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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Criminal Man, by Gina Lombroso-Ferrero
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Criminal Man
+       According to the Classification of Cesare Lombroso
+
+Author: Gina Lombroso-Ferrero
+
+Commentator: Cesare Lombroso
+
+Release Date: September 3, 2009 [EBook #29895]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CRIMINAL MAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Stephanie Eason,
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net. (This file was made using scans of
+public domain works from the University of Michigan Digital
+Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE SCIENCE SERIES
+
+Edited by EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE, Ph.D., and F. E. BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S.
+
+1. +The Study of Man.+ By A. C. HADDON.
+
+2. +The Groundwork of Science.+ By ST. GEORGE MIVART.
+
+3. +Rivers of North America.+ By ISRAEL C. RUSSELL.
+
+4. +Earth Sculpture, or; The Origin of Land Forms.+ By JAMES GEIKIE.
+
+5. +Volcanoes; Their Structure and Significance.+ By T. G. BONNEY.
+
+6. +Bacteria.+ By GEORGE NEWMAN.
+
+7. +A Book of Whales.+ By F. E. BEDDARD.
+
+8. +Comparative Physiology of the Brain,+ etc. By JACQUES LOEB.
+
+9. +The Stars.+ By SIMON NEWCOMB.
+
+10. +The Basis of Social Relations.+ By DANIEL G. BRINTON.
+
+11. +Experiments on Animals.+ By STEPHEN PAGET.
+
+12. +Infection and Immunity.+ By GEORGE M. STERNBERG.
+
+13. +Fatigue.+ By A. MOSSO.
+
+14. +Earthquakes.+ By CLARENCE E. DUTTON.
+
+15. +The Nature of Man.+ By �LIE METCHNIKOFF.
+
+16. +Nervous and Mental Hygiene in Health and Disease.+ By AUGUST FOREL.
+
+17. +The Prolongation of Life.+ By �LIE METCHNIKOFF.
+
+18. +The Solar System.+ By CHARLES LANE POOR.
+
+19. +Heredity.+ By J. ARTHUR THOMPSON, M.A.
+
+20. +Climate.+ By ROBERT DECOURCY WARD.
+
+21. +Age, Growth, and Death.+ By CHARLES S. MINOT.
+
+22. +The Interpretation of Nature.+ By C. LLOYD MORGAN.
+
+23. +Mosquito Life.+ By EVELYN GROESBEECK MITCHELL.
+
+24. +Thinking, Feeling, Doing.+ By E. W. SCRIPTURE.
+
+25. +The World's Gold.+ By L. DE LAUNAY.
+
+26. +The Interpretation of Radium.+ By F. SODDY.
+
+27. +Criminal Man.+ By CESARE LOMBROSO.
+
+_For list of works in preparation see end of this volume_
+
+
+
+
+The Science Series
+
+
+CRIMINAL MAN
+
+
+
+
+  CRIMINAL MAN
+  ACCORDING TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF
+  CESARE LOMBROSO
+
+
+  BRIEFLY SUMMARISED BY HIS DAUGHTER
+  GINA LOMBROSO-FERRERO
+
+
+  WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
+  CESARE LOMBROSO
+
+
+  _ILLUSTRATED_
+
+
+  G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+
+  NEW YORK AND LONDON
+  The Knickerbocker Press
+  1911
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1911
+  BY
+  G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+
+
+  The Knickerbocker Press, New York
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+_PART I.--THE CRIMINAL WORLD_
+
+CHAPTER I PAGE
+
+THE BORN CRIMINAL                                                         3
+Classical and modern schools of penal jurisprudence--Physical anomalies
+of the born criminal--Senses and functions--Psychology--Intellectual
+manifestations--The criminal in proverbial sayings.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE BORN CRIMINAL AND HIS RELATION TO MORAL INSANITY AND EPILEPSY        52
+Identity of born criminals and the morally insane--Analogy of physical
+and psychic characters, origin and development--Epilepsy--Multiformity
+of disease--Equivalence of certain forms to criminality--Physical and
+psychic characters--Cases of moral insanity with latent epileptic
+phenomena.
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE INSANE CRIMINAL                                                      74
+General forms of criminal insanity, imbecility, melancholia, general
+paralysis, dementia, monomania--Physical and psychic characters of the
+mentally deranged--Special forms of criminal insanity--Inebriate
+lunatics from inebriation--Physical and psychic characters--Specific
+crimes--Epileptic lunatics--Manifestations--Hysterical lunatics--
+Physical and functional characters--Psychology.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CRIMINALOIDS                                                            100
+Psychology--Tardy adoption of criminal career--Repentance--
+Confession--Moral sense and affections--Habitual criminals--Juridical
+criminals--Criminals of passion.
+
+
+_PART II.--CRIME, ITS ORIGIN, CAUSE, AND CURE_
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF CRIME                                              125
+Atavistic origin of crime--Criminality in children--Pathological
+origin of crime--Direct and indirect heredity--Illnesses,
+intoxications, and traumatism--Alcoholism--Social causes of crime--
+Education and environment--Atmospheric and climatic influences--
+Density of population--Imitation--Immigration--Prison life--Economic
+conditions--Sex--Age.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE PREVENTION OF CRIME                                                 153
+Preventive institutions for children and young people--Homes for
+orphans and destitute children--Colonies for unruly youths--
+Institutions for assisting adults--Salvation Army.
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+METHODS FOR THE CURE AND REPRESSION OF CRIME                            175
+Juvenile offenders--Children's Courts--Institutions for female
+offenders--Minor offenders, criminals of passion, political offenders,
+and criminaloids--Probation system and indeterminate sentence--
+Reformatories--Penitentiaries--Institutes for habitual criminals--
+Penal colonies--Institutions for born criminals and the morally
+insane--Asylums for insane criminals--Capital punishment--Symbiosis.
+
+
+_PART III.--CHARACTERS AND TYPES OF CRIMINALS_
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+EXAMINATION OF CRIMINALS                                                219
+Antecedents and psychology--Methods of testing intelligence and
+emotions--Morbid phenomena--Speech, memory, and handwriting--
+Clothing--Physical examination--Tests of sensibility and senses--
+Excretions--Table of anthropological examination of criminals and
+the insane.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+SUMMARY OF CHIEF FORMS OF CRIMINALITY TO AID IN DISTINGUISHING
+BETWEEN CRIMINALS AND LUNATICS AND IN DETECTING SIMULATIONS OF
+INSANITY                                                                258
+A few cases showing the practical application of criminal anthropology.
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+WORKS OF CESARE LOMBROSO (BRIEFLY SUMMARISED)
+
+_I._ THE MAN OF GENIUS                                                  283
+
+_II._ CRIMINAL MAN                                                      288
+
+_III._ THE FEMALE OFFENDER. (In Collaboration with Guglielmo Ferrero.)  291
+
+_IV._ POLITICAL CRIME. (In Collaboration with Rodolfo Laschi.)          294
+
+_V._ TOO SOON: A Criticism of the New Italian Penal Code                298
+
+_VI._ PRISON PALIMPSESTS: Studies in Prison Inscriptions                300
+
+_VII._ ANCIENT AND MODERN CRIMES                                        302
+
+_VIII._ DIAGNOSTIC METHODS OF LEGAL PSYCHIATRY                          303
+
+_IX._ ANARCHISTS                                                        305
+
+_X._ LECTURES ON LEGAL MEDICINE                                         307
+
+_XI._ RECENT DISCOVERIES IN PSYCHIATRY AND CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND
+      THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THESE SCIENCES                       309
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE CHIEF WORKS OF CESARE LOMBROSO                      310
+
+INDEX                                                                   315
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+PAGE
+
+Fig. 1. FOSSETTE OCCIPITAL                                        6
+
+Fig. 2. SKULL FORMATION                                          11
+
+Fig. 3. SKULL FORMATION                                          11
+
+Fig. 4. HEAD OF CRIMINAL                                         16
+
+Fig. 5. HEAD OF CRIMINAL                                         16
+
+Fig. 6. LAYERS OF THE FRONTAL REGION                             23
+
+Fig. 7. FIGURES MADE IN PRISON. MURDER OF A SLEEPING VICTIM      32
+
+Fig. 8. CRUCIFIX POIGNARD                                        32
+
+Fig. 9. WATER-JUGS                                               42
+
+Fig. 10. DRAWINGS IN SCRIPT. DISCOVERED BY DE BLASIO             44
+
+Fig. 11. ALPHABET. DISCOVERED BY DE BLASIO                       45
+
+Fig. 12. BOY MORALLY INSANE                                      56
+
+Fig. 13. BOY MORALLY INSANE                                      56
+
+Fig. 14. AN EPILEPTIC BOY                                        60
+
+Fig. 15. FERNANDO. EPILEPTIC                                     60
+
+Fig. 16. ITALIAN CRIMINAL. A CASE OF ALCOHOLISM                  82
+
+Fig. 17. SIGNATURES OF CRIMINALS                                163
+
+Fig. 18. CRIMINAL GIRL                                          114
+
+Fig. 19. THE BRIGAND SALOMONE                                   114
+
+Fig. 20. BRIGAND GASPARONE                                      166
+
+Fig. 21. BRIGAND CASERIO                                        120
+
+Fig. 22. TERRA-COTTA BOWLS. DESIGNED BY A CRIMINAL              134
+
+Fig. 23. ART PRODUCTION FROM PRISON                             136
+
+Fig. 24. A COMBAT BETWEEN BRIGANDS AND GENDARMES. DESIGNED
+         BY A CRIMINAL                                          136
+
+Fig. 25. A VOLUMETRIC GLOVE                                     224
+
+Fig. 26. HEAD OF A CRIMINAL. EPILEPTIC                          224
+
+Fig. 27. ANTON OTTO KRAUSER. APACHE                             236
+
+Fig. 28. A CRIMINAL'S EAR                                       224
+
+Fig. 29. ANTHROPOMETER                                          237
+
+Fig. 30. CRANIOGRAPH ANFOSSI                                    238
+
+Fig. 31. PELVIMETER                                             239
+
+Fig. 32. DIAGRAM OF SKULL                                       241
+
+Fig. 33. DIAGRAM OF SKULL                                       241
+
+Fig. 34. ESTHESIOMETER                                          245
+
+Fig. 35. ALGOMETER                                              248
+
+Fig. 36. CAMPIMETER OF LANDOLT (MODIFIED)                       248
+
+Fig. 37. DIAGRAM SHOWING NORMAL VISION                          250
+
+Fig. 38. DYNAMOMETER                                            253
+
+Fig. 39. HEAD OF AN ITALIAN CRIMINAL                            254
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+BY CESARE LOMBROSO
+
+     [Professor Lombroso was able before his death to give his personal
+     attention to the volume prepared by his daughter and collaborator,
+     Gina Lombroso Ferrero (wife of the distinguished historian), in
+     which is presented a summary of the conclusions reached in the
+     great treatise by Lombroso on the causes of criminality and the
+     treatment of criminals. The preparation of the introduction to this
+     volume was the last literary work which the distinguished author
+     found it possible to complete during his final illness.]
+
+
+It will, perhaps, be of interest to American readers of this book, in
+which the ideas of the Modern Penal School, set forth in my work,
+_Criminal Man_, have been so pithily summed up by my daughter, to learn
+how the first outlines of this science arose in my mind and gradually
+took shape in a definite work--how, that is, combated by some, the
+object of almost fanatical adherence on the part of others, especially
+in America, where tradition has little hold, the Modern Penal School
+came into being.
+
+On consulting my memory and the documents relating to my studies on this
+subject, I find that its two fundamental ideas--that, for instance,
+which claims as an essential point the study not of crime in the
+abstract, but of the criminal himself, in order adequately to deal with
+the evil effects of his wrong-doing, and that which classifies the
+congenital criminal as an anomaly, partly pathological and partly
+atavistic, a revival of the primitive savage--did not suggest themselves
+to me instantaneously under the spell of a single deep impression, but
+were the offspring of a series of impressions. The slow and almost
+unconscious association of these first vague ideas resulted in a new
+system which, influenced by its origin, has preserved in all its
+subsequent developments the traces of doubt and indecision, the marks of
+the travail which attended its birth.
+
+The first idea came to me in 1864, when, as an army doctor, I beguiled
+my ample leisure with a series of studies on the Italian soldier. From
+the very beginning I was struck by a characteristic that distinguished
+the honest soldier from his vicious comrade: the extent to which the
+latter was tattooed and the indecency of the designs that covered his
+body. This idea, however, bore no fruit.
+
+The second inspiration came to me when on one occasion, amid the
+laughter of my colleagues, I sought to base the study of psychiatry on
+experimental methods. When in '66, fresh from the atmosphere of clinical
+experiment, I had begun to study psychiatry, I realised how inadequate
+were the methods hitherto held in esteem, and how necessary it was, in
+studying the insane, to make the patient, not the disease, the object of
+attention. In homage to these ideas, I applied to the clinical
+examination of cases of mental alienation the study of the skull, with
+measurements and weights, by means of the esthesiometer and craniometer.
+Reassured by the result of these first steps, I sought to apply this
+method to the study of criminals--that is, to the differentiation of
+criminals and lunatics, following the example of a few investigators,
+such as Thomson and Wilson; but as at that time I had neither criminals
+nor moral imbeciles available for observation (a remarkable circumstance
+since I was to make the criminal my starting-point), and as I was
+skeptical as to the existence of those "moral lunatics" so much insisted
+on by both French and English authors, whose demonstrations, however,
+showed a lamentable lack of precision, I was anxious to apply the
+experimental method to the study of the diversity, rather than the
+analogy, between lunatics, criminals, and normal individuals. Like him,
+however, whose lantern lights the road for others, while he himself
+stumbles in the darkness, this method proved useless for determining the
+differences between criminals and lunatics, but served instead to
+indicate a new method for the study of penal jurisprudence, a matter to
+which I had never given serious thought. I began dimly to realise that
+the _a priori_ studies on crime in the abstract, hitherto pursued by
+jurists, especially in Italy, with singular acumen, should be superseded
+by the direct analytical study of the criminal, compared with normal
+individuals and the insane.
+
+I, therefore, began to study criminals in the Italian prisons, and,
+amongst others, I made the acquaintance of the famous brigand Vilella.
+This man possessed such extraordinary agility, that he had been known to
+scale steep mountain heights bearing a sheep on his shoulders. His
+cynical effrontery was such that he openly boasted of his crimes. On his
+death one cold grey November morning, I was deputed to make the
+_post-mortem_, and on laying open the skull I found on the occipital
+part, exactly on the spot where a spine is found in the normal skull, a
+distinct depression which I named _median occipital fossa_, because of
+its situation precisely in the middle of the occiput as in inferior
+animals, especially rodents. This depression, as in the case of animals,
+was correlated with the hypertrophy of the _vermis_, known in birds as
+the middle cerebellum.
+
+This was not merely an idea, but a revelation. At the sight of that
+skull, I seemed to see all of a sudden, lighted up as a vast plain
+under a flaming sky, the problem of the nature of the criminal--an
+atavistic being who reproduces in his person the ferocious instincts of
+primitive humanity and the inferior animals. Thus were explained
+anatomically the enormous jaws, high cheek-bones, prominent superciliary
+arches, solitary lines in the palms, extreme size of the orbits,
+handle-shaped or sessile ears found in criminals, savages, and apes,
+insensibility to pain, extremely acute sight, tattooing, excessive
+idleness, love of orgies, and the irresistible craving for evil for its
+own sake, the desire not only to extinguish life in the victim, but to
+mutilate the corpse, tear its flesh, and drink its blood.
+
+I was further encouraged in this bold hypothesis by the results of my
+studies on Verzeni, a criminal convicted of sadism and rape, who showed
+the cannibalistic instincts of primitive anthropophagists and the
+ferocity of beasts of prey.
+
+The various parts of the extremely complex problem of criminality were,
+however, not all solved hereby. The final key was given by another case,
+that of Misdea, a young soldier of about twenty-one, unintelligent but
+not vicious. Although subject to epileptic fits, he had served for some
+years in the army when suddenly, for some trivial cause, he attacked and
+killed eight of his superior officers and comrades. His horrible work
+accomplished, he fell into a deep slumber, which lasted twelve hours and
+on awaking appeared to have no recollection of what had happened.
+Misdea, while representing the most ferocious type of animal,
+manifested, in addition, all the phenomena of epilepsy, which appeared
+to be hereditary in all the members of his family. It flashed across my
+mind that many criminal characteristics not attributable to atavism,
+such as facial asymmetry, cerebral sclerosis, impulsiveness,
+instantaneousness, the periodicity of criminal acts, the desire of evil
+for evil's sake, were morbid characteristics common to epilepsy, mingled
+with others due to atavism.
+
+Thus were traced the first clinical outlines of my work which had
+hitherto been entirely anthropological. The clinical outlines confirmed
+the anthropological contours, and _vice vers�_; for the greatest
+criminals showed themselves to be epileptics, and, on the other hand,
+epileptics manifested the same anomalies as criminals. Finally, it was
+shown that epilepsy frequently reproduced atavistic characteristics,
+including even those common to lower animals.
+
+That synthesis which mighty geniuses have often succeeded in creating by
+one inspiration (but at the risk of errors, for a genius is only human
+and in many cases more fallacious than his fellow-men) was deduced by
+me gradually from various sources--the study of the normal individual,
+the lunatic, the criminal, the savage, and finally the child. Thus, by
+reducing the penal problem to its simplest expression, its solution was
+rendered easier, just as the study of embryology has in a great measure
+solved the apparently strange and mysterious riddle of teratology.
+
+But these attempts would have been sterile, had not a solid phalanx of
+jurists, Russian, German, Hungarian, Italian, and American, fertilised
+the germ by correcting hasty and one-sided conclusions, suggesting
+opportune reforms and applications, and, most important of all, applying
+my ideas on the offender to his individual and social prophylaxis and
+cure.
+
+Enrico Ferri was the first to perceive that the congenital epileptoid
+criminal did not form a single species, and that if this class was
+irretrievably doomed to perdition, crime in others was only a brief
+spell of insanity, determined by circumstances, passion, or illness. He
+established new types--the occasional criminal and the criminal by
+passion,--and transformed the basis of the penal code by asking if it
+were more just to make laws obey facts instead of altering facts to suit
+the laws, solely in order to avoid troubling the placidity of those who
+refused to consider this new element in the scientific field. Therefore,
+putting aside those abstract formul� for which high talents have panted
+in vain, like the thirsty traveller at the sight of the desert mirage,
+the advocates of the Modern School came to the conclusion that sentences
+should show a decrease in infamy and ferocity proportionate to the
+increase in length and social safety. In lieu of infamy they substituted
+a longer period of segregation, and for cases in which alienists were
+unable to decide between criminality and insanity, they advocated an
+intermediate institution, in which merciful treatment and social
+security were alike considered. They also emphasised the importance of
+certain measures which hitherto had been universally regarded as a pure
+abstraction or an unattainable desideratum--measures for the prevention
+of crime by tracing it to its source, divorce laws to diminish adultery,
+legislation of an anti-alcoholistic tendency to prevent crimes of
+violence, associations for destitute children, and co-operative
+associations to check the tendency to theft. Above all, they insisted on
+those regulations--unfortunately fallen into disuse--which indemnify the
+victim at the expense of the aggressor, in order that society, having
+suffered once for the crime, should not be obliged to suffer
+pecuniarily for the detention of the offender, solely in homage to a
+theoretical principle that no one believes in, according to which prison
+is a kind of baptismal font in whose waters sin of all kinds is washed
+away.
+
+Thus the edifice of criminal anthropology, circumscribed at first,
+gradually extended its walls and embraced special studies on homicide,
+political crime, crimes connected with the banking world, crimes by
+women, etc.
+
+But the first stone had been scarcely laid when from all quarters of
+Europe arose those calumnies and misrepresentations which always follow
+in the train of audacious innovations. We were accused of wishing to
+proclaim the impunity of crime, of demanding the release of all
+criminals, of refusing to take into account climatic and racial
+influences and of asserting that the criminal is a slave eternally
+chained to his instincts; whereas the Modern School, on the contrary,
+gave a powerful impetus to the labors of statisticians and sociologists
+on these very matters. This is clearly shown in the third volume of
+_Criminal Man_, which contains a summary of the ideas of modern
+criminologists and my own.
+
+One nation, however--America,--gave a warm and sympathetic reception to
+the ideas of the Modern School which they speedily put into practice,
+with the brilliant results shown by the Reformatory at Elmira, the
+Probation System, Juvenile Courts, and the George Junior Republic. They
+also initiated the practice, now in general use, of anthropological
+co-operation in every criminal trial of importance.
+
+For this reason, and in view of the fact that America does not possess a
+complete translation of my works--_The Criminal, Male and Female_, and
+_Political Crime_ (translation and distribution being alike difficult on
+account of the length of these volumes)--I welcome with pleasure this
+summary, in which the principal points are explained with precision and
+loving care by my daughter Gina, who has worked with me from childhood,
+has seen the edifice of my science rise stone upon stone, and has shared
+in my anxieties, insults, and triumphs; without whose help I might,
+perhaps, never have witnessed the completion of that edifice, nor the
+application of its fundamental principles.
+
+
+
+
+
+PART I
+
+THE CRIMINAL WORLD
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+_THE BORN CRIMINAL_
+
+
+A criminal is a man who violates the laws decreed by the State to
+regulate the relations between its citizens, but the voluminous codes
+which in past times set forth these laws treat only of crime, never of
+the criminal. That ignoble multitude whom Dante relegated to the
+Infernal Regions were consigned by magistrates and judges to the care of
+gaolers and executioners, who alone deigned to deal with them. The
+judge, immovable in his doctrine, unshaken by doubts, solemn in all his
+inviolability and convinced of his wisdom, which no one dared to
+question, passed sentence without remission according to his whim, and
+both judge and culprit were equally ignorant of the ultimate effect of
+the penalties inflicted.
+
+In 1764, the great Italian jurist and economist, Cesare Beccaria first
+called public attention to those wretched beings, whose confessions (if
+statements extorted by torture can thus be called) formed the sole
+foundation for the trial, the sole guide in the application of the
+punishment, which was bestowed blindly, without formality, without
+hearing the defence, exactly as though sentence were being passed on
+abstract symbols, not on human souls and bodies.
+
+The Classical School of Penal Jurisprudence, of which Beccaria was the
+founder and Francesco Carrara the greatest and most glorious disciple,
+aimed only at establishing sound judgments and fixed laws to guide
+capricious and often undiscerning judges in the application of
+penalties. In writing his great work, the founder of this School was
+inspired by the highest of all human sentiments--pity; but although the
+criminal incidentally receives notice, the writings of this School treat
+only of the application of the law, not of offenders themselves.
+
+This is the difference between the Classical and the Modern School of
+Penal Jurisprudence. The Classical School based its doctrines on the
+assumption that all criminals, except in a few extreme cases, are
+endowed with intelligence and feelings like normal individuals, and that
+they commit misdeeds consciously, being prompted thereto by their
+unrestrained desire for evil. The offence alone was considered, and on
+it the whole existing penal system has been founded, the severity of the
+sentence meted out to the offender being regulated by the gravity of his
+misdeed.
+
+The Modern, or Positive, School of Penal Jurisprudence, on the contrary,
+maintains that the anti-social tendencies of criminals are the result of
+their physical and psychic organisation, which differs essentially from
+that of normal individuals; and it aims at studying the morphology and
+various functional phenomena of the criminal with the object of curing,
+instead of punishing him. The Modern School is therefore founded on a
+new science, Criminal Anthropology, which may be defined as the Natural
+History of the Criminal, because it embraces his organic and psychic
+constitution and social life, just as anthropology does in the case of
+normal human beings and the different races.
+
+If we examine a number of criminals, we shall find that they exhibit
+numerous anomalies in the face, skeleton, and various psychic and
+sensitive functions, so that they strongly resemble primitive races. It
+was these anomalies that first drew my father's attention to the close
+relationship between the criminal and the savage and made him suspect
+that criminal tendencies are of atavistic origin.
+
+When a young doctor at the Asylum in Pavia, he was requested to make a
+post-mortem examination on a criminal named Vilella, an Italian Jack the
+Ripper, who by atrocious crimes had spread terror in the Province of
+Lombardy. Scarcely had he laid open the skull, when he perceived at the
+base, on the spot where the internal occipital crest or ridge is found
+in normal individuals, a small hollow, which he called _median occipital
+fossa_ (see Fig. 1). This abnormal character was correlated to a still
+greater anomaly in the cerebellum, the hypertrophy of the vermis,
+_i.e._, the spinal cord which separates the cerebellar lobes lying
+underneath the cerebral hemispheres. This vermis was so enlarged in the
+case of Vilella, that it almost formed a small, intermediate cerebellum
+like that found in the lower types of apes, rodents, and birds. This
+anomaly is very rare among inferior races, with the exception of the
+South American Indian tribe of the Aymaras of Bolivia and Peru, in whom
+it is not infrequently found (40%). It is seldom met with in the insane
+or other degenerates, but later investigations have shown it to be
+prevalent in criminals.
+
+This discovery was like a flash of light. "At the sight of that skull,"
+says my father, "I seemed to see all at once, standing out clearly
+illumined as in a vast plain under a flaming sky, the problem of the
+nature of the criminal, who reproduces in civilised times
+characteristics, not only of primitive savages, but of still lower types
+as far back as the carnivora."
+
+
+  =FIG. 1
+  FOSSETTE OCCIPITAL
+  (see page 6)=
+
+
+Thus was explained the origin of the enormous jaws, strong canines,
+prominent zygom�, and strongly developed orbital arches which he had so
+frequently remarked in criminals, for these peculiarities are common to
+carnivores and savages, who tear and devour raw flesh. Thus also it was
+easy to understand why the span of the arms in criminals so often
+exceeds the height, for this is a characteristic of apes, whose
+fore-limbs are used in walking and climbing. The other anomalies
+exhibited by criminals--the scanty beard as opposed to the general
+hairiness of the body, prehensile foot, diminished number of lines in
+the palm of the hand, cheek-pouches, enormous development of the middle
+incisors and frequent absence of the lateral ones, flattened nose and
+angular or sugar-loaf form of the skull, common to criminals and apes;
+the excessive size of the orbits, which, combined with the hooked nose,
+so often imparts to criminals the aspect of birds of prey, the
+projection of the lower part of the face and jaws (prognathism) found in
+negroes and animals, and supernumerary teeth (amounting in some cases to
+a double row as in snakes) and cranial bones (epactal bone as in the
+Peruvian Indians): all these characteristics pointed to one conclusion,
+the atavistic origin of the criminal, who reproduces physical, psychic,
+and functional qualities of remote ancestors.
+
+Subsequent research on the part of my father and his disciples showed
+that other factors besides atavism come into play in determining the
+criminal type. These are: disease and environment. Later on, the study
+of innumerable offenders led them to the conclusion that all
+law-breakers cannot be classed in a single species, for their ranks
+include very diversified types, who differ not only in their bent
+towards a particular form of crime, but also in the degree of tenacity
+and intensity displayed by them in their perverse propensities, so that,
+in reality, they form a graduated scale leading from the born criminal
+to the normal individual.
+
+Born criminals form about one third of the mass of offenders, but,
+though inferior in numbers, they constitute the most important part of
+the whole criminal army, partly because they are constantly appearing
+before the public and also because the crimes committed by them are of a
+peculiarly monstrous character; the other two thirds are composed of
+criminaloids (minor offenders), occasional and habitual criminals, etc.,
+who do not show such a marked degree of diversity from normal persons.
+
+Let us commence with the born criminal, who as principal nucleus of the
+wretched army of law-breakers, naturally manifests the most numerous and
+salient anomalies.
+
+The median occipital fossa and other abnormal features just enumerated
+are not the only peculiarities exhibited by this aggravated type of
+offender. By careful research, my father and others of his School have
+brought to light many anomalies in bodily organs, and functions both
+physical and mental, all of which serve to indicate the atavistic and
+pathological origin of the instinctive criminal.
+
+It would be incompatible with the scope of this summary, were I to give
+a minute description of the innumerable anomalies discovered in
+criminals by the Modern School, to attempt to trace such abnormal traits
+back to their source, or to demonstrate their effect on the organism.
+This has been done in a very minute fashion in the three volumes of my
+father's work _Criminal Man_ and his subsequent writings on the same
+subject, _Modern Forms of Crime_, _Recent Research in Criminal
+Anthropology_, _Prison Palimpsests_, etc., etc., to which readers
+desirous of obtaining a more thorough knowledge of the subject should
+refer.
+
+The present volume will only touch briefly on the principal
+characteristics of criminals, with the object of presenting a general
+outline of the studies of criminologists.
+
+
+PHYSICAL ANOMALIES OF THE BORN CRIMINAL
+
+_The Head._ As the seat of all the greatest disturbances, this part
+naturally manifests the greatest number of anomalies, which extend from
+the external conformation of the brain-case to the composition of its
+contents.
+
+The criminal skull does not exhibit any marked characteristics of size
+and shape. Generally speaking, it tends to be larger or smaller than the
+average skull common to the region or country from which the criminal
+hails. It varies between 1200 and 1600 c.c.; _i.e._, between 73 and 100
+cubic inches, the normal average being 92. This applies also to the
+cephalic index; that is, the ratio of the maximum width to the maximum
+length of the skull[1] multiplied by 100, which serves to give a
+concrete idea of the form of the skull, because the higher the index,
+the nearer the skull approaches a spherical form, and the lower the
+index, the more elongated it becomes. The skulls of criminals have no
+characteristic cephalic index, but tend to an exaggeration of the
+ethnical type prevalent in their native countries. In regions where
+dolichocephaly (index less than 80) abounds, the skulls of criminals
+show a very low index; if, on the contrary, they are natives of
+districts where brachycephaly (index 80 or more) prevails, they exhibit
+a very high index.
+
+
+  =SKULL FORMATION
+  FIG. 2          FIG. 3=
+
+
+In 15.5% we find trochocephalous or abnormally round heads (index 91). A
+very high percentage (nearly double that of normal individuals) have
+submicrocephalous or small skulls. In other cases the skull is
+excessively large (macrocephaly) or abnormally small and ill-shaped with
+a narrow, receding forehead (microcephaly, 0.2%). More rarely the skull
+is of normal size, but shaped like the keel of a boat (scaphocephaly,
+0.1% and subscaphocephaly 6%). (See Fig. 2.) Sometimes the anomalies are
+still more serious and we find wholly asymmetrical skulls with
+protuberances on either side (plagiocephaly 10.9%, see Fig. 3), or
+terminating in a peak on the bregma or anterior fontanel (acrocephaly,
+see Fig. 4), or depressed in the middle (cymbocephaly, sphenocephaly).
+At times, there are crests or grooves along the sutures (11.9%) or the
+cranial bones are abnormally thick, a characteristic of savage peoples
+(36.6%) or abnormally thin (8.10%). Other anomalies of importance are
+the presence of Wormian bones in the sutures of the skull (21.22%), the
+bone of the Incas already alluded to (4%), and above all, the median
+occipital fossa. Of great importance also are the prominent frontal
+sinuses found in 25% (double that of normal individuals), the
+semicircular line of the temples, which is sometimes so exaggerated that
+it forms a ridge and is correlated to an excessive development of the
+temporal muscles, a common characteristic of primates and carnivores.
+Sometimes the forehead is receding, as in apes (19%), or low and narrow
+(10%).
+
+_The Face._ In striking contrast to the narrow forehead and low vault of
+the skull, the face of the criminal, like those of most animals, is of
+disproportionate size, a phenomenon intimately connected with the
+greater development of the senses as compared with that of the nervous
+centres. Prognathism, the projection of the lower portion of the face
+beyond the forehead, is found in 45.7% of criminals. Progeneismus, the
+projection of the lower teeth and jaw beyond the upper, is found in 38%,
+whereas among normal persons the proportion is barely 28%. As a natural
+consequence of this predominance of the lower portion of the face, the
+orbital arches and zygom� show a corresponding development (35%) and the
+size of the jaws is naturally increased, the mean diameter being 103.9 mm.
+(4.09 inches) as against 93 mm. (3.66 inches) in normal persons. Among
+criminals 29% have voluminous jaws.
+
+The excessive dimensions of the jaws and cheek-bones admit of other
+explanations besides the atavistic one of a greater development of the
+masticatory system. They may have been influenced by the habit of
+certain gestures, the setting of the teeth or tension of the muscles of
+the mouth, which accompany violent muscular efforts and are natural to
+men who form energetic or violent resolves and meditate plans of
+revenge.
+
+Asymmetry is a common characteristic of the criminal physiognomy. The
+eyes and ears are frequently situated at different levels and are of
+unequal size, the nose slants towards one side, etc. This asymmetry, as
+we shall see later, is connected with marked irregularities in the
+senses and functions.
+
+_The Eye._ This window, through which the mind opens to the outer
+world, is naturally the centre of many anomalies of a psychic character,
+hard expression, shifty glance, which are difficult to describe but are,
+nevertheless, apparent to all observers (see Fig. 4). Side by side with
+peculiarities of expression, we find many physical anomalies--ptosis, a
+drooping of the upper eyelid, which gives the eye a half-closed
+appearance and is frequently unilateral; and strabismus, a want of
+parallelism between the visual axes, which is insignificant if it arises
+from errors of refraction, but is very serious if it betokens
+progressive or congenital diseases of the brain or its membranous
+coverings. Other anomalies are asymmetry of the iris, which frequently
+differs in colour from its fellow; oblique eyelids, a Mongolian
+characteristic, with the edge of the upper eyelid folding inward or a
+prolongation of the internal fold of the eyelid, which Metchnikoff
+regards as a persistence of embryonic characters.
+
+_The Ear._ The external ear is often of large size; occasionally also it
+is smaller than the ears of normal individuals. Twenty-eight per cent.
+of criminals have handle-shaped ears standing out from the face as in
+the chimpanzee: in other cases they are placed at different levels.
+Frequently too, we find misshapen, flattened ears, devoid of helix,
+tragus, and anti-tragus, and with a protuberance on the upper part of
+the posterior margin (Darwin's tubercle), a relic of the pointed ear
+characteristic of apes. Anomalies are also found in the lobe, which in
+some cases adheres too closely to the face, or is of huge size as in the
+ancient Egyptians; in other cases, the lobe is entirely absent, or is
+atrophied till the ear assumes a form like that common to apes.
+
+_The Nose._ This is frequently twisted, up-turned or of a flattened,
+negroid character in thieves; in murderers, on the contrary, it is often
+aquiline like the beak of a bird of prey. Not infrequently we meet with
+the trilobate nose, its tip rising like an isolated peak from the
+swollen nostrils, a form found among the Akkas, a tribe of pygmies of
+Central Africa. All these peculiarities have given rise to popular saws,
+of a character more or less prevalent everywhere.
+
+_The Mouth._ This part shows perhaps a greater number of anomalies than
+any other facial organ. We have already alluded to the excessive
+development of the jaws in criminals. They are sometimes the seat of
+other abnormal characters,--the lemurine apophysis, a bony elevation at
+the angle of the jaw, which may easily be recognised externally by
+passing the hand over the skin; and the canine fossa, a depression in
+the upper jaw for the attachment of the canine muscle. This muscle,
+which is strongly developed in the dog, serves when contracted to draw
+back the lip leaving the canines exposed.
+
+The lips of violators of women and murderers are fleshy, swollen and
+protruding, as in negroes. Swindlers have thin, straight lips. Hare-lip
+is more common in criminals than in normal persons.
+
+_The Cheek-pouches._ Folds in the flesh of the cheek which recall the
+pouches of certain species of mammals, are not uncommon in criminals.
+
+_The Palate._ A central ridge (_torus palatinus_), more easily felt than
+seen, may sometimes be found on the palate, or this part may exhibit
+other peculiarities, a series of cavities and protuberances
+corresponding to the palatal teeth of reptiles. Another frequent
+abnormality is cleft palate, a fissure in the palate, due to defective
+development.
+
+_The Teeth._ These are specially important, for criminals rarely have
+normal dentition. The incisors show the greatest number of anomalies.
+Sometimes both the lateral incisors are absent and the middle ones are
+of excessive size, a peculiarity which recalls the incisors of rodents.
+The teeth are frequently striated transversely or set very wide apart
+(diastema) with gaps on either side of the upper canines into which the
+lower ones fit, a simian characteristic. In some cases, these spaces
+occur between the middle incisors or between these and the lateral ones.
+
+
+  =FIG. 4
+  HEAD OF CRIMINAL
+  (see page 14)=
+
+
+  =FIG. 5
+  HEAD OF CRIMINAL
+  (see page 18)=
+
+
+
+Very often the teeth show a strange uniformity, which recalls the
+homodontism of the lower vertebrates. In some cases, however, this
+uniformity is limited to the premolars, which are furnished with
+tubercles like the molars, a peculiarity of gorillas and orang-outangs.
+In 4% the canines are very strongly developed, long, sharp, and curving
+inwardly as in carnivores. Premature caries is common.
+
+_The Chin._ Generally speaking, this part of the face projects
+moderately in Europeans. In criminals it is often small and receding, as
+in children, or else excessively long, short or flat, as in apes.
+
+_Wrinkles._ Although common to normal individuals, the abundance,
+variety, and precocity of wrinkles almost invariably manifested by
+criminals, cannot fail to strike the observer. The following are the
+most common: horizontal and vertical lines on the forehead, horizontal
+and circumflex lines at the root of the nose, the so-called crow's-feet
+on the temple at the outer corners of the eyes, naso-labial wrinkles
+around the region of the mouth and nose.
+
+_The Hair._ The hair of the scalp, cheeks and chin, eyebrows, and other
+parts of the body, shows a number of anomalies. In general it may be
+said that in the distribution of hair, criminals of both sexes tend to
+exhibit characteristics of the opposite sex. Dark hair prevails
+especially in murderers, and curly and woolly hair in swindlers. Both
+grey hair and baldness are rare and when found make their appearance
+later in life than in the case of normal individuals. The beard is
+scanty and frequently missing altogether. On the other hand, the
+forehead is often covered with down. The eyebrows are bushy and tend to
+meet across the nose. Sometimes they grow in a slanting direction and
+give the face a satyr-like expression (see Fig. 5).
+
+The blemishes peculiar to the delinquent are not only confined to the
+face and head, but are found in the trunk and limbs.
+
+_The Thorax._ An increase or decrease in the number of ribs is found in
+12% of criminals. This is an atavistic character common to animals and
+lower or prehistoric human races and contrasts with the numerical
+uniformity characteristic of civilised mankind.
+
+Polymastia, or the presence of supernumerary nipples (which are
+generally placed symmetrically below the normal ones as in many mammals)
+is not an uncommon anomaly. Gynecomastia or hypertrophy of the mamm� is
+still more frequent in male criminals. In female criminals, on the
+contrary, we often find imperfect development or absence of the
+nipples, a characteristic of monotremata or lowest order of the mammals;
+or the breasts are flabby and pendent like those of Hottentot women.
+
+The chest is often covered with hair which gives the subject the
+appearance of an animal.
+
+_The Pelvis and Abdomen._ The abdomen, pelvis, and reproductive organs
+sometimes show an inversion of sex-characters. In 42% the sacral canal
+is uncovered, and in some cases there is a prolongation of the coccyx,
+which resembles the stump of a tail, sometimes tufted with hair.
+
+_The Upper Limbs._ One of the most striking and frequent anomalies
+exhibited by criminals is the excessive length of the arms as compared
+with the lower limbs, owing to which the span of the arms exceeds the
+total height, an ape-like character.
+
+Six per cent. exhibit an anomaly which is extremely rare among normal
+individuals--the olecranon foramen, a perforation in the head of the
+humerus where it articulates with the ulna. This is normal in the ape
+and dog and is frequently found in the bones of prehistoric man and in
+some of the existing inferior races of mankind.
+
+Several abnormal characters, which point to an atavistic origin, are
+found in the palm and fingers. Supernumerary fingers (polydactylism) or
+a reduction in the usual number are not uncommon. Sometimes we find
+syndactylism, or palmate fingers, a continuation of the interdigital
+skin to the second phalanx. The length of the fingers varies according
+to the type of crime to which the individual is addicted. Those guilty
+of crimes against the person have short, clumsy fingers and especially
+short thumbs. Long fingers are common to swindlers, thieves, sexual
+offenders, and pickpockets. The lines on the palmar surfaces of the
+finger-tips are often of a simple nature as in the anthropoids. The
+principal lines on the palm are of special significance. Normal persons
+possess three, two horizontal and one vertical, but in criminals these
+lines are often reduced to one or two of horizontal or transverse
+direction, as in apes.
+
+_The Lower Limbs._ Of a number of criminals examined, 16% showed an
+unusual development of the third trochanter, a protuberance on the head
+of the femur where it articulates with the pelvis. This distinctly
+atavistic character is connected with the position of the hind-limb in
+quadrupeds.
+
+_The Feet._ Spaces between the toes like the interdigital spaces of the
+hand are very common, and in conjunction with the greater mobility of
+the toes and greater length of the big-toe, produce the prehensile foot,
+of the quadrumana, which is used for grasping. The foot is often flat,
+as in negroes. In the feet, as in the hands, there is frequently a
+tendency to greater strength or dexterity on the left side, contrary to
+what happens in normal persons, and this tendency is manifested in many
+cases where there is no trace of functional and motorial
+left-handedness.
+
+_The Cerebrum and the Cerebellum._ The chief and most common anomaly is
+the prevalence of macroscopic anomalies in the left hemisphere, which
+are correlated to the sensory and functional left-handedness common to
+criminals and acquired through illness. The most notable anomaly of the
+cerebellum is the hypertrophy of the vermis, which represents the middle
+lobe found in the lower mammals. Anomalies in the cerebral convolutions
+consist principally of anastomotic folds, the doubling of the fissure of
+Rolando, the frequent existence of a fourth frontal convolution, the
+imperfect development of the precuneus (as in many types of apes), etc.
+Anomalies of a purely pathological character are still more common.
+These are: adhesions of the meninges, thickening of the pia mater,
+congestion of the meninges, partial atrophy, centres of softening,
+seaming of the optic thalami, atrophy of the corpus callosum, etc.
+
+Of great importance, too, are the histological anomalies discovered by
+Roncoroni in the brains of criminals and epileptics. In normal
+individuals the layers of the frontal region are disposed in the
+following manner:
+
+1. Molecular layer. 2. Superficial layer of small cells. 3. Layer of
+small pyramidal cells. 4. Deep layer of small nerve cells. 5. Layer of
+polymorphous cells (see Fig. 6).
+
+In certain animals, the dog, ape, rabbit, ox, and domestic fowl, the
+superficial layer is frequently non-existent and the deep one is found
+only to some extent in the ape.
+
+In born criminals and epileptics there is a prevalence of large,
+pyramidal, and polymorphous cells, whereas in normal individuals small,
+triangular, and star-shaped cells predominate. Also the transition from
+the small superficial to the large pyramidal cells is not so regular,
+and the number of nervous cells is noticeably below the average.
+Whereas, moreover, in the normally constituted brain, nervous cells are
+very scarce or entirely absent in the white substance, in the case of
+born criminals and epileptics they abound in this part of the brain.
+
+The abnormal morphological arrangement described by Roncoroni is
+probably the anatomical expression of hereditary alterations, and
+reveals disorders in nervous development which lead to moral insanity
+or epilepsy according to the gravity of the morbid conditions which give
+rise to them.
+
+
+
+  =FIG. 6
+
+  _a_) Cortical strata of the circumvolutions of the parietal lobes of a
+  normal person.
+
+  _b_) Cortical strata of the circumvolutions of the parietal lobes of a
+  criminal epileptic.
+
+  1. Molecular stratum. 2. External granular stratum. 3. Stratum of the
+  small pyramidal cells. 4. Stratum of the large pyramidal cells. 5. Deep
+  stratum of the small nervous cells or the deep granular stratum. 6.
+  Stratum of polymorphic cells. S.B. White matter.=
+
+
+These anomalies in the limbs, trunk, skull and, above all, in the face,
+when numerous and marked, constitute what is known to criminal
+anthropologists as the criminal type, in exactly the same way as the sum
+of the characters peculiar to cretins form what is called the cretinous
+type. In neither case have the anomalies an intrinsic importance, since
+they are neither the cause of the anti-social tendencies of the criminal
+nor of the mental deficiencies of the cretin. They are the outward and
+visible signs of a mysterious and complicated process of degeneration,
+which in the case of the criminal evokes evil impulses that are largely
+of atavistic origin.
+
+
+SENSORY AND FUNCTIONAL PECULIARITIES OF THE BORN CRIMINAL
+
+The above-mentioned physiognomical and skeletal anomalies are further
+supplemented by functional peculiarities, and all these abnormal
+characteristics converge, as mountain streams to the hollow in the
+plain, towards a central idea--the atavistic nature of the born
+criminal.
+
+An examination of the senses and sensibility of criminals gives the
+following results:
+
+_General Sensibility._ Tested simply by touching with the finger, a
+certain degree of obtuseness is noted. By using an apparatus invented by
+Du Bois-Reymond and adopted by my father, the degree of sensibility
+obtained was 49.6 mm. in criminals as against 64.2 mm. in normal
+individuals. Criminals are more sensitive on the left side, contrary to
+normal persons, in whom greater sensibility prevails on the right.
+
+_Sensibility to Pain._ Compared with ordinary individuals, the criminal
+shows greater insensibility to pain as well as to touch. This obtuseness
+sometimes reaches complete analgesia or total absence of feeling (16%),
+a phenomenon never encountered in normal persons. The mean degree of
+dolorific sensibility in criminals is 34.1 mm. whereas it is rarely
+lower than 40 mm. in normal individuals. Here again the left-handedness
+of criminals becomes apparent, 39% showing greater sensibility on the
+left.
+
+_Tactile Sensibility._ The distance at which two points applied to the
+finger-tips are felt separately is more than 4 mm. in 30% of criminals,
+a degree of obtuseness only found in 4% of normal individuals. Criminals
+exhibit greater tactile sensibility on the left. Tactile obtuseness
+varies with the class of crime practised by the individual. While in
+burglars, swindlers, and assaulters, it is double that of normal
+persons, in murderers, violators, and incendiaries it is often four or
+five times as great.
+
+_Sensibility to the Magnet_, which scarcely exists in normal persons, is
+common to a marked degree in criminals (48%).
+
+_Meteoric Sensibility._ This is far more apparent in criminals and the
+insane than in normal individuals. With variations of temperature and
+atmospheric pressure, both criminals and lunatics become agitated and
+manifest changes of disposition and sensations of various kinds, which
+are rarely experienced by normal persons.
+
+_Sight_ is generally acute, perhaps more so than in ordinary
+individuals, and in this the criminal resembles the savage. Chromatic
+sensibility, on the contrary, is decidedly defective, the percentage of
+colour-blindness being twice that of normal persons. The field of vision
+is frequently limited by the white and exhibits much stranger anomalies,
+a special irregularity of outline with deep peripheral scotoma, which we
+shall see is a special characteristic of the epileptic.
+
+_Hearing_, _Smell_, _Taste_ are generally of less than average acuteness
+in criminals. Cases of complete anosmia and qualitative obtuseness are
+not uncommon.[2]
+
+_Agility._ Criminals are generally agile and preserve this quality even
+at an advanced age. When over seventy, Vilella sprang like a goat up the
+steep rocks of his native Calabria, and the celebrated thief "La Vecchia,"
+when quite an old man, escaped from his captors by leaping from a high
+rampart at Pavia.
+
+_Strength._ Contrary to what might be expected, tests by means of the
+dynamometer show that criminals do not usually possess an extraordinary
+degree of strength. There is frequently a slight difference between the
+strength of the right and left limbs, but more often ambidexterity, as
+in children, and a greater degree of strength in the left limbs.
+
+
+PSYCHOLOGY OF THE BORN CRIMINAL
+
+The physical type of the criminal is completed and intensified by his
+moral and intellectual physiognomy, which furnishes a further proof of
+his relationship to the savage and epileptic.
+
+_Natural Affections._ These play an important part in the life of a
+normally constituted individual and are in fact the _raison d'�tre_ of
+his existence, but the criminal rarely, if ever, experiences emotions of
+this kind and least of all regarding his own kin. On the other hand, he
+shows exaggerated and abnormal fondness for animals and strangers. La
+Sola, a female criminal, manifested about as much affection for her
+children as if they had been kittens and induced her accomplice to
+murder a former paramour, who was deeply attached to her; yet she tended
+the sick and dying with the utmost devotion.
+
+In the place of domestic and social affections, the criminal is
+dominated by a few absorbing passions: vanity, impulsiveness, desire for
+revenge, licentiousness.
+
+
+MORAL SENSE
+
+The ability to discriminate between right and wrong, which is the
+highest attribute of civilised humanity, is notably lacking in
+physically and psychically stunted organisms. Many criminals do not
+realise the immorality of their actions. In French criminal jargon
+conscience is called "la muette," the thief "l'ami," and "travailler"
+and "servir" signify to steal. A Milanese thief once remarked to my
+father: "I don't steal. I only relieve the rich of their superfluous
+wealth." Lacenaire, speaking of his accomplice Avril, remarked, "I
+realised at once that we should be able to work together." A thief asked
+by Ferri what he did when he found the purse stolen by him contained no
+money, replied, "I call them rogues." The notions of right and wrong
+appear to be completely inverted in such minds. They seem to think they
+have a right to rob and murder and that those who hinder them are
+acting unfairly. Murderers, especially when actuated by motives of
+revenge, consider their actions righteous in the extreme.
+
+_Repentance and Remorse._ We hear a great deal about the remorse of
+criminals, but those who come into contact with these degenerates
+realise that they are rarely, if ever, tormented by such feelings. Very
+few confess their crimes: the greater number deny all guilt in a most
+strenuous manner and are fond of protesting that they are victims of
+injustice, calumny, and jealousy. As Despine once remarked with much
+insight, nothing resembles the sleep of the just more closely than the
+slumbers of an assassin.
+
+Many criminals, indeed, allege repentance, but generally from
+hypocritical motives; either because they hope to gain some advantage by
+working on the feelings of philanthropists, or with a view to escaping,
+or, at any rate, improving their condition while in prison. Thus
+Lacenaire, when convicted for the first time, wrote in a moving strain
+to his friend Vigouroux in order to get money and help from him,
+"Repentance is the only course left open to me. You may well feel
+pleased at having turned a man from a path of crime for which he was not
+intended by nature." A few hours later he committed another theft, and
+before he died remarked cynically that he had never experienced
+remorse. When tried at the Assizes at Pavia, Rognoni pronounced a
+touching discourse on his repentance and refused the wine brought him in
+prison for some days because it reminded him of his murdered brother.
+But he obtained it surreptitiously from his fellow-prisoners, and when
+one of them grumbled at having to give up his own portion, Rognoni
+threatened him saying, "I have already murdered four, and shall make no
+bones about killing a fifth."
+
+Sometimes remorse is advanced by criminals as a palliation of their
+crimes. Michelieu justified the _coup de grace_ inflicted on his victim
+by saying, "When I saw her in that state, I felt such terrible remorse
+that I shot her dead in order not to meet her glance."
+
+Sometimes an appearance of remorse is produced by hallucinations due to
+alcoholism. Philippe and Lucke imagined they saw the spectres of the
+persons they had murdered a short time before, but in reality they were
+suffering from the effects of drink and so little true remorse did they
+feel that on being sentenced, Philippe remarked, "If they had not sent
+me to Cayenne, I should have done it again." Generally speaking, what
+seems to be repentance is only the fear of death or some superstitious
+dread, which assumes an appearance of remorse, but is devoid of real
+feeling.
+
+A typical instance of hypocrisy and cynicism is furnished by the
+Marquise de Brinvilliers, the notorious poisoner, who succeeded in
+deceiving the venerable prison-chaplain so completely that he regarded
+her as a model of penitence, yet in her last moments she wrote to her
+husband denying her guilt and exhibited lascivious and revengeful
+feelings.
+
+Many criminals, when in prison, model sculptural representations of
+their crimes with crumbs of bread (see Fig. 7).
+
+_Cynicism._ The strongest proof of the total lack of remorse in
+criminals and their inability to distinguish between good and evil is
+furnished by the callous way in which they boast of their depraved
+actions and feign pious sentiments which they do not feel. One criminal
+humbly entreated to be allowed to retain his own crucifix while in
+prison. It was subsequently discovered that the sacred image served as a
+sheath for his dagger (see Fig. 8).
+
+Philippe made the following statement to one of his female companions.
+"My way of loving women is a very strange one. After enjoying their
+caresses, I take the greatest delight in strangling them or cutting
+their throats. Soon you will hear everyone talking about me." Shortly
+before he murdered his father, Lachaud said to his friends, "This
+evening I shall dig a grave and lay my father there to rest eternally."
+
+Sometimes, indeed, a criminal realises dimly the depravity of his
+actions; he rarely judges them, however, as a normal person would, but
+seeks to explain and justify them after his own fashion. When asked by
+the magistrate if he denied having stolen a horse, Ansalone replied,
+"Surely you do not call that a theft; a leader of brigands could hardly
+be expected to go on foot!"
+
+Others consider that their actions are less criminal if their intentions
+were good; like Holland, who murdered to obtain food for his wife and
+children. Others, again, think themselves excused by the fact that many
+do worse things with impunity. Any circumstance, the lack or
+insufficiency of evidence against them or the fact that they are accused
+of an offence different from the one they have really committed, is
+seized upon as a mitigation of their guilt, and they always manifest
+much resentment against those who administer the law. "London thieves,"
+observes Mayhew, "realise that they do wrong, but think that they are no
+worse than ordinary bankrupts."
+
+The constant perusal of newspaper reports leads criminals to believe
+that there are a great many rogues in higher circles, and by taking
+exceptions to be the rule, they flatter themselves that their own
+actions are not very reprehensible, because the wealthy are not censured
+for similar actions.
+
+
+  =FIG. 7
+  Figures made in Prison
+  MURDER OF A SLEEPING VICTIM
+  Work of a Prisoner
+  (see page 31)=
+
+
+  =FIG. 8
+  CRUCIFIX POIGNARD
+  (see page 31)=
+
+
+These instances show that criminals are not entirely unable to
+distinguish between right and wrong. Nevertheless, their moral sense is
+sterile because it is suffocated by passions and the deadening force of
+habit.
+
+In the cant of Spanish thieves, justice is called "la justa" (the just),
+and this name is given in French slang to the Assizes, but, as Mayor
+observes, it may be applied ironically.
+
+In alluding to the unknown author of the crimes committed in reality by
+himself, the murderer Pr�vost remarked, "Whoever it is, he is bound to
+end by the guillotine sooner or later." In such cases, although a sense
+of truth and justice exists, the desire to act according to it is
+lacking.
+
+     "It is one thing [observes Harwick] to possess a theoretical notion
+     of what is right and wrong, but quite another to act according to
+     it. In order that the knowledge of good should be transformed into
+     an ardent desire for its triumph, as food is converted into chyle
+     and blood, it must be urged to action by elevated sentiments, and
+     these are generally lacking in the criminal. If, on the contrary,
+     good feelings really exist, the individual desires to do right and
+     his convictions are translated into action with the same energy
+     that he displayed in doing wrong."
+
+
+A philanthropist once invited a number of young London thieves to a
+friendly gathering, and it was noticed that the most hardened offenders
+were greeted with the greatest amount of applause from the company.
+Nevertheless, when the President requested one of them to change a gold
+coin outside, and he did not return, those present showed great
+indignation and anxiety, abusing and threatening their absent companion,
+whose ultimate return was hailed with genuine relief. In this case, no
+doubt, envy and vanity played as great a part as a sense of integrity,
+in the resentment shown at this fancied breach of faith.
+
+In the prisons at Moscow, offences against discipline are dealt with by
+the offenders' fellow-prisoners. The convict population on the island of
+San Stefano compiled spontaneously a Draconian code to quell internal
+discord arising from racial jealousies.
+
+_Treachery._ This species of morality and justice, which unexpectedly
+makes its appearance in the midst of a naturally unrighteous community,
+can only be forced and temporary. When, instead of reaping advantages,
+interests and passions are injured by acting rightly, these notions of
+justice, unsustained by innate integrity suddenly fail. Contrary to
+universal belief, criminals are very prone to betray their companions
+and accomplices, and are easily induced to act as informers in the hope
+of gaining some personal advantage or of injuring those they envy or
+suspect of treachery towards themselves.
+
+"Many thieves," says Vidocq, "consider it a stroke of luck to be
+consulted by the police." In fact, Bouscaut, one of a notorious band of
+malefactors in France, was chiefly instrumental in causing the arrest of
+the gang; and the brigand Caruso aided the authorities in capturing his
+former companions.
+
+_Vanity._ Pride, or rather vanity, and an exaggerated notion of their
+own importance, which we find in the masses, generally in inverse
+proportion to real merit, is especially strong in criminals. In the cell
+occupied by La Gala, the following notice was found in his handwriting:
+"March 24th. On this date La Gala learnt to knit." Another criminal,
+Crocco, tried hard to save his brother, "Lest," he said, "my race should
+die out." Lacenaire was less troubled by the death-sentence than by
+adverse criticisms of his bad verse and the fear of public contempt. "I
+do not fear being hated," he is reported to have said, "but I dread
+being despised--the tempest leaves traces of its passage, but unobserved
+the humble flower fades."
+
+Thus thieves are loth to confess that they are guilty of only petty
+larceny, and are sometimes prompted by vanity to commit more serious
+robberies. The same false shame is common to fallen women, among whom
+contempt is incurred, not by excess of depravity but by the failure to
+command high prices. Grellinier, a petty thief, boasted in court of
+imaginary offences, with the desire of appearing in the light of a great
+criminal. The crimes in the haunted castle, attributed by Holmes to
+himself, were certainly in part inventions. The female poisoner,
+Buscemi, when writing to her accomplice, signed herself, "Your Lucrezia
+Borgia."
+
+One of the most frequent causes of modern crime is the desire to gratify
+personal vanity and to become notorious.
