstinate himself felt what I have felt of the terrors of the yet
+unseen, he would not thus lightly have given us the <i>back</i>.” The very
+word for God in the Semitic tongues means “fear;”<a name="FNanchor_50-2_24" id="FNanchor_50-2_24" href="#Footnote_50-2_24" class="fnanchor">50-2</a> Jacob swore to
+Laban, “by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[51]</a></span> Him whom Isaac feared;” and Moses warned his people that
+“God is come, that his fear may be before your faces.” To <i>venerate</i> is
+from a Sanscrit root (<i>sêv</i>), to be afraid of.</p>
+
+<p>But it is needless to amass more evidence on this point. Few will
+question that fear is the most prominent emotion at the awakening of the
+religious sentiments. Let us rather proceed to inquire more minutely
+what fear is.</p>
+
+<p>I remarked in the previous chapter that “the emotions fall naturally
+into a dual classification, in which the one involves pleasurable or
+elevating, the other painful or depressing conditions.” Fear comes of
+course under the latter category, as it is essentially a painful and
+depressing state of mind. But it corresponds with and implies the
+presence of Hope, for he who has nothing to hope has nothing to
+fear.<a name="FNanchor_51-1_25" id="FNanchor_51-1_25" href="#Footnote_51-1_25" class="fnanchor">51-1</a> “There is no hope without fear, as there is no fear without
+hope,” says Spinoza. “For he who is in fear has some doubt whether what
+he fears will take place, and consequently hopes that it will not.”</p>
+
+<p>We can go a step further, and say that in the mental process the hope
+must necessarily precede the fear. In the immediate moment of losing a
+pleasurable sensation we hope and seek<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[52]</a></span> for its repetition. The mind,
+untutored by experience, confidently looks for its return. The hope only
+becomes dashed by fear when experience has been associated with
+disappointment. Hence we must first look to enjoy a good before we can
+be troubled by a fear that we shall not enjoy it; we must first lay a
+plan before we can fear its failure. In modern Christianity hope, hope
+of immortal happiness, is more conspicuous than fear; but that hope is
+also based on the picture of a pleasant life made up from experience.</p>
+
+<p>Both hope and fear, therefore, have been correctly called secondary or
+derived emotions, as they presuppose experience and belief, experience
+of a pleasure akin to that which we hope, belief that we can attain such
+a pleasure. “We do not hope first and enjoy afterwards, but we enjoy
+first and hope afterwards.”<a name="FNanchor_52-1_26" id="FNanchor_52-1_26" href="#Footnote_52-1_26" class="fnanchor">52-1</a> Having enjoyed, we seek to do so
+again. A desire, in other words, must precede either Hope or Fear. They
+are twin sisters, born of a Wish.</p>
+
+<p>Thus my analysis traces the real source of the religious sentiment, so
+far as the emotions are concerned, to a Wish; and having arrived there,
+I find myself anticipated by the words of one of the most reflective
+minds of this century:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[53]</a></span> “All religion rests on a mental want; we hope,
+we fear, because we wish.”<a name="FNanchor_53-1_27" id="FNanchor_53-1_27" href="#Footnote_53-1_27" class="fnanchor">53-1</a> And long before this conclusion was
+reached by philosophers, it had been expressed in unconscious religious
+thought in myths, in the Valkyria, the Wish-maidens, for instance, who
+carried the decrees of Odin to earth.</p>
+
+<p>This is no mean origin, for a wish, a desire, conscious or unconscious,
+in sensation only or in emotion as well, is the fundamental postulate of
+every sort of development, of improvement, of any possible future, of
+life of any kind, mental or physical. In its broadest meaning, science
+and history endorse the exclamation of the unhappy Obermann: “<i>La perte
+vraiment irréparable est celle des désirs.</i>”<a name="FNanchor_53-2_28" id="FNanchor_53-2_28" href="#Footnote_53-2_28" class="fnanchor">53-2</a></p>
+
+<p>The sense of unrest, the ceaseless longing for something else, which is
+the general source of all desires and wishes, is also the source of all
+endeavor and of all progress. Physiologically, it is the effort of our
+organization to adapt itself to the ever varying conditions which
+surround it; intellectually, it is the struggle to arrive at truth; in
+both, it is the effort to attain a fuller life.</p>
+
+<p>As stimuli to action, therefore, the commonest and strongest of all
+emotions are Fear<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[54]</a></span> and Hope. They are the emotional correlates of
+pleasure and pain, which rule the life of sensation. Their closer
+consideration may well detain us awhile.</p>
+
+<p>In the early stages of religious life, whether in an individual or a
+nation, the latter is half concealed. Fear is more demonstrative, and as
+it is essentially destructive, its effects are more sudden and visible.
+In its acuter forms, as Fright and Terror, it may blanch the hair in a
+night, blight the mind and destroy the life of the individual. As Panic,
+it is eminently epidemic, carrying crowds and armies before it; while in
+the aggravated form of Despair it swallows up all other emotions and
+prompts to self destruction. Its physiological effect is a direct
+impairment of vitality.</p>
+
+<p>Hope is less intense and more lasting than fear. It stimulates the
+system, elates with the confidence of control, strengthens with the
+courage derived from a conviction of success, and bestows in advance the
+imagined joy of possession. As Feuchtersleben happily expresses it:
+“Hope preserves the principle of duration when other parts are
+threatened with destruction, and is a manifestation of the innermost
+psychical energy of Life.”<a name="FNanchor_54-1_29" id="FNanchor_54-1_29" href="#Footnote_54-1_29" class="fnanchor">54-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Both emotions powerfully prompt to action,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[55]</a></span> and to that extent are
+opposed to thought. Based on belief, they banish uncertainty, and
+antagonize doubt and with it investigation. The religion in which they
+enter as the principal factors will be one intolerant of opposition,
+energetic in deed, and generally hostile to an unbiased pursuit of the
+truth.</p>
+
+<p>Naturally those temperaments and those physical conditions which chiefly
+foster these emotions will tend to religious systems in which they are
+prominent. Let us see what some of these conditions are.</p>
+
+<p>It has always been noticed that impaired vitality predisposes to fear.
+The sick and feeble are more timorous than the strong and well. Further
+predisposing causes of the same nature are insufficient nourishment,
+cold, gloom, malaria, advancing age and mental worry. For this reason
+nearly invariably after a general financial collapse we witness a
+religious “revival.” Age, full of care and fear, is thus prompted to
+piety, willing, as La Rochefoucauld remarks, to do good by precept when
+it can no longer do evil by example. The inhabitants of swampy,
+fever-ridden districts are usually devout. The female sex, always the
+weaker and often the worsted one in the struggle for existence, is when
+free more religious than the male; but with them hope is more commonly
+the incentive than fear.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[56]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Although thus prominent and powerful, desire, so far as its fruition is
+pleasure, has expressed but the lowest emotions of the religious
+sentiment. Something more than this has always been asked by sensitively
+religious minds. Success fails to bring the gratification it promises.
+The wish granted, the mind turns from it in satiety. Not this, after
+all, was what we sought.</p>
+
+<p>The acutest thinkers have felt this. Pascal in his <i>Pensées</i> has such
+expressions as these: “The present is never our aim. The future alone is
+our object.” “Forever getting ready to be happy, it is certain we never
+can be.” “’Tis the combat pleases us and not the victory. As soon as
+that is achieved, we have had enough of the spectacle. So it is in play,
+so it is in the search for truth. We never pursue objects, but we pursue
+the pursuit of objects.” But no one has stated it more boldly than
+Lessing when he wrote: “If God held in his right hand all truth, and in
+his left the one unceasingly active desire for truth, although bound up
+with the law that I should forever err, I should choose with humility
+the left and say: ‘Give me this, Father. The pure truth is for thee
+alone.’”<a name="FNanchor_56-1_30" id="FNanchor_56-1_30" href="#Footnote_56-1_30" class="fnanchor">56-1</a> The pleasure seems to lie not in the booty but in the
+battle, not in gaining the stakes but in playing the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[57]</a></span> game, not in the
+winning but in the wooing, not in the discovery of truth but in the
+search for it.</p>
+
+<p>What is left for the wise, but to turn, as does the preacher, from this
+delusion of living, where laughter is mad and pleasure is vain, and
+praise the dead which are dead more than the living which are yet alive,
+or to esteem as better than both he that hath never been?</p>
+
+<p>Such is the conclusion of many faiths. Wasted with combat, the mortal
+longs for the rest prepared for the weary. Buddha taught the
+extinguishment in Nirvana; the Brahman portrays the highest bliss as
+<i>shanti</i>, complete and eternal repose; and that the same longing was
+familiar to ancient Judaism, and has always been common to Christianity,
+numerous evidences testify.<a name="FNanchor_57-1_31" id="FNanchor_57-1_31" href="#Footnote_57-1_31" class="fnanchor">57-1</a> Few epitaphs are more common than
+those which speak of the mortal resting <i>in pace, in quiete</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The supposition at the root of these longings is that action must bring
+fatigue and pain, and though it bring pleasure too, it is bought too
+dearly. True in fact, I have shown that this conflicts with the theory
+of perfect life, even organic life. The highest form of life is the most
+unceasing living; its functions ask for their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[58]</a></span> completest well being
+constant action, not satisfaction. That general feeling of health and
+strength, that <i>sens de bien être</i>, which goes with the most perfect
+physical life, is experienced only when all the organs are in complete
+working order and doing full duty. They impart to the whole frame a
+desire of motion. Hence the activity of the young and healthy as
+contrasted with the inertness of the exhausted and aged.</p>
+
+<p>How is it possible to reconcile this ideal of life, still more the hope
+of everlasting life, with the acknowledged vanity of desire? It is
+accomplished through the medium of an emotion which more than any I have
+touched upon reveals the character of the religious sentiment&mdash;Love.
+This mighty but protean feeling I shall attempt to define on broader
+principles than has hitherto been done. The vague and partial meanings
+assigned it have led to sad confusion in the studies of religions. In
+the language of feeling, love is a passion; but it does not spring from
+feeling alone. It is far more fervid when it rises through intellect
+than through sense. “Men have died from time to time, and worms have
+eaten them, but not for love,” says the fair Rosalind; and though her
+saying is not very true as to the love of sense, it is far less true as
+to the love of intellect. The martyrs to science and religion, to
+principles and faith, multiply a hundred-fold<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[59]</a></span> those to the garden god.
+The spell of the idea is what</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage" style="font-size: smaller;">“Turns ruin into laughter and death into dreaming.”</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Such love destroys the baser passion of sense, or transfigures it so
+that we know it no longer. The idea-driven is callous to the
+blandishments of beauty, for his is a love stronger than the love to
+woman. The vestal, the virgin, the eunuch for the kingdom of heaven’s
+sake are the exemplars of the love to God.</p>
+
+<p>What common trait so marks these warring products of mind, that we call
+them by one name? In what is all love the same? The question is
+pertinent, for the love of woman, the love of neighbor, the love of
+country, the love of God, have made the positive side of most religions,
+the burden of their teachings. The priests of Cotytto and Venus, Astarte
+and Melitta, spoke but a more sensuous version of the sermon of the aged
+apostle to the Ephesians,&mdash;shortest and best of all sermons&mdash;“Little
+children, love one another.”<a name="FNanchor_59-1_32" id="FNanchor_59-1_32" href="#Footnote_59-1_32" class="fnanchor">59-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The earliest and most constant sign of reason is “working for a remote
+object.”<a name="FNanchor_59-2_33" id="FNanchor_59-2_33" href="#Footnote_59-2_33" class="fnanchor">59-2</a> Nearly everything we do is as a step to something beyond.
+Forethought, conscious provision, is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[60]</a></span> measure of intelligence. But
+there must be something which is the object, the aim, the end-in-view of
+rational action, which is sought for itself alone, not as instrumental
+to something else. Such an object, when recognized, inspires the
+sentiment of love. It springs from the satisfaction of reason.</p>
+
+<p>This conclusion as to the nature of love has long been recognized by
+thinkers. Richard Baxter defined it as “the volition of the end,” “the
+motion of the soul that tendeth to the end,” and more minutely, “the
+will’s volition of good apprehended by the understanding.”<a name="FNanchor_60-1_34" id="FNanchor_60-1_34" href="#Footnote_60-1_34" class="fnanchor">60-1</a> In
+similar language Bishop Butler explains it as “the resting in an object
+as an end.”<a name="FNanchor_60-2_35" id="FNanchor_60-2_35" href="#Footnote_60-2_35" class="fnanchor">60-2</a> Perhaps I can better these explanations by the phrase,
+<i>Love is the mental impression of rational action whose end is in
+itself</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Now this satisfaction is found only in one class of efforts, namely,
+those whose result is continuity, persistence, in fine, <i>preservation</i>.
+This may be toward the individual, self-love, whose object is the
+continuance of personal existence; toward the other sex, where the
+hidden aim is the perpetuation of the race; toward<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[61]</a></span> one’s fellows, where
+the giving of pleasure and the prevention of pain mean the maintenance
+of life; toward one’s country, as patriotism; and finally toward the
+eternally true, which as alone the absolutely permanent and
+preservative, inspires a love adequate and exhaustive of its conception,
+casting out both hope and fear, the pangs of desire as well as the
+satiety of fruition.</p>
+
+<p>In one or other of these forms love has at all times been the burden of
+religion: the glad tidings it has always borne have been “love on
+earth.” The Phœnix in Egyptian myth appeared yearly as newly risen,
+but was ever the same bird, and bore the egg from which its <i>parent</i> was
+to have birth. So religions have assumed the guise in turn of self-love,
+sex-love, love of country and love of humanity, cherishing in each the
+germ of that highest love which alone is the parent of its last and only
+perfect embodiment.</p>
+
+<p>Favorite of these forms was sex-love. “We find,” observes a recent
+writer, “that all religions have engaged and concerned themselves with
+the sexual passion. From the times of phallic worship through Romish
+celibacy down to Mormonism, theology has linked itself with man’s
+reproductive instincts.”<a name="FNanchor_61-1_36" id="FNanchor_61-1_36" href="#Footnote_61-1_36" class="fnanchor">61-1</a> The remark is just, and is most
+conspicuously correct in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[62]</a></span> strongly emotional temperaments. “The
+devotional feelings,” writes the Rev. Frederick Robertson in one of his
+essays, “are often singularly allied to the animal nature; they conduct
+the unconscious victim of feelings that appear divine into a state of
+life at which the world stands aghast.” Fanaticism is always united with
+either excessive lewdness or desperate asceticism. The physiological
+performance of the generative function is sure to be attacked by
+religious bigotry.</p>
+
+<p>So prominent is this feature that attempts have been made to explain
+nearly all symbolism and mythology as types of the generative procedure
+and the reproductive faculty of organism. Not only the pyramids and
+sacred mountains, the obelisks of the Nile and the myths of light have
+received this interpretation, but even such general symbols as the
+spires of churches, the cross of Christendom and the crescent of
+Islam.<a name="FNanchor_62-1_37" id="FNanchor_62-1_37" href="#Footnote_62-1_37" class="fnanchor">62-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Without falling into the error of supposing that any one meaning or
+origin can be assigned such frequent symbols, we may acknowledge that
+love, in its philosophical sense, is closely akin to the mystery of
+every religion. That, on occasions, love of sex gained the mastery over
+all other forms, is not to be doubted; but that at all times<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[63]</a></span> this was
+so, is a narrow, erroneous view, not consistent with a knowledge of the
+history of psychical development.</p>
+
+<p>Sex-love, as a sentiment, is a cultivated growth. All it is at first is
+a rude satisfaction of the erethism. The wild tribes of California had
+their pairing seasons when the sexes were in heat, “as regularly as the
+deer, the elk and the antelope.”<a name="FNanchor_63-1_38" id="FNanchor_63-1_38" href="#Footnote_63-1_38" class="fnanchor">63-1</a> In most tongues of the savages of
+North America there are no tender words, as “dear,” “darling,” and the
+like.<a name="FNanchor_63-2_39" id="FNanchor_63-2_39" href="#Footnote_63-2_39" class="fnanchor">63-2</a> No desire of offspring led to their unions. The women had
+few children, and their fathers paid them little attention. The family
+instinct appears in conditions of higher culture, in Judea, Greece, Rome
+and ancient Germany. Procreation instead of lust was there the aim of
+marriage. To-day, mere sentiment is so much in the ascendant that both
+these elements are often absent. There is warm affection without even
+instinctive knowledge of the design of the bond assumed.<a name="FNanchor_63-3_40" id="FNanchor_63-3_40" href="#Footnote_63-3_40" class="fnanchor">63-3</a></p>
+
+<p>Those who would confine the promptings of the passion of reproduction as
+it appears in man to its objects as shown in lower animals, know<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[64]</a></span> little
+how this wondrous emotion has acted as man’s mentor as well as paraclete
+in his long and toilsome conflict with the physical forces.</p>
+
+<p>The venereal sense is unlike the other special senses in that it is
+general, as well as referable to special organs and nerves. In its
+psychological action it “especially contributes to the development of
+sympathies which connect man not only with his coevals, but with his
+fellows of all preceding and succeeding generations as well. Upon it is
+erected this vast superstructure of intellect, of social and moral
+sentiment, of voluntary effort and endeavor.”<a name="FNanchor_64-1_41" id="FNanchor_64-1_41" href="#Footnote_64-1_41" class="fnanchor">64-1</a> Of all the
+properties of organized matter, that of transmitting form and life is
+the most wonderful; and if we examine critically the physical basis of
+the labors and hopes of mankind, if we ask what prompts its noblest and
+holiest longings, we shall find them, in the vast majority of instances,
+directly traceable to this power. No wonder then that religion, which we
+have seen springs from man’s wants and wishes, very often bears the
+distinct trace of their origin in his reproductive functions. The liens
+of the family are justly deemed sacred, and are naturally associated
+with whatever the mind considers holy.</p>
+
+<p>The duty of a citizen to become a father was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[65]</a></span> a prominent feature in
+many ancient religions. How much honor the sire of many sons had in Rome
+and Palestine is familiar to all readers. No warrior, according to
+German faith, could gain entrance to Valhalla unless he had begotten a
+son. Thus the preservation of the species was placed under the immediate
+guardianship of religion.</p>
+
+<p>Such considerations explain the close connection of sexual thoughts with
+the most sacred mysteries of faith. In polytheisms, the divinities are
+universally represented as male or female, virile and fecund. The
+processes of nature were often held to be maintained through such
+celestial nuptials.</p>
+
+<p>Yet stranger myths followed those of the loves of the gods. Religion, as
+the sentiment of continuance, finding its highest expression in the
+phenomenon of generation, had to reconcile this with the growing concept
+of a divine unity. Each separate god was magnified in praises as
+self-sufficient. Earth, or nature, or the season is one, yet brings
+forth all. How embody this in concrete form?</p>
+
+<p>The startling refuge was had in the image of a deity at once of both
+sexes. Such avowedly were Mithras, Janus, Melitta, Cybele, Aphrodite,
+Agdistis; indeed nearly all the Syrian, Egyptian, and Italic gods, as
+well as Brahma, and, in the esoteric doctrine of the Cabala, even
+Jehovah, whose female aspect is represented by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[66]</a></span> “Shekinah.” To this
+abnormal condition the learned have applied the adjectives epicene,
+androgynous, hermaphrodite, arrenothele. In art it is represented by a
+blending of the traits of both sexes. In the cult it was dramatically
+set forth by the votaries assuming the attire of the other sex, and
+dallying with both.<a name="FNanchor_66-1_42" id="FNanchor_66-1_42" href="#Footnote_66-1_42" class="fnanchor">66-1</a> The phallic symbol superseded all others; and
+in Cyprus, Babylonia and Phrygia, once in her life, at least, must every
+woman submit to the embrace of a stranger.</p>
+
+<p>Such rites were not mere sensualities. The priests of these divinities
+often voluntarily suffered emasculation. None but a eunuch could become
+high priest of Cybele. Among the sixteen million worshippers of Siva,
+whose symbol is the Lingam, impurity is far less prevalent than among
+the sister sects of Hindoo religions.<a name="FNanchor_66-2_43" id="FNanchor_66-2_43" href="#Footnote_66-2_43" class="fnanchor">66-2</a> To the Lingayets, the member
+typifies abstractly the idea of life. Therefore they carve it on
+sepulchres, or, like the ancient nations of Asia Minor, they lay clay
+images of it on graves to intimate the hope of existence beyond the
+tomb.</p>
+
+<p>This notion of a hermaphrodite deity is not “monstrous,” as it has been
+called. There lies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[67]</a></span> a deep meaning in it. The gods are spirits, beings
+of another order, which the cultivated esthetic sense protests against
+classing as of one or the other gender. Never can the ideal of beauty,
+either physical or moral, be reached until the characteristics of sex
+are lost in the concept of the purely human. In the noblest men of
+history there has often been noted something feminine, a gentleness
+which is not akin to weakness; and the women whose names are ornaments
+to nations have displayed a calm greatness, not unwomanly but something
+more than belongs to woman. Art acknowledges this. In the Vatican Apollo
+we see masculine strength united with maidenly softness; and in the
+traditional face and figure of Christ a still more striking example how
+the devout mind conjoins the traits of both sexes to express the highest
+possibility of the species. “Soaring above the struggle in which the
+real is involved with its limitations, and free from the characteristics
+of gender, the ideal of beauty as well as the ideal of humanity, alike
+maintain a perfect sexual equilibrium.”<a name="FNanchor_67-1_44" id="FNanchor_67-1_44" href="#Footnote_67-1_44" class="fnanchor">67-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Another and more familiar expression of the religious emotion, akin to
+the belief in double-<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[68]</a></span>sexed deities,&mdash;nay, in its physiological aspect
+identical with it, as assuming sexual self-sufficiency, is the myth of
+the Virgin-Mother.</p>
+
+<p>When Columbus first planted the cross on the shores of San Domingo, the
+lay brother Roman Pane, whom he sent forth to convert the natives of
+that island, found among them a story of a virgin Mamóna, whose son
+Yocaúna, a hero and a god, was chief among divinities, and had in the
+old times taught this simple people the arts of peace and guided them
+through the islands.<a name="FNanchor_68-1_45" id="FNanchor_68-1_45" href="#Footnote_68-1_45" class="fnanchor">68-1</a> When the missionaries penetrated to the
+Iroquois, the Aztecs, the Mayas, and many other tribes, this same story
+was told them with such startling likeness to one they came to tell,
+that they felt certain either St. Thomas or Satan had got the start of
+them in America.</p>
+
+<p>But had these pious men known as well as we do the gentile religions of
+the Old World, they would have seasoned their admiration. Long before
+Christianity was thought of, the myth of the Virgin-Mother of God was in
+the faith of millions, as we have had abundantly shown us of late years
+by certain expounders of Christian dogmas.</p>
+
+<p>How is this strange, impossible belief to be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[69]</a></span> explained? Of what secret,
+unconscious, psychological working was it the expression? Look at its
+result. It is that wherever this doctrine is developed the <i>status
+matrimonialis</i> is held to be less pure, less truly religious, than the
+<i>status virginitatis</i>. Such is the teaching to-day in Lhassa, in Rome;
+so it was in Yucatan, where, too, there were nunneries filled with
+spouses of God. I connect it with the general doctrine that chastity in
+either sex is more agreeable to God than marriage, and this belief, I
+think, very commonly arises at a certain stage of development of the
+religious sentiment, when it unconsciously recognises the indisputable
+fact that sex-love, whether in its form of love of woman, family, or
+nation, is not what that sentiment craves. This is first shown by
+rejecting the idea of sex-love in the birth of the god; then his priests
+and priestesses refuse its allurements, and deny all its claims, those
+of kindred, of country, of race, until the act of generation itself is
+held unholy and the thought of sex a sin. By such forcible though rude
+displays do they set forth their unconscious acknowledgment of that
+eternal truth: “He that loveth son or daughter more than Me, is not
+worthy of Me.”</p>
+
+<p>The significance of these words is not that there is an antagonism in
+the forms of love. It is not that man should hate himself, as Pascal,
+following the teachings of the Church, so ably<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[70]</a></span> argued; nor that the one
+sex should be set over against the other in sterile abhorrence; nor yet
+that love of country and of kindred is incompatible with that toward the
+Supreme of thought; but it is that each of these lower, shallower,
+evanescent forms of emotion is and must be lost in, subordinated to,
+that highest form to which these words have reference. Reconciliation,
+not abnegation, is what they mean.</p>
+
+<p>Even those religions which teach in its strictness the oneness of God
+have rarely separated from his personality the attribute of sex. He is
+the father, <i>pater et genitor</i>, of all beings. The monotheism which we
+find in Greece and India generally took this form. The ancient Hebrews
+emphasized the former, not the latter sense of the word, and thus
+depriving it of its more distinctive characteristics of sex, prepared
+the way for the teachings of Christianity, in which the Supreme Being
+always appears with the attributes of the male, but disconnected from
+the idea of generation.</p>
+
+<p>Singularly enough, the efforts to which this latent incongruity prompts,
+even in persons speaking English, in which tongue the articles and
+adjectives have no genders, point back to the errors of an earlier age.
+A recent prayer by an eminent spiritualist commences:&mdash;“Oh Eternal
+Spirit, our Father and our Mother!” The expression illustrates how
+naturally arises the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[71]</a></span> belief in a hermaphrodite god, when once sex is
+associated with deity.</p>
+
+<p>Of all founders of religions, Mohammed first proclaimed a divinity
+without relation to sex. One of his earliest suras reads:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“He is God alone,<br />
+God the eternal.<br />
+He begetteth not, and is not begotten;<br />
+And there is none like unto him.”</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">And elsewhere:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“He hath no spouse, neither hath he any offspring.”<a name="FNanchor_71-1_46" id="FNanchor_71-1_46" href="#Footnote_71-1_46" class="fnanchor">71-1</a></p>
+
+<p>While he expressly acknowledged the divine conception of Jesus, he
+denied the coarse and literal version of that doctrine in vogue among
+the ignorant Christians around him. Enlightened christendom, to-day,
+does not, I believe, differ from him on this point.</p>
+
+<p>Such sexual religions do not arise, as the theory has hitherto been,
+from study and observation of the generative agencies in nature, but
+from the identity of object between love in sense and love in intellect,
+profane and sacred passion. The essence of each is <i>continuance</i>,
+preservation; the origin of each is subjective, personal; but the former
+has its root in sensation, the latter in reason.</p>
+
+<p>The sex-difference in organisms, the “abhorrence of self-fertilization”
+which Mr. Darwin speaks of as so conspicuous and inexplicable a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[72]</a></span>
+phenomenon, is but one example of the sway of a law which as action and
+reaction, thesis and antithesis, is common to both elementary motion and
+thought. The fertile and profound fancy of Greece delighted to prefigure
+this truth in significant symbols and myths. Love, Eros, is shown
+carrying the globe, or wielding the club of Hercules; he is the unknown
+spouse of Psyche, the soul; and from the primitive chaos he brings forth
+the ordered world, the Kosmos.</p>
+
+<p>The intimate and strange relation between sensuality and religion, so
+often commented upon and denied, again proven, and always
+misinterpreted, thus receives a satisfactory explanation. Some singular
+manifestations of it, of significance in religious history, are
+presented by the records of insane delusions. They confirm what I have
+above urged, that the association is not one derived from observation
+through intellectual processes, but is a consequence of physiological
+connections, of identity of aim in the distinct realms of thought and
+emotion.</p>
+
+<p>That eminent writer on mental diseases, Schroeder van der Kolk, when
+speaking of the forms of melancholy which arise from physical
+conditions, remarks: “The patient who is melancholy from disorders of
+the generative organs considers himself sinful. His depressed tone of
+mind passes over into religious melan<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[73]</a></span>choly; ‘he is forsaken by God; he
+is lost.’ All his afflictions have a religious color.” In a similar
+strain, Feuchtersleben says: “In the female sex especially, the erotic
+delusion, unknown to the patient herself, often assumes the color of the
+religious.”<a name="FNanchor_73-1_47" id="FNanchor_73-1_47" href="#Footnote_73-1_47" class="fnanchor">73-1</a> “The unaccomplished sexual designs of nature,”
+observes a later author speaking of the effects of the single life,
+“lead to brooding over supposed miseries which suggest devotion and
+religious exercise as the nepenthe to soothe the morbid longings.”<a name="FNanchor_73-2_48" id="FNanchor_73-2_48" href="#Footnote_73-2_48" class="fnanchor">73-2</a></p>
+
+<p>Stimulate the religious sentiment and you arouse the passion of love,
+which will be directed as the temperament and individual culture prompt.
+Develope very prominently any one form of love, and by a native affinity
+it will seize upon and consecrate to its own use whatever religious
+aspirations the individual has. This is the general law of their
+relation.</p>
+
+<p>All the lower forms of love point to one to which they are the gradual
+ascent, both of the individual and on a grander scale of the race, to
+wit, the love of God. This is the passion for the highest attainable
+truth, a passion which, as duty, prompts to the strongest action and to
+the utter sacrifice of all other longings. No speculative acquaintance
+with propositions satisfies it, no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[74]</a></span> egotistic construction of systems,
+but the truth expressed in life, the truth as that which alone either
+has or can give being and diuturnity, this is its food, for which it
+thirsts with holy ardor. Here is the genuine esoteric gnosis, the sacred
+secret, which the rude and selfish wishes of the savage, the sensual
+rites of Babylon, “mother of harlots,” and the sublimely unselfish
+dreams of a “religion of humanity,” have alike had in their hearts, but
+had no capacity to interpret, no words to articulate.</p>
+
+<p>Related to this emotional phase of the religious sentiment is the
+theurgic power of certain natural objects over some persons. The
+biblical scholar Kitto confesses that the moon exerted a strange
+influence on his mind, stirring his devotional nature, and he owns that
+it would not have been hard for him to join the worshippers of the
+goddess of the night. Wilhelm von Humboldt in one of his odes refers to
+similar feelings excited in him by the gloom and murmur of groves. The
+sacred poets and the religious arts generally acknowledge this
+<i>fascination</i>, as it has been called, which certain phenomena have for
+religious temperaments.</p>
+
+<p>The explanation which suggests itself is that of individual and
+ancestral association. In the case of Kitto it was probably the latter.
+His sensitively religious nature experienced in gazing at the moon an
+impression inherited from some<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[75]</a></span> remote ancestor who had actually made it
+the object of ardent worship. The study of the laws of inherited memory,
+so successfully pursued of late by Professor Laycock, take away anything
+eccentric about this explanation, though I scarcely expect it will be
+received by one unacquainted with those laws.</p>
+
+<p>The emotional aspect of religion is not exhausted by the varieties of
+fear and hope and love. Wonder, awe, admiration, the æsthetic emotions,
+in fact all the active principles of man’s mental economy are at times
+excited and directed by the thought of supernatural power. Some have
+attempted to trace the religious sentiment exclusively to one or the
+other of these. But they are all incidental and subsidiary emotions.</p>
+
+<p>Certain mental diseases, by abnormally stimulating the emotions,
+predispose strongly to religious fervor. Epilepsy is one of these, and
+in Swedenborg and Mohammed, both epileptics, we see distinguished
+examples of religious mystics, who, no doubt honestly, accepted the
+visions which accompanied their disease as revelations from another
+world. Very many epileptics are subject to such delusions, and their
+insanity is usually of a religious character.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, devotional excitement is apt to bring about mental
+alienation. Every violent revival has left after it a small crop of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[76]</a></span>
+religious melancholies and lunatics. Competent authorities state that in
+modern communities religious insanity is most frequent in those sects
+who are given to emotional forms of religion, the Methodists and
+Baptists for example; whereas it is least known among Roman Catholics,
+where doubt and anxiety are at once allayed by an infallible referee,
+and among the Quakers, where enthusiasm is discouraged and with whom the
+restraint of emotion is a part of discipline.<a name="FNanchor_76-1_49" id="FNanchor_76-1_49" href="#Footnote_76-1_49" class="fnanchor">76-1</a> Authoritative
+assurance in many disturbed conditions of mind is sufficient to relieve
+the mental tension and restore health.</p>
+
+<p>If, by what has been said, it is clear that the religious sentiment has
+its origin in a wish, it is equally clear that not every wish is
+concerned in it. The objects which a man can attain by his own unaided
+efforts, are not those which he makes the subjects of his prayers; nor
+are the periodic and regular occurrences in nature, how impressive they
+may be, much thought of in devotional moods. The moment that an event is
+recognized to be under fixed law, it is seen to be inappropriate to seek
+by supplication to alter it. No devotee, acquainted with the theory of
+the tides, would, like Canute the King, think of staying their waves
+with words. Eclipses and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[77]</a></span> comets, once matters of superstitious terror,
+have been entirely shorn of this attribute by astronomical discovery.
+Even real and tragic misfortunes, if believed to be such as flow from
+fixed law, and especially if they can be predicted sometime before they
+arrive, do not excite religious feeling. As Bishop Hall quaintly
+observes, referring to a curious medieval superstition: “Crosses, after
+the nature of the cockatrice, die if they be foreseen.”</p>
+
+<p>Only when the event suggests the direct action of <i>mind</i>, of some free
+intelligence, is it possible for the religious sentiment to throw around
+it the aureole of sanctity. Obviously when natural law was little known,
+this included vastly more occurrences than civilized men now think of
+holding to be of religious import. Hence the objective and material form
+of religion is always fostered by ignorance, and this is the form which
+prevails exclusively in uncultivated societies.</p>
+
+<p>The manifestations of motion which the child first notices, or which the
+savage chiefly observes, relate to himself. They are associated with the
+individuals around him who minister to his wants; the gratification of
+these depend on the volitions of others. As he grows in strength he
+learns to supply his own wants, and to make good his own volitions as
+against those of his fellows. But he soon learns that many events occur
+to thwart him, out of connection with any known indi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[78]</a></span>vidual, and these
+of a dreadful nature, hurricanes and floods, hunger, sickness and death.
+These pursue him everywhere, foiling his plans, and frustrating his
+hopes. It is not the show of power, the manifestations of might, that he
+cares for in these events, but that they touch <i>him</i>, that they spoil
+<i>his</i> projects, and render vain <i>his</i> desires; <i>this</i> forces him to cast
+about for some means to protect himself against them.</p>
+
+<p>In accordance with the teaching of his experience, and true moreover to
+the laws of mind, he refers them, collectively, to a mental source, to a
+vague individuality. This loose, undefined conception of an unknown
+volition or power forms the earliest notion of Deity. It is hardly
+associated with personality, yet it is broadly separated from the human
+and the known. In the languages of savage tribes, as I have elsewhere
+remarked, “a word is usually found comprehending all manifestations of
+the unseen world, yet conveying no sense of personal unity.”<a name="FNanchor_78-1_50" id="FNanchor_78-1_50" href="#Footnote_78-1_50" class="fnanchor">78-1</a></p>
+
+<p>By some means to guard against this undefined marplot to the
+accomplishment of his wishes, is the object of his religion. Its
+primitive forms are therefore defensive and conciliatory. The hopes of
+the savage extend little beyond the reach of his own arm, and the tenor
+of his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[79]</a></span> prayers is that the gods be neuter. If they do not interfere he
+can take care of himself. His religion is a sort of assurance of life.</p>
+
+<p>Not only the religion of the savage, but every religion is this and not
+much but this. With nobler associations and purer conceptions of life,
+the religious sentiment ever contains these same elements and depends
+upon them for its vigor and growth. It everywhere springs from <i>a desire
+whose fruition depends upon unknown power</i>. To give the religious wish a
+definition in the technic of psychology, I define it as: <i>Expectant
+Attention, directed toward an event not under known control, with a
+concomitant idea of Cause or Power</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Three elements are embraced in this definition, a wish, an idea of
+power, ignorance of the nature of that power. The first term prompts the
+hope, the third suggests the fear, and the second creates the
+personality, which we see set forth in every religious system. Without
+these three, religion as dogma becomes impossible.</p>
+
+<p>If a man wishes for nothing, neither the continuance of present comforts
+nor future blessings, why need he care for the gods? Who can hurt him,
+so long as he stays in his frame of mind? He may well shake off all
+religions and every fear, for he is stronger than God, and the universe
+holds nothing worth his effort to get. This was the doctrine taught by
+Buddha Sakya<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[80]</a></span>nuni, a philosopher opposed to every form of religion, but
+who is the reputed founder of the most numerous sect now on the globe.
+He sought to free the minds of his day from the burden of the Brahmanic
+ritual, by cultivating a frame of mind beyond desire or admiration, and
+hence beyond the need of a creed.</p>
+
+<p>The second element, the idea of power, is an intellectual abstraction.
+Its character is fluctuating. At first it is most vague, corresponding
+to what in its most general sense we term “the supernatural.” Later, it
+is regarded under its various exhibitions as separable phenomena, as in
+polytheisms, in which must be included trinitarian systems and the
+dualistic doctrine of the Parsees. But among the Egyptians, Greeks and
+Aztecs, as well as in the words of Zarathustra and in the theology of
+Christianity, we frequently meet with the distinct recognition of the
+fundamental unity of all power. At core, all religions have seeds of
+monotheism. When we generalize the current concepts of motion or force
+beyond individual displays and relative measures of quantity, we
+recognize their qualitative identity, and appreciate the logical unity
+under which we must give them abstract expression. This is the process,
+often unconscious, which has carried most original thinkers to
+monotheistic doctrines, no matter whence they started.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of power controlling the unknown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[81]</a></span> would of itself have been of
+no interest to man had he not assumed certain relations to exist between
+him and it on the one hand, and it and things on the other. A
+dispassionate inquiry disproves entirely the view maintained by various
+modern writers, prominently by Bain, Spencer and Darwin, that the
+contemplation of power or majesty in external nature prompts of itself
+the religious sentiment, or could have been its historical origin. Such
+a view overlooks the most essential because the personal factor of
+religion&mdash;the wish. Far more correct are the words of David Hume, in the
+last century, by which he closes his admirable <i>Natural History of
+Religions</i>: “We may conclude, therefore, that in all nations the first
+ideas of religion arose not from a contemplation of the works of nature,
+but from a concern with regard to the events of life, and from the
+incessant hopes and fears which actuate the human mind.” A century
+before him Hobbes had written in his terse way: “The natural seed of
+religion lies in these four things: the fear of spirits, ignorance of
+secondary causes, the conciliation of those we fear, and the assumption
+of accidents for omens.”<a name="FNanchor_81-1_51" id="FNanchor_81-1_51" href="#Footnote_81-1_51" class="fnanchor">81-1</a> The sentiment of religion is in its
+origin and nature purely personal and subjective. The aspect of power
+would never have led man to worship, unless he had assumed certain
+relations between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[82]</a></span> the unseen author or authors of that power and
+himself. What these assumptions were, I shall discuss in the next
+chapter.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, as has so often been remarked in a flippant and contemptuous
+way,<a name="FNanchor_82-1_52" id="FNanchor_82-1_52" href="#Footnote_82-1_52" class="fnanchor">82-1</a> which the fact when rightly understood nowise justifies,
+religion cannot exist without the aid of ignorance. It is really and
+truly the mother of devotion. The sentiment of religious fear does not
+apply to a <i>known</i> power&mdash;to the movement of an opposing army, or the
+action of gravity in an avalanche for example. The prayer which under
+such circumstances is offered, is directed to an unknown intelligence,
+supposed to control the visible forces. As science&mdash;which is the
+knowledge of physical laws&mdash;extends, the object of prayer becomes more
+and more intangible and remote. What we formerly feared, we learn to
+govern. No one would pray God to avert the thunderbolt, if lightning
+rods invariably protected houses. The Swiss clergy opposed the system of
+insuring growing crops because it made their parishioners indifferent to
+prayers for the harvest. With increasing knowledge<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[83]</a></span> and the security
+which it brings, religious terror lessens, and the wants which excite
+the sentiment of devotion diminish in number and change in character.</p>
+
+<p>This is apt to cast general discredit on religion. When we make the
+discovery that so many events which excited religious apprehension in
+the minds of our forefathers are governed by inflexible laws which we
+know all about, we not only smile in pity at their superstitions, but
+make the mental inference that the diminished emotion of this kind we
+yet experience is equally groundless. If at the bottom of all displays
+of power lies a physical necessity, our qualms are folly. Therefore, to
+the pious soul which still finds the bulk of its religious aspirations
+and experiences in the regions of the emotions and sensations, the
+progress of science seems and really does threaten its cherished
+convictions. The audacious mind of man robs the gods of power when he
+can shield himself from their anger. The much-talked-of conflict between
+religion and science is no fiction; it exists, and is bound to go on,
+and religion will ever get the worst of it until it learns that the
+wishes to which it is its proper place to minister are not those for
+pleasure and prosperity, not for abundant harvests and seasonable
+showers, not success in battle and public health, not preservation from
+danger and safety on journeys, not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[84]</a></span> much of anything that is spoken of
+in litanies and books of devotion.</p>
+
+<p>Let a person who still clings to this form of religion imagine that
+science had reached perfection in the arts of life; that by skilled
+adaptations of machinery, accidents by sea and land were quite avoided;
+that observation and experience had taught to foresee with certainty and
+to protect effectively against all meteoric disturbances; that a
+perfected government insured safety of person and property; that a
+consummate agriculture rendered want and poverty unknown; that a
+developed hygiene completely guarded against disease; and that a
+painless extinction of life in advanced age could surely be calculated
+upon; let him imagine this, and then ask himself what purpose religion
+would subserve in such a state of things? For whatever would occupy it
+then&mdash;if it could exist at all&mdash;should <i>alone</i> occupy it now.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_49-1_21" id="Footnote_49-1_21" href="#FNanchor_49-1_21">49-1</a> <i>Address to the Clergy</i>, pp. 42, 43, 67, 106, etc.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_49-2_22" id="Footnote_49-2_22" href="#FNanchor_49-2_22">49-2</a> E. von Hardenberg [Novalis], <i>Werke</i>, s. 364.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_50-1_23" id="Footnote_50-1_23" href="#FNanchor_50-1_23">50-1</a> <i>Treatises Devotional and Practical</i>, p. 188. London,
+1836.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_50-2_24" id="Footnote_50-2_24" href="#FNanchor_50-2_24">50-2</a> In Aramaic <i>dachla</i> means either a god or fear. The
+Arabic Allah and the Hebrew Eloah are by some traced to a common root,
+signifying to tremble, to show fear, though the more usual derivation is
+from one meaning to be strong.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_51-1_25" id="Footnote_51-1_25" href="#FNanchor_51-1_25">51-1</a> “Wen die Hoffnung, den hat auch die Furcht verlassen.”
+Arthur Schopenhauer, <i>Parerga und Paralipomena</i>. Bd. ii. s. 474.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_52-1_26" id="Footnote_52-1_26" href="#FNanchor_52-1_26">52-1</a> Alexander Bain, <i>On the Study of Character</i>, p. 128. See
+also his remarks in his work, <i>The Emotions and the Will</i>, p. 84, and in
+his notes to James Mill’s <i>Analysis of the Mind</i>, vol. i., pp. 124-125.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_53-1_27" id="Footnote_53-1_27" href="#FNanchor_53-1_27">53-1</a> Wilhelm von Humboldt’s <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>, Bd. vii., s.
+62.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_53-2_28" id="Footnote_53-2_28" href="#FNanchor_53-2_28">53-2</a> De Senancourt, <i>Obermann</i>, Lettre xli.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_54-1_29" id="Footnote_54-1_29" href="#FNanchor_54-1_29">54-1</a> <i>Elements of Medical Psychology</i>, p. 331.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_56-1_30" id="Footnote_56-1_30" href="#FNanchor_56-1_30">56-1</a> Lessing’s <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>. B. ii. s. 443 (Leipzig,
+1855).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_57-1_31" id="Footnote_57-1_31" href="#FNanchor_57-1_31">57-1</a> See Exodus, xxiii. 12; Psalms, lv. 6; Isaiah, xxx. 15;
+Jeremiah, vi. 16; Hebrews, v. 9. So St. Augustine: “et nos post opera
+nostra sabbato vitæ eternæ requiescamus in te.” <i>Confessionum Lib.</i>
+xiii. cap. 36.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_59-1_32" id="Footnote_59-1_32" href="#FNanchor_59-1_32">59-1</a> “Filioli, diligite alterutrum.” This is the “testamentum
+Johannis,” as recorded from tradition by St. Jerome in his notes to the
+Epistle to the Galatians.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_59-2_33" id="Footnote_59-2_33" href="#FNanchor_59-2_33">59-2</a> Alexander Bain, <i>The Senses and the Intellect</i>, Chap.
+I.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_60-1_34" id="Footnote_60-1_34" href="#FNanchor_60-1_34">60-1</a> <i>A Christian Directory.</i> Part I. Chap. III.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_60-2_35" id="Footnote_60-2_35" href="#FNanchor_60-2_35">60-2</a> “The very nature of affection, the idea itself,
+necessarily implies resting in its object as an end.” <i>Fifteen Sermons
+by Joseph Butler, late Lord Bishop of Durham</i>, Preface, and p. 147
+(London, 1841).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_61-1_36" id="Footnote_61-1_36" href="#FNanchor_61-1_36">61-1</a> Dr. J. Milner Fothergill, <i>Journal of Mental Science</i>,
+Oct. 1874, p. 198.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_62-1_37" id="Footnote_62-1_37" href="#FNanchor_62-1_37">62-1</a> The most recent work on the topic is that of Messrs.
+Westropp and Wake, <i>The Influence of the Phallic Idea on the Religions
+of Antiquity</i>, London, 1874.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_63-1_38" id="Footnote_63-1_38" href="#FNanchor_63-1_38">63-1</a> Schoolcraft’s <i>History and Statistics of the Indian
+Tribes</i>, Vol. iv. p. 224.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_63-2_39" id="Footnote_63-2_39" href="#FNanchor_63-2_39">63-2</a> Richardson, <i>Arctic Expedition</i>, p. 412.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_63-3_40" id="Footnote_63-3_40" href="#FNanchor_63-3_40">63-3</a> Most physicians have occasion to notice the almost
+entire loss in modern life of the instinctive knowledge of the sex
+relation. Sir James Paget has lately treated of the subject in one of
+his <i>Clinical Lectures</i> (London, 1875).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_64-1_41" id="Footnote_64-1_41" href="#FNanchor_64-1_41">64-1</a> Dr. J. P. Catlow, <i>Principles of Aesthetic Medicine</i>, p.
+112. This thoughtful though obscure writer has received little
+recognition even in the circle of professional readers.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_66-1_42" id="Footnote_66-1_42" href="#FNanchor_66-1_42">66-1</a> This is probably what was condemned in Deuteronomy xxii.
+5, and Romans, i. 26.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_66-2_43" id="Footnote_66-2_43" href="#FNanchor_66-2_43">66-2</a> “The worship of Siva is too severe, too stern for the
+softer emotions of love, and all his temples are quite free from any
+allusions to it.”&mdash;Ferguson, <i>Tree and Serpent Worship</i>, p. 71.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_67-1_44" id="Footnote_67-1_44" href="#FNanchor_67-1_44">67-1</a> W. von Humboldt, in his admirable essay <i>Ueber die
+Männliche und Weibliche Form</i> (<i>Werke, Bd. I.</i>). Elsewhere he adds: “In
+der Natur des Gœttlichen strebt alles der Reinheit und Vollkommenheit
+des Gattungsbegriff entgegen.”</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_68-1_45" id="Footnote_68-1_45" href="#FNanchor_68-1_45">68-1</a> I have collected the Haitian myths, chiefly from the
+manuscript <i>Historia Apologetica de las Indias Occidentales</i> of Las
+Casas, in an essay published in 1871, <i>The Arawack Language of Guiana in
+its Linguistic and Ethnological Relations</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_71-1_46" id="Footnote_71-1_46" href="#FNanchor_71-1_46">71-1</a> <i>The Koran</i>, <a name="corr5" id="corr5"></a><ins class="correction" title="Suras">Suras,</ins> cxii., lxii., and especially
+xix.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_73-1_47" id="Footnote_73-1_47" href="#FNanchor_73-1_47">73-1</a> <i>Elements of Medical Psychology</i>, p. 281.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_73-2_48" id="Footnote_73-2_48" href="#FNanchor_73-2_48">73-2</a> J. Thompson Dickson, <i>The Science and Practice of
+Medicine in relation to Mind</i>, p. 383 (New York, 1874).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_76-1_49" id="Footnote_76-1_49" href="#FNanchor_76-1_49">76-1</a> Dr. Joseph Williams, <i>Insanity, its Causes, Prevention
+and Cure</i>, pp. 68, 69; Dr. A. L. Wigan, <i>The Duality of the Mind</i>, p.
+437.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_78-1_50" id="Footnote_78-1_50" href="#FNanchor_78-1_50">78-1</a> <i>The Myths of the New World, a Treatise on the Symbolism
+and Mythology of the Red Race of America</i>, p. 145.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_81-1_51" id="Footnote_81-1_51" href="#FNanchor_81-1_51">81-1</a> <i>Leviathan, De Homine</i>, cap. xii.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_82-1_52" id="Footnote_82-1_52" href="#FNanchor_82-1_52">82-1</a> For instance, of later writers from whom we might expect
+better things, Arthur Schopenhauer. He says in his <i>Parerga</i> (Bd. ii. s.
+290): “Ein gewisser Grad allgemeiner Unwissenheit ist die Bedingung
+aller Religionen;” a correct remark, and equally correct of the pursuit
+of science and philosophy. But the ignorance which is the condition of
+such pursuit is not a part of science or philosophy, and no more is it
+of religion.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[85]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2 class="chapdivider"><a name="THE_RATIONAL_POSTULATES_OF_THE_RELIGIOUS_SENTIMENT" id="THE_RATIONAL_POSTULATES_OF_THE_RELIGIOUS_SENTIMENT"></a>THE RATIONAL POSTULATES OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.</h2>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[86]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="chapterhead">SUMMARY.</h3>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Religion often considered merely an affair of the feelings. On the
+contrary, it must assume at least three premises in reason, its
+“rational postulates.”</p>
+
+<p>I. There is Order in things.</p>
+
+<p>The religious wish involves the idea of cause. This idea not
+exhausted by uniformity of sequence, but by quantitative relation,
+that is, Order as opposed to Chance. Both science and religion
+assume order in things; but the latter includes the Will of God in
+this order, while the former rejects it.</p>
+
+<p>II. This order is one of Intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>The order is assumed to be a comprehensible one, whether it be of
+law wholly or of volition also.</p>
+
+<p>III. All Intelligence is one in kind.</p>
+
+<p>This postulate indispensable to religion, although it has been
+attacked by religious as well as irreligious philosophers. Its
+decision must rest on the absoluteness of the formal laws of
+thought. The theory that these are products of natural selections
+disproved by showing, (1) that they hold true throughout the
+material universe, and (2) that they do not depend on it for their
+verity. Reason sees beyond phenomena, but descries nothing alien to
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>The formal laws of reason are purposive. They therefore afford a
+presumption of a moral government of the Universe, and point to an
+Intelligence fulfilling an end through the order in physical laws.
+Such an assumption, common to all historic religions, is thus
+justified by induction.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[87]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="chaptitle">THE RATIONAL POSTULATES OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">In</span> philosophical discussions of religion as well as in popular
+exhortations upon it, too exclusive stress has been laid upon its
+emotional elements. “It is,” says Professor Bain, “an affair of the
+feelings.”<a name="FNanchor_87-1_53" id="FNanchor_87-1_53" href="#Footnote_87-1_53" class="fnanchor">87-1</a> “The essence of religion,” observes John Stuart Mill,
+“is the strong and earnest direction of the emotions and desires towards
+an ideal object.” “It must be allowed,” says Dr. Mansel,<a name="FNanchor_87-2_54" id="FNanchor_87-2_54" href="#Footnote_87-2_54" class="fnanchor">87-2</a> “that it
+is not through reasoning that men obtain their first intimation of their
+relation to a deity.” In writers and preachers of the semi-mystical
+school, which embraces most of the ardent revivalists of the day, we
+constantly hear the “feeling of dependence” quoted as the radical
+element of religious thought.<a name="FNanchor_87-3_55" id="FNanchor_87-3_55" href="#Footnote_87-3_55" class="fnanchor">87-3</a> In<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[88]</a></span> America Theodore Parker, and in
+Germany Schleiermacher, were brilliant exponents of this doctrine. To
+the latter the philosopher Hegel replied that if religion is a matter of
+feeling, an affectionate dog is the best Christian.</p>
+
+<p>This answer was not flippant, but founded on the true and only worthy
+conception of the religious sentiment. We have passed in review the
+emotions which form a part of it, and recognize their power. But neither
+these nor any other mere emotions, desires or feelings can explain even
+the lowest religion. It depends for its existence on the essential
+nature of reason. We cannot at all allow, as Dr. Mansel asks of us, that
+man’s first intimations of Deity came in any other way than as one of
+the ripest fruits of reason. Were such the case, we should certainly
+find traces of them among brutes and idiots, which we do not. The slight
+signs of religious actions thought to have been noticed by some in the
+lower animals, by Sir John Lubbock in ants, and by Charles Darwin in
+dogs, if authenticated, would vindicate for these species a much closer
+mental kinship to man than we have yet supposed.</p>
+
+<p>If we dispassionately analyze any religion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[89]</a></span> whatever, paying less
+attention to what its professed teachers say it is, than to what the
+mass of the votaries believe it to be, we shall see that every form of
+adoration unconsciously assumes certain premises in reason, which give
+impulse and character to its emotional and active manifestations. They
+are its data or axioms, or, as I shall call them, its “rational
+postulates.” They can, I believe, be reduced to three, but not to a
+lesser number.</p>
+
+<p>Before the religious feeling acquires the distinctness of a notion and
+urges to conscious action, it must assume at least these three
+postulates, and without them it cannot rise into cognition. These, their
+necessary character and their relations, I shall set forth in this
+chapter.</p>
+
+<p>They are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li style="padding-left: 0.6em;">I. There is Order in things.</li>
+  <li style="padding-left: 0.3em;">II. This order is one of Intelligence.</li>
+  <li>III. All Intelligence is one in kind.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>I. The conscious or unconscious purpose of the religious sentiment, as
+I have shown in the last chapter, is the <i>fruition of a wish</i>, the
+success of which depends upon unknown power. The votary asks help where
+he cannot help himself. He expects it through an exertion of power,
+through an efficient cause. Obviously therefore, he is acting on the
+logical idea of Causality. This underlies and is essential to the
+sim<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[90]</a></span>plest prayer. He extends it, moreover, out of the limits of
+experience into the regions of hypothesis. He has carried the analogy
+of observation into the realm of abstract conceptions. No matter if he
+does believe that the will of God is the efficient cause. Perhaps he is
+right; at any rate he cannot be denied the privilege of regarding
+volition as a co-operating cause. Limited at first to the transactions
+which most concerned men, the conception of order as a divine act
+extended itself to the known universe. Herodotus derives the Greek word
+for God <span class="greek" title="Theos">θεος</span> from a root which gives the meaning “to set in order,” and
+the Scandinavians gave the same sense to their word, <i>Regin</i>.<a name="FNanchor_90-1_56" id="FNanchor_90-1_56" href="#Footnote_90-1_56" class="fnanchor">90-1</a>
+Thus the abstract idea of cause or power is a postulate of all
+religious thought. Let us examine its meaning.</p>
+
+<p>Every reader, the least versed in the history of speculative thought for
+the last hundred years, knows how long and violent the discussions have
+been of the relations of “cause and effect.” Startled by the criticisms
+of Hume, Kant sought to elude them by distinguishing between two spheres
+of thought, the understanding and the reason. Sir William Hamilton at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[91]</a></span>
+first included the “principle of sufficient <a name="corr6" id="corr6"></a><ins class="correction" title="reason”">reason’</ins> in the laws of
+thought, but subsequently rejected it as pertaining to judgments, and
+therefore material, not formal. Schopenhauer claimed to have traced it
+to a fourfold root, and Mill with most of the current English schools,
+Bain, Austin, Spencer, &amp;c., maintained that it meant nothing but
+“uniformity of sequence.”</p>
+
+<p>It would be vain to touch upon a discussion so extended as this. In the
+first chapter I have remarked that the idea of cause does not enter into
+the conceptions of pure logic or thought. It is, as Hamilton saw,
+material. I shall only pause to show what is meant by the term “cause”
+in the physical sciences. When one event follows another, time after
+time, we have “uniformity of sequence.” Suppose the constitution of the
+race were so happy that we slept at night only, and always awoke a few
+moments before sunrise. Such a sequence quite without exception, should,
+if uniform experience is the source of the idea of cause, justly lead to
+the opinion that the sun rises because man awakes. As we know this
+conclusion would be erroneous, some other element beside sequence must
+complete a real cause. If now, it were shown that the relation of cause
+to effect which we actually entertain and cannot help entertaining is in
+some instances flatly contrary to all experience, then we must
+acknowledge that the idea of cause asks to con<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[92]</a></span>firm it something quite
+independent of experience, that is abstract. But such examples are
+common. We never saw two objects continue to approach without meeting;
+but we are constrained to believe that lines of certain descriptions can
+forever approach and never meet.</p>
+
+<p>The uniformity of sequence is, in fact, in the physical sciences never
+assumed to express the relation of cause and effect, until the
+connection between the antecedent and consequent can be set forth
+abstractly in mathematical formulæ. The sequence of the planetary
+motions was discovered by Kepler, but it was reserved for Newton to
+prove the theoretical necessity of this motion and establish its
+mathematical relations. The sequence of sensations to impressions is
+well known, but the law of the sequence remains the desideratum in
+psychology.<a name="FNanchor_92-1_57" id="FNanchor_92-1_57" href="#Footnote_92-1_57" class="fnanchor">92-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Science, therefore, has been correctly defined as “the knowledge of
+system.” Its aim is to ascertain the laws of phenomena, to define the
+“order in things.” Its fundamental postulate is that order exists, that
+all things are “lapped in universal law.” It acknowledges no exception,
+and it considers that all law is capable of final expression in
+quantity, in mathematical symbols.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[93]</a></span> It is the manifest of reason, “whose
+unceasing endeavor is to banish the idea of Chance.”<a name="FNanchor_93-1_58" id="FNanchor_93-1_58" href="#Footnote_93-1_58" class="fnanchor">93-1</a></p>
+
+<p>We thus see that its postulate is the same as that of the religious
+sentiment. Wherein then do they differ? Not in the recognition of
+chance. Accident, chance, does not exist for the religious sense in any
+stage of its growth. Everywhere religion proclaims in the words of
+Dante:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem"><span class="i5">“le cose tutte quante,</span><br />
+Hann’ ordine tra loro;”</p>
+
+<p>everywhere in the more optimistic faiths it holds this order, in the
+words of St. Augustine, to be one “most fair, of excellent
+things.”<a name="FNanchor_93-2_59" id="FNanchor_93-2_59" href="#Footnote_93-2_59" class="fnanchor">93-2</a></p>
+
+<p>What we call “the element of chance” is in its scientific sense that of
+which we do not know the law; while to the untutored religious mind it
+is the manifestation of divine will. The Kamschatkan, when his boat is
+lost in the storm, attributes it to the vengeance of a god angered
+because he scraped the snow from his shoes with a knife, instead of
+using a piece of wood; if a Dakota has bad luck in hunting, he says it
+is caused by his wife stepping over a bone and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[94]</a></span> thus irritating a
+spirit. The idea of cause, the sentiment of order, is as strong as ever,
+but it differs from that admitted by science in recognizing as a
+possible efficient motor that which is incapable of mathematical
+expression, namely, a volition, a will. <i>Voluntas Dei asylum
+ignorantiæ</i>, is no unkind description of such an opinion.</p>
+
+<p>So long as this recognition is essential to the life of a religious
+system, just so long it will and must be in conflict with science, with
+every prospect of the latter gaining the victory. Is the belief in
+volition as an efficient cause indispensable to the religious sentiment
+in general? For this vital question we are not yet prepared, but must
+first consider the remaining rational postulates it assumes. The second
+is</p>
+
+<p>II. This order is one of intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>By this is not meant that the order is one of <i>an</i> Intelligence, but
+simply that the order which exists in things is conformable to man’s
+thinking power,&mdash;that if he knows the course of events he can appreciate
+their relations,&mdash;that facts can be subsumed under thoughts. Whatever
+scheme of order there were, would be nothing to him unless it were
+conformable to his intellectual functions. It could not form the matter
+of his thought.<a name="FNanchor_94-1_60" id="FNanchor_94-1_60" href="#Footnote_94-1_60" class="fnanchor">94-1</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[95]</a></span>Science, which deals in the first instance exclusively with phenomena,
+also assumes this postulate. It recognizes that when the formal laws,
+which it is its mission to define, are examined apart from their
+material expression, when they are emptied of their phenomenal contents,
+they show themselves to be logical constructions, reasoned truths, in
+other words, forms of intelligence. The votary who assumes the order one
+of volition alone, or volition with physical necessity, still assumes
+the volitions are as comprehensible as are his own; that they are
+purposive; that the order, even if not clear to him, is both real and
+reasonable. Were it not so, did he believe that the gods carried out
+their schemes through a series of caprices inconceivable to
+intelligence, through absolute chance, insane caprice, or blind fate, he
+could neither see in occurrences the signs of divine rule, nor hope for
+aid in obtaining his wishes. In fact, order is only conceivable to man
+at all as an order conformable to his own intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>This second postulate embraces what has been recently called the
+“Principle of continuity,” indispensable to sane thought of any kind. A
+late work defines it as “the trust that the Supreme Governor of the
+Universe will not<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[96]</a></span> put us to permanent intellectual confusion.”<a name="FNanchor_96-1_61" id="FNanchor_96-1_61" href="#Footnote_96-1_61" class="fnanchor">96-1</a>
+Looked at closely, it is the identification of order with reason.</p>
+
+<p>The third and final postulate of the religious sentiment is that</p>
+
+<p>III. All intelligence is one in kind.</p>
+
+<p>Religion demands that there be a truth which is absolutely true, and
+that there be a goodness which is universally and eternally good. Each
+system claims the possession, and generally the exclusive possession,
+of this goodness and truth. They are right in maintaining these views,
+for unless such is the case, unless there is an absolute truth,
+cognizable to man, yet not transcended by any divine intelligence, all
+possible religion becomes mere child’s play, and its professed
+interpretation of mysteries but trickery.</p>
+
+<p>The Grecian sophists used to meet the demonstrations of the
+mathematicians and philosophers by conceding that they did indeed set
+forth the truth, so far as man’s intelligence goes, but that to the
+intelligence of other beings&mdash;a bat or an angel, for example&mdash;they might
+not hold good at all; that there is a different truth for different
+intelligences; that the intelligence makes the truth; and that as for
+the absolutely true, true to every intelligence, there is no such thing.
+They acknowledged that a simple syl<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[97]</a></span>logism, constructed on these
+premises, made their own assertions partake of the doubtful character
+that was by them ascribed to other human knowledge. But this they
+gracefully accepted as the inevitable conclusion of reasoning. Their
+position is defended to-day by the advocates of “positivism,” who
+maintain the relativity of all truth.</p>
+
+<p>But such a conclusion is wholly incompatible with the religious mind. It
+must assume that there are some common truths, true infinitely, and
+therefore, that in all intelligence there is an essential unity of kind.
+“This postulation,” says a close thinker, “is the very foundation and
+essence of religion. Destroy it, and you destroy the very possibility of
+religion.”<a name="FNanchor_97-1_62" id="FNanchor_97-1_62" href="#Footnote_97-1_62" class="fnanchor">97-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Clear as this would seem to be to any reflective mind, yet, strange to
+say, it is to-day the current fashion for religious teachers to deny it.
+Scared by a phantasm of their own creation, they have deserted the only
+position in which it is possible to defend religion at all. Afraid of
+the accusation that they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[98]</a></span> make God like man, they have removed Him
+beyond the pale of all intelligence, and logically, therefore,
+annihilated every conception of Him.</p>
+
+<p>Teachers and preachers do not tire of telling their followers that God
+is incomprehensible; that his ways are past finding out; that he is the
+Unconditioned, the Infinite, the Unknowable. They really mean that he is
+another order of intelligence, which, to quote a famous comparison of
+Spinoza, has the same name as ours, but is no more one with it than the
+dog is one with his namesake, the dog-star!</p>
+
+<p>They are eagerly seconded in this position by a school of writers who
+distinctly see where such a doctrine leads, and who do not hesitate to
+carry it home. Mr. Mill is right in his scorn for those who “erect the
+incurable limitations of the human conceptive faculty into laws of the
+outward universe,” if there are such limitations. And Mr. Spencer is
+justified in condemning “the transcendent audacity which passes current
+as piety,” if his definition of the underlying verity of religion is
+admitted&mdash;that it is “the consciousness of an inscrutable power which,
+in its nature, transcends intuition, and is beyond imagination.”<a name="FNanchor_98-1_63" id="FNanchor_98-1_63" href="#Footnote_98-1_63" class="fnanchor">98-1</a>
+They are but following the orthodox Sir William Hamilton, who says:
+“Creation must be thought as the incomprehen<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[99]</a></span>sible evolution of power
+into energy.”<a name="FNanchor_99-1_64" id="FNanchor_99-1_64" href="#Footnote_99-1_64" class="fnanchor">99-1</a> We are to think that which by the terms of the
+proposition is unthinkable! A most wise master!</p>
+
+<p>Let it be noted that the expressions such as inscrutable,
+incomprehensible, unknowable, etc., which such writers use, are avowedly
+not limited to man’s intelligence in its present state of cultivation,
+but are applied to his <i>kind</i> of intelligence, no matter how far
+trained. They mean that the inscrutable, etc., is not merely not <i>at
+present</i> open to man’s observation&mdash;that were a truism&mdash;but that it
+cannot be subsumed under the laws of his reasoning powers. In other
+words, they deny that all intelligence is one in <i>kind</i>. Some accept
+this fully, and concede that what are called the laws of order, as shown
+by science, are only matters of experience, true here and now, not
+necessarily and absolutely true.</p>
+
+<p>This is a consistent inference, and applies, of course, with equal force
+to all moral laws and religious dogmas.</p>
+
+<p>The arguments brought against such opinions have been various. The old
+reply to the sophists has been dressed in modern garb, and it has been
+repeatedly put that if no statement is really true, then this one, to
+wit “no statement is really true,” also is not true; and if that is the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[100]</a></span>
+case, then there are statements which really are true. The theory of
+evolution as a dogma has been attacked by its own maxims; in asserting
+that all knowledge is imperfect, it calls its own verity into question.
+If all truth is relative, then this at least is absolutely true.</p>
+
+<p>It has also been noted that all such words as incomprehensible,
+unconditioned, infinite, unknowable, are in their nature privatives,
+they are not a thought but are only one element of a thought. As has
+been shown in the first chapter, every thought is made up of a positive
+and a privative, and it is absurd and unnatural to separate the one from
+the other. The concept man, regarded as a division of the higher concept
+animal, is made up of man and not-man. In so far as other animals are
+included under the term “not-man” they do not come into intelligent
+cognition; but that does not mean that they cannot do so. So “the
+unconditioned” is really a part of the thought of “the conditioned,” the
+“unknowable” a part of the “knowable,” the “infinite” a part of the
+thought of the “finite.” Under material images these privatives, as
+such, cannot be expressed; but in pure thought which deals with symbols
+and types alone, they can be.</p>
+
+<p>But if the abstract laws of thought themselves are confined in the
+limits of one kind of intelligence, then we cannot take an appeal to
+them to attack this sophism. Therefore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[101]</a></span> on maintaining their integrity
+the discussion must finally rest. This has been fully recognized by
+thinkers, one of whom has not long since earnestly called attention to
+“the urgent necessity of fathoming the psychical mechanism on which
+rests all our intellectual life.”<a name="FNanchor_101-1_65" id="FNanchor_101-1_65" href="#Footnote_101-1_65" class="fnanchor">101-1</a></p>
+
+<p>In this endeavor the attempt has been made to show that the logical laws
+are derived in accordance with the general theory of evolution from the
+natural or material laws of thinking. These, as I have previously
+remarked, are those of the association of ideas, and come under the
+general heads of contiguity and similarity. Such combinations are
+independent of the aim of the logical laws, which is <i>correct</i> thinking.
+A German writer, Dr. Windelband, has therefore argued that as
+experience, strengthened by hereditary transmission, continued to show
+that the particular combinations which are in accord with what we call
+the laws of thought furnished the best, that is, the most useful
+results, they were adopted in preference to others and finally assumed
+as the criteria of truth.</p>
+
+<p>Of course it follows from this that as these laws are merely the outcome
+of human experience they can have no validity outside of it.
+Consequently, adds the writer I have quoted, just as the study of optics
+teaches us that the human eye yields a very different picture of the
+exter<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[102]</a></span>nal world from that given by the eye of a fly, for instance, and
+as each of them is equally far from the reality, so the truth which our
+intelligence enables us to reach is not less remote from that which is
+the absolutely true. He considers that this is proven by the very nature
+of the “law of contradiction” itself, which must be inconsistent with
+the character of absolute thought. For in the latter, positive truth
+only can exist, therefore no negation, and no law about the relation of
+affirmative to negative.<a name="FNanchor_102-1_66" id="FNanchor_102-1_66" href="#Footnote_102-1_66" class="fnanchor">102-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The latter criticism assumes that negation is of the nature of error, a
+mistake drawn from the use of the negative in applied logic. For in
+formal logic, whether as quantity or quality, that is, in pure
+mathematics or abstract thought, the reasoning is just as correct when
+negatives are employed as when positives, as I have remarked before. The
+other criticism is more important, for if we can reach the conclusion
+that the real laws of the universe are other than as we understand them,
+then our intelligence is not of a kind to represent them.</p>
+
+<p>Such an opinion can be refuted directly. The laws which we profess to
+know are as operative in the remotest nebulae as in the planet we
+inhabit. It is altogether likely that countless<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[103]</a></span> forms of intelligent
+beings inhabit the starry wastes, receiving through sensory apparatus
+widely different from ours very diverse impressions of the external
+world. All this we know, but we also know that if those beings have
+defined the laws which underlie phenomena, they have found them to be
+the same that we have; for were they in the least different, in
+principle or application, they could not furnish the means, as those we
+know do, of predicting the recurrence of the celestial motions with
+unfailing accuracy. Therefore the demonstrations of pure mathematics,
+such as the relation of an absciss to an ordinate, or of the diameter to
+the circumference, must be universally true; and hence the logical laws
+which are the ultimate criteria of these truths must also be true to
+every intelligence, real or possible.<a name="FNanchor_103-1_67" id="FNanchor_103-1_67" href="#Footnote_103-1_67" class="fnanchor">103-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Another and forcible reply to these objections is that the laws which
+our intelligence has reached and recognizes as universally true are not
+only not derived from experience, but are in direct opposition to and
+are constantly contradicted by it. Neither sense nor imagination has
+ever portrayed a perfect circle in which the diameter bore to the
+circumference the exact proportion which we know it does bear. The very
+fact that we have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[104]</a></span> learned that our senses are wholly untrustworthy, and
+that experience is always fallacious, shows that we have tests of truth
+depending on some other faculty. “Each series of connected facts in
+nature furnishes the intimation of an order more exact than that which
+it directly manifests.”<a name="FNanchor_104-1_68" id="FNanchor_104-1_68" href="#Footnote_104-1_68" class="fnanchor">104-1</a></p>
+
+<p>But, it has been urged, granted that we have reached something like
+positive knowledge of those laws which are the <i>order</i> of the
+manifestation of phenomena, the real Inscrutable, the mysterious
+Unknowable, escapes us still; this is the <i>nature</i> of phenomenal
+manifestation, “the secret of the Power manifested in Existence.”<a name="FNanchor_104-2_69" id="FNanchor_104-2_69" href="#Footnote_104-2_69" class="fnanchor">104-2</a>
+At this point the physicist trips and falls; and here, too, the
+metaphysician stumbles.</p>
+
+<p>I have already spoken of our aptitude to be frightened by a chimera, and
+deceived by such words as “nature” and “cause.” Laws and rules, by which
+we express Order, are restrictive only in a condition of intelligence
+short of com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[105]</a></span>pleteness, only therefore in that province of thought which
+concerns itself with material facts. The musician is not fettered by the
+laws of harmony, but only by those of discord. The truly virtuous man,
+remarks Aristotle, never has occasion to practise self-denial. Hence,
+mathematically, “the theory of the intellectual action involves the
+recognition of a sphere of thought from which all limits are
+withdrawn.”<a name="FNanchor_105-1_70" id="FNanchor_105-1_70" href="#Footnote_105-1_70" class="fnanchor">105-1</a> True freedom, real being, is only possible when law
+as such is inexistent. Only the lawless makes the law. When the idea of
+the laws of order thus disappears in that of free function consistent
+with perfect order, when, as Kant expresses it, we ascend from the
+contemplation of things acting according to law, to action according to
+the representation of law,<a name="FNanchor_105-2_71" id="FNanchor_105-2_71" href="#Footnote_105-2_71" class="fnanchor">105-2</a> we can, without audacity, believe that
+we have penetrated the secret of existence, that we have reached the
+limits of explanation and found one wholly satisfying the highest
+reason. Intelligence, not apart from phenomena, but parallel with them,
+not under law, but through perfect harmony above it, <i>power one with
+being</i>, the will which is “the essence of reason,” the emanant cause of
+phenomena, immanent only by the number of its relations we have not
+learned, this is the satisfying and exhaustive solution.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[106]</a></span> The folly lies
+not in claiming reason as the absolute, but in assuming that the
+absolute is beyond and against reason.</p>
+
+<p>There is nothing new in this explanation; and it is none the worse for
+being old. If Anaxagoras discerned it dimly, and many a one since him
+has spoken of Intelligence, Reason, Nous or Logos as the constructive
+factor of the creation; if “all the riper religions of the Orient
+assumed as their fundamental principle that unless the Highest
+penetrates all parts of the Universe, and itself conditions whatever is
+conditioned, no universal order, no Kosmos, no real existence is
+thinkable;”<a name="FNanchor_106-1_72" id="FNanchor_106-1_72" href="#Footnote_106-1_72" class="fnanchor">106-1</a> such inadequate expressions should never obscure the
+truth that reason in its loftiest flights descries nothing nobler than
+itself.</p>
+
+<p>The relative, as its name implies, for ever presupposes and points to
+the absolute, the latter an Intelligence also, not one that renders ours
+futile and fallacious, but one that imparts to ours the capacity we
+possess of reaching eternal and ubiquitous truth. The severest
+mathematical reasoning forces us to this conclusion, and we can dispense
+with speculation about it.</p>
+
+<p>Only on the principle which here receives its proof, that man has
+something in him of God, that the norm of the true holds good
+throughout,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[107]</a></span> can he know or care anything about divinity. “It takes a
+god to discern a god,” profoundly wrote Novalis.</p>
+
+<p>When a religion teaches what reason disclaims, not through lack of
+testimony but through a denial of the rights of reason, then that
+religion wars against itself and will fall. Faith is not the acceptance
+of what intelligence rejects, but a suspension of judgment for want of
+evidence. A thoroughly religious mind will rejoice when its faith is
+shaken with doubt; for the doubt indicates increased light rendering
+perceptible some possible error not before seen.</p>
+
+<p>Least of all should a believer in a divine revelation deny the oneness
+of intelligence. For if he is right, then the revealed truth he talks
+about is but relative and partial, and those inspired men who claimed
+for it the sign manual of the Absolute were fools, insane or liars.</p>
+
+<p>If the various arguments I have rehearsed indicate conclusively that in
+the laws of thought we have the norms of absolute truth&mdash;and skepticism
+on this point can be skepticism and not belief only by virtue of the
+very law which it doubts&mdash;some important corollaries present themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Regarding in the first place the nature of these laws, we find them very
+different from those of physical necessity&mdash;those which are called the
+laws of nature. The latter are authoritative, they are never means to an
+end, they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[108]</a></span> admit no exception, they leave no room for error. Not so with
+the laws of reasoning. Man far more frequently disregards than obeys
+them; they leave a wide field for fallacy. Wherein then lies that
+theoretical necessity which is the essence of law? The answer is that
+the laws of reasoning are <i>purposive</i> only, they are regulative, not
+constitutive, and their theoretical necessity lies in the end, the
+result of reasoning, that is, in the knowing, in the recognition of
+truth. They are what the Germans call <i>Zweckgesetze</i>.<a name="FNanchor_108-1_73" id="FNanchor_108-1_73" href="#Footnote_108-1_73" class="fnanchor">108-1</a></p>
+
+<p>But in mathematical reasoning and in the processes of physical nature
+the absolute character of the laws which prevail depends for its final
+necessity on their consistency, their entire correspondence with the
+laws of right reasoning. Applied to them the purposive character of the
+laws is not seen, for their ends are fulfilled. We are brought,
+therefore, to the momentous conclusion that the manifestation of Order,
+whether in material or mental processes, “affords a presumption, not
+measurable indeed but real, of the fulfilment of an end or
+purpose;”<a name="corr7" id="corr7"></a><ins class="correction" title="108-2"><a name="FNanchor_108-2_74" id="FNanchor_108-2_74" href="#Footnote_108-2_74" class="fnanchor">108-1</a></ins> and this purpose, one which has other objects in
+view than the continuance of physical processes. The history of mind,
+from protoplasmic sensation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[109]</a></span> upward, must be a progression, whose end
+will be worth more than was its beginning, a process, which has for its
+purpose the satisfaction of the laws of mind. This is nothing else than
+correct thinking, the attainment of truth.</p>
+
+<p>But this conclusion, reached by a searching criticism of the validity of
+scientific laws, is precisely that which is the postulate of all
+developed creeds. “The faith of all historical religions,” says Bunsen,
+“starts from the assumption of a universal moral order, in which the
+good is alone the true, and the true is the only good.”<a name="FNanchor_109-1_75" id="FNanchor_109-1_75" href="#Footnote_109-1_75" class="fnanchor">109-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The purposive nature of the processes of thought, as well as the manner
+in which they govern the mind, is illustrated by the history of man. His
+actions, whether as an individual or as a nation, are guided by ideas
+not derived from the outer world, for they do not correspond to actual
+objects, but from mental pictures of things as he wants them to exist.
+These are his hopes, his wishes, his ideals; they are the more potent,
+and prompt to more vigorous action, the clearer they are to his mind.
+Even when he is unconscious of them, they exist as tendencies, or
+instincts, inherited often from some remote ancestor, perhaps even the
+heir-loom of a stage of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[110]</a></span> lower life, for they occur where sensation
+alone is present, and are an important factor in general evolution.</p>
+
+<p>It is usually conceded that this theory of organic development very much
+attenuates the evidence of what is known as the argument from design in
+nature, by which the existence of an intelligent Creator is sought to be
+shown. If the distinction between the formal laws of mathematics, which
+are those of nature, and logic, which are those of mind, be fully
+understood, no one will seek such an argument in the former but in the
+latter only, for they alone, as I have shown, are purposive, and they
+are wholly so. The only God that nature points to is an adamantine Fate.</p>
+
+<p>If religion has indeed the object which Bunsen assigns it, physical
+phenomena cannot concern it. Its votaries should not look to change the
+operation of natural laws by incantations, prayers or miracles.</p>
+
+<p>Whenever in the material world there presents itself a seeming
+confusion, it is certain to turn out but an incompleteness of our
+observation, and on closer inspection it resolves itself into some
+higher scheme of Order. This is not so in the realm of thought. Wrong
+thinking never can become right thinking. A profound writer has said:
+“One explanation only of these facts can be given, viz., that the
+distinction be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[111]</a></span>tween <i>true</i> and <i>false</i>, between <i>correct</i> and
+<i>incorrect</i>, exists in the processes of the intellect, but not in the
+region of a physical necessity.”<a name="FNanchor_111-1_76" id="FNanchor_111-1_76" href="#Footnote_111-1_76" class="fnanchor">111-1</a> A religion therefore which
+claims as its mission the discovery of the true and its identification
+with the good,&mdash;in other words the persuading man that he should always
+act in accordance with the dictates of right reasoning&mdash;should be
+addressed primarily to the intellect.</p>
+
+<p>As man can attain to certain truths which are without any mixture of
+fallacy, which when once he comprehends them he can never any more
+doubt, and which though thus absolute do not fetter his intellect but
+first give it the use of all its powers to the extent of those truths;
+so he can conceive of an Intelligence in which all truth is thus without
+taint of error. Not only is such an Intelligence conceivable, it is
+necessary to conceive it, in order to complete the scientific induction
+of “a sphere of thought from which all limits are withdrawn,” forced
+upon us by the demonstrations of the exact sciences.<a name="FNanchor_111-2_77" id="FNanchor_111-2_77" href="#Footnote_111-2_77" class="fnanchor">111-2</a></p>
+
+<p>Thus do we reach the foundation for the faith in a moral government of
+the world, which it has been the uniform characteristic of religions to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[112]</a></span>
+assert; but a government, as thus analytically reached, not easily
+corresponding with that which popular religion speaks of. Such feeble
+sentiments as mercy, benevolence and effusive love, scarcely find place
+in this conception of the source of universal order. In this cosmical
+dust-cloud we inhabit, whose each speck is a sun, man’s destiny plays a
+microscopic part. The vexed question whether ours is the best possible
+or the worst possible world, drops into startling insignificance.
+Religion has taught the abnegation of self; science is first to teach
+the humiliation of the race. Not for man’s behoof were created the
+greater and the lesser lights, not for his deeds will the sun grow dark
+or the stars fall, not with any reference to his pains or pleasure was
+this universe spread upon the night. That Intelligence which pursues its
+own ends in this All, which sees from first to last the chain of causes
+which mould human action, measures not its purposes by man’s halting
+sensations. Such an Intelligence is fitly described by the
+philosopher-poet as one,</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“Wo die Gerechtigkeit so Wurzel schläget,<br />
+Und Schuld und Unschuld so erhaben wäget<br />
+Dass sie vertritt die Stelle aller Güte.”<a name="FNanchor_112-1_78" id="FNanchor_112-1_78" href="#Footnote_112-1_78" class="fnanchor">112-1</a></p>
+
+<p>In the scheme of the universe, pain and pleasure, truth and error, has
+each its fitness, and no single thought or act can be judged<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[113]</a></span> apart from
+all others that ever have been and ever shall be.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the power that was contemplated by the Hebrew prophet, one from
+which all evil things and all good things come, and who disposes them
+all to the fulfilment of a final purpose:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>“I am the Lord and there is none else. I form the light and create
+darkness; I make peace and create evil.”</p>
+
+<p>“I am God and there is none like me, declaring the end from the
+beginning, and from ancient times the things which are not yet
+done.”<a name="FNanchor_113-1_79" id="FNanchor_113-1_79" href="#Footnote_113-1_79" class="fnanchor">113-1</a></p></div>
+
+<p>In a similar strain the ancient Aryan sang:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“This do I ask thee, tell me, O Ahura!<br />
+Who is he, working good, made the light and also darkness?<br />
+Who is he, working good, made the sleep as well as waking?<br />
+Who the night, as well as noon and the morning?”</p>
+
+<p>And the reply came:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>“Know also this, O pure Zarathustra: through my wisdom, through
+which was the beginning of the world, so also its end shall
+be.”<a name="FNanchor_113-2_80" id="FNanchor_113-2_80" href="#Footnote_113-2_80" class="fnanchor">113-2</a></p></div>
+
+<p>Or as the Arabian apostle wrote, inspired by the same idea:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“Praise the name of thy Lord, the Most High,<br />
+Who hath created and balanced all things,<br />
+Who hath fixed their destinies and guideth them.”</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>“The Revelation of this book is from the Mighty, the Wise. We have
+not created the Heavens and the Earth and all that is between them
+otherwise than with a purpose and for a settled term.”<a name="FNanchor_113-3_81" id="FNanchor_113-3_81" href="#Footnote_113-3_81" class="fnanchor">113-3</a></p></div>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_87-1_53" id="Footnote_87-1_53" href="#FNanchor_87-1_53">87-1</a> <i>The Emotions and Will</i>, p. 594. So Professor Tyndall
+speaks of confining the religious sentiment to “the region of emotion,
+which is its proper sphere.”</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_87-2_54" id="Footnote_87-2_54" href="#FNanchor_87-2_54">87-2</a> H. L. Mansel, <i>The Limits of Religious Thought</i>, p. 115.
+(Boston, 1859.)</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_87-3_55" id="Footnote_87-3_55" href="#FNanchor_87-3_55">87-3</a> “The <i>one relation</i> which is the ground of all true
+religion is a total dependence upon God.” William Law, <i>Address to the
+Clergy</i>, p. 12. “The essential germ of the religious life is
+concentrated in the absolute feeling of dependence on infinite power.”
+J. D. Morell, <i>The Philosophy of Religion</i>, p. 94. (New York, 1849.)
+This accomplished author, well known for his <i>History of Philosophy</i>, is
+the most able English exponent of the religious views of Schleiermacher
+and Jacobi.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_90-1_56" id="Footnote_90-1_56" href="#FNanchor_90-1_56">90-1</a> “Weil sie die Welt <i>eingerichtet</i> haben.” Creuzer,
+<i>Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Vœlker</i>, Bd. I. s. 169. It is not
+of any importance that Herodotus’ etymology is incorrect: what I wish to
+show is that he and his contemporaries entertained the conception of the
+gods as the authors of order.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_92-1_57" id="Footnote_92-1_57" href="#FNanchor_92-1_57">92-1</a> This distinction is well set forth by A. von Humboldt,
+<i>Kosmos</i>, p. 388 (Phila., 1869).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_93-1_58" id="Footnote_93-1_58" href="#FNanchor_93-1_58">93-1</a> “Ueberall den Zufall zu verbannen, zu verhindern, dass
+in dem Gebiete des Beobachtens und Denkens er nicht zu herrschen
+scheine, im Gebiete des Handelns nicht herrsche, ist das Streben der
+Vernunft.” Wilhelm von Humboldt, <i>Ueber Goethe’s Hermann und Dorothea</i>,
+iv.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_93-2_59" id="Footnote_93-2_59" href="#FNanchor_93-2_59">93-2</a> “Iste ordo pulcherrimus rerum valde bonarum.”
+<i>Confessiones</i>, Lib. xiii. cap. xxxv.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_94-1_60" id="Footnote_94-1_60" href="#FNanchor_94-1_60">94-1</a> “The notion of a God is not contained in the mere notion
+of Cause, that is the notion of Fate or Power. To this must be added
+Intelligence,” etc. Sir Wm. Hamilton, <i>Lectures on Metaphysics</i>, Lecture
+ii.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_96-1_61" id="Footnote_96-1_61" href="#FNanchor_96-1_61">96-1</a> <i>The Unseen Universe</i>, p. 60.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_97-1_62" id="Footnote_97-1_62" href="#FNanchor_97-1_62">97-1</a> James Frederick Ferrier, <i>Lectures on Greek Philosophy</i>,
+p. 13 (Edinburgh, 1866). On a question growing directly out of this, to
+wit, the relative character of good and evil, Mr. J. S. Mill expresses
+himself thus: “My opinion of this doctrine is, that it is beyond all
+others which now engage speculative minds, the decisive one between
+moral good and evil for the Christian world.” <i>Examination of Hamilton’s
+Philosophy</i>, p. 90.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_98-1_63" id="Footnote_98-1_63" href="#FNanchor_98-1_63">98-1</a> <i>First Principles</i>, pp. 108, 127.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_99-1_64" id="Footnote_99-1_64" href="#FNanchor_99-1_64">99-1</a> <i>Lectures on Metaphysics</i>, Vol. I., p. 690.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_101-1_65" id="Footnote_101-1_65" href="#FNanchor_101-1_65">101-1</a> Professor Steinthal in the <i>Zeitschrift für
+Völkerpsychologie</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_102-1_66" id="Footnote_102-1_66" href="#FNanchor_102-1_66">102-1</a> Dr. W. Windelband, <i>Die Erkenntnissiehre unter dem
+voelkerpsychologischem Gesichtspunkte</i>, in the <i>Zeitschrift für
+Völkerpsychologie</i>, 1874, <i>Bd. VIII.</i> S. 165 <i>sqq.</i></p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_103-1_67" id="Footnote_103-1_67" href="#FNanchor_103-1_67">103-1</a> I would ask the reader willing to pursue this reasoning
+further, to peruse the charming essay of Oersted, entitled <i>Das ganze
+Dasein Ein Vernunftreich</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_104-1_68" id="Footnote_104-1_68" href="#FNanchor_104-1_68">104-1</a> Geo. Boole, <i>An Investigation of the Laws of Thought</i>,
+p. 407.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_104-2_69" id="Footnote_104-2_69" href="#FNanchor_104-2_69">104-2</a> Herbert Spencer, <i>First Principles</i>, p. 112. Spinoza’s
+famous proposition, previously quoted, <i>Unaquæque res quantum in se est,
+in suo esse perseverare conatur</i>, (<i>Ethices, Pars III., Prop. VI.</i>,)
+expresses also the ultimate of modern investigation. A recent critic
+considers it is a fallacy because the conatus “surreptitiously implies a
+sense of effort or struggle for existence,” whereas the logical concept
+of a res does not involve effort (S. N. Hodgson, <i>The Theory of
+Practice</i>, vol. I. pp. 134-6, London, 1870.) The answer is that identity
+implies continuance. In organic life we have the fact of nutrition, a
+function whose duty is to supply waste, and hence offer direct
+opposition to perturbing forces.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_105-1_70" id="Footnote_105-1_70" href="#FNanchor_105-1_70">105-1</a> Geo. Boole, <i>The Laws of Thought</i>, p. 419.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_105-2_71" id="Footnote_105-2_71" href="#FNanchor_105-2_71">105-2</a> Kant, <i>The Metaphysic of Ethics</i>, p. 23 (Eng. Trans.
+London, 1869.)</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_106-1_72" id="Footnote_106-1_72" href="#FNanchor_106-1_72">106-1</a> Creuzer, <i>Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Voelker</i>,
+Bd. I. s. 291.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_108-1_73" id="Footnote_108-1_73" href="#FNanchor_108-1_73">108-1</a> See this distinction between physical and thought laws
+fully set forth by Prof. Boole in the appendix to <i>The Laws of Thought</i>,
+and by Dr. Windelband, <i>Zeitschrift für Voelkerpsychologie</i>, Bd. VIII.,
+s. 165 sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_108-2_74" id="Footnote_108-2_74" href="#FNanchor_108-2_74">108-2</a> Geo. Boole, u. s. p. 399.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_109-1_75" id="Footnote_109-1_75" href="#FNanchor_109-1_75">109-1</a> “Der Glaube aller geschichtlichen Religionen geht aus
+von dieser Annahme einer sittlichen, in Gott bewusst lebenden,
+Weltordnung, wonach das Gute das allein Wahre ist, and das Wahre das
+allein Gute.” <i>Gott in der Geschichte</i>, Bd. I. s. xl. Leipzig, 1857.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_111-1_76" id="Footnote_111-1_76" href="#FNanchor_111-1_76">111-1</a> Geo. Boole, <i>Laws of Thought</i>, p. 410.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_111-2_77" id="Footnote_111-2_77" href="#FNanchor_111-2_77">111-2</a> The latest researches in natural science confirm the
+expressions of W. von Humboldt: “Das Streben der Natur ist auf etwas
+Unbeschränktes gerichtet.” “Die Natur mit endlichen Mitteln unendliche
+Zwecke verfolgt.” <i>Ueber den Geschlechtsunterschied, etc.</i></p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_112-1_78" id="Footnote_112-1_78" href="#FNanchor_112-1_78">112-1</a> Wilhelm von Humboldt, <i>Sonnette</i>, “Höchste
+Gerechtigkeit.”</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_113-1_79" id="Footnote_113-1_79" href="#FNanchor_113-1_79">113-1</a> Isaiah, xlv. 7; xlvi. 10.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_113-2_80" id="Footnote_113-2_80" href="#FNanchor_113-2_80">113-2</a> <i>Khordah&mdash;avesta</i>, <i>Ormazd&mdash;Yasht</i>, 38, and <i>Yaçna</i>,
+42.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_113-3_81" id="Footnote_113-3_81" href="#FNanchor_113-3_81">113-3</a> <i>The Koran</i>, Suras lxxxvii., xlvi.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[114]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[115]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapdivider"><a name="THE_PRAYER_AND_ITS_ANSWER" id="THE_PRAYER_AND_ITS_ANSWER"></a>THE PRAYER AND ITS ANSWER.</h2>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[116]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="chapterhead">SUMMARY.</h3>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Religion starts with a Prayer. This is an appeal to the unknown,
+and is indispensable in religious thought. The apparent exceptions
+of Buddhism and Confucianism.</p>
+
+<p>All prayers relate to the fulfilment of a wish. At first its direct
+object is alone thought of. This so frequently fails that the
+indirect object rises into view. This stated to be the increase of
+the pleasurable emotions. The inadequacy of this statement.</p>
+
+<p>The answers to prayer. As a form of Expectant Attention, it exerts
+much subjective power. Can it influence external phenomena? It is
+possible. Deeply religious minds reject both these answers,
+however. They claim the objective answer to be Inspiration. All
+religions unite in this claim.</p>
+
+<p>Inspirations have been contradictory. That is genuine which teaches
+truths which cannot be doubted concerning duty and deity. A certain
+mental condition favors the attainment of such truths. This
+simulated in religious entheasm. Examples. It is allied to the most
+intense intellectual action, but its steps remain unknown.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[117]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="chaptitle">THE PRAYER AND ITS ANSWER.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> foregoing analysis of the religious sentiment results in finding it,
+even in its simplest forms, a product of complicated reasoning forced
+into action by some of the strongest emotions, and maintaining its
+position indefeasibly through the limitations of the intellect. This it
+does, however, with a certain nobleness, for while it wraps the unknown
+in sacred mystery, it proclaims man one in nature with the Highest, by
+birthright a son of the gods, of an intelligence akin to theirs, and
+less than they only in degree. Through thus presenting at once his
+strength and his feebleness, his grandeur and his degradation, religion
+goes beyond philosophy or utility in suggesting motives for exertion,
+stimuli to labor. This phase of it will now occupy us.</p>
+
+<p>The Religious Sentiment manifests itself in thought, in word and in act
+through the respective media of the Prayer, the Myth and the Cult. The
+first embraces the personal relations of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[118]</a></span> individual to the object
+of his worship, the second expresses the opinions current in a community
+about the nature and actions of that object, the last includes the
+symbols and ceremonies under and by which it is represented and
+propitiated.</p>
+
+<p>The first has the logical priority. Man cares nothing for God&mdash;<i>can</i>
+care nothing for him practically&mdash;except as an aid to the fulfilment of
+his desires, the satisfaction of his wants, as the “ground of his
+hopes.” The root of the religious sentiment, I have said, is “a wish
+whose fruition depends upon unknown power.” An appeal for aid to this
+unknown power, is the first form of prayer in its religious sense. It is
+not merely “the soul’s sincere desire.” This may well be and well
+directed, and yet not religious, as the devotion of the mathematician to
+the solution of an important problem. With the desire must be the
+earnest appeal to the unknown. A theological dictionary I have at hand
+almost correctly defines it as “a petition for spiritual or physical
+benefits which [we believe] we cannot obtain without divine
+co-operation.” The words in brackets must be inserted to complete the
+definition.</p>
+
+<p>It need not be expressed in language. Rousseau, in his <i>Confessions</i>,
+tells of a bishop who, in visiting his diocese, came across an old woman
+who was troubled because she could frame no<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[119]</a></span> prayer in words, but only
+cry, “Oh!” “Good mother,” said the wise bishop, “Pray always so. Your
+prayers are better than ours.”<a name="FNanchor_119-1_82" id="FNanchor_119-1_82" href="#Footnote_119-1_82" class="fnanchor">119-1</a></p>
+
+<p>A petition for assistance is, as I have said, one of its first forms;
+but not its only one. The assistance asked in simple prayers is often
+nothing more than the neutrality of the gods, their non-interference;
+“no preventing Providence,” as the expression is in our popular
+religion. Prayers of fear are of this kind:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“And they say, God be merciful,<br />
+Who ne’er said, God be praised.”</p>
+
+<p>Some of the Egyptian formulæ even threaten the gods if they prevent
+success.<a name="FNanchor_119-2_83" id="FNanchor_119-2_83" href="#Footnote_119-2_83" class="fnanchor">119-2</a> The wish accomplished, the prayer may be one of
+gratitude, often enough of that kind described by La Rochefoucauld, of
+which a prominent element is “a lively sense of possible favors to
+come.”<a name="FNanchor_119-3_84" id="FNanchor_119-3_84" href="#Footnote_119-3_84" class="fnanchor">119-3</a></p>
+
+<p>Or again, self-abasement being so natural a form of flattery that to
+call ourselves “obedient<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[120]</a></span> and humble servants” of others, has passed
+into one of the commonest forms of address, many prayers are made up of
+similar expressions of humility and contrition, the votary calling
+himself a “miserable sinner” and a “vile worm,” and on the other hand
+magnifying his Lord as greater than all other gods, mighty and helpful
+to those who assiduously worship him.</p>
+
+<p>In some form or other, as of petition, gratitude or contrition, uttered
+in words or confined to the aspirations of the soul, prayer is a
+necessary factor in the religious life. It always has been, and it must
+be present.</p>
+
+<p>The exceptions which may be taken to this in religious systems are
+chiefly two, those supposed to have been founded by Buddha Sakyamuni and
+Confucius.</p>
+
+<p>It is undoubtedly correct that Buddha discouraged prayer. He permitted
+it at best in the inferior grades of discipleship. For himself, and all
+who reached his stage of culture, he pronounced it futile.</p>
+
+<p>But Buddha did not set out to teach a religion, but rather the inutility
+of all creeds. He struck shrewdly at the root of them by placing the
+highest condition of man in the total extinguishment of desire. He bound
+the gods in fetters by establishing a theory of causal connection (the
+twelve Nidana) which does away with the necessity of ruling powers. He
+then<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[121]</a></span> swept both matter and spirit into unreality by establishing the
+canon of ignorance, that the highest knowledge is to know that nothing
+is; that there is neither being nor not-being, nor yet the becoming.
+After this wholesale iconoclasm the only possible object in life for the
+sage is the negative one of avoiding pain, which though as unreal as
+anything else, interferes with his meditations on its unreality. To this
+negative end the only aid he can expect is from other sages who have
+gone farther in self-cultivation. Self, therefore, is the first, the
+collective body of sages is the second, and the written instruction of
+Buddha is the third; and these three are the only sources to which the
+consistent Buddhist looks for aid.</p>
+
+<p>This was Buddha’s teaching. But it is not Buddhism as professed by the
+hundreds of millions in Ceylon, in Thibet, China, Japan, and Siberia,
+who claim Sakyamuni under his names Buddha, the awakened, Tathagata,
+thus gone, or gone before, Siddartha, the accomplisher of the wish, and
+threescore and ten others of like purport, as their inspired teacher.
+Millions of saints, holy men, Buddhas, they believe, are ready to aid in
+every way the true believer, and incessant, constant prayer is, they
+maintain, the one efficient means to insure this aid. Repetition,
+dinning the divinities and wearying them into answering, is their
+theory. Therefore<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[122]</a></span> they will repeat a short formula of four words (<i>om
+mani padme hum</i>&mdash;Om! the jewel in the lotus, amen) thousands of times a
+day; or, as they correctly think it not a whit more mechanical, they
+write it a million times on strips of paper, fasten it around a
+cylinder, attach this to a water or a wind-wheel, and thus sleeping or
+waking, at home or abroad, keep up a steady fire of prayer at the gods,
+which finally, they sanguinely hope, will bring them to submission.</p>
+
+<p>No sect has such entire confidence in the power of prayer as the
+Buddhists. The most pious Mahometan or Christian does not approach their
+faith. After all is said and done, the latter has room to doubt the
+efficacy of his prayer. It may be refused. Not so the Buddhists. They
+have a syllogism which covers the case completely, as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">All things are in the power of the gods.<br />
+The gods are in the power of prayer.<br />
+Prayer is at the will of the saint.<br />
+Therefore all things are in the power of the saint.</p>
+
+<p>The only reason that any prayer fails is that it is not repeated often
+enough&mdash;a statement difficult to refute.</p>
+
+<p>The case with Confucius was different.<a name="FNanchor_122-1_85" id="FNanchor_122-1_85" href="#Footnote_122-1_85" class="fnanchor">122-1</a> No speculative dreamer,
+but a practical man, bent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[123]</a></span> on improving his fellows by teaching them
+self-reliance, industry, honesty, good feeling and the attainment of
+material comfort, he did not see in the religious systems and doctrines
+of his time any assistance to these ends. Therefore, like Socrates and
+many other men of ancient and modern times, without actually condemning
+the faiths around him, or absolutely neglecting some external respect to
+their usages, he taught his followers to turn away from religious topics
+and occupy themselves with subjects of immediate utility. For questions
+of duty, man, he taught, has a sufficient guide within himself. “What
+you do not like,” he said, “when done to yourself, do not to others.”
+The wishes, he adds, should be limited to the attainable; thus their
+disappointment can be avoided by a just estimate of one’s own powers. He
+used to compare a wise man to an archer: “When the archer misses the
+target, he seeks for the cause of his failure within himself.” He did
+not like to talk about spiritual beings. When asked whether the dead had
+knowledge, he replied: “There is no present urgency about the matter. If
+they have, you will know it for yourself in time.” He did not deny the
+existence of unseen powers; on the contrary, he said: “The <i>kwei shin</i>
+(the most general term for supernatural beings) enter into all things,
+and there is nothing without them;” but he added, “We look for them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[124]</a></span> and
+do not see them; we listen, but do not hear them.” In speaking of deity,
+he dropped the personal syllable (<i>te</i>) and only spoke of heaven, in the
+indefinite sense. Such was this extraordinary man. The utilitarian
+theory, what we call the common sense view of life, was never better
+taught. But his doctrine is not a religion. His followers erect temples,
+and from filial respect pay the usual honors to their ancestors, as
+Confucius himself did. But they ignore religious observances, strictly
+so-called.</p>
+
+<p>These examples, therefore, do not at all conflict with the general
+statement that no religion can exist without prayer. On the contrary, it
+is the native expression of the religious sentiment, that to which we
+must look for its most hidden meaning. The thoughtful Novalis, whose
+meditations are so rich in reflections on the religious nature of man,
+well said: “Prayer is to religion what thought is to philosophy. To pray
+is to make religion. The religious sense prays with like necessity that
+the reason thinks.”</p>
+
+<p>Whatever the form of the prayer, it has direct or indirect relation to
+the accomplishment of a wish. David prays to the Lord as the one who
+“satisfies the desire of every living thing,” who “will fulfil the
+desire of them that fear him,” and it is with the like faith that the
+heart of every votary is stirred when he approaches in prayer the
+divinity he adores.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[125]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Widely various are the things wished for. Their character is the test of
+religions. In primitive faiths and in uncultivated minds, prayers are
+confined to the nearest material advantages; they are directed to the
+attainment of food, of victory in combat, of safety in danger, of
+personal prosperity. They may all be summed up in a line of one which
+occurs in the Rig Veda: “O Lord Varuna! Grant that we may prosper in
+<i>getting and keeping</i>!”</p>
+
+<p>Beyond this point of “getting and keeping,” few primitive prayers take
+us. Those of the American Indians, as I have elsewhere shown, remained
+in this stage among the savage tribes, and rose above it only in the
+civilized states of Mexico and Peru. Prayers for health, for plenteous
+harvests, for safe voyages and the like are of this nature, though from
+their familiarity to us they seem less crude than the simple-hearted
+petition of the old Aryan, which I have quoted. They mean the same.</p>
+
+<p>The more thoughtful votaries of the higher forms of religion have,
+however, frequently drawn the distinction between the direct and
+indirect fulfilment of the wish. An abundant harvest, restoration to
+health, or a victory in battle is the object of our hopes, not in
+itself, but for its results upon ourselves. These, in their final
+expression, can mean nothing else than agreeable sensations and
+pleasurable emotions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[126]</a></span> These, therefore, are the real though indirect
+objects of such prayers; often unconsciously so, because the ordinary
+devotee has little capacity and less inclination to analyze the nature
+of his religious feelings.</p>
+
+<p>A recent writer, Mr. Hodgson, has said: “The real answer to prayer is
+the increase of the joyful emotions, the decrease of the painful
+ones.”<a name="FNanchor_126-1_86" id="FNanchor_126-1_86" href="#Footnote_126-1_86" class="fnanchor">126-1</a> It would seem a simpler plan to make this directly the
+purport of our petitions; but to the modern mind this naked simplicity
+would be distasteful.</p>
+
+<p>Nor is the ordinary supplicant willing to look so far. The direct, not
+the indirect object of the wish, is what he wants. The lazzarone of
+Naples prays to his patron saint to favor his choice of a lottery
+ticket; if it turn out an unlucky number he will take the little leaden
+image of the saint from his pocket, revile it, spit on it, and trample
+it in the mud. Another man, when his prayer for success is not followed
+by victory, sends gifts to the church, flogs himself in public and
+fasts. Xenophon gives us in his <i>Economics</i> the prayer of a pious
+Athenian of his time, in the person of Ischomachus. “I seek to obtain,”
+says the latter, “from the gods by just prayers, strength and health,
+the respect of the community, the love of my friends, an honorable
+termination to my combats, and riches, the fruit of honest in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[127]</a></span>dustry.”
+Xenophon evidently considered these appropriate objects for prayer, and
+from the petitions in many recent manuals of devotion, I should suppose
+most Christians of to-day would not see in them anything inappropriate.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the effort that has been made by Professor Creuzer<a name="FNanchor_127-1_87" id="FNanchor_127-1_87" href="#Footnote_127-1_87" class="fnanchor">127-1</a> to
+show that the classical nations rose to a higher use of prayer, one
+which made spiritual growth in the better sense of the phrase its main
+end; I think such instances were confined to single philosophers and
+poets. They do not represent the prayers of the average votary. Then and
+now he, as a rule, has little or no idea of any other answer to his
+prayer than the attainment of his wish.</p>
+
+<p>As such petitions, however, more frequently fail than succeed in their
+direct object, and as the alternative of considering them impotent is
+not open to the votary, some other explanation of their failure was
+taught in very early day. At first, it was that the god was angered, and
+refused the petition out of revenge. Later, the indirect purpose of such
+a prayer asserted itself<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[128]</a></span> more clearly, and aided by a nobler conception
+of Divinity, suggested that the refusal of the lower is a preparation
+for a higher reward. Children, in well-ordered households, are
+frequently refused by parents who love them well; this present analogy
+was early seized to explain the failure of prayer. Unquestioning
+submission to the divine will was inculcated. Some even went so far as
+to think it improper to define any wish at all, and subsumed all prayer
+under the one formula, “Thy will be done.” Such was the teaching of St.
+Augustine, whose favorite prayer was <i>Da quod jubes, et jube quod vis</i>,
+a phrase much criticized by Pelagius and others of his time as too
+quietistic.<a name="FNanchor_128-1_88" id="FNanchor_128-1_88" href="#Footnote_128-1_88" class="fnanchor">128-1</a> The usual Christian doctrine of resignation proceeds
+in theory to this extent. Such a notion of the purpose of prayer leads
+to a cheerful acceptance of the effects of physical laws, effects which
+an enlightened religious mind never asks to be altered in its favor, for
+the promises and aims of religion should be wholly outside the arena of
+their operation. The ideal prayer has quite other objects than to work
+material changes.</p>
+
+<p>To say, as does Mr. Hodgson, that its aim is the increase of the joyful
+emotions is far from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[129]</a></span> sufficient. The same may be said of most human
+effort, the effort to make money, for instance. The indirect object of
+money-making is also the increase of the agreeable feelings. The
+similarity of purpose might lead to a belief that the aims of religion
+and business are identical.</p>
+
+<p>Before we can fully decide on what, in the specifically religious sense
+of the word, is the answer to prayer, we should inquire as a matter of
+fact what effect it actually exerts, and to do this we should understand
+what it is as a psychological process. The reply to this is that prayer,
+in its psychological definition, is a form of Expectant Attention. It is
+always urged by religious teachers that it must be very earnest and
+continuous to be successful. “Importunity is of the essence of
+successful prayer,” says Canon Liddon in a recent sermon. In the New
+Testament it is likened to a constant knocking at a door; and by a
+curious parity of thought the Chinese character for prayer is composed
+of the signs for a spirit and an axe or hammer.<a name="FNanchor_129-1_89" id="FNanchor_129-1_89" href="#Footnote_129-1_89" class="fnanchor">129-1</a> We must “keep
+hammering” as a colloquial phrase has it. Strong belief is also
+required. To pray with faith we must expect with confidence.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[130]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Now that such a condition of expectant attention, prolonged and earnest,
+will have a very powerful subjective effect, no one acquainted with the
+functions of the human economy can doubt. “Any state of the body,”
+observes the physiologist Müller, “expected with certain confidence is
+very prone to ensue.” A pill of bread-crumbs, which the patient supposes
+to contain a powerful cathartic, will often produce copious evacuations.
+No one who studies the history of medicine can question that scrofulous
+swellings and ulcerations were cured by the royal touch, that paralytics
+have regained the use of their limbs by touching the relics of the
+saints, and that in many countries beside Judea the laying on of hands
+and the words of a holy man have made issues to heal and the lame to
+walk.<a name="FNanchor_130-1_90" id="FNanchor_130-1_90" href="#Footnote_130-1_90" class="fnanchor">130-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Such effects are not disputed by physicians as probable results of
+prayer or faith considered as expectant attention. The stigmata of St.
+Francis d’Assisi are more than paralleled by those of Louise Lateau, now
+living at Bois d’Haine in Belgium, whose hands, feet and side bleed
+every Friday like those of Christ on the cross. A commission of medical
+men after the most careful precautions against deception attributed
+these hemorrhages to the effect of expectation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[131]</a></span> (prayer) vastly
+increased in force by repetition.<a name="FNanchor_131-1_91" id="FNanchor_131-1_91" href="#Footnote_131-1_91" class="fnanchor">131-1</a> If human testimony is worth
+anything, the cures of Porte Royale are not open to dispute.<a name="FNanchor_131-2_92" id="FNanchor_131-2_92" href="#Footnote_131-2_92" class="fnanchor">131-2</a></p>
+
+<p>The mental consequences of a prayerful condition of mind are to inspire
+patience under afflictions, hope in adversity, courage in the presence
+of danger and a calm confidence in the face of death itself. How
+mightily such influences have worked in history is shown in every
+religious war, and in the lives of the martyrs of all faiths. It matters
+not what they believed, so only that they believed it thoroughly, and
+the gates of Hades could not prevail against them.</p>
+
+<p>No one will question that these various and momentous results are the
+legitimate effects or answers to prayers. But whether prayer can
+influence the working of the material forces external to the individual
+is a disputed point. If it cannot in some way do this, prayers for rain,
+for harvests, for safety at sea, for restoration to health, for delivery
+from grasshoppers<a name="FNanchor_131-3_93" id="FNanchor_131-3_93" href="#Footnote_131-3_93" class="fnanchor">131-3</a> and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[132]</a></span> pestilence, whether for our own benefit or
+others, are hardly worth reciting. A physicist expresses the one opinion
+in these words: “Science asserts that without a disturbance of natural
+law, quite as serious as the stoppage of an eclipse or the rolling of
+the St. Lawrence up the Falls of Niagara, no act of humiliation,
+individual or national, could call one shower from heaven or deflect
+toward us a single beam of the sun.” “Assuming the efficacy of free
+prayer to produce changes in external nature, it necessarily follows
+that natural laws are more or less at the mercy of man’s
+volition.”<a name="FNanchor_132-1_94" id="FNanchor_132-1_94" href="#Footnote_132-1_94" class="fnanchor">132-1</a></p>
+
+<p>This authoritative statement, much discussed at the time it was
+published, does not in fact express the assertion of science. To the
+scientific apprehension, man’s volitions and his prayers are states of
+emotion, inseparably connected in their manifestations with changes in
+his cerebral structure, with relative elevation of temperature, and with
+the elimination of oxygen and phosphorus, in other words with
+chemico-vital phenomena and the transformation of force. Science also
+adds that there is a constant interaction of all force, and it is not
+prepared to deny that the force expended by a national or individual
+prayer may become a co-operating cause in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[133]</a></span> the material change asked
+for, even if the latter be a rain shower. This would not affect a
+natural law but only its operation, and that much every act of our life
+does. The fact that persistency and earnestness in prayer&mdash;<i>i. e.</i>, the
+increased development of force&mdash;add to its efficacy, would accord with
+such a scientific view. It would further be very materially corroborated
+by the accepted doctrine of the orders of force. A unit of electrical or
+magnetic force equals many of the force of gravity; a number of
+electrical units are required to make one of chemical force; and
+chemico-vital or “metabolic” force is still higher; whereas thought
+regarded as a form of force must be vastly beyond this again.</p>
+
+<p>To render a loadstone, which lifts filings of iron by its magnetic
+force, capable of doing the same by the force of gravity, its density
+would have to be increased more than a thousand million times. All
+forces differ in like degree. Professor Faraday calculated that the
+force latent in the chemical composition of one drop of water, equals
+that manifested in an average thunderstorm. In our limited knowledge of
+the relation of forces therefore, a scientific man is rash to deny that
+the chemico-vital forces set loose by an earnest prayer may affect the
+operation of natural laws outside the body as they confessedly do in
+it.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[134]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Experience alone can decide such a question, and I for one, from theory
+and from observation, believe in the material efficacy of prayer. In a
+certain percentage of the cases where the wished-for material result
+followed, the physical force of the active cerebral action has seemed to
+me a co-operating cause. A physician can observe this to best advantage
+in the sickness of children, as they are free from subjective bias,
+their constitutions are delicately susceptible, and the prayers for them
+are in their immediate vicinity and very earnest.</p>
+
+<p>But this admission after all is a barren one to the truly devout mind.
+The effect gained does not depend on the God to whom the prayer is
+offered. Blind physical laws bring it about, and any event that comes
+through their compulsive force is gelded of its power to fecundate the
+germs of the better religious life. The knowledge of this would paralyze
+faith.</p>
+
+<p>Further to attenuate the value of my admission, another consideration
+arises, this time prompted not by speculative criticism, but by
+reverence itself. A scholar whom I have already quoted justly observes:
+“Whenever we prefer a request as a means of obtaining what we wish for,
+we are not praying in the religious sense of the term.”<a name="FNanchor_134-1_95" id="FNanchor_134-1_95" href="#Footnote_134-1_95" class="fnanchor">134-1</a> Or, as a
+recent theologian puts the same<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[135]</a></span> idea: “Every true prayer prays to be
+refused, if the granting of it would be hurtful to us or subversive of
+God’s glory.”<a name="FNanchor_135-1_96" id="FNanchor_135-1_96" href="#Footnote_135-1_96" class="fnanchor">135-1</a> The real answer to prayer can never be an event or
+occurrence. Only in moments of spiritual weakness and obscured vision,
+when governed by his emotions or sensations, will the reverent soul ask
+a definite transaction, a modification in the operation of natural laws,
+still less such vulgar objects as victory, wealth or health.</p>
+
+<p>The prayer of faith finds its only true objective answer in itself, in
+accepting whatever befalls as the revelation of the will of God as to
+what is best. This temper of mind as the real meaning of prayer was
+beautifully set forth by St. John: “If we know that he hear us,
+whatsoever we ask, we know that we have the petitions that we desired of
+him.”<a name="FNanchor_135-2_97" id="FNanchor_135-2_97" href="#Footnote_135-2_97" class="fnanchor">135-2</a></p>
+
+<p>But this solution of the problem does not go far enough. Prayer is
+claimed to have a positive effect on the mind other than resignation.
+Joyful emotions are its fruits, <i>spiritual enlightenment</i> its reward.
+These are more than cheerful acquiescence, nor can the latter come from
+objects of sense.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[136]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The most eminent teachers agree in banishing material pleasure and
+prosperity from holy desires. They are of one mind in warning against
+what the world and the flesh can offer, against the pursuit of riches,
+power and lust. Many counsel poverty and deliberate renunciation of all
+such things. Nor is the happiness they talk of that which the pursuit of
+intellectual truth brings. This, indeed, confers joy, of which whoever
+has tasted will not hastily return to the fleshpots of the senses, but
+it is easy to see that it is not religious. Prayer and veneration have
+not a part in it. Great joy is likewise given by the exercise of the
+imagination when stirred by art in some of its varied forms, and a joy
+more nearly allied to religion than is that of scientific investigation.
+But the esthetic emotions are well defined, and are distinctly apart
+from those concerned with the religious sentiment. Their most complete
+satisfaction rather excludes than encourages pious meditations. That
+which prayer ought to seek outside of itself is different from all of
+these, its dower must be divine.</p>
+
+<p>We need not look long for it. Though hidden from the wise, it has ever
+been familiar to the unlearned. Man has never been in doubt as to what
+it is. He has been only too willing to believe he has received it.</p>
+
+<p>In barbarism and civilization, in the old and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[137]</a></span> new worlds, the final
+answer to prayer has ever been acknowledged to be <i>inspiration</i>,
+revelation, the thought of God made clear to the mind of man, the
+mystical hypostasis through which the ideas of the human coincide with
+those of universal Intelligence. This is what the Pythian priestess, the
+Siberian shaman, the Roman sibyl, the Voluspan prophetess, the Indian
+medicine-man, all claimed in various degrees along with the Hebrew seers
+and the Mahometan teacher.<a name="FNanchor_137-1_98" id="FNanchor_137-1_98" href="#Footnote_137-1_98" class="fnanchor">137-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">TRUTH</span>, the last and absolute truth, is what is everywhere recognized
+as, if not the only, at least the completest, the highest answer to
+prayer. “Where I found the truth, there I found my God, himself the
+truth,” says St. Augustine; and in a prayer by St. Chrysostom, the
+“Golden Mouth,” unsurpassed in its grand simplicity, it is said:
+“Almighty Father, * * grant us in this world <i>knowledge of Thy truth</i>,
+and in the world to come, life everlasting.” Never has the loftiest
+purpose of prayer been more completely stated. This it was that had been
+promised them by Him, to whom they looked as an Intercessor for their
+petitions, who had said: “I will send unto you the Comforter. * *<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[138]</a></span> When
+he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you unto all truth.”</p>
+
+<p>The belief that this answer is at all times attainable has always been
+recognized by the Christian Church, Apostolic, Catholic, and Protestant.
+Baptism was called by the Greek fathers, “enlightenment” (<span class="greek" title="Phôtismos">Φωτισμος</span>), as
+by it the believer received the spirit of truth. The Romanist, in the
+dogma of infallibility, proclaims the perpetual inspiration of a living
+man; the Protestant Churches in many creeds and doctrinal works extend a
+substantial infallibility to all true believers, at least to the extent
+that they can be inspired to recognize, if not to receive divine verity.</p>
+
+<p>The Gallican Confession of Faith, adopted in 1561, rests the principal
+evidence of the truth of the Scriptures on “<i>le témoignage et
+l’intérieure persuasion du Saint Esprit</i>,” and the Westminster
+Confession on “the inward work of the holy spirit.” The Society of
+Friends maintain it as “a leading principle, that the work of the Holy
+Spirit in the soul is not only immediate and direct, but perceptible;”
+that it imparts truth “without any mixture of error;” and thus is
+something quite distinct from conscience, which is common to the race,
+while this “inward light” is given only to the favored of God.<a name="FNanchor_138-1_99" id="FNanchor_138-1_99" href="#Footnote_138-1_99" class="fnanchor">138-1</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[139]</a></span>The non-juror, William Law, emphatically says: “The Christian that
+rejects the necessity of immediate divine inspiration, pleads the whole
+cause of infidelity; he has nothing to prove the goodness of his own
+Christianity, but that which equally proves to the Deist the goodness of
+his infidelity.”<a name="FNanchor_139-1_100" id="FNanchor_139-1_100" href="#Footnote_139-1_100" class="fnanchor">139-1</a> That by prayer the path of duty will be made
+clear, is a universal doctrine.</p>
+
+<p>The extent to which the gift of inspiration is supposed to be granted is
+largely a matter of church government. Where authority prevails, it is
+apt to be confined to those in power. Where religion is regarded as
+chiefly subjective and individual, it is conceded that any pious votary
+may become the receptacle of such special light.</p>
+
+<p>Experience, however, has too often shown that inspiration teaches such
+contradictory doctrines that they are incompatible with any standard.
+The indefinite splitting of Protestant sects has convinced all clear
+thinkers that the claim of the early Confessions to a divinely given<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[140]</a></span>
+power of distinguishing the true from the false has been a mistaken
+supposition. As a proof to an unbeliever, such a gift could avail
+nothing; and as evidence to one’s own mind, it can only be accepted by
+those who deliberately shut their eyes to the innumerable contradictions
+it offers.<a name="FNanchor_140-1_101" id="FNanchor_140-1_101" href="#Footnote_140-1_101" class="fnanchor">140-1</a></p>
+
+<p>While, therefore, in this, if anywhere, we perceive the only at once fit
+and definite answer to prayer, and find that this is acknowledged by all
+faiths, from the savage to the Christian, it would seem that this answer
+is a fallacious and futile one. The teachings of inspiration are
+infinitely discrepant and contradictory, and often plainly world-wide
+from the truth they pretend to embody. The case seems hopeless; yet, as
+religion of any kind without prayer is empty, there has been a proper
+unwillingness to adopt the conclusion just stated.</p>
+
+<p>The distinction has been made that “the inspiration of the Christian is
+altogether <i>subjective</i>, and directed to the moral improvement of the
+individual,”<a name="FNanchor_140-2_102" id="FNanchor_140-2_102" href="#Footnote_140-2_102" class="fnanchor">140-2</a> not to facts of history or questions of science,
+even exegetic science. The term <i>illumination</i> has been preferred for
+it, and while it is still defined as “a spiritual intelligence which
+brings truth within the range of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[141]</a></span> mental apprehension by a kind of
+intuition,”<a name="FNanchor_141-1_103" id="FNanchor_141-1_103" href="#Footnote_141-1_103" class="fnanchor">141-1</a> this truth has reference only to immediate matters of
+individual faith and practice. The Roman church allows more latitude
+than this, as it sanctions revelations concerning events, but not
+concerning doctrines.<a name="FNanchor_141-2_104" id="FNanchor_141-2_104" href="#Footnote_141-2_104" class="fnanchor">141-2</a></p>
+
+<p>Looked at narrowly, the advantage which inspiration has been to
+religions has not so much depended on what it taught, as on its strength
+as a psychological motive power. As a general mental phenomenon it does
+not so much concern knowledge as belief; its province is to teach faith
+rather than facts. No conviction can equal that which arises from an
+assertion of God directly to ourselves. The force of the argument lies
+not in the question whether he did address us, but whether we believe he
+did. As a stimulus to action, prayer thus rises to a prime power.</p>
+
+<p>Belief is considered by Professor Bain and his school to be the ultimate
+postulate, the final ground of intellection. It is of the utmost
+importance, however,&mdash;and this Professor Bain fails to do&mdash;to
+distinguish between two kinds of belief. There are men who believe and
+others who disbelieve the Koran or the Bible; I can<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[142]</a></span> accept or reject
+the historical existence of King Arthur or Napoleon; but, if I
+understand them, I cannot disbelieve the demonstrations of Euclid, nor
+the relations of subject and object, nor the formal laws of thought. No
+sane man, acquainted with the properties of numbers, can believe that
+twice three are ten, or that a thing can be thought as other than
+itself. These truths that “we cannot help believing,” I have defined in
+the first chapter as absolute truths. They do not come to us through
+testimony and induction, but through a process variously called
+“immediate perception,” “apprehension,” or “intuition,” a process long
+known but never satisfactorily explained.</p>
+
+<p>All such truths are analytic, that is, they are true, not merely for a
+given time or place, but at all times and places conceivable, or, time
+and space out of the question, they still remain formally true. Of
+course, therefore, they cannot refer to historic occurrences nor
+phenomena. The modern position, that truth lies in facts, must be
+forsaken, and with the ancients, we must place it in ideas.</p>
+
+<p>If we define inspiration as that condition of mind which is in the
+highest degree sensitive to the presence of such truth, we have of it
+the only worthy idea which it is possible to frame. The object of
+scientific investigation is to reach a truth which can neither be denied
+nor doubt<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[143]</a></span>ed. If religion is willing to content itself with any lower
+form of truth, it cannot support its claims to respect, let alone
+reverence.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said that the subjects with which the religious sentiment
+concerns itself are not such as are capable of this absolute expression.
+This is, however, disclaimed by all great reformers, and by none more
+emphatically than by him who said: “Heaven and earth shall pass away,
+but my statements (<span class="greek" title="logoi">λογοι</span>) shall not pass away.” There is clear reference
+here to absolute truths. If what we know of God, duty and life, is not
+capable of expression except in historic narrative and synthetic terms,
+the sooner we drop their consideration the better. That form sufficed
+for a time, but can no longer, when a higher is generally known. As the
+mathematical surpasses the historic truth, so the former is in turn
+transcended by the purely logical, and in this, if anywhere, religion
+must rest its claims for recognition. Here is the arena of the theology
+of the future, not in the decrees of councils, nor in the records of
+past time.</p>
+
+<p>Inspiration, in its religious sense, we may, therefore, define to be
+that condition of mind in which the truths relating to deity and duty
+become in whole or in part the subjects of immediate perception.</p>
+
+<p>That such a condition is possible will be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[144]</a></span> granted. Every reformer who
+has made a permanent betterment in the religion of his time has
+possessed it in some degree. He who first conceived the Kosmos under
+logical unity as an orderly whole, had it in singular power; so too had
+he who looking into the mind became aware of its purposive laws which
+are the everlasting warrants of duty. Some nations have possessed it in
+remarkable fulness, none more so than the descendants of Abraham, from
+himself, who left his kindred and his father’s house at the word of God,
+through many eminent seers down to Spinoza, who likewise forsook his
+tribe to obey the inspirations vouchsafed him; surpassing them all,
+Jesus of Nazareth, to whose mind, as he waxed in wisdom, the truth
+unfolded itself in such surpassing clearness that neither his immediate
+disciples nor any generations since have fathomed all the significance
+of his words.</p>
+
+<p>Such minds do not need development and organic transmission of thought
+to enrich their stores. We may suppose the organization of their brains
+to be so perfect that their functions are always accordant with true
+reasoning, so self-prompting, that a hint of the problem is all they ask
+to arrive at its demonstration. Blaise Pascal, when a boy of twelve,
+whose education had been carefully restrained, once asked his father
+what is geometry. The latter replied that it is a method devised to draw
+figures correctly, but forbade<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[145]</a></span> any further inquiry about it. On this
+hint Pascal, by himself, unassisted, without so much as knowing the name
+of a line or circle, reached in a few weeks to the demonstration of the
+thirty-second problem of the first book of Euclid! Is it not possible
+for a mind equally productive of religious truth to surpass with no less
+ease its age on such subjects?</p>
+
+<p>As what Newton so well called “patient thought,” constant application,
+prolonged attention, is the means on which even great minds must rely in
+order to reach the sempiternal verities of science, so earnest continued
+prayer is that which all teachers prescribe as the only avenue to
+inspiration in its religious sense. While this may be conceded,
+collaterals of the prayer have too often been made to appear trivial and
+ridiculous.</p>
+
+<p>In the pursuit of inspiration the methods observed present an
+interesting similarity. The votary who aspires to a communion with the
+god, shuts himself out from the distraction of social intercourse and
+the disturbing allurements of the senses. In the solitude of the forest
+or the cell, with complete bodily inaction, he gives himself to fasting
+and devotion, to a concentration of all his mind on the one object of
+his wish, the expected revelation. Waking and sleeping he banishes all
+other topics of thought, perhaps by an incessant repetition of a
+formula, until at last<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[146]</a></span> the moment comes, as it surely will come in some
+access of hallucination, furor or ecstasy, the unfailing accompaniments
+of excessive mental strain, when the mist seems to roll away from the
+mortal vision, the inimical powers which darkened the mind are baffled,
+and the word of the Creator makes itself articulate to the creature.</p>
+
+<p>Take any connected account of the revelation of the divine will, and
+this history is substantially the same. It differs but little whether
+told of Buddha Sakyamuni, the royal seer of Kapilavastu, or by Catherine
+Wabose, the Chipeway squaw,<a name="FNanchor_146-1_105" id="FNanchor_146-1_105" href="#Footnote_146-1_105" class="fnanchor">146-1</a> concerning the <i>Revelations</i> of St.
+Gertrude of Nivelles or of Saint Brigida, or in the homely language of
+the cobbler George Fox.</p>
+
+<p>For six years did Sakyamuni wander in the forest, practising the
+mortifications of the flesh and combatting the temptations of the
+<a name="corr8" id="corr8"></a><ins class="correction" title="devil, before">devil,before</ins> the final night when, after overcoming the crowning
+enticements of beauty, power and wealth, at a certain moment he became
+the “awakened,” and knew himself in all his previous births, and with
+that knowledge soared above the “divine illusion” of existence. In the
+cave of Hari, Mohammed fasted and prayed until “the night of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[147]</a></span> the divine
+decisions;” then he saw the angel Gabriel approach and inspire him:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“A revelation was revealed to him:<br />
+One terrible in power taught it him,<br />
+Endowed with wisdom. With firm step stood he,<br />
+There, where the horizon is highest,<br />
+Then came he near and nearer,<br />
+A matter of two bowshots or closer,<br />
+And he revealed to his servant a revelation;<br />
+He has falsified not what he saw.”<a name="FNanchor_147-1_106" id="FNanchor_147-1_106" href="#Footnote_147-1_106" class="fnanchor">147-1</a></p>
+
+<p>With not dissimilar preparation did George Fox seek the “openings” which
+revealed to him the hollowness of the Christianity of his day, in
+contrast to the truth he found. In his <i>Journal</i> he records that for
+months he “fasted much, walked around in solitary places, and sate in
+hollow trees and lonesome places, and frequently in the night walked
+mournfully about.” When the word of truth came to him it was of a
+sudden, “through the immediate opening of the invisible spirit.” Then a
+new life commenced for him: “Now was I come up in Spirit through the
+flaming sword into the Paradise of God. All things were new: all the
+creation gave another smell unto me than before.” The healing virtues of
+all herbs were straightway made known to him, and the needful truths
+about the kingdom of God.<a name="FNanchor_147-2_107" id="FNanchor_147-2_107" href="#Footnote_147-2_107" class="fnanchor">147-2</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[148]</a></span>These are portraitures of the condition of <i>entheasm</i>. Its lineaments
+are the same, find it where we may.</p>
+
+<p>How is this similarity to be explained? Is it that this alleged
+inspiration is always but the dream of a half-crazed brain? The deep and
+real truths it has now and then revealed, the noble results it has
+occasionally achieved, do not allow this view. A more worthy explanation
+is at hand.</p>
+
+<p>These preliminaries of inspiration are in fact but a parody, sometimes a
+caricature, of the most intense intellectual action as shown in the
+efforts of creative thought. The physiological characteristics of such
+mental episodes indicate a lowering of the animal life, the respiration
+is faint and slow, the pulse loses in force and frequency, the nerves of
+special sense are almost inhibited, the eye is fixed and records no
+impression, the ear registers no sound, necessary motions are performed
+unconsciously, the condition approaches that of trance. There is also an
+alarming similarity at times between the action of genius and of
+madness, as is well known to alienists.</p>
+
+<p>When the creative thought appears, it does so suddenly; it breaks upon
+the mind when partly engaged with something else as an instantaneous
+flash, apparently out of connection with previous efforts. This is the
+history of all great discoveries, and it has been abundantly illustrated
+from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[149]</a></span> the lives of inventors, artists, poets and mathematicians. The
+links of such a mental procedure we do not know. “The product of
+inspiration, genius, is incomprehensible to itself. Its activity
+proceeds on no beaten track, and we seek in vain to trace its footsteps.
+There is no warrant for the value of its efforts. This it can alone
+secure through voluntary submission to law. All its powers are centred
+in the energy of production, and none is left for idle watching of the
+process.”<a name="FNanchor_149-1_108" id="FNanchor_149-1_108" href="#Footnote_149-1_108" class="fnanchor">149-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The prevalent theory of the day is that this mental action is one
+essentially hidden from the mind itself. The name “unconscious
+cerebration” has been proposed for it by Dr. Carpenter, and he has amply
+and ably illustrated its peculiarities. But his theory has encountered
+just criticism, and I am persuaded does not meet the requirements of the
+case. Whether at such moments the mind actually receives some impulse
+from without, as is the religious theory, or, as science more willingly
+teaches, certain associations are more easily achieved when the mind is
+partially engaged with other trains of ideas, we cannot be sure. We can
+only say of it, in the words of Dr. Henry Maudsley, the result “is truly
+an inspiration, coming we know not whence.” Whatever it is, we recognize
+in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[150]</a></span> it the original of that of which religious hallucination is the
+counterfeit presentment. So similar are the processes that their
+liability to be confounded has been expressly guarded against.<a name="FNanchor_150-1_109" id="FNanchor_150-1_109" href="#Footnote_150-1_109" class="fnanchor">150-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The prevalence of such caricatures does not prove the absence of the
+sterling article. They rather show that the mind is conscious of the
+possibility of reaching a frame or mood in which it perceives what it
+seeks, immediately and correctly. Buddhism distinctly asserts this to be
+the condition of “the stage of intuitive insight;” and Protestant
+Christianity commenced with the same opinion. Every prayer for guidance
+in the path of duty assumes it. The error is in applying such a method
+where it is incompatible, to facts of history and the phenomena of
+physical force. Confined to the realm of ideas, to which alone the norm
+of the true and untrue is applicable, there is no valid evidence
+against, and many theoretical reasons for, respecting prayer as a fit
+psychological preparation for those obscure and unconscious processes,
+through which the mind accomplishes its best work.</p>
+
+<p>The intellect, exalted by dwelling upon the sublimest subjects of
+thought, warmed into<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[151]</a></span> highest activity by the flames of devotion,
+spurning as sterile and vain the offers of time and the enticements of
+sense, may certainly be then in the mood fittest to achieve its greatest
+victories. But no narrowed heaven must cloud it, no man-made god
+obstruct its gaze. Free from superstition and prejudice, it must be
+ready to follow wherever the voice of reason shall lead it. All inspired
+men have commenced by freeing themselves from inherited forms of Belief
+in order that with undiverted attention they might listen to the
+promptings of the divinity within their souls. One of the greatest of
+them and one the most free from the charge of prejudice, has said that
+to this end prayer is the means.<a name="FNanchor_151-1_110" id="FNanchor_151-1_110" href="#Footnote_151-1_110" class="fnanchor">151-1</a></p>
+
+<p>He who believes that the ultimate truth is commensurate with reason,
+finds no stumbling-block in the doctrine that there may be laws through
+whose action inspiration is the enlightenment of mind as it exists in
+man, by mind as it underlies the motions which make up matter. The truth
+thus reached is not the formulæ of the Calculus, nor the verbiage of the
+Dialectic, still less the events of history, but that which gives what
+validity they have to all of these, and moreover imparts to the will and
+the conscience their power to govern conduct.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_119-1_82" id="Footnote_119-1_82" href="#FNanchor_119-1_82">119-1</a> The “silent worship” of the Quakers is defended by the
+writers of that sect, on the ground that prayer is “often very
+imperfectly performed and sometimes materially interrupted by the use of
+words.” Joseph John Gurney, <i>The Distinguishing Views and Practice of
+the Society of Friends</i>, p. 300. (London, 1834.)</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_119-2_83" id="Footnote_119-2_83" href="#FNanchor_119-2_83">119-2</a> Creuzer, <i>Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Völker</i>,
+Bd. I., s. 162.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_119-3_84" id="Footnote_119-3_84" href="#FNanchor_119-3_84">119-3</a> The learned Bishop Butler, author of the <i>Analogy of
+Religion</i>, justly gives prominence to “our expectation of future
+benefits,” as a reason for gratitude to God. <i>Sermons</i>, p. 155. (London,
+1841.)</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_122-1_85" id="Footnote_122-1_85" href="#FNanchor_122-1_85">122-1</a> The expressions of Confucius’ religious views may be
+found in <i>The Doctrine of the Mean</i>, chaps. xiii., xvi., the <i>Analects</i>,
+i., 99, 100, vii., and in a few other passages of the canonical books.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_126-1_86" id="Footnote_126-1_86" href="#FNanchor_126-1_86">126-1</a> <i>An Inquiry into the Theory of Practice</i>, p. 330.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_127-1_87" id="Footnote_127-1_87" href="#FNanchor_127-1_87">127-1</a> <i>Symbolik und Mythologie der Alten Völker.</i> Bd. I., ss.
+165, sqq. One of the most favorable examples (not mentioned by Creuzer)
+is the formula with which Apollonius of Tyana closed every prayer and
+gave as the summary of all: “Give me, ye Gods, what I deserve”&mdash;<span class="greek" title="Doiête moi ta opheilomena">Δοιητε
+μοι τα οφειλομενα</span>. The Christian’s comment on this would be in the words
+of Hamlet’s reply to Polonius: “God’s bodkin, man! use every man after
+his desert and who should ’scape whipping?”</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_128-1_88" id="Footnote_128-1_88" href="#FNanchor_128-1_88">128-1</a> Aurelii Augustini, <i>De Dono Perseverantiæ</i>, cap. xx.
+Comte remarks “Depuis St. Augustin toutes les âmes pures ont de plus en
+plus senti, à travers l’égoisme Chrétien, que prier peut n’être pas
+demander.” <i>Système de Politique Positive</i>, I., p. 260. Popular
+Protestantism has retrograded in this respect.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_129-1_89" id="Footnote_129-1_89" href="#FNanchor_129-1_89">129-1</a> Plath, <i>Die Religion und Cultus der alten Chineser</i>, s.
+836. This author observes that the Chinese prayers are confined to
+temporal benefits only, and are all either prayers of petition or
+gratitude. Prayers of contrition are unknown.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_130-1_90" id="Footnote_130-1_90" href="#FNanchor_130-1_90">130-1</a> Numerous examples can be found in medical text books,
+for instance in Dr. Tuke’s, <i>The Influence of the Mind on the Body</i>.
+London, 1873.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_131-1_91" id="Footnote_131-1_91" href="#FNanchor_131-1_91">131-1</a> The commission appointed by the Royal Academy of
+Medicine of Belgium on Louise Lateau reported in March, 1875, and most
+of the medical periodicals of that year contain abstracts of its paper.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_131-2_92" id="Footnote_131-2_92" href="#FNanchor_131-2_92">131-2</a> They may be found in the life of Pascal, written by his
+sister, and in many other works of the time.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_131-3_93" id="Footnote_131-3_93" href="#FNanchor_131-3_93">131-3</a> It is worthy of note, as an exponent of the condition
+of religious thought in 1875, that in May of that year the Governor of
+the State of Missouri appointed by official proclamation a day of prayer
+to check the advance of the grasshoppers. He should also have requested
+the clergy to pronounce the ban of the Church against them, as the
+Bishop of Rheims did in the ninth century.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_132-1_94" id="Footnote_132-1_94" href="#FNanchor_132-1_94">132-1</a> Tyndall, <i>On Prayer and Natural Law</i>, 1872.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_134-1_95" id="Footnote_134-1_95" href="#FNanchor_134-1_95">134-1</a> S. M. Hodgson, <i>An Inquiry into the Theory of
+Practice</i>, pp. 329, 330.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_135-1_96" id="Footnote_135-1_96" href="#FNanchor_135-1_96">135-1</a> The Rev. Dr. Thomas K. Conrad, <i>Thoughts on Prayer</i>, p.
+54: New York, 1875.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_135-2_97" id="Footnote_135-2_97" href="#FNanchor_135-2_97">135-2</a> I. John, v. 15. “There are millions of prayers,” says
+Richard Baxter, “that will all be found answered at death and judgment,
+which we know not to be answered any way but by believing it.” <i>A
+Christian Directory</i>, Part II. chap. xxiii.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_137-1_98" id="Footnote_137-1_98" href="#FNanchor_137-1_98">137-1</a> “So wie das Gebet ein Hauptwurzel alter Lehre war, so
+war das Deuten und Offenbaren ihre ursprüngliche Form.” Creuzer,
+<i>Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Völker</i>, Bd. I., s. 10. It were more
+accurate to say that divination is the answer to, rather than a form of
+prayer.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_138-1_99" id="Footnote_138-1_99" href="#FNanchor_138-1_99">138-1</a> Joseph John Gurney, <i>The Distinguishing Views and
+Practices of the Society of Friends</i>, pp. 58, 59, 76, 78. An easy
+consequence of this view was to place the decrees of the internal
+monitor above the written word. This was advocated mainly by Elias
+Hicks, who expressed his doctrine in the words: “As no spring can rise
+higher than its fountain, so likewise the Scriptures can only direct to
+the fountain whence they originated&mdash;the Spirit of Truth.” <i>Letters of
+Elias Hicks</i>, p. 228 (Phila., 1861).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_139-1_100" id="Footnote_139-1_100" href="#FNanchor_139-1_100">139-1</a> <i>Address to the Clergy</i>, p. 67.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_140-1_101" id="Footnote_140-1_101" href="#FNanchor_140-1_101">140-1</a> See an intelligent note on this subject in the Rev. Wm.
+Lee’s work, entitled <i>The Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures</i>, pp. 44,
+47 (London and New York, 1857).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_140-2_102" id="Footnote_140-2_102" href="#FNanchor_140-2_102">140-2</a> Rev. William Lee, <i>u. s.</i>, p. 243.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_141-1_103" id="Footnote_141-1_103" href="#FNanchor_141-1_103">141-1</a> Blunt, <i>Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical
+Theology</i>, s. v.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_141-2_104" id="Footnote_141-2_104" href="#FNanchor_141-2_104">141-2</a> There is a carefully written essay on the views of the
+Romish Church on this subject, preceding <i>The Revelations of Saint
+Brigida</i> (N. Y. 1875).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_146-1_105" id="Footnote_146-1_105" href="#FNanchor_146-1_105">146-1</a> Chusco or Catherine Wabose, “the prophetess of
+Chegoimegon,” has left a full and psychologically most valuable account
+of her inspiration. It is published in Schoolcraft’s <i>History and
+Statistics of the Indian Tribes</i>, Vol. I., p. 390, sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_147-1_106" id="Footnote_147-1_106" href="#FNanchor_147-1_106">147-1</a> <i>The Koran</i>, Sura liii. This is in date one of the
+earliest suras.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_147-2_107" id="Footnote_147-2_107" href="#FNanchor_147-2_107">147-2</a> <i>The Journal of George Fox</i>, pp. 59, 67, 69.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_149-1_108" id="Footnote_149-1_108" href="#FNanchor_149-1_108">149-1</a> Wilhelm von Humboldt, <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>, Bd. iv., s.
+278.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_150-1_109" id="Footnote_150-1_109" href="#FNanchor_150-1_109">150-1</a> In his treatise <i>De Veritate</i>, itself the subject, as
+its author thought, of a special revelation, Lord Herbert of Cherbury,
+gives as one of the earmarks of a real revelation: “ut afflatum Divini
+numinis sentias, ita enim internæ Facultatum circa veritatem operationes
+a revelationibus externis distinguuntur.” p. 226.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_151-1_110" id="Footnote_151-1_110" href="#FNanchor_151-1_110">151-1</a> Spinoza, <i>Espistolæ et Responsionnes</i>, Ep. xxxiv.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[152]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[153]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapdivider"><a name="THE_MYTH_AND_THE_MYTHICAL_CYCLES" id="THE_MYTH_AND_THE_MYTHICAL_CYCLES"></a>THE MYTH AND THE MYTHICAL CYCLES.</h2>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[154]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="chapterhead">SUMMARY.</h3>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Myths are inspirations concerning the Unknown. Science treats them
+as apperceptions of the relations of man and nature. Moments of
+their growth, as treated by mythological science. Their similar
+forms, explained variously, the topic of the philosophy of
+mythology. The ante-mythical period. Myths have centred chiefly
+around three subjects, each giving rise to a Mythical Cycle.</p>
+
+<p>I. The Epochs of Nature.</p>
+
+<p>The idea of Time led to the myth of a creation. This starting the
+question, What was going on before creation? recourse was had to
+the myth of recurrent epochs. The last epoch gave origin to the
+Flood Myths; the coming one to that of the Day of Judgment.</p>
+
+<p>II. The Paradise lost and to be re-gained.</p>
+
+<p>To man, the past and the future are ever better than the present.
+He imagines a Golden Age in the past and believes it will return.
+The material Paradise he dreams of in his ruder conditions, becomes
+a spiritual one with intellectual advancement. The basis of this
+belief.</p>
+
+<p>III. The Hierarchy of the Gods.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest hierarchy is a dual classification of the gods into
+those who help and those who hinder the fruition of desire. Light
+and darkness typify the contrast. Divinity thus conceived under
+numerical separateness. Monotheisms do not escape this. The triune
+nature of single gods. The truly religious and only philosophic
+notion of divinity is under logical, not mathematical unity. This
+discards mythical conceptions.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[155]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="chaptitle">THE MYTH AND THE MYTHICAL CYCLES.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Returning</span> again to the definition of the elemental religious
+sentiment&mdash;“a Wish whose fruition depends upon unknown power”&mdash;it
+enables us to class all those notions, opinions and narratives, which
+constitute mythologies, creeds and dogmas, as theories respecting the
+nature and action of the unknown power. Of course they are not
+recognized as theories. They arise unconsciously or are received by
+tradition, oral or written, and always come with the stamp of divinity
+through inspiration and revelation. None but a god can tell the secrets
+of the gods.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore they are the most sacred of all things, and they partake of
+the holiness and immutability which belong to the unknown power itself.
+To misplace a vowel point in copying the sacred books was esteemed a sin
+by the Rabbis, and a pious Mussulman will not employ the same pen to
+copy a verse of the Koran and an ordinary letter. There are many
+Christians who suppose the saying: “Heaven and earth shall pass<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[156]</a></span> away,
+but My Words shall not pass away,” has reference to the words of the Old
+and New Testament. “What shall remain to us,” asked Ananda, the disciple
+of Buddha, “when thou shalt have gone hence into Nirvana?” “My Word
+(<i>dharma</i>),” replied the Master. Names thus came to be as holy as the
+objects to which they referred. So sacred was that of Jehovah to the
+Israelites that its original sound was finally lost. Such views are
+consistent enough to the Buddhist, who, assuming all existence to be but
+imaginary, justly infers that the name is full as much as the object.</p>
+
+<p>The science of mythology has made long strides in the last half century.
+It has left far behind it the old euphemeristic view that the myth is a
+distorted historical tradition, as well as the theories not long since
+in vogue, that it was a system of natural philosophy, a device of shrewd
+rulers, or as Bacon thought, a series of “instructive fables.” The
+primitive form of the myth is now recognized to be made up from the
+notions which man gains of the manifestations of force in external
+nature, in their supposed relations to himself. In technical language it
+may be defined as <i>the apperception of man and nature under synthetic
+conceptions</i>.<a name="FNanchor_156-1_111" id="FNanchor_156-1_111" href="#Footnote_156-1_111" class="fnanchor">156-1</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[157]</a></span>This primitive form undergoes numerous changes, to trace and illustrate
+which, has been the special task assumed by the many recent writers on
+mythology. In some instances these changes are owing to the blending of
+the myth with traditions of facts, forming a quasi-historical narrative,
+the <i>saga;</i> in others, elaborated by a poetic fancy and enriched by the
+imagination, it becomes a fairy tale, the <i>märchen</i>. Again, the myth
+being a product of creative thought, existing in words only, as language
+changes, it alters through forgetfulness of the earlier meanings of
+words, through similarities in sounds deceiving the ear, or through a
+confusion of the literal with the metaphorical signification of the same
+word. The character of languages also favors or retards such changes,
+pliable and easily modified ones, such as those of the American Indians,
+and in a less degree those of the Aryan nations, favoring a developed
+mythology, while rigid and monosyllabic ones, as the Chinese and Semitic
+types, offer fewer facilities to such variations. Furthermore, tribal or
+national history, the peculiar dif<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[158]</a></span>ficulties which retard the growth of
+a community, and the geographical and climatic character of its
+surroundings, give prominence to certain features in its mythology, and
+to the absence of others. Myths originally diverse are blended, either
+unconsciously, as that of the Roman Saturn with the Greek Cronus; or
+consciously, as when the medieval missionaries transferred the deeds of
+the German gods to Christian saints. Lastly, the prevailing temperament
+of a nation, its psychology, gives a strong color to its mythical
+conceptions, and imprints upon them the national peculiarities.</p>
+
+<p>The judicious student of mythology must carefully weigh all these
+formative agents, and assign each its value. They are all present in
+every mythology, but in varying force. His object is accomplished when
+he can point out the causal relation between the various features of a
+myth and these governing agencies.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the science of mythology. The philosophy of mythology undertakes
+to set forth the unities of form which exist in various myths, and
+putting aside whatever of this uniformity is explainable historically,
+proposes to illustrate from what remains the intellectual need myths
+were unconsciously framed to gratify, to measure their success in this
+attempt, and if they have not been wholly successful, to point out why
+and in what respect they have failed. In a study<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[159]</a></span> preliminary to the
+present one, I have attempted to apply the rules of mythological science
+to the limited area of the native American race; in the present chapter
+I shall deal mainly with the philosophy of mythology.</p>
+
+<p>The objection may be urged at starting that there is no such unity of
+form in myths as the philosophy of mythology assumes; that if it
+appears, it is always explainable historically.</p>
+
+<p>A little investigation sets this objection aside. Certain features must
+be common to all myths. A divinity must appear in them and his doings
+with men must be recorded. A reasonable being can hardly think at all
+without asking himself, “Whence come I, my fellows, and these things
+which I see? And what will become of us all?” So some myth is sure to be
+created at an early stage of thought which the parent can tell the
+child, the wise man his disciple, containing responses to such
+questions.</p>
+
+<p>But this reasoning from probability is needless, for the similarity of
+mythical tales in very distant nations, where no hypothesis of ancient
+intercourse is justified, is one of the best ascertained and most
+striking discoveries of modern mythological investigation.<a name="FNanchor_159-1_112" id="FNanchor_159-1_112" href="#Footnote_159-1_112" class="fnanchor">159-1</a> The
+general char<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[160]</a></span>acter of “solar myths” is familiar to most readers, and the
+persistency with which they have been applied to the explanation of
+generally received historical facts, as well as to the familiar fairy
+tales of childhood, has been pushed so far as to become the subject of
+satire and caricature. The myths of the Dawn have been so frequently
+brought to public notice in the popular writings of Professor Max
+Müller, that their general distribution may be taken as well known. The
+same may be said of the storm myths. Wilhelm von Humboldt, who thought
+deeply on the religious nature of man, said early in this century:
+“Wholly similar myths can very readily arise in different localities,
+each independent of the others.”<a name="FNanchor_160-1_113" id="FNanchor_160-1_113" href="#Footnote_160-1_113" class="fnanchor">160-1</a></p>
+
+<p>This similarity is in a measure owing to the similar impressions which
+the same phenomenon, the sunrise or the thunder-storm for instance,
+makes on the mind&mdash;and to this extent the science of mythology is
+adequate to its explanation. But that it falls short is so generally
+acknowledged, that various other explanations have been offered.</p>
+
+<p>These may be classed as the skeptical explanation, which claims that the
+likeness of the myths is vastly exaggerated and much more the work of
+the scholar at his desk than of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[161]</a></span> honest worshipper; the historical
+explanation, which suggests unrecorded proselytisms, forgotten
+communications and the possible original unity of widely separated
+nations; the theological explanations, often discrepant, one suggesting
+caricatures of the sacred narrative inspired by the Devil, another
+reminiscences of a primeval inspiration, and a third the unconscious
+testimony of heathendom to orthodoxy;<a name="FNanchor_161-1_114" id="FNanchor_161-1_114" href="#Footnote_161-1_114" class="fnanchor">161-1</a> and lastly the metaphysical
+explanation, which seems at present to be the fashionable one, expressed
+nearly alike by Steinthal and Max Müller, which cuts the knot by
+crediting man with “an innate consciousness of the Absolute,” or as
+Renan puts it, “a profound instinct of deity.”</p>
+
+<p>The philosophy of mythology, differing from all these, finding beyond
+question similarities which history cannot unriddle, interprets them by
+no incomprehensible assumption, but by the identity of the laws of
+thought acting on similar impressions under the guidance of known
+categories of thought. Nor does it stop here, but proceeds to appraise
+these results by the general scheme of truth and error. It asks for
+what<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[162]</a></span> psychological purpose man has so universally imagined for himself
+gods&mdash;pure creations of his fancy;&mdash;whether that purpose can now or will
+ultimately be better attained by an exercise of his intellect more in
+accordance with the laws of right reasoning; and thus seeking to define
+the genuine food of the religious desire, estimates the quality and
+value of each mythological system by the nearness of its approach to
+this standard.</p>
+
+<p>The philosophy of mythology, starting with the wish or prayer as the
+unit of religious thought, regards all myths as theories about the
+unknown power which is supposed to grant or withhold the accomplishment
+of the wish. These theories are all based upon the postulate of the
+religious sentiment, that there is order in things; but they differ from
+scientific theories in recognizing volition as an efficient cause of
+order.</p>
+
+<p>The very earliest efforts at religious thought do not rise to the
+formation of myths, that is, connected narratives about supernatural
+beings. All unknown power is embraced under a word which does not convey
+the notion of personality; single exhibitions of power which threaten
+man’s life are supposed to be the doings of an unseen person, often of a
+deceased man, whose memory survives; but any general theory of a
+hierarchy, or of the world or man, is not yet visible. Even such
+immature notions are, however, so far as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[163]</a></span> they go, framed within the
+category of causality; only, the will of the god takes the place of all
+other force. This stage of religious thought has been called Animism, a
+name which does not express its peculiarity, which is, that all force is
+not only supposed to proceed from mind, but through what metaphysicians
+call “immanent volition,” that is, through will independent of relation.
+Mind as “emanant volition,” in unison with matter and law, the “seat of
+law,” to use an expression of Professor Boole’s, may prove the highest
+conception of force.</p>
+
+<p>As the slowly growing reason reached more general notions, the law which
+prescribes unity as a condition of thought led man early in his history
+to look upon nature as one, and to seek for some one law of its changes;
+the experience of social order impressed him with the belief that the
+unseen agencies around him also bore relations to each other, and
+acknowledged subjection to a leader; and the pangs of sickness, hunger
+and terror to which he was daily exposed, and more than all the “last
+and greatest of all terribles, death,” which he so often witnessed,
+turned his early meditations toward his own origin and destiny.</p>
+
+<p>Around these three subjects of thought his fancy busied itself, striving
+to fabricate some theory which would solve the enigmas which his reason
+everywhere met, some belief which would<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[164]</a></span> relieve him from the haunting
+horror of the unknown. Hence arose three great cycles of myths, which
+recur with strangely similar physiognomies in all continents and among
+all races. They are the myths of the Epochs of Nature, the Hierarchy of
+the Gods, and of the Paradise lost but to be regained. Wherever we turn,
+whether to the Assyrian tablets or to the verses of the Voluspa, to the
+crude fancies of the red man of the new world or the black man of the
+African plateau, to the sacred books of the modern Christian or of the
+ancient Brahman, we find these same questions occupying his mind, and in
+meaning and in form the same solutions proffered. Through what
+intellectual operations he reached these solutions, and their validity,
+as tested by the known criteria of truth, it is the province of the
+philosophy of mythology to determine.</p>
+
+<p>Let us study the psychological growth of the myth of the Epochs of
+Nature. This tells of the World, its beginning, its convulsions and its
+ending, and thus embraces the three minor cycles of the cosmogonical,
+the cataclysmal and the eschatological myths.</p>
+
+<p>Nature is known to man only as <i>force</i>, which manifests itself in
+<i>change</i>. He is so constituted that “the idea of an event, a change,
+without the idea of a cause, is impossible” to him. But in passing from
+the occurrence to its cause the idea of Time is unavoidable; it presents
+itself as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[165]</a></span> the one inevitable condition of change; itself unwearing, it
+wears out all else; it includes all existence, as the greater does the
+less; and as “causation is necessarily within existence,”<a name="FNanchor_165-1_115" id="FNanchor_165-1_115" href="#Footnote_165-1_115" class="fnanchor">165-1</a> time is
+beyond existence and includes the nonexistent as well. Whatever it
+creates, it also destroys; and as even the gods are but existences, it
+will swallow them. It renders vain all pleasures, and carries the balm
+of a certain oblivion for all woes.</p>
+
+<p>This oppressive sense of time, regarded not in its real meaning as one
+of the conditions of perception, but as an active force destroying
+thought as well as motion, recurs continually in mythology. To the
+Greek, indefinite time as Cronos, was the oldest of the gods, begetting
+numberless children, but with unnatural act consuming them again; while
+definite time, as the Horæ, were the blithe goddesses of the order in
+nature and the recurrent seasons. Osiris, supreme god of the Egyptians,
+was born of a yet older god, Sev, Time. Adonis and Aeon acknowledge the
+same parentage.<a name="FNanchor_165-2_116" id="FNanchor_165-2_116" href="#Footnote_165-2_116" class="fnanchor">165-2</a> The ancient Arab spoke of time (<i>dahr</i>, <i>zaman</i>)
+as the final, defining principle; as uniting and separating all things;
+and as swallowing one thing after another as the camel drains the water
+from a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[166]</a></span> trough.<a name="FNanchor_166-1_117" id="FNanchor_166-1_117" href="#Footnote_166-1_117" class="fnanchor">166-1</a> In the Koran it is written: “Time alone destroys
+us.” Here and there, through the sacred songs of the Parsees, composed
+long before Aristotle wrote, beyond all the dust and noise of the
+everlasting conflict of good and evil, of Ahura Mazda and Anya-Mainyus,
+there are glimpses of a deeper power, Zeruana Akerana, Eternal Duration,
+unmoved by act or thought, in the face of which these bitter opponents
+are seen to be children, brethren, “twin sons of Time.”<a name="FNanchor_166-2_118" id="FNanchor_166-2_118" href="#Footnote_166-2_118" class="fnanchor">166-2</a> The
+Alexandrian Gnostics, in their explanations of Christian dogmas,
+identify Aeon, infinite time, with God the Father, as the source and
+fount of existence; not merely as a predicate of the highest, but the
+Highest himself.</p>
+
+<p>This heavy-weighing sense of the infinity of duration, and the urgency
+of escaping from the weariness of thinking it, led to the construction
+of the myth of the Creation. Man devised it so that he might be able to
+say, “in the beginning.” But a new difficulty met him at the
+threshold&mdash;as change must be in existence, “we cannot think of a change
+from non-existence to existence.” His only refuge was to select some
+apparently primordial, simple, homogeneous substance from which, by the
+exertion of volition,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[167]</a></span> things came into being. The one which most
+naturally suggested itself was <i>water</i>.<a name="FNanchor_167-1_119" id="FNanchor_167-1_119" href="#Footnote_167-1_119" class="fnanchor">167-1</a> This does in fact cover
+and hide the land, and the act of creation was often described as the
+emerging of the dry land from the water; it dissolves and wears away the
+hard rock; and, diminishing all things, itself neither diminishes nor
+increases. Therefore nearly all cosmogonical myths are but variations of
+that one familiar to us all: “And God said, Let the waters under the
+heaven be gathered together in one place, and let the dry land appear;
+and it was so.” The manifestation of the primordial energy was supposed
+to have been akin to that which is shown in organic reproduction. The
+myths of the primeval egg from which life proceeded, of the mighty bird
+typical of the Holy Spirit which “brooded” upon the waters, of Love
+developing the Kosmos from the Chaos, of the bull bringing the world
+from the waters, of Protogonus, the “egg-born,” the “multispermed,” and
+countless others, point to the application of one or the other, or of
+both these explanations.<a name="FNanchor_167-2_120" id="FNanchor_167-2_120" href="#Footnote_167-2_120" class="fnanchor">167-2</a></p>
+
+<p>In them the early thinkers found some rest:<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[168]</a></span> but not for long. The
+perplexity of the presence of this immediate order of things seemed
+solved; but another kept obtruding itself: what was going on before that
+“beginning?” Vain to stifle the inquiry by replying, “nothing.”<a name="FNanchor_168-1_121" id="FNanchor_168-1_121" href="#Footnote_168-1_121" class="fnanchor">168-1</a>
+For time, which knows no beginning, was there, still building, still
+destroying; nothing can be put to it, nor anything taken from it. What
+then is left but the conclusion of the Preacher: “That which hath been,
+is now; and that which is to be, hath already been?” Regarding time as a
+form of force, the only possible history of the material universe is
+that it is a series of destructions and restorations, force latent
+evolving into force active or energy, and this dissipated and absorbed
+again into latency.</p>
+
+<p>Expressed in myths, these destructions and restorations are the Epochs
+of Nature. They are an essential part of the religious traditions of the
+Brahmans, Persians, Parsees, Greeks, Egyptians, Jews, Mexicans, Mayas,
+and of all nations who have reached a certain stage of culture. The
+length of the intervening periods may widely differ. The kalpa or great
+year of the Brahmans is so long that were a cube of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[169]</a></span> granite a hundred
+yards each way brushed once in a century by a soft cloth, it would be
+quite worn to dust before the kalpa would close: or, as some Christians
+believe, there may be but six thousand years, six days of God in whose
+sight “a thousand years are as one day,” between the creation and the
+cremation of the world, from when it rose from the waters until it shall
+be consumed by the fire.</p>
+
+<p>There were also various views about the agents and the completeness of
+these periodical destructions. In the Norse mythology and in the
+doctrine of Buddhism, not one of the gods can survive the fire of the
+last day. Among the Greeks, great Jove alone will await the appearance
+of the virgin world after the icy winter and the fiery summer of the
+Great Year. The Brahmans hold that the higher classes of gods outlive
+the wreck of things which, at the close of the day of Brahm, involves
+all men and many divinities in elemental chaos; while elsewhere, in the
+later Puranas and in the myths of Mexico, Peru, and Assyria, one or a
+few of the race of man escape a deluge which is universal, and serve to
+people the new-made earth. This latter supposition, in its application
+to the last epoch of nature, is the origin of the myth of the Flood.</p>
+
+<p>In its general features and even in many details, the story of a vast
+overflow which drowned<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[170]</a></span> the world, and from which by the timely succor
+of divinity some man was preserved, and after the waters had subsided
+became the progenitor of the race, is exceedingly common among distant
+tribes, where it is impossible to explain it as a reminiscence of a
+historic occurrence, or by community of religious doctrine. In Judea
+Noah, in India Manu, in Chaldea Xisuthrus, in Assyria Oannes, in Aztlan
+Nata, in Algonkin tradition Messou, in Brazil Monan, etc., are all
+heroes of similar alleged occurrences. In all of them the story is but a
+modification of that of the creation in time from the primeval
+waters.<a name="FNanchor_170-1_122" id="FNanchor_170-1_122" href="#Footnote_170-1_122" class="fnanchor">170-1</a></p>
+
+<p>“As it was once, so it shall be again,” and as the present age of the
+world wears out, the myth<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[171]</a></span> teaches that things will once more fall back
+to universal chaos. “The expectation of the end of the world is a
+natural complement to the belief in its periodical destructions.” It is
+taught with distinctness by all religious systems, by the prophetess in
+the Voluspa, by the Hebrew seers,<a name="FNanchor_171-1_123" id="FNanchor_171-1_123" href="#Footnote_171-1_123" class="fnanchor">171-1</a> by the writer of the
+Apocalypse, by the Eastern sages, Persian and Indian, by the Roman
+Sibyl, and among the savage and semi-civilized races of the New World.</p>
+
+<p>Often that looked for destruction was associated with the divine plans
+for man. This was an addition to the simplicity of the original myth,
+but an easy and a popular one. The Indian of our prairies still looks
+forward to the time when the rivers shall rise, and submerging the land
+sweep from its surface the pale-faced intruders, and restore it to its
+original owners. Impatient under the ceaseless disappointments of life,
+and worn out with the pains which seem inseparable from this condition
+of things, the believer gives up his hopes for this world, and losing
+his faith in the final conquest of the good, thinks it only attainable
+by the total annihilation of the present conditions. He looks for it,
+therefore, in the next great age, in the new<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[172]</a></span> heaven and the new earth,
+when the spirit of evil shall be bound and shut up, and the chosen
+people possess the land, “and grow up as calves of the stall.”<a name="FNanchor_172-1_124" id="FNanchor_172-1_124" href="#Footnote_172-1_124" class="fnanchor">172-1</a></p>
+
+<p>This is to be inaugurated by the Day of Judgment, “the day of wrath, the
+dreadful day,” in which God is to come in his power and pronounce his
+final decrees on those who have neglected the observance due him. The
+myth, originally one relating to the procession of natural forces, thus
+assumed with the increasing depth of the religious sentiment more and
+more a moral and subjective coloring, until finally its old and simple
+form was altogether discarded, or treated as symbolic only.</p>
+
+<p>The myth of the Epochs of Nature was at first a theory to account for
+the existing order of nature. For a long time it satisfied the inquiring
+mind, if not with a solution at least with an answer to its queries.
+After geologic science had learned to decipher the facts of the world’s
+growth as written on the stones which orb it, the religious mind fondly
+identified the upheavals and cataclysms there recorded with those which
+its own fancy had long since fabricated. The stars and suns, which the
+old seer thought would fall from heaven in the day of wrath, were seen
+to be involved in motions far beyond the pale of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[173]</a></span> man’s welfare, and,
+therefore, the millennial change was confined to the limits of our
+planet. Losing more and more of its original form as an attempted
+explanation of natural phenomena, the myth now exists in civilized
+nations as an allegorical type of man’s own history and destiny, and
+thus is slowly merging into an episode of the second great cycle of the
+mythus, that of the Paradise lost and regained. It, too, finds its
+interpretation in psychology.</p>
+
+<p>Broadly surveying the life of man, philosophers have found in it much
+matter fit either for mockery or tears. We are born with a thirst for
+pleasure; we learn that pain alone is felt. We ask health; and having
+it, never notice it till it is gone. In the ardent pursuit of enjoyment,
+we waste our capacity of appreciation. Every sweet we gain is sauced
+with a bitter. Our eyes forever bent on the future, which can never be
+ours, we fritter away the present, which alone we possess. Ere we have
+got ourselves ready to live, we must die. Fooling ourselves even here,
+we represent death as the portal to joy unspeakable; and forthwith
+discredit our words by avoiding it in every possible way.</p>
+
+<p>Pitiable spectacle of weakness and folly, is it capable of any
+explanation which can redeem man from the imputation of unreason? Is
+Wisdom even here justified of her children by some deeper law of being?<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[174]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The theologian explains it as the unrest of the soul penned in its house
+of clay; the physiologist attributes it to the unceasing effort of
+organic functions to adapt themselves to ever varying external
+conditions. They are both right, for the theologian, were his words
+translated into the language of science, refers to the <i>effort to adapt
+condition to function</i>, which is the peculiar faculty of intelligence,
+and which alone renders man unable to accept the comfort of merely
+animal existence, an inability which he need never expect to outlive,
+for it will increase in exact proportion to his mental development.
+Action, not rest, as I have elsewhere said, must be his ideal of life.</p>
+
+<p>In even his lowest levels man experiences this dissatisfaction. It may
+there be confined to a pain he would be free from, or a pleasure he
+dreams of. Always the future charms him, and as advancing years increase
+the number of his disappointments and bring with them the pains of
+decrepitude, he also recurs to the past, when youth was his, and the
+world was bright and gay. Thus it comes that most nations speak of some
+earlier period of their history as one characterized by purer public
+virtues than the present, one when the fires of patriotism burned
+brighter and social harmony was more conspicuous. In rude stages of
+society this fancy receives real credit and ranks as a veritable record
+of the past,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[175]</a></span> forming a Golden Age or Saturnian Era. Turned in the
+kaleidoscope of the mythus, it assumes yet more gorgeous hues, and
+becomes a state of pure felicity, an Eden or a Paradise, wherein man
+dwelt in joy, and from which he wandered or was driven in the old days.</p>
+
+<p>It is almost needless to quote examples to show the wide distribution of
+this myth. The first pages of the Vendidad describe the reign of Yima in
+“the garden of delight,” where “there was no cold wind nor violent heat,
+no disease and no death.” The northern Buddhist tells of “the land of
+joy,” Sukhavati, in the far west, where ruled Amitabha, “infinite
+Light.”<a name="FNanchor_175-1_125" id="FNanchor_175-1_125" href="#Footnote_175-1_125" class="fnanchor">175-1</a> The Edda wistfully recalls the pleasant days of good King
+Gudmund who once held sway in Odainsakr, where death came not.<a name="FNanchor_175-2_126" id="FNanchor_175-2_126" href="#Footnote_175-2_126" class="fnanchor">175-2</a>
+Persian story has glad reminiscences of the seven hundred years that
+Jemschid sat on the throne of Iran, when peace and plenty were in the
+land.</p>
+
+<p>The garden “eastward in Eden” of the Pentateuch, the land of Tulan or
+Tlapallan in Aztec myth, the islands of the Hesperides, the rose garden
+of Feridun, and a score of other legends attest with what strong
+yearning man seeks in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[176]</a></span> the past the picture of that perfect felicity
+which the present never yields.</p>
+
+<p>Nor can he be persuaded that the golden age has gone, no more to return.