+
+_Impulsiveness._ This is another and almost pathognomonical
+characteristic of born criminals, and also, as we shall see later on, of
+epileptics and the morally insane. That which in ordinary individuals is
+only an eccentric and fugitive suggestion vanishing as soon as it
+arises, in the case of abnormal subjects is rapidly translated into
+action, which, although unconscious, is not the less dangerous. A youth
+of this impulsive type, returning home one evening flushed with wine,
+met a peasant leading his ass and cried out, "As I have not come to
+blows with anyone to-day, I must vent my rage on this beast," at the
+same time drawing his knife and plunging it several times into the poor
+animal's body (Ladelci, _Il Vino_, Rome, 1868). Pinel describes a
+morally insane subject, who was in the habit of giving way to his
+passions, killing any horses that did not please him and thrashing his
+political opponents. He even went to the length of throwing a lady down
+a well, because she ventured to contradict him.
+
+     "The most trifling causes [remarks Tamburini, speaking of Sbro...]
+     that stand in the way of his wishes, provoke a fit of rage in which
+     he appears to lose all self-control, like little children, who in
+     resenting any offence show no sense of proportion. The most trivial
+     reasons for disliking anyone awaken in him an irresistible desire
+     to kill the object of his aversion, and if any new blasphemy rises
+     to his lips, he feels constrained to repeat it."
+
+
+A thief once said to my father: "It is in our very blood. It may be only
+a pin, but I cannot help taking it, although I am quite ready to give it
+back to its owner." The pickpocket Bor... confessed that at the age of
+twelve he had begun to steal in the streets and at school, to the extent
+of taking things from under his schoolfellows' pillows, and that it was
+impossible for him to resist stealing, even when his pockets were full.
+If he had not stolen some article before going to bed, he was unable to
+sleep, and when midnight struck, he felt obliged to take the first thing
+that came to his hand, destroying it frequently as soon as he had
+appropriated it.
+
+"To give up stealing," said Deham to Lauvergne, "would be like ceasing
+to exist. Stealing is a passion that burns like love and when I feel the
+blood seething in my brain and fingers, I think I should be capable of
+robbing myself, if that were possible." When sentenced to the galleys,
+he stole the bands from the masts, nails, and copper plates, and he
+himself fixed the number of lashes he was to receive after each of these
+exploits, which did not prevent his recommencing stealing directly
+afterward (_Les For�ats_, p. 358).
+
+Ponticelli once saw a thief, who was dying of consumption, steal an old
+slipper from his neighbour and hide it under the bedclothes.
+
+_Vindictiveness._ Closely allied to this impulsiveness and exaggerated
+personal vanity, we find an extraordinary thirst for revenge. Lebuc
+murdered a man who had stolen some matches from him. Baron R... caused
+the death of a man, because he had failed to order a religious
+procession to halt under the windows of his palace.
+
+  "To see expire the one you hate--
+  Such is the joy of the gods.
+  My sole desire is to hate and be avenged."
+
+wrote Lacenaire.
+
+After a slight dispute with Voit, whose hospitality he had enjoyed,
+Renaud threw his friend down a well. He was arrested, and when Voit, who
+had been rescued, pardoned him, he said, "I only regret not having
+finished him, but when I come out of prison, I will do so." And he kept
+his word.
+
+The tattooing on the persons of criminals and their writings while in
+prison are full of solemn oaths of vengeance. A female thief once said,
+"If it were true that those who refuse to pardon will be damned
+eternally, I should still withhold my forgiveness."
+
+_Cruelty_ depends on moral and physical insensibility, those incapable
+of feeling pain being indifferent to the sufferings of others.
+
+The post of executioner was eagerly competed for at the prison of
+Rochefort. Mammon used to drink the blood of his victims and when this
+was not to be had, he drank his own. The executioner Jean became so
+maddened by the sight of blood flowing beneath his lash, that guards
+were stationed to prevent undue prolongation of the punishment. Dippe
+wrote: "My chief pleasure is beheading. When I was young, stabbing was
+my sole pastime."
+
+It has often been observed that the ferocity of women exceeds that of
+men. Rulfi killed her own niece, whom she detested, by thrusting long
+pins into her, and the female brigand Ciclope reproached her lover for
+murdering his victims too quickly.
+
+_Idleness._ Like savages, criminals are dominated by an incorrigible
+laziness, which in certain cases leads them to prefer death from
+starvation to regular work. This idleness alternates with periods of
+ferocious impulsiveness, during which they display the greatest energy.
+Like savages, too, they are passionately fond of alcohol, orgies, and
+sensual pleasures, which alone rouse them to activity.
+
+_Orgies._ Those who have observed children absorbed all day long by a
+game that pleases them, can understand the meaning of these words,
+spoken by a woman: "Criminals are grown-up children." The love of
+habitual debauch is so intense that, as soon as thieves have made some
+great haul or escaped from prison, they return to their haunts to
+carouse and make merry, in spite of the evident danger of falling once
+more into the hands of the police.
+
+_Gambling._ The passion for gambling is so strong that the criminal is
+always in a penniless condition, no matter how much treasure he has
+appropriated, and cases of starvation in prison are not unknown,
+prisoners having sold their rations in order to gratify this vice.
+
+_Games._ Many primitive and cruel amusements, similar to the pastimes of
+savages, have been preserved or reconstructed by criminals. Such are
+the games known to Italian offenders as "La Patta," in which one of the
+players tries to avoid being struck while passing his head between two
+points brought together horizontally by another, who stands with his
+arms outstretched; and "La Rota," in which the players run in a circle,
+one behind the other, seeking to escape, by dodging, the blows from a
+stout stick, aimed at them by one of their companions.
+
+_Intelligence_ is feeble in some and exaggerated in others. Prudence and
+forethought are generally lacking. A very common characteristic is
+recklessness, which leads criminals to run the risk of arrest for the
+sake of being witty, or to leave some blood-stained weapon on the very
+spot where they have committed a crime, notwithstanding the fact that
+they have taken a hundred precautions to avoid detection. This same
+recklessness prompts them, when the danger is scarcely past, to make
+verses or pictures of their exploits or to tattoo them upon their
+persons, heedless of consequences.
+
+Zino relates the story of a Sicilian schoolboy, who illustrated his
+criminal relations with his schoolfellows by a series of sketches in his
+album. A certain Cavaglia, called "Fusil" robbed and murdered an
+accomplice and hid the body in a cupboard. He was arrested and in prison
+decided to commit suicide a hundred days after the date of his crime,
+but before doing so, he adorned his water-jug with an account of his
+misdeed, partly in pictures and partly in writing, as though he desired
+to raise a monument to himself (see Fig. 9). The clearest and strangest
+instance of this recklessness was furnished by a photograph discovered
+by the police, in which, at the risk of arrest and detection, three
+criminals had had themselves photographed in the very act of committing
+a murder.
+
+
+INTELLECTUAL MANIFESTATIONS
+
+_Slang._ This is a peculiar jargon used by criminals when speaking among
+themselves. The syntax and grammatical construction of the language
+remain unchanged, but the meanings of words are altered, many being
+formed in the same way as in primitive languages; _i.e._, an object
+frequently receives the name of one of its attributes. Thus a kid is
+called "jumper," death "the lean or cruel one," the soul "the false or
+shameful one," the body "the veil," the hour "the swift one," the moon
+"the spy," a purse "the saint," alms "the rogue," a sermon "the tedious
+one," etc. Many words are formed as among savages, by onomatopoeia, as
+"tuff" (pistol), "tic" (watch), "guanguana" (sweetheart), "fric frac"
+(lottery).
+
+
+  =FIG. 9
+  WATER-JUGS
+  (see page 42)=
+
+
+The necessity of eluding police investigations is the reason usually
+given for the origin of this slang. No doubt it was one of the chief
+causes, but does not explain the continued use of a jargon which is too
+well known now to serve this purpose; moreover, it is employed in poems,
+the object of which is to invite public attention, not to avoid it, and
+by criminals in their homes where there is no need for secrecy.
+
+_Pictography._ One of the strangest characteristics of criminals is the
+tendency to express their ideas pictorially. While in prison, Troppmann
+painted the scene of his misdeed, for the purpose of showing that it had
+been committed by others. We have already mentioned the rude
+illustrations engraved by the murderer Cavaglia on his pitcher,
+representing his crime, imprisonment, and suicide. Books, crockery,
+guns, all the utensils criminals have in constant use, serve as a canvas
+on which to portray their exploits.
+
+From pictography it is but an easy step to hieroglyphics like those used
+by ancient peoples. The hieroglyphics of criminals are closely allied to
+their slang, of which in fact they are only a pictorial representation,
+and, although largely inspired by the necessity for secrecy, show, in
+addition, evident atavistic tendencies.
+
+
+  =FIG. 10
+  Drawings in Script.
+  Discovered by De Blasio=
+
+
+De Blasio has explained the meaning of the hieroglyphics used by the
+"camorristi" (members of the _camorra_ at Naples), especially when they
+are in prison. For instance, to indicate the President of the Tribunal,
+they use a crown with three points; to indicate a judge, the judge's cap
+(see Fig. 10). The following is a list of some of the hieroglyphics
+mentioned by De Blasio:
+
+_Police Inspector_--a hat like those worn by the Italian soldiers who
+are called Alpini (a helmet with flat top and an upright feather on the
+left side).
+
+_Public Prosecutor_--an open-mouthed viper (see Fig. 10).
+
+_Carabineer_--a bugle.
+
+_Theft_--a skull and cross-bones.
+
+_Commissary of the Police_--a dwarf with the three-cornered hat worn by
+the _carabinieri_.
+
+_Arts and Industries of the Criminal._ Although habitual criminals show
+a strong aversion to any kind of useful labour, in prison and at large,
+they, nevertheless, apply themselves with great diligence to certain
+tasks, sometimes of an illegal nature, such as the manufacture of
+implements to aid them in escaping, sometimes merely artistic, such as
+modelling, with breadcrumbs, brickdust, or soap, the figures of persons.
+Sometimes they make baskets, machines, dominoes, draughts,
+playing-cards, etc., or form means of communication with their
+fellow-prisoners and construct weapons for executing their schemes of
+vengeance. They also devote themselves to eccentric and useless
+occupations, like the training of animals, such as mice, marmosets,
+birds, and even fleas (Lattes). This morbid and misguided activity,
+which frequently shows gleams of talent, might well be utilised for
+increasing the scope of prison industries.
+
+
+TATTOOING
+
+This personal decoration so often found on great criminals is one of the
+strangest relics of a former state. It consists of designs,
+hieroglyphics, and words punctured in the skin by a special and very
+painful process.
+
+
+  =FIG. 11
+  Alphabet Discovered by De Blasio=
+
+
+Among primitive peoples, who live in a more or less nude condition,
+tattooing takes the place of decorations or ornamental garments, and
+serves as a mark of distinction or rank. When an Eskimo slays an enemy,
+he adorns his upper-lip with a couple of blue stripes, and the warriors
+of Sumatra add a special sign to their decorations for every foe they
+kill. In Wuhaiva, ladies of noble birth are more extensively tattooed
+than women of humbler rank. Among the Maoris, tattooing is a species of
+armorial bearings indicative of noble birth.
+
+According to ancient writers, tattooing was practised by Thracians,
+Picts, and Celts. Roman soldiers tattooed their arms with the names of
+their generals, and artisans in the Middle Ages were marked with the
+insignia of their crafts. In modern times this custom has fallen into
+disuse among the higher classes and only exists among sailors, soldiers,
+peasants, and workmen.
+
+Although not exclusively confined to criminals, tattooing is practised
+by them to a far larger extent than by normal persons: 9% of adult
+criminals and 40% of minors are tattooed; whereas, in normal persons the
+proportion is only 0.1%. Recidivists and born criminals, whether thieves
+or murderers, show the highest percentage of tattooing. Forgers and
+swindlers are rarely tattooed.
+
+Sometimes tattooing consists of a motto symbolical of the career of the
+criminal it adorns. Tardieu found on the arm of a sailor who had served
+various terms of imprisonment, the words, "Pas de chance." The
+notorious criminal Malassen was tattooed on the chest with the drawing
+of a guillotine, under which was written the following prophecy: "J'ai
+mal commenc�, je finirai mal. C'est la fin qui m'attend."
+
+Tattooing frequently bears witness to indecency. Of 142 criminals
+examined by my father, the tattooing on five showed obscenity of design
+and position and furnished also a remarkable proof of the insensibility
+to pain characteristic of criminals, the parts tattooed being the most
+sensitive of the whole body, and therefore left untouched even by
+savages.
+
+Another fact worthy of mention is the extent to which criminals are
+tattooed. Thirty-five out of 378 criminals examined by Lacassagne were
+decorated literally from head to foot.
+
+In a great many cases, the designs reveal violence of character and a
+desire for revenge. A Piedmontese sailor, who had perpetrated fraud and
+murder from motives of revenge, bore on his breast between two daggers,
+the words: "I swear to revenge myself." Another had written on his
+forehead, "Death to the middle classes," with the drawing of a dagger
+underneath. A young Ligurian, the leader of a mutiny in an Italian
+Reformatory, was tattooed with designs representing all the most
+important episodes of his life, and the idea of revenge was paramount.
+On his right forearm figured two crossed swords, underneath them the
+initials M. N. (of an intimate friend), and on the inner side, traced
+longitudinally, the motto: "Death to cowards. Long live our alliance."
+
+Tattooing, as practised by criminals, is a perfect substitute for
+writing with symbols and hieroglyphics, and they take a keen pleasure in
+this mode of adorning their skins.
+
+Of atavistic origin, also, is the practice, common to members of the
+_camorra_, of branding their sweethearts on the face, not from motives
+of revenge, but as a sign of proprietorship, like the chiefs of savage
+tribes, who mark their wives and other belongings; and the form of
+tattooing called "Paranza," which distinguishes the various bands of
+malefactors,--the band of the "banner," of the "three arrows," of the
+"bell-ringer," of the "Carmelites," etc.
+
+
+THE CRIMINAL TYPE
+
+All the physical and psychic peculiarities of which we have spoken are
+found singly in many normal individuals. Moreover, crime is not always
+the result of degeneration and atavism; and, on the other hand, many
+persons who are considered perfectly normal are not so in reality.
+However, in normal individuals, we never find that accumulation of
+physical, psychic, functional, and skeletal anomalies in one and the
+same person, that we do in the case of criminals, among whom also entire
+freedom from abnormal characteristics is more rare than among ordinary
+individuals.
+
+Just as a musical theme is the result of a sum of notes, and not of any
+single note, the criminal type results from the aggregate of these
+anomalies, which render him strange and terrible, not only to the
+scientific observer, but to ordinary persons who are capable of an
+impartial judgment.
+
+Painters and poets, unhampered by false doctrines, divined this type
+long before it became the subject of a special branch of study. The
+assassins, executioners, and devils painted by Mantegna, Titian, and
+Ribera the Spagnoletto embody with marvellous exactitude the
+characteristics of the born criminal; and the descriptions of great
+writers, Dante, Shakespeare, Dostoyevsky, and Ibsen, are equally
+faithful representations, physically and psychically, of this morbid
+type.
+
+
+THE CRIMINAL IN PROVERBIAL SAYINGS
+
+The conclusions of instinctive observers have found expression in many
+proverbs, which warn the world against the very characteristics we have
+noted in criminals.
+
+A proverb common in Romagna, says: "Poca barba e niun colore, sotto il
+cielo non vi ha peggiore" (There is nothing worse under Heaven than a
+scanty beard and a colourless face), and in Piedmont there is a saying,
+"Faccia smorta, peggio che scabbia" (An ashen face is worse than the
+itch). The Venetians have a number of proverbs expressing distrust of
+the criminal type: "Uomo rosso e femina barbuta da lontan xe megio la
+saluta" (Greet from afar the red-haired man and the bearded woman);
+"V�rdete da chi te parla e guarda in la, e v�rdete da chi tiene i oci
+bassi e da chi camina a corti passi" (Beware of him who looks away when
+he speaks to you, and of him who keeps his eyes cast down and takes
+mincing steps); "El guerzo xe maledetto per ogni verso" (The squint-eyed
+are on all sides accursed); "Megio vendere un campo e una c� che tor una
+dona dal naso lev�" (Better sell a field and a house than take a wife
+with a turned-up nose); "Naso che guarda in testa � peggior che la
+tempesta" (A turned-up nose is worse than hail); etc.
+
+There are innumerable cases on record, in which persons quite ignorant
+of criminology have escaped robbery or murder, thanks to the timely
+distrust awakened in them by the appearance of individuals who had tried
+to win their confidence. My father once placed before forty children,
+twenty portraits of thieves and twenty representing great men, and 80%
+recognised in the first the portraits of bad and deceitful people.
+
+In conclusion, the born criminal possesses certain physical and mental
+characteristics, which mark him out as a special type, materially and
+morally diverse from the bulk of mankind.
+
+Like the little cage-bred bird which instinctively crouches and trembles
+at the sight of the hawk, although ignorant of its ferocity, an honest
+man feels instinctive repugnance at the sight of a miscreant and thus
+signalises the abnormality of the criminal type.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+_THE BORN CRIMINAL AND HIS RELATION TO MORAL INSANITY AND EPILEPSY_
+
+
+No one, before my father, had ever recognised in the criminal an
+abnormal being driven by an irresistible atavistic impulse to commit
+anti-social acts, but many had observed (cases of the kind were too
+frequent to escape notice) the existence of certain individuals, nearly
+always members of degenerate families, who seemed from their earliest
+infancy to be prompted by some fatal impulse to do evil to their
+fellow-men. They differed from ordinary people, because they hated the
+very persons who to normal beings are the nearest and dearest, parents,
+husbands, wives, and children, and because their inhuman deeds seemed to
+cause them no remorse. These individuals, who were sometimes treated as
+lunatics, sometimes as diseased persons, and sometimes as criminals,
+were said by the earliest observers to be afflicted with moral
+insanity.
+
+_Analogy._ Those who are familiar with all that Pinel, Morel, Richard
+Connon, and other great alienists have written on the morally insane
+cannot help remarking the analogy, nay identity, of the physical,
+intellectual, and moral characteristics of this type of lunatic and
+those of the born criminal.
+
+The same physical anomalies already observed in criminals, as described
+in the first chapter (cranial deformities, asymmetry, physical and
+functional left-handedness, anomalies in the teeth, hands, and feet),
+are described by these older writers as being characteristic of the
+morally insane, as are also those mental and moral qualities already
+noted in the born criminal--vanity, want of affection, cruelty,
+idleness, and love of orgies.
+
+Only the analogy of the origin and early manifestations was lacking to
+complete the proof of the identity of the two forms. It is true that
+moral insanity is more often found in the descendants of insane,
+neurotic, or dipsomaniac forebears than in those of criminals, and that
+the characteristics are manifested at an earlier age than is the case
+with born criminals, but these differences are not of fundamental
+importance.
+
+_Cases._ During many years of observation, my father was able to follow
+innumerable cases of moral insanity in which perversity was manifested
+literally from the cradle, and in which the victims of this disease grew
+up into delinquents in no wise distinguishable from born criminals.
+
+A typical instance is that of a certain Rizz... who was brought to him
+by the mother because, while still at the breast, he bit his nurse so
+viciously that bottle-feeding had to be substituted. At the age of two
+years, careful training and medical treatment notwithstanding, this
+child was separated from his brothers, because he stuck pins into their
+pillows and played dangerous tricks on them. Two years later, he broke
+open his father's cash-box and stole money to buy sweets; at six,
+although decidedly intelligent, he was expelled from every private
+school in the town, because he instigated the others to mischief or
+ill-treated them. At fourteen, he seduced a servant and ran away, and at
+twenty he killed his fianc�e by throwing her out of a window. Thanks to
+the testimony of a great many doctors, Rizz... was declared to be
+morally insane, but if the family had been poor instead of well-to-do,
+and the mother had neglected to have her child examined in infancy by a
+medical man, thus obtaining ample proof of the pathological nature of
+his perversity, Rizz... would have been condemned as an ordinary
+criminal, because, like all morally insane persons, he was very
+intelligent and able to reason clearly, like a normal individual.
+
+Another typical case is that of a child named Rav... (see Fig. 12) a
+native of the Romagna, who was brought to my father at the age of eight,
+because his parents were convinced that his conduct was due to a morbid
+condition. Unlike the above-mentioned case, his evil acts were always
+carried out in an underhand way. He showed great spite towards his
+brothers and sisters, especially the smaller ones, whom he attempted to
+strangle on several occasions, and was expelled from school on account
+of the bad influence he exercised over his schoolfellows. He delighted
+above everything in robbing his parents, employers, and the neighbours
+and in falsely accusing others, and so cleverly did he manage this that
+he caused a great deal of mischief before his double-dealing was
+discovered. When only eight, on leaving home early every morning to go
+to work, he would secretly throw all the milk left at the neighbours'
+doors into the dust-bin, then he accused the janitor of stealing it and
+got him dismissed. A year later, he nearly succeeded in causing the
+arrest of a pawnbroker, whom he accused of having lent him money on a
+cloak, it being illegal in Italy to accept anything in pawn from a
+minor. The cloak, however, was discovered by his mother hidden in the
+cellar. At ten years of age, he alleged that his father had brutally
+ill-treated him, and as severe marks and bruises on his body gave colour
+to the accusation, the poor man was arrested. The marks, however, were
+self-inflicted.
+
+Another boy, a certain Man..., a peasant from the Val d'Aosta, an
+Alpine valley in Piedmont, where cretinism is indigenous, exhibited
+perverse tendencies from his earliest infancy. When twelve years old, he
+killed his companion in a squabble over an egg. (See Fig. 13.)
+
+In the above-mentioned cases, the subjects all belonged to well-to-do or
+honest families and the pathological heredity was therefore exclusively
+nervous, not criminal. For this reason, the parents were struck by the
+abnormal depravity of their sons and had them medically examined and
+treated, thus discovering that they were morally insane. If, on the
+other hand, the parents had been criminals and had, themselves, set a
+bad example, nobody would have supposed that these depraved tendencies
+were innate in the children or had developed precociously. The fact of
+the prevalence of moral insanity in neurotic families (with frequent
+cases of lunacy, alcoholism, etc.) rather than in those of criminal
+tendencies appears at first sight strange, but according to the new
+theory advanced by my father, the criminal is a mentally diseased
+person; and we shall see in a later chapter that the heredity of insane,
+neurotic, and dipsomaniac parents is completely equivalent to a criminal
+heredity.
+
+
+  =FIG. 12
+  BOY MORALLY INSANE
+  (see page 55)=
+
+
+  =FIG. 13
+  BOY MORALLY INSANE
+  (see page 56)=
+
+
+_Proofs of Analogy._ Thus the genesis and early manifestations, which
+might have been diverse, really constitute a counter-proof. Careful
+anamnesis shows that both born criminals and the morally insane begin at
+a very early age to exhibit symptoms of the morbid tendencies which make
+them such a danger to society, and if the general public and the police,
+when such cases are brought to their notice, usually fail to realise
+that they arise from precocious perversity, it is because atrocious
+actions are excused on the ground of extreme youth and attributed to
+this cause rather than to vicious propensities. In many cases, indeed,
+they are revealed only to the physician.
+
+A counter-proof is likewise furnished by investigations of the origin of
+these pathological cases, since the study of born criminals shows that
+they, as well as the morally insane, are as frequently the offspring of
+insane, epileptic, neurotic, and drunken parents as of criminals, but in
+the latter case, the morbid origin of their perversity is seldom brought
+to light owing to the criminality of the parents, who naturally view
+with indifference symptoms of vice in their children.
+
+
+EPILEPTICS, AND THEIR RELATION TO BORN CRIMINALS AND THE MORALLY INSANE
+
+We have already stated that the physical and psychic characteristics of
+born criminals coincide with those of the morally insane. Both are
+identical with those of another class of degenerates, known to the world
+as epileptics.
+
+The term epilepsy was applied to a malady frequently studied but little
+understood by the ancient medical world, the chief symptoms of which
+were repeated tonic and clonic fits, preceded by the so-called
+"epileptic aura" and followed by a deep sleep. It was called _morbus
+sacer_ and believed to be of divine origin.
+
+Careful examination of epileptics by clinical and mental experts, showed
+that in addition to the characteristic seizure, these unfortunate beings
+were subject to other phenomena, which sometimes took the place of the
+convulsive fit and in other cases preceded or followed it. These were
+_pavor nocturnus_, sudden sweats, heat, neuralgia, sialorrhea,
+periodical cephalalgia and, above all, vertigo; and these symptoms were
+not always accompanied by unconsciousness nor followed by coma.
+Sometimes the seizure was only manifested by paroxysms of rage or
+ferocious and brutal impulses (devouring animals alive), which, if
+consciously committed, would be considered criminal. This fact led
+doctors and mental experts to examine other patients, and they were able
+to advance positive proof that a certain number of epileptics never
+experience the typical seizure, the disease being manifested in this
+milder form with cephalalgia, sialorrhea, delirious ferocity, and above
+all, giddiness.
+
+The multiformity of epilepsy has been fully confirmed by the experiments
+of Luciani, Zehen, and others, who produced various forms of epilepsy by
+submitting different cerebral zones to varying degrees of irritation. By
+graduating the electric current, Rosenbach was able to provoke the whole
+series of epileptic phenomena described above, from the mildest to the
+most serious manifestations. A slight irritation of the motor areas gave
+rise to tetanic contractions and clonic convulsions in a given joint; an
+increase in the strength of the current produced more violent movements
+which spread over the whole limb, and by intensifying the current still
+further, to half the body. Finally, on the application of a very strong
+current, the typical fit was produced with clonic spasms in all the
+body, unconsciousness, nystagmus, and rigidity of the pupils.
+
+By irritating the frontal lobes of dogs, Richet and Bernard produced
+vertigo and certain physical phenomena (snuffing, barking, and biting).
+
+Taking these investigations as a basis, Jackson came to the conclusion
+that epileptic fits are due to a rapid and excessive explosion of the
+grey matter, which, instead of developing its force gradually, develops
+it all of a sudden because it is irritated. And as it has been shown
+conclusively that the disease can be manifested in such varied
+forms--vertigo, twitching of the muscles, sialorrhea, cephalalgia, fits
+of rage, and ferocious actions--which appear to be the equivalent of the
+typical seizure, individuals subject to these forms of neurosis should
+be classed as epileptics, even if they never experience the typical
+motor attack.
+
+It is in this category, which may be called attenuated epilepsy, that we
+should place criminals, who in addition to the psychic and physical
+characteristics of the epileptic, possess others peculiar to themselves.
+Physical anomalies (plagiocephaly, microcephaly, macrocephaly,
+strabismus, facial and cranial asymmetry, prominent frontal sinuses,
+median occipital fossa, receding forehead, projecting ears,
+progeneismus, and badly shaped teeth) are characteristic both of
+criminals and epileptics, as was demonstrated in certain epileptics
+treated by my father (Figs. 14 and 15), and the same holds good of
+functional and histological anomalies. The histological anomaly
+discovered by Roncoroni in the frontal lobe of born criminals,
+consisting of the atrophy of the deep granular layer, the inversion of
+the pyramidal layers and small cells with enlargement and rarefaction of
+the pyramidal cells, and the existence of nervous cells in the white
+substance, is found in about the same proportion in cases of
+non-criminal epileptics. We find also in the same proportion in the
+field of vision of epileptics, as of born criminals, the anomaly
+discovered by Ottolenghi, consisting of peripheral scotoma intersecting
+the nearly uniform line of varying size common to normal eyes.
+
+
+  =FIG. 14
+  AN EPILEPTIC BOY
+  (see page 60)=
+
+
+_Psychological Characteristics._ The complete identity of epileptics,
+born criminals and the morally insane becomes evident as soon as we
+study their psychology.
+
+Epilepsy, congenital criminality, and moral insanity alone are capable
+of comprising in one clinical form intellectual divergencies which range
+from genius to imbecility. In epileptics, this divergence is sometimes
+manifested in one and the same person in the space of twenty-four hours.
+An individual at one time afflicted with loss of will-power and amnesia,
+and incapable of formulating the simplest notion, will shortly
+afterwards give expression to original ideas and reason logically.
+
+Contradictions and exaggerations of sentiment are salient
+characteristics of epileptics as of born criminals and the morally
+insane. Quarrelsome, suspicious, and cynical individuals suddenly become
+gentle, respectful, and affectionate. The cynic expresses religious
+sentiments, and the man who has brutally ill-treated his first wife,
+kneels before the second. An epileptic observed by Tonnini fancied
+himself at times to be Napoleon; at others, he would lick the ground
+like the humblest slave.
+
+The extreme excitability manifested by born criminals is shared by
+epileptics. Distrustful, intolerant, and incapable of sincere
+attachment, a gesture or a look is sufficient to infuriate them and
+incite them to the most atrocious deeds.
+
+Epilepsy has a disastrous effect on the character. It destroys the moral
+sense, causes irritability, alters the sensations through constant
+hallucinations and delusions, deadens the natural feelings or leads them
+into morbid channels.
+
+_Affection for Animals._ The hatred frequently manifested by criminals
+and epileptics towards the members of their own families is in many
+cases accompanied by an extraordinary fondness for animals as is shown
+by the cases of Caligula, Commodus, Lacenaire, Rosas, Dr. Francia, and
+La Sola,--who preferred kittens to her own children. A morally insane
+individual known to my father would spend months in training dogs,
+horses, birds, geese, and other fowls. He was wont to remark that all
+animals were friendly to him as though they recognised in him one of
+their own kind. Dostoyevsky's fellow-convicts showed great fondness for
+a horse, an eagle, and a number of geese. They were so attached to a
+goat that they wanted to gild its horns.
+
+
+  =FIG. 15
+  FERNANDO
+  Epileptic
+  (see page 60)=
+
+
+_Somnambulism._ This is a frequent characteristic of epileptics.
+Krafft-Ebing says:
+
+     "The seizure is often followed by a condition approaching
+     somnambulism. The patient appears to have recovered consciousness,
+     talks coherently, behaves in an orderly manner, and resumes his
+     ordinary occupations. Yet he is not really conscious as is shown by
+     the fact that, later he is entirely ignorant of what he has been
+     doing during this stage. This peculiar state of mental daze may
+     last a long time, sometimes during the whole interval between two
+     seizures."
+
+
+Many of the criminals observed by Dostoyevsky were given to
+gesticulating and talking agitatedly in their sleep.
+
+Obscenity is a common characteristic. Kowalewsky (_Archivio di
+Psichiatria_, 1885) notes the resemblance between the reproductive act
+and the epileptic seizure, the tonic tension of the muscles, loss of
+consciousness and mydriasis in both cases, and remarks also on the
+frequency with which epileptic attacks are accompanied by sexual
+propensities.
+
+The desire for sexual indulgence, like the taste for alcohol, is
+distinguished by the precocity peculiar to criminals and the morally
+insane. Precocious sexual instincts have been observed in children of
+four years, and in one case obscenity was manifested by an infant of one
+year.
+
+Marro (_Annali di Freniatria_, 1890) describes a child of three years
+and ten months, who had exhibited signs of epilepsy from birth and was
+of a jealous, irascible disposition. He was in the habit of scratching
+and biting his brothers and sisters, knocking over the furniture, hiding
+things, and tearing his clothes, and when unable to hurt or annoy
+others, would vent his rage upon himself. If punished, he would continue
+his misdeeds in an underhand way.
+
+Another child had been afflicted with convulsions from his earliest
+infancy, in consequence of which his character deteriorated, and while
+still a mere infant, he behaved with the utmost violence. He killed a
+cat, attempted to strangle his brother, and to set fire to the house.
+
+Invulnerability, another characteristic common to criminals, has been
+observed by Tonnini in epileptics, whose wounds and injuries heal with
+astonishing rapidity, and he is inclined to regard this peculiarity in
+the light of a reversion to a stage of evolution, at which animals like
+lizards and salamanders were able to replace severed joints by new
+growths. This invulnerability is shared by all degenerates: epileptics,
+imbeciles, and the morally insane.
+
+"One of these latter," says Tonnini, "tore out his moustache bodily and
+with it a large piece of skin. In a few days the wound was nearly
+healed."
+
+Very characteristic is the almost automatic tendency to destroy animate
+and inanimate objects, which results in frequent wounding, suicides, and
+homicides. This desire to destroy is also common to children. Fernando P.
+(Fig. 15), an epileptic treated by my father, when enraged was in the
+habit of smashing all the furniture within his reach and throwing the
+pieces over a wall some twenty-five feet high.
+
+Misdea, a regimental barber, to whom we shall refer later, roused to
+fury by dismissal from his post, broke four razors into small pieces
+with his teeth. Another epileptic, Piz... used to break all the
+crockery in his cell regularly every other day, "just to give vent to
+his feelings."
+
+This tendency to destroy everything in the cell is common also to
+ordinary criminals.
+
+_Cases of Moral Insanity with Latent Epileptic Phenomena._ The following
+cases, which were treated by my father and which were subject to
+careful observation and study, will serve to give a clear idea of the
+criminal form of epilepsy.
+
+Subject: Giuliano Celestino, age 16. Yellow skin abundantly tattooed,
+absence of hair on face or body. Cranium: plagiocephaly on the left
+frontal and right parietal regions, obliquely-placed eyes, narrow
+forehead, prominent orbital arches, line of the mouth horizontal as in
+apes, lateral incisors of upper jaw resembling the canines with rugged
+margins, excessive zygomatic and maxillary development, tactile
+sensibility very obtuse, dolorific sensibility non-existent on the
+right, very obtuse on the left, rotular reflex action exaggerated on the
+right, very feeble on the left. Devoid of natural feeling. When asked if
+he was fond of his mother, he replied: "When she brings me cigars and
+money." When questioned concerning his crimes he showed neither shame
+nor confusion. On the contrary, he confessed with a smile that when only
+ten he had tried to kill his youngest brother, who was then an infant in
+the cradle, and when hindered by his mother, had struck and bitten her.
+His father was a drunkard afflicted with syphilis, and Giuliano had
+suffered from epilepsy from the age of seven. At this age he began to
+indulge in alcohol and self-abuse, and stole from his parents in order
+to buy sweets. He appears to have been subject to an ambulatory mania,
+which caused him to wander aimlessly about the country, and if kept
+within doors he would let himself down from the windows, climb up the
+chimney, or, failing in these attempts to escape, would break the
+furniture and attract the attention of the neighbours by his terrific
+yells. From the age of eight, despite his parents' efforts to apprentice
+him, he was always immediately dismissed by his employers. He ran away
+with a strolling company of acrobats, and later apprenticed himself to a
+butcher in order to revel in the horrors of the slaughter-house. At
+fifteen he was confined in a reformatory, where he twice attempted to
+escape and to set fire to the building, and was sentenced to two years'
+imprisonment. For the space of a few days, he appears to have suffered
+from epileptic attacks, although in a masked form, accompanied by
+various attempts at suicide. These were renewed every other month for a
+whole year. When asked what he would do for a living when released, he
+would reply laughingly that there was plenty of money in other people's
+pockets.
+
+L... a morally insane subject, age 16, native of Turin, the son of an
+aged, but extremely respectable man. Height 1.50 m., weight, 46.2 kg.,
+with abundant hair, and down on the forehead, incisors crowded
+together, excessive development of the canines, and exaggerated orbital
+angle of the frontal bone. He was entirely devoid of affection for his
+family, remarking cynically that he was fond of his father when he gave
+him money and did not worry him. Sometimes he kicked the poor old man
+and otherwise abused him. When unable to obtain money, he would smash
+all the furniture in the house, until, for the sake of economy, his
+family gave him what he wanted. In order to get a five-pound note from
+money-lenders he would sign promissory notes for ten times that amount.
+He changed his ideas from one hour to another. Sometimes he wanted to
+enter the army, at others to emigrate to France, etc. When only fourteen
+he frequented houses of ill-fame, where he played the bully.
+
+Although this case may be regarded as a typical instance of moral
+insanity, there were apparently no symptoms of vertigo or convulsions.
+At the age of sixteen, however, while suffering from rheumatism, this
+subject tried to throw himself from the balcony of his bedroom at the
+same hour three nights running. After this he seems to have suffered
+from amnesia.
+
+These frenzied attempts at self-destruction, which seem to have taken
+the place of the epileptic seizure, were related to my father casually
+by the boy's mother; but in other cases, similar incidents, although of
+the utmost importance to the criminologist, often pass unnoticed.
+
+In the _Actes du Congr�s d'Anthropologie_, Angelucci describes another
+typical case of epileptic moral insanity. E. G. (brother a criminal
+epileptic, father a sufferer from cancer) was sentenced several times
+for assaulting people often without motive. Tattooed with the figure of
+a naked woman, microcephalous (39.2 cubic inches = 589 c.c.), having
+cranial and facial asymmetry, he was vain, deceitful, and violent, and
+made great show of scepticism although he wore a great many medals of
+the Virgin. This subject was over twenty-five when the first epileptic
+seizure took place.
+
+The connection between epilepsy and crime is one of derivation rather
+than identity. Epilepsy represents the genus of which criminality and
+moral insanity are the species.
+
+The born criminal is an epileptic, inasmuch as he possesses the
+anatomical, skeletal, physiognomical, psychological, and moral
+characteristics peculiar to the recognised form of epilepsy, and
+sometimes also its motorial phenomena, although at rare intervals. More
+frequently he exhibits its substitutes (vertigo, twitching, sialorrhea,
+emotional attacks). But the criminal epileptic possesses other
+characteristics peculiar to himself; in particular, that desire of evil
+for its own sake, which is unknown to ordinary epileptics. In view of
+this fact this form of epilepsy must be considered apart from the purely
+nervous anomaly, both in the clinical diagnosis and the methods of cure
+and social prophylaxis.
+
+Moreover, the nervous anomaly, which in the case of criminals appears on
+the scene from time to time, accentuating the criminal tendency till it
+reaches the atavistic form and producing morbid complications which
+sometimes prove fatal, serves to point out the true nature of the
+disease and to emphasise the fact that while it is attenuated so far as
+motor attacks are concerned, it is aggravated on the other hand by
+criminal impulses, which render the patient semi-immune and permit him a
+longer and less troubled existence, but provoke a constant brain
+irritation, which clouds and disturbs his intellectual and moral nature.
+
+In order better to understand these two forms of epilepsy, we must
+recall two analogous forms of another and equally multiform disease,
+tuberculosis in its forms of quick consumption and scrofula. The
+etiology is identical and the symptoms frequently alike, but while the
+latter proceeds very slowly and allows the patient a long life, the
+former is rapid and severs life in its prime.
+
+In motory epilepsy, the irritation is manifested on a sudden, but leaves
+the mind healthy in the interval, although the attacks may lead to rapid
+dementia. In criminal epilepsy this irritation does not break out in
+violent seizures and is compatible with a long life, but it changes the
+whole physical and psychic complexion of the individual.
+
+The epileptic origin of criminality explains many characteristics of the
+criminal, the genesis of which was previously obscure. Many of the moral
+and physical peculiarities of born criminals and the morally insane may
+be classed as professional characteristics acquired through the habit of
+evil-doing, especially the naso-labial and zygomatic wrinkles, cynical
+expression, tapering fingers, etc. Many anomalies also in the bones,
+hair, ears, eyes, and the monstrous development of the jaws and teeth,
+must be explained by arrested development in the fifth or sixth month of
+ultra-uterine existence, corresponding to the characteristics of
+inferior races by the usual law of ontogeny which recapitulates
+phylogeny. But there is a final series of anomalies, the origin of which
+was formerly wrapped in mystery: plagiocephaly, sclerosis, the
+thickening of the meninges, cranial asymmetry, and other changes in the
+cerebral layers, which can be explained only by a disease altering
+precociously the whole cerebral conformation, as is exactly the case in
+epilepsy.
+
+The born criminal is an epileptic, not however afflicted with the common
+form of this disease, but with a special kind. The pathological basis,
+the etiology, and the anatomical and psychological characteristics are
+identical, but there are many differences. While in the ordinary form
+motor anomalies are very common, in the criminal form they are very
+rare, while in ordinary epilepsy the mental explosions are accompanied
+by unconsciousness, in the other form they are weakened and spread over
+the whole existence, and consciousness is, relatively speaking,
+preserved; and while, finally, the ordinary epileptic has not always the
+tendency to do evil for its own sake--nay, may even achieve holiness--in
+the hidden form the bent towards evil endures from birth to death. The
+perversity concentrated in one second in the motor attack, is attenuated
+in the second form, but spread over the whole existence. We have
+therefore an epilepsy _sui generis_, a variety of epilepsy which may be
+called criminal.
+
+Thus the primitive idea of crime has become organic and complete. The
+criminal is only a diseased person, an epileptic, in whom the cerebral
+malady, begun in some cases during prenatal existence, or later, in
+consequence of some infection or cerebral poisoning, produces, together
+with certain signs of physical degeneration in the skull, face, teeth,
+and brain, a return to the early brutal egotism natural to primitive
+races, which manifests itself in homicide, theft, and other crimes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+_THE INSANE CRIMINAL_
+
+
+GENERAL FORMS OF CRIMINAL LUNACY
+
+Epileptic born criminals and the morally insane may be classed as
+lunatics under certain aspects, but only by the scientific observer and
+professional psychologist. Outside these two forms, there is an
+important series of offenders, who are not criminals from birth, but
+become such at a given moment of their lives, in consequence of an
+alteration of the brain, which completely upsets their moral nature and
+makes them unable to discriminate between right and wrong. They are
+really insane; that is, entirely without responsibility for their
+actions.
+
+Nearly every class of mental derangement contributes a special form of
+crime.
+
+_The Idiot_ is prompted by paroxysms of rage to commit murderous attacks
+on his fellow-creatures. His exaggerated sexual propensities incite him
+to rape, and his childish delight at the sight of flames, to arson.
+
+_The Imbecile_, or weak-minded individual, yields to his first impulse,
+or, dominated by the influence of others, becomes an accomplice in the
+hope of some trivial reward.
+
+The victims of _Melancholia_ are driven to suicide by suppressed grief,
+precordial agitation, or hallucinations. Sometimes the suicidal attempt
+is indirect and takes the form of the murder of some important personage
+or their own kin, in the hope that their own condemnation may follow, or
+it is to save those dear to them from the miseries of life.
+
+Persons afflicted with _General Paralysis_ frequently steal, in the
+belief that everything they see belongs to them, or because they are
+incapable of understanding the meaning of property. If accused of theft,
+they deny their guilt or assert that the stolen articles have been
+hidden on their persons by others. They are inclined to forgery and
+fraudulent bankruptcy, and when their misdeeds are brought home to them
+they show no shame. Unnatural sexual offences and crimes against the
+authorities are also common. While they are seldom guilty of murder,
+they frequently commit arson, through carelessness, or with the idea of
+destroying their homes because they think them too small, or wish to
+get rid of the vermin in them, such as rats.
+
+The sufferer from _Dementia_ forgets his promises, however serious they
+may be. Cerebral irritability often leads him to commit violent acts,
+homicide, etc.
+
+In some cases, mental alienation is manifested in a mania for
+litigation, which urges the sufferer to offend statesmen, state lawyers,
+and judges.
+
+A common symptom of _Pellagra_ is the tendency to unpremeditated murder
+or suicide, without the slightest cause. The sight of water suggests
+drowning, in the form of murder or suicide.
+
+Young persons at the approach of puberty and women subject to amenorrhea
+often exhibit a tendency to arson and crimes of an erotic nature.
+Similar tendencies are sometimes displayed during pregnancy, and an
+inclination to theft is not uncommon.
+
+Maniacs are prone to satyriasis and bacchanalian excesses. They commit
+rape and indecent acts in public and often appropriate strange objects,
+hair or wearing apparel, with the idea of obtaining means to satisfy
+their vices, either because they are unconscious of doing wrong or
+because, like true megalomaniacs, they believe the stolen goods to be
+their own property. Sometimes a feverish activity prompts them to
+steal; "I felt a kind of uneasiness, a demon in my fingers," said one,
+"which forced me to move them and carry off something."
+
+Monomaniacs, especially if subject to hallucinations, frequently
+manifest a tendency to homicide, either to escape imaginary persecutions
+or in obedience to equally imaginary injunctions. The same motives prompt
+them to commit special kinds of theft and arson. Na... (see Fig. 16)
+murdered his friend without any reason, after suffering from
+delusions for one year.
+
+The characteristics of insane criminals are so marked that it is not
+difficult to distinguish them from habitual delinquents. They seldom
+show any fear of the penalty incurred nor do they try to escape. They
+take little trouble to hide their misdeeds, or to get rid of any clue.
+If poisoners, they leave poison about in their victim's room; if
+forgers, they take no trouble to make their signatures appear genuine;
+if thieves, they exhibit stolen goods in public, or appropriate them in
+the presence of witnesses. They frequently manifest unbounded rage and
+assault those present, entirely forgetting the stolen objects. Once
+their crime is accomplished, not only do they give themselves no trouble
+to hide it, but are prone to confess it immediately, and are eager to
+talk about it, saying with satisfaction that they feel relieved at what
+they have done, that they have obeyed the order of superior beings and
+consider their actions praiseworthy. They deny that they are insane, or
+if they admit it in some cases, it is only because they are persuaded to
+do so by their lawyers or fellow-prisoners. And even then, they are
+ready at the first opportunity to contradict the idea, eulogising and
+exaggerating their criminal acts.
+
+A full confession in court is not uncommon, and in the case of impulsive
+monomaniacs, epileptics, and insane inebriates, the descriptions are
+full of characteristic expressions, showing what was the offender's
+state of mind when dominated by criminal frenzy.
+
+Rom..., an impulsive monomaniac, who stabbed an acquaintance, felt "the
+blood rushing to his head, which seemed to be in flames."
+
+Tixier narrates that, on seeing the old man he afterward murdered pass
+him on a country road, "something went to his head." Frequently such
+criminals are quick to give themselves up to justice.
+
+_Antecedents._ Unlike the ordinary offender, insane criminals are often
+perfectly law-abiding up to the moment of the crime.
+
+_Motive._ Perhaps the greatest difference between born criminals and
+insane criminals lies in the motive for the act, which in the case of
+the latter is not only entirely disproportionate to it, but nearly
+always absurd and depends far less on personal susceptibility.
+
+Here are a few typical cases: A father fancies he hears a voice bidding
+him kill his favourite child. He goes home, has the little victim
+dressed in its best clothes and cuts off its head with perfect calmness.
+A lady, ignorant of horticulture, plants some flowers on her husband's
+grave. A day or two later, noticing that they are drooping, she imagines
+that the gardener has watered them with boiling water, and after
+reproaching him bitterly, wounds him with a pair of scissors.
+
+These unfortunate beings frequently show perfect mental clearness before
+the crime and even in the act of striking the fatal blow; yet their
+action is purely instinctive and not prompted by passion or any other
+cause. Although such individuals appear to reason, can it be said that
+they are in full possession of their mental faculties? If they are, how
+shall we explain the wholesale destruction of those they hold most dear?
+A husband kills the wife to whom he is sincerely attached; a father, the
+son he loves most; or a mother, the infant at her breast.
+
+Such an extraordinary phenomenon can only be explained by a sudden
+suspension of the intellectual and moral faculties and of the powers of
+the will.
+
+
+SPECIAL FORMS OF CRIMINAL INSANITY
+
+ALCOHOLISM
+
+In addition to these casual forms of lunacy, in which the individual is
+led to commit crime by a momentary alteration of his moral nature, we
+find other forms which might be called specific, because the criminal
+act forms the culminating point of the malady. The sufferers from these
+forms are less easily distinguished from ordinary criminals and normal
+persons than are the lunatics of whom we have just spoken. These mental
+diseases, which should be studied separately, are alcoholism, hysteria,
+and epilepsy.
+
+It is well known that temporary drunkenness may transform an honest,
+peacable individual into a rowdy, a murderer, or a thief.
+
+Gall narrates the case of a certain Petri, who manifested homicidal
+tendencies when excited by alcohol. Locatelli mentions a workman of
+thirty, who, when under the influence of drink, would smash everything
+around him and stab the companions who sought to restrain his drunken
+fury. Ladelci and Carmignani cite the case of a miner, who was
+repeatedly arrested for drunken brawls, and when reproved replied: "I
+cannot help it. As soon as I drink, I must start fighting."
+
+Very characteristic is the case of a certain Papor... who was imprisoned
+for some time at Turin. His father was a drunkard and ill treated his
+wife. The son became a soldier, then an excise officer, fireman, and
+finally nurse in an infirmary, and was known as a respectable, temperate
+man. In 1876, he was transferred to the Island of Lipari, where
+malvoisie only costs 25 centimes a litre, and there he acquired a taste
+for wine, without, however, drinking to excess. But a year later, a
+change in the hospital regulations gave him longer hours of leisure, and
+he began to drink deeply. In 1881, while intoxicated, he accosted a
+sportsman and pretending to be a police officer, ordered him to give up
+his gun. At that moment he was arrested by a genuine constable and taken
+to the barracks, where he was sentenced, without any one's observing his
+drunken condition. After his release, he committed other offences of the
+same type, which were followed by confession and repentance.
+
+_Chronic Alcoholism._ The phenomena developed by chronic inebriety are,
+however, still more important from the point of view of the
+criminologist than the immediate effects of alcohol on certain
+constitutions.
+
+_Physical and Functional Characteristics of Chronic Inebriety._ The
+habitual drunkard rarely exhibits traces of congenital degeneracy, but
+frequently that of an acquired character, especially paresis, facial
+hemiparesis, slight exophthalmia (see Fig. 6), inequality of the pupils,
+insensibility to touch and pain, which is often unilateral, especially
+in the tongue, thermoanalgesia, hyper�sthesia, experienced at various
+points not corresponding to the nervous territories and modified
+spontaneously or by esthesiogenic agents (Grasset), alphalgesia
+(sensation of pain at contact with painless bodies), a deficiency of
+urea in the urine, out of proportion to the general state of
+nourishment, and a proneness of the symptoms to return after trauma,
+poisoning, agitation, or serious illness.
+
+The gravest phenomena, however, are atrophy or degeneration in the
+liver, heart, stomach, seminal canaliculi, and central nervous system,
+which give rise to serious functional disturbances; most of all, in the
+digestion--as manifested by the characteristic gastric catarrh,
+matutinal vomit and cramp--and in the reproductive system, with
+resulting impotence.
+
+_Psychic Disturbances--Hallucinations._ The most frequent and precocious
+symptoms are delusions and hallucinations, generally of a gloomy or even
+of a terrible nature, and extremely varied and fleeting, which, like
+dreams, in nearly every instance arise from recent and strong
+impressions. The most characteristic hallucinations are those which
+persuade the patient that he experiences the contact of disgusting
+vermin, corpses, or other horrible objects. He is gnawed by imaginary
+worms, burnt by matches, or persecuted by spies and the police.
+
+
+  =FIG. 16
+  ITALIAN CRIMINAL
+  A Case of Alcoholism
+  (see page 82)=
+
+
+The strange pathological conditions resulting from chronic alcoholism
+give rise to other fearful hallucinations. Cutaneous an�sthesia and
+alcoholic anaphrodisia make the sufferers fancy they have lost the
+generative organs, nose, legs, etc.; dyspepsia, exhaustion, and paresis,
+that they have been poisoned or are being persecuted. The reaction
+following excessively prolonged stimuli causes furious lypemania and
+gloomy fancies. Sometimes chronic inebriates believe that they are
+accused of imaginary crimes and loaded with chains amid heaps of
+corpses. They implore mercy and try to kill themselves in order to
+escape from their shame; or they remain motionless, bewildered, and
+terrified. Not infrequently, because of the profound faith, which,
+unlike many other lunatics, they have in their hallucinations, they pass
+from melancholy broodings to a fit of mad energy, often of a homicidal
+or suicidal nature. They imagine they are struggling with thieves or
+wild beasts and hurl themselves from the window or rush naked through
+the streets, killing the first person that crosses their path. In some,
+this delirium of energy breaks out suddenly like an epileptic attack,
+which it resembles in its brevity and intensity. With hair standing on
+end, they rush about like savage beasts, grinding their teeth, biting,
+rending their clothes, or tearing up the sod, or hurling themselves from
+some height. These symptoms are preceded by vertigo, periodical
+cephalalgia, and flushing of the face, and are manifested more
+frequently by those who are already predisposed through trauma to the
+head, or through typhus or heredity, or after great agitation and
+prolonged fasting, and often bear no relation to the quantity of alcohol
+imbibed, which may be small, or to the general physical state; but
+depend on cerebral irritation caused by chronic alcoholism. The attacks
+may disappear in a few hours without leaving the slightest recollection
+in the mind of the patient (Krafft-Ebing, p. 182). They are, in short, a
+species of disguised epilepsy, and thus they may well be styled, since
+true alcoholic epilepsy is noted in many inebriates, specially in
+absinthe-drinkers.
+
+_Apathy._ Another characteristic almost invariably found in inebriates
+who have committed a crime, is a strange apathy and indifference, a
+total lack of concern regarding their state--a trait common also to
+ordinary criminals, but in a less marked degree. They make themselves at
+home in prison without showing the faintest interest in their trial or
+in the offence which has caused their arrest, and only when brought
+before the judge do they rouse themselves for a moment from their
+lethargy.
+
+A well-educated man, after a varied career as doctor, chemist, and
+clerk, during which time he had been constantly dismissed from his posts
+for drunkenness, met a policeman in the street and killed him, in the
+belief that the officer wanted to arrest him. When taken to prison, the
+first thing he did was to write to his mother begging her to send him
+some pomade. When interrogated, he informed the examining magistrate
+that the interrogatory was useless, since he had already chosen a fresh
+trade, that of photographer. It was only after several months of total
+abstinence in prison, that he began to come to his senses and to realise
+the gravity of his situation. (Tardieu, _De la Folie_, 1870.)
+
+_Contrast between Apathy and Impulsiveness._ This apathy alternates with
+strange impulses, which, although strongly at variance with the
+patient's former habits, he is unable to control, even when he is aware
+that they are criminal.
+
+_Crimes peculiar to Inebriates._ Since modification of the reproductive
+organs is a common cause of hallucinations, inebriate criminals
+frequently suffer from a species of erotic delirium, during which they
+murder those whom they believe guilty of offences against
+themselves--generally their wives or mistresses. This is partly owing to
+the sexual nature of their hallucinations and partly to the wretchedness
+of their homes, which are in such striking contrast to the rosy dreams
+inspired by alcohol and which tend to increase the melancholy natural to
+drunkards. They imagine they are being deceived and their impotence
+derided, the most innocent gestures being interpreted as deadly insults.
+
+In the prison at Turin, my father had under observation two of these
+unfortunate beings, one a man of sixty and the other quite young. Both
+had murdered their wives with the most revolting cruelty, because they
+believed them to be unfaithful, although in reality both the women led
+blameless lives.
+
+_Course of the Disease._ The continued abuse of alcohol ends at last in
+complete dementia or general pseudo-paralysis. The body is at first
+obese, but rapidly loses flesh, the skin becomes greasy and damp, owing
+to hypersecretion of the sebaceous and sudoriparous glands, and soils
+the garments. Memory becomes enfeebled, speech uncertain and defective
+(dysarthria), the association of ideas sluggish, sensibility blunted,
+perception confused, judgment erroneous, and every species of regular
+and continued application impossible. The earlier hallucinations
+reappear, but in a less vivid form and only at long intervals; then
+paralysis more or less rapidly becomes general and ends in death.
+
+
+EPILEPSY
+
+We have spoken of this disease in another chapter and have shown that
+the born criminal is in reality an epileptic, in whom the malady,
+instead of manifesting itself suddenly in strange muscular contortions
+or terrible spasms, develops slowly in continual brain irritation, which
+causes the individual thus affected to reproduce the ferocious egotism
+natural to primitive savages, irresistibly bent on harming others.
+
+But besides these epileptics, who are morally insane from their birth
+and pass their lives in prisons and lunatic asylums, without any one
+being able to mark the exact boundary between their perversity and their
+irresponsibility; besides these individuals, whom society has a right,
+nay a moral obligation, to remove from its midst because they are ever a
+source of danger there are those who are afflicted with other forms of
+epilepsy;--forms in which irritation is manifested in seizures exactly
+similar to the typical convulsive fit, which they resemble also with
+regard to variation in intensity and duration. Generally speaking, they
+are likewise accompanied by complete loss of memory and consciousness,
+but in some cases there may be partial or complete consciousness, and
+yet the sufferer is not responsible for his actions. This variety of
+epilepsy, termed by Samt psychic epilepsy (epilepsy with psychic
+seizures), manifests itself at long intervals, sometimes only once, but
+more frequently twice or thrice in the course of a lifetime, and during
+the attack the personality of the individual undergoes a complete
+change.
+
+The attack is described by Samt as follows: During the seizure, the
+individual behaves like a somnambulist. Sometimes he is dazed, mute, and
+immovable; at others, he talks incessantly; at still others, he goes on
+with his ordinary occupations, travelling, reading, and writing: but in
+every case his personality suffers a complete metamorphosis, his habits,
+actions, and even handwriting assume a different character. Sometimes he
+is seized by a mania for walking and tramps for miles; at others, he
+undertakes interminable railway journeys. Tissi� (_Les ali�n�s
+voyageurs_, 1887) cites cases of epileptics who travelled from Paris to
+Bombay, who covered 71 kilometres on foot, and who wandered unconscious
+for 31 months.
+
+Sometimes epilepsy is manifested only by the tendency to undertake
+purposeless journeys, as in the case of Ferretti and a certain M... who
+visited the Mahdi in Africa and from thence travelled aimlessly to
+Australia.
+
+This ambulatory form of epilepsy is very common amongst lads of fourteen
+or fifteen. Scarcely a week passes without the police receiving
+information from parents that their son has disappeared from home with
+only a few pence in his pocket. The wanderer is discovered later,
+frequently in some small provincial town, which he has reached after
+tramping aimlessly for days, sleeping in barns, and living on charity.
+When questioned, the boy usually displays total ignorance regarding all
+that has happened to him during the interval.
+
+Dr. Maccabruni in his _Notes on Hidden Forms of Epilepsy_, 1886,
+narrates the case of an epileptic, who during childhood received an
+injury to his skull. Later, he started out on a series of wanderings to
+Venice, Padua, Rome, Milan, Monaco, and Mentone. His journeys,
+especially those to distant parts, were undertaken in a state of
+unconsciousness and generally a short time before the commencement of a
+fit.