+In all conditions of progress, and especially where the load of the
+present was the most wearying, has he counted on a restoration to that
+past felicity. The paradise lost is to be regained. How it is to be done
+the sages are not agreed. But they of old were unanimous that some
+divinity must lend his aid, that some god-sent guide is needed to rescue
+man from the slough of wretchedness in which he hopelessly struggles.</p>
+
+<p>Therefore in the new world the red men looked for the ruler who had
+governed their happy forefathers in the golden age, and who had not died
+but withdrawn mysteriously from view, to return to them, protect them,
+and insure them long bliss and ease. The ancient Persians expected as
+much from the coming of Craoshanç; the Thibetan Buddhists look to the
+advent of a Buddha 5000 years after Sakyamuni, one whose fortunate names
+are Maîtrêya, the Loving one, and Adjita, the Unconquerable;<a name="FNanchor_176-1_127" id="FNanchor_176-1_127" href="#Footnote_176-1_127" class="fnanchor">176-1</a> and
+even the practical Roman, as we learn from Virgil, was not a stranger to
+this dream. Very many nations felt it quite as strongly as the
+Israelites, who from early time awaited a mighty king, the Messiah, the
+Anointed, of whom the Targums say: “In his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[177]</a></span> days shall peace be
+multiplied;” “He shall execute the judgment of truth and justice on the
+earth;” “He shall rule over all kingdoms.”</p>
+
+<p>The early forms of this conception, such as here referred to, looked
+forward to an earthly kingdom, identified with that of the past when
+this was vigorous in the national mythology. Material success and the
+utmost physical comfort were to characterize it. It was usually to be a
+national apotheosis, and was not generally supposed to include the human
+race, though traces of this wider view might easily be quoted from
+Avestan, Roman, and Israelitic sources. Those who were to enjoy it were
+not the dead, but those who shall be living.</p>
+
+<p>As the myth grew, it coalesced with that of the Epochs of Nature, and
+assumed grander proportions. The deliverer was to come at the close of
+this epoch, at the end of the world; he was to embrace the whole human
+kind in his kingdom; even those who died before his coming, if they had
+obeyed his mandates, should rise to join the happy throng; instead of a
+mere earthly king, he should be a supernatural visitant, even God
+himself; and instead of temporal pleasures only, others of a spiritual
+character were to be conferred. There are reasons to believe that even
+in this developed form the myth was familiar to the most enlightened
+worshippers of ancient Egypt; but it was not till some time after the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[178]</a></span>
+doctrines of Christianity had been cast into mythical moulds by the
+oriental fancy, that it was introduced in its completed form to modern
+thought. Although expressly repudiated by Jesus of Nazareth himself, and
+applied in maxim and parable as a universal symbol of intelligence to
+the religious growth of the individual and race, his followers reverted
+to the coarser and literal meaning, and ever since teach to a greater or
+less extent the chiliastic or millennial dogma, often mathematically
+computing, in direct defiance of his words, the exact date that event is
+to be expected.</p>
+
+<p>If we ask the psychological construction of this myth, and the ever
+present conditions of man’s life which have rendered him always ready to
+create it and loath to renounce it, we trace the former distinctly to
+his sense of the purposive nature of the laws of thought, and the latter
+to the wide difference between desire and fulfilment. His intellectual
+nature is framed to accord with laws which are ever present but are not
+authoritative; they admonish but they do not coerce; <i>that</i> is done
+surely though oft remotely by the consequences of their violation. At
+first, unaware of the true character of these laws, he fancies that if
+he were altogether comfortable physically, his every wish would be
+gratified. Slowly it dawns upon him that no material gratification can
+supply an intellectual craving; that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[179]</a></span> this is the real want which haunts
+him; and that its only satisfaction is <i>to think rightly</i>, to learn the
+truth. Then he sees that the millennial kingdom is “not of this world;”
+that heaven and earth may pass away, but that such truth as he seeks
+cannot pass away; and that his first and only care should be as a
+faithful and wise servant to learn and revere it.</p>
+
+<p>The sentiments which created this mythical cycle, based as they are now
+seen to be on ultimate psychological laws, are as active to-day as ever.
+This century has witnessed the rise of a school of powerful thinkers and
+true philanthropists who maintained that the noblest object is the
+securing to our fellow-men the greatest material comfort possible; that
+the religious aspirations will do well to content themselves with this
+gospel of humanity; and that the approach of the material millennium,
+the perfectibility of the human race, the complete adaptation of
+function to condition, the “distant but not uncertain final victory of
+Good,”<a name="FNanchor_179-1_128" id="FNanchor_179-1_128" href="#Footnote_179-1_128" class="fnanchor">179-1</a> is susceptible of demonstration. At present, these views
+are undergoing modification. It is perceived with more or less
+distinctness that complete physical comfort is not enough to make a man
+happy; that in proportion as this comfort is attained new wants develope
+themselves, quite as importunate, which ask what material com<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[180]</a></span>fort
+cannot give, and whose demand is neither for utility nor pleasurable
+sensation. Such wants are created by the sense of duty and the love of
+truth.</p>
+
+<p>The main difference between the latest exponents of the utilitarian
+doctrines and the heralds of distinctively religious thought, is that
+the former consider that it is most important in the present condition
+of man for him to look after his material welfare; while the latter
+teach that if he first subject thought and life to truth and duty, “all
+these things will be added unto him.” Wordsworth has cast this latter
+opinion, and the myths which are its types, into eloquent verse:</p>
+
+<p class="poem"><span class="i8">“Paradise and groves</span><br />
+Elysian, Fortunate Fields&mdash;like those of old<br />
+Sought in the Atlantic main, why should they be<br />
+A history only of departed things,<br />
+Or a mere fiction of what never was?<br />
+For the discerning intellect of man,<br />
+When wedded to this goodly universe<br />
+In love and holy passion, shall find these<br />
+A simple produce of the common day.”</p>
+
+<p>The incredulity and even derision with which the latter doctrine is
+received by “practical men,” should not affright the collected thinker,
+as it certainly is not so chimerical as they pretend. The writer De
+Senancourt, not at all of a religious turn, in speculating on the
+shortest possible road to general happiness, concluded that if we were
+able to foretell the weather a reasonable time ahead, and if men would
+make it a rule to speak the truth as near as they can, these two
+conditions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[181]</a></span> would remove nine-tenths of the misery in the world. The
+more carefully I meditate on this speculation, the better grounded it
+seems. The weather we are learning to know much more about than when the
+solitary Obermann penned his despondent dreams; but who shall predict
+the time when men will tell the truth?</p>
+
+<p>I now pass to the third great mythical cyclus, which I have called that
+of the Hierarchy of the Gods. This was created in order to define that
+unknown power which was supposed to give to the wish frustration or
+fruition. It includes every statement in reference to the number,
+nature, history and character of supernatural beings.</p>
+
+<p>The precise form under which the intellect, when the religious
+conception of unknown power first dawns upon it, imagines this unknown,
+is uncertain. Some have maintained that the earliest religions are
+animal worships, others that the spirits of ancestors or chiefs are the
+primitive gods. Local divinities and personal spirits are found in the
+rudest culture, while simple fetichism, or the vague shapes presented by
+dreams, play a large part in the most inchoate systems. The prominence
+of one or the other of these elements depends upon local and national
+momenta, which are a proper study for the science of mythology, but need
+not detain us here. The underlying principle in all these conceptions of
+divinity is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[182]</a></span> that of the <i>res per accidens</i>, an accidental relation of
+the thought to the symbol, not a general or necessary one. This is seen
+in the nature of these primitive gods. They have no decided character as
+propitious or the reverse other than the objects they typify, but are
+supposed to send bad or good fortune as they happen to be pleased or
+displeased with the votary. No classification as good and evil deities
+is as yet perceptible.</p>
+
+<p>This undeveloped stage of religious thought faded away, as general
+conceptions of man and his surroundings arose. Starting always from his
+wish dependent on unknown control, man found certain phenomena usually
+soothed his fears and favored his wishes, while others interfered with
+their attainment and excited his alarm. This distinction, directly
+founded on his sensations of pleasure and pain, led to a general, more
+or less rigid, classification of the unknown, into two opposing classes
+of beings, the one kindly disposed, beneficent, good, the other
+untoward, maleficent, evil.</p>
+
+<p>At first this distinction had in it nothing of a <i>moral</i> character. It
+is in fact a long time before this is visible, and to-day but two or
+three religions acknowledge it even theoretically. All, however, which
+claim historical position set up a dual hierarchy in the divine realms.
+Ahura-mazda and Anya-mainyus, God and Satan, Jove and Pluto, Pachacamac
+and Supay, Enigorio and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[183]</a></span> Enigohatgea are examples out of hundreds that
+might be adduced.</p>
+
+<p>The fundamental contrast of pleasure and pain might be considered enough
+to explain this duality. But in fact it is even farther reaching. The
+emotions are dual as well as the sensations, as we have seen in the
+first chapter. All the operations of the intellect are dichotomic, and
+in mathematical logic must be expressed by an equation of the second
+degree. Subject and object must be understood as polar pairs, and in
+physical science polarization, contrast of properties corresponding to
+contrast of position, is a universal phenomenon. Analogy, therefore,
+vindicates the assumption that the unknown, like the known, is the field
+of the operation of contradictory powers.</p>
+
+<p>A variety of expression is given this philosophic notion in myths. In
+Egypt, Syria, Greece and India the contrast was that of the sexes, the
+male and female principles as displayed in the operations of nature. The
+type of all is that very ancient Phrygian cult in which by the side of
+Ma, mother of mountains and mistress of herds, stood Papas, father of
+the race of shepherds and inventor of the rustic pipe.<a name="FNanchor_183-1_129" id="FNanchor_183-1_129" href="#Footnote_183-1_129" class="fnanchor">183-1</a> Quite
+characteristic was the classification of the gods worshipped by the
+miners and metal workers of Phrygian Ida. This was into right and left,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[184]</a></span>
+and the general name of Dactyli, Fingers, was given them. The right gods
+broke the spells which the left wove, the right pointed out the ore
+which the left had buried, the right disclosed the remedies for the
+sickness which the left had sent. This venerable division is still
+retained when we speak of a <i>sinister</i> portent, or a <i>right</i> judgment.
+It is of physiological interest as showing that “dextral pre-eminence”
+or right-handedness was prevalent in earliest historic times, though it
+is unknown in any lower animal.</p>
+
+<p>The thoughtful dwellers in Farsistan also developed a religion close to
+man’s wants by dividing the gods into those who aid and those who harm
+him, subject the one class to Ahura-Mazda, the other to Anya-Mainyus.
+Early in their history this assumed almost a moral aspect, and there is
+little to be added to one of the most ancient precepts of their
+law&mdash;“Happiness be to the man who conduces to the happiness of
+all.”<a name="FNanchor_184-1_130" id="FNanchor_184-1_130" href="#Footnote_184-1_130" class="fnanchor">184-1</a></p>
+
+<p>When this dual classification sought expression through natural
+contrasts, there was one which nigh everywhere offered itself as the
+most appropriate. The savage, the nomad, limited to the utmost in
+artificial contrivances, met nothing which more signally aided the
+accom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[185]</a></span>plishment of his wishes than <i>light</i>; nothing which more certainly
+frustrated them than <i>darkness</i>. From these two sources flow numerous
+myths, symbols, and rites, as narratives or acts which convey religious
+thought to the eye or the ear of sense.</p>
+
+<p>As the bringers of light, man adored the sun, the dawn, and fire;
+associated with warmth and spring, his further meditations saw in it the
+source of his own and of all life, and led him to connect with its
+worship that of the reproductive principle. As it comes from above, and
+seems to dwell in the far-off sky, he located there his good gods, and
+lifted his hands or his eyes when he prayed. As light is necessary to
+sight, and as to see is to know, the faculty of knowing was typified as
+enlightenment, an inward god-given light. The great and beneficent
+deities are always the gods of light. Their names often show this. Deva,
+Deus, means the shining one; Michabo, the great white one; the Mongols
+call Tien, the chief Turanian god, the bright one, the luminous one; the
+northern Buddhist prays to Amitabha, Infinite Light; and the Christian
+to the Light of the World.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, darkness was connected with feelings of helplessness
+and terror. It exposed him to attacks of wild beasts and all accidents.
+It was the precursor of the storm. It was like to death and the grave.
+The realm<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[186]</a></span> of the departed was supposed to be a land of shadows, an
+underground region, an unseeing Hades or hell.</p>
+
+<p>The task would be easy to show many strange corroborations of these
+early chosen symbols by the exacter studies of later ages. Light, as the
+indispensable condition of life, is no dream, but a fact; sight is the
+highest sentient faculty; and the luminous rays are real intellectual
+stimulants.<a name="FNanchor_186-1_131" id="FNanchor_186-1_131" href="#Footnote_186-1_131" class="fnanchor">186-1</a> But such reflections will not escape the
+contemplative reader.</p>
+
+<p>I hasten to an important consequence of this dual classification of
+divinities. It led to what I may call the <i>quantification of the gods</i>,
+that is, to conceiving divinity under notions of number or quantity, a
+step which has led to profound deterioration of the religious sentiment.
+I do not mean by this the distinction between polytheism and monotheism.
+The latter is as untrue and as injurious as the former, nor does it
+contain a whit the more the real elements of religious progress.</p>
+
+<p>It is indeed singular that this subject has been so misunderstood. Much
+has been written by Christian theologians to show the superiority of
+monotheisms; and by their opponents much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[187]</a></span> has been made of Comte’s <i>loi
+des trois états</i>, which defines religious progress to be first
+fetichism, secondly polytheism, finally monotheism. Of this Mr. Lewes
+says: “The theological system arrived at the highest perfection of which
+it is capable when it substituted the providential action of a single
+being, for the varied operations of the numerous divinities which had
+before been imagined.”<a name="FNanchor_187-1_132" id="FNanchor_187-1_132" href="#Footnote_187-1_132" class="fnanchor">187-1</a> Nothing could be more erroneous than the
+spirit of this statement; nothing is more correct, if the ordinary talk
+of the superiority of monotheism in religion be admitted.</p>
+
+<p>History and long experience show that monotheistic religions have no
+special good effect either on the morals or the religious sensibility of
+races.<a name="FNanchor_187-2_133" id="FNanchor_187-2_133" href="#Footnote_187-2_133" class="fnanchor">187-2</a> Buddhism,<a name="FNanchor_187-3_134" id="FNanchor_187-3_134" href="#Footnote_187-3_134" class="fnanchor">187-3</a> Mohammedanism and Judaism are, at least
+in theory, uncompromising monotheisms; modern Christianity is less so,
+as many Catholics pray to the Virgin and Saints, and many Protestants to
+Christ. So long as <i>the mathematical conception of number</i>, whether one
+or many, is applied to deity by a theological system, it has not yet
+“arrived at the highest perfection of which it is capable.”</p>
+
+<p>For let us inquire what a monotheism is? It<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[188]</a></span> is a belief in one god as
+distinct from the belief in several gods. In other words, it applies to
+God the mathematical concept of unity, a concept which can only come
+into cognition by virtue of contrasts and determinations, and which
+forces therefore the believer either to Pantheism or anthropomorphism to
+reconcile his belief with his reason. No other resource is left him.
+With monotheism there must always be the idea of numerical separateness,
+which is incompatible with universal conceptions.</p>
+
+<p>Let him, however, clear his mind of the current admiration for
+monotheisms, and impress upon himself that he who would form a
+conception of supreme intelligence must do so under the rules of pure
+thought, not numerical relation. The logical, not the mathematical,
+unity of the divine is the perfection of theological reasoning. Logical
+unity does not demand a determination by contrasts; it conveys only the
+idea of identity with self. As the logical attainment of truth is the
+recognition of identities in apparent diversity, thus leading from the
+logically many to the logically one, the assumption of the latter is
+eminently justified. Every act of reasoning is an additional proof of
+it.<a name="FNanchor_188-1_135" id="FNanchor_188-1_135" href="#Footnote_188-1_135" class="fnanchor">188-1</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[189]</a></span>Nor does the duality of nature and thought, to which I have alluded, in
+any wise contradict this. In pure thought we must understand the
+dichotomic process to be the distinction of a positive by a privative,
+both logical elements of the same thought, as I have elsewhere shown.
+The opposites or contraries referred to as giving rise to the dualistic
+conceptions of divinity are thus readily harmonized with the conception
+of logical unity. This was recognized by the Hindoo sage who composed
+the Bhagavad Gità, early in our era. Krishna, the Holy One, addressing
+the King Ardjuna says: “All beings fall into error as to the nature of
+creation, O Bharata, by reason of that delusion of natural opposites
+which springs from liking and disliking, oh thou tormentor of thy
+foes!”<a name="FNanchor_189-1_136" id="FNanchor_189-1_136" href="#Footnote_189-1_136" class="fnanchor">189-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The substitution of the conception of mathematical for logical unity in
+this connection has left curious traces in both philosophy and religion.
+It has led to a belief in the triplicate nature of the supreme Being,
+and to those philosophical triads which have often attracted thinkers,
+from Pythagoras and Heraclitus down to Hegel and Ghiberti.</p>
+
+<p>Pythagoras, who had thought profoundly on<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[190]</a></span> numbers and their relations,
+is credited with the obscure maxim that every thought is made up of a
+definite one and an indefinite two (a <span class="greek" title="monas">μονας</span> and an <span class="greek" title="aoristos duas">αοριστος δυας</span>). Some
+of his commentators have added to rather than lessened the darkness of
+this saying. But applied to concrete number, it seems clear enough. Take
+any number, ten, for example, and it is ten by virtue of being a <i>one</i>,
+one ten, and because on either side counting upward or downward, a
+different number appears, which two are its logical determinants, but,
+as not expressed, make up an <i>indefinite two</i>.</p>
+
+<p>So the number one, thought as concrete unity, is really a trinity, made
+up of its definite self and its indefinite next greater and lesser
+determinants. The obscure consciousness of this has made itself felt in
+many religions when they have progressed to a certain plane of thought.
+The ancient Egyptian gods were nearly all triune; Phanes, in the Orphic
+hymns the first principle of things, was tripartite; the Indian
+trinities are well known; the Celtic triads applied to divine as well as
+human existence; the Jews distinguished between Jehovah, his Wisdom and
+his Word; and in Christian religion and philosophy the doctrine of the
+trinity, though nowhere taught by Christ, has found a lasting foothold,
+and often presents itself as an actual tritheism.<a name="FNanchor_190-1_137" id="FNanchor_190-1_137" href="#Footnote_190-1_137" class="fnanchor">190-1</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[191]</a></span>The triplicate nature of number, thus alluded to by Pythagoras, springs
+from the third law of thought, and holds true of all concrete notions.
+Every such notion stands in necessary relation to its privative, and to
+the logical concept of next greater extension, <i>i. e.</i>, that which
+includes the notion and its privative, as I explained in the first
+chapter. This was noted by the early Platonists, who describe a certain
+concrete expression of it as “the intelligential triad;” and it has been
+repeatedly commented upon by later philosophers, some of whom avowedly
+derive from it the proof of the trinitarian dogma as formulated by
+Athanasius. Even modern mathematical investigations have been supposed
+to point to a <i>Deus triformis</i>, though of course quite another one from
+that which ancient Rome honored. A late work of much ability makes the
+statement: “The doctrine of the Trinity, or something analogous to it,
+forms, as it were, the avenue through which the universe itself leads us
+up to the conception of the Infinite and Eternal One.”<a name="FNanchor_191-1_138" id="FNanchor_191-1_138" href="#Footnote_191-1_138" class="fnanchor">191-1</a> The
+explana<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[192]</a></span>tion of this notion is the same as that of the “Trinity of the
+Gentiles,” always hitherto a puzzling mythological concept.</p>
+
+<p>For reasons previously given, an analysis of the formal law itself does
+not yield these elements. They belong to a certain class of values
+assigned it, not to the law itself; hence it is only when deity is
+conceived under the conditions of numerical oneness that the tripartite
+constitution of a whole number makes itself felt, and is applied to the
+divine nature.</p>
+
+<p>The essence of a logical unit is identity, of a mathematical,
+difference. The qualities of the latter are limitations&mdash;<i>so much of a
+thing</i>; those of the former are coincidences&mdash;<i>that kind of a thing</i>.</p>
+
+<p>To be sure it is no easy matter to free ourselves from the habit of
+confounding identity and individuality. We must cultivate a much greater
+familiarity with the forms of thought, and the character of universals,
+than every-day life requires of us, before the distinction grows facile.
+The individual, not the species, exists; our own personality, our
+thinking faculty is what we are most certain of. On it rests the reality
+of everything, the Unknown as well. But the rejection of a mathematical
+unity does not at all depreciate the force of such an argument.
+Individuality regarded as mathematical unity rests on the deeper law of
+logical identity from<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[193]</a></span> which the validity of numbers rises; it is not
+the least diminished, but intensified, in the conception of a Supreme
+Intelligence, as the font of truth, though the confinements and
+limitations of the mathematical unit fall away, and all contrasts
+disappear.</p>
+
+<p>The reverse conception, however, has prevailed in religious systems,
+polytheistic or monotheistic. Man has projected on the cloudy unknown
+the magnified picture of his own individuality and shuddered with terror
+at the self-created <a name="corr9" id="corr9"></a><ins class="correction" title="phantasm,">plantasm,</ins> like the peasant frightened by the
+spectre of the Brocken, formed by the distorted image of himself. In his
+happier moments, with his hopes gratified, the same vice of thought,
+still active, prevented him from conceiving any higher ideal than his
+better self. “Everywhere the same tendency was observed; the gods,
+always exaggerations of human power and passions, became more and more
+personifications of what was most admirable and lovable in human nature,
+till in Christianity there emerged the avowed ideal man.” What could it
+end in but anthropomorphism, or pantheism, or, rejecting both, a
+Religion of Humanity, with a background of an imbecile Unknowable?</p>
+
+<p>Is it necessary to point out how none of these conclusions can satisfy
+the enlightened religious sentiment? How <a name="corr10" id="corr10"></a><ins class="correction" title="anthropomorphism, which">anthropomorphism,which</ins>
+makes God in the image of man, instead of acknowledg<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[194]</a></span>ing that man is
+made in the image of God, belittles divinity to a creature of passions
+and caprices? How pantheism, increasing God at the expense of man, wipes
+out the fundamental difference of true and false, calls bad “good in the
+making,” and virtually extinguishes the sense of duty and the permanence
+of personality? And how the denial of all possible knowledge of the
+absolute digs away the only foundation on which sanity can establish a
+religion, and then palms off material comfort as the proper food for
+religious longing?</p>
+
+<p>The long story of religious effort is not from fetichism to monotheism,
+as Comte read it; nor is its only possible goal inside the limits of the
+ego, as Feuerbach and the other Neo-Hegelians assert; but it is on its
+theoretical side to develope with greater and greater distinctness the
+immeasurable reality of pure thought, to dispense more and more with the
+quantification of the absolute, and to avoid in the representation of
+that Being the use of the technic of concrete existence.</p>
+
+<p>Little by little we learn that the really true is never true in fact,
+that the really good is never good in act.<a name="FNanchor_194-1_139" id="FNanchor_194-1_139" href="#Footnote_194-1_139" class="fnanchor">194-1</a> Carefully cherishing
+this distinction taught by mathematics and ethics, the religious mind
+learns to recognize in that only reality<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[195]</a></span> darkly seen through the glass
+of material things, that which should fix and fill its meditations.
+Passing beyond the domain of physical law, it occupies itself with that
+which defines the conditions of law. It contemplates an eternal
+activity, before which its own self-consciousness seems a flickering
+shadow, yet in that contemplation is not lost but gains an evergrowing
+personality.</p>
+
+<p>This is the goal of religious striving, the hidden aim of the wars and
+persecutions, the polemics and martyrdoms, which have so busied and
+bloodied the world. This satisfies the rational postulates of religion.
+Does some one say that it does not stimulate its emotional elements,
+that it does not supply the impulses of action which must ever be the
+criteria of the true faith? Is it not a religion at all, but a
+philosophy, a search, or if you prefer, a love for the truth?</p>
+
+<p>Let such doubter ponder well the signification of truth, its relation to
+life, its identity with the good, and the paramount might of wisdom and
+a clear understanding, and he will be ready to exclaim with the
+passionate piety of St. Augustine: “<i>Ubi inveni veritatem, ibi inveni
+Deum meum, ipsam veritatem, quam, ex quo didici, non sum oblitus.</i>”</p>
+
+<p>From this brief review of its character, the Myth will be seen to be one
+of the transitory expressions of the religious sentiment, which in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[196]</a></span>
+enlightened lands it has already outgrown and should lay aside. So far
+as it relates to events, real or alleged, historic or geologic, it deals
+with that which is indifferent to pure religion; and so far as it
+assumes to reveal the character, plans and temper of divinity, it is too
+evidently a reflex of man’s personality to be worthy of serious
+refutation where it conflicts with the better guide he has within him.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_156-1_111" id="Footnote_156-1_111" href="#FNanchor_156-1_111">156-1</a> In this definition the word <i>apperception</i> is used in
+the sense assigned it by Professor Lazarus&mdash;the perception modified by
+imagination and memory. “Mythologie ist eine Apperceptionsform der Natur
+und des Menschen.” (<i>Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie</i>, Bd. i., s. 44).
+Most recent mythologists omit the latter branch of the definition; for
+instance, “A myth is in its origin an explanation by the uncivilized
+mind of some natural phenomenon.” (John Fiske, <i>Myths and Myth Makers</i>,
+p. 21). This is to omit that which gives the myth its only claim to be a
+product of the religious sentiment. Schopenhauer, in calling dogmas and
+myths “the metaphysics of the people,” fell into the same error.
+Religion, as such, is always concrete.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_159-1_112" id="Footnote_159-1_112" href="#FNanchor_159-1_112">159-1</a> Half a century ago the learned Mr. Faber, in his
+<i>Origin of Pagan Idolatry</i>, expressed his astonishment at “the singular,
+minute and regular accordance” between the classical myths. That
+accordance has now been discovered to be world-wide.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_160-1_113" id="Footnote_160-1_113" href="#FNanchor_160-1_113">160-1</a> “Ganz gleiche Mythen können sehr füglich, jede
+selbstständig, an verschiedenen Oerter emporkommen.” <i>Briefe an
+Woelcker.</i></p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_161-1_114" id="Footnote_161-1_114" href="#FNanchor_161-1_114">161-1</a> The last two are the modern orthodox theories,
+supported by Bryant, Faber, Trench, De Maistre and Sepp. Medieval
+Christianity preferred the direct agency of the Devil. Primitive
+Christianity leaned to the opinion that the Grecian and Roman myth
+makers had stolen from the sacred writings of the Jews.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_165-1_115" id="Footnote_165-1_115" href="#FNanchor_165-1_115">165-1</a> Sir Wm. Hamilton, <i>Lectures on Metaphysics</i>. Appendix,
+p. 691.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_165-2_116" id="Footnote_165-2_116" href="#FNanchor_165-2_116">165-2</a> Creuzer, <i>Symbolik und Mythologie</i>, Bd. ii., s. 107.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_166-1_117" id="Footnote_166-1_117" href="#FNanchor_166-1_117">166-1</a> Th. Nöldeke, <i>Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie</i>, Bd.
+iii., s. 131.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_166-2_118" id="Footnote_166-2_118" href="#FNanchor_166-2_118">166-2</a> See a note of Prof. Spiegel to Yaçna, 29, of the
+<i>Khordah-Avesta</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_167-1_119" id="Footnote_167-1_119" href="#FNanchor_167-1_119">167-1</a> <span class="greek" title="Hê ygra physis archê kai genesis pantôn">Ἡ υγρα φυσις αρχη και γενεσις παντων</span>.<br />
+<span class="i16">Plutarch, <i>De Iside</i>.</span></p>
+
+<p>According to the Koran and the Jewish Rabbis, the throne of God rested
+on the primeval waters from which the earth was produced. See a note in
+Rodwell’s translation of the Koran, <i>Sura</i>. xi.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_167-2_120" id="Footnote_167-2_120" href="#FNanchor_167-2_120">167-2</a> I have discussed some of these myths in the seventh
+chapter of the <i>Myths of the New World</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_168-1_121" id="Footnote_168-1_121" href="#FNanchor_168-1_121">168-1</a> How it troubled the early Christians who dared not
+adopt the refuge of the Epochs of Nature, may be seen in the
+<i>Confessions</i> of St. Augustine, Lib. XI, cap. 10, et seq. He quotes the
+reply of one pushed by the inquiry, what God was doing before creation:
+“He was making a hell for inquisitive busy-bodies.” <i>Alta spectantibus
+gehennas parabat.</i></p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_170-1_122" id="Footnote_170-1_122" href="#FNanchor_170-1_122">170-1</a> Many interesting references to the Oriental flood-myth
+may be found in Cory’s <i>Ancient Fragments</i>. See also, Dr. Fr.
+Windischmann, <i>Die Ursagen der Arischen Völker</i>, pp. 4-10. It is
+probable that in very ancient Semitic tradition Adam was represented as
+the survivor of a flood anterior to that of Noah. Maimonides relates
+that the Sabians believed the world to be eternal, and called Adam “the
+Prophet of the Moon,” which symbolized, as we know from other sources,
+the deity of water. Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon, <i>More Nevochim</i>, cap. iv. In
+early Christian symbolism Christ was called “the true Noah”; the dove
+accompanied him also, and as through Noah came “salvation by wood and
+water,” so through Christ came “salvation by spirit and water.” (See St.
+Cyril of Jerusalem’s <i>Catechetical Lectures</i>, Lect. xvii., cap. 10). The
+fish (<span class="greek" title="ichthus">ιχθυς</span>) was the symbol of Christ as well as of Oannes. As the
+second coming of Christ was to be the destruction of the world, how
+plainly appear the germs of the myth of the Epochs of Nature in the
+Judæo-Christian mind!</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_171-1_123" id="Footnote_171-1_123" href="#FNanchor_171-1_123">171-1</a> Besides the expressions in the Book of Ecclesiastes and
+the later prophets, the doctrine is distinctly announced in one of the
+most sublime of the Psalms (xc), one attributed to “Moses the Man of
+God.”</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_172-1_124" id="Footnote_172-1_124" href="#FNanchor_172-1_124">172-1</a> Malachi, ch. iv., v. 2.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_175-1_125" id="Footnote_175-1_125" href="#FNanchor_175-1_125">175-1</a> C. F. Koppen, <i>Die Lamaische Hierarchie</i>, s. 28.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_175-2_126" id="Footnote_175-2_126" href="#FNanchor_175-2_126">175-2</a> Odainsakr, ô privative, <i>dain</i> death, <i>akr</i> land, “the
+land of immortal life.” Saxo Grammaticus speaks of it also. Another such
+land faintly referred to in the Edda is Breidablick, governed by Baldur,
+the Light-god.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_176-1_127" id="Footnote_176-1_127" href="#FNanchor_176-1_127">176-1</a> C. F. Koppen, <i>Die Lamaische Hierarchie und Kirche</i>, p.
+17.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_179-1_128" id="Footnote_179-1_128" href="#FNanchor_179-1_128">179-1</a> John Stuart Mill, <i>Theism</i>, p. 256.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_183-1_129" id="Footnote_183-1_129" href="#FNanchor_183-1_129">183-1</a> Creuzer, <i>Symbolik und Mythologie</i>, Bd. II., s. 47</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_184-1_130" id="Footnote_184-1_130" href="#FNanchor_184-1_130">184-1</a> This is the first line of Yaçna, 42, of the
+<i>Khordah-Avesta</i>. The Parsees believe that it is the salutation which
+meets the soul of the good on entering the next world.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_186-1_131" id="Footnote_186-1_131" href="#FNanchor_186-1_131">186-1</a> “Sight is the light sense. Through it we become
+acquainted with universal relations, this being <i>reason</i>. Without the
+eye there would be no reason.” Lorenz Oken, <i>Elements of
+Physio-Philosophy</i>, p. 475.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_187-1_132" id="Footnote_187-1_132" href="#FNanchor_187-1_132">187-1</a> <i>History of Philosophy</i>, Vol. II. p. 638 (4th ed.)</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_187-2_133" id="Footnote_187-2_133" href="#FNanchor_187-2_133">187-2</a> “The intolerance of almost all religions which have
+maintained the unity of God, is as remarkable as the contrary principle
+in polytheism.” Hume, <i>Nat. Hist. of Religion</i>, Sec. ix.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_187-3_134" id="Footnote_187-3_134" href="#FNanchor_187-3_134">187-3</a> “The Lamas emphatically maintain monotheism to be the
+real character of Buddhism.” Emil Schlagintweit, <i>Buddhism in Tibet</i>, p.
+108.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_188-1_135" id="Footnote_188-1_135" href="#FNanchor_188-1_135">188-1</a> No one has seen the error here pointed out, and its
+injurious results on thought, more clearly than Comte himself. He is
+emphatic in condemning “le tendance involontaire à constituer l’unité
+spéculative par l’ascendant universel des plus grossières contemplations
+numérique, geométrique ou mécaniques.” <i>Systême de Politique Positive</i>;
+Tome I., p. 51. But he was too biassed to apply this warning to
+Christian thought. The conception of the Universe in the logic of
+Professor De Morgan and Boole is an example of speculative unity.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_189-1_136" id="Footnote_189-1_136" href="#FNanchor_189-1_136">189-1</a> <i>Bhagavad Gità</i>, ch. iv.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_190-1_137" id="Footnote_190-1_137" href="#FNanchor_190-1_137">190-1</a> See the introduction by Mr. J. W. Etheridge to <i>The
+Targums of Onkelos and Jonathan Ben Uzziel</i> (London, 1862). St.
+Augustine believed the trinity is referred to in the opening verses of
+Genesis. <i>Confessiones</i>, Lib. xiii. cap. 5. The early Christian writer,
+Theophilus of Antioch (circa 225), in his <i>Apologia</i>, recognizes the
+Jewish trinity only. It was a century later that the dogma was defined
+in its Athanasian form. See further, Isaac Preston Cory, <i>Ancient
+Fragments, with an Inquiry into the Trinity of the Gentiles</i> (London,
+1832).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_191-1_138" id="Footnote_191-1_138" href="#FNanchor_191-1_138">191-1</a> <i>The Unseen Universe</i>, p. 194.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_194-1_139" id="Footnote_194-1_139" href="#FNanchor_194-1_139">194-1</a> “A good will is the only altogether good thing in the
+world.”&mdash;<i>Kant.</i> “What man conceives in himself is always superior to
+that reality which it precedes and prepares.”&mdash;<i>Comte.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[197]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapdivider"><a name="THE_CULT_ITS_SYMBOLS_AND_RITES" id="THE_CULT_ITS_SYMBOLS_AND_RITES"></a>THE CULT, ITS SYMBOLS AND RITES.</h2>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[198]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="chapterhead">SUMMARY.</h3>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The Symbol represents the unknown; the Rite is the ceremony of
+worship.</p>
+
+<p>A symbol stands for the supernatural, an emblem for something
+known. The elucidation of symbolism is in the laws of the
+association of ideas. Associations of similarity give related
+symbols, of contiguity coincident symbols. Symbols tend either
+toward personification (iconolatry), or toward secularization. The
+symbol has no fixed interpretation. Its indefiniteness shown by the
+serpent symbol, and the cross. The physiological relations of
+certain symbols. Their classification. The Lotus. The Pillar.
+Symbols discarded by the higher religious thought. Esthetic and
+scientific symbolism (the “Doctrine of Correspondences”).</p>
+
+<p>Rites are either propitiatory or memorial. The former spring either
+from the idea of sacrifice or of specific performance. A sacrifice
+is a gift, but its measure is what it costs the giver. Specific
+performance means that a religious act should have no ulterior aim.
+Vicarious sacrifice and the idea of sin.</p>
+
+<p>Memorial rites are intended to recall the myth, or else to keep up
+the organization. The former are dramatic or imitative, the latter
+institutionary. Tendency of memorial rites to become propitiatory.
+Examples.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[199]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="chaptitle">THE CULT, ITS SYMBOLS AND RITES.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">As</span> the side which a religious system presents to the intellect is shown
+in the Myth, so the side that it presents to sense is exhibited in the
+Cult. This includes the representation and forms of worship of the
+unknown power which presides over the fruition of the Prayer or
+religious wish. The representation is effected by the Symbol, the
+worship by the Rite. The development of these two, and their relation to
+religious thought, will be the subject of the present chapter.</p>
+
+<p>The word Symbolism has a technical sense in theological writings, to
+wit, the discussion of creeds, quite different from that in which it is
+used in mythological science. Here it means the discussion of the
+natural objects which have been used to represent to sense supposed
+supernatural beings. As some conception of such beings must first be
+formed, the symbol is neces<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[200]</a></span>sarily founded upon the myth, and must be
+explained by it.</p>
+
+<p>A symbol is closely allied to an emblem, the distinction being that the
+latter is intended to represent some abstract conception or concrete
+fact, not supposed to be supernatural. Thus the serpent is the emblem of
+Esculapius, or, abstractly, of the art of healing; but in its use as a
+symbol in Christian art it stands for the Evil One, a supernatural
+being. The heraldric insignia of the Middle Ages were emblematic
+devices; but the architecture of the cathedrals was largely symbolic.
+Both agree in aiming to aid the imagination and the memory, and both may
+appeal to any special sense, although the majority are addressed to
+sight alone.</p>
+
+<p>Symbolism has not received the scientific treatment which has been so
+liberally bestowed on mythology. The first writer who approached it in
+the proper spirit was Professor Creuzer.<a name="FNanchor_200-1_140" id="FNanchor_200-1_140" href="#Footnote_200-1_140" class="fnanchor">200-1</a> Previous to his labors
+the distinction between pictographic and symbolic art was not well
+defined. He drew the line sharply, and illustrated it abundantly; but he
+did not preserve so clearly the relations of the symbol and the myth.
+Indeed, he regarded the latter as a symbol, a “phonetic” one, to be
+treated by the same pro<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[201]</a></span>cesses of analysis. Herein later students have
+not consented to follow him. The contrast between these two expressions
+of the religious sentiment becomes apparent when we examine their
+psychological origin. This Professor Creuzer did not include in his
+researches, nor is it dwelt upon at any length in the more recent works
+on the subject.<a name="FNanchor_201-1_141" id="FNanchor_201-1_141" href="#Footnote_201-1_141" class="fnanchor">201-1</a> The neglect to do this has given rise to an
+arbitrariness in the interpretation of many symbols, which has often
+obscured their position in religious history.</p>
+
+<p>What these principles are I shall endeavor to indicate; and first of the
+laws of the origin of symbols, the rules which guided the early
+intellect in choosing from the vast number of objects appealing to sense
+those fit to shadow forth the supernatural.</p>
+
+<p>It may safely be assumed that this was not done capriciously, as the
+modern parvenue makes for himself a heraldric device. The simple and
+devout intellect of the primitive man imagined a real connection between
+the god and the symbol. Were this questioned, yet the wonderful
+unanimity with which the same natural objects, the serpent, the bird,
+the tree, for example, were everywhere chosen, proves that their
+selection was not the work of chance. The constant preference of these
+objects points conclusively to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[202]</a></span> some strong and frequent connection of
+their images with mythical concepts.</p>
+
+<p>The question of the origin of symbols therefore resolves itself into one
+of the association of ideas, and we start from sure ground in applying
+to their interpretation the established canons of association. These, as
+I have elsewhere said, are those of contiguity and similarity, the
+former producing association by the closeness of succession of
+impressions or thoughts, the latter through impressions or thoughts
+recalling like ones in previous experience. When the same occurrence
+affects different senses simultaneously, or nearly so, the association
+is one of <i>contiguity</i>, as thunder and lightning, for a sound cannot be
+<i>like</i> a sight; when the same sense is affected in such a manner as to
+recall a previous impression, the association is one of <i>similarity</i>, as
+when the red autumn leaves recall the hue of sunset. Nearness in time or
+nearness in kind is the condition of association.</p>
+
+<p>The intensity or permanence of the association depends somewhat on
+temperament, but chiefly on repetition or continuance. Not having an ear
+for music, I may find it difficult to recall a song from hearing its
+tune; but by dint of frequent repetition I learn to associate them.
+Light and heat, smoke and fire, poverty and hunger so frequently occur
+together, that the one is apt to recall the other. So do a large<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[203]</a></span> number
+of antithetical associations, as light and darkness, heat and cold, by
+<i>inverse similarity</i>, opposite impressions reviving each other, in
+accordance with the positive and privative elements of a notion.</p>
+
+<p>This brief reference to the laws of applied thought,&mdash;too brief, did I
+not take for granted that they are generally familiar&mdash;furnishes the
+clue to guide us through the labyrinth of symbolism, to wit, the
+repeated association of the event or power recorded in the myth with
+some sensuous image. Where there is a connection in kind between the
+symbol and that for which it stands, there is <i>related</i> symbolism; where
+the connection is one of juxtaposition in time, there is <i>coincident</i>
+symbolism. Mother Earth, fertile and fecund, was a popular deity in many
+nations, and especially among the Egyptians, who worshipped her under
+the symbol of a cow; this is related symbolism; the historical event of
+the execution of Christ occurred by crucifixion, one of several methods
+common in that age, and since then the cross has been the symbol of
+Christianity; this is coincident symbolism. It is easy for the two to
+merge, as when the cross was identified with a somewhat similar and much
+older symbol, one of the class I have called “related,” signifying the
+reproductive principle, and became the “tree of life.” As a coincident
+symbol is to a certain extent acciden<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[204]</a></span>tal in origin, related symbols
+have always been most agreeable to the religious sentiment.</p>
+
+<p>This remark embodies the explanation of the growth of religious
+symbolism, and also its gradual decay into decorative art and mnemonic
+design. The tendency of related symbolism is toward the identification
+of the symbol with that for which it stands, toward personification or
+prosopopeia; while what I may call the <i>secularization</i> of symbols is
+brought about by regarding them more and more as accidental connections,
+by giving them conventional forms, and treating them as elements of
+architectural or pictorial design, or as aids to memory.</p>
+
+<p>This tendency of related symbolism depends on a law of applied thought
+which has lately been formulated by a distinguished logician in the
+following words: “What is true of a thing, is true of its like.”<a name="FNanchor_204-1_142" id="FNanchor_204-1_142" href="#Footnote_204-1_142" class="fnanchor">204-1</a>
+The similarity of the symbol to its prototype assumed, the qualities of
+the symbol, even those which had no share in deciding its selection, no
+likeness to the original, were lumped, and transferred to the divinity.
+As those like by similarity, so those unlike, were identified by
+contiguity, as traits of the unknown power. This is the active element
+in the degeneracy of religious idealism. The cow or the bull, chosen
+first as a symbol of creation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[205]</a></span> or fecundity, led to a worship of the
+animal itself, and a transfer of its traits, even to its horns, to the
+god. In a less repulsive form, the same tendency shows itself in the
+pietistic ingenuity of such poets as Adam de Sancto Victore and George
+Herbert, who delight in taking some biblical symbol, and developing from
+it a score of applications which the original user never dreamt of. In
+such hands a chance simile grows to an elaborate myth.</p>
+
+<p>Correct thought would prevent the extension of the value of the symbol
+beyond the original element of similarity. More than this, it would
+recognize the fact that similarity does not suppose identity, but the
+reverse, to wit, defect of likeness; and this dissimilitude must be the
+greater, as the original and symbol are naturally discrepant. The
+<a name="corr11" id="corr11"></a><ins class="correction" title="supernatural,">supernatual,</ins> however, whether by this term we mean the unknown or
+the universal&mdash;still more if we mean the incomprehensible&mdash;is utterly
+discrepant with the known, except by an indefinitely faint analogy. In
+the higher thought, therefore, the symbol loses all trace of identity
+and becomes merely emblematic.</p>
+
+<p>The ancients defended symbolic teaching on this very ground, that the
+symbol left so much unexplained, that it stimulated the intellect and
+trained it to profounder thinking;<a name="FNanchor_205-1_143" id="FNanchor_205-1_143" href="#Footnote_205-1_143" class="fnanchor">205-1</a> practically<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[206]</a></span> it had the
+reverse effect, the symbol being accepted as the thing itself.</p>
+
+<p>Passing from these general rules of the selection of symbols, to the
+history of the symbol when chosen, this presents itself to us in a
+reciprocal form, first as the myth led to the adoption and changes in
+the symbol, and as the latter in turn altered and reformed the myth.</p>
+
+<p>The tropes and figures of rhetoric by which the conceptions of the
+supernatural were first expressed, give the clue to primitive symbolism.
+A very few examples will be sufficient. No one can doubt that the figure
+of the serpent was sometimes used in pictorial art to represent the
+lightning, when he reads that the Algonkins <i>straightly</i> called the
+latter a snake; when he sees the same adjective, spiral or winding,
+(<span class="greek" title="helikoiedês">ἑλικοιεδης</span>) applied by the Greeks to the lightning and a snake; when
+the Quiché call the electric flash a strong serpent; and many other such
+examples. The Pueblo Indians represent lightning in their pictographs by
+a zigzag line. A zigzag fence is called in the Middle States a worm or
+“snake” fence. Besides this, adjectives which describe the line traced
+by the serpent in motion are applied to many twisting or winding
+objects, as a river, a curl or lock of hair, the tendrils of a vine, the
+intestines, a trailing plant, the mazes of a dance, a bracelet, a broken
+ray of light, a sickle, a crooked limb, an anfractuous path,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[207]</a></span> the
+phallus, etc. Hence the figure of a serpent may, and in fact has been,
+used with direct reference to every one of these, as could easily be
+shown. How short-sighted then the expounder of symbolism who would
+explain the frequent recurrence of the symbol or the myth of the serpent
+wherever he finds it by any one of these!</p>
+
+<p>This narrowness of exposition becomes doubly evident when we give
+consideration to two other elements in primitive symbolism&mdash;the
+multivocal nature of early designs, and the misapprehensions due to
+contiguous association.</p>
+
+<p>To illustrate the first, let us suppose, with Schwarz<a name="FNanchor_207-1_144" id="FNanchor_207-1_144" href="#Footnote_207-1_144" class="fnanchor">207-1</a> and others,
+that the serpent was at first the symbol of the lightning. Its most
+natural representation would be in motion; it might then stand for the
+other serpentine objects I have mentioned; but once accepted as an
+acknowledged symbol, the other qualities and properties of the serpent
+would present themselves to the mind, and the effort would be made to
+discover or to imagine likenesses to these in the electric flash. The
+serpent is venomous; it casts its skin and thus seems to renew its life;
+it is said to fascinate its prey; it lives in the ground; it hisses or
+rattles when disturbed: none of these properties is present to the mind
+of the savage who scratches on the rock a zigzag line to represent the
+lightning god. But after-thought brings<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[208]</a></span> them up, and the association of
+contiguity can apply them all to the lightning, and actually has done so
+over and over again; and not only to it, but also to other objects
+originally represented by a broken line, for example, the river gods and
+the rays of light.</p>
+
+<p>This complexity is increased by the ambiguous representation of symbolic
+designs. The serpent, no longer chosen for its motion alone, will be
+expressed in art in that form best suited to the meaning of the symbol
+present in the mind of the artist. Realism is never the aim of religious
+art. The zigzag line, the coil, the spiral, the circle and the straight
+line, are all geometrical radicals of various serpentine forms. Any one
+of these may be displayed with fanciful embellishments and artistic
+aids. Or the artist, proceeding by synecdoche, takes a part for the
+whole, and instead of portraying the entire animal, contents himself
+with one prominent feature or one aspect of it. A striking instance of
+this has been developed by Dr. Harrison Allen, in the prevalence of what
+he calls the “crotalean curve,” in aboriginal American art, a line which
+is the radical of the profile view of the head of the rattlesnake
+(<i>crotalus</i>).<a name="FNanchor_208-1_145" id="FNanchor_208-1_145" href="#Footnote_208-1_145" class="fnanchor">208-1</a> This he has detected in the architectural monuments
+of Mexico and Yucatan, in the Maya phonetic scrip, and even in the rude
+efforts of the savage tribes. Each of these elective methods of
+repre<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[209]</a></span>senting the serpent, would itself, by independent association,
+call up ideas out of all connection whatever with that which the figure
+first symbolized. These, in the mind entertaining them, will supersede
+and efface the primitive meaning. Thus the circle is used in
+conventional symbolic art to designate the serpent; but also the eye,
+the ear, the open mouth, the mamma, the sun, the moon, a wheel, the
+womb, the vagina, the return of the seasons, time, continued life, hence
+health, and many other things. Whichever of these ideas is easiest
+recalled will first appear on looking at a circle. The error of those
+who have discussed mythological symbolism has been to trace a connection
+of such adventitious ideas beyond the symbol to its original meaning;
+whereas the symbol itself is the starting-point. To one living in a
+region where venomous serpents abound, the figure of one will recall the
+sense of danger, the dread of the bite, and the natural hostility we
+feel to those who hurt us; whereas no such ideas would occur to the
+native of a country where there are no snakes, or where they are
+harmless, unless taught this association.</p>
+
+<p>Few symbols have received more extended study than that of the cross,
+owing to its prominence in Christian art. This, as I have said, was
+coincident or incidental only. It corresponded, however, to a current
+“phonetic symbol,” in the expression common to the Greeks and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[210]</a></span> Romans of
+that day, “to take up one’s cross,” meaning to prepare for the worst, a
+metaphor used by Christ himself.</p>
+
+<p>Now there is no agreement as to what was the precise form of the cross
+on which he suffered. Three materially unlike crosses are each equally
+probable. In symbolic art these have been so multiplied that now <i>two
+hundred and twenty-two</i> variants of the figure are described!<a name="FNanchor_210-1_146" id="FNanchor_210-1_146" href="#Footnote_210-1_146" class="fnanchor">210-1</a> Of
+course there is nothing easier than to find among these similarities,
+with many other conventional symbols, the Egyptian Tau, the Hammer of
+Thor, the “Tree of Fertility,” on which the Aztecs nailed their victims,
+the crossed lines which are described on Etruscan tombs, or the logs
+crossed at rectangles, on which the Muskogee Indians built the sacred
+fire. The four cardinal points are so generally objects of worship, that
+more than any other mythical conception they have been represented by
+cruciform figures. But to connect these in any way with the symbol as it
+appears in Christian art, is to violate every scientific principle.</p>
+
+<p>Each variant of a symbol may give rise to myths quite independent of its
+original meaning. A symbol once adopted is preserved by its sacred
+character, exists long as a symbol, but with ever fluctuating
+significations. It always takes that which is uppermost in the mind of
+the votary and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[211]</a></span> the congregation. Hence, psychology, and especially the
+psychology of races, is the only true guide in symbolic exegesis.</p>
+
+<p>Nor is the wide adoption and preservation of symbols alone due to an
+easily noticed similarity between certain objects and the earliest
+conceptions of the supernatural, or to the preservative power of
+religious veneration.</p>
+
+<p>I have previously referred to the associations of ideas arising from
+ancestral reversions of memory, and from the principles of minimum
+muscular action and harmonic excitation. Such laws make themselves felt
+unconsciously from the commencement of life, with greater or less power,
+dependent on the susceptibility of the nervous system. They go far
+toward explaining the recurrence and permanence of symbols, whether of
+sight or sound. Thus I attribute the prevalence of the serpentine curve
+in early religious art largely to its approach to the “line of beauty,”
+which is none other than that line which the eye, owing to the
+arrangement of its muscles, can follow with the minimum expenditure of
+nervous energy. The satisfaction of the mind in viewing symmetrical
+figures or harmonious coloring, as also that of the ear, in hearing
+accordant sounds, is, as I have remarked, based on the principle of
+maximum action with minimum waste. The mind gets the most at the least
+cost.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[212]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The equilateral triangle, which is the simplest geometrical figure which
+can enclose a space, thus satisfying the mind the easiest of any, is
+nigh universal in symbolism. It is seen in the Egyptian pyramids, whose
+sides are equilateral triangles with a common apex, in the mediæval
+cathedrals, whose designs are combinations of such triangles, in the
+sign for the trinity, the pentalpha, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The classification of some symbols of less extensive prevalence must be
+made from their phonetic values. One class was formed as were the
+“canting arms” in heraldry, that is, by a rebus. This is in its simpler
+form, direct, as when Quetzalcoatl, the mystical hero-god of Atzlan, is
+represented by a bird on a serpent, <i>quetzal</i> signifying a bird, <i>coatl</i>
+a serpent; or composite, two or more of such rebus symbols being blended
+by synecdoche, like the “marshalling” of arms in heraldry, as when the
+same god is portrayed by a feathered serpent; or the rebus may occur
+with paronymy, especially when the literal meaning of a name of the god
+is lost, as when the Algonkins forgot the sense of the word <i>wabish</i>,
+white or bright, as applied to their chief divinity, and confounding it
+with <i>wabos</i>, a rabbit, wove various myths about their ancestor, the
+Great Hare, and chose the hare or rabbit as a totemic badge.<a name="FNanchor_212-1_147" id="FNanchor_212-1_147" href="#Footnote_212-1_147" class="fnanchor">212-1</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[213]</a></span>It is almost needless to add further that the ideas most frequently
+associated with the unknown object of religion are those, which,
+struggling after material expression, were most fecund in symbols. We
+have but to turn to the Orphic hymns, or those of the Vedas or the
+Hebrew Psalms, to see how inexhaustible was the poetic fancy, stirred by
+religious awe, in the discovery of similitudes, any of which, under
+favoring circumstances, might become a symbol.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving this branch of my subject, I may illustrate some of the
+preceding comments by applying them to one or two well known subjects of
+religious art.</p>
+
+<p>A pleasing symbol, which has played a conspicuous part in many
+religions, is the Egyptian lotus, or “lily of the Nile.” It is an
+aquatic plant, with white, roseate or blue flowers, which float upon the
+water, and send up from their centre long stamens. In Egypt it grows
+with the rising of the Nile, and as its appearance was coincident with
+that important event, it came to take prominence in the worship of Isis
+and Osiris as the symbol of fertility. Their mystical marriage took
+place in its blossom. In the technical language of the priests, however,
+it bore a profounder meaning, that of the supremacy of reason above
+matter, the contrast being between the beautiful flower and the muddy
+water which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[214]</a></span> bears it.<a name="FNanchor_214-1_148" id="FNanchor_214-1_148" href="#Footnote_214-1_148" class="fnanchor">214-1</a> In India the lotus bears other and
+manifold meanings. It is a symbol of the sacred river Ganges, and of the
+morally pure. No prayer in the world has ever been more frequently
+repeated than this: “Om! the jewel in the lotus. Amen” (<i>om mani padme
+hum</i>). Many millions of times, every hour, for centuries, has this been
+iterated by the Buddhists of Thibet and the countries north of it. What
+it means, they can only explain by fantastic and mystical guesses.
+Probably it refers to the legendary birth of their chief saint,
+Avalokitesvara, who is said to have been born of a lotus flower. But
+some say it is a piece of symbolism not strange to its meaning in
+Egypt,<a name="FNanchor_214-2_149" id="FNanchor_214-2_149" href="#Footnote_214-2_149" class="fnanchor">214-2</a> and borrowed by Buddhism from the Siva worship. In the
+symbolic language of this sect the lotus is the symbol of the vagina,
+while the phallus is called “the jewel.” With this interpretation the
+Buddhist prayer would refer to the reproductive act; but it is
+illustrative of the necessity of attributing wholly diverse meanings to
+the same symbol, that the Buddhists neither now nor at any past time
+attached any such signification to the expression, and it would be most
+discrepant with their doctrines to do so.<a name="FNanchor_214-3_150" id="FNanchor_214-3_150" href="#Footnote_214-3_150" class="fnanchor">214-3</a></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[215]</a></span>Another symbol has frequently been open to this duplicate
+interpretation, that is, the upright pillar. The Egyptian obelisk, the
+pillars of “Irmin” or of “Roland,” set up now of wood, now of stone by
+the ancient Germans, the “red-painted great warpole” of the American
+Indians, the May-pole of Old England, the spire of sacred edifices, the
+staff planted on the grave, the terminus of the Roman landholders, all
+these objects have been interpreted to be symbols of life, or the
+life-force. As they were often of wood, the trunk of a tree for
+instance, they have often been called by titles equivalent to the “tree
+of life,” and are thus connected with the nigh innumerable myths which
+relate to some mystic tree as the source of life. The ash Ygdrasyl of
+the Edda, the oak of Dordona and of the Druid, the modern Christmas
+tree, the sacred banyan, the holy groves, illustrate but faintly the
+prevalence of tree worship. Even so late as the time of Canute, it had
+to be forbidden in England by royal edict.</p>
+
+<p>Now, the general meaning of this symbol I take to be the same as that
+which led to the choice of hills and “high places,” as sites for altars
+and temples, and to the assigning of mountain tops as the abodes of the
+chief gods. It is seen in adjectives applied, I believe, in all
+languages, certainly all developed ones, to such deities themselves.
+These adjectives are related<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[216]</a></span> to adverbs of place, signifying <i>above</i>,
+<i>up</i> or <i>over</i>. We speak of the supernatural, or supernal powers, the
+Supreme Being, the Most High, He in Heaven, and such like. So do all
+Aryan and Semitic tongues. Beyond them, the Chinese name for the Supreme
+Deity, Tien, means <i>up</i>. I have elsewhere illustrated the same fact in
+native American tongues. The association of light and the sky above, the
+sun and the heaven, is why we raise our hands and eyes in confident
+prayer to divinity. That at times, however, a religion of sex-love did
+identify these erect symbols with the phallus as the life-giver, is very
+true, but this was a temporary and adventitious meaning assigned a
+symbol far more ancient than this form of religion.</p>
+
+<p>In this review of the principles of religious symbolism, I have
+attempted mainly to exhibit the part it has sustained in the development
+of the religious sentiment. It has been generally unfavorable to the
+growth of higher thought. The symbol, in what it is above the emblem,
+assumes more than a similarity, a closer relation than analogy; to some
+degree it pretends to a hypostatic union or identity of the material
+with the divine, the known to sense with the unknown. Fully seen, this
+becomes object worship; partially so, personification.</p>
+
+<p>There is no exception to this. The refined symbolisms which pass current
+to day as religious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[217]</a></span> philosophies exemplify it. The one, esthetic
+symbolism, has its field in musical and architectural art, in the study
+and portraiture of the beautiful; the other, scientific symbolism,
+claims to discover in the morphology of organisms, in the harmonic laws
+of physics, and in the processes of the dialectic, the proof that
+symbolism, if not a revelation, is at least an unconscious inspiration
+of universal truth. This is the “Doctrine of Correspondences,” much in
+favor with Swedenborgians, but by no means introduced by the founder of
+that sect. The recognition of the identity in form of the fundamental
+laws of motion and thought, and the clearer understanding of the
+character of harmony which the experiments of Helmholtz and others give
+us, disperse most of the mystery about these similarities. The religion
+of art, as such, will come up for consideration in the next chapter.</p>
+
+<p>The second form of the Cult is the Rite. This includes the acts or
+ceremonies of worship. Considered in the gross, they can be classed as
+of two kinds, the first and earliest propitiatory, the second and later
+memorial or institutionary.</p>
+
+<p>We have but to bear in mind the one aspiration of commencing religious
+thought, to wit, the attainment of a wish, to see that whatever action
+arose therefrom must be directed to that purpose. Hence, when we analyze
+the rude ceremonies of savage cults, the motive is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_218" id="Page_218">[218]</a></span> extremely apparent.
+They, like their prayers, all point to the securing of some material
+advantage. They are designed</p>
+
+<p class="poem"><span class="i14">“to cozen</span><br />
+The gods that constrain us and curse.”</p>
+
+<p>The motives which underlie these simplest as well as the most elaborate
+rituals, and impress upon them their distinctively religious character
+can be reduced to two, the idea of <i>sacrifice</i> and the idea of <i>specific
+performance</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The simplest notion involved in a sacrifice is that of <i>giving</i>. The
+value of the gift is not, however, the intrinsic worth of the thing
+given, nor even the pleasure or advantage the recipient derives
+therefrom, but, singularly enough, the amount of pain the giver
+experiences in depriving himself of it! This is also often seen in
+ordinary transactions. A rich man who subscribes a hundred dollars to a
+charity, is thought to merit less commendation than the widow who gives
+her mite. Measured by motive, this reasoning is correct. There is a
+justice which can be vindicated in holding self-denial to be a standard
+of motive. All developed religions have demanded the renunciation of
+what is dearest. The Ynglyngasaga tells us that in a time of famine, the
+first sacrifice offered to the gods was of beasts only; if this failed,
+men were slain to appease them; and if this did not mitigate their<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[219]</a></span>
+anger, the king himself was obliged to die that they might send plenty.
+The Latin writers have handed it down that among the Germans and Gauls a
+human sacrifice was deemed the more efficacious the more distinguished
+the victim, and the nearer his relationship to him who offered the
+rite.<a name="FNanchor_219-1_151" id="FNanchor_219-1_151" href="#Footnote_219-1_151" class="fnanchor">219-1</a> The slaughter of children and wives to please the gods was
+common in many religions, and the self-emasculation of the priests of
+Cybele, with other such painful rites, indicates that the measure of the
+sacrifice was very usually not what the god needed, but the willingness
+of the worshipper to give.</p>
+
+<p>The second idea, that of <i>specific performance</i>, has been well expressed
+and humorously commented upon by Hume in his <i>Natural History of
+Religions</i>. He says: “Here I cannot forbear observing a fact which may
+be worth the attention of those who make human nature the object of
+their inquiry. It is certain that in every religion, many of the
+votaries, perhaps the greatest number, will seek the divine favor, not
+by virtue and good morals, but either by frivolous observances, by
+intemperate zeal, by rapturous ecstasies, or by the belief of mysterious
+and absurd opinions.</p>
+
+<p>* * * In all this [<i>i. e.</i>, in virtue and good morals], a superstitious
+man finds nothing, which he has properly performed for the sake of his
+deity, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[220]</a></span> which can peculiarly recommend him to divine favor and
+protection. * * * * But if he fast or give himself a sound whipping,
+this has a direct reference, in his opinion, to the service of God. No
+other motive could engage him to such austerities.”</p>
+
+<p>The philosopher here sets forth in his inimitable style a marked
+characteristic of religious acts. But he touches upon it with his usual
+superficiality. It is true that no religion has ever been content with
+promoting the happiness of man, and that the vast majority of votaries
+are always seeking to do something specifically religious, and are not
+satisfied with the moral only. The simple explanation of it is that the
+religious sentiment has a purpose entirely distinct from ethics, a
+purpose constantly felt as something peculiar to itself, though
+obscurely seen and often wholly misconceived. It is only when an action
+is utterly dissevered from other ends, and is purely and solely
+religious, that it can satisfy this sentiment. “<i>La religion</i>,” most
+truly observes Madame Necker de Saussure, “<i>ne doit point avoir d’autre
+bût qu’elle même</i>.”</p>
+
+<p>The uniform prevalence of these ideas in rites may be illustrated from
+the simplest or the most elaborate. Father Brebeuf, missionary to the
+Hurons in 1636, has a chapter on their superstitions. He there tells us
+that this nation had two sorts of ceremonies, the one to induce the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[221]</a></span>
+gods to grant good fortune, the other to appease them when some ill-luck
+had occurred. Before running a dangerous rapid in their frail canoes
+they would lay tobacco on a certain rock where the deity of the rapid
+was supposed to reside, and ask for safety in their voyage. They took
+tobacco and cast it in the fire, saying: “O Heaven (<i>Aronhiaté</i>), see, I
+give you something; aid me; cure this sickness of mine.” When one was
+drowned or died of cold, a feast was called, and the soft parts of the
+corpse were cut from the bones and burned to conciliate the personal
+god, while the women danced and chanted a melancholy strain. Here one
+sacrifice was to curry favor with the gods, another to soothe their
+anger, and the third was a rite, not a sacrifice, but done for a
+religious end, whose merit was specific performance.</p>
+
+<p>As the gift was valued at what it cost the giver, and was supposed to be
+efficacious in this same ratio, self-denial soon passed into
+self-torture, prolonged fasts, scourging and lacerations, thus becoming
+legitimate exhibitions of religious fervor. As mental pain is as keen as
+bodily pain, the suffering of Jephthah was quite as severe as that of
+the Flagellants, and was expected to find favor in the eyes of the gods.</p>
+
+<p>A significant <a name="corr12" id="corr12"></a><ins class="correction" title="corollary">corrollary</ins> from such a theory follows: that which is
+the efficacious part of the sacrifice is the suffering; given a certain
+degree<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[222]</a></span> of this, the desired effect will follow. As to what or who
+suffers, or in what manner he or it suffers, these are secondary
+considerations, even unimportant ones, so far as the end to be obtained
+is concerned. This is the germ of <i>vicarious</i> sacrifice, a plan
+frequently observed in even immature religions. What seems the
+diabolical cruelty of some superstitious rites, those of the
+Carthaginians and Celts, for example, is thoroughly consistent with the
+abstract theory of sacrifice, and did not spring from capricious malice.
+The Death of Christ, regarded as a general vicarious atonement, has had
+its efficiency explained directly by the theory that the pain he
+suffered partook of the infinity of his divine nature; as thus it was
+excruciating beyond measure, so it was infinitely effectual toward
+appeasing divinity.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known that this doctrine was no innovation on the religious
+sentiment of the age when it was preached by the Greek fathers. For
+centuries the Egyptian priests had taught the incarnation and sufferings
+of Osiris, and his death for the salvation of his people. Similar myths
+were common throughout the Orient, all drawn from the reasoning I have
+mentioned.<a name="FNanchor_222-1_152" id="FNanchor_222-1_152" href="#Footnote_222-1_152" class="fnanchor">222-1</a></p>
+
+<p>They have been variously criticized. Apart<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[223]</a></span> from the equivocal traits
+this theory of atonement attributes to the supernatural powers&mdash;a
+feature counterbalanced, in modern religion, by subduing its harshest
+features&mdash;it is rooted essentially in the material view of religion. The
+religious value of an act is to be appraised by the extent to which it
+follows recognition of duty. To acknowledge an error is unpleasant; to
+renounce it still more so, for it breaks a habit; to see our own errors
+in their magnitude, sullying our whole nature and reaching far ahead to
+generations yet unborn, is consummately bitter, and in proportion as it
+is bitter, will keep us from erring.<a name="FNanchor_223-1_153" id="FNanchor_223-1_153" href="#Footnote_223-1_153" class="fnanchor">223-1</a> This is the “sacrifice of a
+contrite heart,” which alone is not despicable; and this no one can do
+for us. We may be sure that neither the physical pain of victims burning
+in a slow fire, nor the mental pain of yielding up whatever we hold
+dearest upon earth, will make our views of duty a particle clearer or
+our notion of divinity a jot nobler; and whatever does neither of these
+is not of true religion.</p>
+
+<p>The theory of sacrifice is intimately related with the idea of sin. In
+the quotation I have made from Father Brebeuf we see that the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[224]</a></span> Hurons
+recognized a distinct form of rite as appropriate to appease a god when
+angered. It is a matter of national temperament which of these forms
+takes the lead. Joutel tells of a tribe in Texas who paid attention only
+to the gods who worked them harm, saying that the good gods were good
+anyhow. By parity of reasoning, one sect of Mohammedans worship the
+devil only. It is well to make friends with your enemy, and then he will
+not hurt you; and if a man is shielded from his enemies, he is safe
+enough.</p>
+
+<p>But where, as in most Semitic, Celtic and various other religions, the
+chief gods frowned or smiled as they were propitiated or neglected, and
+when a certain amount of pain was the propitiation they demanded, the
+necessity of rendering this threw a dark shadow on life. What is the
+condition of man, that only through sorrow he can reach joy? He must be
+under a curse.</p>
+
+<p>Physical and mental processes aided by analogy this gloomy deduction. It
+is only through pain that we are stimulated to the pursuit of pleasure,
+and the latter is a phantom we never catch. The laws of correct
+reasoning are those which alone should guide us; but the natural laws of
+the association of ideas do not at all correspond with the one
+association which reason accepts. Truth is what we are born for, error
+is what is given us.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[225]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Instead of viewing this state of things as one inseparable to the
+relative as another than the universal, and, instead of seeing the means
+of correcting it in the mental element of attention, continuance or
+volition, guided by experience and the growing clearness of the purposes
+of the laws of thought, the problem was given up as hopeless, and man
+was placed under a ban from which a god alone could set him free; he was
+sunk in original sin, chained to death.</p>
+
+<p>To reach this result it is evident that a considerable effort at
+reasoning, a peculiar view of the nature of the gods, and a temperament
+not the most common, must be combined. Hence it was adopted as a
+religious dogma by but a few nations. The Chinese know nothing of the
+“sense of sin,” nor did the Greeks and Romans. The Parsees do not
+acknowledge it, nor do the American tribes. “To sin,” in their
+languages, does not mean to offend the deity, but to make a mistake, to
+miss the mark, to loose one’s way as in a wood, and the missionaries
+have exceeding difficulty in making them understand the theological
+signification of the word.</p>
+
+<p>The second class of rites are memorial in character. As the former were
+addressed to the gods, so these are chiefly for the benefit of the
+people. They are didactic, to preserve the myth, or institutionary, to
+keep alive the discipline and forms of the church.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[226]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Of this class of rites it may broadly be said they are the myth
+dramatized. Indeed, the drama owes its origin to the mimicry by
+worshippers of the supposed doings of the gods. The most ancient
+festivals have reference to the recurrence of the seasons, and the
+ceremonies which mark them represent the mythical transactions which are
+supposed to govern the yearly changes. The god himself was often
+represented by the</p>
+
+<p>high priest, and masked figures took the parts of attendant deities.</p>
+
+<p>Institutionary rites are those avowedly designed to commemorate a myth
+or event, and to strengthen thereby the religious organization.
+Christian baptism is by some denominations looked upon as a
+commemorative or institutionary rite only; and the same is the case with
+the Lord’s Supper. These seem to have been the only rites recommended,
+though the former was not practiced by Christ. In any ordinary meaning
+of his words, he regarded them both as institutionary.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency of memorial to become propitiatory rites is visible in all
+materialistic religions. The procedure, from a simple commemorative act,
+acquires a mystic efficacy, a supernatural or spiritual power, often
+supposed to extend to the deity as well as the votary. Thus the Indian
+“rain-maker” will rattle his gourd, beat his drum, and blow through his
+pipe, to represent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[227]</a></span> the thunder, lightning, and wind of the storm; and
+he believes that by this mimicry of the rain-god’s proceedings he can
+force him to send the wished-for showers. The charms, spells and
+incantations of sorcery have the same foundation. Equally visible is it
+in the reception of the Christian rites above mentioned, baptism and the
+Eucharist, as “sacraments,” as observances of divine efficacy in
+themselves. All such views arise from the material character of the
+religious wants.</p>
+
+<p>The conclusion is that, while emblems and memorial rites have nothing in
+them which can mar, they also have nothing which can aid the growth and
+purity of the religious sentiment, beyond advancing its social
+relations; while symbols, in the proper sense of the term, and
+propitiatory rites, as necessarily false and without foundation, always
+degrade and obscure religious thought. Their prominence in a cult
+declines, as it rises in quality; and in a perfected scheme of worship
+they would have no place whatever.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_200-1_140" id="Footnote_200-1_140" href="#FNanchor_200-1_140">200-1</a> In his chapter <i>Ideen zu einer Physik des Symbols und
+des Mythus</i>, of his <i>Symbolik und Mythologie</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_201-1_141" id="Footnote_201-1_141" href="#FNanchor_201-1_141">201-1</a> Dr. H. C. Barlow’s <i>Essays on Symbolism</i> (London,
+1866), deserves mention as one of the best of these.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_204-1_142" id="Footnote_204-1_142" href="#FNanchor_204-1_142">204-1</a> W. S. Jevons, <i>The Substitution of Similars</i>, p. 15
+(London, 1869.)</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_205-1_143" id="Footnote_205-1_143" href="#FNanchor_205-1_143">205-1</a> Creuzer, <i>Symbolik</i>, Bd. I, s. 59.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_207-1_144" id="Footnote_207-1_144" href="#FNanchor_207-1_144">207-1</a> <i>Ursprung der Mythologie</i> (Berlin, 1862).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_208-1_145" id="Footnote_208-1_145" href="#FNanchor_208-1_145">208-1</a> Harrison Allen, M. D., <i>The Life Form in Art</i>, Phila.
+1874.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_210-1_146" id="Footnote_210-1_146" href="#FNanchor_210-1_146">210-1</a> Cussans, <i>Grammar of Heraldry</i>, p. 16.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_212-1_147" id="Footnote_212-1_147" href="#FNanchor_212-1_147">212-1</a> Numerous examples from classical antiquity are given by
+Creuzer, <i>Symbolik</i>, Bd. i. s. 114. sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_214-1_148" id="Footnote_214-1_148" href="#FNanchor_214-1_148">214-1</a> W. von Humboldt, <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>, Bd. iv., s. 332.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_214-2_149" id="Footnote_214-2_149" href="#FNanchor_214-2_149">214-2</a> Creuzer, <i>Symbolik und Mythologie</i>, Bd. i., s. 282.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_214-3_150" id="Footnote_214-3_150" href="#FNanchor_214-3_150">214-3</a> Carl Frederick Koppen, <i>Die Lamaische Hierarchie
+<a name="corr13" id="corr13"></a><ins class="correction" title="und">and</ins> Kirche</i>, ss. 59, 60, 61.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_219-1_151" id="Footnote_219-1_151" href="#FNanchor_219-1_151">219-1</a> Adolph Holtzmann, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, p. 232
+(Leipzig, 1874).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_222-1_152" id="Footnote_222-1_152" href="#FNanchor_222-1_152">222-1</a> “Es ist so gewissermassen in allen ernsten
+orientalischen Lehren das Christenthum in seinem Keime vorgebildet.”
+Creuzer, <i>Symbolik und Mythologie der Alten Völker</i>, Bd. i., s. 297.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_223-1_153" id="Footnote_223-1_153" href="#FNanchor_223-1_153">223-1</a> In a conversation reported by Mr. John Morley, John
+Stuart Mill expressed his belief that “the coming modification of
+religion” will be controlled largely through men becoming “more and more
+impressed with the awful fact that a piece of conduct to-day may prove a
+curse to men and women scores and even hundreds of years after the
+author of it is dead.”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[228]</a></span></p>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[229]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapdivider"><a name="THE_MOMENTA_OF_RELIGIOUS_THOUGHT" id="THE_MOMENTA_OF_RELIGIOUS_THOUGHT"></a>THE MOMENTA OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT.</h2>
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[230]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3 class="chapterhead">SUMMARY.</h3>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>National impulses and aims as historic ideas. Their recurrence and
+its explanation. Their permanence in relation to their truth and
+consciousness. The historic ideas in religious progress are chiefly
+three.</p>
+
+<p>I. The Idea of the Perfected Individual.</p>
+
+<p>First placed in physical strength. This gave way in Southern Europe
+to the idea of physical symmetry, a religion of beauty and art.
+Later days have produced the idea of mental symmetry, the religion
+of culture. All have failed, and why? The momenta of true religion
+in each.</p>
+
+<p>II. The Idea of the Perfected Commonwealth.</p>
+
+<p>Certain national temperaments predispose to individualism, others
+to communism. The social relations governed at first by divine law.
+Later, morality represents this law. The religion of conduct. The
+religion of sentiment and of humanity. Advantages and disadvantages
+in this idea.</p>
+
+<p>Comparisons of these two ideas as completed respectively by Wilhelm
+von Humboldt and Auguste Comte.</p>
+
+<p>III. The Idea of Personal Survival.</p>
+
+<p>The doctrine of immortality the main moment in Christianity, Islam
+and Buddhism. Unfamiliar to old and simple faiths. Its energy and
+speculative relations. It is decreasing as a religious moment owing
+to, (1) a better understanding of ethics, (2) more accurate
+cosmical conceptions, (3) the clearer defining of life, (4) the
+increasing immateriality of religions.</p>
+
+<p>The future and final moments of religious thought.</p></div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[231]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII.<br />
+<br />
+<span class="chaptitle">THE MOMENTA OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT.</span></h2>
+
+
+<p><span class="smcap">The</span> records of the past can be studied variously. Events can be arranged
+in the order of their occurrence: this is chronology or annals; in
+addition to this, their connections and mutual relations as cause and
+effect may be shown: this is historical science; or, thirdly, from a
+general view of trains of related events some abstract aim as their
+final cause may be theoretically deduced and confirmed by experience:
+this is the philosophy of history. The doctrine of final causes, in its
+old form as the <i>argumentum de appetitu</i>, has been superseded. Function
+is not purpose; desire comes from the experience of pleasure, and
+realizes its dreams, if at all, by the slow development of capacity. The
+wish carries no warrant of gratification with it. No “argument from
+design” can be adduced from the region where the laws of physical
+necessity prevail. Those laws are not designed for an end.</p>
+
+<p>When, however, in the unfolding of mind we reach the stage of notions,
+we observe a growing power to accomplish desire, not only by altering<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[232]</a></span>
+the individual or race organism, but also by bringing external objects
+into unison with the desire, reversing the process common in the life of
+sensation. This spectacle, however, is confined to man alone, and man as
+guided by prospective volition, that is, by an object ahead.</p>
+
+<p>When some such object is common to a nation or race, it exercises a wide
+influence on its destiny, and is the key to much that otherwise would be
+inexplicable in its actions. What we call national hopes, ambitions and
+ideals are such objects. Sometimes they are distinctly recognized by the
+nation, sometimes they are pursued almost unconsciously. They do not
+correspond to things as they are, but as they are wished to be. Hence
+there is nothing in them to insure their realization. They are like an
+appetite, which may and may not develope the function which can gratify
+it. They have been called “historic ideas,” and their consideration is a
+leading topic in modern historical science.</p>
+
+<p>Reason claims the power of criticizing such ideas, and of distinguishing
+in them between what is true and therefore obtainable, and what is false
+and therefore chimerical or even destructive. This is the province of
+the philosophy of history. It guides itself by those general principles
+for the pursuit of truth which have been noticed in brief in the earlier
+pages of this book. Looking before as well as after, it aspires in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[233]</a></span>
+united light of experience and the laws of mind, to construct for the
+race an ideal within the reach of its capacities, yet which will
+develope them to the fullest extent, a pole-star to which it can trust
+in this night teeming with will-o’-the wisps.</p>
+
+<p>The opinion that the history of mind is a progress whose end will be
+worth more than was its beginning, may not prove true in fact&mdash;the
+concrete expression never wholly covers the abstract requirements&mdash;but
+it is undoubtedly true in theory. The progress, so far, has been by no
+means a lineal one&mdash;each son a better man than his father&mdash;nor even, as
+some would have it, a spiral one&mdash;periodical recurrences to the same
+historical ideas, but each recurrence a nearer approach to the
+philosophical idea&mdash;but it has been far more complex and irregular than
+any geometrical figure will illustrate. These facile generalizations do
+not express it.</p>
+
+<p>Following the natural laws of thought man has erred infinitely, and his
+errors have worked their sure result&mdash;they have destroyed him. There is
+no “relish of salvation” in an error; otherwise than that it is sure to
+kill him who obstructs the light by harboring it. There is no sort of
+convertability of the false into the true, as shallow thinkers of the
+day teach.</p>
+
+<p>Man has only escaped death when at first by a lucky chance, and then by
+personal and inherited<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[234]</a></span> experience, his thoughts drifted or were forced
+into conformity with the logical laws of thought.</p>
+
+<p>A historic idea is a complex product formed of numerous conceptions,
+some true and others false. Its permanency and efficacy are in direct
+proportion to the number and clearness of the former it embraces. When
+it is purging itself of the latter, the nation is progressive; when the
+false are retained, their poison spreads and the nation decays.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>periodical recurrence</i> of historic ideas is one of their most
+striking features. The explanations offered for it have been various.
+The ancient doctrines of an exact repetition of events in the cycles of
+nature, and of the transmigration of souls, drew much support from it;
+and the modern modification of the latter theory as set forth by
+Wordsworth and Lessing, are distinctly derived from the same source.
+Rightly elucidated, the philosophical historian will find in it an
+invaluable clue to the unravelment of the tangled skein of human
+endeavor.</p>
+
+<p>Historic periodicity is on the one side an organic law of memory,
+dependent upon the revival of transmitted ancestral impressions. A
+prevailing idea though over-cultivation exhausts its organic correlate,
+and leads to defective nutrition of that part in the offspring. Hence
+they do not pursue the same idea as their fathers, but revert to a
+remoter ancestral historic idea, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[235]</a></span> organic correlate of which has
+lain fallow, thus gained strength. It is brought forth as new, receives
+additions by contiguity and similarity, is ardently pursued,
+over-cultivated, and in time supplanted by another revival.</p>
+
+<p>But this material side corresponds to an all-important mental one. As an
+organic process only, the history of periodic ideas is thus
+satisfactorily explained, but he who holds this explanation to be
+exhaustive sees but half the problem.</p>
+
+<p>The permanence of a historic idea, I have stated, is in direct
+proportion to the number of true ideas in its composition; the
+impression it makes on the organic substrata of memory is in turn in
+proportion to its permanence. The element of decay is the destructive
+effects of natural trains of thought out of accord with the logically
+true trains. These cause defective cerebral nutrition, which is thus
+seen to arise, so far as influenced by the operations of the memory,
+from relations of truth and error. There is a physiological tendency in
+the former to preserve and maintain in activity; in the latter to
+disappear. The percentage of true concepts which makes up the complexity
+of a historic idea gives the principal factor towards calculating its
+probable recurrence. Of course, a second factor is the physiological one
+of nutrition itself.</p>
+
+<p>The next important distinction in discussing historic ideas is between
+those which are held<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[236]</a></span> consciously, and those which operate
+unconsciously. The former are always found to be more active, and more
+amenable to correction. An unconscious idea is a product of the natural,
+not the logical laws of mind, and is therefore very apt to be largely
+false. It is always displaced with advantage by a conscious aim.</p>
+
+<p>One of the superficial fallacies of the day, which pass under the name
+of philosophy, is to maintain that any such historic idea is the best
+possible one for the time and place in which it is found. I am led to
+refer to this by the false light it has thrown on religious history.
+Herbert Spencer remarks in one of his essays:<a name="FNanchor_236-1_154" id="FNanchor_236-1_154" href="#Footnote_236-1_154" class="fnanchor">236-1</a> “All religious
+creeds, during the eras in which they are severally held, are the best
+that could be held.” “All are good for their times and places.” So far
+from this being the case, there never has been a religion but that an
+improvement in it would have straightway exerted a beneficent effect.
+Man, no matter what his condition, can always<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[237]</a></span> derive immediate good
+from higher conceptions of Deity than he himself has elaborated. Nor is
+the highest conception possible an idealization of self, as I have
+sufficiently shown in a previous chapter, but is one drawn wholly from
+the realm of the abstract. Moreover, as a matter of history, we know
+that in abundant instances, the decay of nations can be traced largely
+to the base teachings of their religious instructors. To maintain that
+such religions were “the best possible ones” for the time and place is
+the absurdest optimism. In what a religion shares of the abstractly true
+it is beneficent; in what it partakes of the untrue it is deleterious.
+This, and no other canon, must be our guide.</p>
+
+<p>The ideas of religious history obey the same laws as other historic
+ideas. They grow, decay, are supplanted and revive again in varying
+guises, in accordance with the processes of organic nutrition as
+influenced by the truth or falsity of their component ideas. Their
+tendency to personification is stronger, because of the much greater
+nearness they have to the individual desire. The one aspiration of a
+high-spirited people when subjugated will be freedom; and in the lower
+stages of culture they will be very certain to fabricate a myth of a
+deliverer to come.</p>
+
+<p>In like manner, every member of a community shares with his fellow
+members some wish, hope or ambition dependent on unknown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[238]</a></span> control and
+therefore religious in character, which will become the “formative idea”
+of the national religious development.</p>
+
+<p>Of the various ideas in religious history there are three which, through
+their permanence and frequent revival, we may justly suppose in
+accordance with the above-mentioned canons to contain a large measure of
+truth, and yet to be far from wholly true. They may be considered as
+leading moments in religious growth, yet withal lacking something or
+other essential to the satisfaction of the religious sentiment. The
+first of these is the idea of the <i>perfected individual</i>; the second the
+idea of the <i>perfected commonwealth</i>; the third, that of <i>personal
+survival</i>. These have been the formative ideas (<i>Ideen der Gestaltung</i>)
+in the prayers, myths, rites and religious institutions of many nations
+at widely separated times.</p>
+
+<p>Of the two first mentioned it may be said that every extended faith has
+accepted them to some degree. They are the secret of the alliances of
+religion with art, with government, with ethics, with science, education
+and sentiment.</p>
+
+<p>These alliances have often been taken by historians to contain the vital
+elements of religion itself, and many explanations based on one or
+another assumption of the kind have been proffered. Religion, while it
+may embrace any of them, is independent of them all. Its relations to
+them have been transitory, and the more<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[239]</a></span> so as their aims have been
+local and material. The brief duration of the subjection of religion to
+such incongenial ties was well compared by Lord Herbert of Cherbury to
+the early maturity of brutes, who attain their full growth in a year or
+two, while man needs a quarter of a century.<a name="FNanchor_239-1_155" id="FNanchor_239-1_155" href="#Footnote_239-1_155" class="fnanchor">239-1</a> The inferior aims of
+the religious sentiment were discarded one after another to make way for
+higher ones, which were slowly dawning upon it. In this progress it was
+guided largely by the three ideas I have mentioned, which have been in
+many forms leading stimuli of the religious thought of the race.</p>
+
+<p>First, of the <i>idea of the perfected individual</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Many writers have supposed that the contemplation of Power in nature
+first stirred religious thought in man. Though this is not the view
+taken in this book, no one will question that the leading trait in the
+gods of barbarism is physical strength. The naive anthropomorphism of
+the savage makes his a god of a mighty arm, a giant in stature, puissant
+and terrible. He hurls the thunderbolt, and piles up the mountains in
+sport. His name is often The Strong One, as in the Allah, Eloah of the
+Semitic tongues. Hercules, Chon, Melkarth, Dorsanes, Thor and others
+were of the most ancient divinities in Greece, Egypt, Phœnicia, India,
+and Scandinavia, and were all embodiments of physical force. Such, too,
+was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[240]</a></span> largely the character of the Algonkin Messou, who scooped out the
+great lakes with his hands and tore up the largest trees by the roots.
+The huge boulders from the glacial epoch which are scattered over their
+country are the pebbles he tossed in play or in anger. The cleft in the
+Andes, through which flows the river Funha, was opened by a single blow
+of Nemqueteba, chief god of the Muyscas. In all such and a hundred
+similar legends, easy to quote, we see the notion of strength, brute
+force, muscular power, was that deemed most appropriate to divinity, and
+that which he who would be godlike must most sedulously seek. When
+filled with the god, the votary felt a surpassing vigor. The Berserker
+fury was found in the wilds of America and Africa, as well as among the
+Fiords. Sickness and weakness, on the contrary, were signs that the gods
+were against him. Therefore, in all early stages of culture, the office
+of priest and physician was one. Conciliation of the gods was the
+catholicon.</p>
+
+<p>Such deities were fearful to behold. They are represented as mighty of
+stature and terrible of mien, calculated to appal, not attract, to
+inspire fear, not to kindle love. In tropical America, in Egypt, in
+Thibet, almost where you will, there is little to please the eye in the
+pictures and statues of deities.</p>
+
+<p>In Greece alone, a national temperament, marvellously sensitive to
+symmetry, developed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[241]</a></span> the combination of maximum strength with perfect
+form in the sun-god, Apollo, and of grace with beauty in Aphrodite. The
+Greeks were the apostles of the religion of beauty. Their philosophic
+thought saw the permanent in the Form, which outlives strength, and is
+that alone in which the race has being. In its transmission love is the
+agent, and Aphrodite, unmatched in beauty and mother of love, was a
+creation worthy of their devotion. Thus with them the religious
+sentiment still sought its satisfaction in the individual, not indeed in
+the muscle, but in the feature and expression.</p>
+
+<p>When the old gods fell, the Christian fathers taught their flocks to
+abhor the beautiful as one with the sensual. St. Clement of Alexandria
+and Tertullian describe Christ as ugly of visage and undersized, a sort
+of Socrates in appearance.<a name="FNanchor_241-1_156" id="FNanchor_241-1_156" href="#Footnote_241-1_156" class="fnanchor">241-1</a> Christian art was long in getting
+recognition. The heathens were the first to represent in picture and
+statues Christ and the apostles, and for long the fathers of the church
+opposed the multiplication of such images, saying that the inward beauty
+was alone desirable. Christian art reached its highest inspiration under
+the influence of Greek culture after the fall of Constantinople.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[242]</a></span> In the
+very year, however, that Rafaello Sanzio met his premature death, Luther
+burned the decretals of the pope in the market-place of Wittenberg, and
+preached a doctrine as hostile to art as was that of Eusebius and
+Chrysostom. There was no longer any hope for the religion of beauty.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, under the influence of the revival of ancient art which
+arose with Winckelmann towards the close of the last century, a gospel
+of esthetics was preached. Its apostles were chiefly Germans, and among
+them Schiller and Goethe are not inconspicuous names. The latter, before
+his long life was closed, began to see the emptiness of such teachings,
+and the violence perpetrated on the mind by forcing on the religious
+sentiment the food fit only for the esthetic emotions.</p>
+
+<p>The highest conception of individual perfection is reached in a
+character whose physical and mental powers are symmetrically trained,
+and always directed by conscious reason to their appropriate ends.
+Self-government, founded on self-knowledge, wards off the pangs of
+disappointment by limiting ambition to the attainable. The affections
+and emotions, and the pleasures of sensation as well, are indulged in or
+abstained from, but never to the darkening of the intellect. All the
+talents are placed at usury; every power exercised systematically and
+fruitfully with a consecration to a noble purpose.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[243]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This is the religion of culture. None other ranks among its adherents so
+many great minds; men, as Carlyle expresses it, of much religiosity, if
+of little religion. The ideal is a taking one. Such utter self-reliance,
+not from ignorance, but from the perfection of knowledge, was that which
+Buddha held up to his followers: “Self is the God of self; who else
+should be the God?” In this century Goethe, Wordsworth, beyond all
+others Wilhelm von Humboldt, have set forth this ideal. Less strongly
+intellectual natures, as Maine de Biran, De Senancourt, and Matthew
+Arnold, listen with admiration, but feel how unknown to the mass of
+human kind must remain the tongue these masters speak.</p>
+
+<p>Thus did the religious sentiment seek its satisfaction in the
+idealization, first of physical force, then of form, and last of mental
+force, but in each case turned away unsatisfied. Wherein did these
+ideals fail? The first mentioned in exalting power over principle, might
+over right. As was well said by the philosophical Novalis: “The ideal of
+morality has no more dangerous rival than the ideal of physical
+strength, of the most vigorous life. Through it man is transformed into
+a reasoning beast, whose brutal cleverness has a fascination for weak
+minds.”<a name="FNanchor_243-1_157" id="FNanchor_243-1_157" href="#Footnote_243-1_157" class="fnanchor">243-1</a> The religion of beauty failed in that it addressed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[244]</a></span> the
+esthetic emotions, not the reasoning power. Art does not promote the
+good; it owes no fealty to either utility or ethics: in itself, it must
+be, in the negative sense of the words, at once useless and immoral.
+“Nature is not its standard, nor is truth its chief end.”<a name="FNanchor_244-1_158" id="FNanchor_244-1_158" href="#Footnote_244-1_158" class="fnanchor">244-1</a> Its
+spirit is repose, “the perfect form in perfect rest;” whereas the spirit
+of religion is action because of imperfection. Even the gods must know
+of suffering, and partake, in incarnations, of the miseries of men.</p>
+
+<p>In the religion of culture what can we blame? That it is lacking in the
+impulses of action through the isolation it fosters; that it is and must
+be limited to a few, for it provides no defense for the weaknesses the
+many inherit; that its tendency is antagonistic to religion, as it cuts
+away the feeling of dependence, and the trust in the unknown; that it
+allows too little to enthusiasm ever to become a power.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, what momenta of true religious thought have these
+ideals embraced? Each presents some. Physical vigor, regarded as a sign
+of complete nutrition, is an indispensable preliminary to the highest
+religion. Correct thought cannot be, without sufficient and appropriate
+food. If the nourishment is inadequate, defective energy of the brain
+will be transmitted, and the offspring will revert ancestrally to a
+lower plane of thought. “It thus happens that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[245]</a></span> the minds of persons of
+high religious culture by ancestral descent, and the intermarriage of
+religious families, so strangely end in the production of children
+totally devoid of moral sense and religious sentiment&mdash;moral imbeciles
+in short.”<a name="FNanchor_245-1_159" id="FNanchor_245-1_159" href="#Footnote_245-1_159" class="fnanchor">245-1</a> From such considerations of the necessity of physical
+vigor to elevated thought, Descartes predicted that if the human race
+ever attain perfection it will be chiefly through the art of medicine.
+Not alone from emotions of sympathy did the eminent religious teachers
+of past ages maintain that the alleviation and prevention of suffering
+is the first practical duty of man; but it was from a perhaps
+unconscious perception of the antagonism of bodily degeneration to
+mental progress.</p>
+
+<p>So, too, the religion of beauty and art contains an indefeasible germ of
+true religious thought. Art sees the universal in the isolated fact; it
+redeemed the coarse symbol of earlier days by associating it with the
+emotions of joy, instead of fear; commencing with an exaltation of the
+love to sex, it etherealized and ennobled passion; it taught man to look
+elsewhere than to material things for his highest pleasure, for the work
+of art always has its fortune in the imagination and not in the senses
+of the observer; conceptions of order and harmony are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[246]</a></span> familiar to it;
+its best efforts seek to bring all the affairs of life under unity and
+system;<a name="FNanchor_246-1_160" id="FNanchor_246-1_160" href="#Footnote_246-1_160" class="fnanchor">246-1</a> and thus it strengthens the sentiment of moral
+government, which is the first postulate of religion.</p>
+
+<p>The symmetry of the individual, as understood in the religion of
+culture, is likewise a cherished article of true religion. Thus only can
+it protect personality against the pitfalls of self-negation and
+absorption, which communism and pantheism dig for it. The integrity and
+permanence of the person is the keystone to religion, as it is to
+philosophy and ethics. None but a false teacher would measure our duty
+to our neighbor by a higher standard than our love to ourselves. The
+love of God alone is worthy to obscure it.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Steinthal has said: “Every people has its own religion. The
+national temperament hears the tidings and interprets them as it
+can.”<a name="FNanchor_246-2_161" id="FNanchor_246-2_161" href="#Footnote_246-2_161" class="fnanchor">246-2</a> On the other hand, Humboldt&mdash;perhaps<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[247]</a></span> the profoundest
+thinker on these subjects of his generation&mdash;doubted whether religions
+can be measured in reference to nations and sects, because “religion is
+altogether subjective, and rests solely on the conceptive powers of the
+individual.”<a name="FNanchor_247-1_162" id="FNanchor_247-1_162" href="#Footnote_247-1_162" class="fnanchor">247-1</a> Whatever the creed, a pure mind will attach itself
+to its better elements, a base one to its brutal and narrow doctrines. A
+national religion can only be regarded as an average, applicable to the
+majority, not entirely correct of the belief of any one individual,
+wholly incorrect as to a few. Yet it is indubitable that the national
+temperament creates the ideal which gives the essence of religion. Races
+like the Tartar Mongols, who, as we are informed by the Abbé Huc, not
+unfrequently move their tents several times a day, out of simple
+restlessness, cannot desire the same stability that is sought by other
+races, who have the beaver’s instinct for building and colonizing, such
+as the Romans. Buddhism, which sets up the ideal of the individual, is
+an acceptable theory to the former, while the latter, from earliest
+ages, fostered religious views which taught the subordination of the
+individual to the community, in other words, the <i>idea of the perfected
+commonwealth</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This is the conception at the base of all<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[248]</a></span> theocracies, forms of
+government whose statutes are identified with the precepts of religion.
+Instead of a constitution there is the Law, given and sanctioned by God
+as a rule of action.</p>
+
+<p>The Law is at first the Myth applied. Its object is as much to
+propitiate the gods as to preserve social order. It is absolute because
+it is inspired. Many of its ordinances as drawn from the myth are
+inapplicable to man, and are unjust or frivolous. Yet such as it is, it
+rules the conduct of the commonwealth and expresses the ideal of its
+perfected condition.</p>
+
+<p>All the oldest codes of laws are religious, and are alleged revelations.
+The Pentateuch, the Avesta, the Laws of Manu, the Twelve Tables, the
+Laws of Seleucus, all carry the endorsement, “And God said.” Their real
+intention is to teach the relation of man to God, rather than the
+relations of man to man. On practical points&mdash;on the rights of property,
+on succession and wills, on contracts, on the adoption of neighbors, and
+on the treatment of enemies&mdash;they often violate the plainest dictates of
+natural justice, of common humanity, even of family affection. Their
+precepts are frequently frivolous, sometimes grossly immoral. But if
+these laws are compared with the earliest myths and cults, and the
+opinions then entertained of the gods, and how to propitiate them, it
+becomes easy to see how the precepts of the law<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[249]</a></span> flowed from these
+inchoate imaginings of the religious sentiment.<a name="FNanchor_249-1_163" id="FNanchor_249-1_163" href="#Footnote_249-1_163" class="fnanchor">249-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The improvement of civil statutes did not come through religion.
+Experience, observation and free thought taught man justice, and his
+kindlier emotions were educated by the desire to cherish and preserve
+which arose from family and social ties. As these came to be recognized
+as necessary relations of society, religion appropriated them,
+incorporated them into her ideal, and even claimed them as her
+revelations. History largely invalidates this claim. The moral progress
+of mankind has been mainly apart from dogmatic teachings, often in
+conflict with them. An established rule of faith may enforce obedience
+to its statutes, but can never develop morals. “True virtue is
+independent of every religion, and incompatible with any which is
+accepted on authority.”<a name="FNanchor_249-2_164" id="FNanchor_249-2_164" href="#Footnote_249-2_164" class="fnanchor">249-2</a></p>
+
+<p>Yet thinkers, even the best of them, appear to have had difficulty in
+discerning any nobler arena for the religious sentiment than the social
+one. “Religion,” says Matthew Arnold, “is conduct.” It is the power
+“which makes for righteousness.” “As civil law,” said Voltaire,
+“enforces morality in public, so the use of religion is to compel it in
+private life.” “A complete<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[250]</a></span> morality,” observes a contemporary Christian
+writer, “meets all the practical ends of religion.”<a name="FNanchor_250-1_165" id="FNanchor_250-1_165" href="#Footnote_250-1_165" class="fnanchor">250-1</a> In such
+expressions man’s social relations, his duty to his neighbor, are taken
+to exhaust religion. It is still the idea of the commonwealth, the
+religion of morality, the submission to a law recognized as divine.
+Whether the law is a code of ethics, the decision of a general council,
+or the ten commandments, it is alike held to be written by the finger of
+God, and imperative. Good works are the demands of such religion.</p>
+
+<p>Catholicism, which is altogether theocratic and authoritative, which
+pictures the church as an ideal commonwealth, has always most flourished
+in those countries where the Roman colonies left their more important
+traces. The reformation of Protestantism was a reversion to the ideal of
+the individual, which was that of ancient Teutonic faith. In more recent
+times Catholicism itself has modified the rigidity of its teachings in
+favor of the religion of sentiment, as it has been called, inaugurated
+by Chateaubriand, and which is that attractive form seen in the writings
+of Madame Swetchine and the La Ferronnais. These elevated souls throw a
+charm around the immolation of self, which the egotism of the Protestant
+rarely matches.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[251]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>Thus the ideal of the commonwealth is found in those creeds which give
+prominence to law, to ethics, and to sentiment, the altruistic elements
+of mind. It fails, because its authority is antagonistic to morality in
+that it impedes the search for the true. Neither is morality religion,
+for it deals with the relative, while religion should guide itself by
+the absolute. Every great religious teacher has violated the morality of
+his day. Even sentiment, attractive as it is, is no ground on which to
+build a church. It is, at best, one of the lower emotional planes of
+action. Love itself, which must be the kernel of every true religion, is
+not in earthly relations an altruistic sentiment. The measure and the
+source of all such love, is self-love. The creed which rejects this as
+its corner stone will build in vain.</p>
+
+<p>While, therefore, the advantages of organization and action are on the
+side of the faiths which see in religion a form of government, they
+present fewer momenta of religious thought than those which encourage
+the greater individuality. All forms and reforms, remarks Machiavelli,
+in one of his notes to Livy, have been brought about by the exertions of
+one man.<a name="FNanchor_251-1_166" id="FNanchor_251-1_166" href="#Footnote_251-1_166" class="fnanchor">251-1</a> Religious<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[252]</a></span> reforms, especially, never have originated in
+majorities. The reformatory decrees of the Council of Trent are due to
+Martin Luther.</p>
+
+<p>Either ideal, raised to its maximum, not only fails to satisfy the
+religious sentiment, but puts upon it a forced meaning, and is therefore
+not what this sentiment asks. This may be illustrated by comparing two
+remarkable works, which, by a singular coincidence, were published in
+the same year, and which better than any others present these ideals
+pushed to their extreme. It is characteristic of them that neither
+professes to treat of religion, but of politics. The one is entitled,
+“<i>An Attempt to define the limits of Government</i>,” and is by Wilhelm von
+Humboldt; the other is the better known work of Auguste Comte, his
+“<i>System of Positive Polity</i>.”<a name="FNanchor_252-1_167" id="FNanchor_252-1_167" href="#Footnote_252-1_167" class="fnanchor">252-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The first lays down the principle that the highest end of man is the
+utmost symmetrical education of his own powers in their individual
+peculiarities. To accomplish this, he must enjoy the largest freedom of
+thought and action consistent with the recognition of the same right in
+others. In regard to religion, the state should have nothing to do with
+aiding it, but should<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[253]</a></span> protect the individual in his opposition to any
+authoritative form of it. As a wholly personal and subjective matter,
+social relations do not concern it. In fine, the aim of both government
+and education should be the development of an individualism in which an
+enlightened intellect controls and directs all the powers toward an
+exalted self-cultivation.</p>
+
+<p>Comte reverses this picture. His fundamental principle is to subordinate
+the sum total of our existence to our social relations; real life is to
+live in others; not the individual but humanity is the only worthy
+object of effort. Social polity therefore includes the whole of
+development; the intellect should have no other end but to subserve the
+needs of the race, and always be second to the altruistic sentiments.
+Love toward others should absorb self-love. “<i>Il est encore meilleur
+d’aimer que d’être aimé.</i>”</p>
+
+<p>Such is the contrast between the ideal of the individual as exhibited by
+the Religion of Culture, and the ideal of the commonwealth as portrayed
+in the Religion of Humanity.</p>
+
+<p>The whole duty of man, says the one school, is to live for others; nay,
+says the other, it is to live intelligently for himself; the intellect,
+says the former, should always be subordinated to society, and be led by
+the emotions; intellect, says the latter, should ever be in the
+ascendant, and absolutely control and direct the emotions; the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[254]</a></span>
+theoretical object of government, says the former, is to enable the
+affections and thoughts to pass into action; not so, says the latter,
+its only use is to give the individual secure leisure to develope his
+own affections and thoughts. Mutual relation is the key note of the
+former, independence of the latter; the former is the apotheosis of
+love, the latter of reason.</p>
+
+<p>Strictly and literally the apotheosis. For, differing as they do on such
+vital points, they both agree in dispensing with the ideas of God and
+immortality as conceptions superfluous in the realization of the
+theoretical perfection they contemplate. Not that either scheme omits
+the religious sentiment. On the contrary, it is especially prominent in
+one, and very well marked in the other. Both assume its growing
+prominence, never its extinction. Both speak of it as an integral part
+of man’s highest nature.</p>
+
+<p>Comte and Humboldt were thinkers too profound to be caught by the facile
+fallacy that the rapid changes in religious thought betoken the early
+abrogation of all creeds. Lessing, the philosophers of the French
+revolution, James Mill, Schopenhauer and others fell into this error.
+They were not wiser than the clown of Horace, who seated himself by the
+rushing stream, thinking it must soon run itself out&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="poem">Expectat rusticus dum defluat amnis; at ille<br />
+Labitur et labetur in omne volubilis ævum.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[255]</a></span>Vain is the dream that man will ever reach the point when he will think
+no more of the gods. Dogmas may disappear, but religion will flourish;
+destroy the temple and sow it with salt, in a few days it rises again
+built for aye on the solid ground of man’s nature.</p>
+
+<p>So long as the race is upon earth, just so long will the religious
+sentiment continue to crave its appropriate food, and this at last is
+recognized even by those who estimate it at the lowest. “To yield this
+sentiment reasonable satisfaction,” observes Professor Tyndall in one of
+his best known addresses, “is the problem of problems at the present
+hour. It is vain to oppose it with a view to its extirpation.” The
+“general thaw of theological creeds,” which Spencer remarks upon, is no
+sign of the loss of interest in religious subjects, but the reverse.
+Coldness and languor are the premonitions of death, not strife and
+defence.</p>
+
+<p>But as the two moments of religious thought which I have now discussed
+have both reached their culmination in a substantial repudiation of
+religion, that which stimulates the religious sentiment to-day must be
+something different from either. This I take to be the <i>idea of personal
+survival</i> after physical death, or, as it is generally called, the
+doctrine of the immortality of the soul.</p>
+
+<p>This is the main dogma in the leading religions of the world to-day. “A
+God,” remarks<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[256]</a></span> Sir William Hamilton, speaking for the enlightened
+Christians of his generation, “is to us of practical interest, only
+inasmuch as he is the condition of our immortality.”<a name="FNanchor_256-1_168" id="FNanchor_256-1_168" href="#Footnote_256-1_168" class="fnanchor">256-1</a> In his
+attractive work, <i>La Vie Eternelle</i>, whose large popularity shows it to
+express the prevailing views of modern Protestant thought, Ernest
+Naville takes pains to distinguish that Christianity is not a means of
+living a holy life so much as one of gaining a blessed hereafter. The
+promises of a life after death are numerous and distinct in the New
+Testament. Most of the recommendations of action and suffering in this
+world are based on the doctrine of compensation in the world to come.</p>
+
+<p>Mohammed taught the same tenet with equal or even greater emphasis. In
+one sura he says: “To whatever is evil may they be likened who believe
+not in a future life;” and elsewhere: “As for the blessed ones&mdash;their
+place is Paradise. There shall they dwell so long as the heavens and the
+earth endure, enjoying the imperishable bounties of God. But as for
+those who shall be consigned to misery, their place is the Fire. There
+shall they abide so long as the heavens and the earth shall last, unless
+God wills it otherwise.”<a name="FNanchor_256-2_169" id="FNanchor_256-2_169" href="#Footnote_256-2_169" class="fnanchor">256-2</a></p>
+
+<p>In Buddhism, as generally understood, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[257]</a></span> doctrine of a future life is
+just as clear. Not only does the soul wander from one to another animal
+body, but when it has completed its peregrinations and reaches its final
+abode, it revels in all sorts of bliss. For the condition of Nirvana,
+understood by philosophical Buddhists as that of the extinction of
+desires even to the desire of life, and of the complete enlightenment of
+the mind even to the recognition that existence itself is an illusion,
+has no such meaning to the millions who profess themselves the followers
+of the sage of Kapilavastu. They take it to be a material Paradise with
+pleasures as real as those painted by Mohammed, wherein they will dwell
+beyond all time, a reward for their devotions and faith in this life.</p>
+
+<p>These three religions embrace three-fourths of the human race and all
+its civilized nations, with trifling exceptions. They displaced and
+extinguished the older creeds and in a few centuries controlled the
+earth; but as against each other their strife has been of little avail.
+The reason is, they share the same momentum of religious thought,
+differing in its interpretation not more among themselves than do
+orthodox members of either faith in their own fold. Many enlightened
+Muslims and Christians, for example, consider the descriptions of
+Paradise given in the Koran and the Apocalypse to convey wholly
+spiritual meanings.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[258]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>There has been so much to surprise in the rapid extension of these
+faiths that the votaries of each claim manifest miraculous
+interposition. The religious idea of an after life is a sufficient
+moment to account for the phenomenon. I say the <i>religious</i> idea, for,
+with one or two exceptions, however distinct had been the belief in a
+hereafter, that belief had not a religious coloring until they gave it
+such. This distinction is an important one.</p>
+
+<p>Students of religions have hitherto attributed too much weight to the
+primitive notion of an existence after death. It is common enough, but
+it rarely has anything at all to do with the simpler manifestations of
+the religious sentiment. These are directed to the immediate desires of
+the individual or the community, and do not look beyond the present
+life. The doctrine of compensation hereafter is foreign to them. I have
+shown this at length so far as the religions of America were concerned.
+“Neither the delights of a heaven on the one hand, nor the terrors of a
+hell on the other were ever held out by priests or sages as an incentive
+to well doing, or a warning to the evil disposed.”<a name="FNanchor_258-1_170" id="FNanchor_258-1_170" href="#Footnote_258-1_170" class="fnanchor">258-1</a> The same is
+true of the classical religions of Greece and Rome, of Carthage and
+Assyria. Even in Egypt the manner of death and the rites of interment
+had much more to do with the fate of the soul,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[259]</a></span> than had its thoughts
+and deeds in the flesh. The opinions of Socrates and Plato on the soul
+as something which always existed and whose after life is affected by
+its experiences here, struck the Athenians as novel and innovating.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the ancient Germans had a most lively faith in the
+life hereafter. Money was loaned in this world to be repaid in the next.
+But with them also, as with the Aztecs, the future was dependent on the
+character or mode of death rather than the conduct of life. He who died
+the “straw-death” on the couch of sickness looked for little joy in the
+hereafter; but he who met the “spear-death” on the field of battle went
+at once to Odin, to the hall of Valhalla, where the heroes of all time
+assembled to fight, eat boar’s fat and drink beer. Even this rude belief
+gave them such an ascendancy over the materialistic Romans, that these
+distinctly felt that in the long run they must succumb to a bravery
+which rested on such a mighty moment as this.<a name="FNanchor_259-1_171" id="FNanchor_259-1_171" href="#Footnote_259-1_171" class="fnanchor">259-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The Israelites do not seem to have entertained any general opinion on an
+existence after death. No promise in the Old Testament refers to a
+future life. The religion there taught nowhere<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[260]</a></span> looks beyond the grave.
+It is materialistic to the fullest extent. Hence, a large body of
+orthodox Jewish philosophers, the Sadducees, denied the existence of the
+soul apart from the body.</p>
+
+<p>The central doctrine of the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, the leading
+impulse which he gave to the religious thought of his age, was that the
+thinking part of man survives his physical death, and that its condition
+does not depend on the rites of interment, as other religions then
+taught,<a name="FNanchor_260-1_172" id="FNanchor_260-1_172" href="#Footnote_260-1_172" class="fnanchor">260-1</a> but on the character of its thoughts during life here.
+Filled with this new and sublime idea, he developed it in its numerous
+applications, and drew from it those startling inferences, which, to
+this day, stagger his followers, and have been in turn, the terror and
+derision of his foes. This he saw, that against a mind<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[261]</a></span> inwardly
+penetrated with the full conviction of a life hereafter, obtainable
+under known conditions, the powers of this world are utterly futile, and
+its pleasures hollow phantoms.</p>
+
+<p>The practical energy of this doctrine was immensely strengthened by
+another, which is found very obscurely, if at all, stated in his own
+words, but which was made the central point of their teaching by his
+immediate followers. The Christianity they preached was not a
+philosophical scheme for improving the race, but rested on the
+historical fact of a transaction between God and man, and while they
+conceded everlasting existence to all men, all would pass it in the
+utmost conceivable misery, except those who had learned of these
+historical events, and understood them as the church prescribed.</p>
+
+<p>As the ancient world placed truth in ideas and not in facts, no teaching
+could well have been more radically contrary to its modes of thought;
+and the doctrine once accepted, the spirit of proselytizing came with
+it.</p>
+
+<p>I have called this idea a new one to the first century of our era, and
+so it was in Europe and Syria. But in India, Sakyamuni, probably five
+hundred years before, had laid down in sententious maxims the
+philosophical principle which underlies the higher religious doctrine of
+a future life. These are his words, and if through the efforts of
+reasoning we ever reach a demon<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[262]</a></span>stration of the immortality of the soul,
+we shall do it by pursuing the argument here indicated: “Right thought
+is the path to life everlasting. Those who think do not die.”<a name="FNanchor_262-1_173" id="FNanchor_262-1_173" href="#Footnote_262-1_173" class="fnanchor">262-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Truth alone contains the elements of indefinite continuity; and truth is
+found only in the idea, in correct thought.</p>
+
+<p>Error in the intellectual processes corresponds to pain in sensation; it
+is the premonition of waning life, of threatened annihilation; it
+contains the seed of cessation of action or death. False reasoning is
+self-destructive. The man who believes himself invulnerable will
+scarcely survive his first combat. A man’s true ideas are the most he
+can hope, and all that he should wish, to carry with him to a life
+hereafter. Falsehood, sin, is the efficient agent of death. As Bishop
+Hall says: “There is a kind of not-being in sin; for sin is not an
+existence of somewhat that is, but a deficiency of that rectitude which
+should be; it is a privation, as blindness is a privation of sight.”</p>
+
+<p>While the religious doctrine of personal survival has thus a position
+defensible on grounds of reason as being that of the inherent permanence
+of self-conscious truth, it also calls to its aid and indefinitely
+elevates the most powerful of all the emotions, <i>love</i>. This, as I have
+shown<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[263]</a></span> in the second chapter, is the sentiment which is characteristic
+of <i>preservative</i> acts. Self-love, which is prominent in the idea of the
+perfected individual, sex-love, which is the spirit of the multiform
+religious symbolism of the reproductive act, and the love of race, which
+is the chief motor in the religion of humanity, are purified of their
+grosser demands and assigned each its meet post in the labor of uniting
+the conceptions of the true under the relation of personality.</p>
+
+<p>The highest development of which such love is capable arises through the
+contemplation of those verities which are abstract and eternal, and
+which thus set forth, to the extent the individual mind is capable of
+receiving it, the completed notion of diuturnity. This highest love is
+the “love of God.” A Supreme Intelligence, one to which all truth is
+perfect, must forever dwell in such contemplation. Therefore the deeper
+minds of Christianity define man’s love of God, as God’s love to
+himself. “Eternal life,” says Ernest Naville, “is in its principle the
+union with God and the joy that results from that union.”<a name="FNanchor_263-1_174" id="FNanchor_263-1_174" href="#Footnote_263-1_174" class="fnanchor">263-1</a> The
+pious William Law wrote: “No man can reach God with his love, or have
+union with Him by it, but he who is inspired with that one same spirit
+of love, with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[264]</a></span> which God loved himself from all eternity, before there
+was any creation.”<a name="FNanchor_264-1_175" id="FNanchor_264-1_175" href="#Footnote_264-1_175" class="fnanchor">264-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Attractive as the idea of personal survival is in itself, and potent as
+it has been as a moment of religious thought, it must be ranked among
+those that are past. While the immortality of the soul retains its
+interest as a speculative inquiry, I venture to believe that as an idea
+in religious history, it is nigh inoperative; that as an element in
+devotional life it is of not much weight; and that it will gradually
+become less so, as the real meaning of religion reaches clearer
+interpretations.</p>
+
+<p>Its decay has been progressive, and common to all the creeds which
+taught it as a cardinal doctrine, though most marked in Christianity. A
+century ago Gibbon wrote: “The ancient Christians were animated by a
+contempt for their present existence, and by a just confidence of
+immortality, of which the doubtful but imperfect faith of modern ages
+cannot give us any adequate notion.”<a name="FNanchor_264-2_176" id="FNanchor_264-2_176" href="#Footnote_264-2_176" class="fnanchor">264-2</a> How true this is can be
+appreciated only by those who study this doctrine in the lives and
+writings of the martyrs and fathers of the primitive church.</p>
+
+<p>The breach which Gibbon remarked has been indefinitely widened since his
+time. What has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[265]</a></span> brought this about, and what new moment in religious
+thought seems about to supply its place, will form an appropriate close
+to the present series of studies. In its examination, I shall speak only
+of Christian thought, since it leads the way which other systems will
+ultimately follow.</p>
+
+<p>In depicting the influences which have led and are daily leading with
+augmented force to the devitalizing of the doctrine of immortality, I
+may with propriety confine myself to those which are themselves strictly
+religious. For the change I refer to is not one brought about by the
+opponents of religion, by materialistic doctrines, but is owing to the
+development of the religious sentiment itself. Instead of tending to an
+abrogation of that sentiment, it may be expected to ennoble its
+emotional manifestations and elevate its intellectual conceptions.</p>
+
+<p>Some of these influences are historical, as the repeated disappointments
+in the second coming of Christ, and the interest of proselytizing
+churches to interpret this event allegorically. Those which I deem of
+more importance, however, are such as are efficient to-day, and probably
+will continue to be the main agents in the immediate future of religious
+development. They are:</p>
+
+<p>(1.) The recognition of the grounds of ethics.</p>
+
+<p>(2.) The recognition of the cosmical relations.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[266]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(3.) The clearer defining of life.</p>
+
+<p>(4.) The growing immateriality of religious thought.</p>
+
+<p>(1.) The authority of the Law was assumed in the course of time by most
+Christian churches, and the interests of morality and religion were
+claimed to be identical. The Roman church with its developed casuistry
+is ready to prescribe the proper course of conduct in every emergency;
+and if we turn to many theological writers of other churches, Dick’s
+<i>Philosophy of Religion</i> for instance, we find moral conduct regarded as
+the important aim of the Christian life. Morality without religion,
+works without faith, are pronounced to be of no avail in a religious,
+and of very questionable value in a social sense. Some go so far as to
+deny that a person indifferent to the prevailing tenets of religion can
+lead a pure and moral life. Do away with the belief in a hereafter of
+rewards and punishments, say these, and there is nothing left to
+restrain men from the worst excesses, or at least from private sin.</p>
+
+<p>Now, however, the world is growing to perceive that morality is
+separable from religion; that it arose independently, from a gradual
+study of the relations of man to man, from principles of equity inherent
+in the laws of thought, and from considerations of expediency which
+deprive its precepts of the character of universality.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[267]</a></span> Religion is
+subjective, and that in which it exerts an influence on morality is not
+its contents, but the reception of them peculiar to the individual.
+Experience alone has taught man morals; pain and pleasure are the forms
+of its admonitions; and each generation sees more clearly that the
+principles of ethics are based on immutable physical laws. Moreover, it
+has been shown to be dangerous to rest morality on the doctrine of a
+future life; for apart from the small effect the terrors of a hereafter
+have on many sinners, as that doctrine is frequently rejected, social
+interests suffer. And, finally, it is debasing and hurtful to religion
+to make it a substitute for police magistracy.<a name="FNanchor_267-1_177" id="FNanchor_267-1_177" href="#Footnote_267-1_177" class="fnanchor">267-1</a></p>
+
+<p>The highest religion would certainly enforce the purest morality; but it
+is equally true that such a religion would enjoin much not approved by
+the current opinions of the day. The spirit of the reform inaugurated by
+Luther was a protest against the subjection of the religious sentiment
+to a moral code. With the independence thus achieved, it came to be
+recognized that to the full extent that morality is essential to
+religion, it can be reached as well or better without a system of
+rewards and punishments after death,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[268]</a></span> than with one. Both religion and
+morality stand higher, when a conception of an after life for this
+purpose is dropped.</p>
+
+<p>(2.) The recognition of the cosmical relations has also modified the
+views of personal survival. The expansion of the notions of space and
+time by the sciences of geology and astronomy has, as I before remarked,
+done away with the ancient belief that the culminating catastrophe of
+the universe will be the destruction of this world. An insignificant
+satellite of a third rate sun, which, with the far grander suns whose
+light we dimly discern at night, may all be swept away in some flurry of
+“cosmical weather,” that the formation or the dissolution of such a body
+would be an event of any beyond the most insignificant importance, is
+now known to be almost ridiculous. To assert that at the end of a few or
+a few thousand years, on account of events transpiring on the surface of
+this planet, the whole relationship of the universe will be altered, a
+new heaven and a new earth be formed, and all therein be made
+subservient to the joys of man, becomes an indication of an arrogance
+which deserves to be called a symptom of insanity. Thus, much of the
+teleology both of the individual and the race taught by the primitive
+and medieval church undergoes serious alterations. The literal meaning
+of the millennium, the New Jerusalem, and the reign of God on earth has
+been practically discarded.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[269]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>With the disappearance of the ancient opinion that the universe was
+created for man, the sun to light him by day and the stars by night,
+disappeared also the later thesis that the happiness or the education of
+man was the aim of the Order in Things. The extent and duration of
+matter, if they indicate any purpose at all, suggest one incomparably
+vaster than this; while the laws of mind, which alone distinctly point
+to purpose, reveal one in which pain and pleasure have no part or lot,
+and one in which man has so small a share that it seems as if it must be
+indifferent what his fate may be. The slightest change in the atmosphere
+of the globe will sweep away his species forever.</p>
+
+<p>Schopenhauer classified all religions as optimisms or pessimisms. The
+faith of the future will be neither. What is agreeable or disagreeable
+to man will not be its standard of the excellence of the universe.
+However unwillingly, he is at last brought to confess that his comfort
+is not the chief nor even any visible aim of the order in things. In the
+course of that order it may be, nay, it is nigh certain, that the human
+species will pass through decadence to extinction along with so many
+other organisms. Neither as individuals nor as a race, neither in regard
+to this life nor to the next, does the idea of God, when ennobled by a
+contemplation of the cosmical relations, permit to man the effron<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[270]</a></span>tery
+of claiming that this universe and all that therein is was made with an
+eye to his wants and wishes, whether to gratify or to defeat them.</p>
+
+<p>(3.) The closer defining of life as a result of physical force, and the
+recognition of mind as a connotation of organism, promise to be active
+in elevating religious conceptions, but at the expense of the current
+notions of personality. Sensation and voluntary motion are common to the
+fetus, the brute and the plant, as well as to man. They are not part of
+his “soul.” Intellect and consciousness, as I have shown, exclude
+sensation, and in these, if anywhere, he must look for his immortal
+part. Even here, error works destruction, and ignorance plants no seed
+of life. We are driven back to the teaching of Buddha, that true thought
+alone is that which does not die.</p>
+
+<p>Why should we ask more? What else is worth saving? Our present
+personality is a train of ideas base and noble, true and false, coherent
+through the contiguity of organs nourished from a common center. Another
+personality is possible, one of true ideas coherent through conscious
+similarity, independent of sensation, as dealing with topics not
+commensurate with it. Yet were this refuge gained, it leaves not much of
+the dogma that every man has an indestructible conscious soul, which
+will endure always, no matter what his conduct or thoughts<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[271]</a></span> have been.
+Rather does it favor the opinion expressed so well by Matthew Arnold in
+one of his sonnets:</p>
+
+<p class="poem">“He who flagged not in the earthly strife<br />
+From strength to strength advancing&mdash;only he,<br />
+His soul well knit and all his battles won,<br />
+Mounts, and that hardly, to eternal life.”</p>
+
+<p>Not only has the received doctrine of a “soul,” as an undying something
+different from mind and peculiar to man, received no support from a
+closer study of nature,&mdash;rather objections amounting to refutation,&mdash;but
+it has reacted injuriously on morals, and through them on religion
+itself. Buddha taught that the same spark of immortality exists in man
+and brute, and actuated by this belief laid down the merciful rule to
+his disciples: “Do harm to no breathing thing.” The apostle Paul on the
+other hand, recognizing in the lower animals no such claim on our
+sympathy, asks with scorn: “Doth God care for oxen?” and actually strips
+from a humane provision of the old Mosaic code its spirit of charity, in
+order to make it subserve a point in his polemic.</p>
+
+<p>(4.) As the arrogance of the race has thus met a rebuke, so has the
+egotism of the individual. His religion at first was a means of securing
+material benefits; then a way to a joyous existence beyond the tomb: the
+love of self all the time in the ascendant.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[272]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>This egoism in the doctrine of personal survival has been repeatedly
+flung at it by satirists, and commented on by philosophers. The
+Christian who “hopes to be saved by grossly believing” has been felt on
+all hands to be as mean in his hope, as he is contemptible in his way of
+attaining it. To center all our religious efforts to the one end of
+getting joy&mdash;however we may define it&mdash;for our individual selves, has
+something repulsive in it to a deeply religious mind. Yet that such in
+the real significance of the doctrine of personal survival is granted by
+its ablest defenders. “The general expectation of future happiness can
+afford satisfaction only as it is a present object to the principle of
+self-love,” says Dr. Butler, the eminent Lord Bishop of Durham, than
+whom no acuter analyst has written on the religious nature of man.</p>
+
+<p>Yet nothing is more certain than that the spirit of true religion wages
+constant war with the predominance or even presence of selfish aims.
+Self-love is the first and rudest form of the instinct of preservation.
+It is sublimed and sacrificed on the altar of holy passion. “Self,”
+exclaims the fervid William Law, “is both atheist and idolater; atheist,
+because it rejects God; idolater, because it is its own idol.” Even when
+this lowest expression of the preservative instinct rises but to the
+height of sex-love, it renounces self, and rejoices in martyrdom. “All<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[273]</a></span>
+for love, or the world well lost,” has been the motto of too many
+tragedies to be doubted now. By the side of the ancient Roman or the
+soldier of the French revolution, who through mere love of country
+marched joyously to certain death from which he expected no waking, does
+not the martyr compare unfavorably, who meets the same death, but does
+so because he believes that thereby he secures endless and joyous life?
+Is his love as real, as noble, as unselfish?</p>
+
+<p>Even the resistless physical energy which the clear faith in the life
+hereafter has so often imparted, becomes something uncongenial to the
+ripened religious meditation. Such faith brings about mighty effects in
+the arena of man’s struggles, but it does so through a sort of
+mechanical action. An ulterior purpose is ahead, to wit, the salvation
+of the soul, and it may be regarded as one of the best established
+principles of human effort that every business is better done, when it
+is done for its own sake, out of liking for it, than for results
+expected from it.</p>
+
+<p>Of nothing is this more just than religion. Those blossoms of spiritual
+perfection, the purified reason, the submissive will, the sanctifying
+grace of abstract ideas, find no propitious airs amid the violent toil
+for personal survival, whether that is to be among the mead jugs of
+Valhalla, the dark-eyed houris of Paradise, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[274]</a></span> the “solemn troops and
+sweet society” of Christian dreams. Unmindful of these, the saintly
+psyche looks to nothing beyond truth; it asks no definite, still less
+personal, end to which this truth is to be applied; to find it is to
+love it, and to love it is enough.</p>
+
+<p>The doctrine I here broach, is no strange one to Christian thought. To
+be sure the exhortation, “Save your soul from Hell,” was almost the sole
+incentive to religion in the middle ages, and is still the burden of
+most sermons. But St. Paul was quickened with a holier fire, that
+consumed and swept away such a personal motive, when he wrote: “Yea, I
+could wish that I myself were cast out from Christ as accursed, for the
+sake of my brethren, my kinsmen according to the flesh.”<a name="FNanchor_274-1_178" id="FNanchor_274-1_178" href="#Footnote_274-1_178" class="fnanchor">274-1</a> St.
+Augustine reveals the touch of the same inspiration in his passionate
+exclamation: “Far, O Lord, far from the heart of thy servant be it that
+I should rejoice in any joy whatever. The blessed life is the joy in
+truth alone.”<a name="FNanchor_274-2_179" id="FNanchor_274-2_179" href="#Footnote_274-2_179" class="fnanchor">274-2</a> And amid the pæans to everlasting life which fill
+the pages of the <i>De Imitatione Christi</i>, the medieval monk saw
+something yet greater, when he puts in the mouth of God the Father, the
+warning: “The wise lover thinks not of the gift, but of the love of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[275]</a></span>
+giver. He rests not in the reward, but in Me, beyond all
+rewards.”<a name="FNanchor_275-1_180" id="FNanchor_275-1_180" href="#Footnote_275-1_180" class="fnanchor">275-1</a> The mystery of great godliness is, that he who has it
+is as one who seeking nothing yet finds all things, who asking naught
+for his own sake, neither in the life here nor yet hereafter, gains that
+alone which is of worth in either.</p>
+
+<p>Pressed by such considerations, the pious Schleiermacher threw down the
+glaive on the side of religion half a century ago when he wrote: “Life
+to come, as popularly conceived, is the last enemy which speculative
+criticism has to encounter, and, if possible, to overcome.” The course
+he marked out, however, was not that which promises success. Recurring
+to the austere theses of Spinoza, he sought to bring them into accord
+with a religion of emotion. The result was a refined Pantheism with its
+usual deceptive solutions.</p>
+
+<p>What recourse is left? Where are we to look for the intellectual moment
+of religion in the future? Let us review the situation.</p>
+
+<p>The religious sentiment has been shown to be the expression of
+unfulfilled desire, but this desire peculiar as dependent on unknown
+power. Material advantages do not gratify it, nor even<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[276]</a></span> spiritual joy
+when regarded as a personal sentiment. Preservation by and through
+relation with absolute intelligence has appeared to be the meaning of
+that “love of God” which alone yields it satisfaction. Even this is
+severed from its received doctrinal sense by the recognition of the
+speculative as above the numerical unity of that intelligence, and the
+limitation of personality which spiritual thought demands. The eternal
+laws of mind guarantee perpetuity to the extent they are obeyed&mdash;and no
+farther. They differ from the laws of force in that they convey a
+message which cannot be doubted concerning the purport of the order in
+nature, which is itself “the will of God.” That message in its
+application is the same which with more or less articulate utterance
+every religion speaks&mdash;Seek truth: do good. Faith in that message,
+confidence in and willing submission to that order, this is all the
+religious sentiment needs to bring forth its sweetest flowers, its
+richest fruits.</p>
+
+<p>Such is the ample and satisfying ground which remains for the religion
+of the future to build upon. It is a result long foreseen by the clearer
+minds of Christendom. One who more than any other deserves to be classed
+among these writes: “Resignation to the will of God is the whole of
+piety. * * * Our resignation may be said to be perfect when we rest in
+his will as our end, as being itself most just and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[277]</a></span> right and good.
+Neither is this at bottom anything more than faith, and honesty and
+fairness of mind; in a more enlarged sense, indeed, than these words are
+commonly used.”<a name="FNanchor_277-1_181" id="FNanchor_277-1_181" href="#Footnote_277-1_181" class="fnanchor">277-1</a></p>
+
+<p>Goethe, who studied and reflected on religious questions more than is
+generally supposed, saw that in such a disposition of mind lie the
+native and strongest elements of religion. In one of his conversations
+with Chancellor Müller, he observed: “Confidence and resignation, the
+sense of subjection to a higher will which rules the course of events
+but which we do not fully comprehend, are the fundamental principles of
+every better religion.”<a name="FNanchor_277-2_182" id="FNanchor_277-2_182" href="#Footnote_277-2_182" class="fnanchor">277-2</a></p>
+
+<p>By the side of two such remarkable men, I might place the opinion of a
+third not less eminent than they&mdash;Blaise Pascal. In one part of his
+writings he sets forth the “marks of a true religion.” Sifted from its
+physical ingredients, the faith he defines is one which rests on love
+and submission to God, and a clear recognition of the nature of man.</p>
+
+<p>Here I close these studies on the Religious Sentiment. They show it to
+be a late and probably a final development of mind. The intellect first
+reaches entire self-consciousness, the emotions first attain perfection
+of purpose,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[278]</a></span> when guided by its highest manifestation. Man’s history
+seems largely to have been a series of efforts to give it satisfaction.
+This will be possible only when he rises to a practical appreciation of
+the identity of truth, love and life.</p>
+
+
+<div class="footnotes">
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_236-1_154" id="Footnote_236-1_154" href="#FNanchor_236-1_154">236-1</a> <i>Essay on the use of Anthropomorphism.</i> Mr. Spencer’s
+argument, in his own words, is this:&mdash;“From the inability under which we
+labor to conceive of a Deity save as some idealization of ourselves, it
+inevitably results that in each age, among each people, and to a great
+extent in each individual, there must arise just that conception of
+Deity best adapted to the needs of the case.” “All are good for their
+times and places.” “All were beneficent in their effects on those who
+held them.” It would be hard to quote from the records of theory-making
+an example of more complete indifference to acknowledged facts than
+these quotations set forth.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_239-1_155" id="Footnote_239-1_155" href="#FNanchor_239-1_155">239-1</a> <i>De Veritate</i>, p. 216.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_241-1_156" id="Footnote_241-1_156" href="#FNanchor_241-1_156">241-1</a> August Neander, <i>Geschichte der Christlichen Religion
+und Kirche</i>, Bd. i., ss. 160, 346. (Gotha, 1856.) St. Clement’s
+description of Christ is <span class="greek" title="Ton opsin aischron">Τον οψιν αισχρον</span>. Tertullian says: “Nec humanæ
+honestatis corpus fuit, nedum celestis claritatis.”</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_243-1_157" id="Footnote_243-1_157" href="#FNanchor_243-1_157">243-1</a> Novalis, <i>Schriften</i>, B. i., s. 244.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_244-1_158" id="Footnote_244-1_158" href="#FNanchor_244-1_158">244-1</a> A. Bain, <i>The Senses and the Intellect</i>, p. 607.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_245-1_159" id="Footnote_245-1_159" href="#FNanchor_245-1_159">245-1</a> Dr. T. Laycock, <i>On some Organic Laws of Memory</i>, in
+the <i>Journal of Mental Science</i>, July, 1875, p. 178.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_246-1_160" id="Footnote_246-1_160" href="#FNanchor_246-1_160">246-1</a> Speaking of the mission of the artist, Wilhelm von
+Humboldt says: “Die ganze Natur, treu und vollständig beobachtet, mit
+sich hinüber zu tragen, d. h. den Stoff seiner Erfahrungen dem Umfange
+der Welt gleich zu machen, diese ungeheure Masse einzelner und
+abgerissener Erscheinungen in eine l’ungetrennte Einheit und ein
+organisirtes Ganzes zu verwandeln; und dies durch alle die Organe zu
+thun, die ihm hierzu verliehen sind,&mdash;ist das letzte Ziel seines
+intellectuellen Bemühen.” <i>Ueber Goethe’s Hermann und Dorothea</i>, Ab.
+IV.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_246-2_161" id="Footnote_246-2_161" href="#FNanchor_246-2_161">246-2</a> <i>Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie</i>, B. I. s. 48.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_247-1_162" id="Footnote_247-1_162" href="#FNanchor_247-1_162">247-1</a> <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>. Bd. VII., s. 63.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_249-1_163" id="Footnote_249-1_163" href="#FNanchor_249-1_163">249-1</a> See this forcibly brought out and abundantly
+illustrated in the work of M. Coulange, <i>La Cité Antique</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_249-2_164" id="Footnote_249-2_164" href="#FNanchor_249-2_164">249-2</a> W. von Humboldt, <i>Gesammelte Werke</i>. Bd. VII., p. 72.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_250-1_165" id="Footnote_250-1_165" href="#FNanchor_250-1_165">250-1</a> H. L. Liddon, Canon of St. Paul’s. <i>Some Elements of
+Religion</i>, p. 84.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_251-1_166" id="Footnote_251-1_166" href="#FNanchor_251-1_166">251-1</a> The Chevalier Bunsen completed the moral estimate of
+the one-man-power, thus acknowledged by Machiavelli, in these words:
+“Alles Grosse geht aus vom Einzelnen, <i>aber nur in dem Masse, als dieser
+das Ich dem Ganzen opfert</i>.” <i>Gott in der Geschichte</i>, Bd. I., s. 38.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_252-1_167" id="Footnote_252-1_167" href="#FNanchor_252-1_167">252-1</a> W. von Humboldt, <i>Ideen zu einem Vorsuch, die Gränzen
+der Wirksamkeit des Staats zu bestimmen</i>, Breslau, 1851. Auguste Comte,
+<i>Système de Politique Positive</i>, Paris, 1851-4. The former was written
+many years before its publication.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_256-1_168" id="Footnote_256-1_168" href="#FNanchor_256-1_168">256-1</a> <i>Lectures on Metaphysics</i>, Vol. I., p. 23.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_256-2_169" id="Footnote_256-2_169" href="#FNanchor_256-2_169">256-2</a> <i>The Koran</i>, Suras xi., xvi.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_258-1_170" id="Footnote_258-1_170" href="#FNanchor_258-1_170">258-1</a> <i>The Myths of the New World</i>, Chap. IX.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_259-1_171" id="Footnote_259-1_171" href="#FNanchor_259-1_171">259-1</a> Jacob Grimm quite overlooked this important element in
+the religion of the ancient Germans. It is ably set forth by Adolf
+Holtzmann, <i>Deutsche Mythologie</i>, s. 196 sqq. (Leipzig, 1874).</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_260-1_172" id="Footnote_260-1_172" href="#FNanchor_260-1_172">260-1</a> The seemingly heartless reply he made to one of his
+disciples, who asked permission to perform the funeral rites at his
+father’s grave: “Follow me; and let the dead bury their dead,” is an
+obvious condemnation of one of the most widespread superstitions of the
+ancient world. So, according to an ingenious suggestion of Lord Herbert
+of Cherbury, was the fifth commandment of Moses: “Ne parentum seriem
+tanquam primam aliquam causam suspicerent homines, et proinde cultum
+aliquem Divinum illis deferrent, qualem ex honore parentum sperare
+liceat benedictionem, docuit.” <i>De Veritate</i>, p. 231.
+</p><p>
+Herbert Spencer in his <i>Essay on the Origin of Animal Worship</i>, calls
+ancestral worship “the universal first form of religious belief.” This
+is very far from correct, but it is easy to see how a hasty thinker
+would be led into the error by the prominence of the ancient funereal
+ceremonies.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_262-1_173" id="Footnote_262-1_173" href="#FNanchor_262-1_173">262-1</a> Dhammapada, 21.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_263-1_174" id="Footnote_263-1_174" href="#FNanchor_263-1_174">263-1</a> <i>La Vie Eternelle</i>, p. 339.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_264-1_175" id="Footnote_264-1_175" href="#FNanchor_264-1_175">264-1</a> <i>The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>, Vol. I.,
+ch. XV.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_264-2_176" id="Footnote_264-2_176" href="#FNanchor_264-2_176">264-2</a> <i>Address to the Clergy</i>, p. 16.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_267-1_177" id="Footnote_267-1_177" href="#FNanchor_267-1_177">267-1</a> “Toute religion, qu’on se permet de défendre comme une
+croyance qu’il est utile de laisser au peuple, ne peut plus espérer
+qu’une agonie plus ou moins prolongée.” Condorcet, <i>De l’Esprit Humain</i>,
+Ep. V.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_274-1_178" id="Footnote_274-1_178" href="#FNanchor_274-1_178">274-1</a> <i>Romans</i>, ch. ix., v. 3.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_274-2_179" id="Footnote_274-2_179" href="#FNanchor_274-2_179">274-2</a> “Beata quippe vita est gaudium de veritate.” Augustini
+<i>Confessionum</i>, Lib. x., caps. xxii., xxiii.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_275-1_180" id="Footnote_275-1_180" href="#FNanchor_275-1_180">275-1</a> “Prudens amator non tam donum amantis considerat, quam
+dantis amorem. Nobilis amator non quiescit in dono, sed in me super omne
+donum.” <i>De Imitatione Christi</i>, Lib. iii., cap. vi.</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_277-1_181" id="Footnote_277-1_181" href="#FNanchor_277-1_181">277-1</a> <i>Fifteen Sermons</i> by Joseph Butler, Lord Bishop of
+Durham. Sermon “On the love of God.”</p>
+
+<p><a class="label" name="Footnote_277-2_182" id="Footnote_277-2_182" href="#FNanchor_277-2_182">277-2</a> <i>Unterhaltungen</i>, p. 131.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[279]</a></span></p>
+
+<h2 class="chapterhead"><a name="INDICES" id="INDICES"></a>INDICES.</h2>
+
+<hr class="decshort" />
+
+<p>I. AUTHORS QUOTED.</p>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Allen, H., <a href="#Page_208">208</a>.</li>
+  <li>Anaxagoras, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+  <li>Arnold, M., <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+  <li>Aristotle, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+  <li>Augustine, St., <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Bain, A., <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+  <li>Barlow, H. C., <a href="#Page_201">201</a>.</li>
+  <li>Baxter, Richard, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>.</li>
+  <li>Boehmer, H., <a href="#Page_7">7</a>.</li>
+  <li>Boole, Geo., <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+  <li>Bunsen, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a>.</li>
+  <li>Butler, Bishop, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Carlyle, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+  <li>Catlow, J. P., <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+  <li>Chateaubriand, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+  <li>Comte, A., <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+  <li>Condorcet, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cory, J. P., <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+  <li>Coulange, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+  <li>Creuzer, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cussans, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Dante, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+  <li>Darwin, C., <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li>Dick, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+  <li>Dickson, J. T., <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Etheridge, J. W., <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Ferguson, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li>Ferrier, J. F., <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>.</li>
+  <li>Feuchtersleben, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+  <li>Feuerbach, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+  <li>Fothergill, J. M., <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Gibbon, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>.</li>
+  <li>Goethe, <a href="#Page_277">277</a>.</li>
+  <li>Gurney, J. J., <a href="#Page_119">119</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Hall, Bishop, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hamilton, Sir W., <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+  <li>Helmholtz, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hegel, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li>Herbert of Cherbury, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hobbes, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hodgson, S. N., <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a>.</li>
+  <li>Holtzmann, A., <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+  <li>Humboldt, A. von, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+  <li>Humboldt, W. von, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hume, David, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hunter, John, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Jacobi, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li>Jevons, W. S., <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+  <li>Kant, I., <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Kolk, Schroeder van der, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+  <li>Kitto, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+  <li>Koppen, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Law, Wm., <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+  <li>Laycock, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+  <li>Lessing, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_254">254</a>.</li>
+  <li>Lewes, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+  <li>Liddon, H. L., <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Mansel, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li>Maudsley, H., <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mill, J. S., <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mohammed, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+  <li>Morell, J. D., <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li>Morley, J., <a href="#Page_223">223</a>.</li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[280]</a></span>Müller, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+  <li>Müller, Max, <a href="#PREFACE"><i>preface</i></a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Naville, E., <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>.</li>
+  <li>Neander, A., <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+  <li>Novalis, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Oersted, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>.</li>
+  <li>Oken, L., <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Paget, J., <a href="#Page_63">63</a>.</li>
+  <li>Parker, Theo., <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li>Pascal, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>.</li>
+  <li>Plath, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+  <li>Rousseau, J. J., <a href="#Page_118">118</a>.</li>
+  <li>Saussure, Necker de, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>.</li>
+  <li>Schlagintweit, E., <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+  <li>Schleiermacher, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a>.</li>
+  <li>Schoolcraft, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+  <li>Schopenhauer, A., <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+  <li>Schwarz, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+  <li>Senancourt de, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+  <li>Spinoza, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>.</li>
+  <li>Spencer, Herbert, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>.</li>
+  <li>Swedenborg, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+  <li>Steinthal, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tertullian, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+  <li>Theophilus, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+  <li>Thompson, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>.</li>
+  <li>Todhunter, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tyndall, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+  <li>Voltaire, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>.</li>
+  <li>Westropp, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+  <li>Wigan, A. L., <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+  <li>Williams, J., <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+  <li>Wordsworth, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>.</li>
+  <li>Windelband, Dr., <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<p>II. SUBJECTS.</p>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Absolute, the, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+    <li class="subhead">consciousness of, <a href="#Page_161">161</a>.</li>
+  <li>Adam, as prophet of the moon, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+  <li>Adjita, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>.</li>
+  <li>Adonis, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+  <li>Aeon, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+  <li>Agdistis, an epicene deity, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+  <li>Ahura-Mazda, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+  <li>Allah, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+  <li>Amitabha, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+  <li>Analytic propositions, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+  <li>Androgynous deities, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li>Animism, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+  <li>Anointed, the, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li>Anya-Mainyus, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+  <li>Anthropomorphism, <a href="#Page_193">193</a>.</li>
+  <li>Antinomies, of Kant, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>.</li>
+  <li>Aphrodite, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+  <li>Apocalypse, the, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+  <li>Apollo, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>.</li>
+  <li>Apperception, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+  <li>Apprehension, <a href="#Page_142">142</a>.</li>
+  <li>Arab idea of time, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+  <li>Argumentum de appetitu, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>.</li>
+  <li>Aronhiate, a Huron deity, <a href="#Page_221">221</a>.</li>
+  <li>Arrenothele deities, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li>Art, religious, in Orient, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">in Greece, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">Christian, <a href="#Page_209">209</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">useless and immoral, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+  <li>Assyria, flood myth of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+  <li>Athanasius, his doctrine of the Trinity, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+  <li>Atonement, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+  <li>Avalokitesvara, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+  <li>Aztecs, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Baghavad Gita, the, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+  <li>Babylon, rites of, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+  <li>Baldur, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li>Baptism, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+  <li>Beauty, the line of, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a>.</li>
+    <li class="subhead">the religion of, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>.</li>
+  <li>Belief, its kinds, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>.</li>
+  <li>Brahma, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+  <li>Brahmans, highest bliss of, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">doctrines, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+  <li>Breidablick, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li>Brutes, religious feeling in, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>.</li>
+  <li><a name="Buddha" id="Buddha"></a>Buddha, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+  <li>Buddhism, four truths of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">theories of prayer, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">last day, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">myths, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">monotheism of, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>.</li>
+  <li>Bull, as a symbol, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Cabala, Jehova in, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+  <li>Canting arms, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cause, not a reason, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">in physical science, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+  <li>Celibacy, Romish, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cerebration, unconscious, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+  <li>Chance, the idea of, <a href="#Page_93">93</a>.</li>
+  <li>Chinese character for prayer, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[281]</a></span>Christ, <i>see</i> <a href="#Jesus">Jesus</a>.</li>
+  <li>Christianity, doctrines of, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">symbol of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+  <li>Christmas tree, the, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cockatrice, the, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+  <li>Commonwealth, ideal of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+  <li>Consciousness, forms of, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>.</li>
+  <li>Confucius, doctrine, <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, sq.</li>
+  <li>Continuity, law of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">principle of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>.</li>
+  <li>Contradiction, law of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>.</li>
+  <li>Correspondences, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cosmical relations of man, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cotytto, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cow, as a symbol, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+  <li>Craoshanç, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li>Creation, myth of, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+  <li>Crescent, a phallic symbol, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cross, a phallic symbol, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as phonetic symbol, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">variants of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cult, the, <a href="#Page_199">199</a> sq.</li>
+  <li>Culture, religion of, <a href="#Page_243">243</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+  <li>Cybele, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>; priests of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_219">219</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Dactyli, the, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+  <li>Darkness, terror of, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+  <li>Day of Judgment, the, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+  <li>Deity, <i>see</i> <a href="#God">God</a>.</li>
+  <li>Design, argument from, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+  <li>Desire, meaning of, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+  <li>Deus, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>; triformis, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+  <li>Deva, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+  <li>Didactic rites, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+  <li>Divination and prayer, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+  <li>Dramatic rites, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>.</li>
+  <li>Dual law of thought, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">division of the gods, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Edda, mythology of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+  <li>Eden, garden of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Ego, the, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>.</li>
+  <li>Egoism of religion, <a href="#Page_272">272</a>.</li>
+  <li>Egyptians, doctrines of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">prayers, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">pyramids, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">lotus of, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+  <li>Emotions, origin of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">exclude thought, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">in religion, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of fear and hope, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">esthetic, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+  <li>Entheasm, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>.</li>
+  <li>Epochs of nature, <a href="#Page_164">164</a> sq.</li>
+  <li>Epicene deities, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li>Epilepsy and religious delusions, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+  <li>Eros, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+  <li>Esculapius, emblem of, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+  <li>Esthetic emotions, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a>.</li>
+  <li>Ethics, grounds of, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>.</li>
+  <li>Excluded middle, law of, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, sqq.</li>
+  <li>Expectant attention, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>.</li>
+  <li>Explanation, limits of, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Faith in religion, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>.</li>
+  <li>Fascination, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+  <li>Fear, in religion, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, sqq.</li>
+  <li>Female principle in religion, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+  <li>Feridun, garden of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Flood, myth of, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, sq.</li>
+  <li>Fingers, as gods, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+  <li>Force, orders of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>.</li>
+  <li>Freedom, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>.</li>
+  <li>Friends, sect of, <i>see</i> <a href="#Quakers">Quakers</a>.</li>
+  <li>Future life, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_256">256</a>, sq.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Gallican confession, the, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>.</li>
+  <li>Generative function in religion, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>.</li>
+  <li>Genius as inspiration, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+  <li>Gnosis, the genuine, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>.</li>
+  <li>Gnostic doctrines, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+  <li><a name="God" id="God"></a>God, as father, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">spouses of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">mother of, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">sexless, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">earliest notions of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">incomprehensible, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">throne of, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">love of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+  <li>Gods,</li>
+    <li class="subhead">hierarchy of, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">quantification of the, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of lightning, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+  <li>Good, final victory of, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>.</li>
+  <li>Grasshoppers, prayers against, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+  <li>Greeks, art of, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">doctrines of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">sophists, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>.</li>
+  <li>Gudmund, King, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Hades, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hare, the Great, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hell, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a>, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hercules, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hermaphrodite deities, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hesperides, the, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hierarchy of the gods, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>.</li>
+  <li>High places, worship of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+  <li>Historic ideas, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+  <li>Holy spirit, as inspiring, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">brooding, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+  <li>Hope, in religion, <a href="#Page_51">51</a> sqq.</li>
+  <li>Horæ, the, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+  <li>Humanity, the religion of, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Ignorance, in relation to religion, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>.</li>
+  <li>Illumination, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>.</li>
+  <li>Immortality, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+  <li>Indians, American, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[282]</a></span>Insanity, religious, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>.</li>
+  <li>Inspiration, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+  <li>Intelligence, one in kind, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as the first cause, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a>.</li>
+  <li>Irmin, pillars of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+  <li>Ischomachus, prayer of, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>.</li>
+  <li>Israelites, the Messiah of, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Janus, an epicene deity, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+  <li>Jehovah, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+  <li>Jemschid, king, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li><a name="Jesus" id="Jesus"></a>Jesus, face of, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">conception of, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">wounds of, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">wisdom of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as second Noah, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">teachings, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">prayer to, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">execution of, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">death of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+  <li>Judaism, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>.</li>
+  <li>Judgment, day of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Kalpa, of Brahmans, <a href="#Page_168">168</a>.</li>
+  <li>Knowledge, forms of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>.</li>
+  <li>Kosmos, the, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Lateau, Louise, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+  <li>Law, defined, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of excluded middle, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">oldest, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>.</li>
+  <li>Laws, the, of thought, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, sq.; <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, sq.;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">not restrictive, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as purposive, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+  <li>Light, as object of worship, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+  <li>Lightning, the, in symbolic art, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+  <li>Life, the perfect, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>.</li>
+  <li>Lingam, the, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li>Lingayets, sect of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li>Logic, applied, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">abstract or formal, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">mathematical, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">laws of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, sq.</li>
+  <li>Logos, the, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+  <li>Lotus, as symbol, <a href="#Page_213">213</a>, sq.</li>
+  <li>Love, as religious emotion, defined, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_262">262</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of sex, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">law of, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of God, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, <a href="#Page_263">263</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Ma, a goddess, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+  <li>Maitreya, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mamona, a Haitian deity, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+  <li>Märchen, the, defined, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+  <li>Marriage condemned, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+  <li>Maypole, as a symbol, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+  <li>Melitta, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+  <li>Memory, physical basis of, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">ancestral, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>.</li>
+  <li>Memorial, rites, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+  <li>Messiah, the, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li>Millennium, the, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_268">268</a>.</li>
+  <li>Michabo, an Algonkin deity, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mind,</li>
+    <li class="subhead">growth of, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">extent of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as seat of law, <a href="#Page_163">163</a>.</li>
+  <li>Miracles, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mithras, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mohammed,</li>
+    <li class="subhead">notion of god, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">inspired, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mohammedanism, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_224">224</a>.</li>
+  <li>Monotheism, origin of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>; <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, sq.</li>
+  <li>Moral government of the world, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>.</li>
+  <li>Morality, independent of religion, dualism of deities, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a>, <a href="#Page_266">266</a>, <a href="#Page_267">267</a>.</li>
+  <li>Mormonism, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>.</li>
+  <li>Motion, first law of, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">relation to time and space, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">manifestations of, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>.</li>
+  <li>Myth, the, defined, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Names, sacred, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>.</li>
+  <li>Natural selection, in sensation, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">in logic, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>.</li>
+  <li>Nature,</li>
+    <li class="subhead">meaning of, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_105">105</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">epochs of, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>.</li>
+  <li>Nemqueteba, <a href="#Page_240">240</a>.</li>
+  <li>Neo-Hegelian doctrine, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>.</li>
+  <li>Nirvana, the, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+  <li>Noah, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+  <li>Nous, the, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Oannes, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+  <li>Obelisk as symbol, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+  <li>Odainsakr, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Odin, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+  <li>Optimism, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+  <li>Order, in things, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, sq.</li>
+  <li>Osiris, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Pain, defined, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>.</li>
+  <li>Parsees, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>.</li>
+  <li>Pantheism, <a href="#Page_188">188</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a>, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+  <li>Papas, a Phrygian god, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+  <li>Paradise, lost and regained, myths of, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, sq;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">future, <a href="#Page_257">257</a>.</li>
+  <li>Pentalpha, the, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+  <li>Perfected commonwealth, idea of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a>.</li>
+  <li>Perfected individual, idea of, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+  <li>Personal survival, idea of, <a href="#Page_255">255</a>.</li>
+  <li>Pessimism, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a>.</li>
+  <li>Persians, ancient, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>.</li>
+  <li>Personality, the, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_270">270</a>.</li>
+  <li>Phallus, worship of, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+  <li>Phanes, the orphic principle, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+  <li>Philosophy of religion, defined, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of mythology, <a href="#Page_159">159</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of history, <a href="#Page_232">232</a>.</li>
+  <li>Phrygian divinities, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+  <li>Pillar worship, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+  <li>Pleasure, defined, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>.</li>
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[283]</a></span>Polarization, as a principle of thought, <a href="#Page_183">183</a>.</li>
+  <li>Porte Royale, miracles of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>.</li>
+  <li>Postulates of religion, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>.</li>
+  <li>Prayer, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, sq.</li>
+  <li>Progression of development, <a href="#Page_109">109</a>.</li>
+  <li>Protestantism, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+  <li>Protogonus, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+  <li>Psyche, and love, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>.</li>
+  <li>Pythagoras, his thoughts on number, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li><a name="Quakers" id="Quakers"></a>Quakers, sect of, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>.</li>
+  <li>Quantification of the predicate, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of the gods, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+  <li>Quetzalcoatl, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Reason in religion, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">drawn from sight, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+  <li>Rebus in symbolism, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+  <li>Regin, as name of gods, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+  <li>Relative, the, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>.</li>
+  <li>Religion, science of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">philosophy of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">personal factor of, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">not concerned with phenomena, <a href="#Page_110">110</a>.</li>
+  <li>Reproductive function in religion, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>.</li>
+  <li>Res per accidens, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>.</li>
+  <li>Resignation, doctrine of, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>.</li>
+  <li>Revelation, marks of, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>.</li>
+  <li>Rig Veda, the, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+  <li>Rite, the, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>, seq.</li>
+  <li>Roland, pillars of, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+  <li>Roman Catholics, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Sabians, myths of, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sacraments, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sacrifice, idea in, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">vicarious, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+  <li>Saga, the, defined, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>.</li>
+  <li>Saint Brigida, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+  <li>Saint Gertrude of Nivelles, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sakyamuni, <i>see</i> <a href="#Buddha">Buddha</a>.</li>
+  <li>Saturnian Era, the, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Science of Religion, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as knowledge of system, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of mythology, <a href="#Page_158">158</a>.</li>
+  <li>Secularization of symbols, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sensation, defined, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">excludes thought, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of pain and pleasure, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sentiment, the religious, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">emotional elements of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">rational postulates of, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">religion of, <a href="#Page_250">250</a>.</li>
+  <li>Serpent, as emblem and symbol, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>, <a href="#Page_206">206</a>, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sev, an Egyptian deity, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sex, love of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">in nature, <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+  <li>Shekinah, the, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>.</li>
+  <li>Siddartha, a name of Buddha, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+  <li>Similars, law of, <a href="#Page_204">204</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sin, sense of, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sight, as the light-sense, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>.</li>
+  <li>Siva, worship of, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_214">214</a>.</li>
+  <li>Soul, the, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_271">271</a>.</li>
+  <li>Specific performance in rites, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>, sq.</li>
+  <li>Stigmata, the, <a href="#Page_130">130</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sufficient reason, principle of, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>.</li>
+  <li>Sukhavati, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Supernatural, defined, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">its relation to symbols, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>.</li>
+  <li>Swedenborg, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_217">217</a>.</li>
+  <li>Symbol, the phonetic, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">origin of, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">related and coincident, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>.</li>
+  <li>Symbolism, defined, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>.</li>
+  <li>Synthesis of contraries, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>.</li>
+  <li>Synthetic propositions, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Tathagata, a name of Buddha, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tau, the Egyptian, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>.</li>
+  <li>Theology, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>.</li>
+  <li>Thor, hammer of, <a href="#Page_210">210</a>, <a href="#Page_239">239</a>.</li>
+  <li>Thought, as a function, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">laws of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, sq.;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as purposive, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tien, Mongolian deity, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>, <a href="#Page_216">216</a>.</li>
+  <li>Time, not a force, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">but believed to be one, <a href="#Page_165">165</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tlapallan, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tree worship, <a href="#Page_215">215</a>.</li>
+  <li>Triads, the Celtic, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">Platonic, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>.</li>
+  <li>Triangle, the equilateral, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+  <li>Trinity, the doctrine of, <a href="#Page_191">191</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">symbol of, <a href="#Page_212">212</a>.</li>
+  <li>Triplicate relation of numbers, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tritheism, of Christianity, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>.</li>
+  <li>Truth, what is, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">eternal, <a href="#Page_41">41</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as answer to prayer, <a href="#Page_137">137</a>.</li>
+  <li>Tulan, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Unconditioned, the, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+  <li>Uniformity of sequence, as cause, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_92">92</a>.</li>
+  <li>Unknowable, the, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Valkyria, the, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>.</li>
+  <li>Valhalla, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>.</li>
+  <li>Varuna, an Aryan god, <a href="#Page_125">125</a>.</li>
+  <li>Vendidad, the, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Venereal sense, the, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>.</li>
+  <li>Vicarious sacrifice, theory of, <a href="#Page_222">222</a>.</li>
+  <li>Virginity, sacredness of, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>.</li>
+  <li>Virgin Mother, the, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+  <li>Volition, <i>see</i> <a href="#Will">Will</a>.</li>
+  <li>Voluspa, the, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[284]</a></span>Wabose, Catherine, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>.</li>
+  <li>Water, as the primitive substance, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>.</li>
+  <li><a name="Will" id="Will"></a>Will, the, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">of God, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">as a cause, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>.</li>
+  <li>Wish, the religious, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">definition of, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>.</li>
+  <li>World, moral government of, <a href="#Page_112">112</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">creation and changes, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>;</li>
+    <li class="subhead">light of the, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Xisuthrus, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Year, the Great, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>.</li>
+  <li>Yima, reign of, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>.</li>
+  <li>Ynglyngasaga, the, <a href="#Page_218">218</a>.</li>
+  <li>Yocauna, a Haitian deity, <a href="#Page_68">68</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>Zarathustra, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>.</li>
+  <li>Zeruana akerana, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>.</li>
+  <li>Zweckgesetze, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>.</li>
+</ul>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
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+
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+
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+
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+
+<p class="adsquote">“A most valuable collection of facts, thoroughly digested and properly
+arranged.... Has a freshness and vivacity rarely found in works of the
+kind.”&mdash;<i>Atlantic Monthly.</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="chapbreak" />
+
+<div class="tn">
+<p class="titlepage"><a name="trans_note" id="trans_note"></a><b>Transcriber&rsquo;s&nbsp;Note</b></p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following errors and inconsistencies have been maintained.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">Misspelled words and typographical errors:</p>
+
+<table style="margin-left: 0;" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="typos">
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr">Page</td>
+  <td>Error</td>
+  <td>Correction</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr1">2</a></td>
+  <td> expres ion</td>
+  <td>expression</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr2">15</a></td>
+  <td>mind,whose</td>
+  <td>mind, whose</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr3">34</a></td>
+  <td>positive,and</td>
+  <td>positive, and</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr4">fn. 39-1</a></td>
+  <td>Systèmede</td>
+  <td>Système de</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr5">fn. 71-1</a></td>
+  <td>Suras,</td>
+  <td>Suras</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr6">91</a></td>
+  <td>reason’</td>
+  <td>reason”</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr7">108</a></td>
+  <td>108-1</td>
+  <td>108-2</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr8">146</a></td>
+  <td>devil,before</td>
+  <td>devil, before</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr9">193</a></td>
+  <td>plantasm</td>
+  <td>phantasm</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr10">193</a></td>
+  <td>anthropomorphism,which</td>
+  <td>anthropomorphism, which</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr11">205</a></td>
+  <td>supernatual</td>
+  <td>supernatural</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr12">221</a></td>
+  <td>corrollary</td>
+  <td>corollary</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr13">fn. 214-3</a></td>
+  <td>and</td>
+  <td>und</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr14">Ads. p. 1</a></td>
+  <td>clergy.</td>
+  <td>clergy.”</td>
+</tr>
+<tr>
+  <td class="tdr"><a href="#corr15">Ads. p. 2</a></td>
+  <td>(His</td>
+  <td>His</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+
+
+<p class="noindent">Accents in foreign words are inconsistent and have been left as
+originally printed.</p>
+
+<p class="noindent">The following words were inconsistently hyphenated.</p>
+
+
+<ul class="ix">
+  <li>develop / develope</li>
+  <li>key-stone / keystone</li>
+  <li>May-pole / Maypole</li>
+  <li>re-gained / regained</li>
+  <li>thunder-storm / thunderstorm</li>
+  <li><i>u. s.</i> / u. s.</li>
+  <li>Voelker / Vœlker</li>
+</ul>
+</div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,8328 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Religious Sentiment, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Religious Sentiment
+       Its Source and Aim: A Contribution to the Science and
+       Philosophy of Religion
+
+Author: Daniel G. Brinton
+
+Release Date: September 22, 2009 [EBook #30061]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Julia Miller and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This file was
+produced from images generously made available by The
+Internet Archive/American Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+A number of typographical errors have been maintained in this version of
+this book. They have been marked with a [TN-#], which refers to a
+description in the complete list found at the end of the text.
+
+Words originally printed in Greek are surrounded with ~. Oe ligatures
+have been expanded.
+
+The following code was used for a character not available in the
+character set used for this book.
+
+  [square root]  square root sign
+
+
+
+
+_BY THE SAME AUTHOR._
+
+  THE MYTHS OF THE NEW WORLD: A Treatise on the Symbolism and Mythology
+    of the Red Race of America. _Second edition, revised._ Large 12mo,
+    $2.50.
+
+  THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT: Its Source and Aim. A Contribution to the
+    Science and Philosophy of Religion. Large 12mo, $2.50.
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+
+  RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT
+
+  ITS SOURCE AND AIM
+
+
+  _A CONTRIBUTION TO THE SCIENCE AND
+  PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION._
+
+
+  BY
+
+  DANIEL G. BRINTON, A.M., M.D.
+
+  _Member of the American Philosophical Society, the American Philological
+  Society, etc.; author of "The Myths of the New World," etc._
+
+
+  [Colophon]
+
+
+  NEW YORK
+  HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY
+  1876.
+
+
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT,
+  BY HENRY HOLT
+  1876.
+
+
+  JOHN F. TROW & SON, PRINTERS,
+  205-213 EAST 12TH ST., NEW YORK.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+Mythology, since it began to receive a scientific handling at all, has
+been treated as a subordinate branch of history or of ethnology. The
+"science of religion," as we know it in the works of Burnouf, Mueller,
+and others, is a comparison of systems of worship in their historic
+development. The deeper inquiry as to what in the mind of man gave birth
+to religion in any of its forms, what spirit breathed and is ever
+breathing life into these dry bones, this, the final and highest
+question of all, has had but passing or prejudiced attention. To its
+investigation this book is devoted.
+
+The analysis of the religious sentiment I offer is an inductive one,
+whose outlines were furnished by a preliminary study of the religions of
+the native race of America, a field selected as most favorable by reason
+of the simplicity of many of its cults, and the absence of theories
+respecting them. This study was embodied in "The Myths of the New World;
+a Treatise on the Symbolism and Mythology of the Red Race of America"
+(second edition, N. Y. 1876).
+
+The results thus obtained I have in the present work expanded by
+including in the survey the historic religions of the Old World, and
+submitted the whole for solution to the Laws of Mind, regarded as
+physiological elements of growth, and to the Laws of Thought, these, as
+formal only, being held as nowise a development of those. This latter
+position, which is not conceded by the reigning school of psychology, I
+have taken pains to explain and defend as far as consistent with the
+plan of this treatise; but I am well aware that to say all that can be
+said in proof of it, would take much more space than here allowed.
+
+The main questions I have had before me in writing this volume have an
+interest beyond those which mere science propounds. What led men to
+imagine gods at all? What still prompts enlightened nations to worship?
+Is prayer of any avail, or of none? Is faith the last ground of
+adoration, or is reason? Is religion a transient phase of development,
+or is it the chief end of man? What is its warrant of continuance? If it
+overlive this day of crumbling theologies, whence will come its
+reprieve?
+
+To such inquiries as these, answers satisfactory to thinking men of this
+time can, I believe, be given only by an inductive study of religions,
+supported by a sound psychology, and conducted in a spirit which
+acknowledges as possibly rightful, the reverence which every system
+claims. Those I propose, inadequate though they may be, can at any rate
+pretend to be the result of honest labor.
+
+PHILADELPHIA, _January, 1876_.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS.
+
+
+                                                          PAGE.
+  CHAPTER I.
+
+  THE BEARING OF THE LAWS OF MIND ON RELIGION                3
+
+  CHAPTER II.
+
+  THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT         47
+
+  CHAPTER III.
+
+  THE RATIONAL POSTULATES OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT        87
+
+  CHAPTER IV.
+
+  THE PRAYER AND ITS ANSWER                                117
+
+  CHAPTER V.
+
+  THE MYTH AND THE MYTHICAL CYCLES                         155
+
+  CHAPTER VI.
+
+  THE CULT, ITS SYMBOLS AND RITES                          199
+
+  CHAPTER VII.
+
+  THE MOMENTA OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT                         231
+
+
+
+
+THE BEARING OF THE LAWS OF MIND ON RELIGION
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     The distinction between the Science and the Philosophy of religion.
+     It is assumed (1) that religions are products of thought, (2) that
+     they have a unity of kind and purpose. They can be studied by the
+     methods of natural science applied to Mind.
+
+     Mind is co-extensive with organism. Sensation and Emotion are
+     prominent marks of it. These are either pleasurable or painful; the
+     latter _diminish_ vital motions, the former _increase_ them. This
+     is a product of natural selection. A mis-reading of these facts is
+     the fallacy of Buddhism and other pessimistic systems. Pleasure
+     comes from continuous action. This is illustrated by the esthetic
+     emotions, volition and consciousness.