+
+These attacks may last any length of time, from a few minutes to several
+months. In one of the cases observed by my father, the attack lasted a
+fortnight. The patient, a young officer with whom we were personally
+acquainted, was one of the quietest persons possible, but suddenly he
+was seized with a mania for writing innumerable letters, especially on
+stamped paper, in exaggeratedly large writing very different from his
+usual style. These letters, which were full of absurdities, were posted
+by the writer from the different towns he passed through on his aimless
+journeyings, which lasted a whole fortnight. During one of these
+seizures, he was arrested as a deserter and was unable to give any
+explanation of his conduct.
+
+In this particular patient, the disease assumed the mild form of absurd
+letters and still more absurd journeys, but other individuals in the
+same state may commit criminal acts like homicide, equally without
+reason or gain to themselves. Once the fit is passed, these unfortunate
+individuals have generally no recollection of their past actions, and
+since in their normal state they are quiet, law-abiding persons, it is
+extremely difficult to trace back the deed to the right source, or to
+discover the disease, because they show no other symptoms of epilepsy,
+apart from the particular criminal act.
+
+Samt describes a still more complicated form of this psychic seizure, in
+which the personality is altered without there being any loss of
+consciousness. In a case of this kind, a servant, after forty years of
+faithful service, murdered his old mistress during the night, having
+previously cut all the bell-wires to prevent communication with the
+other servants. He escaped with some valuables, but returned in a few
+days and gave himself up to the police, to whom he gave a detailed
+account of his crime without showing either horror or remorse. He was
+tried and condemned, and a few months later was again seized with
+epileptic fits during one of which he died. Samt, who saw him in this
+state, came to the conclusion that the murder had been committed during
+a similar seizure and he was able to prove that attacks of this kind are
+not necessarily accompanied by loss of consciousness.
+
+As in the above case, these psychic attacks are sometimes accompanied by
+an insatiable thirst for blood, destruction and violence of all kinds,
+as well as by an extraordinary development of muscular strength with
+apparent lucidity of mind. They may last from a few minutes to half an
+hour, after which the patient falls into a sound sleep and forgets
+everything that has happened, or else retains only a vague recollection.
+
+Such was the case of the epileptic Misdea, which first suggested to my
+father the idea of a link between crime and epilepsy. As this case has
+become famous in the annals of crime in Italy, it will perhaps be of
+interest to the reader. Misdea, the son of degenerate parents,
+manifested a series of typical epileptic anomalies--asymmetry,
+vaso-motor disturbances, impulsiveness, ferocity, etc. At the age of
+twenty, while serving in the army, for some trivial motive he suddenly
+attacked and killed his superior officer and eight or ten soldiers who
+tried to overpower him. Finally he was bound and placed in a cell, where
+he fell into a sound slumber and on awaking had entirely forgotten what
+he had done. He was condemned to death, but my father, who examined him
+medically, was able to prove conclusively that the crime had been
+committed during an attack of epilepsy.
+
+The physical and psychic characters of this class of epileptic are those
+common to all non-criminal epileptics, and indeed we are justified in
+considering them insane rather than criminal, because, with the
+exception of the attack, which assumes this terrible form, they do not
+manifest criminal tendencies.
+
+
+HYSTERIA
+
+Hysteria is a disease allied to epilepsy, of which it appears to be a
+milder form, and is much more common among women than men in the ratio
+of twenty to one. The disease may frequently be traced to hereditary
+influences, similar to those found in epilepsy, transmitted by
+epileptic, neurotic, or inebriate parents, frequently also, to some
+traumatic or toxic influence, such as typhus, meningitis, a blow, a
+fall, or fright.
+
+_Physical Characteristics._ These are fewer than in epileptics. The most
+common peculiarities are small, obliquely-placed eyes of timid glance,
+pale, elongated face, crowded or loosened teeth, nervous movements of
+the face and hands, facial asymmetry, and black hair.
+
+_Functional Characteristics._ These are of great importance. Hysterical
+subjects manifest special sensibility to the contact of certain metals
+such as magnetised iron, copper, and gold. Characteristic symptoms are
+the insensibility of the larynx or the sensation of a foreign body in it
+(_globus hystericus_), neuralgic pains, which disappear with extreme
+suddenness, reappearing often on the side opposite that where they were
+first felt, the prevalence of sensory and motor anomalies on one side
+(hemian�sthesia), the confusion of different colours (dyschromatopsia);
+greater sensibility in certain parts of the body, such as the ovary and
+the breasts, which when subjected to pressure give rise to neuropathic
+phenomena (hysterogenous points); a sense of pleasure in the presence
+of pain, the abolition of pharyngeal reflex action, the absence of the
+sensation of warmth in certain parts of the body and a tendency to the
+so-called attacks of "hysterics." These characteristics, which are
+closely allied, if not precisely similar to those of epilepsy, are
+preceded by a number of premonitory symptoms--hallucinations, sudden
+change of character, contractions, laryngeal spasms, strabismus,
+frequent spitting, inordinate laughter or yawning, cardiac palpitations,
+loss of strength, trembling, an�sthesia and (just before the attack,)
+pains in some fixed spot, generally in the head, ovary, or nape of the
+neck.
+
+_Psychology._ The psychological manifestations of hysterical subjects
+are of still greater interest and importance.
+
+They show, on the whole, a fair amount of intelligence, although little
+power of concentration. In disposition they are profoundly egotistical
+and so preoccupied with their own persons that they will do anything to
+arouse attention and obtain notoriety. They are exceedingly
+impressionable, therefore easily roused to anger and cruelty, and are
+prone to take sudden and unreasonable likes and dislikes. They are
+fickle and easily swayed. They take special delight in slandering
+others, and when unable to excite public notice by unfounded
+accusations, to which they resort as a means of revenge, they embitter
+the lives of those around them by continual quarrels and dissensions.
+
+_Susceptibility to Suggestion._ Of still greater importance for the
+criminologist is the facility with which hysterical women are dominated
+by hypnotic suggestion. Their wills become entirely subordinated to that
+of the hypnotiser, by whose influence they can be induced to believe
+that they have changed their sex so that they forthwith adopt habits of
+the opposite sex, or to entertain _id�es fixes_--strange, impulsive, or
+even criminal ideas. They are, in fact, obedient automatons when under
+hypnotic influence, but they cannot be prevailed upon to perform acts
+contrary to their nature, to commit crimes or reveal secrets entrusted
+to them, if they are naturally upright.
+
+_Variability._ Mobility of mood is a still more salient characteristic
+of hysteria. The subject passes with extraordinary rapidity from
+laughter to tears "like children," says Richet, "who laugh immoderately
+before their tears are dry."
+
+"For one hour," says Sydenham, "they will be irascible and discontented;
+the next, they are cheerful and follow their friends about with all the
+signs of the old attachment."
+
+Their sensibility is affected by the most trifling causes. A word will
+grieve them like some real misfortune. Their impulses are not lacking in
+intellectual control, but are followed by action with excessive
+rapidity. Although of such changeable disposition, they are subject to
+fixed ideas, to which they cling with a kind of cataleptic intensity. A
+woman will be dumb or motionless for months, on the pretext that speech
+or motion would injure her. But this is the only form of constancy they
+exhibit, otherwise they are indolent by nature. Sometimes they will show
+activity for a few days only to relapse again into idleness.
+
+_Erotomania._ This is almost a pathognomonical symptom and is shown in
+hallucinations and nightmares of an erotic character, preceded by
+epigastric aura. This erotomania is so impulsive that hysterical women
+frequently engage in a _liaison_, from a desire of adventure or of
+experiencing sudden emotions. The criminality of the hysterical is
+always connected with the sexual functions.
+
+Of twenty-one women found guilty of slander, nine made false accusations
+of rape, four accused their husbands of sexual violence, and one of
+sodomy. Such accusations, when made by minors, are generally full of
+disgusting details, which would be repugnant to any adult.
+
+_Mendacity._ Another peculiarity of hysterical women is the
+irresistible tendency to lie, which leads them to utter senseless
+falsehoods just for the pleasure of deceiving and making believe. They
+sham suicide and sickness or write anonymous letters full of inventions.
+Many, from motives of spite or vanity, accuse servants of dishonesty, in
+order to revel in their disgrace and imprisonment. The favourite
+calumny, however, is always an accusation of indecent behaviour,
+sometimes made against their fathers and brothers, but generally against
+a priest or medical man. The accusations, in most cases, are so strange
+and fantastic as to be quite unworthy of belief, but sometimes,
+unfortunately, they obtain credence. The commonest method adopted for
+spreading these calumnies is by means of anonymous letters. In one case,
+a young girl of twenty-five belonging to a distinguished family,
+pestered a respectable priest with love-letters and shortly afterwards
+accused him of seduction. Another girl of eighteen informed the Attorney
+for the State that she had frequently been the victim of immoral priests
+and accused one of her female cousins of complicity. According to her
+story, while praying at church, a certain Abbot R... took her into the
+sacristy and entreated her to elope with him to Spain. She refused
+indignantly, and hoping to soften her, he twice stabbed himself in her
+presence, whereat she fainted, and on recovering consciousness, found
+the priest at her feet, begging forgiveness. She further accused the
+same cousin of having taken her to a convent, where she was seduced by a
+priest, the nuns acting as accomplices. A subsequent medical examination
+proved that no seduction had taken place and that she was suffering from
+hysteria.
+
+In another case, a girl of sixteen, the daughter of an Italian general,
+complained to her father that a certain lieutenant, her neighbour at
+table, had used indecent language to her. Shortly afterwards, a shower
+of anonymous letters troubled the peace of the household--declarations
+of love addressed to the girl's mother and threats to the daughter. It
+was discovered that the girl herself was the writer of all these
+letters.
+
+Anonymous letter-writing is so common among hysterical persons, that it
+may be considered a pathognomonical characteristic. The handwriting is
+of a peculiar character, or rather it shows a peculiar tendency to vary
+from excessive size to extreme smallness, a characteristic we have
+noticed in epileptics.
+
+_Delirium._ Hysterical, like epileptic, subjects often suffer from
+melancholia or monomaniacal delirium. Indeed, according to Morel, this
+symptom is more frequent when the other morbid phenomena are absent.
+
+Psychic hysteria, like epilepsy, may exist unaccompanied by the
+characteristic hysterical attack, and then, as is the case with
+epilepsy, it is most dangerous to society.
+
+In conclusion, although up to the present, medical men have been
+disposed to consider hysteria as a disease distinct from epilepsy,
+careful study of this malady inclined my father to class it as a
+variation of epilepsy, prevalent among women, who in this disease, as in
+many others, manifest an attenuated form.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+_CRIMINALOIDS_
+
+
+We have seen how, owing to disease, alcoholism and epilepsy, physically
+and psychically degenerate individuals make their appearance in a
+community of normal persons. But a large proportion of the crimes
+committed cannot be attributed to lunatics, epileptics, or the morally
+insane, nor do all criminals show that aggregate of atavistic and morbid
+characters,--the cruelty and bestial insensibility of the savage, the
+impulsiveness of the epileptic, the licentiousness, delusions, and
+impetuosity of the madman,--which we find united in the born criminal.
+
+According to statistics obtained by my father, the share contributed to
+the sum total of criminality by this latter type is only 33%, which
+appears to be a magic figure for the criminal, since it corresponds to
+the percentage of the histological anomaly discovered by Roncoroni and
+to that of all important anomalies, including those of the field of
+vision. But besides this percentage of born criminals, doomed even
+before birth to a career of crime, whom all educational efforts fail to
+redeem and who therefore should be segregated at once; besides the
+epileptic, hysterical, and inebriate lunatics and those insane from
+alcoholisation, of whom we have already spoken, there remain a number of
+criminals, amounting to a full half, in whom the virus is, so to speak,
+attenuated, who, although they are epileptoids, suffer from a milder
+form of the disease, so that without some adequate cause (_causa
+criminis_) criminality is not manifested. The inhibitory centres are
+somewhat obtuse, but not altogether absent, so that a healthy
+environment, careful training, habits of industry, the inculcation of
+moral and humane sentiments may prevent these individuals from yielding
+to dishonest impulses, provided always that no special temptation to sin
+comes in their path.
+
+We have said that education is not sufficient to convert a criminal into
+an honest man. Conversely, trials and difficulties and the want of
+education are powerless to make a criminal of an honest individual.
+Hypnotism, the most powerful means of suggestion possible, cannot induce
+a good man to commit a crime during the hypnotic sleep, but vicious
+training has an enormous influence on weak natures, who are candidates
+for good or evil according to circumstances. Such individuals were
+classified by my father as _criminaloids_.
+
+_Physical Characteristics._ Criminaloids have no special skeletal,
+anatomical, or functional peculiarities. As the criminaloid represents a
+milder type of the born criminal, he may possess the same physical
+defects in the skull, hair, beard, ears, eyes, teeth, lips, joints,
+hands, and feet, as well as all the sensory anomalies, lessened
+sensibility to touch and pain, hyper-sensibility to the magnet and
+barometrical variations, etc.; but all these anomalies are never found
+in the same proportion as in born criminals; that is, criminaloids never
+manifest the aggregate of physical and psychic peculiarities which
+distinguish born criminals and the morally insane. On the other hand, we
+find in criminaloids certain characteristics, such as premature greyness
+and baldness, etc., which are never exhibited by the born criminal. The
+real distinction between the criminaloid and the born criminal is
+psychological rather than physical.
+
+_Psychological Characteristics._ The difference between born criminals
+and criminaloids becomes apparent directly on considering the age at
+which the latter enter on their anti-social career and the motives which
+cause them to adopt it. While the born criminal begins to perpetrate
+crimes from the very cradle, so to speak, and always for very trivial
+motives, the criminaloid commits his initial offence later in life and
+always for some adequate reason.
+
+A criminal of this attenuated type, a certain Salvador, without cranial
+or facial anomalies, had led an honest life for many years, but on
+returning home after a prolonged absence on business, he found his house
+ransacked by his wife, who had deserted him. From that time he seems to
+have deliberately adopted a career of dishonesty, as the leader of a
+band of thieves.
+
+In another case, an engraver who showed no pathological anomalies,
+except excessive frontal sinuses, was ordered by a society to strike a
+medal for them. This happened to be exactly similar to a coin current in
+his country and the coincidence incited him to the making of counterfeit
+coin.
+
+But the most characteristic case, which aroused much interest in its
+time, is that of Olivo. He was a man of handsome appearance, with normal
+olfactory acuteness and sensibility to touch and pain. He had, however,
+inherited from neurotic and insane forebears secondary epileptic
+phenomena, which subsequently developed into convulsive epilepsy, and
+certain indications of degeneracy (facial and cranial asymmetry,
+abnormal capillary vortices and length of arm, scotoma in the field of
+vision and exaggerated tendinous reflex action). Up to the age of
+thirty he led an irreproachable life; in fact, he was scrupulous to
+excess, and this, coupled with pronounced conceit and stinginess, was
+his only fault. He married a woman of common origin, who was not really
+depraved, but she was coarse and unfaithful, and, worst of all in his
+eyes, unscrupulous and wasteful. These defects, and her habits of lying
+and trickery embittered the poor man's existence. One night, feeling
+very ill, probably owing to an approaching seizure, he appealed to his
+wife for assistance and received an unfeeling reply, whereupon he sprang
+out of bed, picked up a knife and stabbed her. Afterwards he fell into a
+deep sleep. In order to obliterate all traces of the crime, he cut the
+corpse into small pieces, packed it into a portmanteau and threw it into
+the sea. Two months later, when he was arrested, he immediately made a
+full confession, showing deep repentance and sincere attachment to his
+victim, whose merits he celebrated in a poem of his own composition. At
+the trial, he made no attempt to defend himself; during the hearing of
+evidence, which appeared greatly to agitate him, he was seized with an
+epileptic fit. He was absolved by the jury and returned to his former
+peaceful occupation of bookkeeper, nor did he again come into conflict
+with the law.
+
+_Reluctance to Commit Crimes._ Another trait characteristic of
+criminaloids is the hesitation they show before committing a crime,
+especially the first time, when it is not done, as in the above
+mentioned case, during an epileptic seizure.
+
+Feuerbach's fine collection contains a description of the brothers
+Kleinroth, whose father cruelly ill-treated and starved his wife and
+family while lavishing his money on low women and their bastards. The
+sons were unwilling to run away and leave the invalid mother to bear the
+brunt of her husband's fury, and while they were in this terrible
+situation, a certain individual offered to assassinate their tormentor.
+After great hesitation this offer was accepted; when arrested, the
+youths immediately confessed their complicity and manifested deep
+repentance.
+
+_Confession._ The criminaloid is easily induced to confess his misdeed.
+
+A certain C... on returning from abroad, found his former mistress
+married to his father. The pair resumed their liaison, but after a time,
+fearing a scandal, the woman threatened to drown herself unless her
+lover could find some means of adjusting matters on a satisfactory
+basis. C..., who disliked his father, poisoned him and disappeared with
+the widow taking with him a few valuables belonging to his father. A
+year later, the woman having died meanwhile, he returned home and made
+full confession, first to his sister and subsequently in court.
+
+_Moral Sense--Intelligence._ In the place of a weak, clouded, or
+unbalanced mind and that cynicism and absence of moral sense and natural
+feelings which distinguish born criminals of the most elevated type and
+even geniuses, criminaloids generally possess lucidity and balance of
+mind and may show themselves worthy of guiding the destinies of a
+nation. The men implicated in the French Panama Scandal and the case of
+the Banca Romana (Bank of Rome) are instances. When under a cloud of
+disgrace, instead of that insensibility, cynicism, or levity common to
+true criminals, they show deep sorrow, shame, and remorse, which not
+infrequently result in serious illness or death. Their natural
+affections and other sentiments are normal.
+
+It is notorious, too, that as soon as accusations were made against
+those implicated in the French Panama Scandal and the affair of the Bank
+of Rome, the greater number became ill and two died suddenly at the end
+of the trial.
+
+Unlike born criminals, criminaloids manifest deep repugnance towards
+common offenders. They demand solitary confinement and forego exercise,
+the only recreation prison life affords, in order to avoid all contact
+with their fellow-prisoners.
+
+_Social Position and Culture of the Criminaloid._ Criminaloids, as we
+have seen, are recruited from all ranks of society and strike every note
+in the scale of criminality, from petty larceny to complicated and
+premeditated murder, from minting spurious coins to compassing gigantic
+frauds, which inflict incalculable damage upon the community. The
+magnitude of a crime does not imply greater criminality on the part of
+its author, but rather that he is a man of brilliant endowments, whose
+culture and talents multiply his opportunities and means for evil. In
+all cases where opportunity plays an important part, the crime must
+necessarily be committed by individuals exposed to special temptations:
+cashiers who handle other people's money, which they may be tempted to
+spend with the illusory idea of being able later to replace what they
+have taken, officials and public men, who possess a certain amount of
+power and an apparent impunity, and bankers who are entrusted with
+wealth belonging to others, of which in that capacity they are
+accustomed to make use. Thus is explained why men of great talent and
+only slight criminal tendencies have taken part in gigantic frauds, such
+as the affairs of the Bank of Rome and the French Panama Canal.
+
+A characteristic case is that of Lord S----, First Lord of the Treasury,
+who committed forgeries to the extent of half a million sterling. "No
+torture," he writes, "would be an adequate punishment for my crime. Step
+by step, I have become the author of innumerable misdeeds and ruined
+more than ten thousand families. With less talent and greater
+uprightness, I might be now what I once was, an honest man. Now remorse
+is in vain."
+
+In Lord S---- we find united all the characteristics of the criminaloid:
+repentance, the desire to confess, irreproachable antecedents, a strong
+incentive to dishonesty, and great intelligence.
+
+Although the damage inflicted on society by this man was probably far
+greater than any evil wrought by a vulgar born criminal could have been,
+his criminality is nevertheless of an attenuated type. The mischief he
+wrought owed its gravity, not to the intensity of his criminal
+tendencies, but to his remarkable talents, which increased his power for
+evil as for good.
+
+In this category of criminals must be inscribed those clever swindlers,
+who set the whole world talking of their exploits: Madame Humbert,
+Lemoine, and the cobbler-captain of K�penick.
+
+Sometimes, especially in political or commercial criminals, we find
+cases of an auto-illusion, of which the author of the crime is as much
+a victim as the public. Sometimes it is some device or mechanism which
+an inventor is convinced he has invented or is about to invent, an
+enterprise, in which the promoter imagines he will gain enormous wealth.
+Sometimes it is a trick in which the cupidity of the victims and their
+readiness to swallow promises of large and immediate profits play as
+important a part as the ability of the swindler. Sometimes it is a
+gigantic hoax, in which the deviser himself becomes keenly interested
+and for the carrying out of which he spends as much talent and energy as
+would suffice, if employed honestly, to acquire considerable wealth; but
+the swindler delights in his ingenious fraud as though he were taking
+part in some thrilling drama.
+
+A typical instance is that of a certain C... who was imprisoned about
+twenty years ago for defrauding a woman. My father undertook to cure him
+while in prison and was able to follow him in his subsequent career.
+This C... was a young man of good family, intelligent, honest, and a
+good linguist. His countenance was pleasing and bore no trace of
+precocious criminality. At the age of twenty he developed an
+unrestrained love of gambling and in order to indulge this vice,
+promised to marry a rich woman considerably older than himself, from
+whom he borrowed large sums, on the understanding that they should be
+paid back. However, shortly afterwards, he fell in love with a young
+girl and married her. His ex-fianc�e brought legal action against him
+and he was sentenced to two years' imprisonment. During this time he
+shrank from seeing anybody and refused to exercise in order to avoid all
+contact with his fellow-prisoners. He showed great affection for his
+wife and declared his intention of turning over a new leaf. The offence
+he had committed, however seemed to cause him little or no regret,
+because, as he said, he would never have continued the deception had not
+his victim shown such willingness to be gulled. From prison he went to
+London, where lack of funds caused him to perpetrate another swindle,
+but this time he was able to escape to Naples. Here for twelve years, he
+worked honestly in a large hotel, but once again a pressing need of
+money made him engage in a third fraud of considerable importance, for
+which he is still undergoing imprisonment.
+
+
+HABITUAL CRIMINALS
+
+The degrading influence of prison life and contact with vulgar
+criminals, or the abuse of alcohol, to which better natures frequently
+have recourse in order to stifle the pangs of conscience, may cause
+criminaloids who have committed their initial offences with repugnance
+and hesitation, to develop later into habitual criminals,--that is,
+individuals who regard systematic violation of the law in the light of
+an ordinary trade or occupation and commit their offences with
+indifference.
+
+Physically, habitual criminals do not resemble born criminals, but they
+exhibit some of the characteristics of those offenders from whom their
+ranks are recruited, besides, in a more marked degree, certain acquired
+characters, like sinister wrinkles and a shifty and sneaking look.
+
+Psychologically, criminaloids tend to resemble born criminals, whose
+habits, tastes, slang, tattooing, orgies, idleness, etc., they gradually
+develop, in the same way as old couples, living isolated in the country,
+adopt identical habits, gestures, and tone of voice.
+
+The type of criminaloid, who develops into an habitual criminal is well
+illustrated by the case of Eyraud, who in conjunction with Gabrielle
+Bompard, murdered Gouffr� and packed the corpse in a trunk. Through his
+marked weakness for women, Eyraud became successively a deserter, a
+thief, and a murderer. He certainly possessed a few of the
+characteristics peculiar to degenerates--long, projecting ears,
+excessive development, amounting to asymmetry, of the left frontal
+sinus, prognathism, exaggerated brachycephaly, and the span of the arms
+exceeding the total height, but he had not the general criminal type,
+his teeth were regular, beard abundant, and hair scanty.
+
+His psychology corresponds exactly to his physical individuality. During
+infancy and youth, he showed nothing abnormal, except an unusual
+predominance of the sexual instincts. He exhibited no signs of that love
+of evil for its own sake, so characteristic of criminals, above all, of
+murderers. According to all accounts, he was a jovial individual, fond
+of making merry, but at the same time, brusque and violent and easily
+roused to passionate fury. His extreme susceptibility to the attractions
+of the opposite sex made him regardless of all moral considerations. In
+order to gratify this weakness, he became a deserter, dissipated all the
+money he had earned in a distillery and as a dealer in skins, and
+finally committed murder. At his trial, it was shown that before his
+escape to America, he had attempted to kill a woman who refused to leave
+her husband for him. He became violently enamoured of his accomplice,
+Gabrielle Bompard, to whom, like many criminaloids, he was attracted by
+reason of her greater depravity.
+
+The extreme levity displayed by Eyraud seems to be the strongest link
+between him and the born criminal. He passed with extraordinary
+facility from gaiety to melancholy. His intellect was well developed,
+he spoke three or four languages, and was successful in most things he
+undertook, though he seems to have been incapable of remaining constant
+to anything for long. As a business man he wasted his capital, and even
+in the execution of his crimes he showed frivolity and incoherence. At
+Lyons, he hired a carriage, in which he placed the corpse of Gouffr� and
+after driving about the streets with Gabrielle Bompard like a madman,
+left the body of his victim in a spot near which people were constantly
+passing.
+
+Eyraud appears to have been a dissolute criminaloid whose unbridled
+passions and connection with Gabrielle Bompard caused him to develop
+into an habitual criminal. This diagnosis is confirmed by the absence of
+morbid heredity.
+
+It would be futile to cite a long series of cases, in which, although
+the details may vary, we always find the same phenomenon, the gradual
+development of a criminaloid into a criminal. It will suffice to name a
+large class of criminals, in whom this phenomenon may often be
+observed--the brigands common to Spain and Italy.
+
+These outlaws, and particularly their leaders, notwithstanding the
+gravity of their offences, are seldom born criminals, nor do they
+(except in rare cases) begin their career at a very early age. They
+possess, moreover, good qualities[3] and are capable of affection,
+generosity, and chivalry, which explains why their memories are
+cherished by the common people long after good and law-abiding men have
+been forgotten.
+
+The brigand Mandrin, known as the "Smuggler General" is remembered with
+love and affection in Dauphin� and other regions of France, Switzerland,
+and Savoy; and this feeling is easy to understand, since he was the
+enemy of the "fermiers g�n�raux," who, in the eighteenth century, leased
+from the French Government the right to levy excise duties, and sorely
+oppressed the people.
+
+Louis Mandrin, who in early life showed no signs of perversity nor
+possessed criminal traits, became a bandit, because he had been unjustly
+treated by these same "fermiers g�n�raux" who refused him payment for
+work done. He became the chief of a small band of smugglers and spread
+terror among excise officers and gendarmes. He used to bring smuggled
+goods openly into the vicinity of villages and towns and invite the
+people to buy them, and the buying and selling went on without either
+gendarmes' or excise officers' daring to interfere. The Administration
+of the "fermiers g�n�raux" promulgated a terrible edict against all
+purchasers of contraband goods; whereupon Mandrin, who was not without a
+sense of humour, declared he would force the Administration itself to
+buy the merchandise, and from time to time he would oblige the excise
+officers to buy smuggled wares at a fair price.
+
+
+
+
+  =FIG. 18
+  CRIMINAL GIRL=
+
+
+  =FIG. 19
+  THE BRIGAND SALOMONE=
+
+
+The brigand Gasparone (Fig. 20), whose memory is still held in great
+esteem by Sicilians, was an individual of much the same disposition.
+
+
+JURIDICAL CRIMINALS
+
+This category comprises individuals who break the law, not because of
+any natural depravity, nor owing to distressing circumstances, but by
+mere accident. They may be divided into two classes:
+
+First, the authors of accidental misdeeds, such as involuntary homicide
+or arson, who are not considered criminal by public opinion or by
+anthropologists, but who are obliged by the law to make compensation for
+the damage caused. Naturally, this class of law-breaker is in no way
+distinguishable, physically or psychically, from normal individuals,
+except that he is generally lacking in prudence, care, and forethought.
+
+Second, the authors of offences, which do not cause any damage socially,
+nor are they considered criminal by the general public, but have been
+deemed such by the law, in obedience to some dominating opinion or
+prejudice. Bad language, seditious writings, atheism, drunkenness,
+evasion of customs, and any violation of petty by-laws come under this
+head. Instances of such offences are too well known to need citation.
+They may best be summed up in the words of an American judge, who
+pointed out how easy it would be to sentence the most honest citizen of
+the Republic to imprisonment for a hundred years and fines exceeding a
+thousand dollars for breaking a number of petty local regulations
+against spitting, drinking, disrobing near a window, swearing, opening
+places of amusement on Sunday, or employing persons on certain days or
+under certain conditions prohibited by the law, etc.
+
+Although persons who commit these acts are often in no wise
+distinguishable from ordinary individuals, both criminals and
+criminaloids are more often guilty of such offences than are normal
+persons, who instinctively avoid coming into conflict with the law.
+
+The difficulty of judging these misdeeds lies in the necessity for
+careful weighing of the motive which gives rise to them, whether, that
+is, they have been unwittingly committed by an honest individual, or
+whether they are but an item in the long list of offences perpetrated by
+a criminal. This differential diagnosis should be based principally on
+the antecedents of the offender.
+
+To this group belong also the authors of more serious infractions of the
+law that are not generally considered such at the time, or in the
+district in which they take place. Misdeeds of this nature are: thefts
+of fuel in rural districts, poaching, the petty dishonesty current in
+commerce and in certain professions, and in countries where secret
+societies like the _camorra_ at Naples and the _mafia_ in Sicily, exist,
+a connection with such organisations, which to a certain extent is
+necessary in self-defence. Such, too, are theft and homicide during
+revolutions, insurrections, wars, and the conquest and exploitation of
+new territories and mines.
+
+Rochefort and Whitman have pointed out that during the gold-fever in
+Australia and California there was an enormous increase in crime.
+Individuals of good antecedents engaged in deadly struggles for the
+possession of the most valuable territories, and unbridled orgies
+followed these bloody affrays.
+
+During the expedition of Europeans to China in 1900, looting was carried
+on by soldiers of previously blameless career.
+
+
+CRIMINALS OF PASSION
+
+This type of criminal, if indeed such he may be called, represents the
+antithesis of the common offender, whose evil acts are the outcome of
+his ferocious and egotistical impulses, whereas criminals from passion
+are urged to violate the law by a pure spirit of altruism. In fact, they
+stand in no relation whatsoever to ordinary delinquents, and it is only
+by a legislative compromise that they are classed together. They
+represent the ultra-violet ray of the criminal spectrum, of which the
+vulgar criminal represents the ultra-red. Not only are they free from
+the egotism, insensibility, laziness, and lack of moral sense peculiar
+to the ordinary criminal, but their abnormality consists in the
+excessive development of noble qualities, sensibility, altruism,
+integrity, affection, which if carried to an extreme, may result in
+actions forbidden by law, or worse still, dangerous to society.
+
+_Physical Characteristics._ These, too, are in complete contrast to
+those of the born criminal. The countenance is frequently handsome, with
+lofty forehead, serene and gentle expression, and the beard is abundant.
+The sensibility is extremely acute; there is a high degree of
+excitability and exaggerated reflex action, all characteristics of the
+normal (or rather hypernormal) individual, from whom nothing
+distinguishes the criminal of passion except the anti-social effects of
+his action.
+
+_Psychology._ Here, as in all physical characteristics, criminals of
+passion are scarcely distinguishable from their fellow-men, except that
+we find in an excessive degree those qualities we consider peculiar to
+good and holy persons--love, honour, noble ambitions, patriotism. In
+fact, the motive of the crime is always adequate, frequently noble, and
+sometimes sublime. Love prompts certain natures to kill those who insult
+their beloved ones or are the cause of their dishonour and, in some
+cases, even the object of their affection who proves unfaithful. Crimes
+of this character are the murder by brothers of the man who dishonours
+their sister, the murder of an infant by its unmarried mother, the
+murder of an unfaithful wife by her husband. Sometimes the motive is a
+patriotic one, as in the cases of Charlotte Corday, Orsini Sand, and
+Caserio (Fig. 21) all of whom had been persons of gentle disposition and
+blameless conduct up to the moment of their crimes.
+
+This class of offender not infrequently commits suicide after his crime,
+or, if this is prevented, he seeks to expiate it by long years of
+remorse and self-inflicted martyrdom.
+
+The deed is almost always unpremeditated and committed publicly, without
+accomplices and with the simplest means at hand--be they nails, teeth,
+scissors, or a stick. The previous career is always blameless.
+
+Cumano, Verano, Guglielmotti, Harry, Curti, Milani, Brenner, Mari,
+Zucca, Bechis, Bouley, Tacco, Berruto and Sand, and Camicia, Vinci, and
+Leoni (these last three women), all attacked their victims single-handed
+and in public.
+
+In the case of Chalanton, the woman he had rescued by marriage from a
+low life, not content with betraying her benefactor, covered him in
+public with abuse and persecuted him with anonymous accusations. His
+demand for a separation was unsuccessful and at last, finding himself,
+in spite of his integrity, involved in a scandalous action, in which his
+wife figured as a go-between, and tormented by public curiosity and the
+implacable questionings of reporters, he murdered the cause of all his
+misfortunes. Another murderer, Del Prete, was prompted to kill his
+victim, an old woman with a reputation for witchcraft, because he
+believed she had caused the illness of his mother, to whom he was
+greatly attached.
+
+The motive for the crime is generally a serious one and in most cases
+immediately precedes it. Bouley committed his crime only a few hours
+after receiving the news which prompted it; Bounin, Bechis, and Verano,
+only a few minutes; Milani, twenty-four hours, Zucca eight hours;
+Curti, a few days. Thus the crime is seldom premeditated, or if so, for
+only a short space of time, never for months or years.
+
+
+  =FIG. 21
+  BRIGAND CASERIO
+  (see page 119)=
+
+
+Homicide forms 91% of the criminality of this group of offenders. There
+is a certain proportion also of infanticide, owing to the prevailing
+prejudice which condemns immorality more harshly when the results are
+evident. Arson and theft form only 2%. Such cases are however possible.
+A young girl, whom my father had under observation in prison, seeing her
+family in dire poverty, committed arson in order to get the insurance
+money.
+
+In another case a woman of refinement, education, and of gentle
+disposition, who had fallen from prosperity into extreme want, stole in
+order to pay her son's school-fees. When arrested, she refused to give
+her name so that the lad should not be dishonoured, and her identity
+might never have been discovered had she not been recognised by a lawyer
+in court. She died of a broken heart a few days after her trial.
+
+
+
+
+PART II
+
+CRIME, ITS ORIGIN, CAUSE, AND CURE
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+_ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF CRIME_
+
+
+In order to determine the origin of actions which we call criminal, we
+shall be forced to hark back to a very remote period in the history of
+the human race. In all the epochs of which records exist, we find traces
+of criminal actions. In fact, if we study minutely the customs of savage
+peoples, past and present, we find that many acts that are now
+considered criminal by civilised nations were legitimate in former
+times, and are to-day reputed such among primitive races.
+
+According to Pictet the Latin word _crimen_ is derived from the Sanscrit
+_karman_, which signifies action corresponding to _kri_ to do. This is
+contradicted by Vanicek who derives it from _kru_, to hear, _croemen_
+(accusation). At any rate, the Sanscrit word _apaz_, which means sin,
+corresponds to _apas_, work (_opus_), the Latin _facinus_ derives from
+_facere_, and _culpa_ according to Pictet and Pott, from the Sanscrit
+_kalp_, to do or execute. The Latin word _fur_ (thief) which Vanicek
+derives from _bahr_, to carry, the Hebrew _ganav_ and the Sanscrit
+_sten_ only signify to put aside, to hide, to cover (_gonav_). The Greek
+word _peirao_ from which pirate is derived, signifies to risk; the Greek
+_chleptein_ to hide or steal, is derived from the Sanscrit _harp-hlap_
+to hide and steal (Vanicek).
+
+In India, from Ceylon to the Himalayas, infanticide is sanctified by
+religion, not only among the more barbarous races, but also among the
+Rajputs, the nobles, who think themselves dishonoured if one of their
+daughters remains unmarried. The inhabitants of the Island of Tikopia,
+kill more male children than female, a fact that accounts for their
+practice of polygamy.
+
+Marco Polo speaks of the infanticide practised in Japan and China, which
+was then, as it is now, a means of regulating the population. The same
+practice--common to Bushmen, Hottentots, Fijians, also existed among the
+natives of Hawaii and America. In the Island of Tahiti, according to the
+testimony of missionaries, two thirds of the children born are destroyed
+by their parents.
+
+"Amongst the Guaranys," says D'Azara, "mothers kill a large proportion
+of their female infants, in order that the survivors may be more highly
+valued." (_Travels in America_, 1835.)
+
+The Carthaginians had originally the custom of offering the noblest and
+most beautiful children to Kronos (Moloch), but later victims were
+always bought and bred for the purpose. After their defeat at the hand
+of Agathokles they sacrificed two hundred children belonging to the
+noblest Carthaginian families, in order to appease the Divine wrath.
+
+Phoenicians, Egyptians, Cretans, Cypriotes, Rhodians, and Persians had
+similar practices.
+
+Among the Lydians, the sacred courtesans were so numerous and wealthy
+that their contributions to the Mausoleum of Alyattes exceeded those of
+the artists and merchants combined (Herodotus, Book I.); in Armenia
+(Strabo XII.) the priestesses alone were permitted to practise
+polyandry, and in Media, a woman boasting of five husbands was greatly
+honoured, which shows that polyandry was not only allowed, but esteemed.
+
+In Thibet, the eldest male of a family shares his wife with his
+brothers, the whole family live in the bride's house and the children
+inherit from her. Among the _Todas_, the wife espouses all her husband's
+younger brothers as they attain their majority, and they in their turn
+become the husbands of her younger sisters (Short).
+
+Among the _Nairs_, a noble negro caste of Malabar, it is customary for
+one woman to have five or six husbands, the maximum number allowed
+being ten.
+
+In Egypt, the business of thief was a recognised one. Those who wished
+to exercise this calling inscribed their names on a public tablet,
+collected all the stolen goods in one spot and restored them to their
+owners in exchange for a certain coin. The ancient Germans encouraged
+the youthful portion of the population to make raids on the property of
+neighbouring peoples, so that they should not develop habits of
+idleness. Thucydides states that the Greeks, as well as the barbarous
+peoples inhabiting the islands and along the coasts, were pirates, and
+the calling was a noble one.
+
+Amongst Spartans, as is well known, theft was allowed, but the unlucky
+marauder who was caught in the act, was punished, not for the deed
+itself, but for his want of skill. In East Africa, according to Burton
+(_First Footsteps in East Africa_, p. 176), robbery is considered
+honourable. In Caramanza (Portuguese Guinea) in Africa, side by side
+with the peaceful rice-cultivating Bagnous dwell the Balantes who
+subsist upon the chase and the spoils of their raids. While they kill
+the individual who presumes to steal in his native village, they
+encourage depredations upon the other tribes (_Revue d' Anthropologie_,
+1874). The cleverest thieves are greatly esteemed, are paid for
+instructing boys in their profession, and are chosen to lead the
+expeditions.
+
+In India the tribe Zakka Khel is devoted to this dishonest calling, and
+at birth every male child is consecrated to thievish practices by a
+peculiar ceremony, in which the new-born infant is passed through a
+breach in the wall of his father's house, whilst the words "Become a
+thief" are chanted three times in chorus. Amongst the ancient Germans,
+according to Tacitus, thefts perpetrated outside the boundary of the
+tribe itself were by no means infamous. In the midst of a great
+assembly, the chief called upon those he wished to follow him; they
+showed their willingness by rising to their feet amid the applause of
+the crowd. Those who refused to take part were looked upon as deserters
+and traitors (Spencer, _Principles of Ethics_, 1895). Among the
+Comanches (M�lhausen, _Diary of a Journey from the Mississippi to the
+Pacific_) no man was considered worthy of being numbered among the
+warriors of the tribe, unless he had taken part in some successful
+pillaging expedition. The cleverest thieves were the most respected
+members of the tribe. No Patagonian is deemed worthy of a wife unless he
+has graduated in the art of despoiling a stranger (Snow, _Two Years'
+Cruise round Tierra del Fuego_). Among the Kukis (Dalton, _Descriptive
+Ethnology of Bengal_) skill in stealing is the most esteemed talent. In
+Mongolia (Gilmour, _Among the Mongols_), thieves are regarded as
+respectable members of the community, provided they steal cleverly and
+escape detection.
+
+
+CRIMINALITY IN CHILDREN
+
+The criminal instincts common to primitive savages would be found
+proportionally in nearly all children, if they were not influenced by
+moral training and example. This does not mean that without educative
+restraints, all children would develop into criminals. According to the
+observations made by Prof. Mario Carrara at Cagliari, the bands of
+neglected children who run wild in the streets of the Sardinian capital
+and are addicted to thievish practices and more serious vices,
+spontaneously correct themselves of these habits as soon as they have
+arrived at puberty.
+
+This fact, that the germs of moral insanity and criminality are found
+normally in mankind in the first stages of his existence, in the same
+way as forms considered monstrous when exhibited by adults, frequently
+exist in the foetus, is such a simple and common phenomenon that it
+eluded notice until it was demonstrated clearly by observers like
+Moreau, Perez, and Bain. The child, like certain adults, whose
+abnormality consists in a lack of moral sense, represents what is known
+to alienists as a morally insane being and to criminologists as a born
+criminal, and it certainly resembles these types in its impetuous
+violence.
+
+Perez (_Psychologie de l'enfant_, 2d ed., 1882) remarks on the frequency
+and precocity of anger in children:
+
+     "During the first two months, it manifests by movements of the
+     eyebrows and hands undoubted fits of temper when undergoing any
+     distasteful process, such as washing or when deprived of any object
+     it takes a fancy to. At the age of one, it goes to the length of
+     striking those who incur its displeasure, of breaking plates or
+     throwing them at persons it dislikes, exactly like savages."
+
+
+Moreau (_De l'Homicide chez les enfants_, 1882) cites numerous cases of
+children who fly into a passion if their wishes are not complied with
+immediately. In one instance observed by him a very intelligent child of
+eight, when reproved, even in the mildest manner by his parents or
+strangers, would give way to violent anger, snatching up the nearest
+weapon, or if he found himself unable to take revenge, would break
+anything he could lay his hands on.
+
+A baby girl showed an extremely violent temper, but became of gentle
+disposition after she had reached the age of two (Perez). Another,
+observed by the same author, when only eleven months old, flew into a
+towering rage, because she was unable to pull off her grandfather's
+nose. Yet another, at the age of two, tried to bite another child who
+had a doll like her own, and she was so much affected by her anger that
+she was ill for three days afterwards.
+
+Nino Bixio, when a boy of seven (_Vita_, Guerzoni, 1880) on seeing his
+teacher laugh because he had written his exercise on office
+letter-paper, threw the inkstand at the man's face. This boy was
+literally the terror of the school, on account of the violence he
+displayed at the slightest offence.
+
+Infants of seven or eight months have been known to scratch at any
+attempt to withdraw the breast from them, and to retaliate when slapped.
+
+A backward and slightly hydrocephalous boy whom my father had under
+observation, began at the age of six to show violent irritation at the
+slightest reproof or correction. If he was able to strike the person who
+had annoyed him, his rage cooled immediately; if not, he would scream
+incessantly and bite his hands with gestures similar to those often
+witnessed in caged bears who have been teased and cannot retaliate.
+
+The above cases show that the desire for revenge is extremely common and
+precocious in children. Anger is an elementary instinct innate in human
+beings. It should be guided and restrained, but can never be extirpated.
+
+Children are quite devoid of moral sense during the first months or
+first years of their existence. Good and evil in their estimation are
+what is allowed and what is forbidden by their elders, but they are
+incapable of judging independently of the moral value of an action.
+
+"Lying and disobedience are very wrong," said a boy to Perez, "because
+they displease mother." Everything he was accustomed to was right and
+necessary.
+
+A child does not grasp abstract ideas of justice, or the rights of
+property, until he has been deprived of some possession. He is prone to
+detest injustice, especially when he is the victim. Injustice, in his
+estimation, is the discord between a habitual mode of treatment and an
+accidental one. When subjected to altered conditions, he shows complete
+uncertainty. A child placed under Perez's care modified his ways
+according to each new arrival. He began ordering his companions about
+and refused to obey any one but Perez.
+
+Affection is very slightly developed in children. Their fancy is easily
+caught by a pleasing exterior or by anything that contributes to their
+amusement; like domestic animals that they enjoy teasing and pulling
+about, and they exhibit great antipathy to unfamiliar objects that
+inspire them with fear. Up to the age of seven or even after, they show
+very little real attachment to anybody. Even their mothers, whom they
+appear to love, are speedily forgotten after a short separation.
+
+In conclusion, children manifest a great many of the impulses we have
+observed in criminals; anger, a spirit of revenge, idleness, volubility
+and lack of affection.
+
+We have also pointed out that many actions considered criminal in
+civilised communities, are normal and legitimate practices among
+primitive races. It is evident, therefore, that such actions are natural
+to the early stages, both of social evolution and individual psychic
+development.
+
+In view of these facts, it is not strange that civilised communities
+should produce a certain percentage of adults who commit actions reputed
+injurious to society and punishable by law. It is only an atavistic
+phenomenon, the return to a former state. In the criminal, moreover, the
+phenomenon is accompanied by others also natural to a primitive stage of
+evolution. These have already been referred to in the first chapter,
+which contains a description of many strange practices common to
+delinquents, and evidently of primitive origin--tattooing, cruel games,
+love of orgies, a peculiar slang resembling in certain features the
+languages of primitive peoples, and the use of hieroglyphics and
+pictography.
+
+
+  =FIG. 22
+  TERRA-COTTA BOWLS
+  Designed by a Criminal
+  (see page 135)=
+
+
+The artistic manifestations of the criminal show the same
+characteristics. In spite of the thousands of years which separate him
+from prehistoric savages, his art is a faithful reproduction of the
+first, crude artistic attempts of primitive races. The museum of
+criminal anthropology created by my father contains numerous specimens
+of criminal art, stones shaped to resemble human figures, like those
+found in Australia, rude pottery covered with designs that recall
+Egyptian decorations (Fig. 22) or scenes fashioned in terra-cotta (Fig.
+23) that resemble the grotesque creations of children or savages.
+
+The criminal is an atavistic being, a relic of a vanished race. This is
+by no means an uncommon occurrence in nature. Atavism, the reversion to
+a former state, is the first feeble indication of the reaction opposed
+by nature to the perturbing causes which seek to alter her delicate
+mechanism. Under certain unfavourable conditions, cold or poor soil, the
+common oak will develop characteristics of the oak of the Quaternary
+period. The dog left to run wild in the forest will in a few generations
+revert to the type of his original wolf-like progenitor, and the
+cultivated garden roses when neglected show a tendency to reassume the
+form of the original dog-rose. Under special conditions produced by
+alcohol, chloroform, heat, or injuries, ants, dogs, and pigeons become
+irritable and savage like their wild ancestors.
+
+This tendency to alter under special conditions is common to human
+beings, in whom hunger, syphilis, trauma, and, still more frequently,
+morbid conditions inherited from insane, criminal, or diseased
+progenitors, or the abuse of nerve poisons, such as alcohol, tobacco, or
+morphine, cause various alterations, of which criminality--that is, a
+return to the characteristics peculiar to primitive savages--is in
+reality the least serious, because it represents a less advanced stage
+than other forms of cerebral alteration.
+
+The �tiology of crime, therefore, mingles with that of all kinds of
+degeneration: rickets, deafness, monstrosity, hairiness, and cretinism,
+of which crime is only a variation. It has, however, always been
+regarded as a thing apart, owing to a general instinctive repugnance to
+admit that a phenomenon, whose extrinsications are so extensive and
+penetrate every fibre of social life, derives, in fact, from the same
+causes as socially insignificant forms like rickets, sterility, etc. But
+this repugnance is really only a sensory illusion, like many others of
+widely diverse nature.
+
+
+  =FIG. 23
+  ART PRODUCTION FROM PRISON
+  (see page 135)=
+
+
+  =FIG. 24
+  A COMBAT BETWEEN BRIGANDS AND GENDARMES
+  Designed by a Criminal
+  (see page 135)=
+
+
+_Pathological Origin of Crime._ The atavistic origin of crime is
+certainly one of the most important discoveries of criminal
+anthropology, but it is important only theoretically, since it merely
+explains the phenomenon. Anthropologists soon realised how necessary it
+was to supplement this discovery by that of the origin, or causes which
+call forth in certain individuals these atavistic or criminal instincts,
+for it is the immediate causes that constitute the practical nucleus of
+the problem and it is their removal that renders possible the cure of
+the disease.
+
+These causes are divided into organic and external factors of crime: the
+former remote and deeply rooted, the latter momentary but frequently
+determining the criminal act, and both closely related and fused
+together.
+
+Heredity is the principal organic cause of criminal tendencies. It may
+be divided into two classes: indirect heredity from a generically
+degenerate family with frequent cases of insanity, deafness, syphilis,
+epilepsy, and alcoholism among its members; direct heredity from
+criminal parentage.
+
+_Indirect Heredity._ Almost all forms of chronic, constitutional
+diseases, especially those of a nervous character: chorea, sciatica,
+hysteria, insanity, and above all, epilepsy, may give rise to
+criminality in the descendants.
+
+Of 559 soldiers convicted of offences, examined by Brancaleone Ribaudo,
+10% had epileptic parents. According to Dejerine, this figure reaches
+74.6% among criminal epileptics. Arthritis and gout have been known to
+generate criminality in the descendants. But the most serious, and at
+the same time most common, form of indirect heredity is alcoholism,
+which, contrary to general belief, wreaks destruction in all classes of
+society, amongst the rich and poor without distinction of sex, for
+alcohol may insinuate itself everywhere under the most refined and
+pleasant disguises, in liqueurs, sweets, and coffee.
+
+According to calculations made by my father, 20% of Italian criminals
+descend from inebriate families; according to Penta the percentage is 27
+and in dangerous criminals, 33%. The Jukes family, of whom we shall
+speak later, descended from a drunkard.
+
+The first salient characteristic in hereditary alcoholism is the
+precocious taste for intoxicants; secondly, the susceptibility to
+alcohol, which is infinitely more injurious to the offspring of
+inebriates than to normal individuals; and thirdly, the growth of the
+craving for strong drinks, which inevitably undermine the constitution.
+
+_Direct Heredity._ The effects of direct heredity are still more
+serious, for they are aggravated by environment and education. Official
+statistics show that 20% of juvenile offenders belong to families of
+doubtful reputation and 26% to those whose reputation is thoroughly bad.
+The criminal Galletto, a native of Marseilles, was the nephew of the
+equally ferocious anthropophagous violator of women, Orsolano. Dumollar
+was the son of a murderer; Patetot's grandfather and great-grandfather
+were in prison, as were the grandfathers and fathers of Papa, Crocco,
+Serravalle and Cavallante, Comptois and Lempave; the parents of the
+celebrated female thief Sans Refus, were both thieves.
+
+The genealogical study of certain families has shown that there are
+whole generations, almost all the members of which belong to the ranks
+of crime, insanity, and prostitution (this last being amongst women the
+equivalent of criminality amongst men). A striking example is furnished
+by the notorious Jukes family, with 77 criminal descendants.
+
+Ancestor, Max Jukes: 77 criminals; 142 vagabonds; 120 prostitutes; 18
+keepers of houses of ill-fame; 91 illegitimates; 141 idiots or afflicted
+with impotency or syphilis; 46 sterile females.
+
+A like criminal contingent may be found in the pedigrees of Chr�tien,
+the Lemaires, the Fieschi family, etc.
+
+_Race._ This is of great importance in view of the atavistic origin of
+crime. There exist whole tribes and races more or less given to crime,
+such as the tribe Zakka Khel in India. In all regions of Italy, whole
+villages constitute hot-beds of crime, owing, no doubt, to ethnical
+causes: Artena in the province of Rome, Carde and San Giorgio Canavese
+in Piedmont, Pergola in Tuscany, San Severo in Apulia, San Mauro and
+Nicosia in Sicily. The frequency of homicide in Calabria, Sicily, and
+Sardinia is fundamentally due to African and Oriental elements.
+
+In the gipsies we have an entire race of criminals with all the passions
+and vices common to delinquent types: idleness, ignorance, impetuous
+fury, vanity, love of orgies, and ferocity. Murder is often committed
+for some trifling gain. The women are skilled thieves and train their
+children in dishonest practices. On the contrary, the percentage of
+crimes among Jews is always lower than that of the surrounding
+population; although there is a prevalence of certain specific forms of
+offences, often hereditary, such as fraud, forgery, libel, and chief of
+all, traffic in prostitution; murder is extremely rare.
+
+
+ILLNESSES, INTOXICATIONS, TRAUMATISM
+
+These causes, although apparently as important as heredity, are in fact,
+decidedly less so. Both disease and trauma may intensify or call forth
+latent perversity, but they are less frequently the cause of it. There
+are, however, certain cases in which traumatism meningitis, typhus, or
+other diseases that affect the brain have undoubtedly evoked criminal
+tendencies in individuals hitherto normal. Twenty out of 290 criminals
+studied by my father with minute care had suffered from injury to the
+head in childhood; and recently a case came under his notice in which a
+youth of good family and excellent character received an injury to his
+head at the age of fourteen and became epileptic, developing
+subsequently into a gambler, thief, and murderer. Such cases, however,
+are not very common.
+
+There is one disease that without other causes--either inherited
+degeneracy or vices resulting from a bad education and environment--is
+capable of transforming a healthy individual into a vicious, hopelessly
+evil being. That disease is alcoholism, which has been discussed in a
+previous chapter, but to which I must refer briefly again, because it is
+such an important factor of criminality.
+
+Temporary drunkenness alone will give rise to crime, since it inflames
+the passions, obscures the mental and moral faculties, and destroys all
+sense of decency, causing men to commit offences in a state of
+automatism or a species of somnambulism. Sometimes drunkenness produces
+kleptomania. A slight excess in drinking will cause men of absolute
+honesty to appropriate any objects they can lay their hands upon. When
+the effects of drink have worn off, they feel shame and remorse and
+hasten to restore the stolen goods. Alcohol, however, more often causes
+violence. An officer known to my father, when drunk, twice attempted to
+run his sword through his friends and his own attendant.
+
+Among Oriental sects of murderers, as is well known, homicidal fury was
+excited and maintained by a drink brewed for the purpose from hemp-seed.
+
+B�chner shows that dishonest instincts can be developed in bees by a
+special food consisting of honey mixed with brandy. The insects acquire
+a taste for this drink in the same way as human beings do, and under its
+influence cease to work. Ants show similar symptoms after narcosis by
+means of chloroform. Their bodies remain motionless, with the exception
+of their heads, with which they snap at all who approach them.
+
+The above cited cases show that there exists a species of alcoholic
+psychic epilepsy, similar to congenital epilepsy, in which after
+alcoholic poisoning, the individual is incited to raise his hand against
+himself or others without any due cause. But besides the crimes of
+violence committed during a drunken fit, the prolonged abuse of alcohol,
+opium, morphia, coca, and other nervines may give rise to chronic
+perturbation of the mind, and without other causes, congenital or
+educative, will transform an honest, well-bred, and industrious man into
+an idle, violent, and apathetic fellow,--into an ignoble being, capable
+of any depraved action, even when he is not directly under the influence
+of the drug.
+
+When we were children, a frequent visitor at our house was a certain
+Belm... (see Fig. 16, Chap. III.), a very intelligent man and an
+accomplished linguist. He was a military officer, but later took to
+journalism, and his writings were distinguished by vivacious style and
+elevation of thought. He married and had several children, but at the
+age of thirty some trouble caused him to take to drink. His character
+soon underwent a complete change. Although formerly a proud man, he was
+not ashamed to pester all his friends for money and to let his family
+sink into the direst poverty.
+
+
+SOCIAL CAUSES OF CRIME
+
+_Education._ We now come to the second series of criminal factors, those
+which depend, not on the organism, but on external conditions. We have
+already stated that the best and most careful education, moral and
+intellectual, is powerless to effect an improvement in the morally
+insane, but that in other cases, education, environment, and example
+are extremely important, for which reason neglected and destitute
+children are easily initiated into evil practices.
+
+At Naples, "Esposito" (foundling) is a common name amongst prisoners, as
+is at Bologna and in Lombardy the name "Colombo," which signifies the
+same thing. In Prussia, illegitimate males form 6% of offenders,
+illegitimate females 1.8%; in Austria, 10 and 2% respectively. The
+percentage is considerably larger amongst juvenile criminals,
+prostitutes, and recidivists. In France, in 1864, 65% of the minors
+arrested were bastards or orphans, and at Hamburg 30% of the prostitutes
+are illegitimate. In Italy, 30% of recidivists are natural children and
+foundlings.
+
+This depends largely on hereditary influences, which are generally bad,
+but still more on the difficulty of finding a means of subsistence,
+owing to the state of neglect in which these wretched beings exist, even
+when herded together in charity schools and orphanages--both of which
+are even more anti-hygienic morally, than they are physically.
+
+A depraved environment, which counsels or even insists on wrong-doing,
+and the bad example of parents or relatives, exercise a still more
+sinister influence on children than desertion. The criminal family
+Cornu, finding one of their children, a little girl, strongly averse to
+their evil ways, forced her to carry the head of one of their victims in
+her pinafore for a couple of miles, after which she became one of the
+most ferocious of the band.
+
+_Meteoric Causes_ are frequently the determining factor of the ultimate
+impulsive act, which converts the latent criminal into an effective one.
+Excessively high temperature and rapid barometric changes, while
+predisposing epileptics to convulsive seizures and the insane to
+uneasiness, restlessness, and noisy outbreaks, encourage quarrels,
+brawls, and stabbing affrays. To the same reason may be ascribed the
+prevalence during the hot months, of rape, homicide, insurrections, and
+revolts. In comparing statistics of criminality in France with those of
+the variations in temperature, Ferri noted an increase in crimes of
+violence during the warmer years. An examination of European and
+American statistics shows that the number of homicides decreases as we
+pass from hot to cooler climates. Holzendorf calculates that the number
+of murders committed in the Southern States of North America is fifteen
+times greater than those committed in the Northern States. A low
+temperature, on the contrary, has the effect of increasing the number of
+crimes against property, due to increased need, and both in Italy and
+America the proportion of thefts increases the farther north we go.
+
+_Density of Population._ The agglomeration of persons in a large town is
+a certain incentive to crimes against property. Robbery, frauds, and
+criminal associations increase, while there is a decrease in crimes
+against the person, due to the restraints imposed by mutual supervision.