+
+     The climax of mind is Intellect. Physical changes accompany thought
+     but cannot measure it. Relations of thought and feeling. _Truth_ is
+     its only measure. Truth, like pleasure, is desired for its
+     preservative powers. It is reached through the laws of thought.
+
+     These laws are: (1) the natural order of the association of ideas,
+     (2) the methods of applied logic, (3) the forms of correct
+     reasoning. The last allow of mathematical expression. They are
+     three in number, called those of Determination, Limitation and
+     Excluded Middle.
+
+     The last is the key-stone of religious philosophy. Its diverse
+     interpretations. Its mathematical expres ion[TN-1] shows that it
+     does not relate to contradictories. But certain concrete analytic
+     propositions, relating to contraries, do have this form. The
+     contrary as distinguished from the privative. The Conditioned and
+     Unconditioned, the Knowable and Unknowable are not true
+     contradictions. The synthesis of contraries is theoretic only.
+
+     Errors as to the limits of possible explanation corrected by these
+     distinctions. The formal law is the last and complete explanation.
+     The relations of thought, belief and being.
+
+
+
+
+THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I.
+
+THE BEARING OF THE LAWS OF MIND ON RELIGION.
+
+
+The Science of Religion is one of the branches of general historical
+science. It embraces, as the domain of its investigation, all recorded
+facts relating to the displays of the Religious Sentiment. Its limits
+are defined by those facts, and the legitimate inferences from them. Its
+aim is to ascertain the constitutive laws of the origin and spread of
+religions, and to depict the influence they have exerted on the general
+life of mankind.
+
+The question whether a given religion is true or false cannot present
+itself in this form as a proper subject of scientific inquiry. The most
+that can be asked is, whether some one system is best suited to a
+specified condition of the individual or the community.
+
+The higher inquiry is the object of the Philosophy of Religion. This
+branch of study aims to pass beyond recorded facts and local adjustments
+in order to weigh the theoretical claims of religions, and measure their
+greater or less conformity with abstract truth. The formal or regulative
+laws of religious thought occupy it.
+
+Theology, dogmatic or polemic, is an explanatory defence of some
+particular faith. Together with mythology and symbolism, it furnishes
+the material from which the Science and Philosophy of Religion seek to
+educe the laws and frame the generalizations which will explain the
+source and aim of religion in general.
+
+The common source of all devotional displays is the Religious Sentiment,
+a complex feeling, a thorough understanding of which is an essential
+preliminary to the study of religious systems.
+
+Such a study proceeds on the assumption that all religions are products
+of thought, commenced and continued in accordance with the laws of the
+human mind, and, therefore, comprehensible to the extent to which these
+laws are known. No one disputes this, except in reference to his own
+religion. This, he is apt to assert, had something "supernatural" about
+its origin. If this word be correctly used, it may stand without cavil.
+The "natural" is that of which we know in whole or in part the laws; the
+"supernatural" means that of which we do not at present know in any
+degree the laws. The domain of the supernatural diminishes in the ratio
+of the increase of knowledge; and the inference that it also is
+absolutely under the control of law, is not only allowable but
+obligatory.
+
+A second assumption must be that there is a unity of kind and purpose in
+all religions. Without this, no common law can exist for them. Such a
+law must hold good in all ages, in every condition of society, and in
+each instance. Hence those who explain religious systems as forms of
+government, or as systems of ethics, or as misconceived history, or as
+theories of natural philosophy, must be prepared to make their view good
+when it is universally applied, or else renounce the possibility of a
+Science of Religion; while those who would except their own system from
+what they grant is the law of all others, violate the principles of
+investigation and thereby the canons of truth.
+
+The methods of science are everywhere alike. Has the naturalist to
+explain an organism, he begins with its elements or proximate principles
+as obtained by analysis; he thence passes to the tissues and fluids
+which compose its members; these he considers first in a state of
+repose, their structure and their connections; then he examines their
+functions, the laws of their growth and action; and finally he has
+recourse to the doctrine of relations, _la theorie des milieux_, to
+define the conditions of its existence. Were such a method applied to a
+religion, it would lead us first to study its psychological elements,
+then the various expressions in word and act to which these give
+occasion, next the record of its growth and decay, and finally from
+these to gather the circumstantials of human life and culture which led
+to its historic existence.
+
+Some have urged that such a method should not be summoned to questions
+in mental philosophy. To do so, say they, is to confound things
+distinct, requiring distinct plans of study. Such a criticism might have
+had weight in the days when the mind was supposed to inhabit the body as
+a tenant a house, and have no relation to it other than that of a casual
+occupant. But that opinion is antiquated. More than three-fourths of a
+century ago the far-seeing thinker, Wilhelm von Humboldt, laid down the
+maxim that the phenomena of mind and matter obey laws identical in
+kind;[6-1] and a recent historian of science sums up the result of the
+latest research in these words:
+
+"The old dualism of mind and body, which for centuries struggled in vain
+for reconciliation, finds it now, not indeed in the unity of substance,
+but in the unity of laws."[6-2]
+
+It is, therefore, as a question in mental philosophy to be treated by
+the methods of natural science, that I shall approach the discussion of
+the religious sentiment. As it is a part, or at least a manifestation of
+mind, I must preface its more particular consideration with some words
+on the mind in general, words which I shall make as few and as clear as
+possible.
+
+At the beginning of this century, the naturalist Oken hazarded the
+assertion: "The human mind is a memberment of infusorial
+sensation,"[7-1] a phrase which has been the guiding principle of
+scientific psychology ever since. That in the course of this memberment
+or growth wholly new faculties are acquired, is conceded. As the union
+of two inorganic substances may yield a third different in every respect
+from either; or, as in the transition of inorganic to organic matter,
+the power of reproduction is attained; so, positively new powers may
+attend the development of mind. From sensations it progresses to
+emotions, from emotions to reason. The one is the psychical climax of
+the other. "We have still to do with the one mind,whose[TN-2] action
+developes itself with perception, through discrimination, till it
+arrives at notions, wherein its most general scheme, 'truth and error,'
+serves as the principle."[8-1]
+
+Extravagant as Oken's expression seemed to many when it was published,
+it now falls short of the legitimate demands of science, and I may add,
+of religion. _Mind is co-extensive with organism_; in the language of
+logic, one "connotes" the other; this statement, and nothing short of
+it, satisfies the conditions of the problem. Wherever we see Form
+preserved amid the change of substance, _there_ is mind; it alone can
+work that miracle; only it gives Life. Matter suffers no increase;
+therefore the new is but a redistribution of the old; it is new in
+_form_ only; and the maintenance of form under changes of substance is
+the one distinguishing mark of organism. To it is added the yet more
+wonderful power of transmitting form by reproduction. Wherever these
+are, are also the rudiments of mind. The distinction between the animal
+and the vegetable worlds, between the reasoning and unreasoning animals,
+is one of degree only. Whether, in a somewhat different sense, we should
+not go yet further, and say that mind is co-extensive with motion, and
+hence with phenomena, is a speculative inquiry which may have to be
+answered in the affirmative, but it does not concern us here.
+
+The first and most general mark of Mind is sensation or common feeling.
+In technical language a sensation is defined to be the result of an
+impression on an organism, producing some molecular change in its nerve
+or life centres. It is the consequence of a contact with another
+existence. Measured by its effects upon the individual the common law of
+sensation is: Every impression, however slight, either adds to or takes
+from the sum of the life-force of the system; in the former case it
+produces a pleasurable, in the latter a painful sensation. The
+exceptions to this rule, though many, are such in appearance only.[9-1]
+
+In the human race the impression can often be made quite as forcibly by
+a thought as by an act. "I am confident," says John Hunter, the
+anatomist, "that I can fix my attention to any part, until I have a
+sensation in that part." This is what is called the influence of the
+mind upon the body. Its extent is much greater than used to be imagined,
+and it has been a fertile source of religious delusions. Such sensations
+are called subjective; those produced by external force, objective.
+
+The immediate consequent of a sensation is _reflex action_, the object
+of which is either to avoid pain or increase pleasure, in other words,
+either to preserve or augment the individual life.
+
+The molecular changes incident to a sensation leave permanent traces,
+which are the physical bases of memory. One or several such remembered
+sensations, evoked by a present sensation, combine with it to form an
+Emotion. Characteristic of their origin is it that the emotions fall
+naturally into a dual classification, in which the one involves
+pleasurable or elevating, the other painful or depressing conditions.
+Thus we have the pairs joy and grief, hope and fear, love and hate, etc.
+
+The question of pleasure and pain is thus seen to be the primary one of
+mental science. We must look to it to explain the meaning of sensation
+as a common quality of organism. What is the significance of pleasure
+and pain?
+
+The question involves that of Life. Not to stray into foreign topics, it
+may broadly be said that as all change resolves itself into motion,
+and, as Helmholtz remarks, all science merges itself into mechanics, we
+should commence by asking what vital motions these sensations stand for
+or correspond to.
+
+Every organism, and each of its parts, is the resultant of innumerable
+motions, a composition of forces. As such, each obeys the first law of
+motion, to wit, indefinite continuance of action until interfered with.
+This is a modification of Newton's "law of continuance," which, with the
+other primary laws of motion, must be taken as the foundation of biology
+as well as of astronomy.[11-1]
+
+The diminution or dispersion of organic motion is expressed in
+physiological terms as _waste_; we are admonished of waste by _pain_;
+and thus admonished we supply the waste or avoid the injury as far as we
+can. But this connection of pain with waste is not a necessary one, nor
+is it the work of a _Providentia particularis_, as the schoolmen said.
+It is a simple result of natural selection. Many organisms have been
+born, no doubt, in which waste did not cause pain; caused, perhaps,
+pleasure. Consequently, they indulged their preferences and soon
+perished. Only those lived to propagate their kind in whom a different
+sensation was associated with waste, and they transmitted this
+sensitiveness increased by ancestral impression to their offspring. The
+curses of the human race to-day are alcohol, opium and tobacco, and they
+are so because they cause waste, but do not immediately produce painful
+but rather pleasurable feelings.
+
+Pain, as the sensation of waste, is the precursor of death, of the part
+or system. By parity of evolution, pleasure came to be the sensation of
+continuance, of uninterrupted action, of increasing vigor and life.
+Every action, however, is accompanied by waste, and hence every pleasure
+developes pain. But it is all important to note that the latter is the
+mental correlative not of the action but of its cessation, not of the
+life of the part but of its ceasing to live. Pain, it is true, in
+certain limits excites to action; but it is by awakening the
+self-preservative tendencies, which are the real actors. This
+physiological distinction, capable of illustration from sensitive
+vegetable as well as the lowest animal organisms, has had an intimate
+connection with religious theories. The problems of suffering and death
+are precisely the ones which all religions set forth to solve in theory
+and in practice. Their creeds and myths are based on what they make of
+pain. The theory of Buddhism, which now has more followers than any
+other faith, is founded on four axioms, which are called "the four
+excellent truths." The first and fundamental one is: "Pain is
+inseparable from existence." This is the principle of all pessimism,
+ancient and modern. Schopenhauer, an out-and-out pessimist, lays down
+the allied maxim, "All pleasure is negative, that is, it consists in
+getting rid of a want or pain,"[13-1] a principle expressed before his
+time in the saying "the highest pleasure is the relief from pain."
+
+Consistently with this, Buddhism holds out as the ultimate of hope the
+state of Nirvana, in which existence is not, where the soul is "blown
+out" like the flame of a candle.
+
+But physiology demolishes the corner-stone of this edifice when it shows
+that pain, so far from being inseparable from existence, has merely
+become, through transmitted experience, nearly inseparable from the
+progressive cessation of existence. While action and reaction are equal
+in inorganic nature, the principle of life modifies the operation of
+this universal law of force by bringing in _nutrition_, which, were it
+complete, would antagonize reaction. In such a case, pleasure would be
+continuous, pain null; action constant, reaction hypothetical. As,
+however, nutrition in fact never wholly and at once replaces the
+elements altered by vital action, both physicians and metaphysicians
+have observed that pleasure is the fore-runner of pain, and has the
+latter as its certain sequel.[14-1]
+
+Physiologically and practically, the definition of pleasure is, _maximum
+action with minimum waste_.
+
+This latter generalization is the explanation of the esthetic emotions.
+The modern theory of art rests not on a psychological but a
+physiological, and this in turn on a physical basis. Helmholtz's theory
+of musical harmony depends on the experimental fact that a continued
+impression gives a pleasant, a discontinuous an unpleasant sensation.
+The mechanics of muscular structure prove that what are called graceful
+motions are those which are the mechanical resultant of the force of
+the muscle,--those which it can perform at least waste. The pleasure we
+take in curves, especially "the line of beauty," is because our eyes can
+follow them with a minimum action of its muscles of attachment. The
+popular figure called the Grecian figure or the walls of Troy, is
+pleasant because each straight line is shorter, and at right angles to
+the preceding one, thus giving the greatest possible change of action to
+the muscles of the eye.
+
+Such a mechanical view of physiology presents other suggestions. The
+laws of vibratory motion lead to the inference that action in accordance
+with those laws gives maximum intensity and minimum waste. Hence the
+pleasure the mind takes in harmonies of sound, of color and of odors.
+
+The correct physiological conception of the most perfect physical life
+is that which will continue the longest in use, not that which can
+display the greatest muscular force. The ideal is one of extension, not
+of intension.
+
+Religious art indicates the gradual recognition of these principles.
+True to their ideal of inaction, the Oriental nations represent their
+gods as mighty in stature, with prominent muscles, but sitting or
+reclining, often with closed eyes or folded hands, wrapped in robes, and
+lost in meditation. The Greeks, on the other hand, portrayed their
+deities of ordinary stature, naked, awake and erect, but the limbs
+smooth and round, the muscular lines and the veins hardly visible, so
+that in every attitude an indefinite sense of repose pervades the whole
+figure. Movement without effort, action without waste, is the
+immortality these incomparable works set forth. They are meant to teach
+that the ideal life is one, not of painless ease, but of joyous action.
+
+The law of continuity to which I have alluded is not confined to simple
+motions. It is a general mathematical law, that the longer anything
+lasts the longer it is likely to last. If a die turns ace a dozen times
+handrunning, the chances are large that it will turn ace again. The
+Theory of Probabilities is founded upon this, and the value of
+statistics is based on an allied principle. Every condition opposes
+change through inertia. By this law, as the motion caused by a
+pleasurable sensation excites by the physical laws of associated motions
+the reminiscences of former pleasures and pains, a tendency to
+permanence is acquired, which gives the physical basis for Volition.
+Experience and memory are, therefore, necessary to volition, and
+practically self restraint is secured by calling numerous past
+sensations to mind, deterrent ones, "the pains which are indirect
+pleasures," or else pleasurable ones. The Will is an exhibition under
+complex relations of the tendency to continuance which is expressed in
+the first law of motion. Its normal action is the maintenance of the
+individual life, the prolongation of the pleasurable sensations, the
+support of the forces which combat death.
+
+Whatever the action, whether conscious or reflex, its real though often
+indirect and unaccomplished object is the preservation or the
+augmentation of the individual life. Such is the dictum of natural
+science, and it coincides singularly with the famous maxim of Spinoza:
+_Unaquaeque res, quantum in se est, in suo esse perseverare conatur._
+
+The consciousness which accompanies volitional action is derived from
+the common feeling which an organism has, as the result of all its parts
+deriving their nutrition from the same centre. Rising into the sphere of
+emotions, this at first muscular sensation becomes "self-feeling." The
+Individual is another name for the boundaries of reflex action.
+
+Through memory and consciousness we reach that function of the mind
+called the intellect or reason, the product of which is _thought_. Its
+physical accompaniments are chemical action, and an increase of
+temperature in the brain. But the sum of the physical forces thus
+evolved is not the measure of the results of intellectual action. These
+differ from other forms of force in being incommensurate with extension.
+They cannot be appraised in units of quantity, but in quality only. The
+chemico-vital forces by which a thought rises into consciousness bear
+not the slightest relation to the value of the thought itself. It is
+here as in those ancient myths where an earthly maiden brings forth a
+god. The power of the thought is dependent on another test than physical
+force, to wit, its _truth_. This is measured by its conformity to the
+laws of right reasoning, laws clearly ascertained, which are the common
+basis of all science, and to which it is the special province of the
+science of logic to give formal expression.
+
+Physical force itself, in whatever form it appears, is only known to us
+as feeling or as thought; these alone we know to be real; all else is at
+least less real.[18-1] Not only is this true of the external world, but
+also of that assumed something, the reason, the soul, the ego, or the
+intellect. For the sake of convenience these words may be used; but it
+is well to know that this introduction of something that thinks, back
+of thought itself, is a mere figure of speech. We say, "_I_ think," as
+if the "I" was something else than the thinking. At most, it is but the
+relation of the thoughts. Pushed further, it becomes the limitation of
+thought by sensation, the higher by the lower. The Cartesian maxim,
+_cogito ergo sum_, has perpetuated this error, and the modern philosophy
+of the _ego_ and _non-ego_ has prevented its detection. A false reading
+of self-consciousness led to this assumption of "a thinking mind." Our
+personality is but the perception of the solidarity of our thoughts and
+feelings; it is itself a thought.
+
+These three manifestations of mind--sensations, emotions and
+thoughts--are mutually exclusive in their tendencies. The patient
+forgets the fear of the result in the pain of the operation; in intense
+thought the pulse falls, the senses do not respond, emotions and action
+are absent. We may say that ideally the unimpeded exercise of the
+intellect forbids either sensation or emotion.
+
+Contrasting sensation and emotion, on the one side, with intellect on the
+other, feeling with thought, they are seen to be polar or antithetical
+manifestations of mind. Each requires the other for its existence, yet in
+such wise that the one is developed at the expense of the other. The one
+waxes as the other wanes. This is seen to advantage when their most
+similar elements are compared. Thus consciousness in sensation is keenest
+when impressions are strongest; but this consciousness is a bar to
+intellectual self-consciousness, as was pointed out by Professor Ferrier
+in his general Law of consciousness.[20-1] When emotion and sensation are
+at their minimum, one is most conscious of the solidarity of one's
+thoughts; and just in proportion to the vividness of self-consciousness
+is thought lucid and strong. In an ideal intelligence, self-consciousness
+would be infinite, sensation infinitesimal.
+
+Yet there is a parallelism between feeling and thought, as well as a
+contrast. As pain and pleasure indicate opposite tendencies in the
+forces which guide sensation and emotion, so do the true and the untrue
+direct thought, and bear the same relation to it. For as pain is the
+warning of death, so the untrue is the detrimental, the destructive. The
+man who reasons falsely, will act unwisely and run into danger thereby.
+To know the truth is to be ready for the worst. Who reasons correctly
+will live the longest. To love pleasure is not more in the grain of man
+than to desire truth. "I have known many," says St. Augustine, "who like
+to deceive; to be deceived, none." Pleasure, joy, truth, are the
+respective measures of life in sensation, emotion, intellect; one or the
+other of these every organism seeks with all its might, its choice
+depending on which of these divisions of mind is prominently its own. As
+the last mentioned is the climax, truth presents itself as in some way
+the perfect expression of life.
+
+We have seen what pleasure is, but what is truth? The question of Pilate
+remains, not indeed unanswered, but answered vaguely and
+discrepantly.[21-1] We may pass it by as one of speculative interest
+merely, and turn our attention to its practical paraphrase, what is
+true?
+
+The rules of evidence as regards events are well known, and also the
+principles of reaching the laws of phenomena by inductive methods. Many
+say that the mind can go no further than this, that the truth thus
+reached, if not the highest, is at least the highest for man. It is at
+best relative, but it is real. The correctness of this statement may be
+tested by analyzing the processes by which we acquire knowledge.
+
+Knowledge reaches the mind in two forms, for which there are in most
+languages, though not in modern English, two distinct expressions,
+_connaitre_ and _savoir_, _kennen_ and _wissen_. The former relates to
+knowledge through sensation, the latter through intellection; the former
+cannot be rendered in words, the latter can be; the former is reached
+through immediate perception, the latter through logical processes. For
+example: an odor is something we may certainly know and can identify,
+but we cannot possibly describe it in words; justice on the other hand
+may be clearly defined to our mind, but it is equally impossible to
+translate it into sensation. Nevertheless, it is generally agreed that
+the one of these processes is, so far as it goes, as conclusive as the
+other, and that they proceed on essentially the same principles.[22-1]
+Religious philosophy has to do only with the second form of knowledge,
+that reached through notions or thoughts.
+
+The enchainment or sequence of thoughts in the mind is at first an
+accidental one. They arise through the two general relations of nearness
+in time or similarity in sensation. Their succession is prescribed by
+these conditions, and without conscious effort cannot be changed. They
+are notions about phenomena only, and hence are infinitely more likely
+to be wrong than right. Of the innumerable associations of thought
+possible, only one can yield the truth. The beneficial effects of this
+one were felt, and thus by experience man slowly came to distinguish the
+true as what is good for him, the untrue as what is injurious.
+
+After he had done this for a while, he attempted to find out some plan
+in accordance with which he could so arrange his thoughts that they
+should always produce this desirable result. He was thus led to
+establish the rules for right reasoning, which are now familiarly known
+as Logic. This science was long looked upon as a completed one, and at
+the commencement of this century we find such a thinker as Coleridge
+expressing an opinion that further development in it was not to be
+expected. Since then it has, however, taken a fresh start, and by its
+growth has laid the foundation for a system of metaphysics which will be
+free from the vagaries and unrealities which have thrown general
+discredit on the name of philosophy.
+
+In one direction, as applied logic and the logic of induction, the
+natural associations of ideas have been thoroughly studied, and the
+methods by which they can be controlled and reduced have been taught
+with eminent success. In this branch, Bentham, Mill, Bain, and others
+have been prominent workers.
+
+Dealing mainly with the subjects and materials of reasoning, with
+thoughts rather than with thinking, these writers, with the tendency of
+specialists, have not appreciated the labors of another school of
+logicians, who have made the investigation of the process of thinking
+itself their especial province. This is abstract logic, or pure logic,
+sometimes called, inasmuch as it deals with forms only, "formal logic,"
+or because it deals with names and not things, "the logic of names." It
+dates its rise as an independent science from the discovery of what is
+known as "the quantification of the predicate," claimed by Sir William
+Hamilton. Of writers upon it may be mentioned Professor De Morgan, W.
+Stanley Jevons, and especially Professor George Boole of Belfast. The
+latter, one of the subtlest thinkers of this age, and eminent as a
+mathematician, succeeded in making an ultimate analysis of the laws of
+thinking, and in giving them a symbolic notation, by which not only the
+truth of a simple proposition but the relative degree of truth in
+complex propositions may be accurately estimated.[24-1]
+
+This he did by showing that the laws of correct thinking can be
+expressed in algebraic notation, and, thus expressed, will be subject to
+all the mathematical laws of an algebra whose symbols bear the uniform
+value of unity or nought (1 or 0)--a limitation required by the fact
+that pure logic deals in notions of quality only, not of quantity.
+
+This mathematical form of logic was foreseen by Kant when he declared
+that all mathematical reasoning derives its validity from the logical
+laws; but no one before Professor Boole had succeeded in reaching the
+notation which subordinated these two divisions of abstract thought to
+the same formal types. His labors have not yet borne fruit in proportion
+to their value, and they are, I believe, comparatively little known. But
+in the future they will be regarded as epochal in the science of mind.
+They make us to see the same law governing mind and matter, thought and
+extension.
+
+Not the least important result thus achieved was in emphasizing the
+contrast between the natural laws of mental association, and the laws of
+thinking which are the foundation of the syllogism.
+
+By attending to this distinction we are enabled to keep the form and the
+matter of thought well apart--a neglect to do which, or rather a studied
+attempt to ignore which, is the radical error of the logic devised by
+Hegel, as I shall show more fully a little later.
+
+All applied logic, inductive as well as deductive, is based on formal
+logic, and this in turn on the "laws of thought," or rather of thinking.
+These are strictly regulative or abstract, and differ altogether from
+the natural laws of thought, such as those of similarity, contiguity and
+harmony, as well as from the rules of applied logic, such as those of
+agreement and difference. The fundamental laws of thinking are three in
+number, and their bearing on all the higher questions of religious
+philosophy is so immediate that their consideration becomes of the last
+moment in such a study as this. They are called the laws of
+Determination, Limitation and Excluded Middle.
+
+The first affirms that every object thought about must be conceived as
+itself, and not as some other thing. "A is A," or "_x_ = _x_," is its
+formal expression. This teaches us that whatever we think of, must be
+thought as one or a unity. It is important, however, to note that this
+does not mean a mathematical unit, but a logical one, that is, identity
+and not contrast. So true is this that in mathematical logic the only
+value which can satisfy the formula is a concept which does not admit of
+increase, to wit, a Universal.
+
+From this necessity of conceiving a thought under unity has arisen the
+interesting tendency, so frequently observable even in early times, to
+speak of the universe as one whole, the ~to pan~ of the Greek
+philosophers; and also the monotheistic leaning of all thinkers, no
+matter what their creed, who have attained very general conceptions.
+Furthermore, the strong liability of confounding this speculative or
+logical unity with the concrete notion of individuality, or mathematical
+unity, has been, as I shall show hereafter, a fruitful source of error
+in both religious and metaphysical theories. Pure logic deals with
+quality only, not with quantity.
+
+The second law is that of Limitation. As the first is sometimes called
+that of Affirmation, so this is called that of Negation. It prescribes
+that a thing is not that which it is not. Its formula is, "A is not
+not-A." If this seems trivial, it is because it is so familiar.
+
+These two laws are two aspects of the same law. The old maxim is, _omnis
+determinatio est negatio_; a quality can rise into cognition only by
+being limited by that which it is not. It is not a comparison of two
+thoughts, however, nor does it limit the quality itself. For the
+negative is not a thought, and the quality is not _in suo genere
+finita_, to use an expression of the old logicians; it is limited not by
+itself but by that which it is not. These are not idle distinctions, as
+will soon appear.
+
+The third law comes into play when two thoughts are associated and
+compared. There is qualitative identity, or there is not. A is either B
+or not B. An animal is either a man or not a man. There is no middle
+class between the two to which it can be assigned. Superficial truism as
+this appears, we have now come upon the very battle ground of the
+philosophies. This is the famous "Law of the contradictories and
+excluded middle," on the construction of which the whole fabric of
+religious dogma, and I may add of the higher metaphysics, must depend.
+"One of the principal retarding causes of philosophy," remarks Professor
+Ferrier, "has been the want of a clear and developed doctrine of the
+contradictory."[28-1] The want is as old as the days of Heraclitus of
+Ephesus, and lent to his subtle paradoxes that obscurity which has not
+yet been wholly removed.
+
+Founding his arguments on one construction of this law, expressed in the
+maxim, "The conceivable lies between two contradictory extremes," Sir
+William Hamilton defended with his wide learning those theories of the
+Conditioned and the Unconditioned, the Knowable and Unknowable, which
+banish religion from the realm of reason and knowledge to that of faith,
+and cleave an impassable chasm between the human and the divine
+intelligence. From this unfavorable ground his orthodox followers,
+Mansel and Mozley, defended with ability but poor success their
+Christianity against Herbert Spencer and his disciples, who also
+accepted the same theories, but followed them out to their legitimate
+conclusion--a substantially atheistic one.
+
+Hamilton in this was himself but a follower of Kant, who brought this
+law to support his celebrated "antinomies of the human understanding,"
+warnings set up to all metaphysical explorers to keep off of holy
+ground.
+
+On another construction of it, one which sought to escape the dilemma of
+the contradictories by confining them to matters of the understanding,
+Hegel and Schelling believed they had gained the open field. They taught
+that in the highest domain of thought, there where it deals with
+questions of pure reason, the unity and limits which must be observed in
+matters of the understanding and which give validity to this third law,
+do not obtain. This view has been closely criticized, and, I think, with
+justice. Pretending to deal with matters of pure reason, it constantly
+though surreptitiously proceeds on the methods of applied logic; its
+conclusions are as fallacious logically as they are experimentally. The
+laws of thought are formal, and are as binding in transcendental
+subjects as in those which concern phenomena.
+
+The real bearing of this law can, it appears to me, best be derived from
+a study of its mathematical expression. This is, according to the
+notation of Professor Boole, _x_^{2}=_x_. As such, it presents a
+fundamental equation of thought, and it is because it is of the second
+degree that we classify in pairs or opposites. This equation can only be
+satisfied by assigning to _x_ the value of 1 or 0. The "universal type
+of form" is therefore _x_(1-_x_)=0.
+
+This algebraic notation shows that there is, not two, but only one
+thought in the antithesis; that it is made up of a thought and its
+expressed limit; and, therefore, that the so-called "law of
+contradictories" does not concern contradictories at all, in pure logic.
+This result was seen, though not clearly, by Dr. Thompson, who indicated
+the proper relation of the members of the formula as a positive and a
+privative. He, however, retained Hamilton's doctrine that "privative
+conceptions enter into and assist the higher processes of the reason in
+all that it can know of the absolute and infinite;" that we must, "from
+the seen realize an unseen world, not by extending to the latter the
+properties of the former, but by assigning to it attributes entirely
+opposite."[31-1]
+
+The error that vitiates all such reasoning is the assumption that the
+privative is an independent thought, that a thought and its limitation
+are two thoughts; whereas they are but the two aspects of the one
+thought, like two sides to the one disc, and the absurdity of speaking
+of them as separate thoughts is as great as to speak of a curve seen
+from its concavity as a different thing from the same curve regarded
+from its convexity. The privative can help us nowhere and to nothing;
+the positive only can assist our reasoning.
+
+This elevation of the privative into a contrary, or a contradictory, has
+been the bane of metaphysical reasoning. From it has arisen the doctrine
+of the synthesis of an affirmative and a negative into a higher
+conception, reconciling them both. This is the maxim of the Hegelian
+logic, which starts from the synthesis of Being and Not-being into the
+Becoming, a very ancient doctrine, long since offered as an explanation
+of certain phenomena, which I shall now touch upon.
+
+A thought and its privative alone--that is, a quality and its
+negative--cannot lead to a more comprehensive thought. It is devoid of
+relation and barren. In pure logic this is always the case, and must be
+so. In concrete thought it may be otherwise. There are certain
+propositions in which the negative is a reciprocal quality, quite as
+positive as that which it is set over against. The members of such a
+proposition are what are called "true contraries." To whatever they
+apply as qualities, they leave no middle ground. If a thing is not one
+of them, it is the other. There is no third possibility. An object is
+either red or not red; if not red, it may be one of many colors. But if
+we say that all laws are either concrete or abstract, then we know that
+a law not concrete has all the properties of one which is abstract. We
+must examine, then, this third law of thought in its applied forms in
+order to understand its correct use.
+
+It will be observed that there is an assumption of space or time in many
+propositions having the form of the excluded middle. They are only true
+under given conditions. "All gold is fusible or not," means that some is
+fusible at the time. If all gold be already fused, it does not hold
+good. This distinction was noted by Kant in his discrimination between
+_synthetic_ judgments, which assume other conditions; and _analytic_
+judgments, which look only at the members of the proposition.
+
+Only the latter satisfy the formal law, for the proposition must not
+look outside of itself for its completion. Most analytic propositions
+cannot extend our knowledge beyond their immediate statement. If A is
+either B or not B, and it is shown not to be B, it is left uncertain
+what A may be. The class of propositions referred to do more than this,
+inasmuch as they present alternative conceptions, mutually exhaustive,
+each the privative of the other. Of these two contraries, the one always
+evokes the other; neither can be thought except in relation to the
+other. They do not arise from the dichotomic process of classification,
+but from the polar relations of things. Their relation is not in the
+mind but in themselves, a real externality. The distinction between such
+as spring from the former and the latter is the most important question
+in philosophy.
+
+To illustrate by examples, we familiarly speak of heat and cold, and to
+say a body is not hot is as much as to say it is cold. But every
+physicist knows that cold is merely a diminution of heat, not a distinct
+form of force. The absolute zero may be reached by the abstraction of
+all heat, and then the cold cannot increase. So, life and death are not
+true contraries, for the latter is not anything real but a mere
+privative, a quantitative diminution of the former, growing less to an
+absolute zero where it is wholly lost.
+
+Thus it is easy to see that the Unconditioned exists only as a part of
+the idea of the Conditioned, the Unknowable as the foil of the Knowable;
+and the erecting of these mere privatives, these negatives, these
+shadows, into substances and realities, and then setting them up as
+impassable barriers to human thought, is one of the worst pieces of work
+that metaphysics has been guilty of.
+
+The like does not hold in true contrasts. Each of them has an existence
+as a positive,and[TN-3] is never lost in a zero of the other. The one is
+always thought in relation to the other. Examples of these are subject
+and object, absolute and relative, mind and matter, person and
+consciousness, time and space. When any one of these is thought, the
+other is assumed. It is vain to attempt their separation. Thus those
+philosophers who assert that all knowledge is relative, are forced to
+maintain this assertion, to wit, All knowledge is relative, is
+nevertheless absolute, and thus they falsify their own position. So
+also, those others who say all mind is a property of matter, assume in
+this sentence the reality of an idea apart from matter. Some have argued
+that space and time can be conceived independently of each other; but
+their experiments to show it do not bear repetition.
+
+All true contraries are universals. A universal concept is one of
+"maximum extension," as logicians say, that is, it is without limit. The
+logical limitation of such a universal is not its negation, but its
+contrary, which is itself also a universal. The synthesis of the two can
+be in theory only, yet yields a real product. To illustrate this by a
+geometrical example, a straight line produced indefinitely is, logically
+considered, a universal. Its antithesis or true contrary is not a
+crooked line, as might be supposed, but the straight line which runs at
+right angles to it. Their synthesis is not the line which bisects their
+angle but that formed by these contraries continually uniting, that is,
+the arc of a circle, the genesis of which is theoretically the union of
+two such lines. Again, time can only be measured by space, space by
+time; they are true universals and contraries; their synthesis is
+_motion_, a conception which requires them both and is completed by
+them. Or again, the philosophical extremes of downright materialism and
+idealism are each wholly true, yet but half the truth. The insoluble
+enigmas that either meets in standing alone are kindred to those which
+puzzled the old philosophers in the sophisms relating to motion, as, for
+instance, that as a body cannot move where it is and still less where it
+is not, therefore it cannot move at all. Motion must recognise both time
+and space to be comprehensible. As a true contrary constantly implies
+the existence of its opposite, we cannot take a step in right reasoning
+without a full recognition of both.
+
+This relation of contraries to the higher conception which logically
+must include them is one of the well-worn problems of the higher
+metaphysics.
+
+The proper explanation would seem to be, as suggested above, that the
+synthesis of contraries is capable of formal expression only, but not of
+interpretation. In pursuing the search for their union we pass into a
+realm of thought not unlike that of the mathematician when he deals with
+hypothetical quantities, those which can only be expressed in symbols--,
+[square root] 1 for example,--but uses them to good purpose in reaching
+real results. The law does not fail, but its operations can no longer be
+expressed under material images. They are symbolic and for speculative
+thought alone, though pregnant with practical applications.
+
+As I have hinted, in all real contraries it is theoretically possible to
+accept either the one or the other. As in mathematics, all motion can be
+expressed either under formulas of initial motion (mechanics), or of
+continuous motion (kinematics), or as all force can be expressed as
+either static or as dynamic force; in either case the other form
+assuming a merely hypothetical or negative position; so the logic of
+quality is competent to represent all existence as ideal or as material,
+all truth as absolute or all as relative, or even to express the
+universe in formulae of being or of not-being. This perhaps was what
+Heraclitus meant when he propounded his dark saying: "All things are
+_and_ are not." He added that "All is not," is truer than "All is."
+Previous to his day, Buddha Sakyamuni had said: "He who has risen to the
+perception of the not-Being, to the Unconditioned, the Universal, his
+path is difficult to understand, like the flight of birds in the
+air."[37-1] Perhaps even he learned his lore from some older song of the
+Veda, one of which ends, "Thus have the sages, meditating in their
+souls, explained away the fetters of being by the not-being."[37-2] The
+not-being, as alone free from space and time, impressed these sages as
+the more real of the two, the only absolute.
+
+The error of assigning to the one universal a preponderance over the
+other arose from the easy confusion of pure with applied thought. The
+synthesis of contraries exists in the formal law alone, and this is
+difficult to keep before the mind. In concrete displays they are forever
+incommensurate. One seems to exclude the other. To see them correctly we
+must there treat them as alternates. We may be competent, for instance,
+to explain all phenomena of mind by organic processes; and equally
+competent to explain all organism as effects of mind; but we must never
+suppose an immediate identity of the two; this is only to be found in
+the formal law common to both; still less should we deny the reality of
+either. Each exhausts the universe; but at every step each presupposes
+the other; their synthesis is life, a concept hopelessly puzzling unless
+regarded in all its possible displays as made up of both.
+
+This indicates also the limits of explanation. By no means every man's
+reason knows when it has had enough. The less it is developed, the
+further is it from such knowledge. This is plainly seen in children, who
+often do not rest satisfied with a really satisfactory explanation. It
+is of first importance to be able to recognize what is a good reason.
+
+I may first say what it is _not_. It is not a _cause_. This is nothing
+more than a prior arrangement of the effect; the reason for an
+occurrence is never assigned by showing its cause. Nor is it a
+_caprice_, that is, motiveless volition, or will as a motor. In this
+sense, the "will of God" is no good reason for an occurrence. Nor is it
+_fate_, or physical necessity. This is denying there is any explanation
+to give.
+
+The reason can only be satisfied with an aliment consubstantial with
+itself. Nothing material like cause, nor anything incomprehensible like
+caprice, meets its demands. Reason is allied to order, system and
+purpose above all things. That which most completely answers to these
+will alone satisfy its requirements. They are for an ideal of order.
+Their complete satisfaction is obtained in universal types and measures,
+pure abstractions, which are not and cannot be real. The _formal law_ is
+the limit of explanation of phenomena, beyond which a sound intellect
+will ask nothing. It fulfils all the requirements of reason, and leaves
+nothing to be desired.
+
+Those philosophers, such as Herbert Spencer, who teach that there is
+some incogitable "nature" of something which is the immanent "cause" of
+phenomena, delude themselves with words. The history and the laws of a
+phenomenon _are_ its nature, and there is no chimerical something beyond
+them. They are exhaustive. They fully answer the question _why_, as well
+as the question _how_.[39-1]
+
+For it is important to note that the word "law" is not here used in the
+sense which Blackstone gives to it, a "rule of conduct;" nor yet in that
+which science assigns to it, a "physical necessity." Law in its highest
+sense is the type or form, perceived by reason as that toward which
+phenomena tend, but which they always fail to reach. It was shown by
+Kant that all physical laws depend for their validity on logical laws.
+These are not authoritative, like the former, but purposive only. But
+their purpose is clear, to wit, the attainment of proportion,
+consistency or truth. As this purpose is reached only in the abstract
+form, this alone gives us the absolutely true in which reason can rest.
+
+In the concrete, matter shows the law in its efforts toward form, mind
+in its struggle for the true. The former is guided by physical force,
+and the extinction of the aberrant. The latter, in its highest
+exhibition in a conscious intelligence, can alone guide itself by the
+representation of law, by the sense of Duty. Such an intelligence has
+both the faculty to see and the power to choose and appropriate to its
+own behoof, and thus to build itself up out of those truths which are
+"from everlasting unto everlasting."
+
+A purely formal truth of this kind as something wholly apart from
+phenomena, not in any way connected with the knowledge derived through
+the senses, does not admit of doubt and can never be changed by future
+conquests of the reasoning powers. We may rest upon it as something more
+permanent than matter, greater than Nature.
+
+Such was the vision that inspired the noble lines of Wordsworth:--
+
+    "What are things eternal?--Powers depart,
+    Possessions vanish, and opinions change,
+    And passions hold a fluctuating seat;
+    But, by the storms of circumstance unshaken,
+    And subject neither to eclipse nor wane,
+    Duty exists; immutably survive
+    For our support, the measures and the forms
+    Which an abstract intelligence supplies;
+    Whose kingdom is where time and space are not."
+
+There is no danger that we shall not know what is thus true when we see
+it. The sane reason cannot reject it. "The true," says Novalis, "is that
+which we cannot help believing." It is the _perceptio per solam
+essentiam_ of Spinoza. It asks not faith nor yet testimony; it stands in
+need of neither.
+
+Mathematical truth is of this nature. We cannot, if we try, believe
+that twice two is five. Hence the unceasing effort of all science is to
+give its results mathematical expression. Such truth so informs itself
+with will that once received, it is never thereafter alienated;
+obedience to it does not impair freedom. Necessity and servitude do not
+arise from correct reasoning, but through the limitation of fallacies.
+They have nothing to do with
+
+          "Those transcendent truths
+    Of the pure intellect, that stand as laws
+    Even to Thy Being's infinite majesty."
+
+It is not derogatory, but on the contrary essential to the conception of
+the Supreme Reason, the Divine Logos, to contemplate its will as in
+accord and one with the forms of abstract truth. "The 'will of God'"
+says Spinoza, "is the refuge of ignorance; the true Will is the spirit
+of right reasoning."
+
+This identification of the forms of thought with the Absolute is almost
+as old as philosophy itself. The objections to it have been that no
+independent existence attaches to these forms; that they prescribe the
+conditions of thought but are not thought itself, still less being; that
+they hold good to thought as known to man's reason, but perchance not to
+thought in other intelligences; and, therefore, that even if through the
+dialectical development of thought a consistent idea of the universe
+were framed, that is, one wherein every fact was referred to its
+appropriate law, still would remain the inquiry, Is this the last and
+absolute truth?
+
+The principal points in these objections are that abstract thought does
+not postulate being; and that possibly all intelligence is not one in
+kind. To the former objection the most satisfactory, reply has been
+offered by Professor J. F. Ferrier. He has shown that the conception of
+object, even ideal object, implies the conception of self in the
+subject; and upon this proposition which has been fully recognized even
+by those who differ from him widely, he grounds the existence of Supreme
+Thought as a logical unity. Those who would pursue this branch of the
+subject further, I would refer to his singularly able work.[43-1]
+
+The latter consideration will come up in a later chapter. If it be shown
+that all possible intelligence proceeds on the same laws as that of man,
+and that the essence of this is activity, permanence, or
+truth--synonymous terms--then the limitation of time ceases, and
+existence not in time but without regard to time, is a necessary
+consequence. Knowledge through intellection can alone reach a truth
+independent of time; that through sensation is always relative, true
+for the time only. The former cannot be expressed without the
+implication of the conceptions of the universal and the eternal as
+"dominant among the subjects of thought with which Logic is
+concerned;"[44-1] and hence the relation which the intellect bears to
+the absolute is a real and positive one.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[6-1] In his essay entitled, _Ueber den Geschlechtsunterschied und
+dessen Einfluss auf die organische Natur_, first published in 1795.
+
+[6-2] "Der alte Dualismus von Geist und Koerper, der Jahrhunderte
+hindurch nach Versoehnung gerungen, findet diese heute nicht zwar in
+der Einheit der Substanz, wohl aber in der Einheit des Gesetzes."
+Dr. Heinrich Boehmer, _Geschichte der Entwickelung der
+Naturwissenschaftlichen Weltanschauung in Deutschland_, s. 201 (Gotha,
+1872).
+
+[7-1] _Elements of Physio-Philosophy_, Sec.3589. Eng. trans., London, 1847.
+
+[8-1] Von Feuchtersleben, _The Principles of Medical Psychology_, p. 130
+(Eng. trans., London, 1847).
+
+[9-1] "The fundamental property of organic structure is to seek what is
+beneficial, and to shun what is hurtful to it." Dr. Henry Maudsley,
+_Body and Mind_, p. 22.
+
+"The most essential nature of a sentient being is to move _to_ pleasure
+and _from_ pain." A. Bain, _On the Study of Character_, p. 292 (London,
+1861).
+
+"States of Pleasure are connected with an increase, states of Pain with
+an abatement of some or all of the vital functions." A. Bain, _Mind and
+Body_, p. 59.
+
+"Affectus est confusa idea, qua Mens majorem, vel minorem sui corporis,
+vel alicujus ejus partis, existendi vim affirmat." Spinoza, _Ethices_,
+Lib. III. _ad finem_.
+
+[11-1] The extension of the mechanical laws of motion to organic motion
+was, I believe, first carried out by Comte. His biological form of the
+first law is as follows: "Tout etat, statique ou dynamique, tend a
+persister spontanement, sans aucune alteration, en resistant aux
+perturbations exterieures." _Systeme de Politique Positive_, Tome iv. p.
+178. The metaphysical ground of this law has, I think, been very well
+shown by Schopenhauer to be in the Kantian principle that time is not a
+force, nor a quality of matter, but a condition of perception, and hence
+it can exert no physical influence. See Schopenhauer, _Parerga und
+Paralipomena_, Bd. II, s. 37.
+
+[13-1] "Aller Genuss, seiner Natur nach, ist negativ, d. h., in
+Befreiung von einer Noth oder Pein besteht." _Parerga und Paralipomena._
+Bd. II, s. 482.
+
+[14-1] "No impression whatever is pleasant beyond the instant of its
+realization; since, at that very instant, commences the change of
+susceptibility, which suggests the desire for a change of impression or
+for a renewal of that impression which is fading away." Dr. J. P.
+Catlow, _The Principles of Aesthetic Medicine_, p. 155 (London, 1867).
+
+"Dum re, quem appetamus fruimur, corpus ex ea fruitione novam acquirat
+constitutionem, a qua aliter determinatur, et aliae rerum imagines in eo
+excitantur," etc. Spinoza, _Ethices_, Pars III, Prop. lix.
+
+[18-1] "Feeling and thought are much more real than anything else; they
+are the only things which we directly know to be real."--John Stuart
+Mill.--_Theism_, p. 202. How very remote external objects are from what
+we take them to be, is constantly shown in physiological studies. As
+Helmholtz remarks: "No kind and no degree of similarity exists between
+the quality of a sensation, and the quality of the agent inducing it and
+portrayed by it."--_Lectures on Scientific Subjects_, p. 390.
+
+[20-1] _The Philosophy of Consciousness_, p. 72.
+
+[21-1] The Gospel of John (ch. xviii.) leaves the impression that Pilate
+either did not wait for an answer but asked the question in contempt, as
+Bacon understood, or else that waiting he received no answer. The Gospel
+of Nicodemus, however, written according to Tischendorf in the second
+century, probably from tradition, gives the rest of the conversation as
+follows: "Pilate says to him: What is truth? Jesus says: Truth is from
+heaven. Pilate says: Is not there truth upon earth? Jesus says to
+Pilate: See how one who speaks truth is judged by those who have power
+upon earth!" [ch. iii.]
+
+[22-1] The most acute recent discussion of this subject is by Helmholtz,
+in his essay entitled, "_Recent Progress in the Theory of Vision_."
+
+[24-1] George Boole, Professor of Mathematics in Queen's College, Cork,
+was born Nov. 2, 1815, died Dec. 8, 1864. He was the author of several
+contributions to the higher mathematics, but his principal production is
+entitled: _An Investigation into the Laws of Thought, on which are
+founded the mathematical Theories of Logic and Probabilities_ [London,
+1854.] Though the reputation he gained was so limited that one may seek
+his name in vain in the _New American Cyclopedia_ [1875], or the
+_Dictionnaire des Contemporains_ [1859], the few who can appreciate his
+treatise place the very highest estimate upon it. Professor Todhunter,
+in the preface to his _History of the Theory of Probabilities_, calls it
+"a marvellous work," and in similar language Professor W. Stanley Jevons
+speaks of it as "one of the most marvellous and admirable pieces of
+reasoning ever put together" (_Pure Logic_, p. 75). Professor Bain, who
+gives a synopsis of it in his _Deductive Logic_, wholly misapprehends
+the author's purpose, and is unable to appraise justly his conclusions.
+
+[28-1] _The Institutes of Metaphysic_, p. 459, (2nd edition.)
+
+[31-1] _An Outline of the Necessary Laws of Thought_, p. 113 (New York,
+1860).
+
+[37-1] _The Dhamapada_, verse 93.
+
+[37-2] Koppen, _Der Buddhismus_, s. 30.
+
+[39-1] Spencer in assuming an "unknowable universal causal agent and
+source of things," as "the nature of the power manifested in phenomena,"
+and in calling this the idea common to both religion and "ideal
+science," fell far behind Comte, who expressed the immovable position,
+not only of positive science but of all intelligence, in these words:
+"Le veritable esprit positif consiste surtout a substituer toujours
+l'etude des _lois_ invariables des phenomenes a celles de leurs _causes_
+proprement dites, premieres ou finales, en un mot la determination du
+_comment_ a celle du _pourquoi_."--_Systemede[TN-4] Politique Positive_,
+i. p. 47. Compare Spencer's Essay entitled, "Reasons for dissenting from
+Comte." The purposive law is the only final cause which reason allows.
+Comte's error lay in ignoring this class of laws.
+
+[43-1] _The Institutes of Metaphysic_, 2d Ed. See also Bain, _The
+Emotions and the Will_, the closing note.
+
+[44-1] Boole, _Laws of Thought_, p. 401.
+
+
+
+
+THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     The Religious Sentiment is made up of emotions and thoughts. The
+     emotions are historically first and most prominent. Of all
+     concerned, Fear is the most obvious. Hope is its correlate. Both
+     suppose Experience, and a desire to repeat or avoid it. Hence a
+     Wish is the source of both emotions, and the proximate element of
+     religion. The significance of desire as the postulate of
+     development. The influence of fear and hope. The conditions which
+     encourage them.
+
+     The success of desire fails to gratify the religious sentiment. The
+     alternative left is eternal repose, or else action, unending yet
+     which aims at nothing beyond. The latter is reached through Love.
+     The result of love is _continuance_. Illustrations of this. Sexual
+     love and the venereal sense in religions. The hermaphrodite gods.
+     The virgin mother. Mohammed was the first to proclaim a deity above
+     sex. The conversion of sexual and religious emotion exemplified
+     from insane delusions. The element of fascination. The love of God.
+     Other emotional elements in religions.
+
+     The religious wish defined to be one _whose fruition depends upon
+     unknown power_. To be religious, one must desire and be ignorant.
+     The unknown power is of religious interest only in so far as it is
+     believed to be in relation to men's desires. In what sense
+     ignorance is the mother of devotion.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II.
+
+THE EMOTIONAL ELEMENTS OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+The discussion in the last chapter illustrated how closely pain and
+pleasure, truth and error, and thought and its laws have been related to
+the forms of religions, and their dogmatic expressions. The character of
+the relatively and absolutely true was touched upon, and the latter, it
+was indicated, if attainable at all by human intelligence, must be found
+in the formal laws of that intelligence, those which constitute its
+nature and essence, and in the conclusions which such a premise forces
+upon the reason. The necessity of this preliminary inquiry arose from
+the fact that every historical religion claims the monopoly of the
+absolutely true, and such claims can be tested only when we have decided
+as to whether there is such truth, and if there is, where it is to be
+sought. Moreover, as religions arise from some mental demand, the
+different manifestations of mind,--sensation, emotion and
+intellect--must be recognized and understood.
+
+Passing now to a particular description of the Religious Sentiment, it
+may roughly be defined to be the feeling which prompts to thoughts or
+acts of worship. It is, as I have said, a complex product, made up of
+emotions and ideas, developing with the growth of mind, wide-reaching in
+its maturity, but meagre enough at the start. We need not expect to find
+in its simplest phases that insight and tender feeling which we
+attribute to the developed religious character. "The scent of the
+blossom is not in the bulb." Its early and ruder forms, however, will
+best teach the mental elements which are at its root.
+
+The problem is, to find out why the primitive man figured to himself any
+gods at all; what necessity of his nature or his condition led him so
+universally to assume their existence, and seek their aid or their
+mercy? The conditions of the solution are, that it hold good everywhere
+and at all times; that it enable us to trace in every creed and cult the
+same sentiments which first impelled man to seek a god and adore him.
+Why is it that now and in remotest history, here and in the uttermost
+regions, there is and always has been this that we call _religion_?
+There must be some common reason, some universal peculiarity in man's
+mental formation which prompts, which forces him, him alone of animals,
+and him without exception, to this discourse and observance of religion.
+What this is, it is my present purpose to try to find out.
+
+In speaking of the development of mind through organism, it was seen
+that the emotions precede the reason in point of time. This is daily
+confirmed by observation. The child is vastly more emotional than the
+man, the savage than his civilized neighbor. Castren, the Russian
+traveller, describes the Tartars and Lapps as a most nervous folk. When
+one shocks them with a sudden noise, they almost fall into convulsions.
+Among the North American Indians, falsely called a phlegmatic race,
+nervous diseases are epidemic to an almost unparalleled extent. Intense
+thought, on the other hand, as I have before said, tends to lessen and
+annul the emotions. Intellectual self-consciousness is adverse to them.
+
+But religion, we are everywhere told, is largely a matter of the
+emotions. The pulpit constantly resounds with appeals to the feelings,
+and not unfrequently with warnings against the intellect. "I acknowledge
+myself," says the pious non-juror, William Law, "a declared enemy to the
+use of reason in religion;" and he often repeats his condemnation of
+"the labor-learned professors of far-fetched book-riches."[49-1] As the
+eye is the organ of sight, says one whose thoughts on such matters equal
+in depth those of Pascal, so the heart is the organ of religion.[49-2]
+In popular physiology, the heart is the seat of the emotions as the
+brain is that of intellect. It is appropriate, therefore, that we
+commence our analysis of the religious sentiment with the emotions which
+form such a prominent part of it.
+
+Now, whether we take the experience of an individual or the history of a
+tribe, whether we have recourse to the opinions of religious teachers or
+irreligious philosophers, we find them nigh unanimous that the emotion
+which is the prime motor of religious thought is _fear_. I need not
+depend upon the well-known line of Petronius Arbiter,
+
+    Primus in orbe deos fecit timor;
+
+for there is plenty of less heterodox authority. The worthy Bishop Hall
+says, "Seldom doth God seize upon the heart without a vehement
+concussion going before. There must be some blustering and flashes of
+the law. We cannot be too awful in our fear."[50-1] Bunyan, in his
+beautiful allegory of the religious life, lets Christian exclaim: "Had
+even Obstinate himself felt what I have felt of the terrors of the yet
+unseen, he would not thus lightly have given us the _back_." The very
+word for God in the Semitic tongues means "fear;"[50-2] Jacob swore to
+Laban, "by Him whom Isaac feared;" and Moses warned his people that
+"God is come, that his fear may be before your faces." To _venerate_ is
+from a Sanscrit root (_sev_), to be afraid of.
+
+But it is needless to amass more evidence on this point. Few will
+question that fear is the most prominent emotion at the awakening of the
+religious sentiments. Let us rather proceed to inquire more minutely
+what fear is.
+
+I remarked in the previous chapter that "the emotions fall naturally
+into a dual classification, in which the one involves pleasurable or
+elevating, the other painful or depressing conditions." Fear comes of
+course under the latter category, as it is essentially a painful and
+depressing state of mind. But it corresponds with and implies the
+presence of Hope, for he who has nothing to hope has nothing to
+fear.[51-1] "There is no hope without fear, as there is no fear without
+hope," says Spinoza. "For he who is in fear has some doubt whether what
+he fears will take place, and consequently hopes that it will not."
+
+We can go a step further, and say that in the mental process the hope
+must necessarily precede the fear. In the immediate moment of losing a
+pleasurable sensation we hope and seek for its repetition. The mind,
+untutored by experience, confidently looks for its return. The hope only
+becomes dashed by fear when experience has been associated with
+disappointment. Hence we must first look to enjoy a good before we can
+be troubled by a fear that we shall not enjoy it; we must first lay a
+plan before we can fear its failure. In modern Christianity hope, hope
+of immortal happiness, is more conspicuous than fear; but that hope is
+also based on the picture of a pleasant life made up from experience.
+
+Both hope and fear, therefore, have been correctly called secondary or
+derived emotions, as they presuppose experience and belief, experience
+of a pleasure akin to that which we hope, belief that we can attain such
+a pleasure. "We do not hope first and enjoy afterwards, but we enjoy
+first and hope afterwards."[52-1] Having enjoyed, we seek to do so
+again. A desire, in other words, must precede either Hope or Fear. They
+are twin sisters, born of a Wish.
+
+Thus my analysis traces the real source of the religious sentiment, so
+far as the emotions are concerned, to a Wish; and having arrived there,
+I find myself anticipated by the words of one of the most reflective
+minds of this century: "All religion rests on a mental want; we hope,
+we fear, because we wish."[53-1] And long before this conclusion was
+reached by philosophers, it had been expressed in unconscious religious
+thought in myths, in the Valkyria, the Wish-maidens, for instance, who
+carried the decrees of Odin to earth.
+
+This is no mean origin, for a wish, a desire, conscious or unconscious,
+in sensation only or in emotion as well, is the fundamental postulate of
+every sort of development, of improvement, of any possible future, of
+life of any kind, mental or physical. In its broadest meaning, science
+and history endorse the exclamation of the unhappy Obermann: "_La perte
+vraiment irreparable est celle des desirs._"[53-2]
+
+The sense of unrest, the ceaseless longing for something else, which is
+the general source of all desires and wishes, is also the source of all
+endeavor and of all progress. Physiologically, it is the effort of our
+organization to adapt itself to the ever varying conditions which
+surround it; intellectually, it is the struggle to arrive at truth; in
+both, it is the effort to attain a fuller life.
+
+As stimuli to action, therefore, the commonest and strongest of all
+emotions are Fear and Hope. They are the emotional correlates of
+pleasure and pain, which rule the life of sensation. Their closer
+consideration may well detain us awhile.
+
+In the early stages of religious life, whether in an individual or a
+nation, the latter is half concealed. Fear is more demonstrative, and as
+it is essentially destructive, its effects are more sudden and visible.
+In its acuter forms, as Fright and Terror, it may blanch the hair in a
+night, blight the mind and destroy the life of the individual. As Panic,
+it is eminently epidemic, carrying crowds and armies before it; while in
+the aggravated form of Despair it swallows up all other emotions and
+prompts to self destruction. Its physiological effect is a direct
+impairment of vitality.
+
+Hope is less intense and more lasting than fear. It stimulates the
+system, elates with the confidence of control, strengthens with the
+courage derived from a conviction of success, and bestows in advance the
+imagined joy of possession. As Feuchtersleben happily expresses it:
+"Hope preserves the principle of duration when other parts are
+threatened with destruction, and is a manifestation of the innermost
+psychical energy of Life."[54-1]
+
+Both emotions powerfully prompt to action, and to that extent are
+opposed to thought. Based on belief, they banish uncertainty, and
+antagonize doubt and with it investigation. The religion in which they
+enter as the principal factors will be one intolerant of opposition,
+energetic in deed, and generally hostile to an unbiased pursuit of the
+truth.
+
+Naturally those temperaments and those physical conditions which chiefly
+foster these emotions will tend to religious systems in which they are
+prominent. Let us see what some of these conditions are.
+
+It has always been noticed that impaired vitality predisposes to fear.
+The sick and feeble are more timorous than the strong and well. Further
+predisposing causes of the same nature are insufficient nourishment,
+cold, gloom, malaria, advancing age and mental worry. For this reason
+nearly invariably after a general financial collapse we witness a
+religious "revival." Age, full of care and fear, is thus prompted to
+piety, willing, as La Rochefoucauld remarks, to do good by precept when
+it can no longer do evil by example. The inhabitants of swampy,
+fever-ridden districts are usually devout. The female sex, always the
+weaker and often the worsted one in the struggle for existence, is when
+free more religious than the male; but with them hope is more commonly
+the incentive than fear.
+
+Although thus prominent and powerful, desire, so far as its fruition is
+pleasure, has expressed but the lowest emotions of the religious
+sentiment. Something more than this has always been asked by sensitively
+religious minds. Success fails to bring the gratification it promises.
+The wish granted, the mind turns from it in satiety. Not this, after
+all, was what we sought.
+
+The acutest thinkers have felt this. Pascal in his _Pensees_ has such
+expressions as these: "The present is never our aim. The future alone is
+our object." "Forever getting ready to be happy, it is certain we never
+can be." "'Tis the combat pleases us and not the victory. As soon as
+that is achieved, we have had enough of the spectacle. So it is in play,
+so it is in the search for truth. We never pursue objects, but we pursue
+the pursuit of objects." But no one has stated it more boldly than
+Lessing when he wrote: "If God held in his right hand all truth, and in
+his left the one unceasingly active desire for truth, although bound up
+with the law that I should forever err, I should choose with humility
+the left and say: 'Give me this, Father. The pure truth is for thee
+alone.'"[56-1] The pleasure seems to lie not in the booty but in the
+battle, not in gaining the stakes but in playing the game, not in the
+winning but in the wooing, not in the discovery of truth but in the
+search for it.
+
+What is left for the wise, but to turn, as does the preacher, from this
+delusion of living, where laughter is mad and pleasure is vain, and
+praise the dead which are dead more than the living which are yet alive,
+or to esteem as better than both he that hath never been?
+
+Such is the conclusion of many faiths. Wasted with combat, the mortal
+longs for the rest prepared for the weary. Buddha taught the
+extinguishment in Nirvana; the Brahman portrays the highest bliss as
+_shanti_, complete and eternal repose; and that the same longing was
+familiar to ancient Judaism, and has always been common to Christianity,
+numerous evidences testify.[57-1] Few epitaphs are more common than
+those which speak of the mortal resting _in pace, in quiete_.
+
+The supposition at the root of these longings is that action must bring
+fatigue and pain, and though it bring pleasure too, it is bought too
+dearly. True in fact, I have shown that this conflicts with the theory
+of perfect life, even organic life. The highest form of life is the most
+unceasing living; its functions ask for their completest well being
+constant action, not satisfaction. That general feeling of health and
+strength, that _sens de bien etre_, which goes with the most perfect
+physical life, is experienced only when all the organs are in complete
+working order and doing full duty. They impart to the whole frame a
+desire of motion. Hence the activity of the young and healthy as
+contrasted with the inertness of the exhausted and aged.
+
+How is it possible to reconcile this ideal of life, still more the hope
+of everlasting life, with the acknowledged vanity of desire? It is
+accomplished through the medium of an emotion which more than any I have
+touched upon reveals the character of the religious sentiment--Love.
+This mighty but protean feeling I shall attempt to define on broader
+principles than has hitherto been done. The vague and partial meanings
+assigned it have led to sad confusion in the studies of religions. In
+the language of feeling, love is a passion; but it does not spring from
+feeling alone. It is far more fervid when it rises through intellect
+than through sense. "Men have died from time to time, and worms have
+eaten them, but not for love," says the fair Rosalind; and though her
+saying is not very true as to the love of sense, it is far less true as
+to the love of intellect. The martyrs to science and religion, to
+principles and faith, multiply a hundred-fold those to the garden god.
+The spell of the idea is what
+
+  "Turns ruin into laughter and death into dreaming."
+
+Such love destroys the baser passion of sense, or transfigures it so
+that we know it no longer. The idea-driven is callous to the
+blandishments of beauty, for his is a love stronger than the love to
+woman. The vestal, the virgin, the eunuch for the kingdom of heaven's
+sake are the exemplars of the love to God.
+
+What common trait so marks these warring products of mind, that we call
+them by one name? In what is all love the same? The question is
+pertinent, for the love of woman, the love of neighbor, the love of
+country, the love of God, have made the positive side of most religions,
+the burden of their teachings. The priests of Cotytto and Venus, Astarte
+and Melitta, spoke but a more sensuous version of the sermon of the aged
+apostle to the Ephesians,--shortest and best of all sermons--"Little
+children, love one another."[59-1]
+
+The earliest and most constant sign of reason is "working for a remote
+object."[59-2] Nearly everything we do is as a step to something beyond.
+Forethought, conscious provision, is the measure of intelligence. But
+there must be something which is the object, the aim, the end-in-view of
+rational action, which is sought for itself alone, not as instrumental
+to something else. Such an object, when recognized, inspires the
+sentiment of love. It springs from the satisfaction of reason.
+
+This conclusion as to the nature of love has long been recognized by
+thinkers. Richard Baxter defined it as "the volition of the end," "the
+motion of the soul that tendeth to the end," and more minutely, "the
+will's volition of good apprehended by the understanding."[60-1] In
+similar language Bishop Butler explains it as "the resting in an object
+as an end."[60-2] Perhaps I can better these explanations by the phrase,
+_Love is the mental impression of rational action whose end is in
+itself_.
+
+Now this satisfaction is found only in one class of efforts, namely,
+those whose result is continuity, persistence, in fine, _preservation_.
+This may be toward the individual, self-love, whose object is the
+continuance of personal existence; toward the other sex, where the
+hidden aim is the perpetuation of the race; toward one's fellows, where
+the giving of pleasure and the prevention of pain mean the maintenance
+of life; toward one's country, as patriotism; and finally toward the
+eternally true, which as alone the absolutely permanent and
+preservative, inspires a love adequate and exhaustive of its conception,
+casting out both hope and fear, the pangs of desire as well as the
+satiety of fruition.
+
+In one or other of these forms love has at all times been the burden of
+religion: the glad tidings it has always borne have been "love on
+earth." The Phoenix in Egyptian myth appeared yearly as newly risen,
+but was ever the same bird, and bore the egg from which its _parent_ was
+to have birth. So religions have assumed the guise in turn of self-love,
+sex-love, love of country and love of humanity, cherishing in each the
+germ of that highest love which alone is the parent of its last and only
+perfect embodiment.
+
+Favorite of these forms was sex-love. "We find," observes a recent
+writer, "that all religions have engaged and concerned themselves with
+the sexual passion. From the times of phallic worship through Romish
+celibacy down to Mormonism, theology has linked itself with man's
+reproductive instincts."[61-1] The remark is just, and is most
+conspicuously correct in strongly emotional temperaments. "The
+devotional feelings," writes the Rev. Frederick Robertson in one of his
+essays, "are often singularly allied to the animal nature; they conduct
+the unconscious victim of feelings that appear divine into a state of
+life at which the world stands aghast." Fanaticism is always united with
+either excessive lewdness or desperate asceticism. The physiological
+performance of the generative function is sure to be attacked by
+religious bigotry.
+
+So prominent is this feature that attempts have been made to explain
+nearly all symbolism and mythology as types of the generative procedure
+and the reproductive faculty of organism. Not only the pyramids and
+sacred mountains, the obelisks of the Nile and the myths of light have
+received this interpretation, but even such general symbols as the
+spires of churches, the cross of Christendom and the crescent of
+Islam.[62-1]
+
+Without falling into the error of supposing that any one meaning or
+origin can be assigned such frequent symbols, we may acknowledge that
+love, in its philosophical sense, is closely akin to the mystery of
+every religion. That, on occasions, love of sex gained the mastery over
+all other forms, is not to be doubted; but that at all times this was
+so, is a narrow, erroneous view, not consistent with a knowledge of the
+history of psychical development.
+
+Sex-love, as a sentiment, is a cultivated growth. All it is at first is
+a rude satisfaction of the erethism. The wild tribes of California had
+their pairing seasons when the sexes were in heat, "as regularly as the
+deer, the elk and the antelope."[63-1] In most tongues of the savages of
+North America there are no tender words, as "dear," "darling," and the
+like.[63-2] No desire of offspring led to their unions. The women had
+few children, and their fathers paid them little attention. The family
+instinct appears in conditions of higher culture, in Judea, Greece, Rome
+and ancient Germany. Procreation instead of lust was there the aim of
+marriage. To-day, mere sentiment is so much in the ascendant that both
+these elements are often absent. There is warm affection without even
+instinctive knowledge of the design of the bond assumed.[63-3]
+
+Those who would confine the promptings of the passion of reproduction as
+it appears in man to its objects as shown in lower animals, know little
+how this wondrous emotion has acted as man's mentor as well as paraclete
+in his long and toilsome conflict with the physical forces.
+
+The venereal sense is unlike the other special senses in that it is
+general, as well as referable to special organs and nerves. In its
+psychological action it "especially contributes to the development of
+sympathies which connect man not only with his coevals, but with his
+fellows of all preceding and succeeding generations as well. Upon it is
+erected this vast superstructure of intellect, of social and moral
+sentiment, of voluntary effort and endeavor."[64-1] Of all the
+properties of organized matter, that of transmitting form and life is
+the most wonderful; and if we examine critically the physical basis of
+the labors and hopes of mankind, if we ask what prompts its noblest and
+holiest longings, we shall find them, in the vast majority of instances,
+directly traceable to this power. No wonder then that religion, which we
+have seen springs from man's wants and wishes, very often bears the
+distinct trace of their origin in his reproductive functions. The liens
+of the family are justly deemed sacred, and are naturally associated
+with whatever the mind considers holy.
+
+The duty of a citizen to become a father was a prominent feature in
+many ancient religions. How much honor the sire of many sons had in Rome
+and Palestine is familiar to all readers. No warrior, according to
+German faith, could gain entrance to Valhalla unless he had begotten a
+son. Thus the preservation of the species was placed under the immediate
+guardianship of religion.
+
+Such considerations explain the close connection of sexual thoughts with
+the most sacred mysteries of faith. In polytheisms, the divinities are
+universally represented as male or female, virile and fecund. The
+processes of nature were often held to be maintained through such
+celestial nuptials.
+
+Yet stranger myths followed those of the loves of the gods. Religion, as
+the sentiment of continuance, finding its highest expression in the
+phenomenon of generation, had to reconcile this with the growing concept
+of a divine unity. Each separate god was magnified in praises as
+self-sufficient. Earth, or nature, or the season is one, yet brings
+forth all. How embody this in concrete form?
+
+The startling refuge was had in the image of a deity at once of both
+sexes. Such avowedly were Mithras, Janus, Melitta, Cybele, Aphrodite,
+Agdistis; indeed nearly all the Syrian, Egyptian, and Italic gods, as
+well as Brahma, and, in the esoteric doctrine of the Cabala, even
+Jehovah, whose female aspect is represented by the "Shekinah." To this
+abnormal condition the learned have applied the adjectives epicene,
+androgynous, hermaphrodite, arrenothele. In art it is represented by a
+blending of the traits of both sexes. In the cult it was dramatically
+set forth by the votaries assuming the attire of the other sex, and
+dallying with both.[66-1] The phallic symbol superseded all others; and
+in Cyprus, Babylonia and Phrygia, once in her life, at least, must every
+woman submit to the embrace of a stranger.
+
+Such rites were not mere sensualities. The priests of these divinities
+often voluntarily suffered emasculation. None but a eunuch could become
+high priest of Cybele. Among the sixteen million worshippers of Siva,
+whose symbol is the Lingam, impurity is far less prevalent than among
+the sister sects of Hindoo religions.[66-2] To the Lingayets, the member
+typifies abstractly the idea of life. Therefore they carve it on
+sepulchres, or, like the ancient nations of Asia Minor, they lay clay
+images of it on graves to intimate the hope of existence beyond the
+tomb.
+
+This notion of a hermaphrodite deity is not "monstrous," as it has been
+called. There lies a deep meaning in it. The gods are spirits, beings
+of another order, which the cultivated esthetic sense protests against
+classing as of one or the other gender. Never can the ideal of beauty,
+either physical or moral, be reached until the characteristics of sex
+are lost in the concept of the purely human. In the noblest men of
+history there has often been noted something feminine, a gentleness
+which is not akin to weakness; and the women whose names are ornaments
+to nations have displayed a calm greatness, not unwomanly but something
+more than belongs to woman. Art acknowledges this. In the Vatican Apollo
+we see masculine strength united with maidenly softness; and in the
+traditional face and figure of Christ a still more striking example how
+the devout mind conjoins the traits of both sexes to express the highest
+possibility of the species. "Soaring above the struggle in which the
+real is involved with its limitations, and free from the characteristics
+of gender, the ideal of beauty as well as the ideal of humanity, alike
+maintain a perfect sexual equilibrium."[67-1]
+
+Another and more familiar expression of the religious emotion, akin to
+the belief in double-sexed deities,--nay, in its physiological aspect
+identical with it, as assuming sexual self-sufficiency, is the myth of
+the Virgin-Mother.
+
+When Columbus first planted the cross on the shores of San Domingo, the
+lay brother Roman Pane, whom he sent forth to convert the natives of
+that island, found among them a story of a virgin Mamona, whose son
+Yocauna, a hero and a god, was chief among divinities, and had in the
+old times taught this simple people the arts of peace and guided them
+through the islands.[68-1] When the missionaries penetrated to the
+Iroquois, the Aztecs, the Mayas, and many other tribes, this same story
+was told them with such startling likeness to one they came to tell,
+that they felt certain either St. Thomas or Satan had got the start of
+them in America.
+
+But had these pious men known as well as we do the gentile religions of
+the Old World, they would have seasoned their admiration. Long before
+Christianity was thought of, the myth of the Virgin-Mother of God was in
+the faith of millions, as we have had abundantly shown us of late years
+by certain expounders of Christian dogmas.
+
+How is this strange, impossible belief to be explained? Of what secret,
+unconscious, psychological working was it the expression? Look at its
+result. It is that wherever this doctrine is developed the _status
+matrimonialis_ is held to be less pure, less truly religious, than the
+_status virginitatis_. Such is the teaching to-day in Lhassa, in Rome;
+so it was in Yucatan, where, too, there were nunneries filled with
+spouses of God. I connect it with the general doctrine that chastity in
+either sex is more agreeable to God than marriage, and this belief, I
+think, very commonly arises at a certain stage of development of the
+religious sentiment, when it unconsciously recognises the indisputable
+fact that sex-love, whether in its form of love of woman, family, or
+nation, is not what that sentiment craves. This is first shown by
+rejecting the idea of sex-love in the birth of the god; then his priests
+and priestesses refuse its allurements, and deny all its claims, those
+of kindred, of country, of race, until the act of generation itself is
+held unholy and the thought of sex a sin. By such forcible though rude
+displays do they set forth their unconscious acknowledgment of that
+eternal truth: "He that loveth son or daughter more than Me, is not
+worthy of Me."
+
+The significance of these words is not that there is an antagonism in
+the forms of love. It is not that man should hate himself, as Pascal,
+following the teachings of the Church, so ably argued; nor that the one
+sex should be set over against the other in sterile abhorrence; nor yet
+that love of country and of kindred is incompatible with that toward the
+Supreme of thought; but it is that each of these lower, shallower,
+evanescent forms of emotion is and must be lost in, subordinated to,
+that highest form to which these words have reference. Reconciliation,
+not abnegation, is what they mean.
+
+Even those religions which teach in its strictness the oneness of God
+have rarely separated from his personality the attribute of sex. He is
+the father, _pater et genitor_, of all beings. The monotheism which we
+find in Greece and India generally took this form. The ancient Hebrews
+emphasized the former, not the latter sense of the word, and thus
+depriving it of its more distinctive characteristics of sex, prepared
+the way for the teachings of Christianity, in which the Supreme Being
+always appears with the attributes of the male, but disconnected from
+the idea of generation.
+
+Singularly enough, the efforts to which this latent incongruity prompts,
+even in persons speaking English, in which tongue the articles and
+adjectives have no genders, point back to the errors of an earlier age.
+A recent prayer by an eminent spiritualist commences:--"Oh Eternal
+Spirit, our Father and our Mother!" The expression illustrates how
+naturally arises the belief in a hermaphrodite god, when once sex is
+associated with deity.
+
+Of all founders of religions, Mohammed first proclaimed a divinity
+without relation to sex. One of his earliest suras reads:
+
+    "He is God alone,
+    God the eternal.
+    He begetteth not, and is not begotten;
+    And there is none like unto him."
+
+And elsewhere:--
+
+    "He hath no spouse, neither hath he any offspring."[71-1]
+
+While he expressly acknowledged the divine conception of Jesus, he
+denied the coarse and literal version of that doctrine in vogue among
+the ignorant Christians around him. Enlightened christendom, to-day,
+does not, I believe, differ from him on this point.
+
+Such sexual religions do not arise, as the theory has hitherto been,
+from study and observation of the generative agencies in nature, but
+from the identity of object between love in sense and love in intellect,
+profane and sacred passion. The essence of each is _continuance_,
+preservation; the origin of each is subjective, personal; but the former
+has its root in sensation, the latter in reason.
+
+The sex-difference in organisms, the "abhorrence of self-fertilization"
+which Mr. Darwin speaks of as so conspicuous and inexplicable a
+phenomenon, is but one example of the sway of a law which as action and
+reaction, thesis and antithesis, is common to both elementary motion and
+thought. The fertile and profound fancy of Greece delighted to prefigure
+this truth in significant symbols and myths. Love, Eros, is shown
+carrying the globe, or wielding the club of Hercules; he is the unknown
+spouse of Psyche, the soul; and from the primitive chaos he brings forth
+the ordered world, the Kosmos.
+
+The intimate and strange relation between sensuality and religion, so
+often commented upon and denied, again proven, and always
+misinterpreted, thus receives a satisfactory explanation. Some singular
+manifestations of it, of significance in religious history, are
+presented by the records of insane delusions. They confirm what I have
+above urged, that the association is not one derived from observation
+through intellectual processes, but is a consequence of physiological
+connections, of identity of aim in the distinct realms of thought and
+emotion.
+
+That eminent writer on mental diseases, Schroeder van der Kolk, when
+speaking of the forms of melancholy which arise from physical
+conditions, remarks: "The patient who is melancholy from disorders of
+the generative organs considers himself sinful. His depressed tone of
+mind passes over into religious melancholy; 'he is forsaken by God; he
+is lost.' All his afflictions have a religious color." In a similar
+strain, Feuchtersleben says: "In the female sex especially, the erotic
+delusion, unknown to the patient herself, often assumes the color of the
+religious."[73-1] "The unaccomplished sexual designs of nature,"
+observes a later author speaking of the effects of the single life,
+"lead to brooding over supposed miseries which suggest devotion and
+religious exercise as the nepenthe to soothe the morbid longings."[73-2]
+
+Stimulate the religious sentiment and you arouse the passion of love,
+which will be directed as the temperament and individual culture prompt.
+Develope very prominently any one form of love, and by a native affinity
+it will seize upon and consecrate to its own use whatever religious
+aspirations the individual has. This is the general law of their
+relation.
+
+All the lower forms of love point to one to which they are the gradual
+ascent, both of the individual and on a grander scale of the race, to
+wit, the love of God. This is the passion for the highest attainable
+truth, a passion which, as duty, prompts to the strongest action and to
+the utter sacrifice of all other longings. No speculative acquaintance
+with propositions satisfies it, no egotistic construction of systems,
+but the truth expressed in life, the truth as that which alone either
+has or can give being and diuturnity, this is its food, for which it
+thirsts with holy ardor. Here is the genuine esoteric gnosis, the sacred
+secret, which the rude and selfish wishes of the savage, the sensual
+rites of Babylon, "mother of harlots," and the sublimely unselfish
+dreams of a "religion of humanity," have alike had in their hearts, but
+had no capacity to interpret, no words to articulate.
+
+Related to this emotional phase of the religious sentiment is the
+theurgic power of certain natural objects over some persons. The
+biblical scholar Kitto confesses that the moon exerted a strange
+influence on his mind, stirring his devotional nature, and he owns that
+it would not have been hard for him to join the worshippers of the
+goddess of the night. Wilhelm von Humboldt in one of his odes refers to
+similar feelings excited in him by the gloom and murmur of groves. The
+sacred poets and the religious arts generally acknowledge this
+_fascination_, as it has been called, which certain phenomena have for
+religious temperaments.
+
+The explanation which suggests itself is that of individual and
+ancestral association. In the case of Kitto it was probably the latter.
+His sensitively religious nature experienced in gazing at the moon an
+impression inherited from some remote ancestor who had actually made it
+the object of ardent worship. The study of the laws of inherited memory,
+so successfully pursued of late by Professor Laycock, take away anything
+eccentric about this explanation, though I scarcely expect it will be
+received by one unacquainted with those laws.
+
+The emotional aspect of religion is not exhausted by the varieties of
+fear and hope and love. Wonder, awe, admiration, the aesthetic emotions,
+in fact all the active principles of man's mental economy are at times
+excited and directed by the thought of supernatural power. Some have
+attempted to trace the religious sentiment exclusively to one or the
+other of these. But they are all incidental and subsidiary emotions.
+
+Certain mental diseases, by abnormally stimulating the emotions,
+predispose strongly to religious fervor. Epilepsy is one of these, and
+in Swedenborg and Mohammed, both epileptics, we see distinguished
+examples of religious mystics, who, no doubt honestly, accepted the
+visions which accompanied their disease as revelations from another
+world. Very many epileptics are subject to such delusions, and their
+insanity is usually of a religious character.
+
+On the other hand, devotional excitement is apt to bring about mental
+alienation. Every violent revival has left after it a small crop of
+religious melancholies and lunatics. Competent authorities state that in
+modern communities religious insanity is most frequent in those sects
+who are given to emotional forms of religion, the Methodists and
+Baptists for example; whereas it is least known among Roman Catholics,
+where doubt and anxiety are at once allayed by an infallible referee,
+and among the Quakers, where enthusiasm is discouraged and with whom the
+restraint of emotion is a part of discipline.[76-1] Authoritative
+assurance in many disturbed conditions of mind is sufficient to relieve
+the mental tension and restore health.
+
+If, by what has been said, it is clear that the religious sentiment has
+its origin in a wish, it is equally clear that not every wish is
+concerned in it. The objects which a man can attain by his own unaided
+efforts, are not those which he makes the subjects of his prayers; nor
+are the periodic and regular occurrences in nature, how impressive they
+may be, much thought of in devotional moods. The moment that an event is
+recognized to be under fixed law, it is seen to be inappropriate to seek
+by supplication to alter it. No devotee, acquainted with the theory of
+the tides, would, like Canute the King, think of staying their waves
+with words. Eclipses and comets, once matters of superstitious terror,
+have been entirely shorn of this attribute by astronomical discovery.
+Even real and tragic misfortunes, if believed to be such as flow from
+fixed law, and especially if they can be predicted sometime before they
+arrive, do not excite religious feeling. As Bishop Hall quaintly
+observes, referring to a curious medieval superstition: "Crosses, after
+the nature of the cockatrice, die if they be foreseen."
+
+Only when the event suggests the direct action of _mind_, of some free
+intelligence, is it possible for the religious sentiment to throw around
+it the aureole of sanctity. Obviously when natural law was little known,
+this included vastly more occurrences than civilized men now think of
+holding to be of religious import. Hence the objective and material form
+of religion is always fostered by ignorance, and this is the form which
+prevails exclusively in uncultivated societies.
+
+The manifestations of motion which the child first notices, or which the
+savage chiefly observes, relate to himself. They are associated with the
+individuals around him who minister to his wants; the gratification of
+these depend on the volitions of others. As he grows in strength he
+learns to supply his own wants, and to make good his own volitions as
+against those of his fellows. But he soon learns that many events occur
+to thwart him, out of connection with any known individual, and these
+of a dreadful nature, hurricanes and floods, hunger, sickness and death.
+These pursue him everywhere, foiling his plans, and frustrating his
+hopes. It is not the show of power, the manifestations of might, that he
+cares for in these events, but that they touch _him_, that they spoil
+_his_ projects, and render vain _his_ desires; _this_ forces him to cast
+about for some means to protect himself against them.
+
+In accordance with the teaching of his experience, and true moreover to
+the laws of mind, he refers them, collectively, to a mental source, to a
+vague individuality. This loose, undefined conception of an unknown
+volition or power forms the earliest notion of Deity. It is hardly
+associated with personality, yet it is broadly separated from the human
+and the known. In the languages of savage tribes, as I have elsewhere
+remarked, "a word is usually found comprehending all manifestations of
+the unseen world, yet conveying no sense of personal unity."[78-1]
+
+By some means to guard against this undefined marplot to the
+accomplishment of his wishes, is the object of his religion. Its
+primitive forms are therefore defensive and conciliatory. The hopes of
+the savage extend little beyond the reach of his own arm, and the tenor
+of his prayers is that the gods be neuter. If they do not interfere he
+can take care of himself. His religion is a sort of assurance of life.
+
+Not only the religion of the savage, but every religion is this and not
+much but this. With nobler associations and purer conceptions of life,
+the religious sentiment ever contains these same elements and depends
+upon them for its vigor and growth. It everywhere springs from _a desire
+whose fruition depends upon unknown power_. To give the religious wish a
+definition in the technic of psychology, I define it as: _Expectant
+Attention, directed toward an event not under known control, with a
+concomitant idea of Cause or Power_.
+
+Three elements are embraced in this definition, a wish, an idea of
+power, ignorance of the nature of that power. The first term prompts the
+hope, the third suggests the fear, and the second creates the
+personality, which we see set forth in every religious system. Without
+these three, religion as dogma becomes impossible.
+
+If a man wishes for nothing, neither the continuance of present comforts
+nor future blessings, why need he care for the gods? Who can hurt him,
+so long as he stays in his frame of mind? He may well shake off all
+religions and every fear, for he is stronger than God, and the universe
+holds nothing worth his effort to get. This was the doctrine taught by
+Buddha Sakyanuni, a philosopher opposed to every form of religion, but
+who is the reputed founder of the most numerous sect now on the globe.
+He sought to free the minds of his day from the burden of the Brahmanic
+ritual, by cultivating a frame of mind beyond desire or admiration, and
+hence beyond the need of a creed.
+
+The second element, the idea of power, is an intellectual abstraction.
+Its character is fluctuating. At first it is most vague, corresponding
+to what in its most general sense we term "the supernatural." Later, it
+is regarded under its various exhibitions as separable phenomena, as in
+polytheisms, in which must be included trinitarian systems and the
+dualistic doctrine of the Parsees. But among the Egyptians, Greeks and
+Aztecs, as well as in the words of Zarathustra and in the theology of
+Christianity, we frequently meet with the distinct recognition of the
+fundamental unity of all power. At core, all religions have seeds of
+monotheism. When we generalize the current concepts of motion or force
+beyond individual displays and relative measures of quantity, we
+recognize their qualitative identity, and appreciate the logical unity
+under which we must give them abstract expression. This is the process,
+often unconscious, which has carried most original thinkers to
+monotheistic doctrines, no matter whence they started.
+
+The idea of power controlling the unknown would of itself have been of
+no interest to man had he not assumed certain relations to exist between
+him and it on the one hand, and it and things on the other. A
+dispassionate inquiry disproves entirely the view maintained by various
+modern writers, prominently by Bain, Spencer and Darwin, that the
+contemplation of power or majesty in external nature prompts of itself
+the religious sentiment, or could have been its historical origin. Such
+a view overlooks the most essential because the personal factor of
+religion--the wish. Far more correct are the words of David Hume, in the
+last century, by which he closes his admirable _Natural History of
+Religions_: "We may conclude, therefore, that in all nations the first
+ideas of religion arose not from a contemplation of the works of nature,
+but from a concern with regard to the events of life, and from the
+incessant hopes and fears which actuate the human mind." A century
+before him Hobbes had written in his terse way: "The natural seed of
+religion lies in these four things: the fear of spirits, ignorance of
+secondary causes, the conciliation of those we fear, and the assumption
+of accidents for omens."[81-1] The sentiment of religion is in its
+origin and nature purely personal and subjective. The aspect of power
+would never have led man to worship, unless he had assumed certain
+relations between the unseen author or authors of that power and
+himself. What these assumptions were, I shall discuss in the next
+chapter.
+
+Finally, as has so often been remarked in a flippant and contemptuous
+way,[82-1] which the fact when rightly understood nowise justifies,
+religion cannot exist without the aid of ignorance. It is really and
+truly the mother of devotion. The sentiment of religious fear does not
+apply to a _known_ power--to the movement of an opposing army, or the
+action of gravity in an avalanche for example. The prayer which under
+such circumstances is offered, is directed to an unknown intelligence,
+supposed to control the visible forces. As science--which is the
+knowledge of physical laws--extends, the object of prayer becomes more
+and more intangible and remote. What we formerly feared, we learn to
+govern. No one would pray God to avert the thunderbolt, if lightning
+rods invariably protected houses. The Swiss clergy opposed the system of
+insuring growing crops because it made their parishioners indifferent to
+prayers for the harvest. With increasing knowledge and the security
+which it brings, religious terror lessens, and the wants which excite
+the sentiment of devotion diminish in number and change in character.
+
+This is apt to cast general discredit on religion. When we make the
+discovery that so many events which excited religious apprehension in
+the minds of our forefathers are governed by inflexible laws which we
+know all about, we not only smile in pity at their superstitions, but
+make the mental inference that the diminished emotion of this kind we
+yet experience is equally groundless. If at the bottom of all displays
+of power lies a physical necessity, our qualms are folly. Therefore, to
+the pious soul which still finds the bulk of its religious aspirations
+and experiences in the regions of the emotions and sensations, the
+progress of science seems and really does threaten its cherished
+convictions. The audacious mind of man robs the gods of power when he
+can shield himself from their anger. The much-talked-of conflict between
+religion and science is no fiction; it exists, and is bound to go on,
+and religion will ever get the worst of it until it learns that the
+wishes to which it is its proper place to minister are not those for
+pleasure and prosperity, not for abundant harvests and seasonable
+showers, not success in battle and public health, not preservation from
+danger and safety on journeys, not much of anything that is spoken of
+in litanies and books of devotion.
+
+Let a person who still clings to this form of religion imagine that
+science had reached perfection in the arts of life; that by skilled
+adaptations of machinery, accidents by sea and land were quite avoided;
+that observation and experience had taught to foresee with certainty and
+to protect effectively against all meteoric disturbances; that a
+perfected government insured safety of person and property; that a
+consummate agriculture rendered want and poverty unknown; that a
+developed hygiene completely guarded against disease; and that a
+painless extinction of life in advanced age could surely be calculated
+upon; let him imagine this, and then ask himself what purpose religion
+would subserve in such a state of things? For whatever would occupy it
+then--if it could exist at all--should _alone_ occupy it now.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[49-1] _Address to the Clergy_, pp. 42, 43, 67, 106, etc.
+
+[49-2] E. von Hardenberg [Novalis], _Werke_, s. 364.
+
+[50-1] _Treatises Devotional and Practical_, p. 188. London, 1836.
+
+[50-2] In Aramaic _dachla_ means either a god or fear. The Arabic Allah
+and the Hebrew Eloah are by some traced to a common root, signifying to
+tremble, to show fear, though the more usual derivation is from one
+meaning to be strong.
+
+[51-1] "Wen die Hoffnung, den hat auch die Furcht verlassen." Arthur
+Schopenhauer, _Parerga und Paralipomena_. Bd. ii. s. 474.
+
+[52-1] Alexander Bain, _On the Study of Character_, p. 128. See also his
+remarks in his work, _The Emotions and the Will_, p. 84, and in his
+notes to James Mill's _Analysis of the Mind_, vol. i., pp. 124-125.
+
+[53-1] Wilhelm von Humboldt's _Gesammelte Werke_, Bd. vii., s. 62.
+
+[53-2] De Senancourt, _Obermann_, Lettre xli.
+
+[54-1] _Elements of Medical Psychology_, p. 331.
+
+[56-1] Lessing's _Gesammelte Werke_. B. ii. s. 443 (Leipzig, 1855).
+
+[57-1] See Exodus, xxiii. 12; Psalms, lv. 6; Isaiah, xxx. 15; Jeremiah,
+vi. 16; Hebrews, v. 9. So St. Augustine: "et nos post opera nostra
+sabbato vitae eternae requiescamus in te." _Confessionum Lib._ xiii. cap.
+36.
+
+[59-1] "Filioli, diligite alterutrum." This is the "testamentum
+Johannis," as recorded from tradition by St. Jerome in his notes to the
+Epistle to the Galatians.
+
+[59-2] Alexander Bain, _The Senses and the Intellect_, Chap. I.
+
+[60-1] _A Christian Directory._ Part I. Chap. III.
+
+[60-2] "The very nature of affection, the idea itself, necessarily
+implies resting in its object as an end." _Fifteen Sermons by Joseph
+Butler, late Lord Bishop of Durham_, Preface, and p. 147 (London, 1841).
+
+[61-1] Dr. J. Milner Fothergill, _Journal of Mental Science_, Oct. 1874,
+p. 198.
+
+[62-1] The most recent work on the topic is that of Messrs. Westropp and
+Wake, _The Influence of the Phallic Idea on the Religions of Antiquity_,
+London, 1874.
+
+[63-1] Schoolcraft's _History and Statistics of the Indian Tribes_, Vol.
+iv. p. 224.
+
+[63-2] Richardson, _Arctic Expedition_, p. 412.
+
+[63-3] Most physicians have occasion to notice the almost entire loss in
+modern life of the instinctive knowledge of the sex relation. Sir James
+Paget has lately treated of the subject in one of his _Clinical
+Lectures_ (London, 1875).
+
+[64-1] Dr. J. P. Catlow, _Principles of Aesthetic Medicine_, p. 112.
+This thoughtful though obscure writer has received little recognition
+even in the circle of professional readers.
+
+[66-1] This is probably what was condemned in Deuteronomy xxii. 5, and
+Romans, i. 26.
+
+[66-2] "The worship of Siva is too severe, too stern for the softer
+emotions of love, and all his temples are quite free from any allusions
+to it."--Ferguson, _Tree and Serpent Worship_, p. 71.
+
+[67-1] W. von Humboldt, in his admirable essay _Ueber die Maennliche und
+Weibliche Form_ (_Werke, Bd. I._). Elsewhere he adds: "In der Natur des
+Goettlichen strebt alles der Reinheit und Vollkommenheit des
+Gattungsbegriff entgegen."
+
+[68-1] I have collected the Haitian myths, chiefly from the manuscript
+_Historia Apologetica de las Indias Occidentales_ of Las Casas, in an
+essay published in 1871, _The Arawack Language of Guiana in its
+Linguistic and Ethnological Relations_.
+
+[71-1] _The Koran_, Suras,[TN-5] cxii., lxii., and especially xix.
+
+[73-1] _Elements of Medical Psychology_, p. 281.
+
+[73-2] J. Thompson Dickson, _The Science and Practice of Medicine in
+relation to Mind_, p. 383 (New York, 1874).
+
+[76-1] Dr. Joseph Williams, _Insanity, its Causes, Prevention and Cure_,
+pp. 68, 69; Dr. A. L. Wigan, _The Duality of the Mind_, p. 437.
+
+[78-1] _The Myths of the New World, a Treatise on the Symbolism and
+Mythology of the Red Race of America_, p. 145.
+
+[81-1] _Leviathan, De Homine_, cap. xii.
+
+[82-1] For instance, of later writers from whom we might expect better
+things, Arthur Schopenhauer. He says in his _Parerga_ (Bd. ii. s. 290):
+"Ein gewisser Grad allgemeiner Unwissenheit ist die Bedingung aller
+Religionen;" a correct remark, and equally correct of the pursuit of
+science and philosophy. But the ignorance which is the condition of such
+pursuit is not a part of science or philosophy, and no more is it of
+religion.
+
+
+
+
+THE RATIONAL POSTULATES OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     Religion often considered merely an affair of the feelings. On the
+     contrary, it must assume at least three premises in reason, its
+     "rational postulates."
+
+     I. There is Order in things.
+
+     The religious wish involves the idea of cause. This idea not
+     exhausted by uniformity of sequence, but by quantitative relation,
+     that is, Order as opposed to Chance. Both science and religion
+     assume order in things; but the latter includes the Will of God in
+     this order, while the former rejects it.
+
+     II. This order is one of Intelligence.
+
+     The order is assumed to be a comprehensible one, whether it be of
+     law wholly or of volition also.
+
+     III. All Intelligence is one in kind.
+
+     This postulate indispensable to religion, although it has been
+     attacked by religious as well as irreligious philosophers. Its
+     decision must rest on the absoluteness of the formal laws of
+     thought. The theory that these are products of natural selections
+     disproved by showing, (1) that they hold true throughout the
+     material universe, and (2) that they do not depend on it for their
+     verity. Reason sees beyond phenomena, but descries nothing alien to
+     itself.
+
+     The formal laws of reason are purposive. They therefore afford a
+     presumption of a moral government of the Universe, and point to an
+     Intelligence fulfilling an end through the order in physical laws.
+     Such an assumption, common to all historic religions, is thus
+     justified by induction.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III.
+
+THE RATIONAL POSTULATES OF THE RELIGIOUS SENTIMENT.
+
+
+In philosophical discussions of religion as well as in popular
+exhortations upon it, too exclusive stress has been laid upon its
+emotional elements. "It is," says Professor Bain, "an affair of the
+feelings."[87-1] "The essence of religion," observes John Stuart Mill,
+"is the strong and earnest direction of the emotions and desires towards
+an ideal object." "It must be allowed," says Dr. Mansel,[87-2] "that it
+is not through reasoning that men obtain their first intimation of their
+relation to a deity." In writers and preachers of the semi-mystical
+school, which embraces most of the ardent revivalists of the day, we
+constantly hear the "feeling of dependence" quoted as the radical
+element of religious thought.[87-3] In America Theodore Parker, and in
+Germany Schleiermacher, were brilliant exponents of this doctrine. To
+the latter the philosopher Hegel replied that if religion is a matter of
+feeling, an affectionate dog is the best Christian.
+
+This answer was not flippant, but founded on the true and only worthy
+conception of the religious sentiment. We have passed in review the
+emotions which form a part of it, and recognize their power. But neither
+these nor any other mere emotions, desires or feelings can explain even
+the lowest religion. It depends for its existence on the essential
+nature of reason. We cannot at all allow, as Dr. Mansel asks of us, that
+man's first intimations of Deity came in any other way than as one of
+the ripest fruits of reason. Were such the case, we should certainly
+find traces of them among brutes and idiots, which we do not. The slight
+signs of religious actions thought to have been noticed by some in the
+lower animals, by Sir John Lubbock in ants, and by Charles Darwin in
+dogs, if authenticated, would vindicate for these species a much closer
+mental kinship to man than we have yet supposed.
+
+If we dispassionately analyze any religion whatever, paying less
+attention to what its professed teachers say it is, than to what the
+mass of the votaries believe it to be, we shall see that every form of
+adoration unconsciously assumes certain premises in reason, which give
+impulse and character to its emotional and active manifestations. They
+are its data or axioms, or, as I shall call them, its "rational
+postulates." They can, I believe, be reduced to three, but not to a
+lesser number.
+
+Before the religious feeling acquires the distinctness of a notion and
+urges to conscious action, it must assume at least these three
+postulates, and without them it cannot rise into cognition. These, their
+necessary character and their relations, I shall set forth in this
+chapter.
+
+They are as follows:--
+
+    I. There is Order in things.
+   II. This order is one of Intelligence.
+  III. All Intelligence is one in kind.
+
+I. The conscious or unconscious purpose of the religious sentiment, as I
+have shown in the last chapter, is the _fruition of a wish_, the success
+of which depends upon unknown power. The votary asks help where he
+cannot help himself. He expects it through an exertion of power, through
+an efficient cause. Obviously therefore, he is acting on the logical
+idea of Causality. This underlies and is essential to the simplest
+prayer. He extends it, moreover, out of the limits of experience into
+the regions of hypothesis. He has carried the analogy of observation
+into the realm of abstract conceptions. No matter if he does believe
+that the will of God is the efficient cause. Perhaps he is right; at any
+rate he cannot be denied the privilege of regarding volition as a
+co-operating cause. Limited at first to the transactions which most
+concerned men, the conception of order as a divine act extended itself
+to the known universe. Herodotus derives the Greek word for God ~Theos~
+from a root which gives the meaning "to set in order," and the
+Scandinavians gave the same sense to their word, _Regin_.[90-1] Thus the
+abstract idea of cause or power is a postulate of all religious thought.
+Let us examine its meaning.
+
+Every reader, the least versed in the history of speculative thought for
+the last hundred years, knows how long and violent the discussions have
+been of the relations of "cause and effect." Startled by the criticisms
+of Hume, Kant sought to elude them by distinguishing between two spheres
+of thought, the understanding and the reason. Sir William Hamilton at
+first included the "principle of sufficient reason'[TN-6] in the laws of
+thought, but subsequently rejected it as pertaining to judgments, and
+therefore material, not formal. Schopenhauer claimed to have traced it
+to a fourfold root, and Mill with most of the current English schools,
+Bain, Austin, Spencer, &c., maintained that it meant nothing but
+"uniformity of sequence."
+
+It would be vain to touch upon a discussion so extended as this. In the
+first chapter I have remarked that the idea of cause does not enter into
+the conceptions of pure logic or thought. It is, as Hamilton saw,
+material. I shall only pause to show what is meant by the term "cause"
+in the physical sciences. When one event follows another, time after
+time, we have "uniformity of sequence." Suppose the constitution of the
+race were so happy that we slept at night only, and always awoke a few
+moments before sunrise. Such a sequence quite without exception, should,
+if uniform experience is the source of the idea of cause, justly lead to
+the opinion that the sun rises because man awakes. As we know this
+conclusion would be erroneous, some other element beside sequence must
+complete a real cause. If now, it were shown that the relation of cause
+to effect which we actually entertain and cannot help entertaining is in
+some instances flatly contrary to all experience, then we must
+acknowledge that the idea of cause asks to confirm it something quite
+independent of experience, that is abstract. But such examples are
+common. We never saw two objects continue to approach without meeting;
+but we are constrained to believe that lines of certain descriptions can
+forever approach and never meet.
+
+The uniformity of sequence is, in fact, in the physical sciences never
+assumed to express the relation of cause and effect, until the
+connection between the antecedent and consequent can be set forth
+abstractly in mathematical formulae. The sequence of the planetary
+motions was discovered by Kepler, but it was reserved for Newton to
+prove the theoretical necessity of this motion and establish its
+mathematical relations. The sequence of sensations to impressions is
+well known, but the law of the sequence remains the desideratum in
+psychology.[92-1]
+
+Science, therefore, has been correctly defined as "the knowledge of
+system." Its aim is to ascertain the laws of phenomena, to define the
+"order in things." Its fundamental postulate is that order exists, that
+all things are "lapped in universal law." It acknowledges no exception,
+and it considers that all law is capable of final expression in
+quantity, in mathematical symbols. It is the manifest of reason, "whose
+unceasing endeavor is to banish the idea of Chance."[93-1]
+
+We thus see that its postulate is the same as that of the religious
+sentiment. Wherein then do they differ? Not in the recognition of
+chance. Accident, chance, does not exist for the religious sense in any
+stage of its growth. Everywhere religion proclaims in the words of
+Dante:--
+
+              "le cose tutte quante,
+    Hann' ordine tra loro;"
+
+everywhere in the more optimistic faiths it holds this order, in the
+words of St. Augustine, to be one "most fair, of excellent
+things."[93-2]
+
+What we call "the element of chance" is in its scientific sense that of
+which we do not know the law; while to the untutored religious mind it
+is the manifestation of divine will. The Kamschatkan, when his boat is
+lost in the storm, attributes it to the vengeance of a god angered
+because he scraped the snow from his shoes with a knife, instead of
+using a piece of wood; if a Dakota has bad luck in hunting, he says it
+is caused by his wife stepping over a bone and thus irritating a
+spirit. The idea of cause, the sentiment of order, is as strong as ever,
+but it differs from that admitted by science in recognizing as a
+possible efficient motor that which is incapable of mathematical
+expression, namely, a volition, a will. _Voluntas Dei asylum
+ignorantiae_, is no unkind description of such an opinion.
+
+So long as this recognition is essential to the life of a religious
+system, just so long it will and must be in conflict with science, with
+every prospect of the latter gaining the victory. Is the belief in
+volition as an efficient cause indispensable to the religious sentiment
+in general? For this vital question we are not yet prepared, but must
+first consider the remaining rational postulates it assumes. The second
+is
+
+II. This order is one of intelligence.
+
+By this is not meant that the order is one of _an_ Intelligence, but
+simply that the order which exists in things is conformable to man's
+thinking power,--that if he knows the course of events he can appreciate
+their relations,--that facts can be subsumed under thoughts. Whatever
+scheme of order there were, would be nothing to him unless it were
+conformable to his intellectual functions. It could not form the matter
+of his thought.[94-1]
+
+Science, which deals in the first instance exclusively with phenomena,
+also assumes this postulate. It recognizes that when the formal laws,
+which it is its mission to define, are examined apart from their
+material expression, when they are emptied of their phenomenal contents,
+they show themselves to be logical constructions, reasoned truths, in
+other words, forms of intelligence. The votary who assumes the order one
+of volition alone, or volition with physical necessity, still assumes
+the volitions are as comprehensible as are his own; that they are
+purposive; that the order, even if not clear to him, is both real and
+reasonable. Were it not so, did he believe that the gods carried out
+their schemes through a series of caprices inconceivable to
+intelligence, through absolute chance, insane caprice, or blind fate, he
+could neither see in occurrences the signs of divine rule, nor hope for
+aid in obtaining his wishes. In fact, order is only conceivable to man
+at all as an order conformable to his own intelligence.
+
+This second postulate embraces what has been recently called the
+"Principle of continuity," indispensable to sane thought of any kind. A
+late work defines it as "the trust that the Supreme Governor of the
+Universe will not put us to permanent intellectual confusion."[96-1]
+Looked at closely, it is the identification of order with reason.
+
+The third and final postulate of the religious sentiment is that
+
+III. All intelligence is one in kind.
+
+Religion demands that there be a truth which is absolutely true, and
+that there be a goodness which is universally and eternally good. Each
+system claims the possession, and generally the exclusive possession,
+of this goodness and truth. They are right in maintaining these views,
+for unless such is the case, unless there is an absolute truth,
+cognizable to man, yet not transcended by any divine intelligence, all
+possible religion becomes mere child's play, and its professed
+interpretation of mysteries but trickery.
+
+The Grecian sophists used to meet the demonstrations of the
+mathematicians and philosophers by conceding that they did indeed set
+forth the truth, so far as man's intelligence goes, but that to the
+intelligence of other beings--a bat or an angel, for example--they might
+not hold good at all; that there is a different truth for different
+intelligences; that the intelligence makes the truth; and that as for
+the absolutely true, true to every intelligence, there is no such thing.
+They acknowledged that a simple syllogism, constructed on these
+premises, made their own assertions partake of the doubtful character
+that was by them ascribed to other human knowledge. But this they
+gracefully accepted as the inevitable conclusion of reasoning. Their
+position is defended to-day by the advocates of "positivism," who
+maintain the relativity of all truth.
+
+But such a conclusion is wholly incompatible with the religious mind. It
+must assume that there are some common truths, true infinitely, and
+therefore, that in all intelligence there is an essential unity of kind.
+"This postulation," says a close thinker, "is the very foundation and
+essence of religion. Destroy it, and you destroy the very possibility of
+religion."[97-1]
+
+Clear as this would seem to be to any reflective mind, yet, strange to
+say, it is to-day the current fashion for religious teachers to deny it.
+Scared by a phantasm of their own creation, they have deserted the only
+position in which it is possible to defend religion at all. Afraid of
+the accusation that they make God like man, they have removed Him
+beyond the pale of all intelligence, and logically, therefore,
+annihilated every conception of Him.
+
+Teachers and preachers do not tire of telling their followers that God
+is incomprehensible; that his ways are past finding out; that he is the
+Unconditioned, the Infinite, the Unknowable. They really mean that he is
+another order of intelligence, which, to quote a famous comparison of
+Spinoza, has the same name as ours, but is no more one with it than the
+dog is one with his namesake, the dog-star!
+
+They are eagerly seconded in this position by a school of writers who
+distinctly see where such a doctrine leads, and who do not hesitate to
+carry it home. Mr. Mill is right in his scorn for those who "erect the
+incurable limitations of the human conceptive faculty into laws of the
+outward universe," if there are such limitations. And Mr. Spencer is
+justified in condemning "the transcendent audacity which passes current
+as piety," if his definition of the underlying verity of religion is
+admitted--that it is "the consciousness of an inscrutable power which,
+in its nature, transcends intuition, and is beyond imagination."[98-1]
+They are but following the orthodox Sir William Hamilton, who says:
+"Creation must be thought as the incomprehensible evolution of power
+into energy."[99-1] We are to think that which by the terms of the
+proposition is unthinkable! A most wise master!
+
+Let it be noted that the expressions such as inscrutable,
+incomprehensible, unknowable, etc., which such writers use, are avowedly
+not limited to man's intelligence in its present state of cultivation,
+but are applied to his _kind_ of intelligence, no matter how far
+trained. They mean that the inscrutable, etc., is not merely not _at
+present_ open to man's observation--that were a truism--but that it
+cannot be subsumed under the laws of his reasoning powers. In other
+words, they deny that all intelligence is one in _kind_. Some accept
+this fully, and concede that what are called the laws of order, as shown
+by science, are only matters of experience, true here and now, not
+necessarily and absolutely true.
+
+This is a consistent inference, and applies, of course, with equal force
+to all moral laws and religious dogmas.
+
+The arguments brought against such opinions have been various. The old
+reply to the sophists has been dressed in modern garb, and it has been
+repeatedly put that if no statement is really true, then this one, to
+wit "no statement is really true," also is not true; and if that is the
+case, then there are statements which really are true. The theory of
+evolution as a dogma has been attacked by its own maxims; in asserting
+that all knowledge is imperfect, it calls its own verity into question.
+If all truth is relative, then this at least is absolutely true.
+
+It has also been noted that all such words as incomprehensible,
+unconditioned, infinite, unknowable, are in their nature privatives,
+they are not a thought but are only one element of a thought. As has
+been shown in the first chapter, every thought is made up of a positive
+and a privative, and it is absurd and unnatural to separate the one from
+the other. The concept man, regarded as a division of the higher concept
+animal, is made up of man and not-man. In so far as other animals are
+included under the term "not-man" they do not come into intelligent
+cognition; but that does not mean that they cannot do so. So "the
+unconditioned" is really a part of the thought of "the conditioned," the
+"unknowable" a part of the "knowable," the "infinite" a part of the
+thought of the "finite." Under material images these privatives, as
+such, cannot be expressed; but in pure thought which deals with symbols
+and types alone, they can be.
+
+But if the abstract laws of thought themselves are confined in the
+limits of one kind of intelligence, then we cannot take an appeal to
+them to attack this sophism. Therefore on maintaining their integrity
+the discussion must finally rest. This has been fully recognized by
+thinkers, one of whom has not long since earnestly called attention to
+"the urgent necessity of fathoming the psychical mechanism on which
+rests all our intellectual life."[101-1]
+
+In this endeavor the attempt has been made to show that the logical laws
+are derived in accordance with the general theory of evolution from the
+natural or material laws of thinking. These, as I have previously
+remarked, are those of the association of ideas, and come under the
+general heads of contiguity and similarity. Such combinations are
+independent of the aim of the logical laws, which is _correct_ thinking.
+A German writer, Dr. Windelband, has therefore argued that as
+experience, strengthened by hereditary transmission, continued to show
+that the particular combinations which are in accord with what we call
+the laws of thought furnished the best, that is, the most useful
+results, they were adopted in preference to others and finally assumed
+as the criteria of truth.
+
+Of course it follows from this that as these laws are merely the outcome
+of human experience they can have no validity outside of it.
+Consequently, adds the writer I have quoted, just as the study of optics
+teaches us that the human eye yields a very different picture of the
+external world from that given by the eye of a fly, for instance, and
+as each of them is equally far from the reality, so the truth which our
+intelligence enables us to reach is not less remote from that which is
+the absolutely true. He considers that this is proven by the very nature
+of the "law of contradiction" itself, which must be inconsistent with
+the character of absolute thought. For in the latter, positive truth
+only can exist, therefore no negation, and no law about the relation of
+affirmative to negative.[102-1]
+
+The latter criticism assumes that negation is of the nature of error, a
+mistake drawn from the use of the negative in applied logic. For in
+formal logic, whether as quantity or quality, that is, in pure
+mathematics or abstract thought, the reasoning is just as correct when
+negatives are employed as when positives, as I have remarked before. The
+other criticism is more important, for if we can reach the conclusion
+that the real laws of the universe are other than as we understand them,
+then our intelligence is not of a kind to represent them.
+
+Such an opinion can be refuted directly. The laws which we profess to
+know are as operative in the remotest nebulae as in the planet we
+inhabit. It is altogether likely that countless forms of intelligent
+beings inhabit the starry wastes, receiving through sensory apparatus
+widely different from ours very diverse impressions of the external
+world. All this we know, but we also know that if those beings have
+defined the laws which underlie phenomena, they have found them to be
+the same that we have; for were they in the least different, in
+principle or application, they could not furnish the means, as those we
+know do, of predicting the recurrence of the celestial motions with
+unfailing accuracy. Therefore the demonstrations of pure mathematics,
+such as the relation of an absciss to an ordinate, or of the diameter to
+the circumference, must be universally true; and hence the logical laws
+which are the ultimate criteria of these truths must also be true to
+every intelligence, real or possible.[103-1]
+
+Another and forcible reply to these objections is that the laws which
+our intelligence has reached and recognizes as universally true are not
+only not derived from experience, but are in direct opposition to and
+are constantly contradicted by it. Neither sense nor imagination has
+ever portrayed a perfect circle in which the diameter bore to the
+circumference the exact proportion which we know it does bear. The very
+fact that we have learned that our senses are wholly untrustworthy, and
+that experience is always fallacious, shows that we have tests of truth
+depending on some other faculty. "Each series of connected facts in
+nature furnishes the intimation of an order more exact than that which
+it directly manifests."[104-1]
+
+But, it has been urged, granted that we have reached something like
+positive knowledge of those laws which are the _order_ of the
+manifestation of phenomena, the real Inscrutable, the mysterious
+Unknowable, escapes us still; this is the _nature_ of phenomenal
+manifestation, "the secret of the Power manifested in Existence."[104-2]
+At this point the physicist trips and falls; and here, too, the
+metaphysician stumbles.
+
+I have already spoken of our aptitude to be frightened by a chimera, and
+deceived by such words as "nature" and "cause." Laws and rules, by which
+we express Order, are restrictive only in a condition of intelligence
+short of completeness, only therefore in that province of thought which
+concerns itself with material facts. The musician is not fettered by the
+laws of harmony, but only by those of discord. The truly virtuous man,
+remarks Aristotle, never has occasion to practise self-denial. Hence,
+mathematically, "the theory of the intellectual action involves the
+recognition of a sphere of thought from which all limits are
+withdrawn."[105-1] True freedom, real being, is only possible when law
+as such is inexistent. Only the lawless makes the law. When the idea of
+the laws of order thus disappears in that of free function consistent
+with perfect order, when, as Kant expresses it, we ascend from the
+contemplation of things acting according to law, to action according to
+the representation of law,[105-2] we can, without audacity, believe that
+we have penetrated the secret of existence, that we have reached the
+limits of explanation and found one wholly satisfying the highest
+reason. Intelligence, not apart from phenomena, but parallel with them,
+not under law, but through perfect harmony above it, _power one with
+being_, the will which is "the essence of reason," the emanant cause of
+phenomena, immanent only by the number of its relations we have not
+learned, this is the satisfying and exhaustive solution. The folly lies
+not in claiming reason as the absolute, but in assuming that the
+absolute is beyond and against reason.
+
+There is nothing new in this explanation; and it is none the worse for
+being old. If Anaxagoras discerned it dimly, and many a one since him
+has spoken of Intelligence, Reason, Nous or Logos as the constructive
+factor of the creation; if "all the riper religions of the Orient
+assumed as their fundamental principle that unless the Highest
+penetrates all parts of the Universe, and itself conditions whatever is
+conditioned, no universal order, no Kosmos, no real existence is
+thinkable;"[106-1] such inadequate expressions should never obscure the
+truth that reason in its loftiest flights descries nothing nobler than
+itself.
+
+The relative, as its name implies, for ever presupposes and points to
+the absolute, the latter an Intelligence also, not one that renders ours
+futile and fallacious, but one that imparts to ours the capacity we
+possess of reaching eternal and ubiquitous truth. The severest
+mathematical reasoning forces us to this conclusion, and we can dispense
+with speculation about it.
+
+Only on the principle which here receives its proof, that man has
+something in him of God, that the norm of the true holds good
+throughout, can he know or care anything about divinity. "It takes a
+god to discern a god," profoundly wrote Novalis.
+
+When a religion teaches what reason disclaims, not through lack of
+testimony but through a denial of the rights of reason, then that
+religion wars against itself and will fall. Faith is not the acceptance
+of what intelligence rejects, but a suspension of judgment for want of
+evidence. A thoroughly religious mind will rejoice when its faith is
+shaken with doubt; for the doubt indicates increased light rendering
+perceptible some possible error not before seen.
+
+Least of all should a believer in a divine revelation deny the oneness
+of intelligence. For if he is right, then the revealed truth he talks
+about is but relative and partial, and those inspired men who claimed
+for it the sign manual of the Absolute were fools, insane or liars.
+
+If the various arguments I have rehearsed indicate conclusively that in
+the laws of thought we have the norms of absolute truth--and skepticism
+on this point can be skepticism and not belief only by virtue of the
+very law which it doubts--some important corollaries present themselves.
+
+Regarding in the first place the nature of these laws, we find them very
+different from those of physical necessity--those which are called the
+laws of nature. The latter are authoritative, they are never means to an
+end, they admit no exception, they leave no room for error. Not so with
+the laws of reasoning. Man far more frequently disregards than obeys
+them; they leave a wide field for fallacy. Wherein then lies that
+theoretical necessity which is the essence of law? The answer is that
+the laws of reasoning are _purposive_ only, they are regulative, not
+constitutive, and their theoretical necessity lies in the end, the
+result of reasoning, that is, in the knowing, in the recognition of
+truth. They are what the Germans call _Zweckgesetze_.[108-1]
+
+But in mathematical reasoning and in the processes of physical nature
+the absolute character of the laws which prevail depends for its final
+necessity on their consistency, their entire correspondence with the
+laws of right reasoning. Applied to them the purposive character of the
+laws is not seen, for their ends are fulfilled. We are brought,
+therefore, to the momentous conclusion that the manifestation of Order,
+whether in material or mental processes, "affords a presumption, not
+measurable indeed but real, of the fulfilment of an end or
+purpose;"[108-1][TN-7] and this purpose, one which has other objects in
+view than the continuance of physical processes. The history of mind,
+from protoplasmic sensation upward, must be a progression, whose end
+will be worth more than was its beginning, a process, which has for its
+purpose the satisfaction of the laws of mind. This is nothing else than
+correct thinking, the attainment of truth.
+
+But this conclusion, reached by a searching criticism of the validity of
+scientific laws, is precisely that which is the postulate of all
+developed creeds. "The faith of all historical religions," says Bunsen,
+"starts from the assumption of a universal moral order, in which the
+good is alone the true, and the true is the only good."[109-1]
+
+The purposive nature of the processes of thought, as well as the manner
+in which they govern the mind, is illustrated by the history of man. His
+actions, whether as an individual or as a nation, are guided by ideas
+not derived from the outer world, for they do not correspond to actual
+objects, but from mental pictures of things as he wants them to exist.
+These are his hopes, his wishes, his ideals; they are the more potent,
+and prompt to more vigorous action, the clearer they are to his mind.
+Even when he is unconscious of them, they exist as tendencies, or
+instincts, inherited often from some remote ancestor, perhaps even the
+heir-loom of a stage of lower life, for they occur where sensation
+alone is present, and are an important factor in general evolution.
+
+It is usually conceded that this theory of organic development very much
+attenuates the evidence of what is known as the argument from design in
+nature, by which the existence of an intelligent Creator is sought to be
+shown. If the distinction between the formal laws of mathematics, which
+are those of nature, and logic, which are those of mind, be fully
+understood, no one will seek such an argument in the former but in the
+latter only, for they alone, as I have shown, are purposive, and they
+are wholly so. The only God that nature points to is an adamantine Fate.
+
+If religion has indeed the object which Bunsen assigns it, physical
+phenomena cannot concern it. Its votaries should not look to change the
+operation of natural laws by incantations, prayers or miracles.
+
+Whenever in the material world there presents itself a seeming
+confusion, it is certain to turn out but an incompleteness of our
+observation, and on closer inspection it resolves itself into some
+higher scheme of Order. This is not so in the realm of thought. Wrong
+thinking never can become right thinking. A profound writer has said:
+"One explanation only of these facts can be given, viz., that the
+distinction between _true_ and _false_, between _correct_ and
+_incorrect_, exists in the processes of the intellect, but not in the
+region of a physical necessity."[111-1] A religion therefore which
+claims as its mission the discovery of the true and its identification
+with the good,--in other words the persuading man that he should always
+act in accordance with the dictates of right reasoning--should be
+addressed primarily to the intellect.
+
+As man can attain to certain truths which are without any mixture of
+fallacy, which when once he comprehends them he can never any more
+doubt, and which though thus absolute do not fetter his intellect but
+first give it the use of all its powers to the extent of those truths;
+so he can conceive of an Intelligence in which all truth is thus without
+taint of error. Not only is such an Intelligence conceivable, it is
+necessary to conceive it, in order to complete the scientific induction
+of "a sphere of thought from which all limits are withdrawn," forced
+upon us by the demonstrations of the exact sciences.[111-2]
+
+Thus do we reach the foundation for the faith in a moral government of
+the world, which it has been the uniform characteristic of religions to
+assert; but a government, as thus analytically reached, not easily
+corresponding with that which popular religion speaks of. Such feeble
+sentiments as mercy, benevolence and effusive love, scarcely find place
+in this conception of the source of universal order. In this cosmical
+dust-cloud we inhabit, whose each speck is a sun, man's destiny plays a
+microscopic part. The vexed question whether ours is the best possible
+or the worst possible world, drops into startling insignificance.
+Religion has taught the abnegation of self; science is first to teach
+the humiliation of the race. Not for man's behoof were created the
+greater and the lesser lights, not for his deeds will the sun grow dark
+or the stars fall, not with any reference to his pains or pleasure was
+this universe spread upon the night. That Intelligence which pursues its
+own ends in this All, which sees from first to last the chain of causes
+which mould human action, measures not its purposes by man's halting
+sensations. Such an Intelligence is fitly described by the
+philosopher-poet as one,
+
+    "Wo die Gerechtigkeit so Wurzel schlaeget,
+    Und Schuld und Unschuld so erhaben waeget
+    Dass sie vertritt die Stelle aller Guete."[112-1]
+
+In the scheme of the universe, pain and pleasure, truth and error, has
+each its fitness, and no single thought or act can be judged apart from
+all others that ever have been and ever shall be.
+
+Such was the power that was contemplated by the Hebrew prophet, one from
+which all evil things and all good things come, and who disposes them
+all to the fulfilment of a final purpose:
+
+     "I am the Lord and there is none else. I form the light and create
+     darkness; I make peace and create evil."
+
+     "I am God and there is none like me, declaring the end from the
+     beginning, and from ancient times the things which are not yet
+     done."[113-1]
+
+In a similar strain the ancient Aryan sang:--
+
+    "This do I ask thee, tell me, O Ahura!
+    Who is he, working good, made the light and also darkness?
+    Who is he, working good, made the sleep as well as waking?
+    Who the night, as well as noon and the morning?"
+
+And the reply came:
+
+     "Know also this, O pure Zarathustra: through my wisdom, through
+     which was the beginning of the world, so also its end shall
+     be."[113-2]
+
+Or as the Arabian apostle wrote, inspired by the same idea:--
+
+    "Praise the name of thy Lord, the Most High,
+    Who hath created and balanced all things,
+    Who hath fixed their destinies and guideth them."
+
+     "The Revelation of this book is from the Mighty, the Wise. We have
+     not created the Heavens and the Earth and all that is between them
+     otherwise than with a purpose and for a settled term."[113-3]
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[87-1] _The Emotions and Will_, p. 594. So Professor Tyndall speaks of
+confining the religious sentiment to "the region of emotion, which is
+its proper sphere."
+
+[87-2] H. L. Mansel, _The Limits of Religious Thought_, p. 115. (Boston,
+1859.)
+
+[87-3] "The _one relation_ which is the ground of all true religion is a
+total dependence upon God." William Law, _Address to the Clergy_, p. 12.
+"The essential germ of the religious life is concentrated in the
+absolute feeling of dependence on infinite power." J. D. Morell, _The
+Philosophy of Religion_, p. 94. (New York, 1849.) This accomplished
+author, well known for his _History of Philosophy_, is the most able
+English exponent of the religious views of Schleiermacher and Jacobi.
+
+[90-1] "Weil sie die Welt _eingerichtet_ haben." Creuzer, _Symbolik und
+Mythologie der alten Voelker_, Bd. I. s. 169. It is not of any
+importance that Herodotus' etymology is incorrect: what I wish to show
+is that he and his contemporaries entertained the conception of the gods
+as the authors of order.
+
+[92-1] This distinction is well set forth by A. von Humboldt, _Kosmos_,
+p. 388 (Phila., 1869).
+
+[93-1] "Ueberall den Zufall zu verbannen, zu verhindern, dass in dem
+Gebiete des Beobachtens und Denkens er nicht zu herrschen scheine, im
+Gebiete des Handelns nicht herrsche, ist das Streben der Vernunft."
+Wilhelm von Humboldt, _Ueber Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea_, iv.
+
+[93-2] "Iste ordo pulcherrimus rerum valde bonarum." _Confessiones_,
+Lib. xiii. cap. xxxv.
+
+[94-1] "The notion of a God is not contained in the mere notion of
+Cause, that is the notion of Fate or Power. To this must be added
+Intelligence," etc. Sir Wm. Hamilton, _Lectures on Metaphysics_, Lecture
+ii.
+
+[96-1] _The Unseen Universe_, p. 60.
+
+[97-1] James Frederick Ferrier, _Lectures on Greek Philosophy_, p. 13
+(Edinburgh, 1866). On a question growing directly out of this, to wit,
+the relative character of good and evil, Mr. J. S. Mill expresses
+himself thus: "My opinion of this doctrine is, that it is beyond all
+others which now engage speculative minds, the decisive one between
+moral good and evil for the Christian world." _Examination of Hamilton's
+Philosophy_, p. 90.
+
+[98-1] _First Principles_, pp. 108, 127.
+
+[99-1] _Lectures on Metaphysics_, Vol. I., p. 690.
+
+[101-1] Professor Steinthal in the _Zeitschrift fuer Voelkerpsychologie_.
+
+[102-1] Dr. W. Windelband, _Die Erkenntnissiehre unter dem
+voelkerpsychologischem Gesichtspunkte_, in the _Zeitschrift fuer
+Voelkerpsychologie_, 1874, _Bd. VIII._ S. 165 _sqq._
+
+[103-1] I would ask the reader willing to pursue this reasoning further,
+to peruse the charming essay of Oersted, entitled _Das ganze Dasein Ein
+Vernunftreich_.
+
+[104-1] Geo. Boole, _An Investigation of the Laws of Thought_, p. 407.
+
+[104-2] Herbert Spencer, _First Principles_, p. 112. Spinoza's famous
+proposition, previously quoted, _Unaquaeque res quantum in se est, in suo
+esse perseverare conatur_, (_Ethices, Pars III., Prop. VI._,) expresses
+also the ultimate of modern investigation. A recent critic considers it
+is a fallacy because the conatus "surreptitiously implies a sense of
+effort or struggle for existence," whereas the logical concept of a res
+does not involve effort (S. N. Hodgson, _The Theory of Practice_, vol.
+I. pp. 134-6, London, 1870.) The answer is that identity implies
+continuance. In organic life we have the fact of nutrition, a function
+whose duty is to supply waste, and hence offer direct opposition to
+perturbing forces.
+
+[105-1] Geo. Boole, _The Laws of Thought_, p. 419.
+
+[105-2] Kant, _The Metaphysic of Ethics_, p. 23 (Eng. Trans. London,
+1869.)
+
+[106-1] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Voelker_, Bd. I. s.
+291.
+
+[108-1] See this distinction between physical and thought laws fully set
+forth by Prof. Boole in the appendix to _The Laws of Thought_, and by
+Dr. Windelband, _Zeitschrift fuer Voelkerpsychologie_, Bd. VIII., s. 165
+sqq.
+
+[108-2] Geo. Boole, u. s. p. 399.
+
+[109-1] "Der Glaube aller geschichtlichen Religionen geht aus von dieser
+Annahme einer sittlichen, in Gott bewusst lebenden, Weltordnung, wonach
+das Gute das allein Wahre ist, and das Wahre das allein Gute." _Gott in
+der Geschichte_, Bd. I. s. xl. Leipzig, 1857.
+
+[111-1] Geo. Boole, _Laws of Thought_, p. 410.
+
+[111-2] The latest researches in natural science confirm the expressions
+of W. von Humboldt: "Das Streben der Natur ist auf etwas Unbeschraenktes
+gerichtet." "Die Natur mit endlichen Mitteln unendliche Zwecke
+verfolgt." _Ueber den Geschlechtsunterschied, etc._
+
+[112-1] Wilhelm von Humboldt, _Sonnette_, "Hoechste Gerechtigkeit."
+
+[113-1] Isaiah, xlv. 7; xlvi. 10.
+
+[113-2] _Khordah--avesta_, _Ormazd--Yasht_, 38, and _Yacna_, 42.
+
+[113-3] _The Koran_, Suras lxxxvii., xlvi.
+
+
+
+
+THE PRAYER AND ITS ANSWER.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     Religion starts with a Prayer. This is an appeal to the unknown,
+     and is indispensable in religious thought. The apparent exceptions
+     of Buddhism and Confucianism.
+
+     All prayers relate to the fulfilment of a wish. At first its direct
+     object is alone thought of. This so frequently fails that the
+     indirect object rises into view. This stated to be the increase of
+     the pleasurable emotions. The inadequacy of this statement.
+
+     The answers to prayer. As a form of Expectant Attention, it exerts
+     much subjective power. Can it influence external phenomena? It is
+     possible. Deeply religious minds reject both these answers,
+     however. They claim the objective answer to be Inspiration. All
+     religions unite in this claim.
+
+     Inspirations have been contradictory. That is genuine which teaches
+     truths which cannot be doubted concerning duty and deity. A certain
+     mental condition favors the attainment of such truths. This
+     simulated in religious entheasm. Examples. It is allied to the most
+     intense intellectual action, but its steps remain unknown.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV.
+
+THE PRAYER AND ITS ANSWER.
+
+
+The foregoing analysis of the religious sentiment results in finding it,
+even in its simplest forms, a product of complicated reasoning forced
+into action by some of the strongest emotions, and maintaining its
+position indefeasibly through the limitations of the intellect. This it
+does, however, with a certain nobleness, for while it wraps the unknown
+in sacred mystery, it proclaims man one in nature with the Highest, by
+birthright a son of the gods, of an intelligence akin to theirs, and
+less than they only in degree. Through thus presenting at once his
+strength and his feebleness, his grandeur and his degradation, religion
+goes beyond philosophy or utility in suggesting motives for exertion,
+stimuli to labor. This phase of it will now occupy us.
+
+The Religious Sentiment manifests itself in thought, in word and in act
+through the respective media of the Prayer, the Myth and the Cult. The
+first embraces the personal relations of the individual to the object
+of his worship, the second expresses the opinions current in a community
+about the nature and actions of that object, the last includes the
+symbols and ceremonies under and by which it is represented and
+propitiated.
+
+The first has the logical priority. Man cares nothing for God--_can_
+care nothing for him practically--except as an aid to the fulfilment of
+his desires, the satisfaction of his wants, as the "ground of his
+hopes." The root of the religious sentiment, I have said, is "a wish
+whose fruition depends upon unknown power." An appeal for aid to this
+unknown power, is the first form of prayer in its religious sense. It is
+not merely "the soul's sincere desire." This may well be and well
+directed, and yet not religious, as the devotion of the mathematician to
+the solution of an important problem. With the desire must be the
+earnest appeal to the unknown. A theological dictionary I have at hand
+almost correctly defines it as "a petition for spiritual or physical
+benefits which [we believe] we cannot obtain without divine
+co-operation." The words in brackets must be inserted to complete the
+definition.
+
+It need not be expressed in language. Rousseau, in his _Confessions_,
+tells of a bishop who, in visiting his diocese, came across an old woman
+who was troubled because she could frame no prayer in words, but only
+cry, "Oh!" "Good mother," said the wise bishop, "Pray always so. Your
+prayers are better than ours."[119-1]
+
+A petition for assistance is, as I have said, one of its first forms;
+but not its only one. The assistance asked in simple prayers is often
+nothing more than the neutrality of the gods, their non-interference;
+"no preventing Providence," as the expression is in our popular
+religion. Prayers of fear are of this kind:
+
+    "And they say, God be merciful,
+    Who ne'er said, God be praised."
+
+Some of the Egyptian formulae even threaten the gods if they prevent
+success.[119-2] The wish accomplished, the prayer may be one of
+gratitude, often enough of that kind described by La Rochefoucauld, of
+which a prominent element is "a lively sense of possible favors to
+come."[119-3]
+
+Or again, self-abasement being so natural a form of flattery that to
+call ourselves "obedient and humble servants" of others, has passed
+into one of the commonest forms of address, many prayers are made up of
+similar expressions of humility and contrition, the votary calling
+himself a "miserable sinner" and a "vile worm," and on the other hand
+magnifying his Lord as greater than all other gods, mighty and helpful
+to those who assiduously worship him.
+
+In some form or other, as of petition, gratitude or contrition, uttered
+in words or confined to the aspirations of the soul, prayer is a
+necessary factor in the religious life. It always has been, and it must
+be present.
+
+The exceptions which may be taken to this in religious systems are
+chiefly two, those supposed to have been founded by Buddha Sakyamuni and
+Confucius.
+
+It is undoubtedly correct that Buddha discouraged prayer. He permitted
+it at best in the inferior grades of discipleship. For himself, and all
+who reached his stage of culture, he pronounced it futile.
+
+But Buddha did not set out to teach a religion, but rather the inutility
+of all creeds. He struck shrewdly at the root of them by placing the
+highest condition of man in the total extinguishment of desire. He bound
+the gods in fetters by establishing a theory of causal connection (the
+twelve Nidana) which does away with the necessity of ruling powers. He
+then swept both matter and spirit into unreality by establishing the
+canon of ignorance, that the highest knowledge is to know that nothing
+is; that there is neither being nor not-being, nor yet the becoming.
+After this wholesale iconoclasm the only possible object in life for the
+sage is the negative one of avoiding pain, which though as unreal as
+anything else, interferes with his meditations on its unreality. To this
+negative end the only aid he can expect is from other sages who have
+gone farther in self-cultivation. Self, therefore, is the first, the
+collective body of sages is the second, and the written instruction of
+Buddha is the third; and these three are the only sources to which the
+consistent Buddhist looks for aid.
+
+This was Buddha's teaching. But it is not Buddhism as professed by the
+hundreds of millions in Ceylon, in Thibet, China, Japan, and Siberia,
+who claim Sakyamuni under his names Buddha, the awakened, Tathagata,
+thus gone, or gone before, Siddartha, the accomplisher of the wish, and
+threescore and ten others of like purport, as their inspired teacher.
+Millions of saints, holy men, Buddhas, they believe, are ready to aid in
+every way the true believer, and incessant, constant prayer is, they
+maintain, the one efficient means to insure this aid. Repetition,
+dinning the divinities and wearying them into answering, is their
+theory. Therefore they will repeat a short formula of four words (_om
+mani padme hum_--Om! the jewel in the lotus, amen) thousands of times a
+day; or, as they correctly think it not a whit more mechanical, they
+write it a million times on strips of paper, fasten it around a
+cylinder, attach this to a water or a wind-wheel, and thus sleeping or
+waking, at home or abroad, keep up a steady fire of prayer at the gods,
+which finally, they sanguinely hope, will bring them to submission.
+
+No sect has such entire confidence in the power of prayer as the
+Buddhists. The most pious Mahometan or Christian does not approach their
+faith. After all is said and done, the latter has room to doubt the
+efficacy of his prayer. It may be refused. Not so the Buddhists. They
+have a syllogism which covers the case completely, as follows:--
+
+    All things are in the power of the gods.
+    The gods are in the power of prayer.
+    Prayer is at the will of the saint.
+    Therefore all things are in the power of the saint.
+
+The only reason that any prayer fails is that it is not repeated often
+enough--a statement difficult to refute.
+
+The case with Confucius was different.[122-1] No speculative dreamer,
+but a practical man, bent on improving his fellows by teaching them
+self-reliance, industry, honesty, good feeling and the attainment of
+material comfort, he did not see in the religious systems and doctrines
+of his time any assistance to these ends. Therefore, like Socrates and
+many other men of ancient and modern times, without actually condemning
+the faiths around him, or absolutely neglecting some external respect to
+their usages, he taught his followers to turn away from religious topics
+and occupy themselves with subjects of immediate utility. For questions
+of duty, man, he taught, has a sufficient guide within himself. "What
+you do not like," he said, "when done to yourself, do not to others."
+The wishes, he adds, should be limited to the attainable; thus their
+disappointment can be avoided by a just estimate of one's own powers. He
+used to compare a wise man to an archer: "When the archer misses the
+target, he seeks for the cause of his failure within himself." He did
+not like to talk about spiritual beings. When asked whether the dead had
+knowledge, he replied: "There is no present urgency about the matter. If
+they have, you will know it for yourself in time." He did not deny the
+existence of unseen powers; on the contrary, he said: "The _kwei shin_
+(the most general term for supernatural beings) enter into all things,
+and there is nothing without them;" but he added, "We look for them and
+do not see them; we listen, but do not hear them." In speaking of deity,
+he dropped the personal syllable (_te_) and only spoke of heaven, in the
+indefinite sense. Such was this extraordinary man. The utilitarian
+theory, what we call the common sense view of life, was never better
+taught. But his doctrine is not a religion. His followers erect temples,
+and from filial respect pay the usual honors to their ancestors, as
+Confucius himself did. But they ignore religious observances, strictly
+so-called.
+
+These examples, therefore, do not at all conflict with the general
+statement that no religion can exist without prayer. On the contrary, it
+is the native expression of the religious sentiment, that to which we
+must look for its most hidden meaning. The thoughtful Novalis, whose
+meditations are so rich in reflections on the religious nature of man,
+well said: "Prayer is to religion what thought is to philosophy. To pray
+is to make religion. The religious sense prays with like necessity that
+the reason thinks."
+
+Whatever the form of the prayer, it has direct or indirect relation to
+the accomplishment of a wish. David prays to the Lord as the one who
+"satisfies the desire of every living thing," who "will fulfil the
+desire of them that fear him," and it is with the like faith that the
+heart of every votary is stirred when he approaches in prayer the
+divinity he adores.
+
+Widely various are the things wished for. Their character is the test of
+religions. In primitive faiths and in uncultivated minds, prayers are
+confined to the nearest material advantages; they are directed to the
+attainment of food, of victory in combat, of safety in danger, of
+personal prosperity. They may all be summed up in a line of one which
+occurs in the Rig Veda: "O Lord Varuna! Grant that we may prosper in
+_getting and keeping_!"
+
+Beyond this point of "getting and keeping," few primitive prayers take
+us. Those of the American Indians, as I have elsewhere shown, remained
+in this stage among the savage tribes, and rose above it only in the
+civilized states of Mexico and Peru. Prayers for health, for plenteous
+harvests, for safe voyages and the like are of this nature, though from
+their familiarity to us they seem less crude than the simple-hearted
+petition of the old Aryan, which I have quoted. They mean the same.
+
+The more thoughtful votaries of the higher forms of religion have,
+however, frequently drawn the distinction between the direct and
+indirect fulfilment of the wish. An abundant harvest, restoration to
+health, or a victory in battle is the object of our hopes, not in
+itself, but for its results upon ourselves. These, in their final
+expression, can mean nothing else than agreeable sensations and
+pleasurable emotions. These, therefore, are the real though indirect
+objects of such prayers; often unconsciously so, because the ordinary
+devotee has little capacity and less inclination to analyze the nature
+of his religious feelings.
+
+A recent writer, Mr. Hodgson, has said: "The real answer to prayer is
+the increase of the joyful emotions, the decrease of the painful
+ones."[126-1] It would seem a simpler plan to make this directly the
+purport of our petitions; but to the modern mind this naked simplicity
+would be distasteful.
+
+Nor is the ordinary supplicant willing to look so far. The direct, not
+the indirect object of the wish, is what he wants. The lazzarone of
+Naples prays to his patron saint to favor his choice of a lottery
+ticket; if it turn out an unlucky number he will take the little leaden
+image of the saint from his pocket, revile it, spit on it, and trample
+it in the mud. Another man, when his prayer for success is not followed
+by victory, sends gifts to the church, flogs himself in public and
+fasts. Xenophon gives us in his _Economics_ the prayer of a pious
+Athenian of his time, in the person of Ischomachus. "I seek to obtain,"
+says the latter, "from the gods by just prayers, strength and health,
+the respect of the community, the love of my friends, an honorable
+termination to my combats, and riches, the fruit of honest industry."
+Xenophon evidently considered these appropriate objects for prayer, and
+from the petitions in many recent manuals of devotion, I should suppose
+most Christians of to-day would not see in them anything inappropriate.
+
+In spite of the effort that has been made by Professor Creuzer[127-1] to
+show that the classical nations rose to a higher use of prayer, one
+which made spiritual growth in the better sense of the phrase its main
+end; I think such instances were confined to single philosophers and
+poets. They do not represent the prayers of the average votary. Then and
+now he, as a rule, has little or no idea of any other answer to his
+prayer than the attainment of his wish.
+
+As such petitions, however, more frequently fail than succeed in their
+direct object, and as the alternative of considering them impotent is
+not open to the votary, some other explanation of their failure was
+taught in very early day. At first, it was that the god was angered, and
+refused the petition out of revenge. Later, the indirect purpose of such
+a prayer asserted itself more clearly, and aided by a nobler conception
+of Divinity, suggested that the refusal of the lower is a preparation
+for a higher reward. Children, in well-ordered households, are
+frequently refused by parents who love them well; this present analogy
+was early seized to explain the failure of prayer. Unquestioning
+submission to the divine will was inculcated. Some even went so far as
+to think it improper to define any wish at all, and subsumed all prayer
+under the one formula, "Thy will be done." Such was the teaching of St.
+Augustine, whose favorite prayer was _Da quod jubes, et jube quod vis_,
+a phrase much criticized by Pelagius and others of his time as too
+quietistic.[128-1] The usual Christian doctrine of resignation proceeds
+in theory to this extent. Such a notion of the purpose of prayer leads
+to a cheerful acceptance of the effects of physical laws, effects which
+an enlightened religious mind never asks to be altered in its favor, for
+the promises and aims of religion should be wholly outside the arena of
+their operation. The ideal prayer has quite other objects than to work
+material changes.
+
+To say, as does Mr. Hodgson, that its aim is the increase of the joyful
+emotions is far from sufficient. The same may be said of most human
+effort, the effort to make money, for instance. The indirect object of
+money-making is also the increase of the agreeable feelings. The
+similarity of purpose might lead to a belief that the aims of religion
+and business are identical.
+
+Before we can fully decide on what, in the specifically religious sense
+of the word, is the answer to prayer, we should inquire as a matter of
+fact what effect it actually exerts, and to do this we should understand
+what it is as a psychological process. The reply to this is that prayer,
+in its psychological definition, is a form of Expectant Attention. It is
+always urged by religious teachers that it must be very earnest and
+continuous to be successful. "Importunity is of the essence of
+successful prayer," says Canon Liddon in a recent sermon. In the New
+Testament it is likened to a constant knocking at a door; and by a
+curious parity of thought the Chinese character for prayer is composed
+of the signs for a spirit and an axe or hammer.[129-1] We must "keep
+hammering" as a colloquial phrase has it. Strong belief is also
+required. To pray with faith we must expect with confidence.
+
+Now that such a condition of expectant attention, prolonged and earnest,
+will have a very powerful subjective effect, no one acquainted with the
+functions of the human economy can doubt. "Any state of the body,"
+observes the physiologist Mueller, "expected with certain confidence is
+very prone to ensue." A pill of bread-crumbs, which the patient supposes
+to contain a powerful cathartic, will often produce copious evacuations.
+No one who studies the history of medicine can question that scrofulous
+swellings and ulcerations were cured by the royal touch, that paralytics
+have regained the use of their limbs by touching the relics of the
+saints, and that in many countries beside Judea the laying on of hands
+and the words of a holy man have made issues to heal and the lame to
+walk.[130-1]
+
+Such effects are not disputed by physicians as probable results of
+prayer or faith considered as expectant attention. The stigmata of St.
+Francis d'Assisi are more than paralleled by those of Louise Lateau, now
+living at Bois d'Haine in Belgium, whose hands, feet and side bleed
+every Friday like those of Christ on the cross. A commission of medical
+men after the most careful precautions against deception attributed
+these hemorrhages to the effect of expectation (prayer) vastly
+increased in force by repetition.[131-1] If human testimony is worth
+anything, the cures of Porte Royale are not open to dispute.[131-2]
+
+The mental consequences of a prayerful condition of mind are to inspire
+patience under afflictions, hope in adversity, courage in the presence
+of danger and a calm confidence in the face of death itself. How
+mightily such influences have worked in history is shown in every
+religious war, and in the lives of the martyrs of all faiths. It matters
+not what they believed, so only that they believed it thoroughly, and
+the gates of Hades could not prevail against them.
+
+No one will question that these various and momentous results are the
+legitimate effects or answers to prayers. But whether prayer can
+influence the working of the material forces external to the individual
+is a disputed point. If it cannot in some way do this, prayers for rain,
+for harvests, for safety at sea, for restoration to health, for delivery
+from grasshoppers[131-3] and pestilence, whether for our own benefit or
+others, are hardly worth reciting. A physicist expresses the one opinion
+in these words: "Science asserts that without a disturbance of natural
+law, quite as serious as the stoppage of an eclipse or the rolling of
+the St. Lawrence up the Falls of Niagara, no act of humiliation,
+individual or national, could call one shower from heaven or deflect
+toward us a single beam of the sun." "Assuming the efficacy of free
+prayer to produce changes in external nature, it necessarily follows
+that natural laws are more or less at the mercy of man's
+volition."[132-1]
+
+This authoritative statement, much discussed at the time it was
+published, does not in fact express the assertion of science. To the
+scientific apprehension, man's volitions and his prayers are states of
+emotion, inseparably connected in their manifestations with changes in
+his cerebral structure, with relative elevation of temperature, and with
+the elimination of oxygen and phosphorus, in other words with
+chemico-vital phenomena and the transformation of force. Science also
+adds that there is a constant interaction of all force, and it is not
+prepared to deny that the force expended by a national or individual
+prayer may become a co-operating cause in the material change asked
+for, even if the latter be a rain shower. This would not affect a
+natural law but only its operation, and that much every act of our life
+does. The fact that persistency and earnestness in prayer--_i. e._, the
+increased development of force--add to its efficacy, would accord with
+such a scientific view. It would further be very materially corroborated
+by the accepted doctrine of the orders of force. A unit of electrical or
+magnetic force equals many of the force of gravity; a number of
+electrical units are required to make one of chemical force; and
+chemico-vital or "metabolic" force is still higher; whereas thought
+regarded as a form of force must be vastly beyond this again.
+
+To render a loadstone, which lifts filings of iron by its magnetic
+force, capable of doing the same by the force of gravity, its density
+would have to be increased more than a thousand million times. All
+forces differ in like degree. Professor Faraday calculated that the
+force latent in the chemical composition of one drop of water, equals
+that manifested in an average thunderstorm. In our limited knowledge of
+the relation of forces therefore, a scientific man is rash to deny that
+the chemico-vital forces set loose by an earnest prayer may affect the
+operation of natural laws outside the body as they confessedly do in
+it.
+
+Experience alone can decide such a question, and I for one, from theory
+and from observation, believe in the material efficacy of prayer. In a
+certain percentage of the cases where the wished-for material result
+followed, the physical force of the active cerebral action has seemed to
+me a co-operating cause. A physician can observe this to best advantage
+in the sickness of children, as they are free from subjective bias,
+their constitutions are delicately susceptible, and the prayers for them
+are in their immediate vicinity and very earnest.
+
+But this admission after all is a barren one to the truly devout mind.
+The effect gained does not depend on the God to whom the prayer is
+offered. Blind physical laws bring it about, and any event that comes
+through their compulsive force is gelded of its power to fecundate the
+germs of the better religious life. The knowledge of this would paralyze
+faith.
+
+Further to attenuate the value of my admission, another consideration
+arises, this time prompted not by speculative criticism, but by
+reverence itself. A scholar whom I have already quoted justly observes:
+"Whenever we prefer a request as a means of obtaining what we wish for,
+we are not praying in the religious sense of the term."[134-1] Or, as a
+recent theologian puts the same idea: "Every true prayer prays to be
+refused, if the granting of it would be hurtful to us or subversive of
+God's glory."[135-1] The real answer to prayer can never be an event or
+occurrence. Only in moments of spiritual weakness and obscured vision,
+when governed by his emotions or sensations, will the reverent soul ask
+a definite transaction, a modification in the operation of natural laws,
+still less such vulgar objects as victory, wealth or health.
+
+The prayer of faith finds its only true objective answer in itself, in
+accepting whatever befalls as the revelation of the will of God as to
+what is best. This temper of mind as the real meaning of prayer was
+beautifully set forth by St. John: "If we know that he hear us,
+whatsoever we ask, we know that we have the petitions that we desired of
+him."[135-2]
+
+But this solution of the problem does not go far enough. Prayer is
+claimed to have a positive effect on the mind other than resignation.
+Joyful emotions are its fruits, _spiritual enlightenment_ its reward.
+These are more than cheerful acquiescence, nor can the latter come from
+objects of sense.
+
+The most eminent teachers agree in banishing material pleasure and
+prosperity from holy desires. They are of one mind in warning against
+what the world and the flesh can offer, against the pursuit of riches,
+power and lust. Many counsel poverty and deliberate renunciation of all
+such things. Nor is the happiness they talk of that which the pursuit of
+intellectual truth brings. This, indeed, confers joy, of which whoever
+has tasted will not hastily return to the fleshpots of the senses, but
+it is easy to see that it is not religious. Prayer and veneration have
+not a part in it. Great joy is likewise given by the exercise of the
+imagination when stirred by art in some of its varied forms, and a joy
+more nearly allied to religion than is that of scientific investigation.
+But the esthetic emotions are well defined, and are distinctly apart
+from those concerned with the religious sentiment. Their most complete
+satisfaction rather excludes than encourages pious meditations. That
+which prayer ought to seek outside of itself is different from all of
+these, its dower must be divine.
+
+We need not look long for it. Though hidden from the wise, it has ever
+been familiar to the unlearned. Man has never been in doubt as to what
+it is. He has been only too willing to believe he has received it.
+
+In barbarism and civilization, in the old and new worlds, the final
+answer to prayer has ever been acknowledged to be _inspiration_,
+revelation, the thought of God made clear to the mind of man, the
+mystical hypostasis through which the ideas of the human coincide with
+those of universal Intelligence. This is what the Pythian priestess, the
+Siberian shaman, the Roman sibyl, the Voluspan prophetess, the Indian
+medicine-man, all claimed in various degrees along with the Hebrew seers
+and the Mahometan teacher.[137-1]
+
+The TRUTH, the last and absolute truth, is what is everywhere recognized
+as, if not the only, at least the completest, the highest answer to
+prayer. "Where I found the truth, there I found my God, himself the
+truth," says St. Augustine; and in a prayer by St. Chrysostom, the
+"Golden Mouth," unsurpassed in its grand simplicity, it is said:
+"Almighty Father, * * grant us in this world _knowledge of Thy truth_,
+and in the world to come, life everlasting." Never has the loftiest
+purpose of prayer been more completely stated. This it was that had been
+promised them by Him, to whom they looked as an Intercessor for their
+petitions, who had said: "I will send unto you the Comforter. * * When
+he, the Spirit of Truth, is come, he will guide you unto all truth."
+
+The belief that this answer is at all times attainable has always been
+recognized by the Christian Church, Apostolic, Catholic, and Protestant.
+Baptism was called by the Greek fathers, "enlightenment" (~Photismos~),
+as by it the believer received the spirit of truth. The Romanist, in the
+dogma of infallibility, proclaims the perpetual inspiration of a living
+man; the Protestant Churches in many creeds and doctrinal works extend a
+substantial infallibility to all true believers, at least to the extent
+that they can be inspired to recognize, if not to receive divine verity.
+
+The Gallican Confession of Faith, adopted in 1561, rests the principal
+evidence of the truth of the Scriptures on "_le temoignage et
+l'interieure persuasion du Saint Esprit_," and the Westminster
+Confession on "the inward work of the holy spirit." The Society of
+Friends maintain it as "a leading principle, that the work of the Holy
+Spirit in the soul is not only immediate and direct, but perceptible;"
+that it imparts truth "without any mixture of error;" and thus is
+something quite distinct from conscience, which is common to the race,
+while this "inward light" is given only to the favored of God.[138-1]
+
+The non-juror, William Law, emphatically says: "The Christian that
+rejects the necessity of immediate divine inspiration, pleads the whole
+cause of infidelity; he has nothing to prove the goodness of his own
+Christianity, but that which equally proves to the Deist the goodness of
+his infidelity."[139-1] That by prayer the path of duty will be made
+clear, is a universal doctrine.
+
+The extent to which the gift of inspiration is supposed to be granted is
+largely a matter of church government. Where authority prevails, it is
+apt to be confined to those in power. Where religion is regarded as
+chiefly subjective and individual, it is conceded that any pious votary
+may become the receptacle of such special light.
+
+Experience, however, has too often shown that inspiration teaches such
+contradictory doctrines that they are incompatible with any standard.
+The indefinite splitting of Protestant sects has convinced all clear
+thinkers that the claim of the early Confessions to a divinely given
+power of distinguishing the true from the false has been a mistaken
+supposition. As a proof to an unbeliever, such a gift could avail
+nothing; and as evidence to one's own mind, it can only be accepted by
+those who deliberately shut their eyes to the innumerable contradictions
+it offers.[140-1]
+
+While, therefore, in this, if anywhere, we perceive the only at once fit
+and definite answer to prayer, and find that this is acknowledged by all
+faiths, from the savage to the Christian, it would seem that this answer
+is a fallacious and futile one. The teachings of inspiration are
+infinitely discrepant and contradictory, and often plainly world-wide
+from the truth they pretend to embody. The case seems hopeless; yet, as
+religion of any kind without prayer is empty, there has been a proper
+unwillingness to adopt the conclusion just stated.
+
+The distinction has been made that "the inspiration of the Christian is
+altogether _subjective_, and directed to the moral improvement of the
+individual,"[140-2] not to facts of history or questions of science,
+even exegetic science. The term _illumination_ has been preferred for
+it, and while it is still defined as "a spiritual intelligence which
+brings truth within the range of mental apprehension by a kind of
+intuition,"[141-1] this truth has reference only to immediate matters of
+individual faith and practice. The Roman church allows more latitude
+than this, as it sanctions revelations concerning events, but not
+concerning doctrines.[141-2]
+
+Looked at narrowly, the advantage which inspiration has been to
+religions has not so much depended on what it taught, as on its strength
+as a psychological motive power. As a general mental phenomenon it does
+not so much concern knowledge as belief; its province is to teach faith
+rather than facts. No conviction can equal that which arises from an
+assertion of God directly to ourselves. The force of the argument lies
+not in the question whether he did address us, but whether we believe he
+did. As a stimulus to action, prayer thus rises to a prime power.
+
+Belief is considered by Professor Bain and his school to be the ultimate
+postulate, the final ground of intellection. It is of the utmost
+importance, however,--and this Professor Bain fails to do--to
+distinguish between two kinds of belief. There are men who believe and
+others who disbelieve the Koran or the Bible; I can accept or reject
+the historical existence of King Arthur or Napoleon; but, if I
+understand them, I cannot disbelieve the demonstrations of Euclid, nor
+the relations of subject and object, nor the formal laws of thought. No
+sane man, acquainted with the properties of numbers, can believe that
+twice three are ten, or that a thing can be thought as other than
+itself. These truths that "we cannot help believing," I have defined in
+the first chapter as absolute truths. They do not come to us through
+testimony and induction, but through a process variously called
+"immediate perception," "apprehension," or "intuition," a process long
+known but never satisfactorily explained.
+
+All such truths are analytic, that is, they are true, not merely for a
+given time or place, but at all times and places conceivable, or, time
+and space out of the question, they still remain formally true. Of
+course, therefore, they cannot refer to historic occurrences nor
+phenomena. The modern position, that truth lies in facts, must be
+forsaken, and with the ancients, we must place it in ideas.
+
+If we define inspiration as that condition of mind which is in the
+highest degree sensitive to the presence of such truth, we have of it
+the only worthy idea which it is possible to frame. The object of
+scientific investigation is to reach a truth which can neither be denied
+nor doubted. If religion is willing to content itself with any lower
+form of truth, it cannot support its claims to respect, let alone
+reverence.
+
+It may be said that the subjects with which the religious sentiment
+concerns itself are not such as are capable of this absolute expression.
+This is, however, disclaimed by all great reformers, and by none more
+emphatically than by him who said: "Heaven and earth shall pass away,
+but my statements (~logoi~) shall not pass away." There is clear
+reference here to absolute truths. If what we know of God, duty and
+life, is not capable of expression except in historic narrative and
+synthetic terms, the sooner we drop their consideration the better. That
+form sufficed for a time, but can no longer, when a higher is generally
+known. As the mathematical surpasses the historic truth, so the former
+is in turn transcended by the purely logical, and in this, if anywhere,
+religion must rest its claims for recognition. Here is the arena of the
+theology of the future, not in the decrees of councils, nor in the
+records of past time.
+
+Inspiration, in its religious sense, we may, therefore, define to be
+that condition of mind in which the truths relating to deity and duty
+become in whole or in part the subjects of immediate perception.
+
+That such a condition is possible will be granted. Every reformer who
+has made a permanent betterment in the religion of his time has
+possessed it in some degree. He who first conceived the Kosmos under
+logical unity as an orderly whole, had it in singular power; so too had
+he who looking into the mind became aware of its purposive laws which
+are the everlasting warrants of duty. Some nations have possessed it in
+remarkable fulness, none more so than the descendants of Abraham, from
+himself, who left his kindred and his father's house at the word of God,
+through many eminent seers down to Spinoza, who likewise forsook his
+tribe to obey the inspirations vouchsafed him; surpassing them all,
+Jesus of Nazareth, to whose mind, as he waxed in wisdom, the truth
+unfolded itself in such surpassing clearness that neither his immediate
+disciples nor any generations since have fathomed all the significance
+of his words.
+
+Such minds do not need development and organic transmission of thought
+to enrich their stores. We may suppose the organization of their brains
+to be so perfect that their functions are always accordant with true
+reasoning, so self-prompting, that a hint of the problem is all they ask
+to arrive at its demonstration. Blaise Pascal, when a boy of twelve,
+whose education had been carefully restrained, once asked his father
+what is geometry. The latter replied that it is a method devised to draw
+figures correctly, but forbade any further inquiry about it. On this
+hint Pascal, by himself, unassisted, without so much as knowing the name
+of a line or circle, reached in a few weeks to the demonstration of the
+thirty-second problem of the first book of Euclid! Is it not possible
+for a mind equally productive of religious truth to surpass with no less
+ease its age on such subjects?
+
+As what Newton so well called "patient thought," constant application,
+prolonged attention, is the means on which even great minds must rely in
+order to reach the sempiternal verities of science, so earnest continued
+prayer is that which all teachers prescribe as the only avenue to
+inspiration in its religious sense. While this may be conceded,
+collaterals of the prayer have too often been made to appear trivial and
+ridiculous.
+
+In the pursuit of inspiration the methods observed present an
+interesting similarity. The votary who aspires to a communion with the
+god, shuts himself out from the distraction of social intercourse and
+the disturbing allurements of the senses. In the solitude of the forest
+or the cell, with complete bodily inaction, he gives himself to fasting
+and devotion, to a concentration of all his mind on the one object of
+his wish, the expected revelation. Waking and sleeping he banishes all
+other topics of thought, perhaps by an incessant repetition of a
+formula, until at last the moment comes, as it surely will come in some
+access of hallucination, furor or ecstasy, the unfailing accompaniments
+of excessive mental strain, when the mist seems to roll away from the
+mortal vision, the inimical powers which darkened the mind are baffled,
+and the word of the Creator makes itself articulate to the creature.
+
+Take any connected account of the revelation of the divine will, and
+this history is substantially the same. It differs but little whether
+told of Buddha Sakyamuni, the royal seer of Kapilavastu, or by Catherine
+Wabose, the Chipeway squaw,[146-1] concerning the _Revelations_ of St.
+Gertrude of Nivelles or of Saint Brigida, or in the homely language of
+the cobbler George Fox.
+
+For six years did Sakyamuni wander in the forest, practising the
+mortifications of the flesh and combatting the temptations of the
+devil,before[TN-8] the final night when, after overcoming the crowning
+enticements of beauty, power and wealth, at a certain moment he became
+the "awakened," and knew himself in all his previous births, and with
+that knowledge soared above the "divine illusion" of existence. In the
+cave of Hari, Mohammed fasted and prayed until "the night of the divine
+decisions;" then he saw the angel Gabriel approach and inspire him:
+
+    "A revelation was revealed to him:
+    One terrible in power taught it him,
+    Endowed with wisdom. With firm step stood he,
+    There, where the horizon is highest,
+    Then came he near and nearer,
+    A matter of two bowshots or closer,
+    And he revealed to his servant a revelation;
+    He has falsified not what he saw."[147-1]
+
+With not dissimilar preparation did George Fox seek the "openings" which
+revealed to him the hollowness of the Christianity of his day, in
+contrast to the truth he found. In his _Journal_ he records that for
+months he "fasted much, walked around in solitary places, and sate in
+hollow trees and lonesome places, and frequently in the night walked
+mournfully about." When the word of truth came to him it was of a
+sudden, "through the immediate opening of the invisible spirit." Then a
+new life commenced for him: "Now was I come up in Spirit through the
+flaming sword into the Paradise of God. All things were new: all the
+creation gave another smell unto me than before." The healing virtues of
+all herbs were straightway made known to him, and the needful truths
+about the kingdom of God.[147-2]
+
+These are portraitures of the condition of _entheasm_. Its lineaments
+are the same, find it where we may.
+
+How is this similarity to be explained? Is it that this alleged
+inspiration is always but the dream of a half-crazed brain? The deep and
+real truths it has now and then revealed, the noble results it has
+occasionally achieved, do not allow this view. A more worthy explanation
+is at hand.
+
+These preliminaries of inspiration are in fact but a parody, sometimes a
+caricature, of the most intense intellectual action as shown in the
+efforts of creative thought. The physiological characteristics of such
+mental episodes indicate a lowering of the animal life, the respiration
+is faint and slow, the pulse loses in force and frequency, the nerves of
+special sense are almost inhibited, the eye is fixed and records no
+impression, the ear registers no sound, necessary motions are performed
+unconsciously, the condition approaches that of trance. There is also an
+alarming similarity at times between the action of genius and of
+madness, as is well known to alienists.
+
+When the creative thought appears, it does so suddenly; it breaks upon
+the mind when partly engaged with something else as an instantaneous
+flash, apparently out of connection with previous efforts. This is the
+history of all great discoveries, and it has been abundantly illustrated
+from the lives of inventors, artists, poets and mathematicians. The
+links of such a mental procedure we do not know. "The product of
+inspiration, genius, is incomprehensible to itself. Its activity
+proceeds on no beaten track, and we seek in vain to trace its footsteps.
+There is no warrant for the value of its efforts. This it can alone
+secure through voluntary submission to law. All its powers are centred
+in the energy of production, and none is left for idle watching of the
+process."[149-1]
+
+The prevalent theory of the day is that this mental action is one
+essentially hidden from the mind itself. The name "unconscious
+cerebration" has been proposed for it by Dr. Carpenter, and he has amply
+and ably illustrated its peculiarities. But his theory has encountered
+just criticism, and I am persuaded does not meet the requirements of the
+case. Whether at such moments the mind actually receives some impulse
+from without, as is the religious theory, or, as science more willingly
+teaches, certain associations are more easily achieved when the mind is
+partially engaged with other trains of ideas, we cannot be sure. We can
+only say of it, in the words of Dr. Henry Maudsley, the result "is truly
+an inspiration, coming we know not whence." Whatever it is, we recognize
+in it the original of that of which religious hallucination is the
+counterfeit presentment. So similar are the processes that their
+liability to be confounded has been expressly guarded against.[150-1]
+
+The prevalence of such caricatures does not prove the absence of the
+sterling article. They rather show that the mind is conscious of the
+possibility of reaching a frame or mood in which it perceives what it
+seeks, immediately and correctly. Buddhism distinctly asserts this to be
+the condition of "the stage of intuitive insight;" and Protestant
+Christianity commenced with the same opinion. Every prayer for guidance
+in the path of duty assumes it. The error is in applying such a method
+where it is incompatible, to facts of history and the phenomena of
+physical force. Confined to the realm of ideas, to which alone the norm
+of the true and untrue is applicable, there is no valid evidence
+against, and many theoretical reasons for, respecting prayer as a fit
+psychological preparation for those obscure and unconscious processes,
+through which the mind accomplishes its best work.
+
+The intellect, exalted by dwelling upon the sublimest subjects of
+thought, warmed into highest activity by the flames of devotion,
+spurning as sterile and vain the offers of time and the enticements of
+sense, may certainly be then in the mood fittest to achieve its greatest
+victories. But no narrowed heaven must cloud it, no man-made god
+obstruct its gaze. Free from superstition and prejudice, it must be
+ready to follow wherever the voice of reason shall lead it. All inspired
+men have commenced by freeing themselves from inherited forms of Belief
+in order that with undiverted attention they might listen to the
+promptings of the divinity within their souls. One of the greatest of
+them and one the most free from the charge of prejudice, has said that
+to this end prayer is the means.[151-1]
+
+He who believes that the ultimate truth is commensurate with reason,
+finds no stumbling-block in the doctrine that there may be laws through
+whose action inspiration is the enlightenment of mind as it exists in
+man, by mind as it underlies the motions which make up matter. The truth
+thus reached is not the formulae of the Calculus, nor the verbiage of the
+Dialectic, still less the events of history, but that which gives what
+validity they have to all of these, and moreover imparts to the will and
+the conscience their power to govern conduct.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[119-1] The "silent worship" of the Quakers is defended by the writers
+of that sect, on the ground that prayer is "often very imperfectly
+performed and sometimes materially interrupted by the use of words."
+Joseph John Gurney, _The Distinguishing Views and Practice of the
+Society of Friends_, p. 300. (London, 1834.)
+
+[119-2] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Voelker_, Bd. I., s.
+162.
+
+[119-3] The learned Bishop Butler, author of the _Analogy of Religion_,
+justly gives prominence to "our expectation of future benefits," as a
+reason for gratitude to God. _Sermons_, p. 155. (London, 1841.)
+
+[122-1] The expressions of Confucius' religious views may be found in
+_The Doctrine of the Mean_, chaps. xiii., xvi., the _Analects_, i., 99,
+100, vii., and in a few other passages of the canonical books.
+
+[126-1] _An Inquiry into the Theory of Practice_, p. 330.
+
+[127-1] _Symbolik und Mythologie der Alten Voelker._ Bd. I., ss. 165,
+sqq. One of the most favorable examples (not mentioned by Creuzer) is
+the formula with which Apollonius of Tyana closed every prayer and gave
+as the summary of all: "Give me, ye Gods, what I deserve"--~Doiete moi
+ta opheilomena~. The Christian's comment on this would be in the words
+of Hamlet's reply to Polonius: "God's bodkin, man! use every man after
+his desert and who should 'scape whipping?"
+
+[128-1] Aurelii Augustini, _De Dono Perseverantiae_, cap. xx. Comte
+remarks "Depuis St. Augustin toutes les ames pures ont de plus en plus
+senti, a travers l'egoisme Chretien, que prier peut n'etre pas
+demander." _Systeme de Politique Positive_, I., p. 260. Popular
+Protestantism has retrograded in this respect.
+
+[129-1] Plath, _Die Religion und Cultus der alten Chineser_, s. 836.
+This author observes that the Chinese prayers are confined to temporal
+benefits only, and are all either prayers of petition or gratitude.
+Prayers of contrition are unknown.
+
+[130-1] Numerous examples can be found in medical text books, for
+instance in Dr. Tuke's, _The Influence of the Mind on the Body_. London,
+1873.
+
+[131-1] The commission appointed by the Royal Academy of Medicine of
+Belgium on Louise Lateau reported in March, 1875, and most of the
+medical periodicals of that year contain abstracts of its paper.