+
+     "He who has studied mankind, or, better still, himself [writes my
+     father], must have remarked how often an individual, who is
+     respectable and self-controlled in the bosom of his family, becomes
+     indecent and even immoral when he finds himself in the company of a
+     number of his fellows, to whatever class they may belong. The
+     primitive instincts of theft, homicide, and lust, the germs of
+     which lie dormant in each individual as long as he is alone,
+     particularly if kept in check by sound moral training, awaken and
+     develop suddenly into gigantic proportions when he comes into
+     contact with others, the increase being greater in those who
+     already possess such criminal tendencies in a marked degree."
+
+
+In all large cities, low lodging-houses form the favourite haunts of
+crime.
+
+_Imitation._ The detailed accounts of crimes circulated in large towns
+by newspapers, have an extremely pernicious influence, because example
+is a powerful agent for evil as well as for good.
+
+At Marseilles in 1868 and 1872, the newspaper reports of a case of child
+desertion provoked a perfect epidemic of such cases, amounting in one
+instance to eight in one day.
+
+Before Corridori murdered the Head-master of his boarding-school, he is
+said to have declared: "There will be a repetition of what happened to
+the Head-master at Catanzaro" (who had been murdered in the same way).
+
+The anarchist Lucchesi killed Banti at Leghorn shortly after the murder
+of Carnot by Caserio, and in a similar manner. Certain forms of crime
+which become common at given periods, the throwing of bombs, the cutting
+up of the bodies of murdered persons, particularly those of women, and
+frauds of a peculiar type may certainly be attributed to imitation, as
+may also the violence committed by mobs, in whom cruelty takes the form
+of an epidemic affecting even individuals of mild disposition.
+
+_Immigration._ The agglomeration of population produced by immigration
+is a strong incentive to crime, especially that of an associated
+nature,--due to increased want, lessened supervision and the consequent
+ease with which offenders avoid detection. In New York the largest
+contingent of criminality is furnished by the immigrant population.
+
+The fact of agglomeration explains the greater frequency of homicide in
+France in thickly populated districts.
+
+The criminality of immigrant populations increases in direct ratio to
+its instability. This applies to the migratory population in the
+interior of a country, specially that which has no fixed destination, as
+peddlers, etc. Even those immigrants whom we should naturally assume to
+be of good disposition--religious pilgrims--commit a remarkable number
+of associated crimes. The Italian word _mariuolo_ which signifies
+"rogue" owes its origin to the behaviour of certain pilgrims to the
+shrines of Loreto and Assisi, who, while crying _Viva Maria!_ ("Hail to
+the Virgin Mary!") committed the most atrocious crimes, confident that
+the pilgrimage itself would serve as a means of expiation. In his
+_Reminiscences_ Massimo d' Azeglio notes that places boasting of
+celebrated shrines always enjoy a bad reputation.
+
+_Prison Life._ The density of population in the most criminal of cities
+has not such a bad influence as has detention in prisons, which may well
+be called "Criminal Universities."
+
+Nearly all the leaders of malefactors: Maino, Lombardo, La Gala,
+Lacenaire, Soufflard, and Hardouin were escaped convicts, who chose
+their accomplices among those of their fellow-prisoners who had shown
+audacity and ferocity. In fact, in prison, criminals have an
+opportunity of becoming acquainted with each other, of instructing those
+less skilled in infamy, and of banding together for evil purposes. Even
+the expensive cellular system, from which so many advantages were
+expected, has not attained its object and does not prevent communication
+between prisoners. Moreover, in prison, mere children of seven or eight,
+imprisoned for stealing a bunch of grapes or a fowl, come into close
+contact with adults and become initiated into evil practices, of which
+these poor little victims of stupid laws were previously quite ignorant.
+
+_Education._ Contrary to general belief, the influence of education on
+crime is very slight.
+
+The number of illiterates arrested in Europe is less, proportionally,
+than that of educated individuals. Nevertheless, although a certain
+degree of instruction is often an aid to crime, its extension acts as a
+corrective, or at least tends to mitigate the nature of crimes
+committed, rendering them less ferocious, and to decrease crimes of
+violence, while increasing fraudulent and sexual offences.
+
+_Professions._ The trades and professions which encourage inebriety in
+those who follow them (cooks, confectioners, and inn-keepers), those
+which bring the poor (servants of all kinds, especially footmen,
+coachmen, and chauffeurs) into contact with wealth, or which provide
+means for committing crimes (bricklayers, blacksmiths, etc.) furnish a
+remarkable share of criminality. Still more so is this the case with the
+professions of notary, usher of the courts, attorneys, and military men.
+
+It should be observed, however, that the characteristic idleness of
+criminals makes them disinclined to adopt any profession, and when they
+do, their extreme fickleness prompts them to change continually.
+
+_Economic Conditions._ Poverty is often a direct incentive to theft,
+when the miserable victims of economic conditions find themselves and
+their families face to face with starvation, and it acts further
+indirectly through certain diseases: pellagra, alcoholism, scrofula, and
+scurvy, which are the outcome of misery and produce criminal
+degeneration; its influence has nevertheless often been exaggerated. If
+thieves are generally penniless, it is because of their extreme idleness
+and astonishing extravagance, which makes them run through huge sums
+with the greatest ease, not because poverty has driven them to theft. On
+the other hand the possession of wealth is frequently an incentive to
+crime, because it creates an ever-increasing appetite for riches,
+besides furnishing those occupying high public offices or important
+positions in the banking and commercial world with numerous
+opportunities for dishonesty and persuading them that money will cover
+any evil deed.
+
+_Sex._ Statistics of every country show that women contribute a very
+small share of criminality compared with that furnished by the opposite
+sex. This share becomes still smaller when we eliminate infanticide, in
+view of the fact that the guilty parties in nearly all such cases should
+be classed as criminals from passion. In Austria, crimes committed by
+females barely constitute 15% of the total criminality; in Spain 11%;
+and in Italy 8.2%.
+
+However, this applies only to serious crimes. For those of lesser
+gravity, statistics are at variance with the results obtained by the
+Modern School, which classes prostitutes as criminals. According to this
+mode of calculation, the difference between the criminality of the two
+sexes shows a considerable diminution, resulting perhaps in a slight
+prevalence of crime in women. In any case, female criminality tends to
+increase proportionally with the increase of civilisation and to equal
+that of men.
+
+_Age._ The greater number of crimes are committed between the ages of 15
+and 30, whereas, outbreaks of insanity between these ages are extremely
+rare, the maximum number occurring between 40 and 50. On the whole,
+criminality is far more precocious than mental alienation, and its
+precocity, which is greater among thieves than among murderers,
+swindlers, and those guilty of violence and assault is another proof of
+the congenital nature of crime and its atavistic origin, since precocity
+is a characteristic of savage races.
+
+Seldom do we find among born criminals any indication of that so-called
+criminal scale, leading by degrees from petty offences to crimes of the
+most serious nature. As a general rule, they commence their career with
+just those crimes which distinguish it throughout, even when these are
+of the gravest kind, like robbery and murder. Rather may it be said that
+every age has its specific criminality, and this is the case especially
+with criminaloids. On the borderland between childhood and adolescence,
+there seems to be a kind of instinctive tendency to law-breaking, which
+by immature minds is often held to be a sign of virility. The Italian
+novelist and poet Manzoni describes this idea very well in his _Promessi
+Sposi_, when speaking of the half-witted lad Gervaso, who "because he
+had taken part in a plot savouring of crime, felt that he had suddenly
+become a man."
+
+This idea lurks in the slang word _omerta_ used by Italian criminals,
+which signifies not only to be a man but a man daring enough to break
+the law.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+_THE PREVENTION OF CRIME_
+
+
+The curability of crime is an entirely novel idea, due to the Modern
+Penal School. As long as, in the eyes of the world, the criminal was a
+normal individual, who voluntarily and consciously violated the laws,
+there could be no thought of a cure, but rather of a punishment
+sufficiently severe to prevent his recidivation and to inspire others
+with a salutary fear of offending the law.
+
+The penalties excogitated in past centuries were varied: flogging, hard
+labour, imprisonment, and exile. During the last century they have been
+crystallised in the form of imprisonment, as being the most humane,
+although in reality it is the most illogical form, since it serves
+neither to intimidate the offender nor to reform him. In fact, although
+prison with its forced separation from home and family is a terrible
+penalty for those honest persons, who sometimes suffer with the guilty,
+it is a haven of rest for ordinary criminals, or at the worst, in no
+wise inferior to their usual haunts. There is a certain amount of
+privation of air, light, and food, but these disadvantages are fully
+counterbalanced by the enjoyment of complete leisure and the company of
+men of their own stamp.
+
+If imprisonment does not serve to intimidate instinctive criminals,
+still less is it a means of rehabilitation. In virtue of what law,
+should any man, even if he be normal, become reformed after a varying
+period of detention in a gloomy cell, where he is isolated from the
+better elements of society and deprived of every elevating
+influence--art, science, and high ideals; where he loses regular habits
+of work, the disciplining struggle with circumstances, and the sense of
+responsibility natural to free citizens and is tainted by constant
+contact with the worst types of humanity?
+
+The autobiographies of criminals show us that far from reforming
+evil-doers, prison is in reality a criminal university which houses all
+grades of offenders during varying periods; that far from being a means
+of redemption, it is a hot-bed of depravity, where are prepared and
+developed the germs which are later to infect society, yet it is to this
+incubator of crime that society looks for defence against those very
+elements of lawlessness which it is actively fostering.
+
+In his book _Prison Palimpsests_ my father has made a collection of all
+the inscriptions, drawings, and allegories scratched or written by
+criminals while in prison, on walls, utensils, and books. Of
+lamentations, despair, and repentance, scarcely a trace, but innumerable
+imprecations, plans of revenge against enemies without, project of
+future burglaries and murders, and advice for the sound instruction of
+criminals.
+
+Although the Modern School has demonstrated the uselessness, nay the
+injuriousness of prison, it has no desire to leave society suddenly
+unprotected and the criminal at large. Nature does not proceed by leaps,
+and the Modern School aims at effecting a revolution, not a revolt, in
+Penal Jurisprudence. It proposes, therefore, the gradual transformation
+of the present system, which is to be rendered as little injurious and
+as beneficial as possible. Such has been the course pursued by the
+modern science of medicine, which from the original absurd remedies and
+equally absurd empirical operations, has now succeeded in placing the
+cure of diseases on the more solid basis of experience.
+
+The Modern School aims at preventing the formation of criminals, not
+punishing them, or, failing prevention, at effecting their cure; and,
+failing cure, at segregating such hopeless cases for life in suitable
+institutes, which shall protect society better than the present system
+of imprisonment, but be entirely free from the infamy attaching to the
+prison. The Modern School proposes the cure of criminals by preventive
+and legislative measures.
+
+
+PREVENTIVE INSTITUTIONS FOR DESTITUTE CHILDREN
+
+The cure of crime, as of any other disease, has the greater chance of
+success, the earlier it is taken in hand. Attention, therefore, should
+be specially concentrated on the childhood of those likely to become
+criminals: orphans and destitute children, who as adults contribute the
+largest contingent of criminality. A community seriously resolved to
+protect itself from evil should, above all, provide a sound education
+for those unfortunate waifs who have been deprived of their natural
+protectors by death or vice. The greatest care must be exercised in
+placing them, whenever it is possible, in respectable private families
+where they will have careful supervision, or in suitable institutes
+where no pains are spared to give them a good education and, more
+important still, sound moral training.
+
+In order to attain this end, the State cannot do better than follow in
+the footsteps of philanthropists of rare talent like Don Bosco, Dr.
+Barnardo, General Booth, Brockway, and many others, who have been so
+successful in rescuing destitute children.
+
+Don Bosco, the Black Pope, as he was familiarly styled at Turin, where
+he lived during the latter half of the last century, was a Roman
+Catholic priest who founded numerous institutes for orphans in all parts
+of Italy and many parts of both Americas, especially South America. The
+psychological basis on which he founded the training of children in
+these schools, was mainly derived from experience, and proved so
+successful in practice that it is worthy of quotation:
+
+     "Most neglected and abandoned children [he said], are of ordinary
+     character and disposition, but inclined to changeableness and
+     indifference. Brief, but frequent exhortations, good advice, small
+     rewards, and encouragements to persevere are very efficacious, but
+     above all the teacher must show perfect trust in his charges, while
+     being careful never to relax his vigilance. The greatest solicitude
+     should, however, be reserved for the unruly characters, who
+     generally form about one fifth of the whole number. The teacher
+     should make a special effort to become thoroughly acquainted with
+     their dispositions and past life and to convince them that he is
+     their friend. They should be encouraged to chatter freely, while
+     the conversation of the master should be brief and abound in
+     examples, maxims, and anecdotes. Above all, while showing perfect
+     confidence in his pupils, he should never lose sight of them.
+
+     "Occasional treats of a wholesome and attractive nature, picnics
+     and walks, will keep the boys happy and contented. Lasciviousness
+     is the only vice that need be feared; any lad persisting in immoral
+     practices should be expelled.
+
+     "Harsh punishments should never be resorted to. The repressive
+     system may check unruliness, but can never influence for good. It
+     involves little trouble on the part of those who make use of it and
+     may be efficacious in the army, which is composed of responsible
+     adults, but it has a harmful effect on the young, who err more from
+     thoughtlessness than from evil disposition. Far more suitable in
+     their case is the preventive system, which consists in making them
+     thoroughly acquainted with the regulations they have to obey and in
+     watching over them. In this way they are always conscious of the
+     vigilance of the Head-master or his assistants, who are ready to
+     guide and advise them in every difficulty and to anticipate their
+     wants. The pupils should never be left to their own devices, yet
+     they should have complete freedom to run, jump, and enjoy
+     themselves in their own noisy fashion. Gymnastics, vocal and
+     instrumental music, and plenty of outdoor exercise are the most
+     efficacious means of maintaining discipline and improving the boys,
+     bodily and mentally."
+
+
+Only children over seven were admitted to the Institutes founded by Don
+Bosco. Dr. Barnardo, on the other hand, who rescued thousands of orphans
+and destitute children in London and was able to witness a decided
+decrease in the criminality of that capital, concentrated his beneficent
+efforts on destitute children from their earliest years, with the idea
+of removing them as soon as possible from the bad environment in which
+they were born. He was, moreover, desirous that they should share with
+more fortunate children the boon of happy childhood, and resolved that
+up to the age of seven they should be brought up without educational or
+other restraints, save the affection of those appointed to watch over
+them during the first years, so that they might imbibe sufficient love
+and joy for the rest of their lives. Such is the rule followed in the
+buildings set apart for the infants, Bird Castle, Tiny House, and Jersey
+House, which are perfect nests of happy birds.
+
+In spite of the seeming impossibility of obtaining individual education
+in a school, thanks to a system devised by Dr. Barnardo, the older
+children actually enjoy this advantage. New-comers are placed in a
+special department until facts relative to their past life are
+ascertained and an idea formed of their individuality. The results of
+these preliminary inquiries determine in which school the boy shall be
+placed and what trade he shall follow. Moreover, any boy desiring to
+change his occupation is encouraged to do so. Every year a
+re-distribution is made according to the aptitudes shown by the lads in
+study and manual work and their physical and intellectual development,
+special care being taken that the younger children should not be put
+with those who have arrived at a more advanced stage of physical and
+mental evolution. Free development of the various individual aptitudes
+is thus secured, while avoiding that common defect of schools, the
+turning out of numerous lads all made after one regulation pattern.
+
+Having come to the conclusion that life in an institute, in spite of all
+these precautions, is unsuited to girls, Dr. Barnardo founded a village
+at a short distance from London with cottage homes for children of both
+sexes. Each cottage contains from fifteen to twenty children and forms a
+family, the domestic duties of the homes being discharged by the girls.
+
+Dr. Barnardo realised, however, that the placing of children in private
+families is the best means of effecting their salvation, and he made
+great efforts in private and public to induce benevolent persons to
+adopt his prot�g�s. Finally, he organised a regular emigration of lads
+to Canada, where a special agent provides them with situations on farms
+or in factories.
+
+America certainly does not lag behind Europe in the number and
+excellence of its organisations for rescuing the little derelicts of its
+cities. In every town of the United States visited by me, I had the
+pleasure of inspecting such institutions, all of which are kept with
+extraordinary care, and in some cases, with elegance. Amongst others, I
+may mention the Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society in New York City and
+the George Junior Republic at Freeville, near Ithaca, both of which
+seemed to me the most original of their kind.
+
+The Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society is an orphanage for the Jews,
+managed with rare insight and intelligence by Mr. Lewisohn. The
+Institute being founded for orphans only, there is no limit as to age or
+condition. Infants and young people, diseased and healthy, intelligent
+and mentally deficient, normal and abnormal, good and bad, are all
+welcome. In order to prevent the overcrowding of the institution and to
+provide homes for as many children as possible, a committee has been
+organised for the purpose of finding homes in private families for all
+children under six years of age and for those who are sickly and
+delicate. A certain proportion are adopted, and others are boarded out,
+but the sum paid for their keep is always less than it would cost to
+place them in a school; and there is, moreover, always a chance of their
+being adopted later. At the age of six, all healthy and robust children
+enter the Institute, which becomes their home, providing them with
+board, lodging, clothing, moral and religious instruction, and training
+in some kind of work, but in order that they shall mix with other
+children, they are educated at the public schools, and the consequent
+saving in money and space enables the Institute to receive a larger
+number of children than it otherwise could.
+
+Instead of the uniform customary in such institutions which serves to
+accentuate in a humiliating way the contrast between the inmates and
+more fortunate children who possess parents and homes, the clothing worn
+by the orphans of the Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society is varied in
+colour and style. Girls skilled in the use of their needle alter their
+dresses to suit their individual tastes, and are allowed to sew, either
+gratis or for payment, for the boys and other girls of the Institute,
+who are unable or unwilling to make these alterations themselves. When
+school-tasks are finished, boys and girls of over twelve are allowed to
+engage in light occupations--needlework, writing, etc., supplied by the
+Institute to enable them to earn a little pocket-money and learn to
+spend it properly.
+
+When the boys and girls have passed all the standards of the elementary
+schools, they enter trade schools, where they remain until they are
+proficient in some craft which will enable them to earn a living. Those
+who show decided intellectual or business aptitudes are sent to colleges
+or commercial schools.
+
+The children are encouraged to take an interest in social and political
+life by the foundation of a miniature republic, or rather two separate
+republics, one for the boys and the other for the girls, each with its
+president, a boy or a girl according to the case. In reality, however,
+they are under the management of a lady, who devises various
+amusements for the children, reading, games, etc., teaches them music
+and drawing, and helps the little President to organise entertainments
+to which outsiders, relatives, and schoolfellows are invited.
+
+
+  =FIG. 17
+  Signatures of Criminals=
+
+
+The George Junior Republic (America) is a very different institution,
+having been founded for unruly and turbulent boys, who are beyond their
+parents' control. It is a species of Reformatory, not a Home for Waifs.
+
+Mr. George, the founder of the Republic, a man of original and
+intelligent cast of mind, if I may judge of his individuality from
+hearsay, decided on its establishment after many attempts of a similar
+nature. Being anxiously concerned for the future of so many unruly
+youths who, left to their own devices during the summer vacations,
+degenerate into rowdies, he invited about a hundred of these lads to
+spend the summer months on his estate at Freeville, near Ithaca, and
+tried to influence them for good. The attempt did not meet with much
+success at first. Mr. George soon realised that however easy it is to
+exercise a beneficial influence on one or two boys by adopting gentle
+methods, it is extremely difficult to manage hundreds in this way. He
+had, however, observed how fair and rigidly honest boys generally are in
+their games and how ready they are to condemn any meanness, and he
+conceived the idea of making his charges look after each other. Thus
+each one would feel himself a responsible judge of his companions'
+actions.
+
+At the end of the summer holidays in 1895, when the time came for the
+boys to return home, five remained behind at Freeville in a cottage
+standing on three acres of land; the next year the number of lads
+remaining was doubled or trebled. A miniature Republic was founded, of
+which the lads were the citizens, and in this capacity, were obliged to
+make laws and to insist on their being respected. The Republic proved to
+be a great success, the temporary colony became a permanent one capable
+of reforming wild, unruly boys, who if allowed to wander about in the
+streets and to mix with older and more vicious lads, would possibly have
+been ruined. A recent census of the Republic showed that it possessed
+150 citizens, 82 boys and 68 girls, three hundred acres of land,
+twenty-four buildings, a chapel, prison, school, and court of justice.
+
+
+  =FIG. 20
+  Brigand Gasparone=
+
+
+In order that the colonists should not completely lose touch with the
+outside world, but should in some measure be prepared for the social
+exigencies of their future lives, the colony is organised like a
+miniature town. The children, boys and girls, are divided into so many
+families, each consisting of ten or twelve members presided over by two
+adults, who take the place of parents and look after the household. The
+greater part of the population is engaged in agriculture, in cultivating
+the land belonging to the Republic, but a certain proportion adopt the
+arts and crafts necessary to every community: joinery, book-binding,
+printing, shoemaking, or shop-keeping. The colony coins its own money
+and possesses a bank run by the boys themselves, where the colonists can
+deposit their savings. All labour and produce are paid for separately.
+The colony has its own laws sanctioned by its Parliament, its Tribunal,
+the members of which, chosen from amongst the citizens, are charged with
+enforcing the laws. The Parliament, composed without distinction of sex,
+of boys and girls, decrees the holidays, organises the games and
+entertainments, and establishes the public expenditure, revenue, and
+taxes, etc. (see Figs. 19 and 20).
+
+The results of this system appear to be excellent; most of the
+ex-colonists have turned out well, and in view of this fact, republics
+on similar lines are being organised in various parts of the United
+States. This Republic admits only children over twelve, who remain in
+the colony about three years.
+
+
+PREVENTIVE INSTITUTIONS FOR DESTITUTE ADULTS
+
+Besides institutions for the careful training of the young, methods for
+preventing crime also include all attempts to help young or adult
+persons at any crisis in their lives when they are friendless and out of
+work, for it is precisely then that they are most exposed to temptation.
+
+People's hotels, shelters for emigrants or strangers, reading-rooms,
+inexpensive but wholesome entertainments, evening classes for
+instruction in manual work, labour bureaus, organisations for assisting
+emigrants, etc., are the most efficacious institutions of this kind. And
+in this connection, I must refer to the work done by the Salvation Army,
+which from what I was able to observe in America, seems to me the best
+organised of all existing benevolent associations, since by means of a
+thousand arms it reaches every form of poverty and misery and seeks to
+make all its institutions self-supporting. It fights drunkenness by
+lectures, recreation rooms, and temperance hotels; it fights poverty by
+investigating each individual case of destitution, visiting poor
+families, dispensing sympathy and help, providing shelter for the night
+at a minimum price and industrial homes for those who are out of work.
+Sometimes the rooms are turned into recreation halls for drunkards or
+industrial schools for the girls of poor mothers who are obliged to go
+out to work, or temporary hospitals for some urgent case which, owing to
+bureaucratic formalities, the hospitals are unable to attend to
+immediately, or rooms with moving pictures for friendly gatherings on
+holidays, thus grafting one benevolent work on to another so as to
+obtain the best results at the smallest cost.
+
+That interesting book _Where the Shadows Lengthen_ gives an account of
+the different institutions founded by the Salvation Army in the United
+States. There are sixty-five Industrial Homes, where unemployed of all
+classes can apply for work. In these Homes refuse and worn-out articles
+collected from individual homes of their respective towns are
+disinfected and transformed into useful articles, which are sold at low
+prices to the neighbouring poor, thus benefiting purchasers,
+work-people, and society in general. During one year these Homes gave
+employment to 8696 men, distributed 1,318,044 meals (work-people who
+are temporarily employed in these Homes have a right only to board and
+lodging), and gave a night's shelter to 463,550 persons.
+
+In addition, the Army has seventy-seven Hotels where the working-classes
+find a night's lodging at a low price (just sufficient to cover the
+maintenance of the Shelter), and 7990 Accommodations which in one year
+supplied a night's rest to 2,114,037 persons. It has, besides, three
+colonies with 420 inhabitants, two boarding-houses for servants and
+shop-girls out of employment, where for a few pence they may have a bed,
+cook their own meals, wash and mend their clothes, and are assisted to
+find work.
+
+The Salvation Army has also 22 Rescue Homes, where young girls condemned
+by the Juvenile Court and generally more neglected than vicious, are
+reformed with a little care and affection, and 3599 Accommodations to
+which during one year 1701 girls were admitted.
+
+To ensure careful supervision of all the poor quarters, the Salvation
+Army has divided them into twenty slums, in each of which they have
+established their Headquarters and send out their soldiers to
+investigate and assist cases of poverty and misery of every kind. Each
+slum Headquarters is provided with halls for meetings, rooms for the
+officials, a Kindergarten, and Dormitories which also serve as shelters
+or hospitals for urgent cases. In one year 26,290 families were visited
+by the Army and 38,290 received assistance. Employment, temporary and
+permanent, was found for 66,621 persons.
+
+All poor of whatever condition, nationality, or religion, whether honest
+or criminal, on applying to the nearest of these Headquarters may be
+sure of finding sympathy and help.
+
+Five Homes have been founded by the Army for waifs and children whose
+mothers are obliged to go out to work, and 225 Accommodations where
+children may find a temporary or permanent home.
+
+A special squad of soldiers has recently undertaken work amongst
+prisoners with great success. In two months they visited 43 prisons,
+wrote 1732 letters to prisoners, and distributed 10,000 pamphlets.
+19,882 prisoners attended meetings held in the prisons, 194 articles of
+clothing were distributed, 128 persons provided with work on their
+release and 300 with sleeping accommodation.
+
+In South America the Army has founded similar institutions, which
+embrace others, such as hospitals, etc., suited to the needs of each
+place.
+
+Other benevolent organisations which seem to me admirable, are the
+Sisterhoods founded twenty years ago by the Rabbi Gottheil. These
+Sisterhoods, as may be assumed from the name, are entirely directed by
+women. They consist of premises, sometimes annexed to the synagogue; at
+others, situated independently, which form a species of Headquarters for
+the philanthropical work done in the surrounding districts. The
+Sisterhood is open day and night to all the poor who are in need of help
+of any kind. There is a resident Directress, under whose orders a number
+of ladies take turns in helping applicants. The Sisterhoods were founded
+on the principle that human beings are capable of doing the maximum
+amount of good to others when they follow their own particular
+tendencies and try to utilise their individual talents in satisfying the
+intellectual, moral, or recreative needs of the poor. Some of the ladies
+devote themselves to simple legal questions, tracing an absent husband
+or wife, registering births, taking unruly children to the Juvenile
+Courts, or looking after them, etc. Others take charge of medical
+matters, arrange for the admission of children or adults to the
+hospitals, etc.; others organise entertainments, teach singing, drawing,
+needlework, and cooking classes. The premises are used in turn by
+working-girls learning sewing, or others rehearsing some play or opera
+chorus. Almost all the Sisterhoods possess a permanent Kindergarten for
+the children of women who are obliged to work outside their homes, and
+an employment bureau. All the ladies, except the Directress, give their
+services gratis. For all help given by the Sisterhood, except in the
+case of the very poor, a small fee is demanded, and this enables the
+Sisterhood to pay its way without depending much on donations and
+subscriptions from private persons, and to spread and increase its work
+without difficulty.
+
+"The Educational Alliance" of New York, founded to give assistance to
+Jewish emigrants arriving at that city from all parts of the world, is
+another institution deserving of mention. This "Alliance" has a large
+building in the Jewish quarter near the docks, where emigrants can
+obtain instruction in gymnastics, cookery, domestic economy, English,
+needlework, etc. There are also recreation rooms, baths, a library, and
+rooms where school children can prepare their lessons. Men and women are
+assisted in obtaining employment and receive medical and legal aid.
+There is also a species of tribunal for settling petty disputes in cases
+where the parties interested object to applying to the ordinary courts.
+It was crowded when I saw it, and I was not surprised to learn that it
+is of great service to the emigrants. For public holidays, the Alliance
+organises concerts, excursions, and lectures, and during the summer
+vacations it opens a number of boarding-houses in the country.
+
+All these benevolent institutions, schools, rescue homes, orphanages,
+and shelters, organised with so much care for the prevention of crime
+and adopted in America by all communities of whatever religion,
+regardless of cost, have given excellent results. Bosco and Rice (_Les
+Homicides aux Etats-Unis_) and my father (_Crimes, Ancient and Modern_)
+have demonstrated statistically that in States like Massachusetts, where
+there is no great influx of immigration nor a large coloured population,
+the diminution in the number of crimes has been very rapid, the
+percentage of homicides being about equal to those of England, that is,
+lower than the majority of European States.
+
+It must be confessed in honour to the people of the United States, that
+they are very ready to admit their own short-comings and constantly
+regret the large proportion of crimes in their country. But when they
+reflect that the constant stream of immigration contains many lawless
+elements, that the different laws in force in the different States make
+evasions of justice in many cases easy, that the construction of houses
+with the fire-escape communicating directly with the public thoroughfare
+provides an easy means of ingress and egress, and that an enormous
+proportion of the dense population of their cities is composed of people
+from all parts of the world, accustomed to varying moral codes, they
+may realise with pride that the percentage of crime in the United States
+is certainly lower than it would be in any Continental State under
+similar conditions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+_METHODS FOR THE CURE AND REPRESSION OF CRIME_
+
+
+Preventive methods, the careful training of children, and assistance
+rendered to adults in critical moments of their lives, may diminish
+crime, but cannot suppress it entirely. Such methods should be
+supplemented by institutions which undertake to cure criminals, while
+protecting society from their attacks, and by others for the segregation
+of incurable offenders, who should be rendered as useful as possible in
+order to minimise in every way the injury they inflict on the community.
+
+Although unjustly accused of desiring to revolutionise penal
+jurisprudence, criminal anthropologists realised from the very beginning
+that laws cannot be changed before there is a corresponding change in
+public opinion, and that even equitable modifications in the laws, if
+too sudden, are always fraught with dangerous consequences. Therefore,
+instead of a radical change in the penal code, their aim was to effect
+a few slight alterations in the graduation of penalties, in accordance
+with age, sex, and the degree of depravity manifested by culprits in
+their offences. They also counselled certain modifications in the
+application of the laws, the reformation according to modern ideas, of
+prisons, asylums, penal colonies, and all institutions for the
+punishment and redemption of offenders, and an extensive application of
+those penalties devised in past ages as substitutes for imprisonment,
+which have the advantage of corrupting the culprit less, and costing the
+community very little.
+
+_Juvenile Offenders._ Young people, and, above all, children, should be
+dealt with separately by special legislative methods.
+
+With the exception of England, where quite recently a children's court
+has been opened at Westminster, special tribunals for the young are
+unknown in Europe. However, in modern times, the penal codes of nearly
+every European State make marked allowance for the age of offenders, and
+where there is no differentiation in the laws, the magistrate uses his
+own discretion and refuses in many cases to convict juvenile offenders,
+even when they are guilty of serious offences.
+
+These instinctive methods of dealing with the young have many drawbacks:
+
+1. Without special courts, children guilty of simple acts of
+insubordination or petty offences (thefts of fruit or riding in trams
+and trains without paying the fare) which cannot be separated by a hard
+and fast line from ordinary childish pranks, come into contact with
+criminal types in court or in prison, and this is greatly detrimental to
+them morally. If naturally inclined to dishonesty, they run the risk of
+developing into occasional criminals and of losing all sense of shame:
+or if really honest, contact with bad characters cannot fail to shock
+and perturb them, even though their stay in prison be only a short one.
+
+2. The magistrate has no legal powers to supervise juvenile offenders,
+nor when their actions show grave depravity, to segregate and cure them
+to prevent their developing into criminals. It has already been shown
+that born criminals begin their career at a very early age. In one case
+cited in a previous chapter, a morally insane child of twelve killed one
+of his companions for a trifling motive--a dispute about an egg; in
+another, a child of ten caused the arrest of his father by a false
+accusation; he had previously attempted to strangle a little brother.
+Children of this type, notwithstanding their tender age, are a social
+danger, and the moral disease from which they suffer should be taken in
+hand at once. In any case they should be carefully segregated until a
+cure appears to be effected.
+
+Minors require a special code, which takes into consideration the fact
+that certain offences are incidental to childhood and that children who
+have committed these offences may still develop into honest men. It
+should also contain provisions for dealing with born criminals,
+epileptics, and the morally insane at an early age, by segregation in
+special reformatories where they cannot corrupt juvenile offenders of a
+non-criminal type, and where a thorough-going attempt to cure them may
+be made.
+
+An excellent reform of this character has been effected in many of the
+United States of America with the adoption of the probation system and
+juvenile courts which protect children from the corruption of prison
+life and contact with habitual offenders. The juvenile court, this
+tribunal exclusively instituted for minors, has been brought to great
+perfection in many of the United States. In some, special buildings have
+been erected for the hearing of cases against children, by which means
+all contact with adult criminals is avoided: in others, where this is
+not practicable, a part of the ordinary court is set aside for them with
+a separate entrance.
+
+Nor are juvenile offenders judged according to the common law; their
+offences are tried by special magistrates, who deal with them in a
+paternal, rather than in a strictly judicial spirit, and the penalties
+are slight, varied, and suited to children. The magistrates are assisted
+by officers, who obtain information from teachers, parents, and
+neighbours as to the character, conduct, faults, and good qualities of
+the culprit, and with these indications the magistrate is able to essay
+the correction, not of the particular offence which has brought the
+child within his jurisdiction, but his general organic defects. The
+punishments do not include imprisonment, and are drawn from practical
+experience and common-sense, not from any article of the penal code.
+
+I was present at the hearing of a case against a lad, who was accused of
+having travelled on a subway without paying. He was sentenced to copy
+out the by-laws twenty times, to learn them by heart and repeat them a
+month later at the same court. In the case of more serious offences,
+children may be sent to some public or private reformatory, according to
+the circumstances of the parents. However, none of these punishments are
+infamous, and parents themselves, when unable to control their children,
+have recourse to the juvenile court.
+
+It is supplemented in a very efficacious manner by the probation system,
+the organisation of a number of men and women who undertake the
+supervision of children when the court decides that they require it.
+These protectors use every means at their disposal to prevent their
+charges falling into bad ways and assist them in every possible way to
+correct their defects.
+
+This system has proved to be so efficacious, and at the same time so
+devoid of any drawbacks, that its unconditional adoption by all the
+States of Europe and America would be of great social advantage.
+
+
+INSTITUTIONS FOR FEMALE OFFENDERS
+
+The weighty reasons which call for separate courts and reformatories for
+juvenile offenders are equally valid in the case of female law-breakers,
+for whom special tribunals and legislation should be provided.
+
+The percentage of criminality among women is considerably lower than
+that of men, and in nearly all cases offenders belong to the category of
+criminaloids.
+
+My father's work _The Female Offender_ demonstrates that prostitution is
+the true equivalent of criminality. When we except this class of
+unfortunates, there remain only hysterical and occasional offenders,
+guilty generally of petty larceny (particularly of a domestic nature) or
+of harbouring criminals and acting as more or less passive accomplices;
+and criminals from passion, who commit infanticide or kill faithless
+husbands and lovers. In all these cases, imprisonment should not be
+resorted to; in fact, the greater number might be dealt with by a
+magisterial reprimand or the granting of conditional liberty. In view
+also, of the important part played by dress, ornaments, etc., in the
+feminine world, penalties inflicted on vanity--the cutting off of the
+hair, the obligation to wear a certain costume, etc., might with
+advantage be substituted for imprisonment.
+
+The milder nature of feminine criminality, the usefulness of women in
+the home, and the serious injury inflicted on the family and society in
+general by the segregation of the wife and mother (if only for a short
+period), are reasons for advocating the institution of special tribunals
+for dealing with the offences of women and special legislation which
+would take into consideration their position in the family and the fact
+that they are rarely a violent social danger.
+
+At present, in Europe at least, no such differential treatment exists.
+The reduction of penalties is left entirely to the discretion and
+humanity of judges, who in many cases, it is true, are instinctively
+disposed to be more indulgent towards women and to take these
+conditions into account. But it would be a far more satisfactory state
+of things if legislation paid due regard to such circumstances, just as
+in Italy in enrolling recruits for compulsory military service,
+allowance is made for social and family relations, the only sons of
+widowed mothers, men of delicate constitution, etc., being exempted.
+
+In spite of the low percentage and, generally speaking, trifling
+importance of the crimes committed by women, there are a small number of
+female delinquents, some of whom show an extraordinary degree of
+depravity, as though all the perversity lacking in the others were
+concentrated in these few. They are true born criminals, epileptics, and
+morally insane subjects.
+
+These serious anti-social elements, murderers, poisoners, and swindlers,
+might be secluded in a small reformatory with compulsory labour and
+silence as additional penalties. Separate cells, however, are not
+necessary. All reformatories for women should be provided with a nursery
+where children born in prison could be nursed by their mothers, thereby
+diminishing the social injury which must result from the imprisonment of
+any mother, and fostering the growth of the sublime and sacred maternal
+sentiment, which is unfortunately so often lacking in criminals.
+
+The Reformatory Prison for Women at South Framingham, near Boston, under
+the management of Mrs. Morton, is an excellent example of an institution
+conducted on the lines laid down by criminologists. The Reformatory is
+situated at about an hour's journey by rail from Boston, in the midst of
+fields which are cultivated by a part of the convict population. No high
+walls surround the building and separate it from the outer world, nor is
+it watched by guards. A broad avenue leads to the entrance, where, in
+answer to my ring, I was welcomed by neat white-clad attendants and
+shown into a charming room looking out upon a lovely garden. I passed
+through corridors, unmolested by the sound of keys grating in locks,
+from this room to the dining-rooms, dormitories, recreation and work
+rooms.
+
+As soon as prisoners enter the Reformatory, they are carefully examined
+by an intelligent and pleasant woman physician, who is in charge of the
+infirmary where the anthropological examination takes place. When the
+prisoner has been declared able-bodied, she is placed in one of the
+work-rooms to learn and follow the trade indicated by the medical
+officer as the best adapted to her constitution and aptitude. At night,
+she is conducted to a second-class cell situated in a large,
+well-lighted corridor. The cell is furnished with a table, bed, chair,
+pegs to hang clothes on, a calendar, a picture, and a book or two.
+
+Work is compulsory and done by the piece, and when each prisoner has
+finished her allotted task, she is at liberty to work for herself or to
+read books supplied from the library. If unskilled, she receives
+instruction in some manual work, and the payment for her labour is put
+aside and handed over to her on her release, with the small outfit she
+has prepared and sewed during detention.
+
+Women with children under a year, or those who give birth to a child in
+the Reformatory, are allowed to have their little ones with them during
+the night and part of the day. When they go to work every morning, the
+babies are left in the nursery, which adjoins the infirmary, and is
+under the direct supervision of the doctor. The nursery, a large,
+well-lighted room, spotlessly clean and bright with flowers, is a
+veritable paradise for the little ones.
+
+At noon, the prisoner is permitted to fetch her baby, feed, and keep it
+near her during dinner-hour. At two o'clock she resumes work until five,
+when she again takes charge of her baby till next morning. A cradle is
+placed in her cell for the infant, and she is provided with a small
+bath.
+
+A series of trifling rewards encourage moral improvement. Those who show
+good conduct during the first two months are transferred to the first
+class with its accompanying privileges, a better and more spacious
+cell, a smart collar, the right to correspond with friends and to
+receive visitors more frequently, to have an hour's recreation in
+company with other good-conduct prisoners and to receive relatives in a
+pretty sitting-room instead of in the common visitors' room.
+
+The final reward for uninterrupted improvement and untiring industry on
+the part of the prisoner is her ultimate release, which since the
+sentence is unlimited, may take place as soon as the Directress
+considers her competent to earn an honest living. But released prisoners
+are not left to their own devices with the risk of speedily succumbing
+to temptation. A commission of ladies interested in the Reformatory (one
+of whom, Mrs. Russell, was my guide on the occasion of my visit there)
+are consulted before the release of each prisoner and undertake to
+furnish her with suitable employment, and to guide and watch over her
+during the first few months so that she may be sure of advice and
+assistance in any difficulties.
+
+
+INSTITUTIONS FOR MINOR OFFENDERS
+
+Punishments should vary according to the type of criminal, distinction
+being made between criminals of passion, criminaloids, and born
+criminals.
+
+_Criminals of Passion._ The true criminal of passion suffers more from
+remorse than from any penalty the law can inflict. Additional
+punishments should be: exile of the offender from his native town or
+from that in which the person offended resides; indemnity for the injury
+caused, in money, or in compulsory labour if the offender is not
+possessed of sufficient means. Recourse should never be had to
+imprisonment, which has an injurious effect even upon the better types
+of law-breakers; and criminals from passion do not constitute a menace
+to society. On the contrary, they are not infrequently superior to
+average humanity and are only prompted to crime by an exaggerated
+altruism which with care might be turned into good channels.
+
+This applies equally to political offenders, for whom exile is the
+oldest, most dreaded, and most efficacious punishment, and the disuse
+into which it has fallen does not appear to be justified, since it
+admits of graduation, is temporary, and an adequate check on any attempt
+at insurrection.
+
+_Criminaloids._ Repeated short terms of detention in prison should be
+avoided and other penalties substituted for petty offences against
+police regulations, cheating the Customs, etc., when committed by
+criminaloids who are not recidivists and have no accomplices. A short
+term of imprisonment, which brings this type of offender into contact
+with habitual criminals, not only does not serve as a deterrent, but
+generally has an injurious effect, because it tends to lessen respect
+for the law, and, in the case of recidivists, to rob punishment of all
+its terrors; and because criminaloids, when once branded with the infamy
+of prison and corrupted by association with worse types, are liable to
+commit more serious crimes.
+
+For all minor offences, fines are more efficacious than imprisonment
+and, in the case of the poor, should be replaced by compulsory labour at
+the discretion of the magistrate. Binding over under a guarantee to make
+good the injury done, corporal punishment, confinement to the house,
+judicial reprimands and cautions are applicable to offenders of this
+type, as is also the system of remitting first offences used in France
+with great success by Magnaud. Under this system, the offender is
+sentenced to an adequate penalty, which, however, is only inflicted in
+the case of recidivation.
+
+An efficacious, and at the same time, more serious method of dealing
+with criminaloids, is by means of the probation system and indeterminate
+sentence. The offender is sentenced to the maximum penalty applicable to
+his particular offence, but it may be diminished after a certain time if
+he shows signs of improvement. During this interval he is on probation,
+that is, under supervision, much in the same way as juvenile offenders.
+
+The probation system is extensively and successfully adopted in America,
+either singly or in conjunction with other penalties, as shown above.
+
+
+THE PROBATION SYSTEM
+
+This is an ideal manner of dealing with offenders of a less serious
+type, minors and criminaloids, who have fallen into bad ways, since,
+instead of punishing them, it seeks to encourage in them habits of
+integrity and to check the growth of vices by means of a benevolent but
+strict supervision. The offender is placed under the guidance of a
+respectable person, who tries in every way to smooth the path of reform
+by providing his charge with employment if he has none, or putting him
+in the way of learning some trade if he is unskilled, by isolating him
+from bad company, by rewarding any improvement, and reporting progress
+to the central office, which has to decide whether the period of
+probation is sufficient, or, in cases where it has not been efficacious,
+to have recourse to sterner measures.
+
+The only drawback to this system is the difficulty of applying it,
+because it is not always possible to find in every town a number of
+persons of high moral standing, who are able and willing to exercise
+vigilance over offenders. However, to the honour of the United States
+it must be said that in many States this supervision is organised in a
+truly admirable manner. At Boston I visited the Probation Office
+organised and managed by Miss Mary Dewson, which undertakes the
+supervision of girls and is a model worthy of imitation from the general
+arrangement down to the smallest details.
+
+The relations between the officers and their charges are in most cases
+very cordial. The little girls write most affectionate letters, in which
+they narrate their joys and sorrows, express penitence for their
+shortcomings and ask advice and help as of guardian spirits. The
+officers in their turn show themselves to be affectionate protectors and
+are scrupulous in the fulfilment of their duties towards the central
+office. Upwards of one hundred lockers were opened at my request, and I
+was able to examine the documents relating to each of the children with
+their antecedents, improvement, or the reverse, methodically entered up
+to a few days previous to my visit.
+
+The splendid results obtained everywhere by this system are leading to
+its gradual adoption in nearly all the States of the Union and in many
+parts of Australia and England, in dealing with young people, adults,
+and all first offenders convicted of petty infractions of the law,
+drunkenness, disturbance of the peace, and disorderly conduct, and also
+for prisoners released on ticket-of-leave. The probationer is obliged to
+report himself every fortnight, or at any time the probation officer may
+desire. The officer is empowered to supervise the conduct of the
+probationer at home and in his place of employment, and to threaten him
+with legal proceedings should his conduct be unsatisfactory.
+
+The supervision of adults, as may be supposed, is a far more delicate
+and complicated matter than that of children, and however discreetly the
+officer proceeds in order to keep the matter hidden from neighbours and
+employers, the position is such a humiliating one for adults that many
+prefer imprisonment to supervision. I was told that special
+reformatories have been established at Boston for the detention of those
+who prefer prison to vigilance.
+
+Perhaps this aversion of adult offenders in America to the probation
+system is due to the fact that the probation officer is vested with
+powers almost exceeding those of any magistrate. If he thinks fit, he
+may extend the period of supervision almost indefinitely or convert it
+into imprisonment. Moreover, the feeling that every movement and action,
+however innocent, is being watched is very galling to a grown-up person.
+However, these drawbacks could no doubt be remedied.
+
+In England, supervision is replaced by a pledge of good behaviour
+guaranteed by the culprit or a surety, who is induced to exercise
+vigilance by the knowledge that he will lose the sum deposited in the
+case of recidivation. The magistrate is obliged by English law to fix
+the period of probation, which cannot be extended without another
+sentence. In France, Belgium, and Australia, the probation system
+appears to have given good results.
+
+_Corporal Punishment._ Although repugnant to civilised ideas, the
+various forms of corporal punishment, fasting, cold shower-bath, or even
+the rod, are very suitable substitutes for imprisonment in the case of
+children guilty of petty offences, because not only are these
+punishments inexpensive and have the advantage of creating a deeper and
+more immediate impression, but they do not corrupt minor offenders nor
+do they interrupt their regular occupations, whether work or study.
+Fines should always be inflicted for slight infractions of the law and
+in all cases of petty larceny, frauds, and forgeries committed by
+minors. The fines should be proportioned to the means of the individual
+and the gravity of the offence, and replaced by compulsory labour in the
+case of those who refuse to pay.
+
+_Indemnity._ The obligation to make adequate compensation for the injury
+caused would be an ideal punishment, but is extremely difficult to put
+into practice. The magistrate, however, should do his utmost to make
+suitable use of this penalty, and the victim should be legally entitled
+to receive a part of the proceeds from work done by the culprit during
+detention.
+
+
+REFORMATORIES
+
+Minors convicted for the first time of such serious offences that
+supervision becomes an insufficient guarantee against recidivation,
+should be relegated to reformatories or other institutions which
+undertake to punish offences and to segregate and correct offenders.
+
+For the truly magnificent scale on which such reclaiming institutions
+are conducted in North and South America, both continents merit special
+mention.
+
+The oldest and most celebrated of these reformatories, that founded at
+Elmira by Brockway, owed its inspiration to my father's book _Criminal
+Man_ and is the first reformatory that has been instituted on similar
+principles.
+
+The convicts admitted to Elmira are young men between the ages of
+sixteen and thirty, convicted for the first time of any offence, except
+those of the most serious kind. The Administrative Council is invested
+with unlimited powers for determining the period of detention and may
+release prisoners long before the expiration of their sentence.
+
+Each newcomer has a bath, dons the uniform of the Institute, is
+photographed, registered, medically examined, and finally shut up in a
+cell to meditate upon his offence. During this time the superintendent
+obtains all the available information concerning his character,
+environment, and the probable causes that have led to his crime, and
+this information serves as a basis for the cure. According to the
+aptitude and culture of the prisoner, he is placed in a technical or
+industrial class, where he learns some trade which will enable him to
+become honestly self-supporting on his release. He is immediately
+acquainted with his duties and rights and the conditions under which he
+may regain his liberty.
+
+Education in the Reformatory consists of instruction in general
+knowledge and special training in some trade. Moral and intellectual
+progress is stimulated by the publication of a weekly review, _The
+Summary_, which gives a report on political matters and the news of the
+Reformatory.
+
+The convicts are divided into three categories: good, middling, and bad.
+The transference from the second to the first class entails certain
+privileges, especially those respecting communication with the outer
+world, the right to receive visitors, to have books, and to eat at a
+common table instead of partaking of a solitary meal in a cell. Those
+who obtain the highest marks for good conduct are at liberty to walk
+about the grounds and are entrusted with confidential missions, such as
+the supervision of the other convicts. Bad conduct marks cause prisoners
+to be transferred from a higher to the lowest division, where they are
+obliged to perform the rudest labour.
+
+First-class convicts are purposely exposed to temptations of various
+kinds, and when they have passed through this ordeal triumphantly, they
+obtain a conditional release. This cannot take place, however, until the
+prisoner is provided with regular employment of some kind, procured by
+his own exertions, through friends, or by the director of the
+Reformatory.
+
+For six months after his release he is obliged to give an account of
+himself regularly in the manner prescribed by the Director; after one
+year absolute liberty is regained.
+
+In order to reduce the working expenses of the Reformatory as much as
+possible, all posts, even that of superintendent or teacher in the
+technical schools, are filled by the convicts.
+
+
+PENITENTIARIES
+
+Although born criminals, habitual criminals, and recidivists should be
+carefully isolated from minor offenders, they nevertheless require
+institutes conducted on nearly similar principles. A prison, which is to
+punish, but at the same time to correct and redeem, demands strict
+discipline: in fact, milder punishments have very little effect and
+their constant repetition is harmful, although any exaggeration of brute
+force is more injurious than useful. Harshness may cow criminals, but
+does not improve them: on the contrary, it only serves to irritate them
+or to convert them into hypocrites. Even the adult offender should be
+looked upon in the light of a child or a moral invalid, who must be
+cured by a mixture of gentleness and severity, but gentleness should
+predominate, since criminals are naturally prone to vindictiveness and
+are apt to regard even slight punishments as unjust tortures. Even a too
+rigid adherence to the rule of silence may have a detrimental effect on
+the character of the prisoners. An old convict once said to Despine:
+"When you winked at slight offences against the rules, we used to talk
+more, but there was no harm in what we said. Now we talk less, but when
+we do, we blaspheme and plot evil."
+
+In Danish prisons under rigorous discipline, infractions of prison
+regulations amounted to 30%; more recently under milder rule such
+infractions only amount to 6%.
+
+In order to strengthen the sense of justice which, as we have said, is
+little developed in criminals, if indeed it is not altogether suffocated
+by ignoble passions, it is often advisable to appeal to their vanity and
+self-esteem to aid in maintaining discipline and increasing industry, by
+constituting them judges of each other's conduct. Obermayer used to
+divide the convicts into small groups and ask them to elect their own
+superintendents and teachers, thus establishing a spirit of
+good-comradeship and rendering possible a system of detailed and
+individual instruction, the sole kind that is really efficacious. The
+385 convicts at Detroit showed the highest percentage of efficiency,
+because they were divided into 21 classes with 28 teachers, all of whom,
+with the exception of one, were prisoners. It was noticed that the worst
+convicts were the best teachers (Pears, _Prisons and Reform_, 1872),
+which proves that even the most perverse elements may often be utilised
+for the improvement of others.
+
+Equally good was Despine's method of letting a certain time elapse
+before inflicting punishment, so that it should not be attributed to
+mere anger on his part. As soon as the infraction was noted, the
+prisoner was left to reflect on his conduct, and an hour later the
+teacher and Director came to show him the penalty prescribed by the
+regulations. Sometimes it was found efficacious to administer a rebuke
+and punishment to the whole group to which the offender belonged.
+Obermayer considered this method to be advantageous.
+
+Work should be the motive force, aim, and recreation of every institute
+of this kind, in order to stimulate flagging energies, to accustom
+prisoners to useful pursuits after release, to reinforce prison
+discipline and to compensate the State for the expense incurred. This
+latter object should, however, always be subordinated to the others, and
+lucrative trades must occasionally be avoided. Occupations which might
+pave the way for other crimes: lockmaking, brasswork, engraving,
+photography, and calligraphy should not be adopted, but choice made,
+instead, of those agricultural employments which show the lowest
+mortality and are much in demand. The manufacture of articles in straw,
+esparto, and string, printing, tailoring, the making of pottery, and
+building are all suitable trades, but those which require dangerous
+tools--shoemaking, cabinet-making, and carpentering--should be resorted
+to last of all. The rush baskets made by the convicts at Noto (Sicily)
+obtained several medals.
+
+The tasks allotted to prisoners should always be proportioned to their
+strength and tastes. Unskilled or physically weaker individuals who
+conscientiously do their best, should be rewarded in some way, if not
+pecuniarily, at least by a reduction of their sentences. In this way
+work becomes profitable and a spirit of comradeship and friendly
+emulation develops among the prisoners.
+
+
+INSTITUTES FOR HABITUAL CRIMINALS
+
+To protect society against the repeated misdeeds of these offenders and
+those of born criminals, segregation is essential. However, the
+institutions set apart to receive these classes should still regard the
+redemption of the inmates as their chief aim, and only when all attempts
+have proved futile should they be replaced by almost perpetual isolation
+in a penal colony.
+
+The Penitenciario Nacional of Buenos Ayres is a splendid instance of an
+institute founded for the redemption of adult offenders as well as for
+the punishment of their offences. The inmates of this penitentiary
+comprise offenders of all types--criminaloids, habitual and born
+criminals--belonging to the Province of Buenos Ayres. It was established
+a few years after the Reformatory at Elmira, the fundamental principles
+of which it has imitated with certain wise modifications to suit diverse
+circumstances.
+
+Externally, it has nothing in common with the gloomy European prisons.
+It is a large, white edifice with a broad flight of steps leading to the
+street and is devoid of all signs of force, soldiers, sentry-boxes, etc.
+
+After passing through a wide vestibule, I reached a large, shady
+court-yard with low walls almost hidden beneath a wealth of flowers and
+foliage. A corridor opening on to the court-yard was flanked on each
+side by a row of open, white cells, each well lighted by a fair-sized
+window during the day, and by electricity at night. Each cell is
+furnished with book-shelves, a table with paper, pen and inkstand, and a
+chair. All the corridors, which are gay with plants, converge towards a
+central glass-room, whence the sub-inspector surveys all the radiating
+corridors under his jurisdiction. Each corridor ends in a workshop,
+where printing, lithography, shoemaking, metal and steel work are
+carried on, and between the corridors are garden plots in which fruit,
+vegetables, and flowers are cultivated. The workshops are reckoned among
+the best the Republic contains. The printing-office turns out many
+weekly papers, illustrated magazines, and scientific and literary
+reviews. Footgear of the finest and most elegant quality is manufactured
+in the shoe-factory, and the foundry and workshop produce lathes,
+boilers, industrial and agricultural machines and implements. All the
+cooking in the Penitentiary is done by steam, and the plant is installed
+in a large building erected by the prisoners themselves.
+
+Work in the Penitentiary is compulsory. On arrival, each convict
+receives instruction in some handicraft, chosen by himself or one of the
+foremen. Of course swindlers and forgers are not admitted to trades like
+lithography, for reasons easy to understand.
+
+The convicts receive regular wages which vary according to their
+abilities and are about equal to the standard wages in each particular
+trade. All earnings are put aside and handed to the convict on his
+release when he is also provided with suitable employment.
+
+Work is finished at five o'clock in the evening and after a substantial
+supper the prisoners are divided into nine classes, six elementary and
+three secondary, according to their culture and intelligence. If
+illiterate, they are taught reading and writing and later, arithmetic,
+geography, history, languages, and drawing,--this latter being adapted
+to the particular trade of each individual. When school is finished,
+prisoners are allowed to go to the library to return the books they have
+read and take others for the night.
+
+Instead of a weekly newspaper like that published at Elmira,
+intellectual development is stimulated by means of lectures delivered
+each week by the prisoners or their teachers and attended by the
+Director, Vice-Director, and all the convicts.
+
+In addition to the care lavished by the Director, Se�or Ballv�, on the
+work and education of his charges, he spares no pains to encourage moral
+progress by rewarding good conduct. As each convict enters the
+Penitentiary, his name, trial, sentence, and antecedents are entered in
+a book with his photograph and particulars of his physical and psychic
+individuality, and these data are supplemented by remarks on his conduct
+and good actions, if any, so that on his release a clear idea is
+obtained of the moral progress he has made while in prison.
+
+
+PENAL COLONIES
+
+When after unsparing efforts for the redemption of a criminal, repeated
+convictions prove him to be a hopeless recidivist, the community should
+decline to allow him to perfect his anti-social abilities at their
+expense in prisons or at large, and should segregate him permanently,
+unless, indeed, there is any hope of reform, or circumstances render him
+harmless. Perpetual confinement in a prison, even of an improved type
+is, however, both cruel and expensive, but an excellent substitute may
+be found in the Penal Colony. Here the chief object should be, not to
+educate, elevate, or redeem the criminal, but to render him as useful as
+possible, so that he does not prove too great a burden on the community.
+
+Penal colonies should be situated on islands or in remote territories,
+that is, completely isolated from populous districts. The agricultural
+colony at Meseplas founded by the Belgian Government is a model worthy
+of imitation.
+
+In this colony the convict population is divided into four categories:
+
+1. Turbulent and dangerous individuals, who exercise an injurious
+influence over the other inmates of reformatories and prisons;
+
+2. Recidivists, ticket-of-leave men, escaped and mutinous convicts;
+
+3. Persons of bad reputation, who have hitherto avoided conviction;
+
+4. The better types, who have been convicted three or four times only
+and although not depraved, lack moral stamina and are constantly
+yielding to temptation when at large.
+
+All the common necessities of life are supplied by the colonists
+themselves, beginning with the dwellings which are erected as they are
+required and according to the resources available. In this way,
+extensive building operations are carried out at a very slight cost to
+the State. Cattle and crops are raised on the land, which is cultivated
+by a number of the convicts, while others manufacture articles which
+find a ready market in the vicinity and for which they possess suitable
+tools.