+
+[131-2] They may be found in the life of Pascal, written by his sister,
+and in many other works of the time.
+
+[131-3] It is worthy of note, as an exponent of the condition of
+religious thought in 1875, that in May of that year the Governor of the
+State of Missouri appointed by official proclamation a day of prayer to
+check the advance of the grasshoppers. He should also have requested the
+clergy to pronounce the ban of the Church against them, as the Bishop of
+Rheims did in the ninth century.
+
+[132-1] Tyndall, _On Prayer and Natural Law_, 1872.
+
+[134-1] S. M. Hodgson, _An Inquiry into the Theory of Practice_, pp.
+329, 330.
+
+[135-1] The Rev. Dr. Thomas K. Conrad, _Thoughts on Prayer_, p. 54: New
+York, 1875.
+
+[135-2] I. John, v. 15. "There are millions of prayers," says Richard
+Baxter, "that will all be found answered at death and judgment, which we
+know not to be answered any way but by believing it." _A Christian
+Directory_, Part II. chap. xxiii.
+
+[137-1] "So wie das Gebet ein Hauptwurzel alter Lehre war, so war das
+Deuten und Offenbaren ihre urspruengliche Form." Creuzer, _Symbolik und
+Mythologie der alten Voelker_, Bd. I., s. 10. It were more accurate to
+say that divination is the answer to, rather than a form of prayer.
+
+[138-1] Joseph John Gurney, _The Distinguishing Views and Practices of
+the Society of Friends_, pp. 58, 59, 76, 78. An easy consequence of this
+view was to place the decrees of the internal monitor above the written
+word. This was advocated mainly by Elias Hicks, who expressed his
+doctrine in the words: "As no spring can rise higher than its fountain,
+so likewise the Scriptures can only direct to the fountain whence they
+originated--the Spirit of Truth." _Letters of Elias Hicks_, p. 228
+(Phila., 1861).
+
+[139-1] _Address to the Clergy_, p. 67.
+
+[140-1] See an intelligent note on this subject in the Rev. Wm. Lee's
+work, entitled _The Inspiration of the Holy Scriptures_, pp. 44, 47
+(London and New York, 1857).
+
+[140-2] Rev. William Lee, _u. s._, p. 243.
+
+[141-1] Blunt, _Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology_, s. v.
+
+[141-2] There is a carefully written essay on the views of the Romish
+Church on this subject, preceding _The Revelations of Saint Brigida_ (N.
+Y. 1875).
+
+[146-1] Chusco or Catherine Wabose, "the prophetess of Chegoimegon," has
+left a full and psychologically most valuable account of her
+inspiration. It is published in Schoolcraft's _History and Statistics of
+the Indian Tribes_, Vol. I., p. 390, sqq.
+
+[147-1] _The Koran_, Sura liii. This is in date one of the earliest
+suras.
+
+[147-2] _The Journal of George Fox_, pp. 59, 67, 69.
+
+[149-1] Wilhelm von Humboldt, _Gesammelte Werke_, Bd. iv., s. 278.
+
+[150-1] In his treatise _De Veritate_, itself the subject, as its author
+thought, of a special revelation, Lord Herbert of Cherbury, gives as one
+of the earmarks of a real revelation: "ut afflatum Divini numinis
+sentias, ita enim internae Facultatum circa veritatem operationes a
+revelationibus externis distinguuntur." p. 226.
+
+[151-1] Spinoza, _Espistolae et Responsionnes_, Ep. xxxiv.
+
+
+
+
+THE MYTH AND THE MYTHICAL CYCLES.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     Myths are inspirations concerning the Unknown. Science treats them
+     as apperceptions of the relations of man and nature. Moments of
+     their growth, as treated by mythological science. Their similar
+     forms, explained variously, the topic of the philosophy of
+     mythology. The ante-mythical period. Myths have centred chiefly
+     around three subjects, each giving rise to a Mythical Cycle.
+
+     I. The Epochs of Nature.
+
+     The idea of Time led to the myth of a creation. This starting the
+     question, What was going on before creation? recourse was had to
+     the myth of recurrent epochs. The last epoch gave origin to the
+     Flood Myths; the coming one to that of the Day of Judgment.
+
+     II. The Paradise lost and to be re-gained.
+
+     To man, the past and the future are ever better than the present.
+     He imagines a Golden Age in the past and believes it will return.
+     The material Paradise he dreams of in his ruder conditions, becomes
+     a spiritual one with intellectual advancement. The basis of this
+     belief.
+
+     III. The Hierarchy of the Gods.
+
+     The earliest hierarchy is a dual classification of the gods into
+     those who help and those who hinder the fruition of desire. Light
+     and darkness typify the contrast. Divinity thus conceived under
+     numerical separateness. Monotheisms do not escape this. The triune
+     nature of single gods. The truly religious and only philosophic
+     notion of divinity is under logical, not mathematical unity. This
+     discards mythical conceptions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V.
+
+THE MYTH AND THE MYTHICAL CYCLES.
+
+
+Returning again to the definition of the elemental religious
+sentiment--"a Wish whose fruition depends upon unknown power"--it
+enables us to class all those notions, opinions and narratives, which
+constitute mythologies, creeds and dogmas, as theories respecting the
+nature and action of the unknown power. Of course they are not
+recognized as theories. They arise unconsciously or are received by
+tradition, oral or written, and always come with the stamp of divinity
+through inspiration and revelation. None but a god can tell the secrets
+of the gods.
+
+Therefore they are the most sacred of all things, and they partake of
+the holiness and immutability which belong to the unknown power itself.
+To misplace a vowel point in copying the sacred books was esteemed a sin
+by the Rabbis, and a pious Mussulman will not employ the same pen to
+copy a verse of the Koran and an ordinary letter. There are many
+Christians who suppose the saying: "Heaven and earth shall pass away,
+but My Words shall not pass away," has reference to the words of the Old
+and New Testament. "What shall remain to us," asked Ananda, the disciple
+of Buddha, "when thou shalt have gone hence into Nirvana?" "My Word
+(_dharma_)," replied the Master. Names thus came to be as holy as the
+objects to which they referred. So sacred was that of Jehovah to the
+Israelites that its original sound was finally lost. Such views are
+consistent enough to the Buddhist, who, assuming all existence to be but
+imaginary, justly infers that the name is full as much as the object.
+
+The science of mythology has made long strides in the last half century.
+It has left far behind it the old euphemeristic view that the myth is a
+distorted historical tradition, as well as the theories not long since
+in vogue, that it was a system of natural philosophy, a device of shrewd
+rulers, or as Bacon thought, a series of "instructive fables." The
+primitive form of the myth is now recognized to be made up from the
+notions which man gains of the manifestations of force in external
+nature, in their supposed relations to himself. In technical language it
+may be defined as _the apperception of man and nature under synthetic
+conceptions_.[156-1]
+
+This primitive form undergoes numerous changes, to trace and illustrate
+which, has been the special task assumed by the many recent writers on
+mythology. In some instances these changes are owing to the blending of
+the myth with traditions of facts, forming a quasi-historical narrative,
+the _saga;_ in others, elaborated by a poetic fancy and enriched by the
+imagination, it becomes a fairy tale, the _maerchen_. Again, the myth
+being a product of creative thought, existing in words only, as language
+changes, it alters through forgetfulness of the earlier meanings of
+words, through similarities in sounds deceiving the ear, or through a
+confusion of the literal with the metaphorical signification of the same
+word. The character of languages also favors or retards such changes,
+pliable and easily modified ones, such as those of the American Indians,
+and in a less degree those of the Aryan nations, favoring a developed
+mythology, while rigid and monosyllabic ones, as the Chinese and Semitic
+types, offer fewer facilities to such variations. Furthermore, tribal or
+national history, the peculiar difficulties which retard the growth of
+a community, and the geographical and climatic character of its
+surroundings, give prominence to certain features in its mythology, and
+to the absence of others. Myths originally diverse are blended, either
+unconsciously, as that of the Roman Saturn with the Greek Cronus; or
+consciously, as when the medieval missionaries transferred the deeds of
+the German gods to Christian saints. Lastly, the prevailing temperament
+of a nation, its psychology, gives a strong color to its mythical
+conceptions, and imprints upon them the national peculiarities.
+
+The judicious student of mythology must carefully weigh all these
+formative agents, and assign each its value. They are all present in
+every mythology, but in varying force. His object is accomplished when
+he can point out the causal relation between the various features of a
+myth and these governing agencies.
+
+Such is the science of mythology. The philosophy of mythology undertakes
+to set forth the unities of form which exist in various myths, and
+putting aside whatever of this uniformity is explainable historically,
+proposes to illustrate from what remains the intellectual need myths
+were unconsciously framed to gratify, to measure their success in this
+attempt, and if they have not been wholly successful, to point out why
+and in what respect they have failed. In a study preliminary to the
+present one, I have attempted to apply the rules of mythological science
+to the limited area of the native American race; in the present chapter
+I shall deal mainly with the philosophy of mythology.
+
+The objection may be urged at starting that there is no such unity of
+form in myths as the philosophy of mythology assumes; that if it
+appears, it is always explainable historically.
+
+A little investigation sets this objection aside. Certain features must
+be common to all myths. A divinity must appear in them and his doings
+with men must be recorded. A reasonable being can hardly think at all
+without asking himself, "Whence come I, my fellows, and these things
+which I see? And what will become of us all?" So some myth is sure to be
+created at an early stage of thought which the parent can tell the
+child, the wise man his disciple, containing responses to such
+questions.
+
+But this reasoning from probability is needless, for the similarity of
+mythical tales in very distant nations, where no hypothesis of ancient
+intercourse is justified, is one of the best ascertained and most
+striking discoveries of modern mythological investigation.[159-1] The
+general character of "solar myths" is familiar to most readers, and the
+persistency with which they have been applied to the explanation of
+generally received historical facts, as well as to the familiar fairy
+tales of childhood, has been pushed so far as to become the subject of
+satire and caricature. The myths of the Dawn have been so frequently
+brought to public notice in the popular writings of Professor Max
+Mueller, that their general distribution may be taken as well known. The
+same may be said of the storm myths. Wilhelm von Humboldt, who thought
+deeply on the religious nature of man, said early in this century:
+"Wholly similar myths can very readily arise in different localities,
+each independent of the others."[160-1]
+
+This similarity is in a measure owing to the similar impressions which
+the same phenomenon, the sunrise or the thunder-storm for instance,
+makes on the mind--and to this extent the science of mythology is
+adequate to its explanation. But that it falls short is so generally
+acknowledged, that various other explanations have been offered.
+
+These may be classed as the skeptical explanation, which claims that the
+likeness of the myths is vastly exaggerated and much more the work of
+the scholar at his desk than of the honest worshipper; the historical
+explanation, which suggests unrecorded proselytisms, forgotten
+communications and the possible original unity of widely separated
+nations; the theological explanations, often discrepant, one suggesting
+caricatures of the sacred narrative inspired by the Devil, another
+reminiscences of a primeval inspiration, and a third the unconscious
+testimony of heathendom to orthodoxy;[161-1] and lastly the metaphysical
+explanation, which seems at present to be the fashionable one, expressed
+nearly alike by Steinthal and Max Mueller, which cuts the knot by
+crediting man with "an innate consciousness of the Absolute," or as
+Renan puts it, "a profound instinct of deity."
+
+The philosophy of mythology, differing from all these, finding beyond
+question similarities which history cannot unriddle, interprets them by
+no incomprehensible assumption, but by the identity of the laws of
+thought acting on similar impressions under the guidance of known
+categories of thought. Nor does it stop here, but proceeds to appraise
+these results by the general scheme of truth and error. It asks for
+what psychological purpose man has so universally imagined for himself
+gods--pure creations of his fancy;--whether that purpose can now or will
+ultimately be better attained by an exercise of his intellect more in
+accordance with the laws of right reasoning; and thus seeking to define
+the genuine food of the religious desire, estimates the quality and
+value of each mythological system by the nearness of its approach to
+this standard.
+
+The philosophy of mythology, starting with the wish or prayer as the
+unit of religious thought, regards all myths as theories about the
+unknown power which is supposed to grant or withhold the accomplishment
+of the wish. These theories are all based upon the postulate of the
+religious sentiment, that there is order in things; but they differ from
+scientific theories in recognizing volition as an efficient cause of
+order.
+
+The very earliest efforts at religious thought do not rise to the
+formation of myths, that is, connected narratives about supernatural
+beings. All unknown power is embraced under a word which does not convey
+the notion of personality; single exhibitions of power which threaten
+man's life are supposed to be the doings of an unseen person, often of a
+deceased man, whose memory survives; but any general theory of a
+hierarchy, or of the world or man, is not yet visible. Even such
+immature notions are, however, so far as they go, framed within the
+category of causality; only, the will of the god takes the place of all
+other force. This stage of religious thought has been called Animism, a
+name which does not express its peculiarity, which is, that all force is
+not only supposed to proceed from mind, but through what metaphysicians
+call "immanent volition," that is, through will independent of relation.
+Mind as "emanant volition," in unison with matter and law, the "seat of
+law," to use an expression of Professor Boole's, may prove the highest
+conception of force.
+
+As the slowly growing reason reached more general notions, the law which
+prescribes unity as a condition of thought led man early in his history
+to look upon nature as one, and to seek for some one law of its changes;
+the experience of social order impressed him with the belief that the
+unseen agencies around him also bore relations to each other, and
+acknowledged subjection to a leader; and the pangs of sickness, hunger
+and terror to which he was daily exposed, and more than all the "last
+and greatest of all terribles, death," which he so often witnessed,
+turned his early meditations toward his own origin and destiny.
+
+Around these three subjects of thought his fancy busied itself, striving
+to fabricate some theory which would solve the enigmas which his reason
+everywhere met, some belief which would relieve him from the haunting
+horror of the unknown. Hence arose three great cycles of myths, which
+recur with strangely similar physiognomies in all continents and among
+all races. They are the myths of the Epochs of Nature, the Hierarchy of
+the Gods, and of the Paradise lost but to be regained. Wherever we turn,
+whether to the Assyrian tablets or to the verses of the Voluspa, to the
+crude fancies of the red man of the new world or the black man of the
+African plateau, to the sacred books of the modern Christian or of the
+ancient Brahman, we find these same questions occupying his mind, and in
+meaning and in form the same solutions proffered. Through what
+intellectual operations he reached these solutions, and their validity,
+as tested by the known criteria of truth, it is the province of the
+philosophy of mythology to determine.
+
+Let us study the psychological growth of the myth of the Epochs of
+Nature. This tells of the World, its beginning, its convulsions and its
+ending, and thus embraces the three minor cycles of the cosmogonical,
+the cataclysmal and the eschatological myths.
+
+Nature is known to man only as _force_, which manifests itself in
+_change_. He is so constituted that "the idea of an event, a change,
+without the idea of a cause, is impossible" to him. But in passing from
+the occurrence to its cause the idea of Time is unavoidable; it presents
+itself as the one inevitable condition of change; itself unwearing, it
+wears out all else; it includes all existence, as the greater does the
+less; and as "causation is necessarily within existence,"[165-1] time is
+beyond existence and includes the nonexistent as well. Whatever it
+creates, it also destroys; and as even the gods are but existences, it
+will swallow them. It renders vain all pleasures, and carries the balm
+of a certain oblivion for all woes.
+
+This oppressive sense of time, regarded not in its real meaning as one
+of the conditions of perception, but as an active force destroying
+thought as well as motion, recurs continually in mythology. To the
+Greek, indefinite time as Cronos, was the oldest of the gods, begetting
+numberless children, but with unnatural act consuming them again; while
+definite time, as the Horae, were the blithe goddesses of the order in
+nature and the recurrent seasons. Osiris, supreme god of the Egyptians,
+was born of a yet older god, Sev, Time. Adonis and Aeon acknowledge the
+same parentage.[165-2] The ancient Arab spoke of time (_dahr_, _zaman_)
+as the final, defining principle; as uniting and separating all things;
+and as swallowing one thing after another as the camel drains the water
+from a trough.[166-1] In the Koran it is written: "Time alone destroys
+us." Here and there, through the sacred songs of the Parsees, composed
+long before Aristotle wrote, beyond all the dust and noise of the
+everlasting conflict of good and evil, of Ahura Mazda and Anya-Mainyus,
+there are glimpses of a deeper power, Zeruana Akerana, Eternal Duration,
+unmoved by act or thought, in the face of which these bitter opponents
+are seen to be children, brethren, "twin sons of Time."[166-2] The
+Alexandrian Gnostics, in their explanations of Christian dogmas,
+identify Aeon, infinite time, with God the Father, as the source and
+fount of existence; not merely as a predicate of the highest, but the
+Highest himself.
+
+This heavy-weighing sense of the infinity of duration, and the urgency
+of escaping from the weariness of thinking it, led to the construction
+of the myth of the Creation. Man devised it so that he might be able to
+say, "in the beginning." But a new difficulty met him at the
+threshold--as change must be in existence, "we cannot think of a change
+from non-existence to existence." His only refuge was to select some
+apparently primordial, simple, homogeneous substance from which, by the
+exertion of volition, things came into being. The one which most
+naturally suggested itself was _water_.[167-1] This does in fact cover
+and hide the land, and the act of creation was often described as the
+emerging of the dry land from the water; it dissolves and wears away the
+hard rock; and, diminishing all things, itself neither diminishes nor
+increases. Therefore nearly all cosmogonical myths are but variations of
+that one familiar to us all: "And God said, Let the waters under the
+heaven be gathered together in one place, and let the dry land appear;
+and it was so." The manifestation of the primordial energy was supposed
+to have been akin to that which is shown in organic reproduction. The
+myths of the primeval egg from which life proceeded, of the mighty bird
+typical of the Holy Spirit which "brooded" upon the waters, of Love
+developing the Kosmos from the Chaos, of the bull bringing the world
+from the waters, of Protogonus, the "egg-born," the "multispermed," and
+countless others, point to the application of one or the other, or of
+both these explanations.[167-2]
+
+In them the early thinkers found some rest: but not for long. The
+perplexity of the presence of this immediate order of things seemed
+solved; but another kept obtruding itself: what was going on before that
+"beginning?" Vain to stifle the inquiry by replying, "nothing."[168-1]
+For time, which knows no beginning, was there, still building, still
+destroying; nothing can be put to it, nor anything taken from it. What
+then is left but the conclusion of the Preacher: "That which hath been,
+is now; and that which is to be, hath already been?" Regarding time as a
+form of force, the only possible history of the material universe is
+that it is a series of destructions and restorations, force latent
+evolving into force active or energy, and this dissipated and absorbed
+again into latency.
+
+Expressed in myths, these destructions and restorations are the Epochs
+of Nature. They are an essential part of the religious traditions of the
+Brahmans, Persians, Parsees, Greeks, Egyptians, Jews, Mexicans, Mayas,
+and of all nations who have reached a certain stage of culture. The
+length of the intervening periods may widely differ. The kalpa or great
+year of the Brahmans is so long that were a cube of granite a hundred
+yards each way brushed once in a century by a soft cloth, it would be
+quite worn to dust before the kalpa would close: or, as some Christians
+believe, there may be but six thousand years, six days of God in whose
+sight "a thousand years are as one day," between the creation and the
+cremation of the world, from when it rose from the waters until it shall
+be consumed by the fire.
+
+There were also various views about the agents and the completeness of
+these periodical destructions. In the Norse mythology and in the
+doctrine of Buddhism, not one of the gods can survive the fire of the
+last day. Among the Greeks, great Jove alone will await the appearance
+of the virgin world after the icy winter and the fiery summer of the
+Great Year. The Brahmans hold that the higher classes of gods outlive
+the wreck of things which, at the close of the day of Brahm, involves
+all men and many divinities in elemental chaos; while elsewhere, in the
+later Puranas and in the myths of Mexico, Peru, and Assyria, one or a
+few of the race of man escape a deluge which is universal, and serve to
+people the new-made earth. This latter supposition, in its application
+to the last epoch of nature, is the origin of the myth of the Flood.
+
+In its general features and even in many details, the story of a vast
+overflow which drowned the world, and from which by the timely succor
+of divinity some man was preserved, and after the waters had subsided
+became the progenitor of the race, is exceedingly common among distant
+tribes, where it is impossible to explain it as a reminiscence of a
+historic occurrence, or by community of religious doctrine. In Judea
+Noah, in India Manu, in Chaldea Xisuthrus, in Assyria Oannes, in Aztlan
+Nata, in Algonkin tradition Messou, in Brazil Monan, etc., are all
+heroes of similar alleged occurrences. In all of them the story is but a
+modification of that of the creation in time from the primeval
+waters.[170-1]
+
+"As it was once, so it shall be again," and as the present age of the
+world wears out, the myth teaches that things will once more fall back
+to universal chaos. "The expectation of the end of the world is a
+natural complement to the belief in its periodical destructions." It is
+taught with distinctness by all religious systems, by the prophetess in
+the Voluspa, by the Hebrew seers,[171-1] by the writer of the
+Apocalypse, by the Eastern sages, Persian and Indian, by the Roman
+Sibyl, and among the savage and semi-civilized races of the New World.
+
+Often that looked for destruction was associated with the divine plans
+for man. This was an addition to the simplicity of the original myth,
+but an easy and a popular one. The Indian of our prairies still looks
+forward to the time when the rivers shall rise, and submerging the land
+sweep from its surface the pale-faced intruders, and restore it to its
+original owners. Impatient under the ceaseless disappointments of life,
+and worn out with the pains which seem inseparable from this condition
+of things, the believer gives up his hopes for this world, and losing
+his faith in the final conquest of the good, thinks it only attainable
+by the total annihilation of the present conditions. He looks for it,
+therefore, in the next great age, in the new heaven and the new earth,
+when the spirit of evil shall be bound and shut up, and the chosen
+people possess the land, "and grow up as calves of the stall."[172-1]
+
+This is to be inaugurated by the Day of Judgment, "the day of wrath, the
+dreadful day," in which God is to come in his power and pronounce his
+final decrees on those who have neglected the observance due him. The
+myth, originally one relating to the procession of natural forces, thus
+assumed with the increasing depth of the religious sentiment more and
+more a moral and subjective coloring, until finally its old and simple
+form was altogether discarded, or treated as symbolic only.
+
+The myth of the Epochs of Nature was at first a theory to account for
+the existing order of nature. For a long time it satisfied the inquiring
+mind, if not with a solution at least with an answer to its queries.
+After geologic science had learned to decipher the facts of the world's
+growth as written on the stones which orb it, the religious mind fondly
+identified the upheavals and cataclysms there recorded with those which
+its own fancy had long since fabricated. The stars and suns, which the
+old seer thought would fall from heaven in the day of wrath, were seen
+to be involved in motions far beyond the pale of man's welfare, and,
+therefore, the millennial change was confined to the limits of our
+planet. Losing more and more of its original form as an attempted
+explanation of natural phenomena, the myth now exists in civilized
+nations as an allegorical type of man's own history and destiny, and
+thus is slowly merging into an episode of the second great cycle of the
+mythus, that of the Paradise lost and regained. It, too, finds its
+interpretation in psychology.
+
+Broadly surveying the life of man, philosophers have found in it much
+matter fit either for mockery or tears. We are born with a thirst for
+pleasure; we learn that pain alone is felt. We ask health; and having
+it, never notice it till it is gone. In the ardent pursuit of enjoyment,
+we waste our capacity of appreciation. Every sweet we gain is sauced
+with a bitter. Our eyes forever bent on the future, which can never be
+ours, we fritter away the present, which alone we possess. Ere we have
+got ourselves ready to live, we must die. Fooling ourselves even here,
+we represent death as the portal to joy unspeakable; and forthwith
+discredit our words by avoiding it in every possible way.
+
+Pitiable spectacle of weakness and folly, is it capable of any
+explanation which can redeem man from the imputation of unreason? Is
+Wisdom even here justified of her children by some deeper law of being?
+
+The theologian explains it as the unrest of the soul penned in its house
+of clay; the physiologist attributes it to the unceasing effort of
+organic functions to adapt themselves to ever varying external
+conditions. They are both right, for the theologian, were his words
+translated into the language of science, refers to the _effort to adapt
+condition to function_, which is the peculiar faculty of intelligence,
+and which alone renders man unable to accept the comfort of merely
+animal existence, an inability which he need never expect to outlive,
+for it will increase in exact proportion to his mental development.
+Action, not rest, as I have elsewhere said, must be his ideal of life.
+
+In even his lowest levels man experiences this dissatisfaction. It may
+there be confined to a pain he would be free from, or a pleasure he
+dreams of. Always the future charms him, and as advancing years increase
+the number of his disappointments and bring with them the pains of
+decrepitude, he also recurs to the past, when youth was his, and the
+world was bright and gay. Thus it comes that most nations speak of some
+earlier period of their history as one characterized by purer public
+virtues than the present, one when the fires of patriotism burned
+brighter and social harmony was more conspicuous. In rude stages of
+society this fancy receives real credit and ranks as a veritable record
+of the past, forming a Golden Age or Saturnian Era. Turned in the
+kaleidoscope of the mythus, it assumes yet more gorgeous hues, and
+becomes a state of pure felicity, an Eden or a Paradise, wherein man
+dwelt in joy, and from which he wandered or was driven in the old days.
+
+It is almost needless to quote examples to show the wide distribution of
+this myth. The first pages of the Vendidad describe the reign of Yima in
+"the garden of delight," where "there was no cold wind nor violent heat,
+no disease and no death." The northern Buddhist tells of "the land of
+joy," Sukhavati, in the far west, where ruled Amitabha, "infinite
+Light."[175-1] The Edda wistfully recalls the pleasant days of good King
+Gudmund who once held sway in Odainsakr, where death came not.[175-2]
+Persian story has glad reminiscences of the seven hundred years that
+Jemschid sat on the throne of Iran, when peace and plenty were in the
+land.
+
+The garden "eastward in Eden" of the Pentateuch, the land of Tulan or
+Tlapallan in Aztec myth, the islands of the Hesperides, the rose garden
+of Feridun, and a score of other legends attest with what strong
+yearning man seeks in the past the picture of that perfect felicity
+which the present never yields.
+
+Nor can he be persuaded that the golden age has gone, no more to return.
+In all conditions of progress, and especially where the load of the
+present was the most wearying, has he counted on a restoration to that
+past felicity. The paradise lost is to be regained. How it is to be done
+the sages are not agreed. But they of old were unanimous that some
+divinity must lend his aid, that some god-sent guide is needed to rescue
+man from the slough of wretchedness in which he hopelessly struggles.
+
+Therefore in the new world the red men looked for the ruler who had
+governed their happy forefathers in the golden age, and who had not died
+but withdrawn mysteriously from view, to return to them, protect them,
+and insure them long bliss and ease. The ancient Persians expected as
+much from the coming of Craoshanc; the Thibetan Buddhists look to the
+advent of a Buddha 5000 years after Sakyamuni, one whose fortunate names
+are Maitreya, the Loving one, and Adjita, the Unconquerable;[176-1] and
+even the practical Roman, as we learn from Virgil, was not a stranger to
+this dream. Very many nations felt it quite as strongly as the
+Israelites, who from early time awaited a mighty king, the Messiah, the
+Anointed, of whom the Targums say: "In his days shall peace be
+multiplied;" "He shall execute the judgment of truth and justice on the
+earth;" "He shall rule over all kingdoms."
+
+The early forms of this conception, such as here referred to, looked
+forward to an earthly kingdom, identified with that of the past when
+this was vigorous in the national mythology. Material success and the
+utmost physical comfort were to characterize it. It was usually to be a
+national apotheosis, and was not generally supposed to include the human
+race, though traces of this wider view might easily be quoted from
+Avestan, Roman, and Israelitic sources. Those who were to enjoy it were
+not the dead, but those who shall be living.
+
+As the myth grew, it coalesced with that of the Epochs of Nature, and
+assumed grander proportions. The deliverer was to come at the close of
+this epoch, at the end of the world; he was to embrace the whole human
+kind in his kingdom; even those who died before his coming, if they had
+obeyed his mandates, should rise to join the happy throng; instead of a
+mere earthly king, he should be a supernatural visitant, even God
+himself; and instead of temporal pleasures only, others of a spiritual
+character were to be conferred. There are reasons to believe that even
+in this developed form the myth was familiar to the most enlightened
+worshippers of ancient Egypt; but it was not till some time after the
+doctrines of Christianity had been cast into mythical moulds by the
+oriental fancy, that it was introduced in its completed form to modern
+thought. Although expressly repudiated by Jesus of Nazareth himself, and
+applied in maxim and parable as a universal symbol of intelligence to
+the religious growth of the individual and race, his followers reverted
+to the coarser and literal meaning, and ever since teach to a greater or
+less extent the chiliastic or millennial dogma, often mathematically
+computing, in direct defiance of his words, the exact date that event is
+to be expected.
+
+If we ask the psychological construction of this myth, and the ever
+present conditions of man's life which have rendered him always ready to
+create it and loath to renounce it, we trace the former distinctly to
+his sense of the purposive nature of the laws of thought, and the latter
+to the wide difference between desire and fulfilment. His intellectual
+nature is framed to accord with laws which are ever present but are not
+authoritative; they admonish but they do not coerce; _that_ is done
+surely though oft remotely by the consequences of their violation. At
+first, unaware of the true character of these laws, he fancies that if
+he were altogether comfortable physically, his every wish would be
+gratified. Slowly it dawns upon him that no material gratification can
+supply an intellectual craving; that this is the real want which haunts
+him; and that its only satisfaction is _to think rightly_, to learn the
+truth. Then he sees that the millennial kingdom is "not of this world;"
+that heaven and earth may pass away, but that such truth as he seeks
+cannot pass away; and that his first and only care should be as a
+faithful and wise servant to learn and revere it.
+
+The sentiments which created this mythical cycle, based as they are now
+seen to be on ultimate psychological laws, are as active to-day as ever.
+This century has witnessed the rise of a school of powerful thinkers and
+true philanthropists who maintained that the noblest object is the
+securing to our fellow-men the greatest material comfort possible; that
+the religious aspirations will do well to content themselves with this
+gospel of humanity; and that the approach of the material millennium,
+the perfectibility of the human race, the complete adaptation of
+function to condition, the "distant but not uncertain final victory of
+Good,"[179-1] is susceptible of demonstration. At present, these views
+are undergoing modification. It is perceived with more or less
+distinctness that complete physical comfort is not enough to make a man
+happy; that in proportion as this comfort is attained new wants develope
+themselves, quite as importunate, which ask what material comfort
+cannot give, and whose demand is neither for utility nor pleasurable
+sensation. Such wants are created by the sense of duty and the love of
+truth.
+
+The main difference between the latest exponents of the utilitarian
+doctrines and the heralds of distinctively religious thought, is that
+the former consider that it is most important in the present condition
+of man for him to look after his material welfare; while the latter
+teach that if he first subject thought and life to truth and duty, "all
+these things will be added unto him." Wordsworth has cast this latter
+opinion, and the myths which are its types, into eloquent verse:
+
+                        "Paradise and groves
+    Elysian, Fortunate Fields--like those of old
+    Sought in the Atlantic main, why should they be
+    A history only of departed things,
+    Or a mere fiction of what never was?
+    For the discerning intellect of man,
+    When wedded to this goodly universe
+    In love and holy passion, shall find these
+    A simple produce of the common day."
+
+The incredulity and even derision with which the latter doctrine is
+received by "practical men," should not affright the collected thinker,
+as it certainly is not so chimerical as they pretend. The writer De
+Senancourt, not at all of a religious turn, in speculating on the
+shortest possible road to general happiness, concluded that if we were
+able to foretell the weather a reasonable time ahead, and if men would
+make it a rule to speak the truth as near as they can, these two
+conditions would remove nine-tenths of the misery in the world. The
+more carefully I meditate on this speculation, the better grounded it
+seems. The weather we are learning to know much more about than when the
+solitary Obermann penned his despondent dreams; but who shall predict
+the time when men will tell the truth?
+
+I now pass to the third great mythical cyclus, which I have called that
+of the Hierarchy of the Gods. This was created in order to define that
+unknown power which was supposed to give to the wish frustration or
+fruition. It includes every statement in reference to the number,
+nature, history and character of supernatural beings.
+
+The precise form under which the intellect, when the religious
+conception of unknown power first dawns upon it, imagines this unknown,
+is uncertain. Some have maintained that the earliest religions are
+animal worships, others that the spirits of ancestors or chiefs are the
+primitive gods. Local divinities and personal spirits are found in the
+rudest culture, while simple fetichism, or the vague shapes presented by
+dreams, play a large part in the most inchoate systems. The prominence
+of one or the other of these elements depends upon local and national
+momenta, which are a proper study for the science of mythology, but need
+not detain us here. The underlying principle in all these conceptions of
+divinity is that of the _res per accidens_, an accidental relation of
+the thought to the symbol, not a general or necessary one. This is seen
+in the nature of these primitive gods. They have no decided character as
+propitious or the reverse other than the objects they typify, but are
+supposed to send bad or good fortune as they happen to be pleased or
+displeased with the votary. No classification as good and evil deities
+is as yet perceptible.
+
+This undeveloped stage of religious thought faded away, as general
+conceptions of man and his surroundings arose. Starting always from his
+wish dependent on unknown control, man found certain phenomena usually
+soothed his fears and favored his wishes, while others interfered with
+their attainment and excited his alarm. This distinction, directly
+founded on his sensations of pleasure and pain, led to a general, more
+or less rigid, classification of the unknown, into two opposing classes
+of beings, the one kindly disposed, beneficent, good, the other
+untoward, maleficent, evil.
+
+At first this distinction had in it nothing of a _moral_ character. It
+is in fact a long time before this is visible, and to-day but two or
+three religions acknowledge it even theoretically. All, however, which
+claim historical position set up a dual hierarchy in the divine realms.
+Ahura-mazda and Anya-mainyus, God and Satan, Jove and Pluto, Pachacamac
+and Supay, Enigorio and Enigohatgea are examples out of hundreds that
+might be adduced.
+
+The fundamental contrast of pleasure and pain might be considered enough
+to explain this duality. But in fact it is even farther reaching. The
+emotions are dual as well as the sensations, as we have seen in the
+first chapter. All the operations of the intellect are dichotomic, and
+in mathematical logic must be expressed by an equation of the second
+degree. Subject and object must be understood as polar pairs, and in
+physical science polarization, contrast of properties corresponding to
+contrast of position, is a universal phenomenon. Analogy, therefore,
+vindicates the assumption that the unknown, like the known, is the field
+of the operation of contradictory powers.
+
+A variety of expression is given this philosophic notion in myths. In
+Egypt, Syria, Greece and India the contrast was that of the sexes, the
+male and female principles as displayed in the operations of nature. The
+type of all is that very ancient Phrygian cult in which by the side of
+Ma, mother of mountains and mistress of herds, stood Papas, father of
+the race of shepherds and inventor of the rustic pipe.[183-1] Quite
+characteristic was the classification of the gods worshipped by the
+miners and metal workers of Phrygian Ida. This was into right and left,
+and the general name of Dactyli, Fingers, was given them. The right gods
+broke the spells which the left wove, the right pointed out the ore
+which the left had buried, the right disclosed the remedies for the
+sickness which the left had sent. This venerable division is still
+retained when we speak of a _sinister_ portent, or a _right_ judgment.
+It is of physiological interest as showing that "dextral pre-eminence"
+or right-handedness was prevalent in earliest historic times, though it
+is unknown in any lower animal.
+
+The thoughtful dwellers in Farsistan also developed a religion close to
+man's wants by dividing the gods into those who aid and those who harm
+him, subject the one class to Ahura-Mazda, the other to Anya-Mainyus.
+Early in their history this assumed almost a moral aspect, and there is
+little to be added to one of the most ancient precepts of their
+law--"Happiness be to the man who conduces to the happiness of
+all."[184-1]
+
+When this dual classification sought expression through natural
+contrasts, there was one which nigh everywhere offered itself as the
+most appropriate. The savage, the nomad, limited to the utmost in
+artificial contrivances, met nothing which more signally aided the
+accomplishment of his wishes than _light_; nothing which more certainly
+frustrated them than _darkness_. From these two sources flow numerous
+myths, symbols, and rites, as narratives or acts which convey religious
+thought to the eye or the ear of sense.
+
+As the bringers of light, man adored the sun, the dawn, and fire;
+associated with warmth and spring, his further meditations saw in it the
+source of his own and of all life, and led him to connect with its
+worship that of the reproductive principle. As it comes from above, and
+seems to dwell in the far-off sky, he located there his good gods, and
+lifted his hands or his eyes when he prayed. As light is necessary to
+sight, and as to see is to know, the faculty of knowing was typified as
+enlightenment, an inward god-given light. The great and beneficent
+deities are always the gods of light. Their names often show this. Deva,
+Deus, means the shining one; Michabo, the great white one; the Mongols
+call Tien, the chief Turanian god, the bright one, the luminous one; the
+northern Buddhist prays to Amitabha, Infinite Light; and the Christian
+to the Light of the World.
+
+On the other hand, darkness was connected with feelings of helplessness
+and terror. It exposed him to attacks of wild beasts and all accidents.
+It was the precursor of the storm. It was like to death and the grave.
+The realm of the departed was supposed to be a land of shadows, an
+underground region, an unseeing Hades or hell.
+
+The task would be easy to show many strange corroborations of these
+early chosen symbols by the exacter studies of later ages. Light, as the
+indispensable condition of life, is no dream, but a fact; sight is the
+highest sentient faculty; and the luminous rays are real intellectual
+stimulants.[186-1] But such reflections will not escape the
+contemplative reader.
+
+I hasten to an important consequence of this dual classification of
+divinities. It led to what I may call the _quantification of the gods_,
+that is, to conceiving divinity under notions of number or quantity, a
+step which has led to profound deterioration of the religious sentiment.
+I do not mean by this the distinction between polytheism and monotheism.
+The latter is as untrue and as injurious as the former, nor does it
+contain a whit the more the real elements of religious progress.
+
+It is indeed singular that this subject has been so misunderstood. Much
+has been written by Christian theologians to show the superiority of
+monotheisms; and by their opponents much has been made of Comte's _loi
+des trois etats_, which defines religious progress to be first
+fetichism, secondly polytheism, finally monotheism. Of this Mr. Lewes
+says: "The theological system arrived at the highest perfection of which
+it is capable when it substituted the providential action of a single
+being, for the varied operations of the numerous divinities which had
+before been imagined."[187-1] Nothing could be more erroneous than the
+spirit of this statement; nothing is more correct, if the ordinary talk
+of the superiority of monotheism in religion be admitted.
+
+History and long experience show that monotheistic religions have no
+special good effect either on the morals or the religious sensibility of
+races.[187-2] Buddhism,[187-3] Mohammedanism and Judaism are, at least
+in theory, uncompromising monotheisms; modern Christianity is less so,
+as many Catholics pray to the Virgin and Saints, and many Protestants to
+Christ. So long as _the mathematical conception of number_, whether one
+or many, is applied to deity by a theological system, it has not yet
+"arrived at the highest perfection of which it is capable."
+
+For let us inquire what a monotheism is? It is a belief in one god as
+distinct from the belief in several gods. In other words, it applies to
+God the mathematical concept of unity, a concept which can only come
+into cognition by virtue of contrasts and determinations, and which
+forces therefore the believer either to Pantheism or anthropomorphism to
+reconcile his belief with his reason. No other resource is left him.
+With monotheism there must always be the idea of numerical separateness,
+which is incompatible with universal conceptions.
+
+Let him, however, clear his mind of the current admiration for
+monotheisms, and impress upon himself that he who would form a
+conception of supreme intelligence must do so under the rules of pure
+thought, not numerical relation. The logical, not the mathematical,
+unity of the divine is the perfection of theological reasoning. Logical
+unity does not demand a determination by contrasts; it conveys only the
+idea of identity with self. As the logical attainment of truth is the
+recognition of identities in apparent diversity, thus leading from the
+logically many to the logically one, the assumption of the latter is
+eminently justified. Every act of reasoning is an additional proof of
+it.[188-1]
+
+Nor does the duality of nature and thought, to which I have alluded, in
+any wise contradict this. In pure thought we must understand the
+dichotomic process to be the distinction of a positive by a privative,
+both logical elements of the same thought, as I have elsewhere shown.
+The opposites or contraries referred to as giving rise to the dualistic
+conceptions of divinity are thus readily harmonized with the conception
+of logical unity. This was recognized by the Hindoo sage who composed
+the Bhagavad Gita, early in our era. Krishna, the Holy One, addressing
+the King Ardjuna says: "All beings fall into error as to the nature of
+creation, O Bharata, by reason of that delusion of natural opposites
+which springs from liking and disliking, oh thou tormentor of thy
+foes!"[189-1]
+
+The substitution of the conception of mathematical for logical unity in
+this connection has left curious traces in both philosophy and religion.
+It has led to a belief in the triplicate nature of the supreme Being,
+and to those philosophical triads which have often attracted thinkers,
+from Pythagoras and Heraclitus down to Hegel and Ghiberti.
+
+Pythagoras, who had thought profoundly on numbers and their relations,
+is credited with the obscure maxim that every thought is made up of a
+definite one and an indefinite two (a ~monas~ and an ~aoristos duas~).
+Some of his commentators have added to rather than lessened the darkness
+of this saying. But applied to concrete number, it seems clear enough.
+Take any number, ten, for example, and it is ten by virtue of being a
+_one_, one ten, and because on either side counting upward or downward,
+a different number appears, which two are its logical determinants, but,
+as not expressed, make up an _indefinite two_.
+
+So the number one, thought as concrete unity, is really a trinity, made
+up of its definite self and its indefinite next greater and lesser
+determinants. The obscure consciousness of this has made itself felt in
+many religions when they have progressed to a certain plane of thought.
+The ancient Egyptian gods were nearly all triune; Phanes, in the Orphic
+hymns the first principle of things, was tripartite; the Indian
+trinities are well known; the Celtic triads applied to divine as well as
+human existence; the Jews distinguished between Jehovah, his Wisdom and
+his Word; and in Christian religion and philosophy the doctrine of the
+trinity, though nowhere taught by Christ, has found a lasting foothold,
+and often presents itself as an actual tritheism.[190-1]
+
+The triplicate nature of number, thus alluded to by Pythagoras, springs
+from the third law of thought, and holds true of all concrete notions.
+Every such notion stands in necessary relation to its privative, and to
+the logical concept of next greater extension, _i. e._, that which
+includes the notion and its privative, as I explained in the first
+chapter. This was noted by the early Platonists, who describe a certain
+concrete expression of it as "the intelligential triad;" and it has been
+repeatedly commented upon by later philosophers, some of whom avowedly
+derive from it the proof of the trinitarian dogma as formulated by
+Athanasius. Even modern mathematical investigations have been supposed
+to point to a _Deus triformis_, though of course quite another one from
+that which ancient Rome honored. A late work of much ability makes the
+statement: "The doctrine of the Trinity, or something analogous to it,
+forms, as it were, the avenue through which the universe itself leads us
+up to the conception of the Infinite and Eternal One."[191-1] The
+explanation of this notion is the same as that of the "Trinity of the
+Gentiles," always hitherto a puzzling mythological concept.
+
+For reasons previously given, an analysis of the formal law itself does
+not yield these elements. They belong to a certain class of values
+assigned it, not to the law itself; hence it is only when deity is
+conceived under the conditions of numerical oneness that the tripartite
+constitution of a whole number makes itself felt, and is applied to the
+divine nature.
+
+The essence of a logical unit is identity, of a mathematical,
+difference. The qualities of the latter are limitations--_so much of a
+thing_; those of the former are coincidences--_that kind of a thing_.
+
+To be sure it is no easy matter to free ourselves from the habit of
+confounding identity and individuality. We must cultivate a much greater
+familiarity with the forms of thought, and the character of universals,
+than every-day life requires of us, before the distinction grows facile.
+The individual, not the species, exists; our own personality, our
+thinking faculty is what we are most certain of. On it rests the reality
+of everything, the Unknown as well. But the rejection of a mathematical
+unity does not at all depreciate the force of such an argument.
+Individuality regarded as mathematical unity rests on the deeper law of
+logical identity from which the validity of numbers rises; it is not
+the least diminished, but intensified, in the conception of a Supreme
+Intelligence, as the font of truth, though the confinements and
+limitations of the mathematical unit fall away, and all contrasts
+disappear.
+
+The reverse conception, however, has prevailed in religious systems,
+polytheistic or monotheistic. Man has projected on the cloudy unknown
+the magnified picture of his own individuality and shuddered with terror
+at the self-created plantasm,[TN-9] like the peasant frightened by the
+spectre of the Brocken, formed by the distorted image of himself. In his
+happier moments, with his hopes gratified, the same vice of thought,
+still active, prevented him from conceiving any higher ideal than his
+better self. "Everywhere the same tendency was observed; the gods,
+always exaggerations of human power and passions, became more and more
+personifications of what was most admirable and lovable in human nature,
+till in Christianity there emerged the avowed ideal man." What could it
+end in but anthropomorphism, or pantheism, or, rejecting both, a
+Religion of Humanity, with a background of an imbecile Unknowable?
+
+Is it necessary to point out how none of these conclusions can satisfy
+the enlightened religious sentiment? How anthropomorphism,which[TN-10]
+makes God in the image of man, instead of acknowledging that man is
+made in the image of God, belittles divinity to a creature of passions
+and caprices? How pantheism, increasing God at the expense of man, wipes
+out the fundamental difference of true and false, calls bad "good in the
+making," and virtually extinguishes the sense of duty and the permanence
+of personality? And how the denial of all possible knowledge of the
+absolute digs away the only foundation on which sanity can establish a
+religion, and then palms off material comfort as the proper food for
+religious longing?
+
+The long story of religious effort is not from fetichism to monotheism,
+as Comte read it; nor is its only possible goal inside the limits of the
+ego, as Feuerbach and the other Neo-Hegelians assert; but it is on its
+theoretical side to develope with greater and greater distinctness the
+immeasurable reality of pure thought, to dispense more and more with the
+quantification of the absolute, and to avoid in the representation of
+that Being the use of the technic of concrete existence.
+
+Little by little we learn that the really true is never true in fact,
+that the really good is never good in act.[194-1] Carefully cherishing
+this distinction taught by mathematics and ethics, the religious mind
+learns to recognize in that only reality darkly seen through the glass
+of material things, that which should fix and fill its meditations.
+Passing beyond the domain of physical law, it occupies itself with that
+which defines the conditions of law. It contemplates an eternal
+activity, before which its own self-consciousness seems a flickering
+shadow, yet in that contemplation is not lost but gains an evergrowing
+personality.
+
+This is the goal of religious striving, the hidden aim of the wars and
+persecutions, the polemics and martyrdoms, which have so busied and
+bloodied the world. This satisfies the rational postulates of religion.
+Does some one say that it does not stimulate its emotional elements,
+that it does not supply the impulses of action which must ever be the
+criteria of the true faith? Is it not a religion at all, but a
+philosophy, a search, or if you prefer, a love for the truth?
+
+Let such doubter ponder well the signification of truth, its relation to
+life, its identity with the good, and the paramount might of wisdom and
+a clear understanding, and he will be ready to exclaim with the
+passionate piety of St. Augustine: "_Ubi inveni veritatem, ibi inveni
+Deum meum, ipsam veritatem, quam, ex quo didici, non sum oblitus._"
+
+From this brief review of its character, the Myth will be seen to be one
+of the transitory expressions of the religious sentiment, which in
+enlightened lands it has already outgrown and should lay aside. So far
+as it relates to events, real or alleged, historic or geologic, it deals
+with that which is indifferent to pure religion; and so far as it
+assumes to reveal the character, plans and temper of divinity, it is too
+evidently a reflex of man's personality to be worthy of serious
+refutation where it conflicts with the better guide he has within him.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[156-1] In this definition the word _apperception_ is used in the sense
+assigned it by Professor Lazarus--the perception modified by imagination
+and memory. "Mythologie ist eine Apperceptionsform der Natur und des
+Menschen." (_Zeitschrift fuer Voelkerpsychologie_, Bd. i., s. 44). Most
+recent mythologists omit the latter branch of the definition; for
+instance, "A myth is in its origin an explanation by the uncivilized
+mind of some natural phenomenon." (John Fiske, _Myths and Myth Makers_,
+p. 21). This is to omit that which gives the myth its only claim to be a
+product of the religious sentiment. Schopenhauer, in calling dogmas and
+myths "the metaphysics of the people," fell into the same error.
+Religion, as such, is always concrete.
+
+[159-1] Half a century ago the learned Mr. Faber, in his _Origin of
+Pagan Idolatry_, expressed his astonishment at "the singular, minute and
+regular accordance" between the classical myths. That accordance has now
+been discovered to be world-wide.
+
+[160-1] "Ganz gleiche Mythen koennen sehr fueglich, jede selbststaendig, an
+verschiedenen Oerter emporkommen." _Briefe an Woelcker._
+
+[161-1] The last two are the modern orthodox theories, supported by
+Bryant, Faber, Trench, De Maistre and Sepp. Medieval Christianity
+preferred the direct agency of the Devil. Primitive Christianity leaned
+to the opinion that the Grecian and Roman myth makers had stolen from
+the sacred writings of the Jews.
+
+[165-1] Sir Wm. Hamilton, _Lectures on Metaphysics_. Appendix, p. 691.
+
+[165-2] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie_, Bd. ii., s. 107.
+
+[166-1] Th. Noeldeke, _Zeitschrift fuer Voelkerpsychologie_, Bd. iii., s.
+131.
+
+[166-2] See a note of Prof. Spiegel to Yacna, 29, of the
+_Khordah-Avesta_.
+
+[167-1] ~He ygra physis arche kai genesis panton.~
+
+Plutarch, _De Iside_.
+
+According to the Koran and the Jewish Rabbis, the throne of God rested
+on the primeval waters from which the earth was produced. See a note in
+Rodwell's translation of the Koran, _Sura_. xi.
+
+[167-2] I have discussed some of these myths in the seventh chapter of
+the _Myths of the New World_.
+
+[168-1] How it troubled the early Christians who dared not adopt the
+refuge of the Epochs of Nature, may be seen in the _Confessions_ of St.
+Augustine, Lib. XI, cap. 10, et seq. He quotes the reply of one pushed
+by the inquiry, what God was doing before creation: "He was making a
+hell for inquisitive busy-bodies." _Alta spectantibus gehennas parabat._
+
+[170-1] Many interesting references to the Oriental flood-myth may be
+found in Cory's _Ancient Fragments_. See also, Dr. Fr. Windischmann,
+_Die Ursagen der Arischen Voelker_, pp. 4-10. It is probable that in very
+ancient Semitic tradition Adam was represented as the survivor of a
+flood anterior to that of Noah. Maimonides relates that the Sabians
+believed the world to be eternal, and called Adam "the Prophet of the
+Moon," which symbolized, as we know from other sources, the deity of
+water. Rabbi Moses Ben Maimon, _More Nevochim_, cap. iv. In early
+Christian symbolism Christ was called "the true Noah"; the dove
+accompanied him also, and as through Noah came "salvation by wood and
+water," so through Christ came "salvation by spirit and water." (See St.
+Cyril of Jerusalem's _Catechetical Lectures_, Lect. xvii., cap. 10). The
+fish (~ichthus~) was the symbol of Christ as well as of Oannes. As the
+second coming of Christ was to be the destruction of the world, how
+plainly appear the germs of the myth of the Epochs of Nature in the
+Judaeo-Christian mind!
+
+[171-1] Besides the expressions in the Book of Ecclesiastes and the
+later prophets, the doctrine is distinctly announced in one of the most
+sublime of the Psalms (xc), one attributed to "Moses the Man of God."
+
+[172-1] Malachi, ch. iv., v. 2.
+
+[175-1] C. F. Koppen, _Die Lamaische Hierarchie_, s. 28.
+
+[175-2] Odainsakr, o privative, _dain_ death, _akr_ land, "the land of
+immortal life." Saxo Grammaticus speaks of it also. Another such land
+faintly referred to in the Edda is Breidablick, governed by Baldur, the
+Light-god.
+
+[176-1] C. F. Koppen, _Die Lamaische Hierarchie und Kirche_, p. 17.
+
+[179-1] John Stuart Mill, _Theism_, p. 256.
+
+[183-1] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie_, Bd. II., s. 47
+
+[184-1] This is the first line of Yacna, 42, of the _Khordah-Avesta_.
+The Parsees believe that it is the salutation which meets the soul of
+the good on entering the next world.
+
+[186-1] "Sight is the light sense. Through it we become acquainted with
+universal relations, this being _reason_. Without the eye there would be
+no reason." Lorenz Oken, _Elements of Physio-Philosophy_, p. 475.
+
+[187-1] _History of Philosophy_, Vol. II. p. 638 (4th ed.)
+
+[187-2] "The intolerance of almost all religions which have maintained
+the unity of God, is as remarkable as the contrary principle in
+polytheism." Hume, _Nat. Hist. of Religion_, Sec. ix.
+
+[187-3] "The Lamas emphatically maintain monotheism to be the real
+character of Buddhism." Emil Schlagintweit, _Buddhism in Tibet_, p. 108.
+
+[188-1] No one has seen the error here pointed out, and its injurious
+results on thought, more clearly than Comte himself. He is emphatic in
+condemning "le tendance involontaire a constituer l'unite speculative
+par l'ascendant universel des plus grossieres contemplations numerique,
+geometrique ou mecaniques." _Systeme de Politique Positive_; Tome I., p.
+51. But he was too biassed to apply this warning to Christian thought.
+The conception of the Universe in the logic of Professor De Morgan and
+Boole is an example of speculative unity.
+
+[189-1] _Bhagavad Gita_, ch. iv.
+
+[190-1] See the introduction by Mr. J. W. Etheridge to _The Targums of
+Onkelos and Jonathan Ben Uzziel_ (London, 1862). St. Augustine believed
+the trinity is referred to in the opening verses of Genesis.
+_Confessiones_, Lib. xiii. cap. 5. The early Christian writer,
+Theophilus of Antioch (circa 225), in his _Apologia_, recognizes the
+Jewish trinity only. It was a century later that the dogma was defined
+in its Athanasian form. See further, Isaac Preston Cory, _Ancient
+Fragments, with an Inquiry into the Trinity of the Gentiles_ (London,
+1832).
+
+[191-1] _The Unseen Universe_, p. 194.
+
+[194-1] "A good will is the only altogether good thing in the
+world."--_Kant._ "What man conceives in himself is always superior to
+that reality which it precedes and prepares."--_Comte._
+
+
+
+
+THE CULT, ITS SYMBOLS AND RITES.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     The Symbol represents the unknown; the Rite is the ceremony of
+     worship.
+
+     A symbol stands for the supernatural, an emblem for something
+     known. The elucidation of symbolism is in the laws of the
+     association of ideas. Associations of similarity give related
+     symbols, of contiguity coincident symbols. Symbols tend either
+     toward personification (iconolatry), or toward secularization. The
+     symbol has no fixed interpretation. Its indefiniteness shown by the
+     serpent symbol, and the cross. The physiological relations of
+     certain symbols. Their classification. The Lotus. The Pillar.
+     Symbols discarded by the higher religious thought. Esthetic and
+     scientific symbolism (the "Doctrine of Correspondences").
+
+     Rites are either propitiatory or memorial. The former spring either
+     from the idea of sacrifice or of specific performance. A sacrifice
+     is a gift, but its measure is what it costs the giver. Specific
+     performance means that a religious act should have no ulterior aim.
+     Vicarious sacrifice and the idea of sin.
+
+     Memorial rites are intended to recall the myth, or else to keep up
+     the organization. The former are dramatic or imitative, the latter
+     institutionary. Tendency of memorial rites to become propitiatory.
+     Examples.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI.
+
+THE CULT, ITS SYMBOLS AND RITES.
+
+
+As the side which a religious system presents to the intellect is shown
+in the Myth, so the side that it presents to sense is exhibited in the
+Cult. This includes the representation and forms of worship of the
+unknown power which presides over the fruition of the Prayer or
+religious wish. The representation is effected by the Symbol, the
+worship by the Rite. The development of these two, and their relation to
+religious thought, will be the subject of the present chapter.
+
+The word Symbolism has a technical sense in theological writings, to
+wit, the discussion of creeds, quite different from that in which it is
+used in mythological science. Here it means the discussion of the
+natural objects which have been used to represent to sense supposed
+supernatural beings. As some conception of such beings must first be
+formed, the symbol is necessarily founded upon the myth, and must be
+explained by it.
+
+A symbol is closely allied to an emblem, the distinction being that the
+latter is intended to represent some abstract conception or concrete
+fact, not supposed to be supernatural. Thus the serpent is the emblem of
+Esculapius, or, abstractly, of the art of healing; but in its use as a
+symbol in Christian art it stands for the Evil One, a supernatural
+being. The heraldric insignia of the Middle Ages were emblematic
+devices; but the architecture of the cathedrals was largely symbolic.
+Both agree in aiming to aid the imagination and the memory, and both may
+appeal to any special sense, although the majority are addressed to
+sight alone.
+
+Symbolism has not received the scientific treatment which has been so
+liberally bestowed on mythology. The first writer who approached it in
+the proper spirit was Professor Creuzer.[200-1] Previous to his labors
+the distinction between pictographic and symbolic art was not well
+defined. He drew the line sharply, and illustrated it abundantly; but he
+did not preserve so clearly the relations of the symbol and the myth.
+Indeed, he regarded the latter as a symbol, a "phonetic" one, to be
+treated by the same processes of analysis. Herein later students have
+not consented to follow him. The contrast between these two expressions
+of the religious sentiment becomes apparent when we examine their
+psychological origin. This Professor Creuzer did not include in his
+researches, nor is it dwelt upon at any length in the more recent works
+on the subject.[201-1] The neglect to do this has given rise to an
+arbitrariness in the interpretation of many symbols, which has often
+obscured their position in religious history.
+
+What these principles are I shall endeavor to indicate; and first of the
+laws of the origin of symbols, the rules which guided the early
+intellect in choosing from the vast number of objects appealing to sense
+those fit to shadow forth the supernatural.
+
+It may safely be assumed that this was not done capriciously, as the
+modern parvenue makes for himself a heraldric device. The simple and
+devout intellect of the primitive man imagined a real connection between
+the god and the symbol. Were this questioned, yet the wonderful
+unanimity with which the same natural objects, the serpent, the bird,
+the tree, for example, were everywhere chosen, proves that their
+selection was not the work of chance. The constant preference of these
+objects points conclusively to some strong and frequent connection of
+their images with mythical concepts.
+
+The question of the origin of symbols therefore resolves itself into one
+of the association of ideas, and we start from sure ground in applying
+to their interpretation the established canons of association. These, as
+I have elsewhere said, are those of contiguity and similarity, the
+former producing association by the closeness of succession of
+impressions or thoughts, the latter through impressions or thoughts
+recalling like ones in previous experience. When the same occurrence
+affects different senses simultaneously, or nearly so, the association
+is one of _contiguity_, as thunder and lightning, for a sound cannot be
+_like_ a sight; when the same sense is affected in such a manner as to
+recall a previous impression, the association is one of _similarity_, as
+when the red autumn leaves recall the hue of sunset. Nearness in time or
+nearness in kind is the condition of association.
+
+The intensity or permanence of the association depends somewhat on
+temperament, but chiefly on repetition or continuance. Not having an ear
+for music, I may find it difficult to recall a song from hearing its
+tune; but by dint of frequent repetition I learn to associate them.
+Light and heat, smoke and fire, poverty and hunger so frequently occur
+together, that the one is apt to recall the other. So do a large number
+of antithetical associations, as light and darkness, heat and cold, by
+_inverse similarity_, opposite impressions reviving each other, in
+accordance with the positive and privative elements of a notion.
+
+This brief reference to the laws of applied thought,--too brief, did I
+not take for granted that they are generally familiar--furnishes the
+clue to guide us through the labyrinth of symbolism, to wit, the
+repeated association of the event or power recorded in the myth with
+some sensuous image. Where there is a connection in kind between the
+symbol and that for which it stands, there is _related_ symbolism; where
+the connection is one of juxtaposition in time, there is _coincident_
+symbolism. Mother Earth, fertile and fecund, was a popular deity in many
+nations, and especially among the Egyptians, who worshipped her under
+the symbol of a cow; this is related symbolism; the historical event of
+the execution of Christ occurred by crucifixion, one of several methods
+common in that age, and since then the cross has been the symbol of
+Christianity; this is coincident symbolism. It is easy for the two to
+merge, as when the cross was identified with a somewhat similar and much
+older symbol, one of the class I have called "related," signifying the
+reproductive principle, and became the "tree of life." As a coincident
+symbol is to a certain extent accidental in origin, related symbols
+have always been most agreeable to the religious sentiment.
+
+This remark embodies the explanation of the growth of religious
+symbolism, and also its gradual decay into decorative art and mnemonic
+design. The tendency of related symbolism is toward the identification
+of the symbol with that for which it stands, toward personification or
+prosopopeia; while what I may call the _secularization_ of symbols is
+brought about by regarding them more and more as accidental connections,
+by giving them conventional forms, and treating them as elements of
+architectural or pictorial design, or as aids to memory.
+
+This tendency of related symbolism depends on a law of applied thought
+which has lately been formulated by a distinguished logician in the
+following words: "What is true of a thing, is true of its like."[204-1]
+The similarity of the symbol to its prototype assumed, the qualities of
+the symbol, even those which had no share in deciding its selection, no
+likeness to the original, were lumped, and transferred to the divinity.
+As those like by similarity, so those unlike, were identified by
+contiguity, as traits of the unknown power. This is the active element
+in the degeneracy of religious idealism. The cow or the bull, chosen
+first as a symbol of creation or fecundity, led to a worship of the
+animal itself, and a transfer of its traits, even to its horns, to the
+god. In a less repulsive form, the same tendency shows itself in the
+pietistic ingenuity of such poets as Adam de Sancto Victore and George
+Herbert, who delight in taking some biblical symbol, and developing from
+it a score of applications which the original user never dreamt of. In
+such hands a chance simile grows to an elaborate myth.
+
+Correct thought would prevent the extension of the value of the symbol
+beyond the original element of similarity. More than this, it would
+recognize the fact that similarity does not suppose identity, but the
+reverse, to wit, defect of likeness; and this dissimilitude must be the
+greater, as the original and symbol are naturally discrepant. The
+supernatual,[TN-11] however, whether by this term we mean the unknown or
+the universal--still more if we mean the incomprehensible--is utterly
+discrepant with the known, except by an indefinitely faint analogy. In
+the higher thought, therefore, the symbol loses all trace of identity
+and becomes merely emblematic.
+
+The ancients defended symbolic teaching on this very ground, that the
+symbol left so much unexplained, that it stimulated the intellect and
+trained it to profounder thinking;[205-1] practically it had the
+reverse effect, the symbol being accepted as the thing itself.
+
+Passing from these general rules of the selection of symbols, to the
+history of the symbol when chosen, this presents itself to us in a
+reciprocal form, first as the myth led to the adoption and changes in
+the symbol, and as the latter in turn altered and reformed the myth.
+
+The tropes and figures of rhetoric by which the conceptions of the
+supernatural were first expressed, give the clue to primitive symbolism.
+A very few examples will be sufficient. No one can doubt that the figure
+of the serpent was sometimes used in pictorial art to represent the
+lightning, when he reads that the Algonkins _straightly_ called the
+latter a snake; when he sees the same adjective, spiral or winding,
+(~helikoiedes~) applied by the Greeks to the lightning and a snake; when
+the Quiche call the electric flash a strong serpent; and many other such
+examples. The Pueblo Indians represent lightning in their pictographs by
+a zigzag line. A zigzag fence is called in the Middle States a worm or
+"snake" fence. Besides this, adjectives which describe the line traced
+by the serpent in motion are applied to many twisting or winding
+objects, as a river, a curl or lock of hair, the tendrils of a vine, the
+intestines, a trailing plant, the mazes of a dance, a bracelet, a broken
+ray of light, a sickle, a crooked limb, an anfractuous path, the
+phallus, etc. Hence the figure of a serpent may, and in fact has been,
+used with direct reference to every one of these, as could easily be
+shown. How short-sighted then the expounder of symbolism who would
+explain the frequent recurrence of the symbol or the myth of the serpent
+wherever he finds it by any one of these!
+
+This narrowness of exposition becomes doubly evident when we give
+consideration to two other elements in primitive symbolism--the
+multivocal nature of early designs, and the misapprehensions due to
+contiguous association.
+
+To illustrate the first, let us suppose, with Schwarz[207-1] and others,
+that the serpent was at first the symbol of the lightning. Its most
+natural representation would be in motion; it might then stand for the
+other serpentine objects I have mentioned; but once accepted as an
+acknowledged symbol, the other qualities and properties of the serpent
+would present themselves to the mind, and the effort would be made to
+discover or to imagine likenesses to these in the electric flash. The
+serpent is venomous; it casts its skin and thus seems to renew its life;
+it is said to fascinate its prey; it lives in the ground; it hisses or
+rattles when disturbed: none of these properties is present to the mind
+of the savage who scratches on the rock a zigzag line to represent the
+lightning god. But after-thought brings them up, and the association of
+contiguity can apply them all to the lightning, and actually has done so
+over and over again; and not only to it, but also to other objects
+originally represented by a broken line, for example, the river gods and
+the rays of light.
+
+This complexity is increased by the ambiguous representation of symbolic
+designs. The serpent, no longer chosen for its motion alone, will be
+expressed in art in that form best suited to the meaning of the symbol
+present in the mind of the artist. Realism is never the aim of religious
+art. The zigzag line, the coil, the spiral, the circle and the straight
+line, are all geometrical radicals of various serpentine forms. Any one
+of these may be displayed with fanciful embellishments and artistic
+aids. Or the artist, proceeding by synecdoche, takes a part for the
+whole, and instead of portraying the entire animal, contents himself
+with one prominent feature or one aspect of it. A striking instance of
+this has been developed by Dr. Harrison Allen, in the prevalence of what
+he calls the "crotalean curve," in aboriginal American art, a line which
+is the radical of the profile view of the head of the rattlesnake
+(_crotalus_).[208-1] This he has detected in the architectural monuments
+of Mexico and Yucatan, in the Maya phonetic scrip, and even in the rude
+efforts of the savage tribes. Each of these elective methods of
+representing the serpent, would itself, by independent association,
+call up ideas out of all connection whatever with that which the figure
+first symbolized. These, in the mind entertaining them, will supersede
+and efface the primitive meaning. Thus the circle is used in
+conventional symbolic art to designate the serpent; but also the eye,
+the ear, the open mouth, the mamma, the sun, the moon, a wheel, the
+womb, the vagina, the return of the seasons, time, continued life, hence
+health, and many other things. Whichever of these ideas is easiest
+recalled will first appear on looking at a circle. The error of those
+who have discussed mythological symbolism has been to trace a connection
+of such adventitious ideas beyond the symbol to its original meaning;
+whereas the symbol itself is the starting-point. To one living in a
+region where venomous serpents abound, the figure of one will recall the
+sense of danger, the dread of the bite, and the natural hostility we
+feel to those who hurt us; whereas no such ideas would occur to the
+native of a country where there are no snakes, or where they are
+harmless, unless taught this association.
+
+Few symbols have received more extended study than that of the cross,
+owing to its prominence in Christian art. This, as I have said, was
+coincident or incidental only. It corresponded, however, to a current
+"phonetic symbol," in the expression common to the Greeks and Romans of
+that day, "to take up one's cross," meaning to prepare for the worst, a
+metaphor used by Christ himself.
+
+Now there is no agreement as to what was the precise form of the cross
+on which he suffered. Three materially unlike crosses are each equally
+probable. In symbolic art these have been so multiplied that now _two
+hundred and twenty-two_ variants of the figure are described![210-1] Of
+course there is nothing easier than to find among these similarities,
+with many other conventional symbols, the Egyptian Tau, the Hammer of
+Thor, the "Tree of Fertility," on which the Aztecs nailed their victims,
+the crossed lines which are described on Etruscan tombs, or the logs
+crossed at rectangles, on which the Muskogee Indians built the sacred
+fire. The four cardinal points are so generally objects of worship, that
+more than any other mythical conception they have been represented by
+cruciform figures. But to connect these in any way with the symbol as it
+appears in Christian art, is to violate every scientific principle.
+
+Each variant of a symbol may give rise to myths quite independent of its
+original meaning. A symbol once adopted is preserved by its sacred
+character, exists long as a symbol, but with ever fluctuating
+significations. It always takes that which is uppermost in the mind of
+the votary and the congregation. Hence, psychology, and especially the
+psychology of races, is the only true guide in symbolic exegesis.
+
+Nor is the wide adoption and preservation of symbols alone due to an
+easily noticed similarity between certain objects and the earliest
+conceptions of the supernatural, or to the preservative power of
+religious veneration.
+
+I have previously referred to the associations of ideas arising from
+ancestral reversions of memory, and from the principles of minimum
+muscular action and harmonic excitation. Such laws make themselves felt
+unconsciously from the commencement of life, with greater or less power,
+dependent on the susceptibility of the nervous system. They go far
+toward explaining the recurrence and permanence of symbols, whether of
+sight or sound. Thus I attribute the prevalence of the serpentine curve
+in early religious art largely to its approach to the "line of beauty,"
+which is none other than that line which the eye, owing to the
+arrangement of its muscles, can follow with the minimum expenditure of
+nervous energy. The satisfaction of the mind in viewing symmetrical
+figures or harmonious coloring, as also that of the ear, in hearing
+accordant sounds, is, as I have remarked, based on the principle of
+maximum action with minimum waste. The mind gets the most at the least
+cost.
+
+The equilateral triangle, which is the simplest geometrical figure which
+can enclose a space, thus satisfying the mind the easiest of any, is
+nigh universal in symbolism. It is seen in the Egyptian pyramids, whose
+sides are equilateral triangles with a common apex, in the mediaeval
+cathedrals, whose designs are combinations of such triangles, in the
+sign for the trinity, the pentalpha, etc.
+
+The classification of some symbols of less extensive prevalence must be
+made from their phonetic values. One class was formed as were the
+"canting arms" in heraldry, that is, by a rebus. This is in its simpler
+form, direct, as when Quetzalcoatl, the mystical hero-god of Atzlan, is
+represented by a bird on a serpent, _quetzal_ signifying a bird, _coatl_
+a serpent; or composite, two or more of such rebus symbols being blended
+by synecdoche, like the "marshalling" of arms in heraldry, as when the
+same god is portrayed by a feathered serpent; or the rebus may occur
+with paronymy, especially when the literal meaning of a name of the god
+is lost, as when the Algonkins forgot the sense of the word _wabish_,
+white or bright, as applied to their chief divinity, and confounding it
+with _wabos_, a rabbit, wove various myths about their ancestor, the
+Great Hare, and chose the hare or rabbit as a totemic badge.[212-1]
+
+It is almost needless to add further that the ideas most frequently
+associated with the unknown object of religion are those, which,
+struggling after material expression, were most fecund in symbols. We
+have but to turn to the Orphic hymns, or those of the Vedas or the
+Hebrew Psalms, to see how inexhaustible was the poetic fancy, stirred by
+religious awe, in the discovery of similitudes, any of which, under
+favoring circumstances, might become a symbol.
+
+Before leaving this branch of my subject, I may illustrate some of the
+preceding comments by applying them to one or two well known subjects of
+religious art.
+
+A pleasing symbol, which has played a conspicuous part in many
+religions, is the Egyptian lotus, or "lily of the Nile." It is an
+aquatic plant, with white, roseate or blue flowers, which float upon the
+water, and send up from their centre long stamens. In Egypt it grows
+with the rising of the Nile, and as its appearance was coincident with
+that important event, it came to take prominence in the worship of Isis
+and Osiris as the symbol of fertility. Their mystical marriage took
+place in its blossom. In the technical language of the priests, however,
+it bore a profounder meaning, that of the supremacy of reason above
+matter, the contrast being between the beautiful flower and the muddy
+water which bears it.[214-1] In India the lotus bears other and
+manifold meanings. It is a symbol of the sacred river Ganges, and of the
+morally pure. No prayer in the world has ever been more frequently
+repeated than this: "Om! the jewel in the lotus. Amen" (_om mani padme
+hum_). Many millions of times, every hour, for centuries, has this been
+iterated by the Buddhists of Thibet and the countries north of it. What
+it means, they can only explain by fantastic and mystical guesses.
+Probably it refers to the legendary birth of their chief saint,
+Avalokitesvara, who is said to have been born of a lotus flower. But
+some say it is a piece of symbolism not strange to its meaning in
+Egypt,[214-2] and borrowed by Buddhism from the Siva worship. In the
+symbolic language of this sect the lotus is the symbol of the vagina,
+while the phallus is called "the jewel." With this interpretation the
+Buddhist prayer would refer to the reproductive act; but it is
+illustrative of the necessity of attributing wholly diverse meanings to
+the same symbol, that the Buddhists neither now nor at any past time
+attached any such signification to the expression, and it would be most
+discrepant with their doctrines to do so.[214-3]
+
+Another symbol has frequently been open to this duplicate
+interpretation, that is, the upright pillar. The Egyptian obelisk, the
+pillars of "Irmin" or of "Roland," set up now of wood, now of stone by
+the ancient Germans, the "red-painted great warpole" of the American
+Indians, the May-pole of Old England, the spire of sacred edifices, the
+staff planted on the grave, the terminus of the Roman landholders, all
+these objects have been interpreted to be symbols of life, or the
+life-force. As they were often of wood, the trunk of a tree for
+instance, they have often been called by titles equivalent to the "tree
+of life," and are thus connected with the nigh innumerable myths which
+relate to some mystic tree as the source of life. The ash Ygdrasyl of
+the Edda, the oak of Dordona and of the Druid, the modern Christmas
+tree, the sacred banyan, the holy groves, illustrate but faintly the
+prevalence of tree worship. Even so late as the time of Canute, it had
+to be forbidden in England by royal edict.
+
+Now, the general meaning of this symbol I take to be the same as that
+which led to the choice of hills and "high places," as sites for altars
+and temples, and to the assigning of mountain tops as the abodes of the
+chief gods. It is seen in adjectives applied, I believe, in all
+languages, certainly all developed ones, to such deities themselves.
+These adjectives are related to adverbs of place, signifying _above_,
+_up_ or _over_. We speak of the supernatural, or supernal powers, the
+Supreme Being, the Most High, He in Heaven, and such like. So do all
+Aryan and Semitic tongues. Beyond them, the Chinese name for the Supreme
+Deity, Tien, means _up_. I have elsewhere illustrated the same fact in
+native American tongues. The association of light and the sky above, the
+sun and the heaven, is why we raise our hands and eyes in confident
+prayer to divinity. That at times, however, a religion of sex-love did
+identify these erect symbols with the phallus as the life-giver, is very
+true, but this was a temporary and adventitious meaning assigned a
+symbol far more ancient than this form of religion.
+
+In this review of the principles of religious symbolism, I have
+attempted mainly to exhibit the part it has sustained in the development
+of the religious sentiment. It has been generally unfavorable to the
+growth of higher thought. The symbol, in what it is above the emblem,
+assumes more than a similarity, a closer relation than analogy; to some
+degree it pretends to a hypostatic union or identity of the material
+with the divine, the known to sense with the unknown. Fully seen, this
+becomes object worship; partially so, personification.
+
+There is no exception to this. The refined symbolisms which pass current
+to day as religious philosophies exemplify it. The one, esthetic
+symbolism, has its field in musical and architectural art, in the study
+and portraiture of the beautiful; the other, scientific symbolism,
+claims to discover in the morphology of organisms, in the harmonic laws
+of physics, and in the processes of the dialectic, the proof that
+symbolism, if not a revelation, is at least an unconscious inspiration
+of universal truth. This is the "Doctrine of Correspondences," much in
+favor with Swedenborgians, but by no means introduced by the founder of
+that sect. The recognition of the identity in form of the fundamental
+laws of motion and thought, and the clearer understanding of the
+character of harmony which the experiments of Helmholtz and others give
+us, disperse most of the mystery about these similarities. The religion
+of art, as such, will come up for consideration in the next chapter.
+
+The second form of the Cult is the Rite. This includes the acts or
+ceremonies of worship. Considered in the gross, they can be classed as
+of two kinds, the first and earliest propitiatory, the second and later
+memorial or institutionary.
+
+We have but to bear in mind the one aspiration of commencing religious
+thought, to wit, the attainment of a wish, to see that whatever action
+arose therefrom must be directed to that purpose. Hence, when we analyze
+the rude ceremonies of savage cults, the motive is extremely apparent.
+They, like their prayers, all point to the securing of some material
+advantage. They are designed
+
+                                    "to cozen
+    The gods that constrain us and curse."
+
+The motives which underlie these simplest as well as the most elaborate
+rituals, and impress upon them their distinctively religious character
+can be reduced to two, the idea of _sacrifice_ and the idea of _specific
+performance_.
+
+The simplest notion involved in a sacrifice is that of _giving_. The
+value of the gift is not, however, the intrinsic worth of the thing
+given, nor even the pleasure or advantage the recipient derives
+therefrom, but, singularly enough, the amount of pain the giver
+experiences in depriving himself of it! This is also often seen in
+ordinary transactions. A rich man who subscribes a hundred dollars to a
+charity, is thought to merit less commendation than the widow who gives
+her mite. Measured by motive, this reasoning is correct. There is a
+justice which can be vindicated in holding self-denial to be a standard
+of motive. All developed religions have demanded the renunciation of
+what is dearest. The Ynglyngasaga tells us that in a time of famine, the
+first sacrifice offered to the gods was of beasts only; if this failed,
+men were slain to appease them; and if this did not mitigate their
+anger, the king himself was obliged to die that they might send plenty.
+The Latin writers have handed it down that among the Germans and Gauls a
+human sacrifice was deemed the more efficacious the more distinguished
+the victim, and the nearer his relationship to him who offered the
+rite.[219-1] The slaughter of children and wives to please the gods was
+common in many religions, and the self-emasculation of the priests of
+Cybele, with other such painful rites, indicates that the measure of the
+sacrifice was very usually not what the god needed, but the willingness
+of the worshipper to give.
+
+The second idea, that of _specific performance_, has been well expressed
+and humorously commented upon by Hume in his _Natural History of
+Religions_. He says: "Here I cannot forbear observing a fact which may
+be worth the attention of those who make human nature the object of
+their inquiry. It is certain that in every religion, many of the
+votaries, perhaps the greatest number, will seek the divine favor, not
+by virtue and good morals, but either by frivolous observances, by
+intemperate zeal, by rapturous ecstasies, or by the belief of mysterious
+and absurd opinions.
+
+* * * In all this [_i. e._, in virtue and good morals], a superstitious
+man finds nothing, which he has properly performed for the sake of his
+deity, or which can peculiarly recommend him to divine favor and
+protection. * * * * But if he fast or give himself a sound whipping,
+this has a direct reference, in his opinion, to the service of God. No
+other motive could engage him to such austerities."
+
+The philosopher here sets forth in his inimitable style a marked
+characteristic of religious acts. But he touches upon it with his usual
+superficiality. It is true that no religion has ever been content with
+promoting the happiness of man, and that the vast majority of votaries
+are always seeking to do something specifically religious, and are not
+satisfied with the moral only. The simple explanation of it is that the
+religious sentiment has a purpose entirely distinct from ethics, a
+purpose constantly felt as something peculiar to itself, though
+obscurely seen and often wholly misconceived. It is only when an action
+is utterly dissevered from other ends, and is purely and solely
+religious, that it can satisfy this sentiment. "_La religion_," most
+truly observes Madame Necker de Saussure, "_ne doit point avoir d'autre
+but qu'elle meme_."
+
+The uniform prevalence of these ideas in rites may be illustrated from
+the simplest or the most elaborate. Father Brebeuf, missionary to the
+Hurons in 1636, has a chapter on their superstitions. He there tells us
+that this nation had two sorts of ceremonies, the one to induce the
+gods to grant good fortune, the other to appease them when some ill-luck
+had occurred. Before running a dangerous rapid in their frail canoes
+they would lay tobacco on a certain rock where the deity of the rapid
+was supposed to reside, and ask for safety in their voyage. They took
+tobacco and cast it in the fire, saying: "O Heaven (_Aronhiate_), see, I
+give you something; aid me; cure this sickness of mine." When one was
+drowned or died of cold, a feast was called, and the soft parts of the
+corpse were cut from the bones and burned to conciliate the personal
+god, while the women danced and chanted a melancholy strain. Here one
+sacrifice was to curry favor with the gods, another to soothe their
+anger, and the third was a rite, not a sacrifice, but done for a
+religious end, whose merit was specific performance.
+
+As the gift was valued at what it cost the giver, and was supposed to be
+efficacious in this same ratio, self-denial soon passed into
+self-torture, prolonged fasts, scourging and lacerations, thus becoming
+legitimate exhibitions of religious fervor. As mental pain is as keen as
+bodily pain, the suffering of Jephthah was quite as severe as that of
+the Flagellants, and was expected to find favor in the eyes of the gods.
+
+A significant corrollary[TN-12] from such a theory follows: that which is
+the efficacious part of the sacrifice is the suffering; given a certain
+degree of this, the desired effect will follow. As to what or who
+suffers, or in what manner he or it suffers, these are secondary
+considerations, even unimportant ones, so far as the end to be obtained
+is concerned. This is the germ of _vicarious_ sacrifice, a plan
+frequently observed in even immature religions. What seems the
+diabolical cruelty of some superstitious rites, those of the
+Carthaginians and Celts, for example, is thoroughly consistent with the
+abstract theory of sacrifice, and did not spring from capricious malice.
+The Death of Christ, regarded as a general vicarious atonement, has had
+its efficiency explained directly by the theory that the pain he
+suffered partook of the infinity of his divine nature; as thus it was
+excruciating beyond measure, so it was infinitely effectual toward
+appeasing divinity.
+
+It is well known that this doctrine was no innovation on the religious
+sentiment of the age when it was preached by the Greek fathers. For
+centuries the Egyptian priests had taught the incarnation and sufferings
+of Osiris, and his death for the salvation of his people. Similar myths
+were common throughout the Orient, all drawn from the reasoning I have
+mentioned.[222-1]
+
+They have been variously criticized. Apart from the equivocal traits
+this theory of atonement attributes to the supernatural powers--a
+feature counterbalanced, in modern religion, by subduing its harshest
+features--it is rooted essentially in the material view of religion. The
+religious value of an act is to be appraised by the extent to which it
+follows recognition of duty. To acknowledge an error is unpleasant; to
+renounce it still more so, for it breaks a habit; to see our own errors
+in their magnitude, sullying our whole nature and reaching far ahead to
+generations yet unborn, is consummately bitter, and in proportion as it
+is bitter, will keep us from erring.[223-1] This is the "sacrifice of a
+contrite heart," which alone is not despicable; and this no one can do
+for us. We may be sure that neither the physical pain of victims burning
+in a slow fire, nor the mental pain of yielding up whatever we hold
+dearest upon earth, will make our views of duty a particle clearer or
+our notion of divinity a jot nobler; and whatever does neither of these
+is not of true religion.
+
+The theory of sacrifice is intimately related with the idea of sin. In
+the quotation I have made from Father Brebeuf we see that the Hurons
+recognized a distinct form of rite as appropriate to appease a god when
+angered. It is a matter of national temperament which of these forms
+takes the lead. Joutel tells of a tribe in Texas who paid attention only
+to the gods who worked them harm, saying that the good gods were good
+anyhow. By parity of reasoning, one sect of Mohammedans worship the
+devil only. It is well to make friends with your enemy, and then he will
+not hurt you; and if a man is shielded from his enemies, he is safe
+enough.
+
+But where, as in most Semitic, Celtic and various other religions, the
+chief gods frowned or smiled as they were propitiated or neglected, and
+when a certain amount of pain was the propitiation they demanded, the
+necessity of rendering this threw a dark shadow on life. What is the
+condition of man, that only through sorrow he can reach joy? He must be
+under a curse.
+
+Physical and mental processes aided by analogy this gloomy deduction. It
+is only through pain that we are stimulated to the pursuit of pleasure,
+and the latter is a phantom we never catch. The laws of correct
+reasoning are those which alone should guide us; but the natural laws of
+the association of ideas do not at all correspond with the one
+association which reason accepts. Truth is what we are born for, error
+is what is given us.