+
+Any convict refusing to work is imprisoned on bread and water. All work
+is paid for in special coin current only in the colony itself, but
+which, on the release of the owner, is exchanged for the coin of the
+country.
+
+The "Open Door," an institution on similar lines, was founded by
+Professor Cabred for the insane of the Province of Buenos Ayres, and
+judging from what I was able to observe during my short visit, it
+fulfils its purpose admirably. It consists of a large village populated
+by some ten or twelve thousand lunatics. With the exception of the price
+of the land and the cost of erecting the first buildings, this colony
+does not cost the community anything; on the contrary, the colonists are
+able to make large profits.
+
+The ultimate plan of the village with streets and edifices has already
+been mapped out, and the patients are continually occupied in erecting
+new buildings, etc. There is a brick-kiln, a carpenter shop, and a
+smithy, which produce all the materials used in building and furnishing
+the dwellings. Only the less dangerous patients are employed in these
+operations: those of weaker mind make brushes and wicker articles.
+
+The colony is situated in the midst of a vast stretch of land in the
+Province of Buenos Ayres, on which fruit and vegetables are grown by a
+number of the patients. Others are occupied in raising fowls and pigs,
+which supply the colony with eggs and meat and yield a large profit when
+sold outside.
+
+Professor Cabred wisely prefers agriculture of this kind to the raising
+of large crops of wheat or maize, because it simplifies the task of
+supervision necessary in any colony, and gives the colonists, whose toil
+is compulsory, a continual and regular occupation of an almost unvarying
+character. (This applies equally to the case of a penal colony.)
+Workmen, foremen, engineers, builders, mechanics, gardeners,--all are
+patients, with the exception of the Director, the doctor, and about a
+hundred mounted warders, who pass rapidly from one part to another and
+are able to intervene in suicidal or homicidal outbreaks.
+
+A colony on these lines would be suitable for the large mass of habitual
+criminals, who, although unable to resist the temptations of ordinary
+life, are capable of useful work under supervision, and under such
+conditions may prove beneficial to themselves and to the community.
+
+
+INSTITUTIONS FOR BORN CRIMINALS AND THE MORALLY INSANE
+
+_Asylums for Criminal Insane._ We have still to consider born criminals,
+epileptics, and the morally insane, whose crimes spring from inherited
+perverse instincts. These unfortunate beings cannot be consigned to
+ordinary prisons, since, owing to their state of mental alienation, they
+do not possess even the modesty of the vicious--hypocrisy--and they
+never fail to pervert those criminaloids with whom they come in contact.
+Malcontents by nature, they distrust everybody and everything, and as
+they see an enemy in every warder and official, they are the centres of
+constant mutinies.
+
+To confine them in common asylums would be still more injurious, for
+they preach sodomy, flight, and revolt and incite the others to robbery,
+and their indecent and savage ways, as well as the terrible reputation
+which often precedes them, make them objects of terror and repulsion to
+the quieter patients and their relatives, who dread to see their kin in
+such company.
+
+Ordinary asylums are equally unsuited to those victims of mental
+derangement who, although devoid of the depraved instincts of the
+morally insane and generally of blameless career up to the moment in
+which they are led to commit a crime by some isolated evil impulse, have
+a bad influence on the other inmates. Unlike other lunatics, they do not
+shrink from the company of others, whom they torment with their violence
+and contaminate with that spirit of restlessness and discontent which
+distinguished them even before they became insane or criminals. Firm in
+the belief that they are always being ill treated and insulted, they
+instil these ideas into their companions and suggest thoughts of flight
+and revolt, which would never occur to ordinary lunatics, absorbed as
+they are by their own world of fancies. The condition of the inmates is
+thereby aggravated, and it becomes impossible to accord them that large
+measure of freedom advocated by all modern alienists.
+
+To leave these madmen at large would be more dangerous still. Beneath an
+appearance of perfect calm and mental lucidity are hidden morbid
+impulses, which may give terrible results at some unexpected moment.
+
+All these offenders--insane criminals and the morally insane whose
+irresistible tendencies are detrimental to the community--should be
+confined in special institutes to be cured, or at any rate segregated
+for life. No infamy would attach to their names, because their
+irresponsibility would be clearly recognised, and society would be
+secure from their attacks.
+
+England was the first country to provide asylums for the criminal
+insane. In 1840 a portion of Bedlam was set aside for this purpose.
+Fisherton House, a special private asylum of this kind, was opened in
+1844, and later others were instituted at Dundrum (Ireland) in 1850, at
+Broadmoor in 1863, and at Perth (Scotland) in 1858, to receive criminals
+who commit crimes in a state of insanity, or become insane during their
+trial, and all prisoners whose state of lunacy or imbecility renders
+them unable to conform to the discipline of a prison. Of course
+sanguinary and violent scenes often occur in these asylums, where the
+pernicious influence this type of lunatic exercises over his
+surroundings in ordinary asylums or prisons is multiplied and
+intensified a hundred-fold. Conspiracies, almost unknown in common
+asylums, and the murder of warders or officials are very common.
+Despairing of release and conscious of their irresponsibility, these
+wretched beings attack the warders, destroy the walls which confine
+them, murder and wound others and themselves; but at any rate the injury
+is limited to a small circle, and both harmless lunatics and common
+criminals are not contaminated. Moreover, even in criminal asylums, long
+experience with these strange pathological types and the adoption of
+subdivisions like those recently introduced into Broadmoor by Orange
+have done much towards improving the general condition and eliminating
+many drawbacks. According to this classification insane criminals are
+divided into two classes, _unconvicted_ and _convicted_, the former
+class being subdivided into _untried_ and _tried_. Untried offenders,
+those who are considered to have been insane before committing the
+crime, are sent to a common county asylum, where are also confined
+persons convicted of minor offences and declared insane (the percentage
+of cures in this class is considerable) and others suspected of shamming
+insanity. In this way, the better elements are eliminated and the
+inmates of the criminal insane asylum reduced to the worst and most
+dangerous types only.
+
+
+CAPITAL PUNISHMENT
+
+When, notwithstanding prisons, deportation, and criminal asylums,
+individuals of ineradicable anti-social instincts make repeated attempts
+on the lives of others, whether honest men or their own companions in
+evil-doing, the only remedy is the application of the extreme
+penalty--death.
+
+Amongst barbarous peoples, on whom prison makes but slight impression,
+or in primitive communities that do not possess criminal asylums,
+penitentiaries, and other means of social defence and redemption, the
+death penalty has always been considered the most certain and at the
+same time the most economical means of common protection. But criminal
+anthropologists realise that the desire to abolish this penalty, which
+so often finds expression in civilised countries, arises from a noble
+sentiment and one they have no wish to destroy.
+
+Capital punishment, according to the opinion of my father, should only
+be applied in extreme cases, but the fear of it, suspended like a sword
+of Damocles above their heads, would serve as a check to the murderous
+proclivities displayed by some criminals when they are condemned to
+perpetual imprisonment.
+
+We have, it is true, no right to take the lives of others but if we
+refuse to recognise the legitimacy of self-defence, exile and
+imprisonment are equally unjustifiable.
+
+When we realise that there exist beings, born criminals, who are
+organised for evil, who reproduce the instincts common to the wildest
+savages and even those of ferocious carnivora, and are destined by
+nature to injure others, our resentment becomes softened; but
+notwithstanding our sense of pity, we feel justified in demanding their
+extermination when they prove to be dangerous and absolutely
+irredeemable.
+
+
+PENALTIES PROPOSED BY THE MODERN SCHOOL
+
+The following tables, compiled by Senator Garofalo, a celebrated jurist
+of the Modern School and inserted in _Criminal Man_, vol. iii, show the
+distribution of penalties systematically arranged.
+
+I. Born Criminals who are utterly devoid of the sentiment of pity.
+
+  _Offender_               _Crime_                   _Penalty_
+
+  Murderers exhibiting     Murder for lucre or       Prison, penal colony,
+  moral insensibility      some other egotistical    criminal insane
+  and instinctive          object                    asylum, or
+  cruelty,                                           capital punishment
+  convicted of             Murder without            if recidivists.
+                           provocation on the
+                           part of the victim
+
+                           Murder with ferocious
+                           execution
+
+
+II. Violent and Impulsive Criminals, Criminaloids, and those guilty
+through insufficiency of pity, of decency, of inhibitory power, and
+through prejudiced notions of honor.
+
+  _Offender_               _Crime_                   _Penalty_
+
+  Adults convicted of      Cruelty, assault          Criminal insane
+                           and battery, rape,        asylum for epileptics,
+                           kidnapping                or
+
+                                                     Indefinite seclusion
+                                                     for a period equal
+                                                     to one of the natural
+                                                     divisions of a man's
+                                                     life, with period of
+                                                     supervision.
+
+  Minors convicted of      Murder, cruelty           Special reformatories,
+                           and other offences        criminal insane
+                           against the person        asylum if there are
+                           without provocation       congenital tendencies.
+
+                           Offences against          Penal colony and
+                           decency                   deportation in cases
+                                                      of recidivation.
+
+  Adults convicted of      Homicide provoked by      Exile from native
+                           injury or                 place and from the
+                           genuine grievances        town in which the
+                                                     victim's family live.
+
+  Adults convicted of      Homicide in               Exile, segregation
+                           self-defence              for an indefinite
+                                                     period in some
+                           Homicide to avenge        remote town or
+                           some wrong or             settlement.
+                           personal dishonour
+
+  Adults convicted of      Assault in quarrels,      Compensation for
+                           or ill-treatment          injury caused, fines,
+                           when intoxicated,         reprimand, security,
+                           blows, insults, or        conditional liberty.
+                           slander
+
+  Adults convicted of      Mutiny and revolt         Reprimand, security,
+                                                     imprisonment for a
+                                                     definite period.
+
+
+III. Criminals Devoid of a Sense of Honesty
+
+  _Offender_               _Crime_                   _Penalty_
+
+  Adults (habitual         Theft, fraud, arson,      Criminal lunatic
+  offenders) convicted     forgery, blackmail        asylums (if insane
+  of                                                 or epileptic),
+                                                     deportation (for
+                                                     sane offenders).
+
+  Adults (occasional       Theft fraud, forgery,     Reformatories,
+  offenders) convicted     blackmail, arson          conditional liberty,
+  of                                                 exclusion from
+                                                     particular profession.
+
+  Adults convicted of      Peculation, concussion    Loss of office,
+                                                     exclusion from all
+                                                     public offices,
+                                                     fines, compensation
+                                                     for damage done.
+
+  Adults convicted of      Arson, malicious          Compensation, or
+                           damage to property        as a substitute,
+                                                     imprisonment.
+
+                                                     Criminal lunatic
+                                                     asylums (if insane).
+
+                                                     Penal colonies
+                                                     (for recidivists).
+
+  Adults convicted of      Fraudulent                Compensation for
+                           bankruptcy                damage caused,
+                                                     exclusion from
+                                                     business and
+                                                     public offices.
+
+  Adults convicted of      Counterfeiting,           Reformatories,
+                           forging cheques,          fines, compensation
+                           public title-deeds,       for damage, exclusion
+                           etc.                      from office.
+
+  Adults convicted of      Bigamy, substitution      Seclusion for an
+                           or suppression            indefinite period.
+                           of child
+
+  Minors convicted of      Theft, fraud, and         Magisterial
+                           picking pockets           reprimand, probation,
+                                                     reformatory, or
+                                                     agricultural
+                                                     colony.
+
+
+IV. Offenders Lacking in Industry
+
+  _Offender_                             _Penalty_
+
+  Beggars, vagabonds,                    Agricultural colony
+  loafers                                for country offenders,
+                                         workshop for city offenders.
+
+
+V. Offenders Deficient in Misoneism (Hatred of Change)
+
+  _Offender_                             _Penalty_
+
+  Political, social, and                 Temporary exile.
+  religious rebels
+
+
+SYMBIOSIS
+
+The punishment of offenders and the protection of society from the
+insane are the two chief objects of criminal jurisprudence, but criminal
+anthropologists aim at something higher, the utilisation of anti-social
+elements, thus redeeming them completely and justifying their existence
+in the eyes of mankind and in the scheme of nature.
+
+We find, in fact, in nature numerous instances of a partnership for
+mutual benefit between animals and plants of very diverse species and
+tendencies. Lichens are a living symbiosis of alg� and fungi: the
+pagurus allows the actini� to settle on his dwelling, where they attract
+his prey and in return are housed and conveyed from place to place.
+
+In imitation of this principle, criminal anthropologists seek to devise
+a means of making offenders serviceable to civilisation by carefully
+analysing their tendencies and psychology, and fitting them into some
+suitable groove in the social scheme, where they may be useful to
+themselves and to others. Side by side with depraved instincts,
+criminals frequently possess invaluable gifts: an abnormal degree of
+intelligence, great audacity, and love of innovation. The wonderful
+galleries and fortifications cut out in the rocks at Gibraltar and Malta
+by English convicts and the complete transformation of parts of Sardinia
+have led criminologists to the conclusion that the ancient penalty of
+enforced labour was more logical, useful, and advantageous both for the
+culprit and the community than all modern punishments. The Mormons of
+America and the religious sects persecuted in Russia by an omnipotent
+bureaucracy, have by their energy transformed uninhabitable regions into
+lands of extraordinary fertility. Still greater results might be
+obtained, if the abnormal tendencies of certain individuals were turned
+into useful channels, instead of being pent up until they manifest
+themselves in anti-social acts, and this beneficent and lofty task
+should devolve on teachers and protectors of such of the young as show
+physical and psychic anomalies at an early age.
+
+The colonisation of wild regions and all professions (motoring, cycling,
+acrobatic and circus feats) which demand audacity, activity, love of
+adventure, and intense efforts followed by long periods of repose are
+eminently suited to criminals. There are cases on record in which young
+men have actually become thieves and even murderers in order to gain
+sufficient means to become comedians or professional cyclists, and there
+is every reason to suppose that these crimes would never have been
+committed had the youths been able to obtain the required sums honestly.
+On the other hand, men of bad character, ready to develop into
+criminals, often undergo a complete transformation when they find some
+outlet for their intelligence and aptitudes, in becoming pioneers in
+virgin regions or soldiers. War, the original, perpetual and exclusive
+occupation of our ancestors, is eminently suited to the tendencies of
+criminals. All the characteristics of the criminal, impulsiveness,
+cynicism, physical and moral insensibility, and invulnerability are
+valuable qualities in the soldier in times of war, especially when waged
+against savage and barbarous nations, when cunning and ability have to
+be employed against primitive races who laugh at the rules and ethics of
+civilised warfare.
+
+Amongst brigands, we find a few badly-armed individuals performing
+marvels of valour, and the leaders, although ignorant men, manifesting
+an intelligence and tactical skill that puts trained armies to shame.
+Could not the tendencies of criminals be used for the good of their
+country? The qualities developed in primitive races by constant warfare
+against the forces of nature are characteristic also of criminals. Let
+those whom nature has destined to reproduce impulsive and brutal
+instincts in a civil and industrial age be permitted to employ them in
+defending civilisation with true primitive valour against external and
+internal enemies, against barbarous peoples who would restrict its
+boundaries, or reactionary elements who seek to hinder its progress.
+
+The Great Redeemer, who in pardoning the adulteress, said, "He that is
+without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her," and the
+Prophet who foretold the day when the wolf and the lamb should dwell
+together and the lion should eat straw like the ox and should "not hurt
+nor destroy," divined perhaps this noble aim. If criminal anthropology
+is destined to lead mankind to this goal, it may well be pardoned all
+the harsh measures it has seen fit to suggest in order to realise the
+supreme end--social safety.
+
+
+
+
+PART III
+
+CHARACTERS AND TYPES OF CRIMINALS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+_EXAMINATION OF CRIMINALS_
+
+
+Criminal anthropologists are unanimous in insisting on the importance of
+the results to be gained from a careful examination of the physical and
+psychic individuality of the offender, with a view to establishing the
+extent of his responsibility, the probabilities of recidivation on his
+part, the cure to be prescribed or the punishment to be meted out to
+him; but besides furnishing the magistrate with a sound basis for his
+decisions, the anthropological examination will prove of great
+assistance to probation officers, superintendents of orphanages and
+rescue homes and all those who are entrusted with the destinies of
+actual offenders or candidates for crime. I have therefore decided to
+devote this part of my summary to a minute demonstration of the methods
+to be employed in these examinations, which should be conducted on the
+one hand with the scientific precision that distinguishes clinical
+diagnoses of diseases and on the other with special rules deduced from
+the long experience of criminologists in dealing with criminals and the
+insane, between whom there is so much affinity.
+
+
+ANTECEDENTS AND PSYCHIC INDIVIDUALITY
+
+The examination of a criminal or person of criminal tendencies should,
+if possible, be preceded by a careful investigation of his antecedents.
+Questions put to relatives and friends often bring to light facts
+relating to his past life, and give an idea of the surroundings in which
+he has grown up and the illnesses suffered by him during childhood
+(meningitis, typhus, convulsions, hemicrania, giddiness, _pavor
+nocturnus_, trauma). The prevalence of disease in the family (parents,
+grandparents, uncles, cousins, etc.) should be elicited and note taken
+not only of nervous maladies, but of arthritic, tuberculous, pellagrous,
+and inebriate forms, including a tendency to morphiomania. Even goitre
+should not escape notice, since it may indicate cretinism or any other
+form of degeneration. The existence of criminality in the family is of
+still greater importance, but it is extremely difficult to obtain any
+information on this head, either from the patient himself or his
+relatives. A certain amount of strategy must be used in eliciting facts
+of this kind, by suddenly asking, for instance, whether a certain
+individual of the same name, already deceased or confined in
+such-and-such an asylum or prison, is any relation of the patient.
+
+Next should be ascertained whether he is single or married, and in the
+latter case, whether his wife is still living; also what profession or
+professions he has exercised. In this connection it should be observed
+that although criminals are generally successful in everything they
+undertake, they are incapable of remaining constant to one thing for any
+length of time.
+
+Many persons, cooks, tavern-keepers, confectioners, etc., exercise
+callings that have a deleterious effect on the nervous centres and
+encourage an abuse of alcohol; others like bakers, have night work,
+which is equally harmful. Professions which bring poor men, servants,
+secretaries, cashiers, etc., into close contact with wealth, are
+sometimes the cause of dishonesty in those who in the absence of special
+temptations, would have remained upright; others provide criminaloids
+with opportunities or instruments for accomplishing some crime, as in
+the case of locksmiths, blacksmiths, soldiers, doctors, lawyers, etc.
+
+The time of the year and other circumstances under which the crime takes
+place should be elicited, and it should be borne in mind that the
+vintage season in countries of Southern Europe and extremes of heat and
+cold are favourable to seizures of an epileptic nature.
+
+When the subject under examination is a recidivist, care should be taken
+to ascertain at what age and under what circumstances the initial
+offence was committed. Precocity in crime is a characteristic of born
+criminals, and puberty and senility have their peculiar offences, as
+have the extremes of poverty and wealth.
+
+_Intelligence._ As we are not dealing with an ordinary patient, who is
+generally only too ready to talk about his troubles, but with an
+individual who has been put on his guard by constant cross-examination,
+his suspicions should first of all be allayed by a series of general
+questions on his native place or the town in which he is now living, his
+trade, etc. "Why did you leave your native town? Why do you not return?
+Are you married? How many children have you?" etc. Then an attempt
+should be made to gain an idea of his intellectual powers by asking easy
+questions: "How many shillings are there in a pound? How many hours are
+there in a day? In what year were you married?" etc.
+
+_Affection._ The affections should be tested in an indirect way. "Is
+your father a bad man?" or "Are your neighbours worthless people? Do
+they treat you with due respect? Has any one a spite against you? Are
+you fond of your parents? Are you aware that your brother (or mother) is
+seriously ill?" Questions concerning relatives and friends are of
+special interest, because they enable the examiner to ascertain whether
+they cause the patient emotion of any kind, whether he has any real
+affection for those beings to whom normal persons are attached, but
+towards whom born criminals and the insane in general do not manifest
+love. In the absence of instruments, we must judge of the feelings of
+patients by their answers and the facial changes caused by emotion, but
+medico-legal experts naturally prefer a scientific test by means of
+accurate instruments, by which the exact degree of emotion is
+registered. These instruments are the plethysmograph and the
+hydrosphygmograph.
+
+
+  =FIG. 28
+  Criminal's Ear=
+
+
+It is well known that any emotion which causes the heart-beats to
+quicken or become slower makes us blush or turn pale, and these
+vaso-motor phenomena are entirely beyond our control. If we plunge one
+of our hands into the volumetric tank invented by Francis Frank, the
+level of the liquid registered on the tube above will rise and fall at
+every pulsation, and besides these regular fluctuations, variations may
+be observed which correspond to every stimulation of the senses, every
+thought and above all, every emotion. The volumetric glove invented by
+Patrizi (see Fig. 25), an improvement on the above-mentioned instrument,
+is a still more practical and convenient apparatus. It consists of a
+large gutta-percha glove, which is put on the hand and hermetically
+sealed at the wrist by a mixture of mastic and vaseline. The glove is
+filled with air as the tank was with water. The greater or smaller
+pressure exercised on the air by the pulsations of blood in the veins of
+the hands reacts on the aerial column of an india-rubber tube, and this
+in its turn on Marey's tympanum (a small chamber half metal and half
+gutta-percha). This chamber supports a lever carrying an indicator,
+which rises and falls with the greater or slighter flow of blood in the
+hand. This lever registers the oscillations on a moving cylinder covered
+with smoked paper. If after talking to the patient on indifferent
+subjects, the examiner suddenly mentions persons, friends, or relatives,
+who interest him and cause him a certain amount of emotion, the curve
+registered on the revolving cylinder suddenly drops and rises rapidly,
+thus proving that he possesses natural affections. If, on the other
+hand, when alluding to relatives and their illnesses, or vice-versa, no
+corresponding movement is registered on the cylinder, it may be assumed
+that the patient does not possess much affection.
+
+
+  =FIG. 25
+  A VOLUMETRIC GLOVE
+  (see page 224)=
+
+
+  =FIG. 26
+  HEAD OF A CRIMINAL
+  Epileptic=
+
+
+Thus when Bianchi and Patrizi spoke to the notorious brigand Musolino
+about life in his native woods, his mother, and his sweetheart, there
+was an immediate alteration in the pulse, and the line registered by the
+plethysmograph suddenly changed, nor did it return to its previous level
+until some time afterward.
+
+My father sometimes made successful use of the plethysmograph to
+discover whether an accused person was guilty of the crime imputed to
+him, by mentioning it suddenly while his hands were in the
+plethysmograph or placing the photograph of the victim unexpectedly
+before his eyes.
+
+_Morbid Phenomena._ When examining a criminal or even a suspected
+person, who is nearly always more or less abnormal, it is advisable to
+investigate the more common morbid phenomena he may be subject to, on
+which he is not likely to give information spontaneously because he is
+ignorant of their importance. He should be questioned about his sleep,
+whether he has dreams, etc. Mental sufferers nearly always sleep badly
+and are frequently tormented by insomnia and hallucinations. The
+inebriate imagines he is being pursued by disgusting, misshapen
+creatures, from which he cannot escape. Epileptics, and frequently also
+hysterical persons have peculiar obsessions. They fancy they cannot
+perform certain actions unless they are preceded by certain words and
+gestures.
+
+The susceptibility of the patient to suggestion should also be tested,
+to determine what value can be attached to his assertions. Sufferers
+from hysteria and general paralysis are like children, highly
+susceptible to suggestion, not necessarily of an hypnotic nature. If you
+tell an hysterical person with conviction that he suffers pain in a
+certain part of his body, is feverish or pale or something of the sort,
+he will inform you spontaneously after a few minutes that he feels pain
+or fever, etc. After a crime of a startling nature has been committed by
+some unknown person, it not unfrequently happens that some hysterical
+subject, generally a youth, who imagines he has been accused of the
+crime by the neighbours or his acquaintances, becomes convinced that he
+is really guilty and gives himself up to the police.
+
+_Speech._ Special attention should be directed during the examination to
+the way in which the patient replies to questions and his mode of
+pronunciation. There may be peculiarities of pronunciation and
+stammering, characteristic of certain forms of mental alienation, or at
+any rate of some nervous anomaly; or articulation may be tremulous and
+forced, as in precocious dementia and chronic inebriety. In other cases
+the words are jumbled and confused, especially if long and difficult. In
+the first stages of progressive paralysis the letter _r_ is not
+pronounced. To test this anomaly, which is of great importance in the
+diagnosis, the patient should be requested to pronounce difficult words,
+such as, corroborate, reread, rewrite, etc.
+
+In order not to lose such valuable indications, in cases where personal
+examination is impossible, phonograph impressions of conversations
+between the patient and some third person will serve as a substitute.
+
+The inquiry may reveal still more serious anomalies in the ideas,
+intelligence, and mental condition of the patient. Sometimes the answers
+given are sensible but are followed by nonsense. Other patients,
+especially when afflicted with melancholia, speak unwillingly, as if the
+words were forced from them, one by one. Idiots, cretins, and demented
+persons are sometimes incapable of expressing themselves. Some patients
+who have had apoplectic strokes substitute one word for another,
+"bread" for "wine," etc., or elide one part of the sentence and only
+repeat the last word.
+
+_Memory._ To form an idea of the memory of the subject, questions should
+be put to him concerning recent and remote personal facts and
+circumstances, the year in which he or his children were born, what he
+had for his supper on the previous evening, etc., etc.
+
+_Visual memory_ may be tested by giving the patient a sheet of paper, on
+which are drawn various common objects, letters, or easy words. He
+should be allowed to look at these for five or ten seconds and requested
+to enumerate them after the paper has been withdrawn. In order to test
+the memory of sounds, the examiner should utter five or six easy words
+and ask the patient to repeat them immediately afterwards.
+
+To test sense of colour, a picture on which various colours are painted
+is placed before the patient, as well as a skein of wool of the same
+shade as one of the colours in the picture, which he is requested to
+point out.
+
+_Handwriting_ is very important, particularly in distinguishing a born
+criminal from a lunatic, and between the various kinds of mental
+alienation.
+
+Monomaniacs and mattoids (cranks) who give the police the most trouble
+often speak in a perfectly sane manner, but pour out all their insanity
+on paper, without an examination of which it is not easy to detect
+mental derangement. They write with rapidity and at great length. Their
+pockets, bags, etc., are always full of sheets of paper covered with
+small handwriting, sometimes scribbled in all directions. The matter is
+generally absurd or simply stupid, consisting of endless repetitions.
+
+Individuals in the first stage of paralysis make orthographical errors,
+which coincide with their mistakes in pronunciation, like _Garigaldi_,
+instead of _Garibaldi_. Care must be taken to test this defect
+thoroughly. If the patient is fairly well-educated, his signature, which
+is the last to alter, is not sufficient; nor are a few lines a
+satisfactory test, since he can easily concentrate his attention on
+them, but he should be requested to write a page or two and be exhorted
+to make haste.
+
+Alcoholism and paralysis generally give rise to tremulous handwriting
+with unsteady strokes, as in old people. After epileptic seizures and
+attacks of hysteria the writing is shaky. The slightest trembling of the
+hand is detected if Edison's electric pen be used.
+
+In progressive general paralysis and some forms of dementia shakiness is
+so excessive that it becomes dysgraphy, with zigzag letters. The
+handwriting of persons subject to apoplectic strokes has often the
+appearance of copper-plate. Monomaniacs intersperse their writings with
+illustrations and symbols. They write very closely in imitation of
+print, as do mattoids, hysterical persons, and megalomaniacs, and use
+many notes of exclamation and capital letters. Their writings are full
+of badly-spelled words, scrolls, and flourishes.
+
+Criminals guilty of sanguinary offences generally have a clumsy but
+energetic handwriting and cross their _t's_ with dashing strokes. The
+handwriting of thieves can scarcely be distinguished from that of
+ordinary persons, but the handwriting of swindlers is easier to
+recognise, as it generally lacks clearness although it preserves a
+certain uniformity. The signature is usually indecipherable and
+enveloped in an infinite number of arabesques.
+
+_Clothing._ The manner in which a patient is dressed often gives an
+exact indication of his individuality. Members of those secret
+organizations of Naples and Sicily, the Camorra and Mafia, are fond of
+dressing in a loud manner with an abundance of jewelry. Murderers,
+epileptics, and the morally insane, who lead isolated lives, attach no
+importance to dress and are frequently dirty and shabby. (See Fig. 26,
+A. D., a morally insane epileptic, the perpetrator of three murders.)
+Swindlers are always dressed in faultless style, the cin�dus is fond of
+giving his costume a feminine air, and monomaniacs trick themselves out
+with ribbons, decorations, and medals: their clothes are generally of a
+strange cut. The cretin and the idiot go about with their clothes torn
+and in disorder and not infrequently emit a strong odour of ammonia.
+
+
+PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
+
+Having carefully investigated the past history of the subject and made a
+minute study of his abnormal psychic phenomena, the expert should
+proceed to the examination of his physical characters.
+
+Chapter I of Part I contains a detailed description of the principal
+physiognomical anomalies of the criminal that may be discerned by the
+naked eye. They will now be briefly recapitulated.
+
+_Skin._ The skin frequently shows scars and (in the epileptic subject to
+seizures) lesions on the elbows and temples. Marks of wounds inflicted
+in quarrels and attempted suicide are frequent in habitual criminals.
+The forehead and nose must be examined for traces of acne rosacea
+frequent in drunkards, and for erythema on the back of the hands,
+characteristic of pellagra. Ichthyosis, psoriasis, or other skin
+diseases are very common in cases of mental alienation, and scurvy often
+indicates long seclusion in prison.
+
+_Tattooing._ Great care must be taken to ascertain whether the subject
+is tattooed, and if so, on what parts of his body. Tattooing often
+reveals obscenity, vindictiveness, cupidity, and other characteristics
+of the patient, besides furnishing his name or initials, that of his
+native town or village, and the symbol of the trade he refuses to reveal
+(sometimes such indications have been blurred or effaced). (See Fig. 27.)
+
+One of the chief proofs showing the untruthfulness of the statements
+made by the Tichborne claimant was the fact that his person was devoid
+of tattooing, whereas it was well known that Roger Tichborne had been
+tattooed.
+
+Tattooing often reveals the psychology, habits, and vices of the
+individual. The tattooing on pederasts usually consists of portraits of
+those with whom they have unnatural commerce, or phrases of an
+affectionate nature addressed to them. A pederast and forger examined by
+Professor Filippi was tattooed on his forearm with a sentimental
+declaration addressed to the object of his unnatural desires; a criminal
+convicted of rape was covered with pictorial representations of his
+obscene adventures. From these few instances, it is apparent that these
+personal decorations are of the utmost value as evidence of hidden vices
+and crimes.
+
+_Wrinkles._ We have already spoken of the abundance and precocity of
+wrinkles in born criminals. They are also a characteristic of the
+insane.
+
+The following are of special importance: the vertical and horizontal
+lines on the forehead, the oblique and triangular lines of the brows,
+the horizontal or circumflex lines at the root of the nose and the
+vertical and horizontal lines on the neck. (The ferocious leader of a
+band of criminals at twenty-five, and a savage murderer under thirty
+years of age.)
+
+_Beard._ The beard is scanty in born criminals and often altogether
+absent in epileptics. On the other hand, it is common in insane females
+and in normal women after the menopause. Degenerates of both sexes
+frequently manifest characteristics of the opposite sex in the
+distribution of hair on the body. A tuft of hair in the sacro-lumbar
+region, suggestive of the tail of the mythological faun, is frequently
+found in epileptics and idiots, and in some cases the back and breast
+are covered with thick down which makes them resemble animals.
+
+The hair covering the head is generally thick and dark, the growth is
+often abnormal with square or triangular zones growing in a different
+direction from the rest, or in small tufts like those inserted in a
+brush. Still more frequently do we find anomalies in the position of the
+vortex, or that point whence the hair-growth diverges circularly, which
+in normal persons is nearly always situated on the crown. In degenerates
+it is frequently on one side of the head and in cretins on the forehead.
+Precocious greyness and baldness are common in the insane criminals, and
+cretins, on the contrary, show these initial signs of senility at a much
+later period than normal persons.
+
+_Teeth._ The greatest percentage of anomalies is found in the incisors;
+next come the premolars, the molars, and lastly the canines. In
+criminals, especially if epileptics, the middle incisors of the upper
+jaw are sometimes missing and their absence is compensated by the
+excessive development of the lateral incisors. In other cases the
+lateral incisors are of the same size as the middle ones, and sometimes
+the teeth are so nearly uniform that it is difficult to distinguish
+between incisors, canines, and molars, a circumstance which recalls the
+homodontism of the lower vertebrates. After the incisors, the premolars
+show the greatest number of anomalies. While in normal persons they are
+smaller than the molars, in degenerates they are frequently of the same
+size or even larger. Supernumerary teeth, amounting sometimes to a
+double row, are not uncommon. In other cases there is extraordinary
+development of the canines. Inherited degeneracy from inebriate,
+syphilitic, or tuberculous parents frequently manifests itself in
+rickety teeth with longitudinal and transverse _stri�_ or serration of
+the edges, due to irregularities in the formation of the enamel. In
+idiots and epileptics, dentition is often backward and stunted; the
+milk-teeth are not replaced by others, or are almond-shaped and
+otherwise of abnormal aspect.
+
+_Ears._ The ears of criminals and epileptics exhibit a number of
+anomalies. They are sometimes of abnormal size or stand out from the
+face. Darwin's tubercle, which is like a point turned forward when the
+helix folds over, and turned backward when the helix is flat, is
+frequently encountered in the ears of degenerates. The lobe is subject
+to a great many anomalies, sometimes it is absent altogether, in some
+cases it adheres to the face or is of huge dimensions and square in
+shape. Sometimes the helix is prolonged so as to divide the concha in
+two. Idiots often show excessive development of the anti-helix, while
+the helix itself is reduced to a flattened strip.
+
+_Eyes._ The eyebrows are generally bushy in murderers and violators of
+women. Ptosis, a species of paralysis of the upper lid, which gives the
+eye a half-closed appearance, is common in all criminals; but more
+frequently we find strabismus, a want of parallelism in the visual axes,
+bichromatism of the iris, and rigidity of the pupils.
+
+_Nose._ In thieves the base of the nose often slants upwards, and this
+characteristic of rogues is so common in Italy that it has given rise to
+a number of proverbs. The nose is often twisted in epileptics, flattened
+and trilobate in cretins.
+
+_Jaws._ Enormous maxillary development is one of the most frequent
+anomalies in criminals and is related to the greater size of the zygom�
+and teeth. (See Fig. 27.) The lemurian apophysis already alluded to is
+not uncommon.
+
+_Chin._ This part of the face, which in Europeans is generally
+prominent, round and proportioned to the size of the face, in
+degenerates as in apes is frequently receding, flat, too long or too
+short.
+
+These anomalies may be studied rapidly with the naked eye, but height,
+weight, the proportions of the various parts of the body, shape of the
+skull, etc., should be measured with the aid of special instruments.
+
+_Height._ Criminals are rarely tall. Like all degenerates, they are
+under medium height. Imbeciles and idiots are remarkably undersized. The
+span of the arms, which in normal persons about equals the height, is
+often disproportionately wide in criminals. The hands are either
+exaggeratedly large or exaggeratedly small.
+
+
+  =FIG. 27
+  ANTON OTTO KRAUSER
+  Apache
+  (see page 236)=
+
+
+The height of a patient must be compared with the mean height of his
+fellow-countrymen, or, to be more exact, of those inhabitants of his
+native province or district who are, needless to say, of the same age
+and social condition. The average height of a male Italian of twenty is
+5 feet 4 inches (1.624 m.), that of a female of the same age, 5 feet
+(1.525 m.). The distances from the sole of the foot to the navel and
+from the navel to the top of the head are in ratio of 60 to 40, if the
+total height be taken as 100.
+
+
+  =FIG. 29
+  Anthropometer=
+
+
+These measurements may be effected very rapidly by using the
+tachyanthropometer invented by Anfossi (see Fig. 29). It consists of a
+vertical column against which the subject under examination places his
+shoulders, a horizontal bar adjustable vertically until it rests on the
+shoulders, and can be used at the same time for ascertaining the length
+of the arms and middle finger: a graduated sliding scale in the vertical
+column for rapid measurements of the other parts of the body and a
+couple of scales at the base for measuring the feet.
+
+_Weight._ In proportion to their height, criminals generally weigh less
+than normal individuals, whose weight in kilogrammes is given by the
+decimal figures of his height as expressed in metres and centimetres.
+
+
+  =FIG. 30
+  Craniograph Anfossi=
+
+
+_Head._ The head, or rather the skull, the shape of which is influenced
+by the cerebral mass it contains, is rarely free from anomalies, and for
+this reason the careful examination of this part is of the utmost
+importance. We have no means of studying subtle cranial alterations in
+the living subject, but we can ascertain the form and capacity of his
+skull. This is rendered easy and rapid by means of a very convenient
+craniograph invented by Anfossi (see Fig. 30), which traces the cranial
+profile on a piece of specially prepared cardboard.
+
+
+  =FIG. 31
+  Pelvimeter=
+
+
+In the absence of a craniometer, measurements may be taken with
+calipers, the arms of which are curved like the ordinary pelvimeters
+used in obstetrics (see Fig. 31), and a graduated steel tape.
+
+The following are the principal measurements:
+
+1. Maximum antero-posterior diameter, which is obtained by applying one
+arm of the instrument above the root of the nose just between the
+eyebrows and sliding the other arm over the vault of the skull till it
+reaches the occiput. The distance between the two arms furnishes the
+maximum longitudinal diameter.
+
+2. The maximum transverse diameter or breadth of the skull is measured
+by placing the arms of the calipers, one on each side of the head on the
+most prominent spot.
+
+3. The antero-posterior curve is obtained by fixing the graduated tape
+at zero on the root of the nose (on the fronto-nasal suture) and passing
+it over the middle of the forehead, vertex, and occiput to the external
+occipital protuberance.
+
+4. The transverse, or biauricular curve is obtained by applying the
+steel tape at zero to a point just above the ear, and carrying it over
+the head in a vertical direction till it reaches the corresponding point
+on the other side.
+
+5. The maximum circumference is obtained by encircling the head with the
+steel tape, touching the forehead immediately above the eyebrows, the
+occiput at the most prominent point, and the sides of the head more or
+less at the level, where the external ear joins the head, according to
+whether the position of the occipital protuberance is more or less
+elevated. (See Figs. 32, 33.)
+
+6. The cranial capacity is obtained by adding together these five
+measurements, the antero-posterior diameter, maximum transverse
+diameter, antero-posterior curve, transverse curve, and maximum
+circumference. For a normal male the capacity is generally 92 inches
+(1500 c.c).
+
+
+  =FIG. 32        FIG. 33
+  Diagram of Skull=
+
+
+7. The cephalic index is obtained by multiplying the maximum width by
+100 and dividing the product by the maximum length, according to the
+following formula:
+
+  W � 100
+  ------- = X (cephalic index).
+    L
+
+
+If the longitudinal diameter is 200 and the transverse diameter 100, the
+cephalic index is 10,000 divided by 200 = 50.
+
+The cephalic indices of degenerates, like their height, have only a
+relative importance; that is, when they are compared with the mean
+cephalic index prevalent in the regions of which the subject is a
+native. The cephalic index of Italians varies between 77.5 (Sardinians)
+and 85.9 (Piedmontese).
+
+Skulls are classified according to the cephalic index, in the following
+manner:
+
+  Hyperdolichocephalic  under  66
+  Dolichocephalic              66-75
+  Subdolichocephalic           75-77
+  Mesaticephalic               77-80
+  Subbrachycephalic            80-83
+  Brachycephalic               83-90
+  Hyperbrachycephalic   above  90
+
+
+We shall find among criminals frequent instances of microcephaly,
+macrocephaly, and asymmetry, one side of the head being larger than the
+other. Sometimes the skull is pointed in the bregmatic region
+(hypsicephaly), sometimes it is narrow in the frontal region in
+correlation to the insertion of the temporal muscles and the excessive
+development of the zygomatic arches (stenocrotaphy, see Fig. 5, Part I.,
+Chapter I.), or depression of the bregmatic region (cymbocephaly).
+
+_Face._ We have already remarked on the excessive size of the face
+compared with the brain-case, owing chiefly to the high cheek-bones,
+which are one of the most salient characteristics of criminals, and to
+the enormous development of the jaws, which gives them the appearance of
+ferocious animals (see Fig. 5). To these peculiarities may be added
+progeneismus, the projection of the lower jaw beyond the upper, a
+characteristic found only in 10% of normal persons, receding forehead as
+in apes, and the lemurian apophysis already mentioned.
+
+_Arms and Hands._ With the exception of the excessive length as compared
+with the stature, anomalies in the arms are rare, but the hands show
+some interesting characteristics, which have already been described in
+the first chapter of Part I, an increase or decrease in the number of
+fingers and syndactylism or palmate fingers. Also the lines in the palm
+and those on the palmar surfaces of the finger-tips show deviations from
+the normal type resembling characteristics of apes.
+
+_Feet._ Degenerates and more especially epileptics, frequently have flat
+or prehensile feet and an elongated big-toe with which, like the
+Japanese, they are able to grasp objects.
+
+All these anomalies vary in number and degree according to whether the
+subject examined is a born criminal or a criminaloid, and according,
+also, to the special type of crime to which he is addicted. Thieves
+commonly show great mobility of the face and hands. Their eyes are
+small, shifty and obliquely placed, and glance rapidly from one object
+to another. The eyebrows are bushy and close together, the nose twisted
+or flattened, beard scanty, hair not particularly abundant, forehead
+small and receding, and the ears standing out from the head. Projecting
+ears are common also to sexual offenders, who have glittering eyes,
+delicate physiognomy excepting the jaws, which are strongly developed,
+thick lips, swollen eyelids, abundant hair, and hoarse voices. They are
+often slight in build and hump-backed, sometimes half impotent and half
+insane, with malformation of the nose and reproductive organs. They
+frequently suffer from hernia and goitre and commit their first offences
+at an advanced age.
+
+The cin�dus is distinguished by his feminine air. He wears his hair long
+and plaited, and even in prison his clothing seems to retain its
+feminine aspect. The genitals are frequently atrophied, the skin
+glabrous, and gynecomastia not uncommon.
+
+The eyes of murderers are cold, glassy, immovable, and bloodshot, the
+nose aquiline, and always voluminous, the hair curly, abundant, and
+black. Strong jaws, long ears, broad cheek-bones, scanty beard, strongly
+developed canines, thin lips, frequent nystagmus and contractions on one
+side of the face, which bare the canines in a kind of menacing grin,
+are other characteristics of the assassin.
+
+Forgers and swindlers wear a singular, stereotyped expression of
+amiability on their pale faces, which appear incapable of blushing and
+assume only a more pallid hue under the stress of any emotion. They have
+small eyes, twisted and large noses, become bald and grey-haired at an
+early age, and often possess faces of a feminine cast.
+
+
+SENSIBILITY
+
+This external inspection of the criminal should be followed by a minute
+examination of his senses and sensibility.
+
+
+  =FIG. 34
+  Esthesiometer=
+
+
+_General Sensibility and Sensibility to Touch and Pain._ Tactile
+sensibility should be measured by Weber's esthesiometer, which consists
+of two pointed legs, one of which is fixed at the end of a scale
+graduated in millimetres, along which the other slides (see Fig. 34).
+After separating the two points three or four millimetres, they are
+placed on the finger-tips of the patient, who closes his eyes and is
+asked to state whether he feels two points or one. Normal individuals
+feel the points as two when they are only 2 mm. or 2.5 mm. apart; when,
+however, tactile sensibility is obtuse (as in most criminals) the points
+must be separated from 3 to 4.5 mm. or even more, before they are felt
+as two. Obtuseness varies with the type of crime committed habitually by
+the subject; in burglars, swindlers, and assaulters, being approximately
+double, while in violators, murderers, and incendiaries it stands in the
+ratio of 5 to 1 compared with normal persons.
+
+In the absence of an esthesiometer, a rough calculation may be made by
+using an ordinary drawing compass or even a hairpin, separating the two
+points and measuring with the eye the distance at which they are felt to
+be separate.
+
+_General Sensibility and Sensibility to Pain_ are measured by a common
+electric apparatus (Du Bois-Reymond), adapted by Lombroso for use as an
+algometer. (See Fig. 35.) It consists of an induction coil, put into
+action by a bichromate battery. The poles of the secondary coil are
+placed in contact with the back of the patient's hand and brought slowly
+up behind the index finger, when the strength of the induced current is
+increased until the patient feels a prickling sensation in the skin
+(general sensibility) and subsequently a sharp pain (sensibility to
+pain). The general sensibility of normal individuals is 40 and the
+sensibility to pain, 10-25: the sensibility of the criminal is much less
+acute and sometimes non-existent.
+
+_Sensibility to Pressure._ Various metal cubes of equal size but
+different weight, are placed two by two, one on each side, on different
+parts of the back of the hand. The patient is then asked to state which
+of any two weights is the lighter or heavier. This sense is fairly acute
+in criminals.
+
+_Sensibility to Heat._ Experiments are made by placing on the skin of
+the patient various receptacles filled with water at different
+temperatures. If great exactitude is desirable, Nothnagel's
+thermo-esthesiometer should be used. This is an instrument very similar
+to Weber's esthesiometer, but the points are replaced by receptacles
+filled with water of varying heat and furnished with thermometers. The
+patient must state which is the colder, and which the hotter spot.
+Sensibility to heat is less acute in criminals than in normal
+individuals.
+
+_Localisation of Sensibility._ After the patient has been requested to
+close his eyes, various parts of his body are touched with the finger
+and he is asked to point out the exact spot touched. Should he not be
+able to reach it with his finger, a statuette should be placed before
+him on which he should mark with a pencil the part touched. Normal
+persons are always able to localise the sensation exactly: inability to
+do so signifies disease of the brain or some kind of anomaly.
+
+_Sensibility to Metals_ is tested by placing discs of different metals,
+copper, zinc, lead, and gold, or the poles of a magnet, on the frontal
+and occipital parts of the patient's head. Sometimes he feels pricking
+or heat, giddiness, somnolence, or a sense of bodily well-being. In
+general, criminals show great sensibility to metals; in hysterical
+persons this sensibility reaches an extraordinary degree of acuteness.
+By applying a magnet to the nape of the neck, the sensations of such
+individuals become polarised, that is, what appeared white to them
+before becomes black; bitter, what was formerly sweet, or vice versa.
+This is an excellent way of distinguishing between bona-fide cases of
+hysteria and sham ones. My father once detected simulation in a
+_soi-disant_ hysterical patient by means of a piece of wood shaped and
+coloured to represent a magnet. On application of either magnet, the
+real or sham one, the patient's sensations were identical, whereas
+hysterical persons experience very diverse sensations and are able to
+distinguish very sharply between the contact, not only of wood and
+metal, but of the different kinds of metal, and are particularly
+sensitive to the magnet.
+
+
+  =FIG. 35
+  ALGOMETER
+  (see page 246)=
+
+  =FIG. 36
+  CAMPIMETER OF LANDOLT
+  (Modified)
+  (see page 249)=
+
+
+_Sight--Acuteness of Vision--Chromatic Sensibility--Field of Vision._
+Visual acuteness is tested by holding letters of a specified size at a
+certain distance. Sight is generally more acute in criminals than in
+normal persons; not so, chromatic sensibility, which is tested by giving
+the patient a number of skeins of different coloured silks, and
+requesting him to arrange them in series. Persons afflicted with
+dyschromatopsia confuse the different colours and the different shades
+of the same colour. Colour-blind people confuse black and red.
+
+Especially important is the examination of the field of vision, as the
+seat of one of the most serious anomalies discovered by the Modern
+School, the presence of peripheral scotoma, frequently found in
+epileptics and born criminals. To test this anomaly, use should be made
+of Landolt's apparatus (Fig. 36). This consists of a semicircular band,
+which can revolve around a column. The patient rests his chin on a
+support placed in front of the semicircle in such a manner that the eye
+under examination is exactly in the centre, and looks directly at the
+middle point of the semicircle, corresponding to 0 in the scale: the
+testing object, a small ball, is passed backwards or forwards along the
+semicircle. A graduated scale, placed on the semicircle, marks the point
+limiting the field of vision, and the result is registered on a diagram.
+The average limit of the normal field of vision is 90 mm. on the
+temporal side, 55 mm. on the nasal side, 55 mm. above and 60 mm. below
+(see Fig. 42). If a suitable instrument is not available, a series of
+concentric circles may be traced on a slate and the patient placed at a
+certain distance with one eye covered. The examiner then touches the
+different points of the circles with his hand and asks the patient
+whether he can see it when his eye is fixed on the central point. In
+this way the various points limiting the field of vision are noted and
+furnish, when united, the boundary line.
+
+
+  =FIG. 37
+  Diagram Showing Normal Vision=
+
+
+_Hearing_ is generally less acute in the criminal than in the normal
+individual, but does not show special anomalies. It may be tested by
+speaking in a low voice at a certain distance from the patient, or by
+holding an ordinary watch a little way from his ear.
+
+_Smell._ Olfactory acuteness is tested by solutions of essences of
+varying strength, which the patient should be requested to place in
+order, indicating the one in which he first detects an odour. Ottolenghi
+has invented a graduated osmometer which is easy to use. The criminal
+generally shows olfactory obtuseness.
+
+_Taste_ is tested in the same way as smell, by varying solutions of
+saccharine or strychnine dropped on to the patient's tongue by means of
+a special medicine dropper. The mouth should be rinsed out each time.
+Normal persons taste the bitterness of sulphate of strychnine in a
+solution 1:600,000; the sweetness of saccharine in a solution 1:100,000.
+The sense of taste is less acute in criminaloids than in normal persons,
+and is specially obtuse in born criminals, 33% of whom show complete
+obtuseness.
+
+_Movements._ Normal individuals in a state of repose remain almost
+motionless, and their gestures are always appropriate. Lunatics and
+imbeciles have a habit of speaking and gesticulating even when they are
+not interrogated. Nervous diseases manifest themselves in facial
+contortions or slight spasmodic contractions. In melancholia and all
+forms of depression, the patient does not gesticulate but remains
+immovable like a statue with his eyes cast down. Degenerates manifest a
+fairly varied series of involuntary motions,--twitchings of the muscles,
+as in chorea, tonic and clonic convulsions and tremors. In senility,
+chorea, and Parkinson's disease, the tremors are incessant and continue
+even when the body is in a state of repose; in sclerosis, goitre, and
+chronic inebriety they accompany voluntary movements, and in this case
+they are easily detected by making the patient lift the tip of his
+finger to his nose or a filled glass to his lips. The nearer the hand
+approaches its goal, the more intense the oscillations become. Above
+all, the examiner should not fail to ask the patient to put out his
+tongue. If it protrudes on one side, it is a sign of a serious nervous
+alteration and nearly always denotes the beginning or remains of
+paralysis, or partial apoplectic strokes.
+
+_Muscular Strength_ is measured by a common dynamometer (Fig. 38), which
+the patient is requested to grasp with all his might. Compressive
+strength is tested by compressing the oval. In order to test tractive
+strength, the dynamometer is fastened to a nail at the point C, and the
+patient pulls with all his strength at D. The effort is registered on a
+graduated scale and is of importance for detecting left-handedness and
+measuring the extraordinary force that is displayed in certain states of
+excitement.
+
+
+  =Fig. 38
+  Dynamometer=
+
+
+_Reflex Action_ consists of movements and contractions produced by an
+impression exciting the nerves of the cutis (cutaneous reflex) or
+tendons (tendinous reflex).
+
+_Cutaneous Reflex Movements_ may be tested by placing the patient in a
+recumbent position and stroking methodically certain parts of the body,
+the sole of the foot (plantar reflex), the under side of the knee-joint
+(popliteal reflex), the abdominal wall (abdominal reflex). Certain
+reflex movements are of special importance: the cremasteric reflex, on
+the inner side of the thigh (obtuse in old people and individuals
+addicted to onanism), the reflex action of the mucous membrane covering
+the cornea (suspended during stupor, coma, and epileptic convulsions),
+and the pharyngeal reflex along the isthmus of the fauces (absent in
+hysterical persons).
+
+The dilatation and contraction of the pupil in accommodation to the
+distance of the object viewed or in response to light stimuli is
+undoubtedly the most important cutaneous reflex movement. It may be
+tested by requesting the patient to look at a distant object and
+immediately afterwards at the examiner's finger, placed close to his
+eye, or bringing him suddenly from semi-darkness into the light. If the
+pupil reacts very slightly to the light, it is called torpid: if it does
+not react at all, it is called rigid. Rigidity of the pupil always
+denotes some serious nervous disturbance. In certain diseases,
+especially tabes, the pupils do not respond to light stimuli, but
+accommodate themselves to objects.
+
+_Tendinous Reflex Action_ may be tested in every part of the body, but
+the rotular reflex movement is generally sufficient. The patient is
+asked to sit on the edge of the bed or on a chair with his legs crossed.
+If he is healthy, the reflex movement is fairly strong, but in some
+illnesses spastic movements may be provoked and extend to the abdomen
+(exaggerated reflex action); in others no reflex is forthcoming. This is
+one of the first symptoms of tabes.
+
+
+  =FIG. 39
+  HEAD OF AN ITALIAN CRIMINAL=
+
+
+_Urine_ and _Feces_. As the functions are anomalous, the chemical
+changes must also be anomalous, owing to the correlation of organs. In
+born criminals there is a diminished excretion of nitrogen, whereas that
+of chlorides is normal. The elimination of phosphoric acid is increased,
+especially when compared with the nitrogen excreted. Pepton is sometimes
+found in the excretions of paralytic persons in whom there is always an
+increased elimination of phosphates and calcium carbonate.
+
+The temperature is generally higher than in normal persons, and, more
+important still, varies less in febrile illnesses.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For the reader's convenience, I have drawn up a list of the different
+points that should be noted in a careful examination.
+
+
+_Table showing the Anthropological Examination of Insane and Criminal
+Patients_ (_drawn up by Tamburini, Strassmann, Benelli, and Mario
+Carrara_).
+
+  A--_Anamnesis._ Name--surname--nationality--domicile--profession--
+  age--education.
+    Economic and hygienic conditions of native place.
+    Family circumstances--pre-natal conditions--infancy--puberty.
+    Causes to which decease of parents may be attributed.
+    Cases of insanity--neurosis--imbecility--perversity--suicide--crime--or
+  eccentricity in the family.
+    Progressive diseases or trauma in the subject.
+    Offence and causes thereof.
+
+  B--_Physique._ Skeletal development--height--span of the arms.
+
+  C--_Physical Examination._ Muscular development.
+    Colour of hair and eyes.
+    Quantity and distribution of hair.
+    Tattooing.
+    Craniometry: Antero-posterior diameter--transverse diameter--
+  antero-posterior curve--transverse curve--cephalic index--type and
+  anomalies of the skull--circumference--probable capacity--
+  semi-circumference (anterior, posterior)--forehead--face, length,
+  diameter (bizygomatic and bigoniac)--facial type--facial index--
+  anomalies of conformation and development in the skull, in the face,
+  in the ears, in the teeth, in other parts.
+
+  D--_Functions._
+
+  E--_Animal Life._ Sensibility: meteoric--tactile--thermal--dolorific and
+  muscular--visual--auditory--of the other senses.
+    Motivity: Sensory left-handedness--motory left-handedness--voluntary
+  and involuntary movements--reflex action (tendinous or muscular,
+  abnormal, chorea).
+
+  F--_Vegetative Life._ Muscular strength.
+    Circulation.
+    Respiration.
+    Thermo-genesis.
+    Digestion: Rumination--bulimy--vomiting--dyspepsia--constipation--
+  diarrhoea.
+    Secretions: Milk--saliva--perspiration--urine--menstruation.
+    Dyscrasia: poisoning.
+
+  G--_Psychic Examination._ Language--writing--slang.
+    Attention--perception.
+    Memory (textual)--reason.
+    Dreams--excitability--passions.
+    Sentiments: Affection--morality--religion.
+    Instincts and tendencies.
+    Moral character--industry.
+    Physiognomical expression.
+    Education--aptitudes.
+
+  H--_Morbid Phenomena._ Illusions--hallucinations--delusions--
+  susceptibility to suggestion.
+
+  I--_Offences._
+    Cause of first offence: Environment--occasion--spontaneous or
+  premeditated--drunkenness.
+    Conduct after the offence: Repentance--recidivation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+_SUMMARY OF THE CHIEF FORMS OF CRIMINALITY TO AID IN DISTINGUISHING
+BETWEEN CRIMINALS AND LUNATICS AND IN DETECTING SIMULATIONS OF INSANITY.
+A FEW CASES SHOWING THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY_
+
+
+The cases described in this chapter show the necessity of being able to
+estimate correctly accusations made against insane persons by criminals
+or normal individuals. Since, moreover, criminals are prone to sham
+insanity in order to avoid punishment, I sum up the characteristics that
+distinguish the various types of criminals. With regard to insane
+criminals, it must be remembered that every form of mental alienation
+assumes a specific criminality.
+
+The idiot is addicted to bursts of rage, savage assaults, and homicide.
+His unbridled sexual appetite prompts him to commit rape. He is
+sometimes guilty of arson in order to gratify a childish pleasure at the
+sight of the flames.
+
+The imbecile or weak-minded egotist is a frequent though unnecessary
+accomplice in nearly every crime, owing to his susceptibility to
+suggestion and incapability of understanding the gravity of his actions.
+
+Melancholia is often the cause of suicide or homicide (as a species of
+indirect suicide). The sufferer generally confesses and gives himself up
+to the police. Delusions that he is being poisoned or insulted are often
+the cause of the murders committed by this type of lunatic.
+
+Maniacs commit robbery, rape, homicide, and arson, and behave indecently
+in public.
+
+Stealing is common among those afflicted with general paralysis, who
+believe everything they see belongs to them, or do not understand the
+meaning of property.
+
+Dementia causes general cerebral irritation, which frequently results in
+murder and violence.
+
+Hysterical persons invent slanders, especially of an erotic nature. They
+are given to sexual aberrations and delight in fraud and extravagant
+actions to make themselves notorious.
+
+Persons subject to a mania for litigation offend statesmen and others.
+
+Epileptics, of whom born criminals and the morally insane are the most
+dangerous variety, are familiar with the whole scale of criminality.
+Their special offences are assault and battery, rape, theft, and
+forgery. The first offences are committed intermittingly at the
+prompting of attacks of cortical irritation, the last two almost
+continuously owing to a state of constant irritation.
+
+To distinguish between genuine insanity and simulation, it must be
+remembered that exaggeration of the symptoms is one of the chief
+characteristics of shamming. The simulator exaggerates the morbid
+phenomena and manifests a greater inco-ordination of ideas than does the
+genuine lunatic who gives sensible replies to simple questions, whereas
+the simulator talks nonsense. For instance, if a simulator is asked his
+name, his answer will show no connection with the question. He will say,
+perhaps: "Did you bring the bill?" or if asked how old he is, will
+answer: "I am not hungry."
+
+Above all, in order to distinguish between dementia, idiocy, cretinism,
+and an imitation of these forms, a minute somatic examination is
+necessary. It should be remarked that in idiots, imbeciles, and cretins
+we generally find hypertrophy of the connective tissues, earthen hue,
+scanty beard, _stenocrotaphy_, malformations of the skull, ears, teeth,
+face, and especially jaws, and there are invariably anomalies in the
+field of vision, lessened sensibility to touch and pain (which cannot
+be simulated since pain invariably produces dilatation of the pupils),
+meteoric sensibility, attacks of hemicrania, neuralgia, hallucinations,
+and even convulsions, epileptic fits, tremors disposing to propulsive
+forms, and, psychologically, absence of natural feeling, sadism, and the
+inability to adopt a regular occupation.
+
+When dealing with a simulation of epilepsy, it must be borne in mind
+that the epileptic always manifests salient degenerate characteristics,
+especially asymmetry of the face, skull, and thorax; and a careful
+investigation reveals neurosis of some kind in the family and trauma or
+serious illness in childhood. During the seizure, the pupil does not
+react (this cannot be simulated) or there is excessive mydriasis. The
+sudden pallor, and the exhaustion which follows the fit, are absent in
+the simulator, nor does he bite his tongue or injure himself in other
+ways. Furthermore, he reacts at the application of ammonia, and as he is
+not in that state of asphyxia in which the epileptic lies during the
+fit, the closing of his mouth and nostrils likewise produces a reaction.
+
+_Hysteria._ Here the detection of shamming is more difficult, since
+deceit is a characteristic of this disease. Tests with metals, to which
+hysterical persons are extremely sensitive, suggestion and hypnotism
+should be resorted to. The character of the crime should be specially
+considered, because, as we stated, the foundation of hysteria is an
+erotic one, and offences committed by the hysterical are nearly always
+of this nature in the means or the end.
+
+An examination of sensibility with suitable instruments, and of reflex
+action, is to be recommended in all cases.
+
+
+PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY
+
+The minute study of the criminal admits of infinite applications. It is
+generally used in deciding to which category of crime a particular
+offender belongs, whether he is a born criminal, a morally insane
+subject, an occasional criminal, or a criminaloid; but in certain cases
+the examination may be of value in establishing the innocence of an
+accused person, or in recognising in an accuser an insane individual
+whose accusation originates in some delusion and not in a knowledge of
+the facts.
+
+
+AN ACCUSED MAN PROVED INNOCENT BY THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXAMINATION
+
+On the 12th of January, 1902, a little girl of six, living at Turin,
+suddenly disappeared. Two months later, the corpse was discovered hidden
+in a case in a cellar of the very house the little victim had
+inhabited. It bore traces of criminal violence and the clothing was in
+disorder. Various persons were arrested, among them a coachman named
+Tosetti, who had been seen joking and playing with the child on several
+occasions.
+
+Tosetti was of honest extraction, his grandparents and parents having
+died at an advanced age (between sixty and ninety) without having
+manifested nervous anomalies, vices, or crimes. Tosetti himself,
+although fond of drinking, was rarely, if ever, intoxicated, and was an
+individual of quiet, peaceful aspect with a benevolent smile and
+serenity of look and countenance. His hair had become grey at an early
+age, and he was devoid of any degenerate characteristics except
+excessive maxillary development. [Height 5 feet, 7 inches (1.70 m.);
+weight, 158 lbs. (72 kilogrammes); cranial capacity, 93 inches (1531
+c.c.); cephalic index, 84 (brachycephaly; characteristic of the
+Piedmontese); tactile sensibility, 3 mm. left, 2.5 mm. right; general
+sensibility, 83 right, 78 left; sensibility to pain, 55 right, 45 left.
+The sensibility was, therefore, almost normal without any trace of
+left-handedness. Analysis of urine--absence of earthy phosphates common
+to born criminals. Tendinous reflex action feeble, few cutaneous
+reflexes, no tremors. The field of vision was not much reduced but
+manifested a few peculiarities, due no doubt to the abuse of alcohol.]
+
+Psychologically, Tosetti appeared to be a man of average or perhaps
+slightly less than average intelligence. He was quiet, very respectful,
+not to say servile, entirely devoid of impulsiveness of any form, and
+averse to quarrels, on which account he was rather despised by his
+companions. His natural affections were normal, and he was a good son
+and brother; he was excessively timid and disconcerted by the slightest
+reproof from his employer. He was rather fond of wine, though not of
+liquors. His sexual instincts he had lost very early, a fact which
+caused his companions to indulge in many jokes at his expense. His
+stinginess bordered on avarice, and he had never changed his trade.
+
+During his trial he showed no resentment against anyone, not even the
+police and warders, of whom he said on one occasion, "They have treated
+me like a son."
+
+The examination proved beyond a doubt that Tosetti was not a born
+criminal, and was incapable of committing the action of which he was
+suspected--the murder of a child for purely bestial pleasure.
+
+To obtain stronger proof, my father adopted the plethysmograph and found
+a slight diminution of the pulse when Tosetti was set to do a sum;
+when, however, skulls and portraits of children covered with wounds
+were placed before him, the line registered showed no sudden variation,
+not even at the sight of the little victim's photograph.
+
+The results of the foregoing examination proved conclusively that
+Tosetti was innocent of a crime which can only be committed by sadists,
+idiots, and the most degenerate types of madmen, like Vacher and Verzeni
+and all bestial criminals, who have reached the summit of criminality
+and unite in their persons the greatest number of morbid physical and
+psychic characteristics.
+
+A few months after my father had diagnosed this case, an assault of the
+same nature was committed on another little girl living in the same
+house. In this case, however, the victim survived and was able to point
+out the criminal--an imbecile, afflicted with goitre, stammering,
+strabismus, hydrocephaly, trochocephaly, and plagiocephaly, with arms of
+disproportionate length, the son and grandson of drunkards, who
+confessed the double crime and entreated pardon for the "trifling
+offence" since he had always done his duty and swept the staircase, even
+on the day he committed the crime.
+
+Other cases of this kind might be cited, but one instance will suffice.
+I may, however, mention a case in which my father demonstrated the
+innocence of an unfortunate individual who had been sentenced to ten
+years' penal servitude and released at the expiration of his sentence.
+By means of a thorough examination, which showed a complete absence of
+criminal characteristics, my father declared the man to be innocent of
+the crime for which he had been imprisoned; and subsequent
+investigations resulted in his rehabilitation and the discovery of the
+actual culprit.
+
+
+ACCUSATION PROVED TO BE FALSE BY THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXAMINATION
+
+An individual named Ferreri suddenly disappeared, and ten days later his
+corpse was found down a well. The evidence of several persons led to the
+arrest of the owner of the well, a certain Fissore, a man of very bad
+reputation, with whom Ferreri had been seen on the day of his
+disappearance.
+
+On being arrested, Fissore admitted having committed the crime, but not
+alone, and named as his accomplices three others, Martinengo, Boulan,
+and a prostitute, named Ada. All three strenuously denied their guilt.
+They all appeared perfectly normal.
+
+But after a month of investigations, Martinengo, a tipsy porter of
+thirty-five, the son and grandson of drunkards, who at first had
+advanced an alibi, after being confronted several times with Fissore,
+admitted his complicity, and in the latter's absence added various
+details to his (Fissore's) version.
+
+The four accused persons were examined anthropologically with the
+following results:
+
+Boulan had the appearance of an honest country notary with broad
+forehead, precocious grey hairs and baldness, small jaws and a
+well-shaped mouth. He was a quiet man and had only once come into
+conflict with the law, but for an action which is not a crime in the
+eyes of an anthropologist (striking a carabinier who had ill-treated his
+father). He worked hard at his trade, which was that of a journeyman
+baker, and showed his kindly nature by substituting for sick comrades.
+He showed great attachment to all his companions, relatives, and family,
+and was generally beloved. In short, he was an honest, hard-working man.
+His alibi was corroborated by several persons who had been playing cards
+with him on the evening of the crime.
+
+The second prisoner, Ada, although a prostitute, had never shown other
+criminal tendencies; she had adopted her calling in order to maintain
+her father and children, of whom she was very fond.
+
+Martinengo, who had admitted his complicity, had no previous
+convictions. He was, however, an individual of earthy hue, with
+precocious wrinkles. Height, 5 feet, 3 inches (1.60 m.); span of the
+arms, 5 feet, 7 inches (1.70 m.); flattened, nanocephalous head, normal
+urine (phosphates 3.1), but anomalous reflex action and senses. Rigid,
+unequal pupils, tongue and lips inclined towards the right, shaky hand,
+astasia, aphasia, strong rotular reflex action, absence of cutaneous and
+cremasteric reflexes, illegible handwriting--a defect of long standing,
+since it was also found in writing dating back nine months before his
+arrest, uncertainty and errors of pronunciation (bradyphasia and
+dysarthria), complete insensibility to touch and the electric current,
+which gave him no sensation of pain. On the other hand, he was subject
+to unbearable pains in various parts of the body.
+
+He was in the habit of laughing continually, even when reprimanded, or
+when sad subjects were mentioned. In spite of sharp pains in the
+epigastric region, he appeared to be in a strange state of euphoria or
+morbid bodily well-being, which prevented him from realising that he was
+in prison. He manifested regret when taken from his cell, where he said
+he had enjoyed himself so much in passing the hours in reading.
+Occasionally he had hallucinations of ghosts, lizards, mice, etc.
+
+At night, he seemed to suffer from acute mental confusion, which caused
+him to spring out of bed. Sometimes he was seized by a fit of chorea,
+followed by deep sleep.
+
+These phenomena led my father to the conclusion that Martinengo was an
+inebriate in the first stage of paralytical dementia.
+
+The demented paralytic and the imbecile, like children, are easily
+influenced by the suggestions of others or their own fancies. Mere
+reading may produce a strong impression on such minds, as in the case of
+the little girl who accused the Mayor of Gratz of assault, because she
+had listened to the account of a similar case; and the impression is
+intensified when, as in the case of Martinengo, it is preceded by
+arrest, seclusion in a cell, the remarks of magistrates, warders, etc.
+
+In order to test Martinengo's susceptibility to suggestion, my father
+told him that his cell was a room in the "Albergo del Sole," the name of
+a hotel in his native town. At first the idea amused him, but after a
+few days he began to mention it to other persons and at last he firmly
+believed in it. A few months later, he was transferred in a state of
+paralysis to the asylum, and there he was fond of boasting of the
+"Albergo del Sole" where he had been staying a few months before, and
+where they had treated him to choice dishes, etc.
+
+We now come to Fissore, the accuser of the other three. Investigation
+of his origin showed that a male cousin had died raving mad, a female
+cousin had died in an asylum, a great-uncle on the maternal side had
+been crazy and had committed suicide; another cousin was weak-minded and
+subject to fits; another, a deaf-mute, had died in an asylum; another
+great-uncle was a drunkard and a loafer; one sister was an idiot, the
+other had run away from home, and a brother had been convicted several
+times.
+
+Giuseppe Fissore had suffered from somnambulism and _pavor nocturnus_
+(fear of darkness) when quite a child; when a little older, he used to
+get up in the night, walk about and try to throw himself out of the
+window. At school he shunned the company of other boys and grew
+violently angry when called by his name. When ten years old, he was
+bitten by a mad dog and while being tended in Turin by the wife of an
+inn-keeper, had an epileptic seizure. At thirteen, he was seized by
+another fit, and in falling broke his arm. His restless and capricious
+character led him to change his occupation a great many times; he
+became, in turn, baker, carpenter, forester, and farm-labourer. He
+appeared to have little affection for his mother and still less for his
+father, with whom he had come to blows on one occasion. At the age of
+twenty, in a quarrel with some companions, one of them struck him with
+a sickle and fractured his skull. He had been convicted several times of
+theft, assault, etc.
+
+He manifested only a few physical anomalies,--exaggerated facial
+asymmetry, due to the disproportionate development of the left side of
+his skull, Carrara's lines in the palm of his hands, and a scar
+resulting from the fracture of his skull; but the convulsions, the
+_pavor nocturnus_, the two fits, and other characteristics showed him to
+be an epileptic and an abnormal individual, and explained how he could
+have accomplished a murder single-handed, which was moreover rendered
+more easy by the fact that the victim had been drinking heavily. Nor was
+the crime without a motive, since the murdered man had been robbed of a
+large sum of money. The total lack of moral sense that distinguished
+Fissore explains why he should have sought to implicate three persons
+who had never wronged him for the pleasure of harming and enjoying the
+sufferings of others. In fact, during his trial he made many false
+accusations against the police merely for the sake of lying, which is
+characteristic of degenerates.
+
+Irrefutable alibis and a mass of evidence in favour of the three others
+corroborated the anthropological diagnoses and led to their acquittal,
+while Fissore was convicted of the crime.
+
+
+SIMULATION OF DEMENTIA AND APHASIA BY MORALLY INSANE SUBJECT
+
+In August, 1899, a certain E. M. (see Fig. 44) was removed from prison
+to an asylum. Although only eighteen, he had been convicted several
+times of theft and robbery. As a child he had always shown a strong
+dislike to school and was given to inventing strange falsehoods. In one
+instance, he asserted that he had killed and robbed a man, although it
+was known that he had not left the house during the time.
+
+After six months in prison, he began to show signs of mental alienation,
+with insomnia, loss of speech, and coprophagy. Whenever the cells were
+opened, he made wild attempts to escape by climbing up the grating. He
+was often seized with epileptic convulsions.
+
+On the 30th of August, 1899, he was examined medically with the
+following results:
+
+Stature, 5 ft., 1 in. (1.55 m.); weight, 130 lbs. (59 kilogrammes).
+Other measurements could not be obtained, owing to the subject's
+obstinate resistance. His skeletal constitution appeared to be regular
+and his body well nourished. His skull was brachycephalic, with strongly
+developed frontal sinuses, and fine, long, dark-brown hair. In the
+parieto-occipital region were a scar and lesion of the bone, the marks
+of a wound received during one of his dishonest adventures. He had a
+normal type of face with frequent contractions of the mimic muscles; the
+hair-growth on the face scanty for his age. Extremely mobile eyes of
+vivacious expression, slight strabismus. An examination of the mouth
+showed a slight obliqueness of the palate, and the mucous membrane was
+rather pale. The colourless skin was inclined to sallowness.
+
+The functions showed an extraordinary degree of cutaneous an�sthesia and
+analgesia. In winter and summer the patient wore only a pair of trousers
+and a thin jersey covering his chest and leaving the arms bare; these he
+was fond of adorning with ribbons and medals. He was in the habit of
+slipping pieces of ice between his clothing and skin, and pricking
+himself on the chin with a needle for the purpose of inserting hairs in
+the holes. On one occasion, one of the doctors came quietly behind him
+and thrust a needle rather deeply into the nape of his neck, apparently
+without producing any sensation. Various tests were made by pricking him
+with a needle when asleep, but without causing the slightest reflex
+movement on his part.
+
+_Psychology._ He was subject to strange impulses, which appeared to be
+irresistible. On one occasion he was caught cutting off the head of a
+cat, and at times he would devour mice, spiders, nails, excrements, and
+the sputum of the other patients. He committed acts of self-abuse
+publicly, with ostentatious indecency; was in the habit of snatching at
+bright objects and frequently tore his clothes. His obstinate mutism
+procured him the nickname of "the mute," but he talked in his sleep and
+replied to questions by signs.
+
+At first, medical men judged him to be in the first stages of dementia,
+but the course of the symptoms and certain biological and psychic data
+obtained from the examination led them to the conclusion that the case
+was one of simulation by a morally insane individual.
+
+In the first place, the patient's look expressed a certain amount of
+confusion and constant distrust; furthermore, it was noticed that the
+filthy, indecent, and cruel acts practised by him were committed only
+when he knew he was being observed. The warders often saw him retire to
+a quiet spot and vomit all the nauseous substances he had swallowed
+publicly. As soon as he believed himself to be secure from observation,
+the usual apathetic look on his face was replaced by one of vivacity and
+intelligence.
+
+In November of the same year, although he had not discarded his air of
+imbecility, he gave abundant proofs of intelligence. He helped the
+asylum barber, and showed skill and neatness in the way he soaped the
+other patients' faces, but if a doctor appeared on the scene, he would
+daub the soap clumsily in their eyes and mouths. In playing cards he
+showed no lack of skill and never missed an opportunity of cheating.
+
+All these facts pointed to shamming, and the suspicions of medical men
+were amply confirmed by his escape on the 26th of November. The manner
+in which he had prepared and executed this plan showed great astuteness
+on his part. Some time before, he had completely changed his clothes and
+dressed with a certain amount of elegance. He left a note bidding an
+affectionate farewell to everyone. Later on, he confessed to a
+fellow-prisoner that he had prepared everything beforehand for his
+escape as soon as he should have sufficient money. He also asserted that
+he had felt pain when pricked.
+
+Some of the peculiarities manifested in this case, aphasia,
+insensibility, and coprophagia, have been noticed in other simulators,
+and it is easy to see why morally insane persons, who are naturally
+insensible and filthy in their habits, should adopt these peculiarities
+as traits of their insanity. The stubborn resistance offered by the
+subject to all attempts to apply diagnostic instruments, except those
+for measuring insensibility, may be explained by fear lest the
+simulation should be detected.
+
+Simulators of insanity are generally psycho-physiologically, and often
+anatomically, degenerate, and their inferiority obliges them to resort
+to violence and trickery--the traits of savage races--to counter-balance
+their natural disadvantages. The simulation of insanity resembles in its
+motive the mimicry of certain insects which assume a protective
+resemblance to other and noxious species. Naturally inferior individuals
+tend to imitate characters of a terrifying nature (psychic in this case)
+which serve to protect them and enable them to compete with others who
+are better equipped for the battle of life.
+
+
+MENTAL DERANGEMENT AND CRIMINAL MONOMANIA DEMONSTRATED BY THE
+ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXAMINATION
+
+In June, 1895, Michele Balmi, aged 30, was arrested for stabbing Maria
+Balmi in the neck and hands. The deed had been committed in broad
+daylight and apparently without any motive, but the accused asserted
+that it was done in revenge, because the girls were always jeering at
+him.
+
+From evidence given, it appeared that far from insulting Balmi, the
+girls of the village were in the habit of avoiding him as much as
+possible on account of his lubricity. The testimony of other witnesses,
+including the mayor of the place, showed that he was looked upon
+generally as a semi-insane person, because in a very short time he had
+squandered all his inheritance and had quite ceased to work.
+
+_Somatic Examination._ Body fairly well nourished, height 5 ft., 3 in.
+(1.60 m.), weight 150 lbs. (68 kilogrammes). Shape of the skull
+apparently normal but more exaggeratedly brachycephalic than the mean
+cephalic index of the Piedmontese, which is 85; probable capacity
+90 cu. in. (1475 c.c.), or slightly below that of a normal male skull,
+but proportioned to the low stature.
+
+General sensibility and sensibility to pain and touch more obtuse on the
+left, the general sensibility of the right hand being 68 and the left
+81. Dolorific sensibility, 35 right and 41 left; tactile sensibility,
+1.5 right, 3.5 left. The strength tested by the dynamometer showed 47 on
+the right and 54 on the left, which proved that the subject was
+left-handed.
+
+The field of vision manifested extraordinary irregularities, with
+serious scotoma on the inner side of the right eye; on the left side the
+eye showed only slight scotoma but there was myopia on the inner side.
+
+_Psychic Examination._ The behaviour of the subject was very strange.
+From the very first day of his imprisonment he seemed to be perfectly
+calm and composed, as though nothing had happened. When asked how he
+found prison life, he only remarked: "I certainly thought the food was
+better."
+
+When asked why he had committed the crime, he replied:
+
+"Crime indeed! I have only done my duty. Those women were always
+annoying me. Even in the night, they would come tapping at my window and
+calling me [acoustic hallucinations] and they insulted me because they
+wanted me to marry them."
+
+"Did they insult you during your absence from Italy?"
+
+"Yes, they worried me all the time I was in America. It was no use
+changing my occupation. I tried everything; first I was a musician, then
+a barber, then I tried weaving, but they went on just the same, until I
+lost my situations through them and had to leave the country."
+
+"Have you ever been insane or suffered from pains in the head?"
+
+"At Chicago, all of a sudden, a doctor called on me, but I have never
+been mad and should be all right if those women would leave me alone.
+After all, I only wanted to give them a lesson."
+
+He showed a profound and unshaken belief in his own assertions, such as
+is rare in simulators or in sufferers from melancholia, but is peculiar
+to monomaniacs, especially if subject to delusions and convinced that
+they are the object of general persecution.
+
+Careful investigation of the crime showed that it was entirely without
+motives and had been committed openly without any attempt to escape or
+to establish an alibi. It bore no resemblance to ordinary crimes and was
+clearly a case of monomania with hallucinations. This diagnosis was
+confirmed by the fact of the anomalies in the field of vision and
+sensibility, the acoustic hallucinations, and, psychologically, the
+anomalous nature of the affections and moral sense.
+
+It was impossible to suppose that any of these peculiarities had been
+simulated, because the subject was far too ignorant to be aware of the
+importance of hallucinations and alterations in the senses and
+affections. Moreover, his whole bearing was that of a man profoundly
+convinced that he had done his duty, and he had no motive for shamming
+to escape punishment, since it evidently never entered his head that he
+ran any risk of incurring it. He was sent to an asylum.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+
+WORKS OF CESARE LOMBROSO (BRIEFLY SUMMARISED)
+
+
+I
+
+_The Man of Genius (L'Uomo di Genio)_
+
+In 1863, my father was appointed to deliver a series of lectures on
+psychiatry to the University of Pavia. His introductory lecture, "Genius
+and Insanity," showed the close relationship existing between genius and
+insanity; and the theme proved so absorbingly interesting to him that he
+threw himself into the study of the problem with all the ardour of which
+he was capable.
+
+Those who have never come into contact with mentally deranged persons
+may deem it absurd to mention genius and insanity in the same breath,
+and still more absurd to seek to demonstrate the existence of flashes of
+inspiration in insane persons. In the minds of most people, the word
+_lunatic_ has from earliest childhood conjured up the vision of an
+incoherent, stupid, or demented being, with wildly streaming hair,
+raging in paroxysms of maniacal fury, or sunk in imbecile apathy; not,
+certainly, a sharp-witted individual capable of reasoning logically. But
+the briefest of visits to an ordinary asylum will make it plain to any
+observer that such extreme types form only a very small minority. The
+greater number, when drawn outside the small circle of their delusions,
+often reason with greater acumen than normal persons; and their ideas,
+unhampered by stale prejudices which hinder freedom of thought, are
+remarkable for their originality. Fine fragments of prose and poetry and
+really beautiful snatches of melody, the work of inmates of lunatic
+asylums, were collected by my father and published, as special
+monographs, in _The Man of Genius_; and his museum at Turin contains
+specimens of embroidery of marvellously beautiful design and execution,
+and carvings of extreme delicacy.
+
+The well-known cases of mathematical, musical, and artistic prodigies
+and somnambulists with prophetic gifts, who nevertheless appear to be
+perfectly imbecile apart from their special talents, are interesting
+examples of the transition from madness to genius. The solving of
+equations of the fourth and fifth degree or mental calculations
+involving the multiplication or division of a large number of figures,
+are difficult operations for normal persons; yet individuals barely able
+to read and write, and often afflicted with insanity or imbecility, have
+been known to possess marvellous mathematical faculties. Imualdi was a
+cretin, and Dase, Juller, Buxton, Mondeur, and Prolongeau, men of feeble
+intellect. Among the inmates of asylums, we may find cretins and idiots
+that are able to play on a whistle any melody they have heard. The
+drawings of cats, executed by a Norwegian cretin, have been deemed
+worthy of a place among the treasures of art-galleries and museums. Such
+cases prove that the possession of one highly developed faculty does not
+imply a corresponding development of all the intellectual powers.
+Unintelligent, unbalanced, or even mentally deficient women, when in a
+somnambulistic or hypnotic state, are able to predict future events, an
+impossible feat for normal persons, or to discover the whereabouts of
+objects hidden at a distance, a marvellous phenomenon, which can be
+explained only by presuming the existence of a far-seeing vision, and
+the working of a powerful synthetic process resembling the inspirations
+of genius.
+
+Although not a difficult task to prove the existence of traits of genius
+in mentally diseased persons, the bringing to light of instances of
+insanity in men of genius was a much simpler matter.
+
+These instances, carefully classified, form the longest and most
+important part of _The Man of Genius_, but it is not necessary to give
+space to any of these instances here. The proofs of the connection
+between genius and insanity were supplemented by data supplied by the
+physical examination of a number of geniuses, compared with insane
+subjects, and a careful investigation of the ethnical, social, and
+geographical causes which influence the formation of both types. All the
+facts elicited demonstrated their complete analogy.
+
+But my father's studies did not stop short at the discovery of this
+analogy, or that of the sources whence the diverse varieties of genius
+spring, which is perhaps the most interesting part of the book, or even
+at the application of the new doctrines for the purpose of clearing up
+obscure points in history and shedding light on the lives of great men.
+He pursued his investigations until he found the keystone of the edifice
+reared by insanity and genius--epilepsy.
+
+It is a well-known fact that a great many men of genius have suffered
+from epileptic seizures and a still greater number from those symptoms
+which we have shown to be the equivalent of the seizure. Julius C�sar,
+St. Paul, Mahomet, Petrarca, Swift, Peter the Great, Richelieu,
+Napoleon, Flaubert, Guerrazzi, De Musset, and Dostoyevsky were subject
+to fits of morbid rage; and Swift, Marlborough, Faraday, and Dickens
+suffered from vertigo.
+
+But it is in the descriptions written by men of genius of their methods
+of working and creating that we find the strongest resemblance to the
+different phenomena of epilepsy, which have already been described in
+detail in this work, in the part treating of the connection between
+epilepsy and crime. While writing his poems, Tasso appeared to be out of
+his senses; Alfieri felt everything go dark around him; Lagrange's pulse
+became irregular; Milton, Leibnitz, Cujas, Rossini, and Thomas could
+work only under special conditions. Others have encouraged inspiration
+by using those stimulants which provoke epileptic attacks. Baudelaire
+made use of hashish; and wine evoked the creative spirit in Gluck,
+Gerard de Nerval, Verlaine, De Musset, Hoffmann, Burns, Coleridge, Poe,
+Byron, Praga, and Carducci. Gluck was wont to declare that he valued
+money only because it enabled him to procure wine, and that he loved
+wine because it inspired him and transported him to the seventh heaven.
+Schiller was satisfied with cider; and Goethe could not work unless he
+felt the warmth of a ray of sunlight on his head. Many have asserted
+that their writings, inventions, and solutions of difficult problems
+have been done in a state of unconsciousness. Mozart confessed that he
+composed in his dreams, and Lamartine and Alfieri made similar
+statements. The _Henriade_ was suggested to Voltaire in a dream; Newton
+and Cardano solved the most difficult problems in a similar manner; and
+Mrs. Beecher Stowe, George Eliot, and George Sand asserted that their
+novels had been written in a dream-like state, and that they themselves
+were ignorant of the ultimate fate of their personages. In a preface to
+one of her books Mrs. Beecher Stowe even went to the length of denying
+her authorship. Socrates and Tolstoi declared that their works were
+written in a condition of semi-unconsciousness; Leopardi, that he
+followed an inspiration; and Dante described the source of his genius in
+those beautiful lines:
+
+                        "... quando
+  Amore spira, noto, ed a quel modo
+  Che detta dentro, vo significando."
+
+  "When love inspires, I write,
+  And put my thoughts as it dictates in me."
+
+
+"I call inspiration," says Beethoven, "that mysterious state during
+which the whole world seems to form one vast harmony, and all the forces
+of Nature become instruments, when every sentiment and thought resounds
+within me, a shudder thrills through my frame, and every hair on my
+head stands on end."
+
+These expressions show that when a genius attains to the fulness of his
+development and, consequently, to the widest possible deviation from the
+normal, he is more or less in that condition of unconsciousness which
+characterises psychic epilepsy and is represented by a series of
+unconscious psychic activities.
+
+Having demonstrated the frequent existence of a spice of insanity in the
+genius and flashes of genius in the insane, and, further, that geniuses
+are subject to a special form of insanity, my father, who was no mere
+theorist, but an admirer of facts and eager to turn them to account,
+considered next the possibility of making practical use of these
+discoveries. This he had no difficulty in doing.
+
+The prevalence of insanity in men of genius explained innumerable
+contradictions and mad traits in their lives and works, the true meaning
+of which had hitherto escaped biographers, who either ignored them
+altogether or covered reams of paper with vain attempts to represent
+them as inspirations or, at any rate, reasonable actions. It also
+explained the origin of some of the extraordinary errors committed by
+great men; for example, the absurdly contradictory actions of Cola di
+Rienzi, who, after making himself master of Rome when the city was in a
+state of chaos, restoring peace and order, reorganising the army and
+conceiving the vast idea of a united Italy, ended his patriotic mission
+with a series of extravagances worthy of a madhouse.
+
+The fact that traits of genius are so often found in mentally unsound
+persons and _vice versa_, permits us to suppose that lunatics have not
+infrequently held the destinies of nations in their hands and furthered
+progress by revolutionary movements, of which by reason of their natural
+tendencies and marked originality they are so often the promoters.
+
+It may seem a simple idea to class great men, who have exercised such an
+enormous influence on civilisation, with wretched beings, to whom no
+brilliant part has been allotted, and to estimate mad ideas at their
+true worth; yet it had never occurred to any one before.
+
+It is in the minor works of geniuses that the greater number of
+absurdities abound, but they are little known to the general public, who
+are acquainted only with the masterpieces. Critics either ignored the
+absurdities and heresies contained in these works, or, dazzled by the
+genius of the author, made them the subject of infinite studies, in the
+conviction that they were merely allusions or symbols demanding
+interpretation. All the defects of great men, all the extravagant
+notions written or spoken by them were covered with the magic veil of
+glory; and there was no innocent little child, as in Andersen's charming
+story, to tell the world of the nakedness of geniuses.
+
+Thus idiocy, epilepsy and genius, crimes and sublime deeds were forged
+into one single chain; and the brilliant lights of some of its links,
+and the gloomy shadows thrown by others, were reduced to a play of
+molecules, like those which transform carbon into a refulgent diamond or
+a sombre lump of graphite.
+
+
+II
+
+_Criminal Man (L'Uomo Delinquente) considered in relation to
+Anthropology, Jurisprudence, and Psychiatry_
+
+Although my father's theories on the male criminal have already been set
+forth in the volume now presented to the public, I feel that it would
+not be inappropriate to add to the descriptions of his other important
+works a brief survey of the original book for the use of readers
+desirous of studying the subject more thoroughly.
+
+The first volume is devoted to an investigation of the atavistic origin
+of crime among plants, animals, savages, and children. This is followed
+by an exhaustive study of the physical nature of the born criminal and
+the epileptic, modern craniology, the anomalies connected with the
+different classes of offences, the spine, pelvis, limbs, and
+physiognomy. The data given are based on the results obtained from the
+examination of about 7000 criminals.
+
+In the study of the brain, the macroscopic anomalies in the convolutions
+and histological structure of the cerebral cortex of criminals and
+epileptics are the object of special consideration, since these
+anomalies solve the problem of the origin of criminality.
+
+Certain additional degenerate characters, the prehensile foot, wrinkles,
+lines on the finger-tips, the ethmoid-lachrymal suture, anomalies of
+dentition, the existence of a single horizontal line on the palm of the
+hand, etc., are further described, and a careful examination made of the
+field of vision and olfactory and auditory sensibility.
+
+The psychological examination of the criminal includes psychometry, the
+discovery of new characteristics, such as neophily, lack of exactitude,
+frequent existence of traits of genius, pictography, hieroglyphics,
+gestures, and the arts and crafts peculiar to the criminal.
+
+Finally, the different types of offenders--epileptic and morally insane
+criminals, political and passionate offenders, inebriate, hysterical,
+and mentally unbalanced (mattoid) criminals--are described separately
+and compared with each other, their diversities and analogies being
+thrown into relief. Around these types are grouped juridical figures of
+crimes, reproduced from psychiatric forms. These are followed by an
+examination of occasional or pseudo-criminals, criminaloids, latent
+criminals, and geniuses.
+
+The second volume treats of epileptics, and discusses, among other
+things, their ergography, psychology, graphology, and anomalies of the
+field of vision. The studies on criminals of passion are supplemented by
+observations on suicides and political offenders, those on the insane
+include investigations of their age, psychology, sex, tattooing,
+heredity, and the difference between insane and ordinary criminals with
+respect to the motives that prompt their crimes, and the manner in which
+these are carried out, thus furnishing a new theory of sexual
+psychopathy.
+
+The third volume of the fifth edition treats of the etiology and cure of
+crime.
+
+In the part dealing with the etiology of crime, the geological,
+ethnical, political, and economical factors determining or influencing
+criminality, as well as other causes,--density of population, food,
+alcoholism, sex, heredity, instruction, religion, etc., are examined
+statistically and sifted with critical care. For the first time, light
+is thrown on the influence exercised by criminality and wealth on the
+increase or decrease of emigration.
+
+My father demonstrates by means of data, contributed for the most part
+by Bodio and Cognetti, that the importance attributed to poverty as a
+factor of criminality, especially by certain socialistic schools, has
+been largely exaggerated; while, at the same time, the fact that both
+wealth and education have their specific crimes, has been ignored by
+these schools.
+
+In dealing with collective criminality, my father merely repeats the
+original theories on the subject, expressed by him in 1872 and
+constantly confirmed since then. These theories have been utilised and
+illustrated by a number of writers: Ferri, Sighele, Ferrero, Le Bon, and
+Tarde.
+
+In the prophylaxis and cure of crime, not content with mere criticism of
+present methods, the new doctrines suggest practical and efficacious
+means of repressing crime.
+
+In view of the fact that criminality is assuming a changed aspect,
+adapted to the conditions of modern life and civilisation, it should be
+combated by the very means furnished by progress,--the telegraph, press,
+all measures for fighting alcoholism, popular places of recreation, etc.
+
+For the prevention of crime, besides those measures designed to minimise
+the influence of physical and economic factors,--baths, sanitary
+regulations, clearing of forests, prevention of over-crowding, social
+legislation, limitation of wealth, graduated system of taxation,
+collective services, expropriation, etc.,--my father suggests special
+measures for diminishing certain kinds of crime,--divorce for sexual
+offences, affiliation orders for infanticide and government of a truly
+liberal character, with freedom of the press and public opinion to
+combat political crime. He also emphasises the importance of provident
+and charitable institutions, specially for orphan and destitute
+children, to aid in suffocating germs of criminality, in view of the
+fact that it is to ragged schools and similar institutions that the
+decrease of crime in England is certainly due.
+
+Finally, with regard to the direct repression of crime, the new methods
+of identification devised by Bertillon and Anfosso, and all modern aids
+for the detection and apprehension of criminals, such as rapid
+communication and publicity, should be utilised in all countries where
+the police aspire to be considered scientific in their methods.
+
+A minute and intelligent individualisation of penalties is suggested as
+being far more efficacious than the uniform and injurious punishment of
+detention in prison; so that while society defends itself, it tends to
+improve the perverted faculties of criminals, or where improvement is
+impossible, to utilise them in their natural state, following the
+example set by nature in the transformation of injurious parasitical
+relationships into pacific and mutually beneficial symbioses.
+
+
+III
+
+_The Female Offender (La Donna Delinquente); The Prostitute and the
+Normal Woman_
+
+(In Collaboration with Guglielmo Ferrero)
+
+The first part of this book is devoted to a study of the normal woman,
+or rather the female of every species, beginning with the lowest strata
+of the zo�logical world and working upwards through the higher mammals
+and primitive human races to civilised peoples.
+
+As a result of this study, it is shown that although in the lower
+species, the female is the superior in intelligence, strength, and
+longevity, among the higher mammals she is surpassed in strength,
+intelligence, and beauty by the male, who is developed and perfected by
+the struggle for the possession of the female; while on the other hand,
+owing to her maternal functions, the female tends to a perpetuation of
+her physical and psychic characters; and this prevents variation and
+evolution.
+
+The same phenomenon is encountered in the human race. After a careful
+examination of the normal woman (height, weight, brain, nervous system,
+hair, senses, physiognomy, and intellectual and moral manifestations),
+the authors arrived at the conclusion that the physical, anatomical,
+physiological, functional, and sensory characters of the female show a
+lower degree of variability than those of the male.
+
+In the same way, cases of monstrosity, degeneration, epilepsy, and
+insanity are less frequent in the female of the human race; and the
+percentage of genius and criminality is decidedly lower. The examination
+of the senses showed that the normal human female possesses a lower
+degree of tactile, olfactory, auditory, and visual sensibility than the
+male, and also, contrary to the hitherto accepted opinion, a diminished
+moral and dolorific sensibility. Among savage peoples, the female
+appears to be less sensitive,--that is, more cruel than the male and
+more inclined to vindictiveness.
+
+But when we consider woman from the point of view of her maternal
+functions, her physiological, psychological, and intellectual nature
+assumes an entirely changed aspect; for maternity is the natural
+function of the female, the end to which she has been created. Lofty
+sentiments, complete altruism, and far-sighted intelligence develop all
+of a sudden when she becomes a mother. Maternity neutralises her moral
+and physical inferiority, pity extinguishes cruelty, and maternal love
+counteracts sexual indifference. Maternity stimulates her intelligence
+and sharpens her senses, explains and exalts those characteristics which
+have hitherto constituted her inferiority until they become signs of
+superiority when considered from the point of view of the reproduction
+of the species.
+
+A lessened sensibility enables woman to bear with greater ease the pains
+inherent to childbirth; her refractoriness to all kinds of
+variation--also that of a degenerate nature--serves to correct morbid
+heredity and to bring back the race, which owes its continuation to her,
+to its normal state.
+
+Women commit fewer crimes than men; and offenders of the female sex,
+generally speaking, exhibit fewer degenerate characteristics. This is
+due in part to the tenacity with which the female adheres to normality,
+but also to the deviation caused in her criminality by prostitution. The
+history of this social phenomenon, and an examination of the anatomy and
+functions of the types representing this variation of criminality show
+that the prostitute generally exhibits a greater number of degenerate
+and criminal characters than the ordinary female offender.
+
+Prostitution is therefore the feminine equivalent of criminality in the
+male, because it satisfies the desire for licence, idleness, and
+indecency, characteristic of the criminal nature.
+
+In addition to prostitutes and ordinary offenders, who constitute the
+larger part of female criminality, there exists a small number of born
+criminals of the female sex, who are more ferocious and terrible even
+than the male criminal of the same type. The criminality of this class
+of women develops on the same foundation of epilepsy and moral insanity.
+The physical characters are those peculiar to the male born
+criminal--projecting ears, strabismus, anomalies of dentition, and
+abnormal conformation of the skull, brain, etc.; in addition, an absence
+of feminine traits. In voice, structure of the pelvis, distribution of
+hair, etc., she tends to resemble the opposite sex and to lose all the
+instincts peculiar to her own.
+
+From this brief description it may be gathered that this work on the
+female offender owes much of its interest to the light it throws on the
+normal woman. It is true that it casts doubt on many of the postulates
+of feminism; but, on the other hand, it lays stress on and exalts the
+many invaluable qualities characteristic of the female sex.
+
+The preface to the work concludes with the following remarks:
+
+"Not one of the conclusions drawn from the history and examination of
+woman can justify the tyranny of which she has been and is still a
+victim, from the laws of savage peoples, which forbade her to eat meat
+and the flesh of the cocoanut, to those modern restrictions, which shut
+her out from the advantages of higher education and prevent her from
+exercising certain professions for which she is qualified. These
+ridiculous, cruel, and tyrannical prohibitions have certainly been
+largely instrumental in maintaining or, worse still, increasing her
+present state of inferiority and permitting her exploitation by the
+other sex. The very praises, not always sincere, alas, heaped on the
+docile victim, are often intended more as a preparation for further
+sacrifices than as an honour or reward."
+
+
+IV
+
+_Political Crime (Delitto Politico)_
+
+(In Collaboration with Rodolfo Laschi)
+
+The law of inertia governs nature. Every organism tends to adhere
+indefinitely to the same mode of life and will not change unless forced
+to do so.
+
+In the depths of the ocean, where existence, comparatively speaking, is
+uniform and undisturbed, we still find organisms allied to the species
+of pre-historic epochs. Those stars and suns, which are outside the
+sphere of action of other worlds, continue eternally their vertiginous
+gyrations in the trajectories assigned to them at the beginning of all
+things.
+
+Every progress in nature is the result of a struggle between the
+tendency to immobility, manifested by misoneism, or the hatred of
+novelty, and a foreign force which seeks to conquer this tendency.
+
+As in nature, misoneism dominates every human community. It is most
+invincible in children and neuropathic and insane individuals, very
+powerful among barbarous peoples, and more or less disguised among
+civilised nations. But the world progresses: every day new conditions
+and new interests arise to combat the law of inertia and render
+impossible the realisation of the much-desired invariability; and
+progress, unwelcome yet inevitable, prevails.
+
+By political crime we understand every action which attacks the laws,
+the historical, economical, political and social traditions of a nation
+or, in fact, any part of the existing social fabric, and which comes
+into collision with the law of inertia.
+
+Any attempt to obtain forcibly a change in existing systems, to enforce
+by violence, for instance, the claims of free trade in a protectionist
+country, to plunge a nation into war or to incite workers to strike--all
+such actions represent the first steps in political crime, which reaches
+its climax in revolts and insurrections, and which victory alone can
+exalt above a host of blameworthy and base deeds, and crown with glory.
+
+Revolution is the struggle between the tendency to immobility innate in
+a community, and the force which urges it to move. Revolution is the
+historical expression of evolution and has always great and sublime ends
+in view. It is the struggle against an institution or a system which
+hinders the progress of a nation, never against any temporary
+oppression, no matter how unbearable it may be. The French revolution
+was not a struggle against an individual king or even a dynasty, but
+against the institutions of monarchy and feudalism; nor was Lutheranism
+a revolt against any pope, but against the corruption that had invaded
+the Roman Catholic Church. The Italian revolution was not directed
+against foreign rule, which indeed was mild and generous in some parts
+of the country, but it voiced an imperious demand for independence
+indispensable to every people that desires to become truly civilised.
+
+A revolution is therefore a slow, constant effort towards progress,
+preceded by propaganda. In some instances, it may last for years; in
+others, for centuries, until an entire nation, from the humblest citizen
+to the most wealthy patrician, is convinced of the necessity of the
+proposed change, and the habitual misoneism of the masses overcome, the
+existing order of things being defended by only a few, whose personal
+interests are bound up in the old system. The ultimate triumph is
+inevitable, even when the leaders of the movement perish and the first
+risings are suffocated in blood; nay, death and martyrdom serve only to
+kindle greater enthusiasm for an ideal, if it be worthy to live. This
+becomes apparent when we consider the impulse given to Christianity by
+the crucifixion of its Leader, and to Italian independence by the death
+of the two brothers, Emilio and Attilio Bandiera.
+
+But bloody episodes are not always essential to the march of a
+revolution. The triumph of Hungary over Austria was almost a bloodless
+one, and that of Free Trade in England was effected practically without
+violence.
+
+Since a revolution implies a change in the ideas of the masses and not
+of a minority, be this of the elect or merely of turbulent spirits,
+revolutions are rare occurrences in history and their effects are
+lasting. In fact, after the death of Cromwell, feudalism was extinct in
+England.
+
+Like the pear which falls in autumn when the process of ripening has
+caused the gradual reabsorption of the juices in the stalk, revolution
+triumphs and the ancient system perishes when an entire people is
+persuaded of the necessity for a change. The fall of the pear, however,
+is not always the result of a slow physiological process, but may be
+caused by a gust of wind, which dashes it to the ground before the pulp
+has developed the sweet juices that are the sign of its maturity. In the
+same way, a revolt or an armed rising of men, whose demands are enforced
+by threats, may result in the carrying into effect of some programme of
+reform which is nevertheless too progressive or reactionary, or
+otherwise unsuited to the country.
+
+In fact, nearly every revolution is preceded by an insurrection, which
+is suppressed by violence, because it seeks to realise premature ideals,
+and on this account is frequently followed by a counter-revolution,
+provoked by reactionary elements.
+
+Unlike revolutions, insurrections are always the work of a minority,
+inspired by an excessive love or hatred of change, who seek forcibly to
+establish systems or ideas rejected by the majority. Unlike revolutions,
+also, they may break out for mere temporary causes--a famine, a tax, the
+tyranny of some official, which suddenly disturbs the tranquil march of
+daily life; in many cases they may languish and die without outside
+interference.
+
+In practice, however, it is extremely difficult to distinguish a revolt
+from a revolution since the results alone determine its nature, victory
+being the proof that the ideas have permeated the whole mass of the
+people.
+
+Political offenders, insurrectionists, and revolutionists are the men
+who seize the standard of progress and contest every inch of the ground
+with the masses, who naturally incline towards a dislike of a new order
+of things. The army of progress is recruited from all ranks and
+conditions--men of genius, intellectual spirits who are the first to
+realise the defects of the old system and to conceive a new one,
+synthesising the needs and aspirations of the people; lunatics,
+enthusiastic propagandists of the new ideas, which they spread with all
+the impetuous ardour characteristic of unbalanced minds; criminals, the
+natural enemies of order, who flock to the standard of revolt and bring
+to it their special gifts, audacity and contempt of death. These latter
+types accomplish the work of destruction which inevitably accompanies
+every revolution: they are the faithful and unerring arm ready to carry
+out the ideas that others conceive but lack the courage to execute.
+
+Finally, there are the saints, the men who live solely for high purposes
+and to whom the revolution is a veritable apostolate. They rank high
+above the mass of mankind, from whom they are frequently distinguished
+by a singular beauty of countenance, recalling ancient paintings of holy
+men. They are consumed by a passion for altruism and self-immolation,
+and experience a strange delight in martyrdom for their ideals. These
+men sweep the masses along with them and lead to victory with their
+propaganda, their inspired songs, and thrilling accents. Tyrt�us was not
+the only poet who led soldiers to war: every insurrection has had its
+own songs, in which the love of a whole people is crystallised.
+
+Lunatics, unbalanced individuals, and saints are the promoters of
+progress and revolutions. These types have one thing in common--their
+passionate devotion to a sublime ideal and their love for humanity,
+which torments and crushes them in every case where they fail to attain
+that for which they have fought. But whether victorious or defeated, on
+the throne or on the scaffold, their efforts are not lost. Love is the
+spiritual sun of mankind. A ray shed by a human heart may spread far and
+wide, traversing unknown regions and sojourning with unknown races; and
+if powerless to revive some timid flower that has been numbed by the
+chilly night, it may still be stored up in the songs of a people, like
+the sunlight in green plants, to be retransformed at some future time
+into light and warmth.
+
+
+V
+
+_Too Soon! (Troppo Presto!)_
+
+(A Criticism of the New Italian Penal Code)
+
+In this book, which was written during the interval between the
+publication of the new Penal Code and its sanction by the Italian
+Parliament, my father makes a rapid criticism of the Code, which he
+considered premature. Only a few decades had elapsed since the
+proclamation of Italian Unity; and the widely differing races that
+people the provinces constituting the kingdom of Italy had not been able
+in that brief period to acquire sufficient uniformity of customs to make
+a single code of laws desirable.
+
+But the book is not merely a criticism. It also contains an exposition
+of the fundamental principles that, according to my father, should
+underlie every serious and efficacious code of laws. It is this part
+that makes this somewhat hastily written book of such importance to
+criminologists; because it sets forth under the chief heads the
+juridical desiderata of the New School.
+
+The following brief extract gives an indication of the nature of these
+principles:
+
+1. The legislation of a country should always be regulated by the
+customs of the people whom it is to govern; and although a system of
+different penal codes to suit the varying races and customs in the
+different regions of one State may offer certain disadvantages, they are
+always of less importance than the difficulties caused by a uniform
+code.
+
+2. The object of every code should be the attainment of social safety,
+not the careful weighing of guilt and individual responsibility. The
+worst and most dangerous criminals should be treated with the greatest
+severity; but indulgence should be shown towards minor offenders. The
+former should be segregated for life in prisons or asylums; the latter
+should never be allowed to become acquainted with prison life, but
+should be corrected by means of other penalties, which would not bring
+them into contact with true criminals, nor necessitate their temporary
+retirement from civil life.
+
+3. Certain reprehensible actions (abortion, infanticide, suicide or
+complicity therein, passionate crimes, duelling, swearing, adultery,
+etc.), which are not considered criminal by the general public, should
+be non-criminal in the eyes of the law.
+
+4. Born criminals, the morally insane, and hopeless recidivists, whose
+first convictions are not followed by any signs of improvement, should
+be regarded as incurable and confined for life in criminal lunatic
+asylums, relegated to penal colonies, or condemned to death.
+
+A second edition of this book was published shortly afterwards with the
+title _Notes on the New Penal Code_. In this edition, each of the most
+notable adherents of the new doctrines: Ferri, Garofalo, Ballestrini,
+Rossi, Mas� Dari, Carelli, Caragnani, and others, discussed one special
+point of the code and suggested the necessary modifications.
+
+
+VI
+
+_Prison Palimpsests_ (_I Palimsesti del Carcere_)
+
+(A Collection of Prison Inscriptions for the Use of Criminologists)
+
+"Ordinary individuals, and even scientific observers, are apt to regard
+prisons, especially those in which the cellular system prevails, as mute
+and paralytical organisms, deprived of speech and action, because
+silence and immobility have been imposed on them by law. Since, however,
+no decree, even when backed up by physical force, avails against the
+nature of things, these organisms speak and act, and sometimes manifest
+themselves in brutal assaults and murders; but as always happens when
+human needs come into conflict with laws, all these manifestations are
+made in hidden and subterranean ways. Walls, drinking-vessels, planks of
+the prisoners' beds, margins of books, medicine wrappers, and even the
+unstable sands of the exercise-grounds, and the uniform in which the
+prisoner is garbed, supply him with a surface on which to imprint his
+thoughts and feelings."
+
+With this paragraph my father begins the introduction to his book
+_Prison Palimpsests_, a collection of inscriptions and documents
+revealing the inmost thoughts of prisoners.
+
+In the first part, these inscriptions are classified under different
+headings: opinions on prison life, penalties, morality, women, etc., and
+according to the surface on which they are inscribed--books, walls,
+pitchers, clothing, paper, etc.
+
+For the psychologist and the student of degenerate types of humanity,
+this collection is of the greatest interest. The inscriptions are
+followed by a series of poems, autobiographies, and letters written by
+intending suicides, and criminals immediately before their execution.
+The comments made by criminals on the margins of books belonging to the
+prison library are especially interesting, because they enable the
+student to compare the effect produced on criminals by certain works
+with the impressions of normal individuals. The poems written by
+prisoners are equally interesting, since, like popular songs, they
+represent the intimate expression of the poet's desires and aspirations.
+
+In the second part, these prison inscriptions are compared with the
+remarks commonly found scribbled in the streets, on school benches, and
+on the walls of public buildings of all kinds--courts of justice, places
+of worship, and even those edifices in which the legislation of the
+State is framed. All the inscriptions are classified according to the
+sentiments they express and the sex of the writer, distinction being
+made between the writings of prisoners and those of the ordinary public.
+
+The book closes with practical suggestions regarding the use to which
+similar collections might be put, as critical hints on the present
+methods of dealing with criminals and as an aid in investigating the
+characters of accused persons.
+
+All offenders, except the most degenerate types, born criminals or the
+morally insane, desire work or occupation of some kind, and books of an
+interesting character. This demand emanates from innumerable
+inscriptions on the walls of cells and the margins of prison books: "How
+unbearable is enforced idleness for a man who has always been
+accustomed to work and study, and in whom activity and the desire of
+some ennobling pursuit are not quite extinct!" ... "The nun of Cracow
+cried, 'Bread, bread!' but my voice pleads from my solitary cell, 'Work,
+work!'"
+
+"If jurists would leave their desks and libraries," says my father in
+conclusion, "put aside all pre-conceived notions, enter the prisons and
+study the problem of criminality not on the walls of the cells, but on
+the living documents they enclose, they would speedily realise that all
+reforms evolved and applied without the aid of practical experience are
+only dangerous illusions."
+
+
+VII
+
+_Ancient and Modern Crimes_ (_Delitti Vecchi e Delitti Nuovi_)
+
+"This volume contains a collection of facts, sometimes valuable, at
+other times merely curious, that I was able to glean during long years
+of study in the field of criminal anthropology and psychiatry. They all
+tend to show the great difference that exists between ancient and modern
+crimes."
+
+With these words my father begins the preface to this book, in which
+cases of recent crimes are described and compared with those committed
+in by-gone ages.
+
+It is divided into three parts. The first part contains a comparative
+and statistical study of criminality in Europe, Mexico, the United
+States, and Australia.
+
+The second part describes the careers of typical criminals of former
+times, such as the Tozzis of Rome, a family of anthropophagous
+criminals, and Vacher, Ballor, and other assassins of the
+Jack-the-Ripper type, whose perverted sexual instincts prompted them to
+murder a number of women and mutilate the corpses in a horrible fashion.
+
+The third part treats of those modern criminals, like Holmes and Peace,
+who accomplish their misdeeds in a refined and elegant manner,
+substituting for the more brutal knife or hammer, the resources of
+chemistry, physics, and modern toxicology. In other cases, some product
+of modern times, such as the motor-car or bicycle, forms the motive for
+the crime, or is of assistance in its accomplishment.
+
+"From the data we have been able to gather relating to crime in by-gone
+ages," continues my father in his preface, "we are led to conclude that
+crimes of a violent and bloody nature predominated exclusively in more
+barbarous times, and that fraudulent offences are characteristic of
+modern communities. Violence is more primitive than trickery and must
+always precede it, exactly as a more barbarous state in which property
+is gained or maintained by force, at the point of the sword, precedes a
+state in which ownership is regulated by means of contracts; and crime
+always adapts itself to the prevailing customs.
+
+"The admirable work of Coghlan shows criminality in Australia to be of
+this latter type, as contrasted with its semi-barbarous nature in states
+like Mexico, and gives us a picture of the character it will assume a
+century or two later in Europe.
+
+"As the fundamental nature of the criminal has not changed, his actions
+are still of the same character; and violence and cunning are mingled or
+alternate in modern crime. But though the individual remains unchanged,
+he is subordinated to a more powerful factor than himself--modern
+progress. It is true that many modern crimes are facilitated by modern
+contrivances; but the same contrivances often furnish means for their
+defeat; and so we may foresee a time, perhaps not very remote, when such
+anti-social elements shall partially, if not totally, have disappeared."
+
+
+VIII
+
+_Diagnostic Methods of Legal Psychiatry_ (_La Perizia Psichiatrica
+Legale_)
+
+This work was not intended to introduce the doctrines of modern
+criminology to the general public, but as a text-book for the guidance
+of jurists, doctors, experts--in short, all those whose professions
+bring them, into contact with criminals.
+
+It consists of two parts, the first of which contains about fifty cases
+diagnosed according to the new methods, and collected by the author of
+the work and his followers. These cases include all types of
+delinquents: born criminals, morally insane individuals, hysterical,
+insane, inebriate, and epileptic criminals, criminaloids, criminals of
+passion, etc.
+
+In each case, as the diagnosis was intended to serve a practical
+purpose, the criminal is examined physically, psychologically, and
+psychiatrically; and his antecedents are investigated with great care.
+
+In the second part, "The Technical Aspect of Criminal Anthropology," a
+detailed description is given of the methods to be employed in the
+examination of a supposed criminal, the rules for determining to what
+class he belongs, the manner in which the physical examination should be
+conducted, a list of the necessary measurements, a description of the
+most suitable apparatus, and the mode of using them, the methods of
+procedure in the interrogation of a criminal, in order to elicit useful
+information, and instructions for analysing his intellectual
+manifestations (handwriting, drawing, and work), movements, attitude,
+and gestures.
+
+Thanks to the methodical instruction imparted by this book, the
+inexperienced student is enabled to progress gradually until he is in a
+position to conduct a complete psychiatric and medico-legal examination.
+
+The third part treats of the methods for discriminating between
+criminals and lunatics. The various forms of mental alienation are
+described in detail; and an examination of cases of feigned insanity
+shows that simulators of lunacy are generally mentally unsound.
+
+In the concluding part are discussed the various uses to which a careful
+diagnosis may be applied.
+
+The Appendix contains studies on the application of mental tests in
+medico-legal practice, and a glossary, alphabetically arranged, of the
+terms commonly employed in criminal anthropology, compiled by Dr.
+Legiardi-Laura.
+
+
+IX
+
+_Anarchists_ (_Gli Anarchici_)
+
+The book opens with an examination of the theories of anarchists, from
+which the author arrives at the conclusion that in view of the
+importance generally conceded to economic ideals to-day and the
+universal abuse of power, these theories in reality are not so absurd as
+they are supposed to be. It is the methods adopted by anarchists for the
+realisation of their ideals that are both absurd and dangerous.
+
+"However valuable many of the proposals of anarchism may be," says the
+author, "they become absurd in practice; because all reforms should be
+introduced very gradually in order to escape the inevitable reaction
+which neutralises all previous efforts."