+
+Instead of viewing this state of things as one inseparable to the
+relative as another than the universal, and, instead of seeing the means
+of correcting it in the mental element of attention, continuance or
+volition, guided by experience and the growing clearness of the purposes
+of the laws of thought, the problem was given up as hopeless, and man
+was placed under a ban from which a god alone could set him free; he was
+sunk in original sin, chained to death.
+
+To reach this result it is evident that a considerable effort at
+reasoning, a peculiar view of the nature of the gods, and a temperament
+not the most common, must be combined. Hence it was adopted as a
+religious dogma by but a few nations. The Chinese know nothing of the
+"sense of sin," nor did the Greeks and Romans. The Parsees do not
+acknowledge it, nor do the American tribes. "To sin," in their
+languages, does not mean to offend the deity, but to make a mistake, to
+miss the mark, to loose one's way as in a wood, and the missionaries
+have exceeding difficulty in making them understand the theological
+signification of the word.
+
+The second class of rites are memorial in character. As the former were
+addressed to the gods, so these are chiefly for the benefit of the
+people. They are didactic, to preserve the myth, or institutionary, to
+keep alive the discipline and forms of the church.
+
+Of this class of rites it may broadly be said they are the myth
+dramatized. Indeed, the drama owes its origin to the mimicry by
+worshippers of the supposed doings of the gods. The most ancient
+festivals have reference to the recurrence of the seasons, and the
+ceremonies which mark them represent the mythical transactions which are
+supposed to govern the yearly changes. The god himself was often
+represented by the
+
+high priest, and masked figures took the parts of attendant deities.
+
+Institutionary rites are those avowedly designed to commemorate a myth
+or event, and to strengthen thereby the religious organization.
+Christian baptism is by some denominations looked upon as a
+commemorative or institutionary rite only; and the same is the case with
+the Lord's Supper. These seem to have been the only rites recommended,
+though the former was not practiced by Christ. In any ordinary meaning
+of his words, he regarded them both as institutionary.
+
+The tendency of memorial to become propitiatory rites is visible in all
+materialistic religions. The procedure, from a simple commemorative act,
+acquires a mystic efficacy, a supernatural or spiritual power, often
+supposed to extend to the deity as well as the votary. Thus the Indian
+"rain-maker" will rattle his gourd, beat his drum, and blow through his
+pipe, to represent the thunder, lightning, and wind of the storm; and
+he believes that by this mimicry of the rain-god's proceedings he can
+force him to send the wished-for showers. The charms, spells and
+incantations of sorcery have the same foundation. Equally visible is it
+in the reception of the Christian rites above mentioned, baptism and the
+Eucharist, as "sacraments," as observances of divine efficacy in
+themselves. All such views arise from the material character of the
+religious wants.
+
+The conclusion is that, while emblems and memorial rites have nothing in
+them which can mar, they also have nothing which can aid the growth and
+purity of the religious sentiment, beyond advancing its social
+relations; while symbols, in the proper sense of the term, and
+propitiatory rites, as necessarily false and without foundation, always
+degrade and obscure religious thought. Their prominence in a cult
+declines, as it rises in quality; and in a perfected scheme of worship
+they would have no place whatever.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[200-1] In his chapter _Ideen zu einer Physik des Symbols und des
+Mythus_, of his _Symbolik und Mythologie_.
+
+[201-1] Dr. H. C. Barlow's _Essays on Symbolism_ (London, 1866),
+deserves mention as one of the best of these.
+
+[204-1] W. S. Jevons, _The Substitution of Similars_, p. 15 (London,
+1869.)
+
+[205-1] Creuzer, _Symbolik_, Bd. I, s. 59.
+
+[207-1] _Ursprung der Mythologie_ (Berlin, 1862).
+
+[208-1] Harrison Allen, M. D., _The Life Form in Art_, Phila. 1874.
+
+[210-1] Cussans, _Grammar of Heraldry_, p. 16.
+
+[212-1] Numerous examples from classical antiquity are given by Creuzer,
+_Symbolik_, Bd. i. s. 114. sqq.
+
+[214-1] W. von Humboldt, _Gesammelte Werke_, Bd. iv., s. 332.
+
+[214-2] Creuzer, _Symbolik und Mythologie_, Bd. i., s. 282.
+
+[214-3] Carl Frederick Koppen, _Die Lamaische Hierarchie and[TN-13]
+Kirche_, ss. 59, 60, 61.
+
+[219-1] Adolph Holtzmann, _Deutsche Mythologie_, p. 232 (Leipzig, 1874).
+
+[222-1] "Es ist so gewissermassen in allen ernsten orientalischen Lehren
+das Christenthum in seinem Keime vorgebildet." Creuzer, _Symbolik und
+Mythologie der Alten Voelker_, Bd. i., s. 297.
+
+[223-1] In a conversation reported by Mr. John Morley, John Stuart Mill
+expressed his belief that "the coming modification of religion" will be
+controlled largely through men becoming "more and more impressed with
+the awful fact that a piece of conduct to-day may prove a curse to men
+and women scores and even hundreds of years after the author of it is
+dead."
+
+
+
+
+THE MOMENTA OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT.
+
+
+SUMMARY.
+
+     National impulses and aims as historic ideas. Their recurrence and
+     its explanation. Their permanence in relation to their truth and
+     consciousness. The historic ideas in religious progress are chiefly
+     three.
+
+     I. The Idea of the Perfected Individual.
+
+     First placed in physical strength. This gave way in Southern Europe
+     to the idea of physical symmetry, a religion of beauty and art.
+     Later days have produced the idea of mental symmetry, the religion
+     of culture. All have failed, and why? The momenta of true religion
+     in each.
+
+     II. The Idea of the Perfected Commonwealth.
+
+     Certain national temperaments predispose to individualism, others
+     to communism. The social relations governed at first by divine law.
+     Later, morality represents this law. The religion of conduct. The
+     religion of sentiment and of humanity. Advantages and disadvantages
+     in this idea.
+
+     Comparisons of these two ideas as completed respectively by Wilhelm
+     von Humboldt and Auguste Comte.
+
+     III. The Idea of Personal Survival.
+
+     The doctrine of immortality the main moment in Christianity, Islam
+     and Buddhism. Unfamiliar to old and simple faiths. Its energy and
+     speculative relations. It is decreasing as a religious moment owing
+     to, (1) a better understanding of ethics, (2) more accurate
+     cosmical conceptions, (3) the clearer defining of life, (4) the
+     increasing immateriality of religions.
+
+     The future and final moments of religious thought.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII.
+
+THE MOMENTA OF RELIGIOUS THOUGHT.
+
+
+The records of the past can be studied variously. Events can be arranged
+in the order of their occurrence: this is chronology or annals; in
+addition to this, their connections and mutual relations as cause and
+effect may be shown: this is historical science; or, thirdly, from a
+general view of trains of related events some abstract aim as their
+final cause may be theoretically deduced and confirmed by experience:
+this is the philosophy of history. The doctrine of final causes, in its
+old form as the _argumentum de appetitu_, has been superseded. Function
+is not purpose; desire comes from the experience of pleasure, and
+realizes its dreams, if at all, by the slow development of capacity. The
+wish carries no warrant of gratification with it. No "argument from
+design" can be adduced from the region where the laws of physical
+necessity prevail. Those laws are not designed for an end.
+
+When, however, in the unfolding of mind we reach the stage of notions,
+we observe a growing power to accomplish desire, not only by altering
+the individual or race organism, but also by bringing external objects
+into unison with the desire, reversing the process common in the life of
+sensation. This spectacle, however, is confined to man alone, and man as
+guided by prospective volition, that is, by an object ahead.
+
+When some such object is common to a nation or race, it exercises a wide
+influence on its destiny, and is the key to much that otherwise would be
+inexplicable in its actions. What we call national hopes, ambitions and
+ideals are such objects. Sometimes they are distinctly recognized by the
+nation, sometimes they are pursued almost unconsciously. They do not
+correspond to things as they are, but as they are wished to be. Hence
+there is nothing in them to insure their realization. They are like an
+appetite, which may and may not develope the function which can gratify
+it. They have been called "historic ideas," and their consideration is a
+leading topic in modern historical science.
+
+Reason claims the power of criticizing such ideas, and of distinguishing
+in them between what is true and therefore obtainable, and what is false
+and therefore chimerical or even destructive. This is the province of
+the philosophy of history. It guides itself by those general principles
+for the pursuit of truth which have been noticed in brief in the earlier
+pages of this book. Looking before as well as after, it aspires in the
+united light of experience and the laws of mind, to construct for the
+race an ideal within the reach of its capacities, yet which will
+develope them to the fullest extent, a pole-star to which it can trust
+in this night teeming with will-o'-the wisps.
+
+The opinion that the history of mind is a progress whose end will be
+worth more than was its beginning, may not prove true in fact--the
+concrete expression never wholly covers the abstract requirements--but
+it is undoubtedly true in theory. The progress, so far, has been by no
+means a lineal one--each son a better man than his father--nor even, as
+some would have it, a spiral one--periodical recurrences to the same
+historical ideas, but each recurrence a nearer approach to the
+philosophical idea--but it has been far more complex and irregular than
+any geometrical figure will illustrate. These facile generalizations do
+not express it.
+
+Following the natural laws of thought man has erred infinitely, and his
+errors have worked their sure result--they have destroyed him. There is
+no "relish of salvation" in an error; otherwise than that it is sure to
+kill him who obstructs the light by harboring it. There is no sort of
+convertability of the false into the true, as shallow thinkers of the
+day teach.
+
+Man has only escaped death when at first by a lucky chance, and then by
+personal and inherited experience, his thoughts drifted or were forced
+into conformity with the logical laws of thought.
+
+A historic idea is a complex product formed of numerous conceptions,
+some true and others false. Its permanency and efficacy are in direct
+proportion to the number and clearness of the former it embraces. When
+it is purging itself of the latter, the nation is progressive; when the
+false are retained, their poison spreads and the nation decays.
+
+The _periodical recurrence_ of historic ideas is one of their most
+striking features. The explanations offered for it have been various.
+The ancient doctrines of an exact repetition of events in the cycles of
+nature, and of the transmigration of souls, drew much support from it;
+and the modern modification of the latter theory as set forth by
+Wordsworth and Lessing, are distinctly derived from the same source.
+Rightly elucidated, the philosophical historian will find in it an
+invaluable clue to the unravelment of the tangled skein of human
+endeavor.
+
+Historic periodicity is on the one side an organic law of memory,
+dependent upon the revival of transmitted ancestral impressions. A
+prevailing idea though over-cultivation exhausts its organic correlate,
+and leads to defective nutrition of that part in the offspring. Hence
+they do not pursue the same idea as their fathers, but revert to a
+remoter ancestral historic idea, the organic correlate of which has
+lain fallow, thus gained strength. It is brought forth as new, receives
+additions by contiguity and similarity, is ardently pursued,
+over-cultivated, and in time supplanted by another revival.
+
+But this material side corresponds to an all-important mental one. As an
+organic process only, the history of periodic ideas is thus
+satisfactorily explained, but he who holds this explanation to be
+exhaustive sees but half the problem.
+
+The permanence of a historic idea, I have stated, is in direct
+proportion to the number of true ideas in its composition; the
+impression it makes on the organic substrata of memory is in turn in
+proportion to its permanence. The element of decay is the destructive
+effects of natural trains of thought out of accord with the logically
+true trains. These cause defective cerebral nutrition, which is thus
+seen to arise, so far as influenced by the operations of the memory,
+from relations of truth and error. There is a physiological tendency in
+the former to preserve and maintain in activity; in the latter to
+disappear. The percentage of true concepts which makes up the complexity
+of a historic idea gives the principal factor towards calculating its
+probable recurrence. Of course, a second factor is the physiological one
+of nutrition itself.
+
+The next important distinction in discussing historic ideas is between
+those which are held consciously, and those which operate
+unconsciously. The former are always found to be more active, and more
+amenable to correction. An unconscious idea is a product of the natural,
+not the logical laws of mind, and is therefore very apt to be largely
+false. It is always displaced with advantage by a conscious aim.
+
+One of the superficial fallacies of the day, which pass under the name
+of philosophy, is to maintain that any such historic idea is the best
+possible one for the time and place in which it is found. I am led to
+refer to this by the false light it has thrown on religious history.
+Herbert Spencer remarks in one of his essays:[236-1] "All religious
+creeds, during the eras in which they are severally held, are the best
+that could be held." "All are good for their times and places." So far
+from this being the case, there never has been a religion but that an
+improvement in it would have straightway exerted a beneficent effect.
+Man, no matter what his condition, can always derive immediate good
+from higher conceptions of Deity than he himself has elaborated. Nor is
+the highest conception possible an idealization of self, as I have
+sufficiently shown in a previous chapter, but is one drawn wholly from
+the realm of the abstract. Moreover, as a matter of history, we know
+that in abundant instances, the decay of nations can be traced largely
+to the base teachings of their religious instructors. To maintain that
+such religions were "the best possible ones" for the time and place is
+the absurdest optimism. In what a religion shares of the abstractly true
+it is beneficent; in what it partakes of the untrue it is deleterious.
+This, and no other canon, must be our guide.
+
+The ideas of religious history obey the same laws as other historic
+ideas. They grow, decay, are supplanted and revive again in varying
+guises, in accordance with the processes of organic nutrition as
+influenced by the truth or falsity of their component ideas. Their
+tendency to personification is stronger, because of the much greater
+nearness they have to the individual desire. The one aspiration of a
+high-spirited people when subjugated will be freedom; and in the lower
+stages of culture they will be very certain to fabricate a myth of a
+deliverer to come.
+
+In like manner, every member of a community shares with his fellow
+members some wish, hope or ambition dependent on unknown control and
+therefore religious in character, which will become the "formative idea"
+of the national religious development.
+
+Of the various ideas in religious history there are three which, through
+their permanence and frequent revival, we may justly suppose in
+accordance with the above-mentioned canons to contain a large measure of
+truth, and yet to be far from wholly true. They may be considered as
+leading moments in religious growth, yet withal lacking something or
+other essential to the satisfaction of the religious sentiment. The
+first of these is the idea of the _perfected individual_; the second the
+idea of the _perfected commonwealth_; the third, that of _personal
+survival_. These have been the formative ideas (_Ideen der Gestaltung_)
+in the prayers, myths, rites and religious institutions of many nations
+at widely separated times.
+
+Of the two first mentioned it may be said that every extended faith has
+accepted them to some degree. They are the secret of the alliances of
+religion with art, with government, with ethics, with science, education
+and sentiment.
+
+These alliances have often been taken by historians to contain the vital
+elements of religion itself, and many explanations based on one or
+another assumption of the kind have been proffered. Religion, while it
+may embrace any of them, is independent of them all. Its relations to
+them have been transitory, and the more so as their aims have been
+local and material. The brief duration of the subjection of religion to
+such incongenial ties was well compared by Lord Herbert of Cherbury to
+the early maturity of brutes, who attain their full growth in a year or
+two, while man needs a quarter of a century.[239-1] The inferior aims of
+the religious sentiment were discarded one after another to make way for
+higher ones, which were slowly dawning upon it. In this progress it was
+guided largely by the three ideas I have mentioned, which have been in
+many forms leading stimuli of the religious thought of the race.
+
+First, of the _idea of the perfected individual_.
+
+Many writers have supposed that the contemplation of Power in nature
+first stirred religious thought in man. Though this is not the view
+taken in this book, no one will question that the leading trait in the
+gods of barbarism is physical strength. The naive anthropomorphism of
+the savage makes his a god of a mighty arm, a giant in stature, puissant
+and terrible. He hurls the thunderbolt, and piles up the mountains in
+sport. His name is often The Strong One, as in the Allah, Eloah of the
+Semitic tongues. Hercules, Chon, Melkarth, Dorsanes, Thor and others
+were of the most ancient divinities in Greece, Egypt, Phoenicia,
+India, and Scandinavia, and were all embodiments of physical force.
+Such, too, was largely the character of the Algonkin Messou, who
+scooped out the great lakes with his hands and tore up the largest trees
+by the roots. The huge boulders from the glacial epoch which are
+scattered over their country are the pebbles he tossed in play or in
+anger. The cleft in the Andes, through which flows the river Funha, was
+opened by a single blow of Nemqueteba, chief god of the Muyscas. In all
+such and a hundred similar legends, easy to quote, we see the notion of
+strength, brute force, muscular power, was that deemed most appropriate
+to divinity, and that which he who would be godlike must most sedulously
+seek. When filled with the god, the votary felt a surpassing vigor. The
+Berserker fury was found in the wilds of America and Africa, as well as
+among the Fiords. Sickness and weakness, on the contrary, were signs
+that the gods were against him. Therefore, in all early stages of
+culture, the office of priest and physician was one. Conciliation of the
+gods was the catholicon.
+
+Such deities were fearful to behold. They are represented as mighty of
+stature and terrible of mien, calculated to appal, not attract, to
+inspire fear, not to kindle love. In tropical America, in Egypt, in
+Thibet, almost where you will, there is little to please the eye in the
+pictures and statues of deities.
+
+In Greece alone, a national temperament, marvellously sensitive to
+symmetry, developed the combination of maximum strength with perfect
+form in the sun-god, Apollo, and of grace with beauty in Aphrodite. The
+Greeks were the apostles of the religion of beauty. Their philosophic
+thought saw the permanent in the Form, which outlives strength, and is
+that alone in which the race has being. In its transmission love is the
+agent, and Aphrodite, unmatched in beauty and mother of love, was a
+creation worthy of their devotion. Thus with them the religious
+sentiment still sought its satisfaction in the individual, not indeed in
+the muscle, but in the feature and expression.
+
+When the old gods fell, the Christian fathers taught their flocks to
+abhor the beautiful as one with the sensual. St. Clement of Alexandria
+and Tertullian describe Christ as ugly of visage and undersized, a sort
+of Socrates in appearance.[241-1] Christian art was long in getting
+recognition. The heathens were the first to represent in picture and
+statues Christ and the apostles, and for long the fathers of the church
+opposed the multiplication of such images, saying that the inward beauty
+was alone desirable. Christian art reached its highest inspiration under
+the influence of Greek culture after the fall of Constantinople. In the
+very year, however, that Rafaello Sanzio met his premature death, Luther
+burned the decretals of the pope in the market-place of Wittenberg, and
+preached a doctrine as hostile to art as was that of Eusebius and
+Chrysostom. There was no longer any hope for the religion of beauty.
+
+Nevertheless, under the influence of the revival of ancient art which
+arose with Winckelmann towards the close of the last century, a gospel
+of esthetics was preached. Its apostles were chiefly Germans, and among
+them Schiller and Goethe are not inconspicuous names. The latter, before
+his long life was closed, began to see the emptiness of such teachings,
+and the violence perpetrated on the mind by forcing on the religious
+sentiment the food fit only for the esthetic emotions.
+
+The highest conception of individual perfection is reached in a
+character whose physical and mental powers are symmetrically trained,
+and always directed by conscious reason to their appropriate ends.
+Self-government, founded on self-knowledge, wards off the pangs of
+disappointment by limiting ambition to the attainable. The affections
+and emotions, and the pleasures of sensation as well, are indulged in or
+abstained from, but never to the darkening of the intellect. All the
+talents are placed at usury; every power exercised systematically and
+fruitfully with a consecration to a noble purpose.
+
+This is the religion of culture. None other ranks among its adherents so
+many great minds; men, as Carlyle expresses it, of much religiosity, if
+of little religion. The ideal is a taking one. Such utter self-reliance,
+not from ignorance, but from the perfection of knowledge, was that which
+Buddha held up to his followers: "Self is the God of self; who else
+should be the God?" In this century Goethe, Wordsworth, beyond all
+others Wilhelm von Humboldt, have set forth this ideal. Less strongly
+intellectual natures, as Maine de Biran, De Senancourt, and Matthew
+Arnold, listen with admiration, but feel how unknown to the mass of
+human kind must remain the tongue these masters speak.
+
+Thus did the religious sentiment seek its satisfaction in the
+idealization, first of physical force, then of form, and last of mental
+force, but in each case turned away unsatisfied. Wherein did these
+ideals fail? The first mentioned in exalting power over principle, might
+over right. As was well said by the philosophical Novalis: "The ideal of
+morality has no more dangerous rival than the ideal of physical
+strength, of the most vigorous life. Through it man is transformed into
+a reasoning beast, whose brutal cleverness has a fascination for weak
+minds."[243-1] The religion of beauty failed in that it addressed the
+esthetic emotions, not the reasoning power. Art does not promote the
+good; it owes no fealty to either utility or ethics: in itself, it must
+be, in the negative sense of the words, at once useless and immoral.
+"Nature is not its standard, nor is truth its chief end."[244-1] Its
+spirit is repose, "the perfect form in perfect rest;" whereas the spirit
+of religion is action because of imperfection. Even the gods must know
+of suffering, and partake, in incarnations, of the miseries of men.
+
+In the religion of culture what can we blame? That it is lacking in the
+impulses of action through the isolation it fosters; that it is and must
+be limited to a few, for it provides no defense for the weaknesses the
+many inherit; that its tendency is antagonistic to religion, as it cuts
+away the feeling of dependence, and the trust in the unknown; that it
+allows too little to enthusiasm ever to become a power.
+
+On the other hand, what momenta of true religious thought have these
+ideals embraced? Each presents some. Physical vigor, regarded as a sign
+of complete nutrition, is an indispensable preliminary to the highest
+religion. Correct thought cannot be, without sufficient and appropriate
+food. If the nourishment is inadequate, defective energy of the brain
+will be transmitted, and the offspring will revert ancestrally to a
+lower plane of thought. "It thus happens that the minds of persons of
+high religious culture by ancestral descent, and the intermarriage of
+religious families, so strangely end in the production of children
+totally devoid of moral sense and religious sentiment--moral imbeciles
+in short."[245-1] From such considerations of the necessity of physical
+vigor to elevated thought, Descartes predicted that if the human race
+ever attain perfection it will be chiefly through the art of medicine.
+Not alone from emotions of sympathy did the eminent religious teachers
+of past ages maintain that the alleviation and prevention of suffering
+is the first practical duty of man; but it was from a perhaps
+unconscious perception of the antagonism of bodily degeneration to
+mental progress.
+
+So, too, the religion of beauty and art contains an indefeasible germ of
+true religious thought. Art sees the universal in the isolated fact; it
+redeemed the coarse symbol of earlier days by associating it with the
+emotions of joy, instead of fear; commencing with an exaltation of the
+love to sex, it etherealized and ennobled passion; it taught man to look
+elsewhere than to material things for his highest pleasure, for the work
+of art always has its fortune in the imagination and not in the senses
+of the observer; conceptions of order and harmony are familiar to it;
+its best efforts seek to bring all the affairs of life under unity and
+system;[246-1] and thus it strengthens the sentiment of moral
+government, which is the first postulate of religion.
+
+The symmetry of the individual, as understood in the religion of
+culture, is likewise a cherished article of true religion. Thus only can
+it protect personality against the pitfalls of self-negation and
+absorption, which communism and pantheism dig for it. The integrity and
+permanence of the person is the keystone to religion, as it is to
+philosophy and ethics. None but a false teacher would measure our duty
+to our neighbor by a higher standard than our love to ourselves. The
+love of God alone is worthy to obscure it.
+
+Professor Steinthal has said: "Every people has its own religion. The
+national temperament hears the tidings and interprets them as it
+can."[246-2] On the other hand, Humboldt--perhaps the profoundest
+thinker on these subjects of his generation--doubted whether religions
+can be measured in reference to nations and sects, because "religion is
+altogether subjective, and rests solely on the conceptive powers of the
+individual."[247-1] Whatever the creed, a pure mind will attach itself
+to its better elements, a base one to its brutal and narrow doctrines. A
+national religion can only be regarded as an average, applicable to the
+majority, not entirely correct of the belief of any one individual,
+wholly incorrect as to a few. Yet it is indubitable that the national
+temperament creates the ideal which gives the essence of religion. Races
+like the Tartar Mongols, who, as we are informed by the Abbe Huc, not
+unfrequently move their tents several times a day, out of simple
+restlessness, cannot desire the same stability that is sought by other
+races, who have the beaver's instinct for building and colonizing, such
+as the Romans. Buddhism, which sets up the ideal of the individual, is
+an acceptable theory to the former, while the latter, from earliest
+ages, fostered religious views which taught the subordination of the
+individual to the community, in other words, the _idea of the perfected
+commonwealth_.
+
+This is the conception at the base of all theocracies, forms of
+government whose statutes are identified with the precepts of religion.
+Instead of a constitution there is the Law, given and sanctioned by God
+as a rule of action.
+
+The Law is at first the Myth applied. Its object is as much to
+propitiate the gods as to preserve social order. It is absolute because
+it is inspired. Many of its ordinances as drawn from the myth are
+inapplicable to man, and are unjust or frivolous. Yet such as it is, it
+rules the conduct of the commonwealth and expresses the ideal of its
+perfected condition.
+
+All the oldest codes of laws are religious, and are alleged revelations.
+The Pentateuch, the Avesta, the Laws of Manu, the Twelve Tables, the
+Laws of Seleucus, all carry the endorsement, "And God said." Their real
+intention is to teach the relation of man to God, rather than the
+relations of man to man. On practical points--on the rights of property,
+on succession and wills, on contracts, on the adoption of neighbors, and
+on the treatment of enemies--they often violate the plainest dictates of
+natural justice, of common humanity, even of family affection. Their
+precepts are frequently frivolous, sometimes grossly immoral. But if
+these laws are compared with the earliest myths and cults, and the
+opinions then entertained of the gods, and how to propitiate them, it
+becomes easy to see how the precepts of the law flowed from these
+inchoate imaginings of the religious sentiment.[249-1]
+
+The improvement of civil statutes did not come through religion.
+Experience, observation and free thought taught man justice, and his
+kindlier emotions were educated by the desire to cherish and preserve
+which arose from family and social ties. As these came to be recognized
+as necessary relations of society, religion appropriated them,
+incorporated them into her ideal, and even claimed them as her
+revelations. History largely invalidates this claim. The moral progress
+of mankind has been mainly apart from dogmatic teachings, often in
+conflict with them. An established rule of faith may enforce obedience
+to its statutes, but can never develop morals. "True virtue is
+independent of every religion, and incompatible with any which is
+accepted on authority."[249-2]
+
+Yet thinkers, even the best of them, appear to have had difficulty in
+discerning any nobler arena for the religious sentiment than the social
+one. "Religion," says Matthew Arnold, "is conduct." It is the power
+"which makes for righteousness." "As civil law," said Voltaire,
+"enforces morality in public, so the use of religion is to compel it in
+private life." "A complete morality," observes a contemporary Christian
+writer, "meets all the practical ends of religion."[250-1] In such
+expressions man's social relations, his duty to his neighbor, are taken
+to exhaust religion. It is still the idea of the commonwealth, the
+religion of morality, the submission to a law recognized as divine.
+Whether the law is a code of ethics, the decision of a general council,
+or the ten commandments, it is alike held to be written by the finger of
+God, and imperative. Good works are the demands of such religion.
+
+Catholicism, which is altogether theocratic and authoritative, which
+pictures the church as an ideal commonwealth, has always most flourished
+in those countries where the Roman colonies left their more important
+traces. The reformation of Protestantism was a reversion to the ideal of
+the individual, which was that of ancient Teutonic faith. In more recent
+times Catholicism itself has modified the rigidity of its teachings in
+favor of the religion of sentiment, as it has been called, inaugurated
+by Chateaubriand, and which is that attractive form seen in the writings
+of Madame Swetchine and the La Ferronnais. These elevated souls throw a
+charm around the immolation of self, which the egotism of the Protestant
+rarely matches.
+
+Thus the ideal of the commonwealth is found in those creeds which give
+prominence to law, to ethics, and to sentiment, the altruistic elements
+of mind. It fails, because its authority is antagonistic to morality in
+that it impedes the search for the true. Neither is morality religion,
+for it deals with the relative, while religion should guide itself by
+the absolute. Every great religious teacher has violated the morality of
+his day. Even sentiment, attractive as it is, is no ground on which to
+build a church. It is, at best, one of the lower emotional planes of
+action. Love itself, which must be the kernel of every true religion, is
+not in earthly relations an altruistic sentiment. The measure and the
+source of all such love, is self-love. The creed which rejects this as
+its corner stone will build in vain.
+
+While, therefore, the advantages of organization and action are on the
+side of the faiths which see in religion a form of government, they
+present fewer momenta of religious thought than those which encourage
+the greater individuality. All forms and reforms, remarks Machiavelli,
+in one of his notes to Livy, have been brought about by the exertions of
+one man.[251-1] Religious reforms, especially, never have originated in
+majorities. The reformatory decrees of the Council of Trent are due to
+Martin Luther.
+
+Either ideal, raised to its maximum, not only fails to satisfy the
+religious sentiment, but puts upon it a forced meaning, and is therefore
+not what this sentiment asks. This may be illustrated by comparing two
+remarkable works, which, by a singular coincidence, were published in
+the same year, and which better than any others present these ideals
+pushed to their extreme. It is characteristic of them that neither
+professes to treat of religion, but of politics. The one is entitled,
+"_An Attempt to define the limits of Government_," and is by Wilhelm von
+Humboldt; the other is the better known work of Auguste Comte, his
+"_System of Positive Polity_."[252-1]
+
+The first lays down the principle that the highest end of man is the
+utmost symmetrical education of his own powers in their individual
+peculiarities. To accomplish this, he must enjoy the largest freedom of
+thought and action consistent with the recognition of the same right in
+others. In regard to religion, the state should have nothing to do with
+aiding it, but should protect the individual in his opposition to any
+authoritative form of it. As a wholly personal and subjective matter,
+social relations do not concern it. In fine, the aim of both government
+and education should be the development of an individualism in which an
+enlightened intellect controls and directs all the powers toward an
+exalted self-cultivation.
+
+Comte reverses this picture. His fundamental principle is to subordinate
+the sum total of our existence to our social relations; real life is to
+live in others; not the individual but humanity is the only worthy
+object of effort. Social polity therefore includes the whole of
+development; the intellect should have no other end but to subserve the
+needs of the race, and always be second to the altruistic sentiments.
+Love toward others should absorb self-love. "_Il est encore meilleur
+d'aimer que d'etre aime._"
+
+Such is the contrast between the ideal of the individual as exhibited by
+the Religion of Culture, and the ideal of the commonwealth as portrayed
+in the Religion of Humanity.
+
+The whole duty of man, says the one school, is to live for others; nay,
+says the other, it is to live intelligently for himself; the intellect,
+says the former, should always be subordinated to society, and be led by
+the emotions; intellect, says the latter, should ever be in the
+ascendant, and absolutely control and direct the emotions; the
+theoretical object of government, says the former, is to enable the
+affections and thoughts to pass into action; not so, says the latter,
+its only use is to give the individual secure leisure to develope his
+own affections and thoughts. Mutual relation is the key note of the
+former, independence of the latter; the former is the apotheosis of
+love, the latter of reason.
+
+Strictly and literally the apotheosis. For, differing as they do on such
+vital points, they both agree in dispensing with the ideas of God and
+immortality as conceptions superfluous in the realization of the
+theoretical perfection they contemplate. Not that either scheme omits
+the religious sentiment. On the contrary, it is especially prominent in
+one, and very well marked in the other. Both assume its growing
+prominence, never its extinction. Both speak of it as an integral part
+of man's highest nature.
+
+Comte and Humboldt were thinkers too profound to be caught by the facile
+fallacy that the rapid changes in religious thought betoken the early
+abrogation of all creeds. Lessing, the philosophers of the French
+revolution, James Mill, Schopenhauer and others fell into this error.
+They were not wiser than the clown of Horace, who seated himself by the
+rushing stream, thinking it must soon run itself out--
+
+    Expectat rusticus dum defluat amnis; at ille
+    Labitur et labetur in omne volubilis aevum.
+
+Vain is the dream that man will ever reach the point when he will think
+no more of the gods. Dogmas may disappear, but religion will flourish;
+destroy the temple and sow it with salt, in a few days it rises again
+built for aye on the solid ground of man's nature.
+
+So long as the race is upon earth, just so long will the religious
+sentiment continue to crave its appropriate food, and this at last is
+recognized even by those who estimate it at the lowest. "To yield this
+sentiment reasonable satisfaction," observes Professor Tyndall in one of
+his best known addresses, "is the problem of problems at the present
+hour. It is vain to oppose it with a view to its extirpation." The
+"general thaw of theological creeds," which Spencer remarks upon, is no
+sign of the loss of interest in religious subjects, but the reverse.
+Coldness and languor are the premonitions of death, not strife and
+defence.
+
+But as the two moments of religious thought which I have now discussed
+have both reached their culmination in a substantial repudiation of
+religion, that which stimulates the religious sentiment to-day must be
+something different from either. This I take to be the _idea of personal
+survival_ after physical death, or, as it is generally called, the
+doctrine of the immortality of the soul.
+
+This is the main dogma in the leading religions of the world to-day. "A
+God," remarks Sir William Hamilton, speaking for the enlightened
+Christians of his generation, "is to us of practical interest, only
+inasmuch as he is the condition of our immortality."[256-1] In his
+attractive work, _La Vie Eternelle_, whose large popularity shows it to
+express the prevailing views of modern Protestant thought, Ernest
+Naville takes pains to distinguish that Christianity is not a means of
+living a holy life so much as one of gaining a blessed hereafter. The
+promises of a life after death are numerous and distinct in the New
+Testament. Most of the recommendations of action and suffering in this
+world are based on the doctrine of compensation in the world to come.
+
+Mohammed taught the same tenet with equal or even greater emphasis. In
+one sura he says: "To whatever is evil may they be likened who believe
+not in a future life;" and elsewhere: "As for the blessed ones--their
+place is Paradise. There shall they dwell so long as the heavens and the
+earth endure, enjoying the imperishable bounties of God. But as for
+those who shall be consigned to misery, their place is the Fire. There
+shall they abide so long as the heavens and the earth shall last, unless
+God wills it otherwise."[256-2]
+
+In Buddhism, as generally understood, the doctrine of a future life is
+just as clear. Not only does the soul wander from one to another animal
+body, but when it has completed its peregrinations and reaches its final
+abode, it revels in all sorts of bliss. For the condition of Nirvana,
+understood by philosophical Buddhists as that of the extinction of
+desires even to the desire of life, and of the complete enlightenment of
+the mind even to the recognition that existence itself is an illusion,
+has no such meaning to the millions who profess themselves the followers
+of the sage of Kapilavastu. They take it to be a material Paradise with
+pleasures as real as those painted by Mohammed, wherein they will dwell
+beyond all time, a reward for their devotions and faith in this life.
+
+These three religions embrace three-fourths of the human race and all
+its civilized nations, with trifling exceptions. They displaced and
+extinguished the older creeds and in a few centuries controlled the
+earth; but as against each other their strife has been of little avail.
+The reason is, they share the same momentum of religious thought,
+differing in its interpretation not more among themselves than do
+orthodox members of either faith in their own fold. Many enlightened
+Muslims and Christians, for example, consider the descriptions of
+Paradise given in the Koran and the Apocalypse to convey wholly
+spiritual meanings.
+
+There has been so much to surprise in the rapid extension of these
+faiths that the votaries of each claim manifest miraculous
+interposition. The religious idea of an after life is a sufficient
+moment to account for the phenomenon. I say the _religious_ idea, for,
+with one or two exceptions, however distinct had been the belief in a
+hereafter, that belief had not a religious coloring until they gave it
+such. This distinction is an important one.
+
+Students of religions have hitherto attributed too much weight to the
+primitive notion of an existence after death. It is common enough, but
+it rarely has anything at all to do with the simpler manifestations of
+the religious sentiment. These are directed to the immediate desires of
+the individual or the community, and do not look beyond the present
+life. The doctrine of compensation hereafter is foreign to them. I have
+shown this at length so far as the religions of America were concerned.
+"Neither the delights of a heaven on the one hand, nor the terrors of a
+hell on the other were ever held out by priests or sages as an incentive
+to well doing, or a warning to the evil disposed."[258-1] The same is
+true of the classical religions of Greece and Rome, of Carthage and
+Assyria. Even in Egypt the manner of death and the rites of interment
+had much more to do with the fate of the soul, than had its thoughts
+and deeds in the flesh. The opinions of Socrates and Plato on the soul
+as something which always existed and whose after life is affected by
+its experiences here, struck the Athenians as novel and innovating.
+
+On the other hand, the ancient Germans had a most lively faith in the
+life hereafter. Money was loaned in this world to be repaid in the next.
+But with them also, as with the Aztecs, the future was dependent on the
+character or mode of death rather than the conduct of life. He who died
+the "straw-death" on the couch of sickness looked for little joy in the
+hereafter; but he who met the "spear-death" on the field of battle went
+at once to Odin, to the hall of Valhalla, where the heroes of all time
+assembled to fight, eat boar's fat and drink beer. Even this rude belief
+gave them such an ascendancy over the materialistic Romans, that these
+distinctly felt that in the long run they must succumb to a bravery
+which rested on such a mighty moment as this.[259-1]
+
+The Israelites do not seem to have entertained any general opinion on an
+existence after death. No promise in the Old Testament refers to a
+future life. The religion there taught nowhere looks beyond the grave.
+It is materialistic to the fullest extent. Hence, a large body of
+orthodox Jewish philosophers, the Sadducees, denied the existence of the
+soul apart from the body.
+
+The central doctrine of the teachings of Jesus of Nazareth, the leading
+impulse which he gave to the religious thought of his age, was that the
+thinking part of man survives his physical death, and that its condition
+does not depend on the rites of interment, as other religions then
+taught,[260-1] but on the character of its thoughts during life here.
+Filled with this new and sublime idea, he developed it in its numerous
+applications, and drew from it those startling inferences, which, to
+this day, stagger his followers, and have been in turn, the terror and
+derision of his foes. This he saw, that against a mind inwardly
+penetrated with the full conviction of a life hereafter, obtainable
+under known conditions, the powers of this world are utterly futile, and
+its pleasures hollow phantoms.
+
+The practical energy of this doctrine was immensely strengthened by
+another, which is found very obscurely, if at all, stated in his own
+words, but which was made the central point of their teaching by his
+immediate followers. The Christianity they preached was not a
+philosophical scheme for improving the race, but rested on the
+historical fact of a transaction between God and man, and while they
+conceded everlasting existence to all men, all would pass it in the
+utmost conceivable misery, except those who had learned of these
+historical events, and understood them as the church prescribed.
+
+As the ancient world placed truth in ideas and not in facts, no teaching
+could well have been more radically contrary to its modes of thought;
+and the doctrine once accepted, the spirit of proselytizing came with
+it.
+
+I have called this idea a new one to the first century of our era, and
+so it was in Europe and Syria. But in India, Sakyamuni, probably five
+hundred years before, had laid down in sententious maxims the
+philosophical principle which underlies the higher religious doctrine of
+a future life. These are his words, and if through the efforts of
+reasoning we ever reach a demonstration of the immortality of the soul,
+we shall do it by pursuing the argument here indicated: "Right thought
+is the path to life everlasting. Those who think do not die."[262-1]
+
+Truth alone contains the elements of indefinite continuity; and truth is
+found only in the idea, in correct thought.
+
+Error in the intellectual processes corresponds to pain in sensation; it
+is the premonition of waning life, of threatened annihilation; it
+contains the seed of cessation of action or death. False reasoning is
+self-destructive. The man who believes himself invulnerable will
+scarcely survive his first combat. A man's true ideas are the most he
+can hope, and all that he should wish, to carry with him to a life
+hereafter. Falsehood, sin, is the efficient agent of death. As Bishop
+Hall says: "There is a kind of not-being in sin; for sin is not an
+existence of somewhat that is, but a deficiency of that rectitude which
+should be; it is a privation, as blindness is a privation of sight."
+
+While the religious doctrine of personal survival has thus a position
+defensible on grounds of reason as being that of the inherent permanence
+of self-conscious truth, it also calls to its aid and indefinitely
+elevates the most powerful of all the emotions, _love_. This, as I have
+shown in the second chapter, is the sentiment which is characteristic
+of _preservative_ acts. Self-love, which is prominent in the idea of the
+perfected individual, sex-love, which is the spirit of the multiform
+religious symbolism of the reproductive act, and the love of race, which
+is the chief motor in the religion of humanity, are purified of their
+grosser demands and assigned each its meet post in the labor of uniting
+the conceptions of the true under the relation of personality.
+
+The highest development of which such love is capable arises through the
+contemplation of those verities which are abstract and eternal, and
+which thus set forth, to the extent the individual mind is capable of
+receiving it, the completed notion of diuturnity. This highest love is
+the "love of God." A Supreme Intelligence, one to which all truth is
+perfect, must forever dwell in such contemplation. Therefore the deeper
+minds of Christianity define man's love of God, as God's love to
+himself. "Eternal life," says Ernest Naville, "is in its principle the
+union with God and the joy that results from that union."[263-1] The
+pious William Law wrote: "No man can reach God with his love, or have
+union with Him by it, but he who is inspired with that one same spirit
+of love, with which God loved himself from all eternity, before there
+was any creation."[264-1]
+
+Attractive as the idea of personal survival is in itself, and potent as
+it has been as a moment of religious thought, it must be ranked among
+those that are past. While the immortality of the soul retains its
+interest as a speculative inquiry, I venture to believe that as an idea
+in religious history, it is nigh inoperative; that as an element in
+devotional life it is of not much weight; and that it will gradually
+become less so, as the real meaning of religion reaches clearer
+interpretations.
+
+Its decay has been progressive, and common to all the creeds which
+taught it as a cardinal doctrine, though most marked in Christianity. A
+century ago Gibbon wrote: "The ancient Christians were animated by a
+contempt for their present existence, and by a just confidence of
+immortality, of which the doubtful but imperfect faith of modern ages
+cannot give us any adequate notion."[264-2] How true this is can be
+appreciated only by those who study this doctrine in the lives and
+writings of the martyrs and fathers of the primitive church.
+
+The breach which Gibbon remarked has been indefinitely widened since his
+time. What has brought this about, and what new moment in religious
+thought seems about to supply its place, will form an appropriate close
+to the present series of studies. In its examination, I shall speak only
+of Christian thought, since it leads the way which other systems will
+ultimately follow.
+
+In depicting the influences which have led and are daily leading with
+augmented force to the devitalizing of the doctrine of immortality, I
+may with propriety confine myself to those which are themselves strictly
+religious. For the change I refer to is not one brought about by the
+opponents of religion, by materialistic doctrines, but is owing to the
+development of the religious sentiment itself. Instead of tending to an
+abrogation of that sentiment, it may be expected to ennoble its
+emotional manifestations and elevate its intellectual conceptions.
+
+Some of these influences are historical, as the repeated disappointments
+in the second coming of Christ, and the interest of proselytizing
+churches to interpret this event allegorically. Those which I deem of
+more importance, however, are such as are efficient to-day, and probably
+will continue to be the main agents in the immediate future of religious
+development. They are:
+
+(1.) The recognition of the grounds of ethics.
+
+(2.) The recognition of the cosmical relations.
+
+(3.) The clearer defining of life.
+
+(4.) The growing immateriality of religious thought.
+
+(1.) The authority of the Law was assumed in the course of time by most
+Christian churches, and the interests of morality and religion were
+claimed to be identical. The Roman church with its developed casuistry
+is ready to prescribe the proper course of conduct in every emergency;
+and if we turn to many theological writers of other churches, Dick's
+_Philosophy of Religion_ for instance, we find moral conduct regarded as
+the important aim of the Christian life. Morality without religion,
+works without faith, are pronounced to be of no avail in a religious,
+and of very questionable value in a social sense. Some go so far as to
+deny that a person indifferent to the prevailing tenets of religion can
+lead a pure and moral life. Do away with the belief in a hereafter of
+rewards and punishments, say these, and there is nothing left to
+restrain men from the worst excesses, or at least from private sin.
+
+Now, however, the world is growing to perceive that morality is
+separable from religion; that it arose independently, from a gradual
+study of the relations of man to man, from principles of equity inherent
+in the laws of thought, and from considerations of expediency which
+deprive its precepts of the character of universality. Religion is
+subjective, and that in which it exerts an influence on morality is not
+its contents, but the reception of them peculiar to the individual.
+Experience alone has taught man morals; pain and pleasure are the forms
+of its admonitions; and each generation sees more clearly that the
+principles of ethics are based on immutable physical laws. Moreover, it
+has been shown to be dangerous to rest morality on the doctrine of a
+future life; for apart from the small effect the terrors of a hereafter
+have on many sinners, as that doctrine is frequently rejected, social
+interests suffer. And, finally, it is debasing and hurtful to religion
+to make it a substitute for police magistracy.[267-1]
+
+The highest religion would certainly enforce the purest morality; but it
+is equally true that such a religion would enjoin much not approved by
+the current opinions of the day. The spirit of the reform inaugurated by
+Luther was a protest against the subjection of the religious sentiment
+to a moral code. With the independence thus achieved, it came to be
+recognized that to the full extent that morality is essential to
+religion, it can be reached as well or better without a system of
+rewards and punishments after death, than with one. Both religion and
+morality stand higher, when a conception of an after life for this
+purpose is dropped.
+
+(2.) The recognition of the cosmical relations has also modified the
+views of personal survival. The expansion of the notions of space and
+time by the sciences of geology and astronomy has, as I before remarked,
+done away with the ancient belief that the culminating catastrophe of
+the universe will be the destruction of this world. An insignificant
+satellite of a third rate sun, which, with the far grander suns whose
+light we dimly discern at night, may all be swept away in some flurry of
+"cosmical weather," that the formation or the dissolution of such a body
+would be an event of any beyond the most insignificant importance, is
+now known to be almost ridiculous. To assert that at the end of a few or
+a few thousand years, on account of events transpiring on the surface of
+this planet, the whole relationship of the universe will be altered, a
+new heaven and a new earth be formed, and all therein be made
+subservient to the joys of man, becomes an indication of an arrogance
+which deserves to be called a symptom of insanity. Thus, much of the
+teleology both of the individual and the race taught by the primitive
+and medieval church undergoes serious alterations. The literal meaning
+of the millennium, the New Jerusalem, and the reign of God on earth has
+been practically discarded.
+
+With the disappearance of the ancient opinion that the universe was
+created for man, the sun to light him by day and the stars by night,
+disappeared also the later thesis that the happiness or the education of
+man was the aim of the Order in Things. The extent and duration of
+matter, if they indicate any purpose at all, suggest one incomparably
+vaster than this; while the laws of mind, which alone distinctly point
+to purpose, reveal one in which pain and pleasure have no part or lot,
+and one in which man has so small a share that it seems as if it must be
+indifferent what his fate may be. The slightest change in the atmosphere
+of the globe will sweep away his species forever.
+
+Schopenhauer classified all religions as optimisms or pessimisms. The
+faith of the future will be neither. What is agreeable or disagreeable
+to man will not be its standard of the excellence of the universe.
+However unwillingly, he is at last brought to confess that his comfort
+is not the chief nor even any visible aim of the order in things. In the
+course of that order it may be, nay, it is nigh certain, that the human
+species will pass through decadence to extinction along with so many
+other organisms. Neither as individuals nor as a race, neither in regard
+to this life nor to the next, does the idea of God, when ennobled by a
+contemplation of the cosmical relations, permit to man the effrontery
+of claiming that this universe and all that therein is was made with an
+eye to his wants and wishes, whether to gratify or to defeat them.
+
+(3.) The closer defining of life as a result of physical force, and the
+recognition of mind as a connotation of organism, promise to be active
+in elevating religious conceptions, but at the expense of the current
+notions of personality. Sensation and voluntary motion are common to the
+fetus, the brute and the plant, as well as to man. They are not part of
+his "soul." Intellect and consciousness, as I have shown, exclude
+sensation, and in these, if anywhere, he must look for his immortal
+part. Even here, error works destruction, and ignorance plants no seed
+of life. We are driven back to the teaching of Buddha, that true thought
+alone is that which does not die.
+
+Why should we ask more? What else is worth saving? Our present
+personality is a train of ideas base and noble, true and false, coherent
+through the contiguity of organs nourished from a common center. Another
+personality is possible, one of true ideas coherent through conscious
+similarity, independent of sensation, as dealing with topics not
+commensurate with it. Yet were this refuge gained, it leaves not much of
+the dogma that every man has an indestructible conscious soul, which
+will endure always, no matter what his conduct or thoughts have been.
+Rather does it favor the opinion expressed so well by Matthew Arnold in
+one of his sonnets:
+
+    "He who flagged not in the earthly strife
+    From strength to strength advancing--only he,
+    His soul well knit and all his battles won,
+    Mounts, and that hardly, to eternal life."
+
+Not only has the received doctrine of a "soul," as an undying something
+different from mind and peculiar to man, received no support from a
+closer study of nature,--rather objections amounting to refutation,--but
+it has reacted injuriously on morals, and through them on religion
+itself. Buddha taught that the same spark of immortality exists in man
+and brute, and actuated by this belief laid down the merciful rule to
+his disciples: "Do harm to no breathing thing." The apostle Paul on the
+other hand, recognizing in the lower animals no such claim on our
+sympathy, asks with scorn: "Doth God care for oxen?" and actually strips
+from a humane provision of the old Mosaic code its spirit of charity, in
+order to make it subserve a point in his polemic.
+
+(4.) As the arrogance of the race has thus met a rebuke, so has the
+egotism of the individual. His religion at first was a means of securing
+material benefits; then a way to a joyous existence beyond the tomb: the
+love of self all the time in the ascendant.
+
+This egoism in the doctrine of personal survival has been repeatedly
+flung at it by satirists, and commented on by philosophers. The
+Christian who "hopes to be saved by grossly believing" has been felt on
+all hands to be as mean in his hope, as he is contemptible in his way of
+attaining it. To center all our religious efforts to the one end of
+getting joy--however we may define it--for our individual selves, has
+something repulsive in it to a deeply religious mind. Yet that such in
+the real significance of the doctrine of personal survival is granted by
+its ablest defenders. "The general expectation of future happiness can
+afford satisfaction only as it is a present object to the principle of
+self-love," says Dr. Butler, the eminent Lord Bishop of Durham, than
+whom no acuter analyst has written on the religious nature of man.
+
+Yet nothing is more certain than that the spirit of true religion wages
+constant war with the predominance or even presence of selfish aims.
+Self-love is the first and rudest form of the instinct of preservation.
+It is sublimed and sacrificed on the altar of holy passion. "Self,"
+exclaims the fervid William Law, "is both atheist and idolater; atheist,
+because it rejects God; idolater, because it is its own idol." Even when
+this lowest expression of the preservative instinct rises but to the
+height of sex-love, it renounces self, and rejoices in martyrdom. "All
+for love, or the world well lost," has been the motto of too many
+tragedies to be doubted now. By the side of the ancient Roman or the
+soldier of the French revolution, who through mere love of country
+marched joyously to certain death from which he expected no waking, does
+not the martyr compare unfavorably, who meets the same death, but does
+so because he believes that thereby he secures endless and joyous life?
+Is his love as real, as noble, as unselfish?
+
+Even the resistless physical energy which the clear faith in the life
+hereafter has so often imparted, becomes something uncongenial to the
+ripened religious meditation. Such faith brings about mighty effects in
+the arena of man's struggles, but it does so through a sort of
+mechanical action. An ulterior purpose is ahead, to wit, the salvation
+of the soul, and it may be regarded as one of the best established
+principles of human effort that every business is better done, when it
+is done for its own sake, out of liking for it, than for results
+expected from it.
+
+Of nothing is this more just than religion. Those blossoms of spiritual
+perfection, the purified reason, the submissive will, the sanctifying
+grace of abstract ideas, find no propitious airs amid the violent toil
+for personal survival, whether that is to be among the mead jugs of
+Valhalla, the dark-eyed houris of Paradise, or the "solemn troops and
+sweet society" of Christian dreams. Unmindful of these, the saintly
+psyche looks to nothing beyond truth; it asks no definite, still less
+personal, end to which this truth is to be applied; to find it is to
+love it, and to love it is enough.
+
+The doctrine I here broach, is no strange one to Christian thought. To
+be sure the exhortation, "Save your soul from Hell," was almost the sole
+incentive to religion in the middle ages, and is still the burden of
+most sermons. But St. Paul was quickened with a holier fire, that
+consumed and swept away such a personal motive, when he wrote: "Yea, I
+could wish that I myself were cast out from Christ as accursed, for the
+sake of my brethren, my kinsmen according to the flesh."[274-1] St.
+Augustine reveals the touch of the same inspiration in his passionate
+exclamation: "Far, O Lord, far from the heart of thy servant be it that
+I should rejoice in any joy whatever. The blessed life is the joy in
+truth alone."[274-2] And amid the paeans to everlasting life which fill
+the pages of the _De Imitatione Christi_, the medieval monk saw
+something yet greater, when he puts in the mouth of God the Father, the
+warning: "The wise lover thinks not of the gift, but of the love of the
+giver. He rests not in the reward, but in Me, beyond all
+rewards."[275-1] The mystery of great godliness is, that he who has it
+is as one who seeking nothing yet finds all things, who asking naught
+for his own sake, neither in the life here nor yet hereafter, gains that
+alone which is of worth in either.
+
+Pressed by such considerations, the pious Schleiermacher threw down the
+glaive on the side of religion half a century ago when he wrote: "Life
+to come, as popularly conceived, is the last enemy which speculative
+criticism has to encounter, and, if possible, to overcome." The course
+he marked out, however, was not that which promises success. Recurring
+to the austere theses of Spinoza, he sought to bring them into accord
+with a religion of emotion. The result was a refined Pantheism with its
+usual deceptive solutions.
+
+What recourse is left? Where are we to look for the intellectual moment
+of religion in the future? Let us review the situation.
+
+The religious sentiment has been shown to be the expression of
+unfulfilled desire, but this desire peculiar as dependent on unknown
+power. Material advantages do not gratify it, nor even spiritual joy
+when regarded as a personal sentiment. Preservation by and through
+relation with absolute intelligence has appeared to be the meaning of
+that "love of God" which alone yields it satisfaction. Even this is
+severed from its received doctrinal sense by the recognition of the
+speculative as above the numerical unity of that intelligence, and the
+limitation of personality which spiritual thought demands. The eternal
+laws of mind guarantee perpetuity to the extent they are obeyed--and no
+farther. They differ from the laws of force in that they convey a
+message which cannot be doubted concerning the purport of the order in
+nature, which is itself "the will of God." That message in its
+application is the same which with more or less articulate utterance
+every religion speaks--Seek truth: do good. Faith in that message,
+confidence in and willing submission to that order, this is all the
+religious sentiment needs to bring forth its sweetest flowers, its
+richest fruits.
+
+Such is the ample and satisfying ground which remains for the religion
+of the future to build upon. It is a result long foreseen by the clearer
+minds of Christendom. One who more than any other deserves to be classed
+among these writes: "Resignation to the will of God is the whole of
+piety. * * * Our resignation may be said to be perfect when we rest in
+his will as our end, as being itself most just and right and good.
+Neither is this at bottom anything more than faith, and honesty and
+fairness of mind; in a more enlarged sense, indeed, than these words are
+commonly used."[277-1]
+
+Goethe, who studied and reflected on religious questions more than is
+generally supposed, saw that in such a disposition of mind lie the
+native and strongest elements of religion. In one of his conversations
+with Chancellor Mueller, he observed: "Confidence and resignation, the
+sense of subjection to a higher will which rules the course of events
+but which we do not fully comprehend, are the fundamental principles of
+every better religion."[277-2]
+
+By the side of two such remarkable men, I might place the opinion of a
+third not less eminent than they--Blaise Pascal. In one part of his
+writings he sets forth the "marks of a true religion." Sifted from its
+physical ingredients, the faith he defines is one which rests on love
+and submission to God, and a clear recognition of the nature of man.
+
+Here I close these studies on the Religious Sentiment. They show it to
+be a late and probably a final development of mind. The intellect first
+reaches entire self-consciousness, the emotions first attain perfection
+of purpose, when guided by its highest manifestation. Man's history
+seems largely to have been a series of efforts to give it satisfaction.
+This will be possible only when he rises to a practical appreciation of
+the identity of truth, love and life.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[236-1] _Essay on the use of Anthropomorphism._ Mr. Spencer's argument,
+in his own words, is this:--"From the inability under which we labor to
+conceive of a Deity save as some idealization of ourselves, it
+inevitably results that in each age, among each people, and to a great
+extent in each individual, there must arise just that conception of
+Deity best adapted to the needs of the case." "All are good for their
+times and places." "All were beneficent in their effects on those who
+held them." It would be hard to quote from the records of theory-making
+an example of more complete indifference to acknowledged facts than
+these quotations set forth.
+
+[239-1] _De Veritate_, p. 216.
+
+[241-1] August Neander, _Geschichte der Christlichen Religion und
+Kirche_, Bd. i., ss. 160, 346. (Gotha, 1856.) St. Clement's description
+of Christ is ~Ton opsin aischron~. Tertullian says: "Nec humanae
+honestatis corpus fuit, nedum celestis claritatis."
+
+[243-1] Novalis, _Schriften_, B. i., s. 244.
+
+[244-1] A. Bain, _The Senses and the Intellect_, p. 607.
+
+[245-1] Dr. T. Laycock, _On some Organic Laws of Memory_, in the
+_Journal of Mental Science_, July, 1875, p. 178.
+
+[246-1] Speaking of the mission of the artist, Wilhelm von Humboldt
+says: "Die ganze Natur, treu und vollstaendig beobachtet, mit sich
+hinueber zu tragen, d. h. den Stoff seiner Erfahrungen dem Umfange der
+Welt gleich zu machen, diese ungeheure Masse einzelner und abgerissener
+Erscheinungen in eine l'ungetrennte Einheit und ein organisirtes Ganzes
+zu verwandeln; und dies durch alle die Organe zu thun, die ihm hierzu
+verliehen sind,--ist das letzte Ziel seines intellectuellen Bemuehen."
+_Ueber Goethe's Hermann und Dorothea_, Ab. IV.
+
+[246-2] _Zeitschrift fuer Voelkerpsychologie_, B. I. s. 48.
+
+[247-1] _Gesammelte Werke_. Bd. VII., s. 63.
+
+[249-1] See this forcibly brought out and abundantly illustrated in the
+work of M. Coulange, _La Cite Antique_.
+
+[249-2] W. von Humboldt, _Gesammelte Werke_. Bd. VII., p. 72.
+
+[250-1] H. L. Liddon, Canon of St. Paul's. _Some Elements of Religion_,
+p. 84.
+
+[251-1] The Chevalier Bunsen completed the moral estimate of the
+one-man-power, thus acknowledged by Machiavelli, in these words: "Alles
+Grosse geht aus vom Einzelnen, _aber nur in dem Masse, als dieser das
+Ich dem Ganzen opfert_." _Gott in der Geschichte_, Bd. I., s. 38.
+
+[252-1] W. von Humboldt, _Ideen zu einem Vorsuch, die Graenzen der
+Wirksamkeit des Staats zu bestimmen_, Breslau, 1851. Auguste Comte,
+_Systeme de Politique Positive_, Paris, 1851-4. The former was written
+many years before its publication.
+
+[256-1] _Lectures on Metaphysics_, Vol. I., p. 23.
+
+[256-2] _The Koran_, Suras xi., xvi.
+
+[258-1] _The Myths of the New World_, Chap. IX.
+
+[259-1] Jacob Grimm quite overlooked this important element in the
+religion of the ancient Germans. It is ably set forth by Adolf
+Holtzmann, _Deutsche Mythologie_, s. 196 sqq. (Leipzig, 1874).
+
+[260-1] The seemingly heartless reply he made to one of his disciples,
+who asked permission to perform the funeral rites at his father's grave:
+"Follow me; and let the dead bury their dead," is an obvious
+condemnation of one of the most widespread superstitions of the ancient
+world. So, according to an ingenious suggestion of Lord Herbert of
+Cherbury, was the fifth commandment of Moses: "Ne parentum seriem
+tanquam primam aliquam causam suspicerent homines, et proinde cultum
+aliquem Divinum illis deferrent, qualem ex honore parentum sperare
+liceat benedictionem, docuit." _De Veritate_, p. 231.
+
+Herbert Spencer in his _Essay on the Origin of Animal Worship_, calls
+ancestral worship "the universal first form of religious belief." This
+is very far from correct, but it is easy to see how a hasty thinker
+would be led into the error by the prominence of the ancient funereal
+ceremonies.
+
+[262-1] Dhammapada, 21.
+
+[263-1] _La Vie Eternelle_, p. 339.
+
+[264-1] _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_, Vol. I., ch. XV.
+
+[264-2] _Address to the Clergy_, p. 16.
+
+[267-1] "Toute religion, qu'on se permet de defendre comme une croyance
+qu'il est utile de laisser au peuple, ne peut plus esperer qu'une agonie
+plus ou moins prolongee." Condorcet, _De l'Esprit Humain_, Ep. V.
+
+[274-1] _Romans_, ch. ix., v. 3.
+
+[274-2] "Beata quippe vita est gaudium de veritate." Augustini
+_Confessionum_, Lib. x., caps. xxii., xxiii.
+
+[275-1] "Prudens amator non tam donum amantis considerat, quam dantis
+amorem. Nobilis amator non quiescit in dono, sed in me super omne
+donum." _De Imitatione Christi_, Lib. iii., cap. vi.
+
+[277-1] _Fifteen Sermons_ by Joseph Butler, Lord Bishop of Durham.
+Sermon "On the love of God."
+
+[277-2] _Unterhaltungen_, p. 131.
+
+
+
+
+INDICES.
+
+
+I. AUTHORS QUOTED.
+
+  Allen, H., 208.
+
+  Anaxagoras, 106.
+
+  Arnold, M., 249, 271.
+
+  Aristotle, 105.
+
+  Augustine, St., 20, 57, 93, 128, 191, 194, 274.
+
+
+  Bain, A., 9, 25, 52, 59, 87, 91, 244.
+
+  Barlow, H. C., 201.
+
+  Baxter, Richard, 60.
+
+  Boehmer, H., 7.
+
+  Boole, Geo., 24, 44, 104, 105, 108, 111.
+
+  Bunsen, 109, 251.
+
+  Butler, Bishop, 60, 119, 276.
+
+
+  Carlyle, 243.
+
+  Catlow, J. P., 14, 64.
+
+  Chateaubriand, 250.
+
+  Comte, A., 11, 39, 128, 187, 194, 252.
+
+  Condorcet, 267.
+
+  Cory, J. P., 191.
+
+  Coulange, 245.
+
+  Creuzer, 90, 106, 119, 127, 200, 212, 222.
+
+  Cussans, 210.
+
+
+  Dante, 93.
+
+  Darwin, C., 71, 88.
+
+  Dick, 266.
+
+  Dickson, J. T., 73.
+
+
+  Etheridge, J. W., 190.
+
+
+  Ferguson, 66.
+
+  Ferrier, J. F., 20, 28, 43, 97.
+
+  Feuchtersleben, 8, 54, 73.
+
+  Feuerbach, 194.
+
+  Fothergill, J. M., 61.
+
+
+  Gibbon, 264.
+
+  Goethe, 277.
+
+  Gurney, J. J., 119.
+
+
+  Hall, Bishop, 50, 77.
+
+  Hamilton, Sir W., 24, 29, 91, 95, 99, 256.
+
+  Helmholtz, 11, 14, 18, 22.
+
+  Hegel, 29, 88.
+
+  Herbert of Cherbury, 149, 260.
+
+  Hobbes, 81.
+
+  Hodgson, S. N., 104, 126, 128, 134.
+
+  Holtzmann, A., 259.
+
+  Humboldt, A. von, 92.
+
+  Humboldt, W. von, 6, 53, 67, 93, 112, 113, 214, 246, 252.
+
+  Hume, David, 81, 187, 219.
+
+  Hunter, John, 9.
+
+
+  Jacobi, 88.
+
+  Jevons, W. S., 25, 204.
+
+  Kant, I., 25, 29, 32, 40, 91, 105, 194.
+
+
+  Kolk, Schroeder van der, 72.
+
+  Kitto, 74.
+
+  Koppen, 37, 214.
+
+
+  Law, Wm., 49, 87, 263, 272.
+
+  Laycock, 75, 245.
+
+  Lessing, 56, 254.
+
+  Lewes, 187.
+
+  Liddon, H. L., 129, 250.
+
+
+  Mansel, 87, 88.
+
+  Maudsley, H., 9, 150.
+
+  Mill, J. S., 18, 87, 91, 97, 223.
+
+  Mohammed, 71, 75, 114, 256.
+
+  Morell, J. D., 88.
+
+  Morley, J., 223.
+
+  Mueller, 130.
+
+  Mueller, Max, _preface_.
+
+
+  Naville, E., 256, 263.
+
+  Neander, A., 241.
+
+  Novalis, 41, 49, 107, 124, 243.
+
+
+  Oersted, 103.
+
+  Oken, L., 7, 186.
+
+
+  Paget, J., 63.
+
+  Parker, Theo., 88.
+
+  Pascal, 56.
+
+  Plath, 129.
+
+  Rousseau, J. J., 118.
+
+  Saussure, Necker de, 220.
+
+  Schlagintweit, E., 187.
+
+  Schleiermacher, 88, 275.
+
+  Schoolcraft, 63, 146.
+
+  Schopenhauer, A., 11, 13, 51, 82, 91, 269.
+
+  Schwarz, 207.
+
+  Senancourt de, 53, 180.
+
+  Spinoza, 9, 14, 17, 41, 42, 51, 98, 104.
+
+  Spencer, Herbert, 29, 39, 98, 104, 236, 260.
+
+  Swedenborg, 75.
+
+  Steinthal, 101, 246.
+
+  Tertullian, 241.
+
+  Theophilus, 191.
+
+  Thompson, 31.
+
+  Todhunter, 25.
+
+  Tyndall, 87, 132, 255.
+
+  Voltaire, 249.
+
+  Westropp, 62.
+
+  Wigan, A. L., 76.
+
+  Williams, J., 76.
+
+  Wordsworth, 41, 42, 180.
+
+  Windelband, Dr., 101, 102, 108.
+
+
+  II. SUBJECTS.
+
+  Absolute, the, 102, 106.
+    consciousness of, 161.
+
+  Adam, as prophet of the moon, 170.
+
+  Adjita, 178.
+
+  Adonis, 165.
+
+  Aeon, 163, 166.
+
+  Agdistis, an epicene deity, 65.
+
+  Ahura-Mazda, 113, 166, 184.
+
+  Allah, 239.
+
+  Amitabha, 175, 185.
+
+  Analytic propositions, 32.
+
+  Androgynous deities, 66.
+
+  Animism, 163.
+
+  Anointed, the, 176.
+
+  Anya-Mainyus, 166, 184.
+
+  Anthropomorphism, 193.
+
+  Antinomies, of Kant, 29.
+
+  Aphrodite, 65, 241.
+
+  Apocalypse, the, 171.
+
+  Apollo, 67, 241.
+
+  Apperception, 156.
+
+  Apprehension, 142.
+
+  Arab idea of time, 165.
+
+  Argumentum de appetitu, 231.
+
+  Aronhiate, a Huron deity, 221.
+
+  Arrenothele deities, 66.
+
+  Art, religious, in Orient, 15;
+    in Greece, 16;
+    Christian, 209, 241;
+    useless and immoral, 244.
+
+  Assyria, flood myth of, 169.
+
+  Athanasius, his doctrine of the Trinity, 191.
+
+  Atonement, doctrine of, 222.
+
+  Avalokitesvara, 214.
+
+  Aztecs, 80.
+
+
+  Baghavad Gita, the, 189.
+
+  Babylon, rites of, 74.
+
+  Baldur, 176.
+
+  Baptism, 138, 226.
+
+  Beauty, the line of, 15, 211.
+    the religion of, 241, 244, 245.
+
+  Belief, its kinds, 141.
+
+  Brahma, 65, 169.
+
+  Brahmans, highest bliss of, 57;
+    doctrines, 168, 169.
+
+  Breidablick, 176.
+
+  Brutes, religious feeling in, 88.
+
+  Buddha, 37, 57, 80, 120, 146, 156, 261, 271.
+
+  Buddhism, four truths of, 13;
+    theories of prayer, 121, 150, 214;
+    last day, 169;
+    myths, 175, 176;
+    monotheism of, 187, 247, 256.
+
+  Bull, as a symbol, 204.
+
+
+  Cabala, Jehova in, 65.
+
+  Canting arms, 212.
+
+  Cause, not a reason, 38;
+    in physical science, 91.
+
+  Celibacy, Romish, 61.
+
+  Cerebration, unconscious, 149.
+
+  Chance, the idea of, 93.
+
+  Chinese character for prayer, 129.
+
+  Christ, _see_ Jesus.
+
+  Christianity, doctrines of, 190, 257, 264, 274;
+    symbol of, 203.
+
+  Christmas tree, the, 215.
+
+  Cockatrice, the, 77.
+
+  Commonwealth, ideal of, 247.
+
+  Consciousness, forms of, 17, 20.
+
+  Confucius, doctrine, 122, sq.
+
+  Continuity, law of, 11, 16;
+    principle of, 95.
+
+  Contradiction, law of, 27, 102.
+
+  Correspondences, doctrine of, 217.
+
+  Cosmical relations of man, 112, 268.
+
+  Cotytto, 65.
+
+  Cow, as a symbol, 204.
+
+  Craoshanc, 176.
+
+  Creation, myth of, 166.
+
+  Crescent, a phallic symbol, 62.
+
+  Cross, a phallic symbol, 62;
+    as phonetic symbol, 210;
+    variants of, 210.
+
+  Cult, the, 199 sq.
+
+  Culture, religion of, 243, 244, 253.
+
+  Cybele, 65; priests of, 66, 219.
+
+
+  Dactyli, the, 184.
+
+  Darkness, terror of, 185.
+
+  Day of Judgment, the, 172.
+
+  Deity, _see_ God.
+
+  Design, argument from, 110.
+
+  Desire, meaning of, 53.
+
+  Deus, 185; triformis, 191.
+
+  Deva, 185.
+
+  Didactic rites, 225.
+
+  Divination and prayer, 137.
+
+  Dramatic rites, 226.
+
+  Dual law of thought, 27, 102;
+    division of the gods, 182, 183.
+
+
+  Edda, mythology of, 175, 215.
+
+  Eden, garden of, 175.
+
+  Ego, the, 19.
+
+  Egoism of religion, 272.
+
+  Egyptians, doctrines of, 80, 222;
+    prayers, 115;
+    pyramids, 212;
+    lotus of, 214.
+
+  Emotions, origin of, 10;
+    exclude thought, 19;
+    in religion, 49;
+    of fear and hope, 50, 51;
+    esthetic, 14.
+
+  Entheasm, 148.
+
+  Epochs of nature, 164 sq.
+
+  Epicene deities, 66.
+
+  Epilepsy and religious delusions, 75.
+
+  Eros, 72.
+
+  Esculapius, emblem of, 200.
+
+  Esthetic emotions, 14, 244.
+
+  Ethics, grounds of, 266.
+
+  Excluded middle, law of, 27, sqq.
+
+  Expectant attention, 74, 129.
+
+  Explanation, limits of, 38.
+
+
+  Faith in religion, 107.
+
+  Fascination, 74.
+
+  Fear, in religion, 50, sqq.
+
+  Female principle in religion, 62, 183.
+
+  Feridun, garden of, 175.
+
+  Flood, myth of, 169, sq.
+
+  Fingers, as gods, 184.
+
+  Force, orders of, 133.
+
+  Freedom, 105.
+
+  Friends, sect of, _see_ Quakers.
+
+  Future life, doctrine of, 256, sq.
+
+
+  Gallican confession, the, 138.
+
+  Generative function in religion, 62, 72, 73.
+
+  Genius as inspiration, 149.
+
+  Gnosis, the genuine, 74.
+
+  Gnostic doctrines, 166.
+
+  God, as father, 70;
+    spouses of, 69, 71;
+    mother of, 68;
+    sexless, 71;
+    earliest notions of, 78;
+    incomprehensible, 98;
+    throne of, 167;
+    love of, 73, 263, 276.
+
+  Gods,
+    hierarchy of, 181;
+    quantification of the, 186;
+    of lightning, 207.
+
+  Good, final victory of, 179.
+
+  Grasshoppers, prayers against, 131.
+
+  Greeks, art of, 16;
+    doctrines of, 80;
+    sophists, 96.
+
+  Gudmund, King, 175.
+
+
+  Hades, 186.
+
+  Hare, the Great, 212.
+
+  Hell, 186, 258, 274.
+
+  Hercules, 72.
+
+  Hermaphrodite deities, 66.
+
+  Hesperides, the, 175.
+
+  Hierarchy of the gods, 181.
+
+  High places, worship of, 215, 216.
+
+  Historic ideas, 232.
+
+  Holy spirit, as inspiring, 138;
+    brooding, 167.
+
+  Hope, in religion, 51 sqq.
+
+  Horae, the, 165.
+
+  Humanity, the religion of, 194, 253.
+
+
+  Ignorance, in relation to religion, 82.
+
+  Illumination, 140.
+
+  Immortality, doctrine of, 255.
+
+  Indians, American, 125, 157.
+
+  Insanity, religious, 76.
+
+  Inspiration, 137.
+
+  Intelligence, one in kind, 96;
+    as the first cause, 106, 111.
+
+  Irmin, pillars of, 215.
+
+  Ischomachus, prayer of, 126.
+
+  Israelites, the Messiah of, 176.
+
+
+  Janus, an epicene deity, 65.
+
+  Jehovah, 65, 156.
+
+  Jemschid, king, 175.
+
+  Jesus, face of, 67, 241;
+    conception of, 71;
+    wounds of, 130;
+    wisdom of, 144;
+    as second Noah, 170;
+    teachings, 178, 260;
+    prayer to, 187;
+    execution of, 203;
+    death of, 222.
+
+  Judaism, 187.
+
+  Judgment, day of, 172.
+
+
+  Kalpa, of Brahmans, 168.
+
+  Knowledge, forms of, 21.
+
+  Kosmos, the, 72, 144, 167.
+
+
+  Lateau, Louise, 130.
+
+  Law, defined, 40;
+    of excluded middle, 27;
+    oldest, 248.
+
+  Laws, the, of thought, 26, sq.; 101, sq.;
+    not restrictive, 105;
+    as purposive, 108.
+
+  Light, as object of worship, 185.
+
+  Lightning, the, in symbolic art, 207.
+
+  Life, the perfect, 57.
+
+  Lingam, the, 66.
+
+  Lingayets, sect of, 66.
+
+  Logic, applied, 23;
+    abstract or formal, 24;
+    mathematical, 24;
+    laws of, 101, sq.
+
+  Logos, the, 42, 106.
+
+  Lotus, as symbol, 213, sq.
+
+  Love, as religious emotion, defined, 58, 60, 262;
+    of sex, 61, 63;
+    law of, 73;
+    of God, 73, 263, 276.
+
+
+  Ma, a goddess, 183.
+
+  Maitreya, 176.
+
+  Mamona, a Haitian deity, 68.
+
+  Maerchen, the, defined, 157.
+
+  Marriage condemned, 69.
+
+  Maypole, as a symbol, 215.
+
+  Melitta, 65.
+
+  Memory, physical basis of, 10;
+    ancestral, 75.
+
+  Memorial, rites, 225.
+
+  Messiah, the, 176.
+
+  Millennium, the, 173, 268.
+
+  Michabo, an Algonkin deity, 185.
+
+  Mind,
+    growth of, 7;
+    extent of, 8, 271;
+    as seat of law, 163.
+
+  Miracles, 110, 130.
+
+  Mithras, 65.
+
+  Mohammed,
+    notion of god, 71;
+    inspired, 146.
+
+  Mohammedanism, 187, 224.
+
+  Monotheism, origin of, 80, 81; 186, sq.
+
+  Moral government of the world, 112.
+
+  Morality, independent of religion, dualism of deities, 182, 249, 266,
+    267.
+
+  Mormonism, 61.
+
+  Motion, first law of, 11;
+    relation to time and space, 35;
+    manifestations of, 77.
+
+  Myth, the, defined, 156.
+
+
+  Names, sacred, 156.
+
+  Natural selection, in sensation, 10;
+    in logic, 101.
+
+  Nature,
+    meaning of, 4, 39, 105;
+    epochs of, 164.
+
+  Nemqueteba, 240.
+
+  Neo-Hegelian doctrine, 194.
+
+  Nirvana, the, 13, 57, 257.
+
+  Noah, 170.
+
+  Nous, the, 106.
+
+
+  Oannes, 170.
+
+  Obelisk as symbol, 215.
+
+  Odainsakr, 175.
+
+  Odin, 53, 259.
+
+  Optimism, 112, 269.
+
+  Order, in things, 90, sq.
+
+  Osiris, 165.
+
+
+  Pain, defined, 17.
+
+  Parsees, doctrine of, 80, 166, 184.
+
+  Pantheism, 188, 194, 247.
+
+  Papas, a Phrygian god, 183.
+
+  Paradise, lost and regained, myths of, 173, sq;
+    future, 257.
+
+  Pentalpha, the, 212.
+
+  Perfected commonwealth, idea of, 247.
+
+  Perfected individual, idea of, 239.
+
+  Personal survival, idea of, 255.
+
+  Pessimism, 11, 112, 269.
+
+  Persians, ancient, 176.
+
+  Personality, the, 19, 270.
+
+  Phallus, worship of, 62, 66, 214, 216.
+
+  Phanes, the orphic principle, 190.
+
+  Philosophy of religion, defined, 3;
+    of mythology, 159;
+    of history, 232.
+
+  Phrygian divinities, 183.
+
+  Pillar worship, 215.
+
+  Pleasure, defined, 14.
+
+  Polarization, as a principle of thought, 183.
+
+  Porte Royale, miracles of, 131.
+
+  Postulates of religion, 89.
+
+  Prayer, 117, sq.
+
+  Progression of development, 109.
+
+  Protestantism, 128, 139, 250.
+
+  Protogonus, 167.
+
+  Psyche, and love, 72.
+
+  Pythagoras, his thoughts on number, 189.
+
+
+  Quakers, sect of, 76, 115, 138, 147.
+
+  Quantification of the predicate, 22;
+    of the gods, 186.
+
+  Quetzalcoatl, 212.
+
+
+  Reason in religion, 106, 107;
+    drawn from sight, 186.
+
+  Rebus in symbolism, 212.
+
+  Regin, as name of gods, 90.
+
+  Relative, the, 106.
+
+  Religion, science of, 3;
+    philosophy of, 3;
+    personal factor of, 81;
+    not concerned with phenomena, 110.
+
+  Reproductive function in religion, 62.
+
+  Res per accidens, 182.
+
+  Resignation, doctrine of, 128, 135.
+
+  Revelation, marks of, 149.
+
+  Rig Veda, the, 125.
+
+  Rite, the, 217, seq.
+
+  Roland, pillars of, 215.
+
+  Roman Catholics, 76, 138, 141, 187, 250.
+
+
+  Sabians, myths of, 170.
+
+  Sacraments, 227.
+
+  Sacrifice, idea in, 218;
+    vicarious, 222.
+
+  Saga, the, defined, 157.
+
+  Saint Brigida, 146.
+
+  Saint Gertrude of Nivelles, 146.
+
+  Sakyamuni, _see_ Buddha.
+
+  Saturnian Era, the, 175.
+
+  Science of Religion, 3;
+    as knowledge of system, 92;
+    of mythology, 158.
+
+  Secularization of symbols, 204.
+
+  Sensation, defined, 9;
+    excludes thought, 19;
+    of pain and pleasure, 10.
+
+  Sentiment, the religious, 3;
+    emotional elements of, 79;
+    rational postulates of, 87;
+    religion of, 250.
+
+  Serpent, as emblem and symbol, 200, 206, 207.
+
+  Sev, an Egyptian deity, 165.
+
+  Sex, love of, 61, 63;
+    in nature, 71, 72, 216.
+
+  Shekinah, the, 66.
+
+  Siddartha, a name of Buddha, 121.
+
+  Similars, law of, 204.
+
+  Sin, sense of, 225.
+
+  Sight, as the light-sense, 186.
+
+  Siva, worship of, 66, 214.
+
+  Soul, the, 19, 271.
+
+  Specific performance in rites, 218, sq.
+
+  Stigmata, the, 130.
+
+  Sufficient reason, principle of, 91.
+
+  Sukhavati, 175.
+
+  Supernatural, defined, 4;
+    its relation to symbols, 205.
+
+  Swedenborg, 75, 217.
+
+  Symbol, the phonetic, 200;
+    origin of, 202;
+    related and coincident, 203.
+
+  Symbolism, defined, 200.
+
+  Synthesis of contraries, 37.
+
+  Synthetic propositions, 32.
+
+
+  Tathagata, a name of Buddha, 121.
+
+  Tau, the Egyptian, 210.
+
+  Theology, 4.
+
+  Thor, hammer of, 210, 239.
+
+  Thought, as a function, 17;
+    laws of, 26, 101, sq.;
+    as purposive, 108.
+
+  Tien, Mongolian deity, 185, 216.
+
+  Time, not a force, 11;
+    but believed to be one, 165.
+
+  Tlapallan, 175.
+
+  Tree worship, 215.
+
+  Triads, the Celtic, 190;
+    Platonic, 191.
+
+  Triangle, the equilateral, 212.
+
+  Trinity, the doctrine of, 191;
+    symbol of, 212.
+
+  Triplicate relation of numbers, 190.
+
+  Tritheism, of Christianity, 190.
+
+  Truth, what is, 21;
+    eternal, 41;
+    as answer to prayer, 137.
+
+  Tulan, 175.
+
+
+  Unconditioned, the, 29, 34, 37, 98, 100.
+
+  Uniformity of sequence, as cause, 91, 92.
+
+  Unknowable, the, 29, 34, 99, 100.
+
+
+  Valkyria, the, 53.
+
+  Valhalla, 259.
+
+  Varuna, an Aryan god, 125.
+
+  Vendidad, the, 175.
+
+  Venereal sense, the, 64.
+
+  Vicarious sacrifice, theory of, 222.
+
+  Virginity, sacredness of, 69.
+
+  Virgin Mother, the, 68.
+
+  Volition, _see_ Will.
+
+  Voluspa, the, 171.
+
+
+  Wabose, Catherine, 146.
+
+  Water, as the primitive substance, 167.
+
+  Will, the, 16;
+    of God, 38, 42;
+    as a cause, 90.
+
+  Wish, the religious, 52;
+    definition of, 79.
+
+  World, moral government of, 112;
+    creation and changes, 164;
+    light of the, 185.
+
+
+  Xisuthrus, 170.
+
+
+  Year, the Great, 169.
+
+  Yima, reign of, 175.
+
+  Ynglyngasaga, the, 218.
+
+  Yocauna, a Haitian deity, 68.
+
+
+  Zarathustra, 80, 114.
+
+  Zeruana akerana, 166.
+
+  Zweckgesetze, 108.
+
+
+
+
+_PUBLISHED BY HENRY HOLT & CO._
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+
+
+Transcriber's Note
+
+
+The following misspellings and typographical errors were maintained.
+
+       Page       Error
+TN-1     2   expres ion should read expression
+TN-2    15   mind,whose should read mind, whose
+TN-3    34   positive,and should read positive, and
+TN-4   fn. 39-1   Systemede should read Systeme de
+TN-5   fn. 71-1   Suras, should read Suras
+TN-6    91   reason' should read reason"
+TN-7   108   [108-1] should read [108-2]
+TN-8   146   devil,before should read devil, before
+TN-9   193   plantasm should read phantasm
+TN-10  193   anthropomorphism,which should read anthropomorphism, which
+TN-11  205   supernatual should read supernatural
+TN-12  221   corrollary should read corollary
+TN-13  fn. 214-3   and should read und
+TN-14  Ads. p. 1   clergy. should read clergy."
+TN-15  Ads. p. 2   (His should read His
+
+Accents in foreign words are inconsistent and have been left as
+originally printed.
+
+The following words were inconsistenly spelled or hyphenated:
+
+  develop / develope
+  key-stone / keystone
+  May-pole / Maypole
+  re-gained / regained
+  thunder-storm / thunderstorm
+  _u. s._ / u. s.
+  Voelker / Voelker
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's The Religious Sentiment, by Daniel G. Brinton
+
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