+
+The crimes of anarchists tend to mingle with ordinary crimes when
+certain dreamers attempt to reach their goal by any means
+possible--theft, or the murder of a few, often innocent, persons. It is
+easy to realise, therefore, why, with a few exceptions, anarchists are
+recruited from among ordinary criminals, lunatics, and insane criminals.
+Investigations made by the author showed that 12 per cent. of the
+communards were of a criminal type, and this percentage was still higher
+in anarchists (31 per cent.). Of forty-five anarchists examined at
+Chicago, 40 per cent. had faces of a criminal cast. The majority of
+anarchists possess the passions and vices peculiar to ordinary
+criminals: impulsiveness, love of orgies, lack of natural affections and
+moral sense; and similar intellectual manifestations, such as slang,
+ballads, tattooing, hieroglyphics. But there are a greater number of
+genuine epileptic and hysterical subjects, lunatics, and indirect
+suicides among anarchists than among ordinary criminals; greater, too,
+is the proportion of criminals from passion. These truly heroic
+natures, profoundly convinced that the remedy for so many social evils
+lies in the murder of certain personages of high standing, who appear to
+bear the greatest share of responsibility for the existing system, do
+not hesitate to have recourse to violence when they deem it necessary;
+although it is distasteful to them and although they have hitherto
+disassociated themselves from the excesses of their companions. The
+anarchists Caserio and Bresci were of this type. The crimes of these
+passionate criminals are always accomplished single-handed; they always
+surrender to the police immediately afterwards and make no attempt to
+defend themselves. On the contrary, when in court, they frequently give
+a lucid explanation of the motives that have induced them to commit
+their crimes and affront the penalty with stoicism.
+
+Such being the origin, and such the promoters of anarchism, it is
+evident that the methods for curing crimes deriving from this source
+should differ greatly from those used in suppressing ordinary crime.
+
+In spite of the fact that anarchists are frequently criminals, their
+ideas, although often absurd, imply a greater elevation of character
+than the cynical apathy in which the worst types of criminals are sunk.
+
+Instead of combating violence by violence and dealing out death
+sentences with a prodigality almost rivalling that of anarchists
+themselves, the authorities should segregate the most dangerous types or
+relegate them to distant islands, and adopt exile as a penalty for
+genuine criminals of passion. However, political liberty and some
+safety-valve, whereby lawless instincts may be turned into harmless
+channels, are the best methods for preventing anarchism. Constitutional
+government and freedom of speech and the press may go a long way towards
+combating anarchism; but the restoration of popular tribunates, like
+those to which Rome owed her balance and tranquillity, would be still
+more efficacious. If the governing bodies were to favour, instead of
+hindering, the formation of such institutions, which tend to spring up
+everywhere and to voice the grievances of the people, just causes would
+not be abandoned exclusively to the advocacy of extremists.
+
+
+X
+
+_Lectures on Legal Medicine_ (_Lezioni di Medicina Legale_)
+
+This book, as the preface explains, was an attempt to present in a
+concise and popular form the theories of criminal anthropologists, on
+which the author had previously delivered a series of university
+lectures, and which he feared might have been erroneously or imperfectly
+understood by those of his hearers who were diffident or insufficiently
+prepared.
+
+It is divided into three parts, criminal anthropology, mental
+alienation, and the relation of serious offences (assault, murder,
+poisoning, etc.) to legal medicine.
+
+The first part contains a summing-up of the author's ideas on the
+atavistic and pathological origin of the criminal. He examines the
+equivalents of crime among plants, animals, savages, and children,
+describes the pathological causes which call forth atavistic instincts
+and alludes to other special kinds of degeneration peculiar to
+criminals. Finally, the anatomy, functions, and internal organs of the
+criminal are examined, and a careful study made of his intellectual
+manifestations and psychology. Similar studies on epileptics and the
+morally insane show that the three forms are only variations of the same
+degeneration.
+
+We have an examination of occasional, habitual, and latent criminals,
+who represent an attenuated type of delinquency, following on the
+investigations of these serious forms, admitting of correction,
+prevention, or cure. It develops much later in life than the vicious
+propensities of instinctive criminals or may even remain latent; yet at
+the root we always find the same anatomical and pathological anomalies,
+although less marked and fewer in number.
+
+The origin of passionate and political criminals is entirely diverse.
+Their criminality springs from an excess of noble passions, the
+impetuosity of which prevents them from exercising sober judgment and
+urges them to unpremeditated actions that afterwards cause them the
+deepest remorse.
+
+After a rapid survey of feminine criminality and its equivalent,
+prostitution, the author discusses juridical and social methods of
+curing crime.
+
+In the second part, mental alienation in relation to legal medicine, the
+author examines the anthropological and psychic characters of lunacy,
+which he divides into various classes: congenital mental alienation
+(cretinism, idiocy, imbecility, eccentricity); acquired mental
+alienation (mania, melancholia, paranoia, circular insanity, dementia);
+mental alienation in conjunction with neurosis (epilepsy, hysteria,
+progressive general paralysis); alienation resulting from toxic
+influences (alcoholism, including forms produced by indulgence in
+absinthe and coca, saturnine encephalopathy, pellagra). An investigation
+is made into the etiology of these various forms with special reference
+to their juridical importance.
+
+The third part is devoted exclusively to medico-legal questions, to an
+examination of the various forms of violent death: by heat, electricity,
+starvation, hanging, strangulation, asphyxia, and poisoning, the
+symptoms which distinguish each type being carefully defined. This is
+followed by a study on wounds produced by firearms, pointed weapons or
+blades, on living and dead bodies, in order to determine the exact
+situation of the wound and the manner in which it has been inflicted.
+Finally, we have an examination of the different forms of poisoning.
+
+A separate lecture treats of sexual psychopathy and offences against
+morality; and other lectures discuss questions of legal obstetrics:
+abortion, infanticide, and matrimonial questions.
+
+
+XI
+
+_Recent Discoveries in Psychiatry and Criminal Anthropology and the
+Practical Application of these Sciences_
+
+This volume was published in 1893. It contains a complete summary of the
+latest research of criminologists in jurisprudence, psychiatry, and
+anthropology, during the interval between the publication of the fifth
+and that of the last edition of Prof. Lombroso's _Criminal Man_.
+
+The research includes anthropological discoveries in the skull,
+skeleton, internal organs, and brains of criminals, as well as others of
+a biological and functional nature. They are followed by a study of the
+methods to be employed for the cure and punishment of crime.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE CHIEF WORKS OF CESARE LOMBROSO
+
+
+Archivio di Psichiatria, antropologia criminale e scienze affini
+(Archives of Psychiatry, Criminal Anthropology and Kindred Sciences).
+Thirty-two volumes. Published by Fratelli Bocca, Turin and Lausanne.
+
+L'Uomo Delinquente (Criminal Man). Fifth Edition. Vols. I, II and III of
+xxxv + 650, 576, and 677 pages respectively, with separate volume of
+plates, maps, etc. Bocca, Turin, 1906, 1907.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     L'Hommea criminel. Vols. I and II published 1895, Vol. III (Le
+     crime, ses causes et rem�des) 1907, by F. Alcan, Paris.
+
+     Die Ursachen und Bek�mpfung des Verbrechens. Bermuheler Verlag,
+     Berlin, 1902.
+
+     El Delito, sus causas y remedios. Librer�a de Victoriano Su�rez,
+     Madrid, 1902.
+
+
+La Donna Delinquente, la prostituta e la donna normale. (With Guglielmo
+Ferrero.) New Edition. Bocca, Turin, 1903.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Das Weib als Verbrecherin und Prostitute. Verlagsanstalt und
+     Druckerei, Hamburg, 1894.
+
+     The Female Offender. Fisher Unwin, London, 1895.
+
+
+Il Delitto Politico e le Rivoluzioni. (With R. Laschi.) Bocca, Turin,
+1890.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Das politische Verbrechen und die Revolutionen. Two vols. 1890.
+
+     Le Crime politique. Two vols. F�lix Alcan, Paris, 1890.
+
+
+Le piu recenti scoperte ed applicazioni della psichiatria ed
+antropologia criminale. Bocca, Turin, 1893.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Neue Fortschritte in den Verbrecherstudien. Wilhelm Friedrich,
+     Leipzig. 1894.
+
+     Neue Fortschritte der kriminellen Anthropologie. Marhold, Halle,
+     1908.
+
+     Neue Verbrecherstudien. Marhold, Halle, 1908.
+
+     Nouvelles recherches de Psychiatrie et d'Anthropologie criminelle.
+     Alcan, Paris, 1890.
+
+
+Gli anarchici. Bocca, Turin, 1894.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Die Anarchisten. Verlagsanstalt und Druckerei, Hamburg, 1895.
+
+     Les Anarchistes. E. Flammarion, Paris, 1896.
+
+
+La Perizia psichiatrico-legale. Bocca, Turin, 1905.
+
+Lezioni di Medicina legale. Bocca, Turin, 1900.
+
+Troppo Presto: Appunti al nuovo codice penale. Bocca, Turin, 1888.
+
+Palimsesti del carcere. Bocca, Turin, 1888.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Kerker Palimpsesten. Hamburg, 1899.
+
+     Les Palimpsestes des prisons. Stock, Lyon.
+
+
+La Delinquenza e la rivoluzione francese. Treves, Milan, 1897.
+
+Criminal Anthropology. (Twentieth Century Practice of Medicine, Vol.
+XII, pp. 372-433.) New York, 1897.
+
+Luccheni e l'antropologia criminale. Bocca, Turin, 1899.
+
+Il caso Olivo. (With A. G. Bianchi.) Libreria Editrice Internazionale,
+Milan, 1905.
+
+Ricerche sui fenomeni ipnotici e spiritici. Unione Tip. Edit. Turin,
+1909.
+
+L'Uomo di genio. Sixth Edition. Bocca, Turin, 1894.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     L'Homme de g�nie. Alcan, Paris, 1889.
+
+     The Man of Genius. Walter Scott, London, 1891.
+
+
+Genio e degenerazione. Second Edition. Remo Sandron, Palermo, 1908.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Entartung und Genie. Wiegand, Leipzig, 1894.
+
+
+Nuovi studi sul genio. Two vols. Sandron, Palermo, 1902.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Neue Studien �ber Genialit�t (Schmidt's Jahrb�cher der gesammten
+     Medizin, 1907).
+
+
+Pazzi e anormali. Lapi, Citta di Castello, 1890.
+
+In Calabria. Niccolo Giannotta, Catania, Sicily, 1898.
+
+L'Antisemitismo e le scienze moderne. Roux, Turin, 1894.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Der Antisemitismus und die Juden. Wiegand's Verlag, Leipzig, 1894.
+
+     L'Antis�mitisme. Giard et Bri�re, Paris, 1899.
+
+
+Probl�mes du jour. Flammarion, Paris, 1906.
+
+Il momento attuale in Italia. Casa Editrice Nazionale, Milan, 1905.
+
+Grafologia. Ulrich Hoepli, Milan, 1895.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Graphologie. Reclam, Leipzig.
+
+
+Trattato profilattico e clinico della pellagra. Bocca, Turin, 1890.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Die Lehre von der Pellagra. Oscar Coblenz, Berlin, 1898.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  A
+
+  Affection for animals, 62, 63
+
+  Affections, of born criminals, 27
+    in children, 133
+    examination of, 222-225
+
+  Age and crime, 102, 151, 152
+
+  Akkas, tribe of Central Africa, 15
+
+  Alcoholism, and hallucinations, 30, 82-84
+    chronic, 81, 142-143
+    physical characteristics, 81, 82
+    psychic disturbances caused by, 82-84
+    results of, 83
+    apathy and impulsiveness of victims, 84, 85
+    crimes peculiarly due to, 85, 142
+    course of the disease, 86
+    hereditary, 138
+    important factor in criminality, 138, 141
+    temporary, 141-142
+    and epilepsy, 142
+    effect on handwriting, 229
+
+  Algometer, 25, 246
+
+  Anfossi's tachyanthropometer, 237
+    craniograph, 239
+
+  Angelucci (_Actes du Congr�s d' Anthropologie_), case of epileptic moral
+  insanity, 69
+
+  Anomalies, of criminals, 7, 10-24, 231-235
+    of morally insane, 53
+
+  Anthropology, criminal, defined, 5
+    most important discovery of, 137
+    practical application of, 262-279
+
+  Aphasia, simulation of, 272 _ff._, 275
+
+  Arson, 121
+
+  Arts and industries of criminals, 44, 135
+
+  Assaulters, 25
+
+  Asylums for criminal insane, 205-208
+
+  Asymmetry, 13, 53, 242, 261
+
+  Atavism, 18, 135, 136
+
+  Atavistic origin of the criminal, 8, 9, 19, 48, 135
+
+  Australia, probation system in, 189, 191
+
+  Austria, percentage of illegitimates among criminals, 144
+    percentage of women among criminals, 151
+
+  Auto-illusion, 108, 109
+
+  Aymaras, the, an Indian tribe of South America, 6
+
+  Azara, d' (_Travels in America_, 1835), 126
+
+  Azeglio, Massimo d' (_Reminiscences_), 148
+
+
+  B
+
+  Bain, 130
+
+  Ballv�, Se�or, director of Penitenciario Nacional of Buenos Ayres, 201
+
+  Bank of Rome case, 106, 107
+
+  Barnardo, Dr., work for orphans and destitute children of London, 158-160
+
+  Beccaria, Cesare, founder of Classical School of Penal Jurisprudence, 3,
+  4
+
+  Bedlam, 207
+
+  Belgian Government, agricultural colony founded at Meseplas by, 202
+
+  Belgium, probation system in, 191
+
+  Bernard, experiments with dogs, 60
+
+  Blasio, de, explanation of hieroglyphics of the Camorristi, 43, 44
+
+  Booth, General, 156, 157
+
+  Born criminals, 3-51
+    percentage of, among criminals, 8, 100
+    physical characteristics, 10-24, 231-255
+    sensory and functional peculiarities, 24-27
+    affections and passions, 27, 28
+    moral characteristics, 28-40
+    intelligence, 41
+    relation to moral insanity and epilepsy, 58-73, 87, 259
+    professional characteristics, 71
+    difference between epileptics and, 72
+    no criminal scale among, 152
+    institutions for, 205 _ff._
+
+  Bosco and Rice (_Les Homicides aux Etats-Unis_), on crime in
+  Massachusetts, 173
+
+  Brigands, 35, 113-115, 215
+
+  Broadmoor, 207, 208
+
+  Brockway, 192
+
+  B�chner, on instincts in bees and ants, 142
+
+  Burglars, 25
+
+  Burton (_First Footsteps in East Africa_), 128
+
+
+  C
+
+  Cabred, Professor, 203, 204
+
+  Camorra, 44, 48, 117, 230
+
+  Camorristi, hieroglyphics of, 43, 44
+    dress, 230
+
+  Canada, homes for destitute children, 160
+
+  Capital punishment, 208, 209
+
+  Carrara, Francesco, 4
+
+  Carrara, Prof. Mario, on neglected children, 130
+
+  Cephalic index, 10, 241
+
+  Children, destructive tendency, 65
+    instincts, 130 _ff._
+    affection, 133
+    effect of environment on, 144
+    institutions for destitute, 156 _ff._
+    methods of dealing with, 176 _ff._
+    susceptibility to suggestion, 226
+
+  Children's courts. _See_ Juvenile courts
+
+  Cin�dus, 231, 244
+
+  Classical School of Penal Jurisprudence, 4, 9
+
+  Classification of criminals, 8
+
+  Colour-blindness, 26, 249
+
+  Confession of criminaloids, 105
+
+  Connon, Richard, 53
+
+  Coprophagia, 274, 275
+
+  Corporal punishment, 191
+
+  Cretins, physical characteristics, 227, 234, 236, 260
+    dress, 231
+
+  Crime, origin of the word, 125
+    among primitive races, 125 _ff._
+    in civilised communities, 134
+    atavistic origin, 135, 136, 137
+    �tiology of, 136
+    pathological origin, 137
+    organic factors, 137
+    percentage of, among Jews, 140
+    social causes, 143
+    prevention, 153 _ff._
+    curability, 153, 156
+
+  Criminal, the, defined, 3
+
+  Criminal type, 24, 48
+
+  Criminaloids, 100-121
+    percentage of, among criminals, 8
+    physical characteristics, 102, 251
+    psychological distinctions between born criminals and, 102 _ff._
+    cases of, 103, 104
+    reluctance to commit crimes, 105
+    easily induced to confess, 105
+    moral sense and intelligence, 106
+    natural affections and sentiments, 106
+    social position and culture, 107 _ff._
+    clever swindlers, 108
+    development into habitual criminals, 111-113
+    and certain crimes, 121
+    punishment, 186
+
+  Cruelty, 39
+
+  Cynicism, 31
+
+
+  D
+
+  Dalton (_Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_), 129
+
+  Danish prisons, 195
+
+  "Darwin's tubercle," 15, 235
+
+  Dejerine, 138
+
+  Delirium, 98
+
+  Dementia, 76, 227, 259, 260
+    simulations of, 272 _ff._
+
+  Despine's method of punishment, 195, 196
+
+  Destitute children, care of, 156
+    institutions for, 156 _ff._
+
+  Dewson, Miss Mary, 189
+
+  Disease and its relation to crime, 8, 220
+
+  Don Bosco, the Black Pope, 157, 173
+
+  Drunkenness, temporary, 141. _See also_ Alcoholism
+
+  Du Bois-Reymond's apparatus, 25, 246
+
+  Dundrum, Ireland, 207
+
+  Dynamometer, 252, 253
+
+
+  E
+
+  Economic conditions, relation to crime, 150
+
+  Education, and moral insanity, 143
+    and crime, 143, 149
+    in Elmira Reformatory, 193
+
+  "Educational Alliance," for Jewish emigrants, 172
+
+  Egypt, theft in, 128
+
+  Elmira Reformatory, 192-194
+
+  England, crime in, 173
+    juvenile court in, 176
+    probation system in, 189, 191
+    asylums for criminal insane, 207
+
+  Environment, 8, 144, 145
+
+  Epilepsy, ancient application of the term, 58
+    characteristic phenomena, 58
+    mild forms, 59, 60
+    multiformity, 59, 60, 87
+    psychological characteristics, 61
+    effect on character, 62
+    relation to crime, 69, 71
+    motory and criminal, 71
+    psychic, 88
+    ambulatory, 89, 90
+    alcoholic psychic, 142
+
+  Epileptics, brain cells of, 22
+    relation to born criminals and morally insane 58 _ff._, 87
+    physical anomalies common to criminals and, 60, 61, 234
+    psychological characteristics, 61 _ff._
+    cases, 64-65
+    criminal, 66-69, 70, 259
+    difference between born criminals and, 72
+    non-criminal, 89-92
+    obsessions, 226
+    dress, 230
+    special offences, 259, 260
+
+  Epileptoids, 101
+
+  Erotomania, 96
+
+  Esthesiometer, 245
+
+  Examination of criminals, 219-257
+    antecedents and psychic individuality, 220-222
+    intelligence, 222
+    affections, 222-225
+    morbid phenomena, 225-226
+    speech, 226-228
+    memory, 228
+    handwriting, 228-230
+    dress, 230-231
+    physical, 231-245
+    sensibility, 245-251
+    movements, 251-255
+    functions, 255
+    table of, 255-257
+
+
+  F
+
+  Fines, 187, 191
+
+  Fisherton House, 207
+
+  Forgers, 46, 140, 245
+
+  France, percentage of illegitimates or orphans among minors arrested, 144
+    system for minor offences, 187
+    probation system in, 191
+
+  Frank, Francis, 223
+
+  French Panama Scandal, 106, 107
+
+
+  G
+
+  Gambling, 40
+
+  Games, 40
+
+  Garofalo, Senator, his table of penalties, 210
+
+  George, Henry, 164
+
+  George Junior Republic, 160, 164-167
+
+  Germans, ancient, theft among, 128, 129
+
+  Gilmour (_Among the Mongols_), 130
+
+  Gipsies, 140
+
+  Goitre, 220, 244
+
+
+  H
+
+  Habitual criminals, 44, 110-115, 198
+
+  Hallucinations, 30, 82-84
+
+  Hamburg, percentage of illegitimates among prostitutes, 144
+
+  Handwriting, 228-230
+
+  Harwick, quoted, on sense of right and wrong, 33
+
+  Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society in New York City, 160-164
+
+  Heredity, indirect, 137
+    direct, 57, 137-139
+    influence of, 144, 220, 235
+
+  Hieroglyphics, 43, 44
+
+  Homicide, among criminaloids, 121
+    in Italy, 140
+    relation of temperature to, 145
+    in Massachusetts, 173
+    and melancholia, 259
+
+  Hydrosphygmograph, 223
+
+  Hypnotism, 101
+
+  Hysteria, 92-99
+    relation to epilepsy, 92
+    physical and functional characteristics, 93
+    psychology, 94
+    susceptibility to suggestion, 95, 226
+    and delirium, 98
+    sensibility to metals, 248, 261
+    special offences of, 259
+    simulation of, 261
+
+
+  I
+
+  Idiots, impulses, 74, 258
+    speech, 227
+    physical characteristics, 235, 260
+
+  Idleness, 40, 150
+
+  Illegitimates, percentage of, among criminals, 144
+
+  Imbeciles, 75, 259, 260, 269
+
+  Imitation, 146
+
+  Immigration and its relation to crime, 147, 148
+
+  Imprisonment, 154, 186, 187
+
+  Impulsiveness, 36, 85
+
+  Incendiaries, 26
+
+  Indemnity, 191
+
+  India, infanticide in, 126
+    theft in, 129
+
+  Industrial Homes of the Salvation Army, 168
+
+  Inebriates, crimes peculiar to, 85-86
+    hallucinations of, 226
+
+  Infanticide, 121, 126, 127
+
+  Insane, the morally, relation to born criminals, 53, 57, 58
+    cases, 53 _ff._
+    relation to epileptics, 61, 65 _ff._
+    professional characteristics, 71
+    institutions for, 206
+    dress, 230
+    special offences, 259, 260
+
+  Insane criminals, 74-99, 234
+    characteristics distinguishing them from habitual criminals, 77, 78
+    antecedents, 78
+    motives, 78
+    typical cases, 79
+    institutions for, 205 _ff._
+    two classes, 208
+
+  Insanity, moral, 56, 65-69, 272 _ff._
+    criminal, 74-99
+    genuine and simulation of, 260, 276. _See also_ Lunacy
+
+  Institutions, for destitute children, 156
+    for destitute adults, 167
+    for women criminals, 180
+    for minor offenders, 185
+    for habitual criminals, 198
+    for born criminals and the morally insane, 205. _See also_
+    Reformatories, Penitentiaries
+
+  Intellectual manifestations of born criminals, 42-44
+
+  Intelligence, of born criminals, 41
+    of criminaloids, 106
+    examination, 222
+
+  Invulnerability of criminals, 64
+
+  Italy, hot-beds of crime in, 140
+    percentage of illegitimates among criminals, 144
+    percentage of women among criminals, 151
+    institutions for orphans, 157
+
+
+  J
+
+  Jackson, on epileptic fits, 60
+
+  Jews, percentage of crime among, 140
+
+  Jukes family, the, 138, 139
+
+  Juridical criminals, 115-117
+
+  Juvenile courts, 176, 178, 179
+
+  Juvenile offenders, 139
+    methods of dealing with, 176 _ff._, 192
+
+
+  K
+
+  Kleptomania, 141
+
+  Kowalewsky (_Archivio di Psichiatria_, 1885), 63
+
+  Krafft-Ebing, 84
+    quoted, on somnambulism and epileptics, 63
+
+
+  L
+
+  Labour, in reformatories, 166, 199
+    enforced, profitable to the State, 202, 203, 213
+
+  Lacassagne, 47
+
+  Ladelci (_Il Vino_, 1868), 37
+
+  Landolt's apparatus for testing the field of vision, 249
+
+  Lewisohn, Mr., 161
+
+  Lombroso, Cesare, discovery of _median occipital fossa_, 6
+    new theory as to criminals, 52, 56, 57
+    view of hysteria and epilepsy, 99
+    on percentage of criminals of inebriate families, 138
+    on criminal associations, 146
+    _Criminal Man_, 9, 288-291
+    _Modern Forms of Crime_, 9
+    _Recent Research in Criminal Anthropology_, 9, 309
+    _Prison Palimpsests_, 9, 155, 300-302
+    _The Female Offender_, 180, 291-294
+    _Crimes, Ancient and Modern_, 173, 302-303
+    _The Man of Genius_, 283-288
+    _Political Crime_, 294-298
+    _Too Soon_, 298-300
+    _Diagnostic Methods of Legal Psychiatry_, 303-305
+    _Anarchists_, 305-307
+    _Lectures on Legal Medicine_, 307-308
+
+  Luciani, experiments of, 59
+
+  Lunacy, general forms, 74, _See also_ Insanity
+
+
+  M
+
+  Maccabruni, Dr. (_Notes on Hidden Forms of Epilepsy_, 1886), 89
+
+  Mafia, 117, 230
+
+  Magnaud, 187
+
+  Maniacs, 76, 259
+
+  Manzoni (_Promessi Sposi_), on instinctive tendency to law-breaking, 152
+
+  Marey's tympanum, 224
+
+  Marro (_Annalidi Freniatia_, 1890), 64
+
+  Massachusetts, crime in, 173
+    probation office in Boston, 189
+    reformatories at Boston, 190
+
+  Mattoids, 228, 229
+
+  _Median occipital fossa_, discovery of, 6
+
+  Melancholia, 75, 227, 252, 259
+
+  Memory, 228
+
+  Mendacity, 96-98
+
+  Meseplas, agricultural colony at, 202, 203
+
+  Metchnikoff, 14
+
+  Meteoric sensibility, 26
+
+  Modern School of Penal Jurisprudence, 4, 5, 9, 153, 155, 156
+
+  Monomaniacs, impulses and motives, 77
+    cases, 78, 276 _ff._
+    handwriting, 228, 230
+    dress, 231
+    examination of, 276 _ff._
+
+  Moral sense, of criminals, 28-40
+    of criminaloids, 106
+
+  Moreau, 130
+    (_De l' Homicide chez les enfants_, 1882), 131
+
+  Morel, 53, 98
+
+  M�lhausen (_Diary of a Journey from the Mississippi to the Pacific_), 129
+
+  Murder, among gipsies, 140
+    among Jews, 140
+    in United States, 145
+
+  Murderers, physical characteristics, 16, 18, 26, 46, 236
+    moral sense, 29, 38
+    imprisonment, 182
+    dress, 230
+
+
+  N
+
+  Newspaper reports of crimes, influence of, 146, 147
+
+  Nothnagel's thermo-esthesiometer, 247
+
+
+  O
+
+  Obermayer's methods in prisons, 195, 196
+
+  Obscenity, 63
+
+  Occupations suitable for prisoners, 197, 203, 204
+
+  "Open Door," the, penal institution in Buenos Ayres, 203, 204
+
+  Orange, 208
+
+  Orgies, 40
+
+  Osmometer, 251
+
+  Ottolenghi, discoveries of, 61
+
+
+  P
+
+  Paralysis, 75, 226, 229
+
+  Paralytic, demented, 269
+
+  "Paranza," 48
+
+  Paresis, 82, 83
+
+  Parkinson's disease, 252
+
+  Passion, criminals of, 117-121, 186
+
+  Patrizi, 224
+
+  "Patta, La" 41
+
+  Pears (_Prisons and Reform_, 1872), 196
+
+  Pederasts, 232
+
+  Pellagra, 76, 150
+
+  Pelvimeter, 239
+
+  Penal codes, 176, 178
+
+  Penal colonies, 201-204
+
+  Penalties, 153
+    table of, proposed by the Modern School, 210-212
+
+  Penitenciario Nacional of Buenos Ayres, 198-203
+
+  Penitentiaries, 194-198
+
+  Penta, on percentage of criminals of inebriate families, 138
+
+  Perez,(_Psychologie de l'enfant_), quoted, on anger in children, 131
+
+  Perth, Scotland, 207
+
+  Peruvian Indians, 6, 7
+
+  Physical anomalies of criminals, 7, 10-24, 231-245
+
+  Pictet, 125
+
+  Pictography, 43
+
+  Pinel, 37, 53
+
+  Plethysmograph, 223, 225, 264
+
+  Poisoners, 31, 182
+
+  Political offenders, 186
+
+  Polyandry, 127
+
+  Population, density of, effect on criminality, 146, 148
+
+  Positive School of Penal Jurisprudence. _See_ Modern School of Penal
+  Jurisprudence
+
+  Pott, 125
+
+  Poverty and crime, 150
+
+  Precocity in crime, 222
+
+  Preventive methods, 175 _ff._
+
+  Primitive races, tattooing among, 45
+    views of crime, 125-129, 134
+    death penalty among, 209
+
+  Prison life, effect upon criminals, 148, 149, 153, 154, 186
+
+  Probation Office in Boston, 189
+
+  Probation system, 178, 179, 188-191
+
+  Professions and crime, 149, 150, 221
+
+  Progeneismus, 13, 60, 243
+
+  Prognathism, 7, 12
+
+  Prostitution, 144, 151, 180
+
+  Proverbial sayings concerning criminals, 49, 50
+
+  Prussia, percentage of illegitimates among criminals, 144
+
+  Psychology of born criminals, 27 _ff._
+
+  Ptosis, 14, 236
+
+  Punishments, 185
+    corporal, 191
+    capital, 208, 209
+
+
+  R
+
+  Race and crime, 139, 140
+
+  Recidivists, 46, 222
+
+  Reformatories, 182, 192
+
+  _Reformatory Prison for Women_ at South Framingham, near Boston, 183-185
+
+  Remorse, 29
+
+  Repentance, 29
+
+  Rescue Homes of the Salvation Army, 169
+
+  _Revue d'Anthropologie_, 1874, 128
+
+  Ribaudo, Brancaleone, 138
+
+  Richet, experiments with dogs, 59, 60
+    on hysteria, 95
+
+  Roncoroni, discoveries of, 21, 22, 61, 100
+
+  Rosenbach, experiments of, 59
+
+  "Rota, La" 41
+
+
+  S
+
+  Salvation Army, 167-170
+
+  Samt, on epilepsy, 88, 90, 91
+
+  San Stefano, island, convict population, 34
+
+  Sensibility, general, 24, 245, 246, 277
+    to touch and pain, 25, 245, 246, 277
+    to the magnet, 26
+    meteoric, 26
+    of the senses, 26, 249-251
+    localisation of, 247
+    to metals, 248
+
+  Simulation, 97, 261, 272
+
+  Sisterhoods founded by Rabbi Gottheil, 170-172
+
+  Skin diseases, 232
+
+  Skull, formations, 10-12
+    measurements, 239-242
+
+  Slang, 28, 33, 42, 152
+
+  Smugglers, 114
+
+  Snow (_Two Years' Cruise round Tierra del Fuego_), 129
+
+  Social causes of crime, 143
+
+  Somatic examination, 260, 277
+
+  Somnambulism, 63, 141
+
+  South America, institutions for orphans, 157
+    Salvation Army in, 170
+    reformatories, 192
+    penal institution in Buenos Ayres, 203
+
+  Spain, percentage of women among criminals, 151
+
+  Spencer (_Principles of Ethics_, 1895), 129
+
+  Strabismus, 14, 236
+
+  Strength, 27, 252
+
+  Suggestion, susceptibility to, 95, 269
+    examination of, 226
+    case, 269
+
+  Suicide, 119, 259
+
+  Swindlers, characteristics, 16, 18, 20, 25, 46, 231, 245, 246
+    percentage among criminaloids, 108
+    cases, 109
+    imprisonment of, 182
+
+  Sydenham, on hysteria, 95
+
+  Symbiosis, 212-215
+
+
+  T
+
+  Tachyanthropometer, 237
+
+  Tamburini, quoted, 37
+
+  Tardieu (_De la Folie_, 1870), 85
+
+  Tattooing, 39, 45-48, 232
+
+  Temperature, relation to crime, 145
+
+  Theft, instincts of, 37, 38
+    petty, 117
+    percentage of, among criminaloids, 121
+    among primitive races, 128-130
+    and paralysis, 259
+    and epileptics, 260
+
+  Thieves, physical characteristics, 20, 46, 150, 236, 243-244
+    cases, 28, 29, 37, 38
+    moral sense, 32-35
+    handwriting, 230
+
+  Tissi� (_Les alien�s voyageurs_, 1887), 88
+
+  Tonnini, 62, 64, 65
+
+  Traumatism, 140, 141
+
+  Treachery, 34
+
+
+  U
+
+  United States, institutions for destitute children, 160
+    percentage of crime in, 173, 174
+    probation system in, 178, 189, 190
+    juvenile courts in, 178
+    reformatories in, 192
+
+
+  V
+
+  Vanicek, 126, 127
+
+  Vanity, 35
+
+  Vidocq, 35
+
+  Vindictiveness, 38
+
+  Volumetric glove, 224
+
+  Volumetric tank, 223
+
+
+  W
+
+  Weber's esthesiometer, 245
+
+  _Where the Shadows Lengthen_, 168
+
+  Women, percentage of criminality among, 151, 180
+    nature of criminality among, 181, 182
+
+  Work, motive force of every institute, 197
+
+  Wormian bones, 12
+
+
+  Z
+
+  Zakka Khel, criminal tribe in India, 129, 140
+
+  Zehen, experiments of, 59
+
+  Zino, 41
+
+
+
+
+
+THE SCIENCE SERIES
+
+EDITED BY EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE, PH.D., AND F. E. BEDDARD. M.A., F.R.S.
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+MIVART, F.R.S. 8�. $1.75.
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+3.--+Rivers of North America.+ A Reading Lesson for Students of Geography
+and Geology. By ISRAEL C. RUSSELL, Professor of Geology, University of
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+Turin. Translated by MARGARET DRUMMOND, M.A., and W. B. DRUMMOND, M.B.,
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+15.--+The Nature of Man.+ Studies in Optimistic Philosophy. By �LIE
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+21.--+Age, Growth, and Death.+ By CHARLES S. MINOT, James Stillman
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+Crown 8vo. Net, $1.25.
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+     reality of which Nature is an expression is not inconsistent with a
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+
+23.--+Mosquito Life.+ The Habits and Life Cycles of the Known Mosquitoes
+of the United States; Methods for their Control; and Keys for Easy
+Identification of the Species in their Various Stages. An account based
+on the investigation of the late James William Dupree, Surgeon-General
+of Louisiana, and upon the original observations by the Writer. By
+EVELYN GROESBEECK MITCHELL, A.B., M.S. With 64 Illustrations. Crown 8vo.
+Net, $2.00.
+
+     This volume has been designed to meet the demand of the constantly
+     increasing number of students for a work presenting in compact form
+     the essential facts so far made known by scientific investigation
+     in regard to the different phases of this, as is now conceded,
+     important and highly interesting subject. While aiming to keep
+     within reasonable bounds, that it may be used for work in the field
+     and in the laboratory, no portion of the work has been slighted, or
+     fundamental information omitted, in the endeavor to carry this plan
+     into effect.
+
+24.--+Thinking, Feeling, Doing.+ An Introduction to Mental Science. By E.
+W. SCRIPTURE, Ph.D., M.D., Assistant Neurologist Columbia University,
+formerly Director of the Psychological Laboratory at Yale University.
+189 Illustrations. 2d Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo. Net,
+$1.75.
+
+     "The chapters on Time and Action, Reaction Time, Thinking Time,
+     Rhythmic Action, and Power and Will are most interesting. This book
+     should be carefully read by every one who desires to be familiar
+     with the advances made in the study of the mind, which advances, in
+     the last twenty-five years, have been quite as striking and
+     epoch-making as the strides made in the more material lines of
+     knowledge."--_Jour. Amer. Med. Ass'n._, Feb. 22, 1908.
+
+25.--+The World's Gold.+ By L. DE LAUNAY, Professor at the �cole
+Superieure des Mines. Translated by Orlando Cyprian Williams. With an
+Introduction by Charles A. Conant, author of "History of Modern Banks of
+Issue," etc. Crown 8vo. Net, $1.75.
+
+     M. de Launay is a professor of considerable repute not only in
+     France, but among scientists throughout the world. In this work he
+     traces the various uses and phases of gold; first, its geology;
+     secondly, its extraction; thirdly, its economic value.
+
+26.--+The Interpretation of Radium.+ By FREDERICK SODDY, Lecturer in
+Physical Chemistry in the University of Glasgow. 8vo. With Diagrams.
+Net, $1.75.
+
+     As the application of the present-day interpretation of Radium
+     (that it is an element undergoing spontaneous disintegration) is
+     not confined to the physical sciences, but has a wide and general
+     bearing upon our whole outlook on Nature, Mr. Soddy has presented
+     the subject in non-technical language, so that the ideas involved
+     are within reach of the lay reader. No effort has been spared to
+     get to the root of the matter and to secure accuracy, so that the
+     book should prove serviceable to other fields of science and
+     investigation, as well as to the general public.
+
+27.--+Criminal Man.+ According to the Classification of CESARE LOMBROSO.
+Briefly Summarized by his Daughter, Gina Lombroso Ferrero. With 36
+Illustrations and a Bibliography of Lombroso's Publications on the
+Subject.
+
+
+_In preparation:_
+
++The Invisible Spectrum.+ By Professor C. E. MENDENHALL, University of
+Wisconsin.
+
++The Physiology and Hygiene of Exercise.+ By Dr. G. L. MEYLAN, Columbia
+University.
+
+_Other volumes to be announced later_
+
+
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[1] For a description of the methods employed in measuring skulls see
+Part III.
+
+[2] For a description of the methods used in measuring the acuteness of
+these senses, see Part III.
+
+[3] As in the case of the Sicilian brigand Salomone (see Fig. 19).
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+  Passages in italics are indicated by _underscore_.
+
+  Passages in bold are indicated by +bold+.
+
+  Illustration captions are indicated by =caption=.
+
+  Additional spacing after some of the quotes is intentional to indicate
+  both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new paragraph as
+  presented in the original text.
+
+  The original text includes Greek characters. These characters have been
+  removed from this text version because the original text provides a
+  translation.
+
+The following misprints were corrected:
+  "possesssed" corrected to "possessed" (page xiv)
+  "Ethnolgy" corrected to "Ethnology" (page 129)
+  "pecuilar" corrected to "peculiar" (page 135)
+  "associaton" corrected to "association" (page 187)
+  "segregrated" corrected to "segregated" (page 206)
+  "distinguising" corrected to "distinguishing" (page 228)
+  "chlidren" corrected to "children" (page 321)
+  "his" corrected to "has" (advertisements)
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Criminal Man, by Gina Lombroso-Ferrero
+
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+<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml">
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+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1" />
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Criminal Man, by Gina Lombroso-Ferrero.
+    </title>
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Criminal Man, by Gina Lombroso-Ferrero
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Criminal Man
+       According to the Classification of Cesare Lombroso
+
+Author: Gina Lombroso-Ferrero
+
+Commentator: Cesare Lombroso
+
+Release Date: September 3, 2009 [EBook #29895]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CRIMINAL MAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Stephanie Eason,
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net. (This file was made using scans of
+public domain works from the University of Michigan Digital
+Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<div class="offset"><div class="bbox">
+<h1>THE SCIENCE SERIES</h1>
+<div class="center">Edited by <span class="smcap">Edward Lee Thorndike</span>, Ph.D., and<br /> <span class="smcap">F. E. Beddard</span>, M.A., F.R.S.</div>
+<hr style="width: 15%;" />
+<p>1. <strong>The Study of Man.</strong> By <span class="smcap">A. C. Haddon.</span></p>
+<p>2. <strong>The Groundwork of Science.</strong> By <span class="smcap">St. George Mivart.</span></p>
+<p>3. <strong>Rivers of North America.</strong> By <span class="smcap">Israel C. Russell.</span></p>
+<p>4. <strong>Earth Sculpture, or; The Origin of Land Forms.</strong> By <span class="smcap">James Geikie.</span></p>
+<p>5. <strong>Volcanoes; Their Structure and Significance.</strong> By <span class="smcap">T. G. Bonney.</span></p>
+<p>6. <strong>Bacteria.</strong> By <span class="smcap">George Newman.</span></p>
+<p>7. <strong>A Book of Whales.</strong> By <span class="smcap">F. E. Beddard.</span></p>
+<p>8. <strong>Comparative Physiology of the Brain,</strong> etc. By <span class="smcap">Jacques Loeb.</span></p>
+<p>9. <strong>The Stars.</strong> By <span class="smcap">Simon Newcomb.</span></p>
+<p>10. <strong>The Basis of Social Relations.</strong> By <span class="smcap">Daniel G. Brinton.</span></p>
+<p>11. <strong>Experiments on Animals.</strong> By <span class="smcap">Stephen Paget.</span></p>
+<p>12. <strong>Infection and Immunity.</strong> By <span class="smcap">George M. Sternberg.</span></p>
+<p>13. <strong>Fatigue.</strong> By <span class="smcap">A. Mosso.</span></p>
+<p>14. <strong>Earthquakes.</strong> By <span class="smcap">Clarence E. Dutton.</span></p>
+<p>15. <strong>The Nature of Man.</strong> By <span class="smcap">&Eacute;lie Metchnikoff.</span></p>
+<p>16. <strong>Nervous and Mental Hygiene in Health and Disease.</strong> By <span class="smcap">August Forel.</span></p>
+<p>17. <strong>The Prolongation of Life.</strong> By <span class="smcap">&Eacute;lie Metchnikoff.</span></p>
+<p>18. <strong>The Solar System.</strong> By <span class="smcap">Charles Lane Poor.</span></p>
+<p>19. <strong>Heredity.</strong> By <span class="smcap">J. Arthur Thompson</span>, M.A.</p>
+<p>20. <strong>Climate.</strong> By <span class="smcap">Robert DeCourcy Ward.</span></p>
+<p>21. <strong>Age, Growth, and Death.</strong> By <span class="smcap">Charles S. Minot.</span></p>
+<p>22. <strong>The Interpretation of Nature.</strong> By <span class="smcap">C. Lloyd Morgan.</span></p>
+<p>23. <strong>Mosquito Life.</strong> By <span class="smcap">Evelyn Groesbeeck Mitchell.</span></p>
+<p>24. <strong>Thinking, Feeling, Doing.</strong> By <span class="smcap">E. W. Scripture.</span></p>
+<p>25. <strong>The World's Gold.</strong> By <span class="smcap">L. de Launay.</span></p>
+<p>26. <strong>The Interpretation of Radium.</strong> By <span class="smcap">F. Soddy.</span></p>
+<p>27. <strong>Criminal Man.</strong> By <span class="smcap">Cesare Lombroso.</span></p>
+<hr style="width: 20%;" />
+<div class="center"><i>For list of works in preparation see end of this volume</i></div></div></div>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2><span class="u">The Science Series</span></h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h2>CRIMINAL MAN</h2>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/i003.png" alt="decoration" /></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>CRIMINAL MAN</h2>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>ACCORDING TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF</h4>
+<h3>CESARE LOMBROSO</h3>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h5>BRIEFLY SUMMARISED BY HIS DAUGHTER</h5>
+<h4>GINA LOMBROSO-FERRERO</h4>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h5>WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY</h5>
+<h4>CESARE LOMBROSO</h4>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><i>ILLUSTRATED</i></h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS</h4>
+<h4>NEW YORK AND LONDON</h4>
+<h4>The Knickerbocker Press</h4>
+<h4>1911</h4>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h5><span class="smcap">Copyright</span>, 1911</h5>
+<h5>BY</h5>
+<h4>G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4>The Knickerbocker Press, New York</h4>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<table width="70%" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#PART_I"><i>PART I.&mdash;THE CRIMINAL WORLD</i></a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_1.1">CHAPTER I</a></td><td align="right">PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Born Criminal</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Classical and modern schools of penal jurisprudence&mdash;Physical anomalies of the born criminal&mdash;Senses and functions&mdash;Psychology&mdash;Intellectual manifestations&mdash;The criminal in proverbial sayings.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_1.2">CHAPTER II</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Born Criminal and his Relation to Moral Insanity and Epilepsy</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_52">52</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Identity of born criminals and the morally insane&mdash;Analogy of physical
+and psychic characters, origin and development&mdash;Epilepsy&mdash;Multiformity of disease&mdash;Equivalence of certain forms to criminality&mdash;Physical and
+psychic characters&mdash;Cases of moral insanity with latent epileptic phenomena.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_1.3">CHAPTER III</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Insane Criminal</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>General forms of criminal insanity, imbecility, melancholia, general paralysis, dementia, monomania&mdash;Physical and psychic characters of the
+mentally deranged&mdash;Special forms of criminal insanity&mdash;Inebriate lunatics from inebriation&mdash;Physical and psychic characters&mdash;Specific
+crimes&mdash;Epileptic lunatics&mdash;Manifestations&mdash;Hysterical lunatics&mdash;Physical and functional characters&mdash;Psychology.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_1.4">CHAPTER IV</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Criminaloids</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Psychology&mdash;Tardy adoption of criminal career&mdash;Repentance&mdash;Confession&mdash;Moral sense and affections&mdash;Habitual
+criminals&mdash;Juridical criminals&mdash;Criminals of passion.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#PART_II"><i>PART II.&mdash;CRIME, ITS ORIGIN, CAUSE, AND CURE</i></a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_2.1">CHAPTER I</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Origin and Causes of Crime</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_125">125</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Atavistic origin of crime&mdash;Criminality in children&mdash;Pathological origin
+of crime&mdash;Direct and indirect heredity&mdash;Illnesses, intoxications, and traumatism&mdash;Alcoholism&mdash;Social causes of crime&mdash;Education and
+environment&mdash;Atmospheric and climatic influences&mdash;Density of population&mdash;Imitation&mdash;Immigration&mdash;Prison life&mdash;Economic
+conditions&mdash;Sex&mdash;Age.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_2.2">CHAPTER II</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">The Prevention of Crime</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Preventive institutions for children and young people&mdash;Homes for orphans
+and destitute children&mdash;Colonies for unruly youths&mdash;Institutions for assisting adults&mdash;Salvation Army.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_2.3">CHAPTER III</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Methods for the Cure and Repression of Crime</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Juvenile offenders&mdash;Children's Courts&mdash;Institutions for female
+offenders&mdash;Minor offenders, criminals of passion, political offenders, and criminaloids&mdash;Probation system and indeterminate
+sentence&mdash;Reformatories&mdash;Penitentiaries&mdash;Institutes for habitual criminals&mdash;Penal colonies&mdash;Institutions for born criminals and the
+morally insane&mdash;Asylums for insane criminals&mdash;Capital punishment&mdash;Symbiosis.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#PART_III"><i>PART III.&mdash;CHARACTERS AND TYPES OF CRIMINALS</i></a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_3.1">CHAPTER I</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Examination of Criminals</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_219">219</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Antecedents and psychology&mdash;Methods of testing intelligence and
+emotions&mdash;Morbid phenomena&mdash;Speech, memory, and handwriting&mdash;Clothing&mdash;Physical examination&mdash;Tests of sensibility and
+senses&mdash;Excretions&mdash;Table of anthropological examination of criminals and the insane.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_3.2">CHAPTER II</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Summary of Chief Forms of Criminality to Aid in Distinguishing between
+Criminals and Lunatics and in Detecting Simulations of Insanity</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_258">258</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>A few cases showing the practical application of criminal anthropology.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><a href="#APPENDIX">APPENDIX</a></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Works of Cesare Lombroso (Briefly Summarised)</span></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><i>I.</i></td><td><span class="smcap">The Man of Genius</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_283">283</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><i>II.</i></td><td><span class="smcap">Criminal Man</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_288">288</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><i>III.</i></td><td><span class="smcap">The Female Offender.</span> (In Collaboration with Guglielmo Ferrero.)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_291">291</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><i>IV.</i></td><td><span class="smcap">Political Crime.</span> (In Collaboration with Rodolfo Laschi.)</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_294">294</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><i>V.</i></td><td><span class="smcap">Too Soon</span>: A Criticism of the New Italian Penal Code</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_298">298</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><i>VI.</i></td><td><span class="smcap">Prison Palimpsests</span>: Studies in Prison Inscriptions</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_300">300</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><i>VII.</i></td><td><span class="smcap">Ancient and Modern Crimes</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_302">302</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><i>VIII.</i></td><td><span class="smcap">Diagnostic Methods of Legal Psychiatry</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_303">303</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><i>IX.</i></td><td><span class="smcap">Anarchists</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_305">305</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><i>X.</i></td><td><span class="smcap">Lectures on Legal Medicine</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_307">307</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><i>XI.</i></td><td><span class="smcap">Recent Discoveries in Psychiatry and Criminal Anthropology and the Practical Application of these Sciences</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_309">309</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Bibliography of the Chief Works of Cesare Lombroso</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_310">310</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2"><span class="smcap">Index</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_315">315</a></td></tr></table>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2>
+
+<table cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Illustrations">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">PAGE</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig1">Fig. 1.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Fossette Occipital</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig1">6</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig2">Fig. 2.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Skull Formation</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig2">11</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig3">Fig. 3.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Skull Formation</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig3">11</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig4">Fig. 4.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Head of Criminal</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig4">16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig5">Fig. 5.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Head of Criminal</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig5">16</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig6">Fig. 6.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Layers of the Frontal Region</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig6">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig7">Fig. 7.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Figures Made in Prison. Murder of a Sleeping Victim</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig7">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig8">Fig. 8.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Crucifix Poignard</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig8">32</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig9">Fig. 9.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Water-Jugs</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig9">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig10">Fig. 10.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Drawings in Script. Discovered by De Blasio</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig10">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig11">Fig. 11.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Alphabet. Discovered by De Blasio</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig11">45</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig12">Fig. 12.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Boy Morally Insane</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig12">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig13">Fig. 13.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Boy Morally Insane</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig13">56</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig14">Fig. 14.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">An Epileptic Boy</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig14">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span><a href="#fig15">Fig. 15.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Fernando. Epileptic</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig15">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig16">Fig. 16.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Italian Criminal. A Case of Alcoholism</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig16">82</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig17">Fig. 17.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Signatures of Criminals</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig17">163</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig18">Fig. 18.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Criminal Girl</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig18">114</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig19">Fig. 19.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">The Brigand Salomone</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig19">114</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig20">Fig. 20.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Brigand Gasparone</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig20">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig21">Fig. 21.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Brigand Caserio</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig21">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig22">Fig. 22.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Terra-cotta Bowls. Designed by a Criminal</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig22">134</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig23">Fig. 23.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Art Production from Prison</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig23">136</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig24">Fig. 24.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">A Combat between Brigands and Gendarmes. Designed by a Criminal</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig24">136</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig25">Fig. 25.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">A Volumetric Glove</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig25">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig26">Fig. 26.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Head of a Criminal. Epileptic</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig26">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig27">Fig. 27.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Anton Otto Krauser. Apache</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig27">236</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig28">Fig. 28.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">A Criminal's Ear</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig28">224</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig29">Fig. 29.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Anthropometer</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig29">237</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig30">Fig. 30.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Craniograph Anfossi</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig30">238</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig31">Fig. 31.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Pelvimeter</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig31">239</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig32">Fig. 32.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Diagram of Skull</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig32">241</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span><a href="#fig33">Fig. 33.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Diagram of Skull</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig33">241</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig34">Fig. 34.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Esthesiometer</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig34">245</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig35">Fig. 35.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Algometer</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig35">248</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig36">Fig. 36.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Campimeter of Landolt (Modified)</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig36">248</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig37">Fig. 37.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Diagram Showing Normal Vision</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig37">250</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig38">Fig. 38.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Dynamometer</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig38">253</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right"><a href="#fig39">Fig. 39.</a></td><td><span class="smcap">Head of an Italian Criminal</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#fig39">254</a></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+<h3>BY CESARE LOMBROSO</h3>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>[Professor Lombroso was able before his death to give his personal
+attention to the volume prepared by his daughter and collaborator,
+Gina Lombroso Ferrero (wife of the distinguished historian), in
+which is presented a summary of the conclusions reached in the
+great treatise by Lombroso on the causes of criminality and the
+treatment of criminals. The preparation of the introduction to this
+volume was the last literary work which the distinguished author
+found it possible to complete during his final illness.]</p></div>
+
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">It</span> will, perhaps, be of interest to American readers of this book, in
+which the ideas of the Modern Penal School, set forth in my work,
+<i>Criminal Man</i>, have been so pithily summed up by my daughter, to learn
+how the first outlines of this science arose in my mind and gradually
+took shape in a definite work&mdash;how, that is, combated by some, the
+object of almost fanatical adherence on the part of others, especially
+in America, where tradition has little hold, the Modern Penal School came into being.</p>
+
+<p>On consulting my memory and the documents relating to my studies on this
+subject, I find that its two fundamental ideas&mdash;that, for instance,
+which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span> claims as an essential point the study not of crime in the
+abstract, but of the criminal himself, in order adequately to deal with
+the evil effects of his wrong-doing, and that which classifies the
+congenital criminal as an anomaly, partly pathological and partly
+atavistic, a revival of the primitive savage&mdash;did not suggest themselves
+to me instantaneously under the spell of a single deep impression, but
+were the offspring of a series of impressions. The slow and almost
+unconscious association of these first vague ideas resulted in a new
+system which, influenced by its origin, has preserved in all its
+subsequent developments the traces of doubt and indecision, the marks of
+the travail which attended its birth.</p>
+
+<p>The first idea came to me in 1864, when, as an army doctor, I beguiled
+my ample leisure with a series of studies on the Italian soldier. From
+the very beginning I was struck by a characteristic that distinguished
+the honest soldier from his vicious comrade: the extent to which the
+latter was tattooed and the indecency of the designs that covered his
+body. This idea, however, bore no fruit.</p>
+
+<p>The second inspiration came to me when on one occasion, amid the
+laughter of my colleagues, I sought to base the study of psychiatry on
+experimental methods. When in '66, fresh from the atmosphere of clinical
+experiment, I had begun to study psychi<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span>atry, I realised how inadequate
+were the methods hitherto held in esteem, and how necessary it was, in
+studying the insane, to make the patient, not the disease, the object of
+attention. In homage to these ideas, I applied to the clinical
+examination of cases of mental alienation the study of the skull, with
+measurements and weights, by means of the esthesiometer and craniometer.
+Reassured by the result of these first steps, I sought to apply this
+method to the study of criminals&mdash;that is, to the differentiation of
+criminals and lunatics, following the example of a few investigators,
+such as Thomson and Wilson; but as at that time I had neither criminals
+nor moral imbeciles available for observation (a remarkable circumstance
+since I was to make the criminal my starting-point), and as I was
+skeptical as to the existence of those "moral lunatics" so much insisted
+on by both French and English authors, whose demonstrations, however,
+showed a lamentable lack of precision, I was anxious to apply the
+experimental method to the study of the diversity, rather than the
+analogy, between lunatics, criminals, and normal individuals. Like him,
+however, whose lantern lights the road for others, while he himself
+stumbles in the darkness, this method proved useless for determining the
+differences between criminals and lunatics, but served instead to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span>
+indicate a new method for the study of penal jurisprudence, a matter to
+which I had never given serious thought. I began dimly to realise that
+the <i>a priori</i> studies on crime in the abstract, hitherto pursued by
+jurists, especially in Italy, with singular acumen, should be superseded
+by the direct analytical study of the criminal, compared with normal
+individuals and the insane.</p>
+
+<p>I, therefore, began to study criminals in the Italian prisons, and,
+amongst others, I made the acquaintance of the famous brigand Vilella.
+This man <ins class="correction" title="Original reads 'possesssed'.">possessed</ins> such extraordinary agility, that he had been known to
+scale steep mountain heights bearing a sheep on his shoulders. His
+cynical effrontery was such that he openly boasted of his crimes. On his
+death one cold grey November morning, I was deputed to make the
+<i>post-mortem</i>, and on laying open the skull I found on the occipital
+part, exactly on the spot where a spine is found in the normal skull, a
+distinct depression which I named <i>median occipital fossa</i>, because of
+its situation precisely in the middle of the occiput as in inferior
+animals, especially rodents. This depression, as in the case of animals,
+was correlated with the hypertrophy of the <i>vermis</i>, known in birds as
+the middle cerebellum.</p>
+
+<p>This was not merely an idea, but a revelation. At the sight of that
+skull, I seemed to see all of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span> sudden, lighted up as a vast plain
+under a flaming sky, the problem of the nature of the criminal&mdash;an
+atavistic being who reproduces in his person the ferocious instincts of
+primitive humanity and the inferior animals. Thus were explained
+anatomically the enormous jaws, high cheek-bones, prominent superciliary
+arches, solitary lines in the palms, extreme size of the orbits,
+handle-shaped or sessile ears found in criminals, savages, and apes,
+insensibility to pain, extremely acute sight, tattooing, excessive
+idleness, love of orgies, and the irresistible craving for evil for its
+own sake, the desire not only to extinguish life in the victim, but to
+mutilate the corpse, tear its flesh, and drink its blood.</p>
+
+<p>I was further encouraged in this bold hypothesis by the results of my
+studies on Verzeni, a criminal convicted of sadism and rape, who showed
+the cannibalistic instincts of primitive anthropophagists and the
+ferocity of beasts of prey.</p>
+
+<p>The various parts of the extremely complex problem of criminality were,
+however, not all solved hereby. The final key was given by another case,
+that of Misdea, a young soldier of about twenty-one, unintelligent but
+not vicious. Although subject to epileptic fits, he had served for some
+years in the army when suddenly, for some trivial cause, he attacked and
+killed eight of his superior officers and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span> comrades. His horrible work
+accomplished, he fell into a deep slumber, which lasted twelve hours and
+on awaking appeared to have no recollection of what had happened.
+Misdea, while representing the most ferocious type of animal,
+manifested, in addition, all the phenomena of epilepsy, which appeared
+to be hereditary in all the members of his family. It flashed across my
+mind that many criminal characteristics not attributable to atavism,
+such as facial asymmetry, cerebral sclerosis, impulsiveness,
+instantaneousness, the periodicity of criminal acts, the desire of evil
+for evil's sake, were morbid characteristics common to epilepsy, mingled
+with others due to atavism.</p>
+
+<p>Thus were traced the first clinical outlines of my work which had
+hitherto been entirely anthropological. The clinical outlines confirmed
+the anthropological contours, and <i>vice vers&acirc;</i>; for the greatest
+criminals showed themselves to be epileptics, and, on the other hand,
+epileptics manifested the same anomalies as criminals. Finally, it was
+shown that epilepsy frequently reproduced atavistic characteristics,
+including even those common to lower animals.</p>
+
+<p>That synthesis which mighty geniuses have often succeeded in creating by
+one inspiration (but at the risk of errors, for a genius is only human
+and in<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xvii" id="Page_xvii">[Pg xvii]</a></span> many cases more fallacious than his fellow-men) was deduced by
+me gradually from various sources&mdash;the study of the normal individual,
+the lunatic, the criminal, the savage, and finally the child. Thus, by
+reducing the penal problem to its simplest expression, its solution was
+rendered easier, just as the study of embryology has in a great measure
+solved the apparently strange and mysterious riddle of teratology.</p>
+
+<p>But these attempts would have been sterile, had not a solid phalanx of
+jurists, Russian, German, Hungarian, Italian, and American, fertilised
+the germ by correcting hasty and one-sided conclusions, suggesting
+opportune reforms and applications, and, most important of all, applying
+my ideas on the offender to his individual and social prophylaxis and cure.</p>
+
+<p>Enrico Ferri was the first to perceive that the congenital epileptoid
+criminal did not form a single species, and that if this class was
+irretrievably doomed to perdition, crime in others was only a brief
+spell of insanity, determined by circumstances, passion, or illness. He
+established new types&mdash;the occasional criminal and the criminal by
+passion,&mdash;and transformed the basis of the penal code by asking if it
+were more just to make laws obey facts instead of altering facts to suit
+the laws, solely<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xviii" id="Page_xviii">[Pg xviii]</a></span> in order to avoid troubling the placidity of those who
+refused to consider this new element in the scientific field. Therefore,
+putting aside those abstract formul&aelig; for which high talents have panted
+in vain, like the thirsty traveller at the sight of the desert mirage,
+the advocates of the Modern School came to the conclusion that sentences
+should show a decrease in infamy and ferocity proportionate to the
+increase in length and social safety. In lieu of infamy they substituted
+a longer period of segregation, and for cases in which alienists were
+unable to decide between criminality and insanity, they advocated an
+intermediate institution, in which merciful treatment and social
+security were alike considered. They also emphasised the importance of
+certain measures which hitherto had been universally regarded as a pure
+abstraction or an unattainable desideratum&mdash;measures for the prevention
+of crime by tracing it to its source, divorce laws to diminish adultery,
+legislation of an anti-alcoholistic tendency to prevent crimes of
+violence, associations for destitute children, and co-operative
+associations to check the tendency to theft. Above all, they insisted on
+those regulations&mdash;unfortunately fallen into disuse&mdash;which indemnify the
+victim at the expense of the aggressor, in order that society, having
+suffered once for the crime, should not be obliged to suffer
+pecuniarily<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xix" id="Page_xix">[Pg xix]</a></span> for the detention of the offender, solely in homage to a
+theoretical principle that no one believes in, according to which prison
+is a kind of baptismal font in whose waters sin of all kinds is washed away.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the edifice of criminal anthropology, circumscribed at first,
+gradually extended its walls and embraced special studies on homicide,
+political crime, crimes connected with the banking world, crimes by women, etc.</p>
+
+<p>But the first stone had been scarcely laid when from all quarters of
+Europe arose those calumnies and misrepresentations which always follow
+in the train of audacious innovations. We were accused of wishing to
+proclaim the impunity of crime, of demanding the release of all
+criminals, of refusing to take into account climatic and racial
+influences and of asserting that the criminal is a slave eternally
+chained to his instincts; whereas the Modern School, on the contrary,
+gave a powerful impetus to the labors of statisticians and sociologists
+on these very matters. This is clearly shown in the third volume of
+<i>Criminal Man</i>, which contains a summary of the ideas of modern
+criminologists and my own.</p>
+
+<p>One nation, however&mdash;America,&mdash;gave a warm and sympathetic reception to
+the ideas of the Modern School which they speedily put into practice,
+with the brilliant results shown by the Reformatory at<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_xx" id="Page_xx">[Pg xx]</a></span> Elmira, the
+Probation System, Juvenile Courts, and the George Junior Republic. They
+also initiated the practice, now in general use, of anthropological
+co-operation in every criminal trial of importance.</p>
+
+<p>For this reason, and in view of the fact that America does not possess a
+complete translation of my works&mdash;<i>The Criminal, Male and Female</i>, and
+<i>Political Crime</i> (translation and distribution being alike difficult on
+account of the length of these volumes)&mdash;I welcome with pleasure this
+summary, in which the principal points are explained with precision and
+loving care by my daughter Gina, who has worked with me from childhood,
+has seen the edifice of my science rise stone upon stone, and has shared
+in my anxieties, insults, and triumphs; without whose help I might,
+perhaps, never have witnessed the completion of that edifice, nor the
+application of its fundamental principles.</p>
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="PART_I" id="PART_I"></a>PART I</h2>
+<h2>THE CRIMINAL WORLD</h2>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_1.1" id="CHAPTER_1.1"></a>CHAPTER I</h3>
+
+<h3><i>THE BORN CRIMINAL</i></h3>
+
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">A</span> criminal is a man who violates the laws decreed by the State to
+regulate the relations between its citizens, but the voluminous codes
+which in past times set forth these laws treat only of crime, never of
+the criminal. That ignoble multitude whom Dante relegated to the
+Infernal Regions were consigned by magistrates and judges to the care of
+gaolers and executioners, who alone deigned to deal with them. The
+judge, immovable in his doctrine, unshaken by doubts, solemn in all his
+inviolability and convinced of his wisdom, which no one dared to
+question, passed sentence without remission according to his whim, and
+both judge and culprit were equally ignorant of the ultimate effect of
+the penalties inflicted.</p>
+
+<p>In 1764, the great Italian jurist and economist, Cesare Beccaria first
+called public attention to those wretched beings, whose confessions (if
+statements<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span> extorted by torture can thus be called) formed the sole
+foundation for the trial, the sole guide in the application of the
+punishment, which was bestowed blindly, without formality, without
+hearing the defence, exactly as though sentence were being passed on
+abstract symbols, not on human souls and bodies.</p>
+
+<p>The Classical School of Penal Jurisprudence, of which Beccaria was the
+founder and Francesco Carrara the greatest and most glorious disciple,
+aimed only at establishing sound judgments and fixed laws to guide
+capricious and often undiscerning judges in the application of
+penalties. In writing his great work, the founder of this School was
+inspired by the highest of all human sentiments&mdash;pity; but although the
+criminal incidentally receives notice, the writings of this School treat
+only of the application of the law, not of offenders themselves.</p>
+
+<p>This is the difference between the Classical and the Modern School of
+Penal Jurisprudence. The Classical School based its doctrines on the
+assumption that all criminals, except in a few extreme cases, are
+endowed with intelligence and feelings like normal individuals, and that
+they commit misdeeds consciously, being prompted thereto by their
+unrestrained desire for evil. The offence alone was considered,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> and on
+it the whole existing penal system has been founded, the severity of the
+sentence meted out to the offender being regulated by the gravity of his misdeed.</p>
+
+<p>The Modern, or Positive, School of Penal Jurisprudence, on the contrary,
+maintains that the anti-social tendencies of criminals are the result of
+their physical and psychic organisation, which differs essentially from
+that of normal individuals; and it aims at studying the morphology and
+various functional phenomena of the criminal with the object of curing,
+instead of punishing him. The Modern School is therefore founded on a
+new science, Criminal Anthropology, which may be defined as the Natural
+History of the Criminal, because it embraces his organic and psychic
+constitution and social life, just as anthropology does in the case of
+normal human beings and the different races.</p>
+
+<p>If we examine a number of criminals, we shall find that they exhibit
+numerous anomalies in the face, skeleton, and various psychic and
+sensitive functions, so that they strongly resemble primitive races. It
+was these anomalies that first drew my father's attention to the close
+relationship between the criminal and the savage and made him suspect
+that criminal tendencies are of atavistic origin.</p>
+
+<p>When a young doctor at the Asylum in Pavia, he<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> was requested to make a
+post-mortem examination on a criminal named Vilella, an Italian Jack the
+Ripper, who by atrocious crimes had spread terror in the Province of
+Lombardy. Scarcely had he laid open the skull, when he perceived at the
+base, on the spot where the internal occipital crest or ridge is found
+in normal individuals, a small hollow, which he called <i>median occipital
+fossa</i> (see <a href="#fig1">Fig. 1</a>). This abnormal character was correlated to a still
+greater anomaly in the cerebellum, the hypertrophy of the vermis,
+<i>i.e.</i>, the spinal cord which separates the cerebellar lobes lying
+underneath the cerebral hemispheres. This vermis was so enlarged in the
+case of Vilella, that it almost formed a small, intermediate cerebellum
+like that found in the lower types of apes, rodents, and birds. This
+anomaly is very rare among inferior races, with the exception of the
+South American Indian tribe of the Aymaras of Bolivia and Peru, in whom
+it is not infrequently found (40%). It is seldom met with in the insane
+or other degenerates, but later investigations have shown it to be
+prevalent in criminals.</p>
+
+<p>This discovery was like a flash of light. "At the sight of that skull,"
+says my father, "I seemed to see all at once, standing out clearly
+illumined as in a vast plain under a flaming sky, the problem of the
+nature of the criminal, who reproduces in civilised<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> times
+characteristics, not only of primitive savages, but of still lower types
+as far back as the carnivora."</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><a name="fig1" id="fig1"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/Fig_01.jpg" alt="Fossette Occipital" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1</span><br /><span class="smcap">Fossette Occipital</span><br />(see <a href="#Page_6">page 6</a>)</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Thus was explained the origin of the enormous jaws, strong canines,
+prominent zygom&aelig;, and strongly developed orbital arches which he had so
+frequently remarked in criminals, for these peculiarities are common to
+carnivores and savages, who tear and devour raw flesh. Thus also it was
+easy to understand why the span of the arms in criminals so often
+exceeds the height, for this is a characteristic of apes, whose
+fore-limbs are used in walking and climbing. The other anomalies
+exhibited by criminals&mdash;the scanty beard as opposed to the general
+hairiness of the body, prehensile foot, diminished number of lines in
+the palm of the hand, cheek-pouches, enormous development of the middle
+incisors and frequent absence of the lateral ones, flattened nose and
+angular or sugar-loaf form of the skull, common to criminals and apes;
+the excessive size of the orbits, which, combined with the hooked nose,
+so often imparts to criminals the aspect of birds of prey, the
+projection of the lower part of the face and jaws (prognathism) found in
+negroes and animals, and supernumerary teeth (amounting in some cases to
+a double row as in snakes) and cranial bones (epactal bone as in the
+Peruvian Indians): all these characteristics pointed to one conclusion,
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> atavistic origin of the criminal, who reproduces physical, psychic,
+and functional qualities of remote ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>Subsequent research on the part of my father and his disciples showed
+that other factors besides atavism come into play in determining the
+criminal type. These are: disease and environment. Later on, the study
+of innumerable offenders led them to the conclusion that all
+law-breakers cannot be classed in a single species, for their ranks
+include very diversified types, who differ not only in their bent
+towards a particular form of crime, but also in the degree of tenacity
+and intensity displayed by them in their perverse propensities, so that,
+in reality, they form a graduated scale leading from the born criminal
+to the normal individual.</p>
+
+<p>Born criminals form about one third of the mass of offenders, but,
+though inferior in numbers, they constitute the most important part of
+the whole criminal army, partly because they are constantly appearing
+before the public and also because the crimes committed by them are of a
+peculiarly monstrous character; the other two thirds are composed of
+criminaloids (minor offenders), occasional and habitual criminals, etc.,
+who do not show such a marked degree of diversity from normal persons.</p>
+
+<p>Let us commence with the born criminal, who as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> principal nucleus of the
+wretched army of law-breakers, naturally manifests the most numerous and
+salient anomalies.</p>
+
+<p>The median occipital fossa and other abnormal features just enumerated
+are not the only peculiarities exhibited by this aggravated type of
+offender. By careful research, my father and others of his School have
+brought to light many anomalies in bodily organs, and functions both
+physical and mental, all of which serve to indicate the atavistic and
+pathological origin of the instinctive criminal.</p>
+
+<p>It would be incompatible with the scope of this summary, were I to give
+a minute description of the innumerable anomalies discovered in
+criminals by the Modern School, to attempt to trace such abnormal traits
+back to their source, or to demonstrate their effect on the organism.
+This has been done in a very minute fashion in the three volumes of my
+father's work <i>Criminal Man</i> and his subsequent writings on the same
+subject, <i>Modern Forms of Crime</i>, <i>Recent Research in Criminal
+Anthropology</i>, <i>Prison Palimpsests</i>, etc., etc., to which readers
+desirous of obtaining a more thorough knowledge of the subject should refer.</p>
+
+<p>The present volume will only touch briefly on the principal
+characteristics of criminals, with the object<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> of presenting a general
+outline of the studies of criminologists.</p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Physical Anomalies of the Born Criminal</span></h4>
+
+<p><i>The Head.</i> As the seat of all the greatest disturbances, this part
+naturally manifests the greatest number of anomalies, which extend from
+the external conformation of the brain-case to the composition of its contents.</p>
+
+<p>The criminal skull does not exhibit any marked characteristics of size
+and shape. Generally speaking, it tends to be larger or smaller than the
+average skull common to the region or country from which the criminal
+hails. It varies between 1200 and 1600 c.c.; <i>i.e.</i>, between 73 and 100
+cubic inches, the normal average being 92. This applies also to the
+cephalic index; that is, the ratio of the maximum width to the maximum
+length of the skull<small><a name="f1.1" id="f1.1" href="#f1">[1]</a></small> multiplied by 100, which serves to give a
+concrete idea of the form of the skull, because the higher the index,
+the nearer the skull approaches a spherical form, and the lower the
+index, the more elongated it becomes. The skulls of criminals have no
+characteristic cephalic index, but tend to an exaggeration of the
+ethnical type prevalent in their native countries. In regions where
+dolichocephaly (index less<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> than 80) abounds, the skulls of criminals
+show a very low index; if, on the contrary, they are natives of
+districts where brachycephaly (index 80 or more) prevails, they exhibit a very high index.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig2" id="fig2"></a><a name="fig3" id="fig3"></a></p>
+<div class="caption">SKULL FORMATION</div>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figures 2 and 3">
+<tr><td align="left"><img src="images/Fig_02.jpg" alt="Skull Formation" /></td><td><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;</span></td>
+<td align="right"><img src="images/Fig_03.jpg" alt="Skull Formation" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Fig. 2</span></strong></td><td><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;</span></td>
+<td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Fig. 3</span></strong></td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In 15.5% we find trochocephalous or abnormally round heads (index 91). A
+very high percentage (nearly double that of normal individuals) have
+submicrocephalous or small skulls. In other cases the skull is
+excessively large (macrocephaly) or abnormally small and ill-shaped with
+a narrow, receding forehead (microcephaly, 0.2%). More rarely the skull
+is of normal size, but shaped like the keel of a boat (scaphocephaly,
+0.1% and subscaphocephaly 6%). (See <a href="#fig2">Fig. 2</a>.) Sometimes the anomalies are
+still more serious and we find wholly asymmetrical skulls with
+protuberances on either side (plagiocephaly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> 10.9%, see <a href="#fig3">Fig. 3</a>), or
+terminating in a peak on the bregma or anterior fontanel (acrocephaly,
+see <a href="#fig4">Fig. 4</a>), or depressed in the middle (cymbocephaly, sphenocephaly).
+At times, there are crests or grooves along the sutures (11.9%) or the
+cranial bones are abnormally thick, a characteristic of savage peoples
+(36.6%) or abnormally thin (8.10%). Other anomalies of importance are
+the presence of Wormian bones in the sutures of the skull (21.22%), the
+bone of the Incas already alluded to (4%), and above all, the median
+occipital fossa. Of great importance also are the prominent frontal
+sinuses found in 25% (double that of normal individuals), the
+semicircular line of the temples, which is sometimes so exaggerated that
+it forms a ridge and is correlated to an excessive development of the
+temporal muscles, a common characteristic of primates and carnivores.
+Sometimes the forehead is receding, as in apes (19%), or low and narrow (10%).</p>
+
+<p><i>The Face.</i> In striking contrast to the narrow forehead and low vault of
+the skull, the face of the criminal, like those of most animals, is of
+disproportionate size, a phenomenon intimately connected with the
+greater development of the senses as compared with that of the nervous
+centres. Prognathism, the projection of the lower portion of the face
+beyond the forehead, is found in 45.7% of criminals.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> Progeneismus, the
+projection of the lower teeth and jaw beyond the upper, is found in 38%,
+whereas among normal persons the proportion is barely 28%. As a natural
+consequence of this predominance of the lower portion of the face, the
+orbital arches and zygom&aelig; show a corresponding development (35%) and the
+size of the jaws is naturally increased, the mean diameter being 103.9
+mm. (4.09 inches) as against 93 mm. (3.66 inches) in normal persons.
+Among criminals 29% have voluminous jaws.</p>
+
+<p>The excessive dimensions of the jaws and cheek-bones admit of other
+explanations besides the atavistic one of a greater development of the
+masticatory system. They may have been influenced by the habit of
+certain gestures, the setting of the teeth or tension of the muscles of
+the mouth, which accompany violent muscular efforts and are natural to
+men who form energetic or violent resolves and meditate plans of revenge.</p>
+
+<p>Asymmetry is a common characteristic of the criminal physiognomy. The
+eyes and ears are frequently situated at different levels and are of
+unequal size, the nose slants towards one side, etc. This asymmetry, as
+we shall see later, is connected with marked irregularities in the senses and functions.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Eye.</i> This window, through which the mind<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> opens to the outer
+world, is naturally the centre of many anomalies of a psychic character,
+hard expression, shifty glance, which are difficult to describe but are,
+nevertheless, apparent to all observers (see <a href="#fig4">Fig. 4</a>). Side by side with
+peculiarities of expression, we find many physical anomalies&mdash;ptosis, a
+drooping of the upper eyelid, which gives the eye a half-closed
+appearance and is frequently unilateral; and strabismus, a want of
+parallelism between the visual axes, which is insignificant if it arises
+from errors of refraction, but is very serious if it betokens
+progressive or congenital diseases of the brain or its membranous
+coverings. Other anomalies are asymmetry of the iris, which frequently
+differs in colour from its fellow; oblique eyelids, a Mongolian
+characteristic, with the edge of the upper eyelid folding inward or a
+prolongation of the internal fold of the eyelid, which Metchnikoff
+regards as a persistence of embryonic characters.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Ear.</i> The external ear is often of large size; occasionally also it
+is smaller than the ears of normal individuals. Twenty-eight per cent.
+of criminals have handle-shaped ears standing out from the face as in
+the chimpanzee: in other cases they are placed at different levels.
+Frequently too, we find misshapen, flattened ears, devoid of helix,
+tragus, and anti-tragus, and with a protuberance on the upper<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> part of
+the posterior margin (Darwin's tubercle), a relic of the pointed ear
+characteristic of apes. Anomalies are also found in the lobe, which in
+some cases adheres too closely to the face, or is of huge size as in the
+ancient Egyptians; in other cases, the lobe is entirely absent, or is
+atrophied till the ear assumes a form like that common to apes.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Nose.</i> This is frequently twisted, up-turned or of a flattened,
+negroid character in thieves; in murderers, on the contrary, it is often
+aquiline like the beak of a bird of prey. Not infrequently we meet with
+the trilobate nose, its tip rising like an isolated peak from the
+swollen nostrils, a form found among the Akkas, a tribe of pygmies of
+Central Africa. All these peculiarities have given rise to popular saws,
+of a character more or less prevalent everywhere.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Mouth.</i> This part shows perhaps a greater number of anomalies than
+any other facial organ. We have already alluded to the excessive
+development of the jaws in criminals. They are sometimes the seat of
+other abnormal characters,&mdash;the lemurine apophysis, a bony elevation at
+the angle of the jaw, which may easily be recognised externally by
+passing the hand over the skin; and the canine fossa, a depression in
+the upper jaw for the attachment of the canine muscle. This muscle,
+which is strongly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> developed in the dog, serves when contracted to draw
+back the lip leaving the canines exposed.</p>
+
+<p>The lips of violators of women and murderers are fleshy, swollen and
+protruding, as in negroes. Swindlers have thin, straight lips. Hare-lip
+is more common in criminals than in normal persons.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Cheek-pouches.</i> Folds in the flesh of the cheek which recall the
+pouches of certain species of mammals, are not uncommon in criminals.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Palate.</i> A central ridge (<i>torus palatinus</i>), more easily felt than
+seen, may sometimes be found on the palate, or this part may exhibit
+other peculiarities, a series of cavities and protuberances
+corresponding to the palatal teeth of reptiles. Another frequent
+abnormality is cleft palate, a fissure in the palate, due to defective development.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Teeth.</i> These are specially important, for criminals rarely have
+normal dentition. The incisors show the greatest number of anomalies.
+Sometimes both the lateral incisors are absent and the middle ones are
+of excessive size, a peculiarity which recalls the incisors of rodents.
+The teeth are frequently striated transversely or set very wide apart
+(diastema) with gaps on either side of the upper canines into which the
+lower ones fit, a simian characteristic. In some cases, these spaces<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span>
+occur between the middle incisors or between these and the lateral ones.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><a name="fig4" id="fig4"></a><a name="fig5" id="fig5"></a></p>
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figures 4 and 5">
+<tr><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Fig. 4</span></strong></td><td><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;</span></td><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Fig. 5</span></strong></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/Fig_04.jpg" alt="Head of Criminal" /></td><td><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;</span></td><td align="center"><img src="images/Fig_05.jpg" alt="Head of Criminal" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Head of Criminal</span><br /> (see <a href="#Page_14">page 14</a>)</strong></td><td><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;</span></td><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Head of Criminal</span><br /> (see <a href="#Page_18">page 18</a>)</strong></td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Very often the teeth show a strange uniformity, which recalls the
+homodontism of the lower vertebrates. In some cases, however, this
+uniformity is limited to the premolars, which are furnished with
+tubercles like the molars, a peculiarity of gorillas and orang-outangs.
+In 4% the canines are very strongly developed, long, sharp, and curving
+inwardly as in carnivores. Premature caries is common.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Chin.</i> Generally speaking, this part of the face projects
+moderately in Europeans. In criminals it is often small and receding, as
+in children, or else excessively long, short or flat, as in apes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wrinkles.</i> Although common to normal individuals, the abundance,
+variety, and precocity of wrinkles almost invariably manifested by
+criminals, cannot fail to strike the observer. The following are the
+most common: horizontal and vertical lines on the forehead, horizontal
+and circumflex lines at the root of the nose, the so-called crow's-feet
+on the temple at the outer corners of the eyes, naso-labial wrinkles
+around the region of the mouth and nose.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Hair.</i> The hair of the scalp, cheeks and chin, eyebrows, and other
+parts of the body, shows a number of anomalies. In general it may be
+said<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> that in the distribution of hair, criminals of both sexes tend to
+exhibit characteristics of the opposite sex. Dark hair prevails
+especially in murderers, and curly and woolly hair in swindlers. Both
+grey hair and baldness are rare and when found make their appearance
+later in life than in the case of normal individuals. The beard is
+scanty and frequently missing altogether. On the other hand, the
+forehead is often covered with down. The eyebrows are bushy and tend to
+meet across the nose. Sometimes they grow in a slanting direction and
+give the face a satyr-like expression (see <a href="#fig5">Fig. 5</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The blemishes peculiar to the delinquent are not only confined to the
+face and head, but are found in the trunk and limbs.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Thorax.</i> An increase or decrease in the number of ribs is found in
+12% of criminals. This is an atavistic character common to animals and
+lower or prehistoric human races and contrasts with the numerical
+uniformity characteristic of civilised mankind.</p>
+
+<p>Polymastia, or the presence of supernumerary nipples (which are
+generally placed symmetrically below the normal ones as in many mammals)
+is not an uncommon anomaly. Gynecomastia or hypertrophy of the mamm&aelig; is
+still more frequent in male criminals. In female criminals, on the
+contrary,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> we often find imperfect development or absence of the
+nipples, a characteristic of monotremata or lowest order of the mammals;
+or the breasts are flabby and pendent like those of Hottentot women.</p>
+
+<p>The chest is often covered with hair which gives the subject the appearance of an animal.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Pelvis and Abdomen.</i> The abdomen, pelvis, and reproductive organs
+sometimes show an inversion of sex-characters. In 42% the sacral canal
+is uncovered, and in some cases there is a prolongation of the coccyx,
+which resembles the stump of a tail, sometimes tufted with hair.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Upper Limbs.</i> One of the most striking and frequent anomalies
+exhibited by criminals is the excessive length of the arms as compared
+with the lower limbs, owing to which the span of the arms exceeds the
+total height, an ape-like character.</p>
+
+<p>Six per cent. exhibit an anomaly which is extremely rare among normal
+individuals&mdash;the olecranon foramen, a perforation in the head of the
+humerus where it articulates with the ulna. This is normal in the ape
+and dog and is frequently found in the bones of prehistoric man and in
+some of the existing inferior races of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>Several abnormal characters, which point to an atavistic origin, are
+found in the palm and fingers. Supernumerary fingers (polydactylism) or
+a reduction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> in the usual number are not uncommon. Sometimes we find
+syndactylism, or palmate fingers, a continuation of the interdigital
+skin to the second phalanx. The length of the fingers varies according
+to the type of crime to which the individual is addicted. Those guilty
+of crimes against the person have short, clumsy fingers and especially
+short thumbs. Long fingers are common to swindlers, thieves, sexual
+offenders, and pickpockets. The lines on the palmar surfaces of the
+finger-tips are often of a simple nature as in the anthropoids. The
+principal lines on the palm are of special significance. Normal persons
+possess three, two horizontal and one vertical, but in criminals these
+lines are often reduced to one or two of horizontal or transverse
+direction, as in apes.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Lower Limbs.</i> Of a number of criminals examined, 16% showed an
+unusual development of the third trochanter, a protuberance on the head
+of the femur where it articulates with the pelvis. This distinctly
+atavistic character is connected with the position of the hind-limb in quadrupeds.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Feet.</i> Spaces between the toes like the interdigital spaces of the
+hand are very common, and in conjunction with the greater mobility of
+the toes and greater length of the big-toe, produce the prehensile foot,
+of the quadrumana, which is used for<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> grasping. The foot is often flat,
+as in negroes. In the feet, as in the hands, there is frequently a
+tendency to greater strength or dexterity on the left side, contrary to
+what happens in normal persons, and this tendency is manifested in many
+cases where there is no trace of functional and motorial left-handedness.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Cerebrum and the Cerebellum.</i> The chief and most common anomaly is
+the prevalence of macroscopic anomalies in the left hemisphere, which
+are correlated to the sensory and functional left-handedness common to
+criminals and acquired through illness. The most notable anomaly of the
+cerebellum is the hypertrophy of the vermis, which represents the middle
+lobe found in the lower mammals. Anomalies in the cerebral convolutions
+consist principally of anastomotic folds, the doubling of the fissure of
+Rolando, the frequent existence of a fourth frontal convolution, the
+imperfect development of the precuneus (as in many types of apes), etc.
+Anomalies of a purely pathological character are still more common.
+These are: adhesions of the meninges, thickening of the pia mater,
+congestion of the meninges, partial atrophy, centres of softening,
+seaming of the optic thalami, atrophy of the corpus callosum, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Of great importance, too, are the histological anomalies discovered by
+Roncoroni in the brains of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> criminals and epileptics. In normal
+individuals the layers of the frontal region are disposed in the following manner:</p>
+
+<p>1. Molecular layer. 2. Superficial layer of small cells. 3. Layer of
+small pyramidal cells. 4. Deep layer of small nerve cells. 5. Layer of
+polymorphous cells (see <a href="#fig6">Fig. 6</a>).</p>
+
+<p>In certain animals, the dog, ape, rabbit, ox, and domestic fowl, the
+superficial layer is frequently non-existent and the deep one is found
+only to some extent in the ape.</p>
+
+<p>In born criminals and epileptics there is a prevalence of large,
+pyramidal, and polymorphous cells, whereas in normal individuals small,
+triangular, and star-shaped cells predominate. Also the transition from
+the small superficial to the large pyramidal cells is not so regular,
+and the number of nervous cells is noticeably below the average.
+Whereas, moreover, in the normally constituted brain, nervous cells are
+very scarce or entirely absent in the white substance, in the case of
+born criminals and epileptics they abound in this part of the brain.</p>
+
+<p>The abnormal morphological arrangement described by Roncoroni is
+probably the anatomical expression of hereditary alterations, and
+reveals disorders in nervous development which lead to moral insanity
+or epilepsy according to the gravity of the morbid conditions which give
+rise to them.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span></p>
+<p><a name="fig6" id="fig6"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/Fig_06.jpg" alt="Parietal Lobes" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6</span></div>
+<p class="center"><i>a</i>) Cortical strata of the circumvolutions of the parietal lobes of a normal person.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>b</i>) Cortical strata of the circumvolutions of the parietal lobes of a criminal epileptic.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot">1. Molecular stratum. 2. External granular stratum. 3. Stratum of the
+small pyramidal cells. 4. Stratum of the large pyramidal cells. 5. Deep
+stratum of the small nervous cells or the deep granular stratum. 6.
+Stratum of polymorphic cells. S.B. White matter.</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span>
+These anomalies in the limbs, trunk, skull and, above all, in the face,
+when numerous and marked, constitute what is known to criminal
+anthropologists as the criminal type, in exactly the same way as the sum
+of the characters peculiar to cretins form what is called the cretinous
+type. In neither case have the anomalies an intrinsic importance, since
+they are neither the cause of the anti-social tendencies of the criminal
+nor of the mental deficiencies of the cretin. They are the outward and
+visible signs of a mysterious and complicated process of degeneration,
+which in the case of the criminal evokes evil impulses that are largely
+of atavistic origin.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Sensory and Functional Peculiarities of the Born Criminal</span></h4>
+
+<p>The above-mentioned physiognomical and skeletal anomalies are further
+supplemented by functional peculiarities, and all these abnormal
+characteristics converge, as mountain streams to the hollow in the
+plain, towards a central idea&mdash;the atavistic nature of the born criminal.</p>
+
+<p>An examination of the senses and sensibility of criminals gives the following results:</p>
+
+<p><i>General Sensibility.</i> Tested simply by touching<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> with the finger, a
+certain degree of obtuseness is noted. By using an apparatus invented by
+Du Bois-Reymond and adopted by my father, the degree of sensibility
+obtained was 49.6 mm. in criminals as against 64.2 mm. in normal
+individuals. Criminals are more sensitive on the left side, contrary to
+normal persons, in whom greater sensibility prevails on the right.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sensibility to Pain.</i> Compared with ordinary individuals, the criminal
+shows greater insensibility to pain as well as to touch. This obtuseness
+sometimes reaches complete analgesia or total absence of feeling (16%),
+a phenomenon never encountered in normal persons. The mean degree of
+dolorific sensibility in criminals is 34.1 mm. whereas it is rarely
+lower than 40 mm. in normal individuals. Here again the left-handedness
+of criminals becomes apparent, 39% showing greater sensibility on the left.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tactile Sensibility.</i> The distance at which two points applied to the
+finger-tips are felt separately is more than 4 mm. in 30% of criminals,
+a degree of obtuseness only found in 4% of normal individuals. Criminals
+exhibit greater tactile sensibility on the left. Tactile obtuseness
+varies with the class of crime practised by the individual. While in
+burglars, swindlers, and assaulters, it is double that of normal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span>
+persons, in murderers, violators, and incendiaries it is often four or five times as great.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sensibility to the Magnet</i>, which scarcely exists in normal persons, is
+common to a marked degree in criminals (48%).</p>
+
+<p><i>Meteoric Sensibility.</i> This is far more apparent in criminals and the
+insane than in normal individuals. With variations of temperature and
+atmospheric pressure, both criminals and lunatics become agitated and
+manifest changes of disposition and sensations of various kinds, which
+are rarely experienced by normal persons.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sight</i> is generally acute, perhaps more so than in ordinary
+individuals, and in this the criminal resembles the savage. Chromatic
+sensibility, on the contrary, is decidedly defective, the percentage of
+colour-blindness being twice that of normal persons. The field of vision
+is frequently limited by the white and exhibits much stranger anomalies,
+a special irregularity of outline with deep peripheral scotoma, which we
+shall see is a special characteristic of the epileptic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hearing</i>, <i>Smell</i>, <i>Taste</i> are generally of less than average acuteness
+in criminals. Cases of complete anosmia and qualitative obtuseness are
+not uncommon.<small><a name="f2.1" id="f2.1" href="#f2">[2]</a></small></p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span><i>Agility.</i> Criminals are generally agile and preserve this quality even
+at an advanced age. When over seventy, Vilella sprang like a goat up the
+steep rocks of his native Calabria, and the celebrated thief "La
+Vecchia," when quite an old man, escaped from his captors by leaping
+from a high rampart at Pavia.</p>
+
+<p><i>Strength.</i> Contrary to what might be expected, tests by means of the
+dynamometer show that criminals do not usually possess an extraordinary
+degree of strength. There is frequently a slight difference between the
+strength of the right and left limbs, but more often ambidexterity, as
+in children, and a greater degree of strength in the left limbs.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Psychology of the Born Criminal</span></h4>
+
+<p>The physical type of the criminal is completed and intensified by his
+moral and intellectual physiognomy, which furnishes a further proof of
+his relationship to the savage and epileptic.</p>
+
+<p><i>Natural Affections.</i> These play an important part in the life of a
+normally constituted individual and are in fact the <i>raison d'&ecirc;tre</i> of
+his existence, but the criminal rarely, if ever, experiences emotions of
+this kind and least of all regarding his own kin. On the other hand, he
+shows exaggerated and abnormal fondness for animals and strangers. La
+Sola, a female criminal, manifested about as much<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> affection for her
+children as if they had been kittens and induced her accomplice to
+murder a former paramour, who was deeply attached to her; yet she tended
+the sick and dying with the utmost devotion.</p>
+
+<p>In the place of domestic and social affections, the criminal is
+dominated by a few absorbing passions: vanity, impulsiveness, desire for revenge, licentiousness.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Moral Sense</span></h4>
+
+<p>The ability to discriminate between right and wrong, which is the
+highest attribute of civilised humanity, is notably lacking in
+physically and psychically stunted organisms. Many criminals do not
+realise the immorality of their actions. In French criminal jargon
+conscience is called "la muette," the thief "l'ami," and "travailler"
+and "servir" signify to steal. A Milanese thief once remarked to my
+father: "I don't steal. I only relieve the rich of their superfluous
+wealth." Lacenaire, speaking of his accomplice Avril, remarked, "I
+realised at once that we should be able to work together." A thief asked
+by Ferri what he did when he found the purse stolen by him contained no
+money, replied, "I call them rogues." The notions of right and wrong
+appear to be completely inverted in such minds. They seem to think they
+have a right to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> rob and murder and that those who hinder them are
+acting unfairly. Murderers, especially when actuated by motives of
+revenge, consider their actions righteous in the extreme.</p>
+
+<p><i>Repentance and Remorse.</i> We hear a great deal about the remorse of
+criminals, but those who come into contact with these degenerates
+realise that they are rarely, if ever, tormented by such feelings. Very
+few confess their crimes: the greater number deny all guilt in a most
+strenuous manner and are fond of protesting that they are victims of
+injustice, calumny, and jealousy. As Despine once remarked with much
+insight, nothing resembles the sleep of the just more closely than the slumbers of an assassin.</p>
+
+<p>Many criminals, indeed, allege repentance, but generally from
+hypocritical motives; either because they hope to gain some advantage by
+working on the feelings of philanthropists, or with a view to escaping,
+or, at any rate, improving their condition while in prison. Thus
+Lacenaire, when convicted for the first time, wrote in a moving strain
+to his friend Vigouroux in order to get money and help from him,
+"Repentance is the only course left open to me. You may well feel
+pleased at having turned a man from a path of crime for which he was not
+intended by nature." A few hours later he committed another theft, and
+before he died remarked cynically<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span> that he had never experienced
+remorse. When tried at the Assizes at Pavia, Rognoni pronounced a
+touching discourse on his repentance and refused the wine brought him in
+prison for some days because it reminded him of his murdered brother.
+But he obtained it surreptitiously from his fellow-prisoners, and when
+one of them grumbled at having to give up his own portion, Rognoni
+threatened him saying, "I have already murdered four, and shall make no
+bones about killing a fifth."</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes remorse is advanced by criminals as a palliation of their
+crimes. Michelieu justified the <i>coup de grace</i> inflicted on his victim
+by saying, "When I saw her in that state, I felt such terrible remorse
+that I shot her dead in order not to meet her glance."</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes an appearance of remorse is produced by hallucinations due to
+alcoholism. Philippe and Lucke imagined they saw the spectres of the
+persons they had murdered a short time before, but in reality they were
+suffering from the effects of drink and so little true remorse did they
+feel that on being sentenced, Philippe remarked, "If they had not sent
+me to Cayenne, I should have done it again." Generally speaking, what
+seems to be repentance is only the fear of death or some superstitious
+dread, which assumes an appearance of remorse, but is devoid of real
+feeling.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span>A typical instance of hypocrisy and cynicism is furnished by the
+Marquise de Brinvilliers, the notorious poisoner, who succeeded in
+deceiving the venerable prison-chaplain so completely that he regarded
+her as a model of penitence, yet in her last moments she wrote to her
+husband denying her guilt and exhibited lascivious and revengeful feelings.</p>
+
+<p>Many criminals, when in prison, model sculptural representations of
+their crimes with crumbs of bread (see <a href="#fig7">Fig. 7</a>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Cynicism.</i> The strongest proof of the total lack of remorse in
+criminals and their inability to distinguish between good and evil is
+furnished by the callous way in which they boast of their depraved
+actions and feign pious sentiments which they do not feel. One criminal
+humbly entreated to be allowed to retain his own crucifix while in
+prison. It was subsequently discovered that the sacred image served as a
+sheath for his dagger (see <a href="#fig8">Fig. 8</a>).</p>
+
+<p>Philippe made the following statement to one of his female companions.
+"My way of loving women is a very strange one. After enjoying their
+caresses, I take the greatest delight in strangling them or cutting
+their throats. Soon you will hear everyone talking about me." Shortly
+before he murdered his father, Lachaud said to his friends, "This
+evening I<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> shall dig a grave and lay my father there to rest eternally."</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, indeed, a criminal realises dimly the depravity of his
+actions; he rarely judges them, however, as a normal person would, but
+seeks to explain and justify them after his own fashion. When asked by
+the magistrate if he denied having stolen a horse, Ansalone replied,
+"Surely you do not call that a theft; a leader of brigands could hardly
+be expected to go on foot!"</p>
+
+<p>Others consider that their actions are less criminal if their intentions
+were good; like Holland, who murdered to obtain food for his wife and
+children. Others, again, think themselves excused by the fact that many
+do worse things with impunity. Any circumstance, the lack or
+insufficiency of evidence against them or the fact that they are accused
+of an offence different from the one they have really committed, is
+seized upon as a mitigation of their guilt, and they always manifest
+much resentment against those who administer the law. "London thieves,"
+observes Mayhew, "realise that they do wrong, but think that they are no
+worse than ordinary bankrupts."</p>
+
+<p>The constant perusal of newspaper reports leads criminals to believe
+that there are a great many rogues in higher circles, and by taking
+exceptions to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> be the rule, they flatter themselves that their own
+actions are not very reprehensible, because the wealthy are not censured
+for similar actions.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><a name="fig7" id="fig7"></a><a name="fig8" id="fig8"></a></p>
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figures 7 and 8">
+<tr><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Fig. 7</span></strong></td><td><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;</span></td><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Fig. 8</span></strong></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/Fig_07.jpg" alt="Figures made in Prison" /></td><td><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;</span></td><td align="center"><img src="images/Fig_08.jpg" alt="Crucifix Poignard" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><strong>Figures made in Prison<br /> <span class="smcap">Murder of a Sleeping Victim</span><br /> Work of a Prisoner<br />(see <a href="#Page_31">page 31</a>)</strong></td><td><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;</span></td><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Crucifix Poignard</span><br /> (see <a href="#Page_31">page 31</a>)</strong></td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p>These instances show that criminals are not entirely unable to
+distinguish between right and wrong. Nevertheless, their moral sense is
+sterile because it is suffocated by passions and the deadening force of
+habit.</p>
+
+<p>In the cant of Spanish thieves, justice is called "la justa" (the just),
+and this name is given in French slang to the Assizes, but, as Mayor
+observes, it may be applied ironically.</p>
+
+<p>In alluding to the unknown author of the crimes committed in reality by
+himself, the murderer Pr&eacute;vost remarked, "Whoever it is, he is bound to
+end by the guillotine sooner or later." In such cases, although a sense
+of truth and justice exists, the desire to act according to it is
+lacking.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"It is one thing [observes Harwick] to possess a theoretical notion
+of what is right and wrong, but quite another to act according to
+it. In order that the knowledge of good should be transformed into
+an ardent desire for its triumph, as food is converted into chyle
+and blood, it must be urged to action by elevated sentiments, and
+these are generally lacking in the criminal. If, on the contrary,
+good feelings really exist, the individual desires to do right and
+his convictions are translated into action with the same energy
+that he displayed in doing wrong."</p></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>A philanthropist once invited a number of young London thieves to a
+friendly gathering, and it was noticed that the most hardened offenders
+were greeted with the greatest amount of applause from the company.
+Nevertheless, when the President requested one of them to change a gold
+coin outside, and he did not return, those present showed great
+indignation and anxiety, abusing and threatening their absent companion,
+whose ultimate return was hailed with genuine relief. In this case, no
+doubt, envy and vanity played as great a part as a sense of integrity,
+in the resentment shown at this fancied breach of faith.</p>
+
+<p>In the prisons at Moscow, offences against discipline are dealt with by
+the offenders' fellow-prisoners. The convict population on the island of
+San Stefano compiled spontaneously a Draconian code to quell internal
+discord arising from racial jealousies.</p>
+
+<p><i>Treachery.</i> This species of morality and justice, which unexpectedly
+makes its appearance in the midst of a naturally unrighteous community,
+can only be forced and temporary. When, instead of reaping advantages,
+interests and passions are injured by acting rightly, these notions of
+justice, unsustained by innate integrity suddenly fail. Contrary to
+universal belief, criminals are very prone to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> betray their companions
+and accomplices, and are easily induced to act as informers in the hope
+of gaining some personal advantage or of injuring those they envy or
+suspect of treachery towards themselves.</p>
+
+<p>"Many thieves," says Vidocq, "consider it a stroke of luck to be
+consulted by the police." In fact, Bouscaut, one of a notorious band of
+malefactors in France, was chiefly instrumental in causing the arrest of
+the gang; and the brigand Caruso aided the authorities in capturing his
+former companions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vanity.</i> Pride, or rather vanity, and an exaggerated notion of their
+own importance, which we find in the masses, generally in inverse
+proportion to real merit, is especially strong in criminals. In the cell
+occupied by La Gala, the following notice was found in his handwriting:
+"March 24th. On this date La Gala learnt to knit." Another criminal,
+Crocco, tried hard to save his brother, "Lest," he said, "my race should
+die out." Lacenaire was less troubled by the death-sentence than by
+adverse criticisms of his bad verse and the fear of public contempt. "I
+do not fear being hated," he is reported to have said, "but I dread
+being despised&mdash;the tempest leaves traces of its passage, but unobserved
+the humble flower fades."</p>
+
+<p>Thus thieves are loth to confess that they are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> guilty of only petty
+larceny, and are sometimes prompted by vanity to commit more serious
+robberies. The same false shame is common to fallen women, among whom
+contempt is incurred, not by excess of depravity but by the failure to
+command high prices. Grellinier, a petty thief, boasted in court of
+imaginary offences, with the desire of appearing in the light of a great
+criminal. The crimes in the haunted castle, attributed by Holmes to
+himself, were certainly in part inventions. The female poisoner,
+Buscemi, when writing to her accomplice, signed herself, "Your Lucrezia
+Borgia."</p>
+
+<p>One of the most frequent causes of modern crime is the desire to gratify
+personal vanity and to become notorious.</p>
+
+<p><i>Impulsiveness.</i> This is another and almost pathognomonical
+characteristic of born criminals, and also, as we shall see later on, of
+epileptics and the morally insane. That which in ordinary individuals is
+only an eccentric and fugitive suggestion vanishing as soon as it
+arises, in the case of abnormal subjects is rapidly translated into
+action, which, although unconscious, is not the less dangerous. A youth
+of this impulsive type, returning home one evening flushed with wine,
+met a peasant leading his ass and cried out, "As I have not come to
+blows with anyone to-day, I must vent my rage on this beast,"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span> at the
+same time drawing his knife and plunging it several times into the poor
+animal's body (Ladelci, <i>Il Vino</i>, Rome, 1868). Pinel describes a
+morally insane subject, who was in the habit of giving way to his
+passions, killing any horses that did not please him and thrashing his
+political opponents. He even went to the length of throwing a lady down
+a well, because she ventured to contradict him.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The most trifling causes [remarks Tamburini, speaking of Sbro...]
+that stand in the way of his wishes, provoke a fit of rage in which
+he appears to lose all self-control, like little children, who in
+resenting any offence show no sense of proportion. The most trivial
+reasons for disliking anyone awaken in him an irresistible desire
+to kill the object of his aversion, and if any new blasphemy rises
+to his lips, he feels constrained to repeat it."</p></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>A thief once said to my father: "It is in our very blood. It may be only
+a pin, but I cannot help taking it, although I am quite ready to give it
+back to its owner." The pickpocket Bor... confessed that at the age of
+twelve he had begun to steal in the streets and at school, to the extent
+of taking things from under his schoolfellows' pillows, and that it was
+impossible for him to resist stealing, even when his pockets were full.
+If he had not stolen some article before going to bed, he was unable to
+sleep, and when midnight struck, he felt obliged to take the first thing
+that came to his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span> hand, destroying it frequently as soon as he had
+appropriated it.</p>
+
+<p>"To give up stealing," said Deham to Lauvergne, "would be like ceasing
+to exist. Stealing is a passion that burns like love and when I feel the
+blood seething in my brain and fingers, I think I should be capable of
+robbing myself, if that were possible." When sentenced to the galleys,
+he stole the bands from the masts, nails, and copper plates, and he
+himself fixed the number of lashes he was to receive after each of these
+exploits, which did not prevent his recommencing stealing directly
+afterward (<i>Les For&ccedil;ats</i>, p. 358).</p>
+
+<p>Ponticelli once saw a thief, who was dying of consumption, steal an old
+slipper from his neighbour and hide it under the bedclothes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Vindictiveness.</i> Closely allied to this impulsiveness and exaggerated
+personal vanity, we find an extraordinary thirst for revenge. Lebuc
+murdered a man who had stolen some matches from him. Baron R... caused
+the death of a man, because he had failed to order a religious
+procession to halt under the windows of his palace.</p>
+
+<p><span style="margin-left: 4em;">"To see expire the one you hate&mdash;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">Such is the joy of the gods.</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 4em;">My sole desire is to hate and be avenged."</span></p>
+
+<p>wrote Lacenaire.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span>After a slight dispute with Voit, whose hospitality he had enjoyed,
+Renaud threw his friend down a well. He was arrested, and when Voit, who
+had been rescued, pardoned him, he said, "I only regret not having
+finished him, but when I come out of prison, I will do so." And he kept
+his word.</p>
+
+<p>The tattooing on the persons of criminals and their writings while in
+prison are full of solemn oaths of vengeance. A female thief once said,
+"If it were true that those who refuse to pardon will be damned
+eternally, I should still withhold my forgiveness."</p>
+
+<p><i>Cruelty</i> depends on moral and physical insensibility, those incapable
+of feeling pain being indifferent to the sufferings of others.</p>
+
+<p>The post of executioner was eagerly competed for at the prison of
+Rochefort. Mammon used to drink the blood of his victims and when this
+was not to be had, he drank his own. The executioner Jean became so
+maddened by the sight of blood flowing beneath his lash, that guards
+were stationed to prevent undue prolongation of the punishment. Dippe
+wrote: "My chief pleasure is beheading. When I was young, stabbing was
+my sole pastime."</p>
+
+<p>It has often been observed that the ferocity of women exceeds that of
+men. Rulfi killed her own niece, whom she detested, by thrusting long
+pins<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> into her, and the female brigand Ciclope reproached her lover for
+murdering his victims too quickly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Idleness.</i> Like savages, criminals are dominated by an incorrigible
+laziness, which in certain cases leads them to prefer death from
+starvation to regular work. This idleness alternates with periods of
+ferocious impulsiveness, during which they display the greatest energy.
+Like savages, too, they are passionately fond of alcohol, orgies, and
+sensual pleasures, which alone rouse them to activity.</p>
+
+<p><i>Orgies.</i> Those who have observed children absorbed all day long by a
+game that pleases them, can understand the meaning of these words,
+spoken by a woman: "Criminals are grown-up children." The love of
+habitual debauch is so intense that, as soon as thieves have made some
+great haul or escaped from prison, they return to their haunts to
+carouse and make merry, in spite of the evident danger of falling once
+more into the hands of the police.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gambling.</i> The passion for gambling is so strong that the criminal is
+always in a penniless condition, no matter how much treasure he has
+appropriated, and cases of starvation in prison are not unknown,
+prisoners having sold their rations in order to gratify this vice.</p>
+
+<p><i>Games.</i> Many primitive and cruel amusements, similar to the pastimes of
+savages, have been preserved<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> or reconstructed by criminals. Such are
+the games known to Italian offenders as "La Patta," in which one of the
+players tries to avoid being struck while passing his head between two
+points brought together horizontally by another, who stands with his
+arms outstretched; and "La Rota," in which the players run in a circle,
+one behind the other, seeking to escape, by dodging, the blows from a
+stout stick, aimed at them by one of their companions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Intelligence</i> is feeble in some and exaggerated in others. Prudence and
+forethought are generally lacking. A very common characteristic is
+recklessness, which leads criminals to run the risk of arrest for the
+sake of being witty, or to leave some blood-stained weapon on the very
+spot where they have committed a crime, notwithstanding the fact that
+they have taken a hundred precautions to avoid detection. This same
+recklessness prompts them, when the danger is scarcely past, to make
+verses or pictures of their exploits or to tattoo them upon their
+persons, heedless of consequences.</p>
+
+<p>Zino relates the story of a Sicilian schoolboy, who illustrated his
+criminal relations with his schoolfellows by a series of sketches in his
+album. A certain Cavaglia, called "Fusil" robbed and murdered an
+accomplice and hid the body in a cupboard. He was arrested and in prison
+decided to commit<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span> suicide a hundred days after the date of his crime,
+but before doing so, he adorned his water-jug with an account of his
+misdeed, partly in pictures and partly in writing, as though he desired
+to raise a monument to himself (see <a href="#fig9">Fig. 9</a>). The clearest and strangest
+instance of this recklessness was furnished by a photograph discovered
+by the police, in which, at the risk of arrest and detection, three
+criminals had had themselves photographed in the very act of committing
+a murder.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Intellectual Manifestations</span></h4>
+
+<p><i>Slang.</i> This is a peculiar jargon used by criminals when speaking among
+themselves. The syntax and grammatical construction of the language
+remain unchanged, but the meanings of words are altered, many being
+formed in the same way as in primitive languages; <i>i.e.</i>, an object
+frequently receives the name of one of its attributes. Thus a kid is
+called "jumper," death "the lean or cruel one," the soul "the false or
+shameful one," the body "the veil," the hour "the swift one," the moon
+"the spy," a purse "the saint," alms "the rogue," a sermon "the tedious
+one," etc. Many words are formed as among savages, by onomatopoeia, as
+"tuff" (pistol), "tic" (watch), "guanguana" (sweetheart), "fric frac"
+(lottery).</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig9" id="fig9"></a></p>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9</span></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/Fig_09.jpg" alt="Water-Jugs" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Water-Jugs</span><br />(see <a href="#Page_42">page 42</a>)</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span>The necessity of eluding police investigations is the reason usually
+given for the origin of this slang. No doubt it was one of the chief
+causes, but does not explain the continued use of a jargon which is too
+well known now to serve this purpose; moreover, it is employed in poems,
+the object of which is to invite public attention, not to avoid it, and
+by criminals in their homes where there is no need for secrecy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pictography.</i> One of the strangest characteristics of criminals is the
+tendency to express their ideas pictorially. While in prison, Troppmann
+painted the scene of his misdeed, for the purpose of showing that it had
+been committed by others. We have already mentioned the rude
+illustrations engraved by the murderer Cavaglia on his pitcher,
+representing his crime, imprisonment, and suicide. Books, crockery,
+guns, all the utensils criminals have in constant use, serve as a canvas
+on which to portray their exploits.</p>
+
+<p>From pictography it is but an easy step to hieroglyphics like those used
+by ancient peoples. The hieroglyphics of criminals are closely allied to
+their slang, of which in fact they are only a pictorial representation,
+and, although largely inspired by the necessity for secrecy, show, in
+addition, evident atavistic tendencies.</p>
+
+<p>De Blasio has explained the meaning of the hieroglyphics used by the
+"camorristi" (members<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> of the <i>camorra</i> at Naples), especially when they
+are in prison. For instance, to indicate the President of the Tribunal,
+they use a crown with three points; to indicate a judge, the judge's cap
+(see <a href="#fig10">Fig. 10</a>). The following is a list of some of the hieroglyphics
+mentioned by De Blasio:</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig10" id="fig10"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/Fig_10.jpg" alt="Drawings in Script" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10</span><br />
+Drawings in Script. Discovered by De Blasio</div></div>
+
+
+<p><i>Police Inspector</i>&mdash;a hat like those worn by the Italian soldiers who
+are called Alpini (a helmet with flat top and an upright feather on the
+left side).</p>
+
+<p><i>Public Prosecutor</i>&mdash;an open-mouthed viper (see <a href="#fig10">Fig. 10</a>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Carabineer</i>&mdash;a bugle.</p>
+
+<p><i>Theft</i>&mdash;a skull and cross-bones.</p>
+
+<p><i>Commissary of the Police</i>&mdash;a dwarf with the three-cornered hat worn by
+the <i>carabinieri</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arts and Industries of the Criminal.</i> Although habitual criminals show
+a strong aversion to any kind of useful labour, in prison and at large,
+they, nevertheless, apply themselves with great diligence to certain
+tasks, sometimes of an illegal nature, such as the manufacture of
+implements to aid them in escaping,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> sometimes merely artistic, such as
+modelling, with breadcrumbs, brickdust, or soap, the figures of persons.
+Sometimes they make baskets, machines, dominoes, draughts,
+playing-cards, etc., or form means of communication with their
+fellow-prisoners and construct weapons for executing their schemes of
+vengeance. They also devote themselves to eccentric and useless
+occupations, like the training of animals, such as mice, marmosets,
+birds, and even fleas (Lattes). This morbid and misguided activity,
+which frequently shows gleams of talent, might well be utilised for
+increasing the scope of prison industries.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Tattooing</span></h4>
+
+<p>This personal decoration so often found on great criminals is one of the
+strangest relics of a former state. It consists of designs,
+hieroglyphics, and words punctured in the skin by a special and very
+painful process.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig11" id="fig11"></a></p>
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/Fig_11.jpg" alt="Alphabet Discovered by De Blasio" />
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11</span><br />Alphabet Discovered by De Blasio</div></div>
+
+<p>Among primitive peoples, who live in a more or less nude condition,
+tattooing takes the place of decorations or ornamental garments, and
+serves as a mark of distinction or rank. When an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span> Eskimo slays an enemy,
+he adorns his upper-lip with a couple of blue stripes, and the warriors
+of Sumatra add a special sign to their decorations for every foe they
+kill. In Wuhaiva, ladies of noble birth are more extensively tattooed
+than women of humbler rank. Among the Maoris, tattooing is a species of
+armorial bearings indicative of noble birth.</p>
+
+<p>According to ancient writers, tattooing was practised by Thracians,
+Picts, and Celts. Roman soldiers tattooed their arms with the names of
+their generals, and artisans in the Middle Ages were marked with the
+insignia of their crafts. In modern times this custom has fallen into
+disuse among the higher classes and only exists among sailors, soldiers,
+peasants, and workmen.</p>
+
+<p>Although not exclusively confined to criminals, tattooing is practised
+by them to a far larger extent than by normal persons: 9% of adult
+criminals and 40% of minors are tattooed; whereas, in normal persons the
+proportion is only 0.1%. Recidivists and born criminals, whether thieves
+or murderers, show the highest percentage of tattooing. Forgers and
+swindlers are rarely tattooed.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes tattooing consists of a motto symbolical of the career of the
+criminal it adorns. Tardieu found on the arm of a sailor who had served
+various terms of imprisonment, the words, "Pas de chance."<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> The
+notorious criminal Malassen was tattooed on the chest with the drawing
+of a guillotine, under which was written the following prophecy: "J'ai
+mal commenc&eacute;, je finirai mal. C'est la fin qui m'attend."</p>
+
+<p>Tattooing frequently bears witness to indecency. Of 142 criminals
+examined by my father, the tattooing on five showed obscenity of design
+and position and furnished also a remarkable proof of the insensibility
+to pain characteristic of criminals, the parts tattooed being the most
+sensitive of the whole body, and therefore left untouched even by
+savages.</p>
+
+<p>Another fact worthy of mention is the extent to which criminals are
+tattooed. Thirty-five out of 378 criminals examined by Lacassagne were
+decorated literally from head to foot.</p>
+
+<p>In a great many cases, the designs reveal violence of character and a
+desire for revenge. A Piedmontese sailor, who had perpetrated fraud and
+murder from motives of revenge, bore on his breast between two daggers,
+the words: "I swear to revenge myself." Another had written on his
+forehead, "Death to the middle classes," with the drawing of a dagger
+underneath. A young Ligurian, the leader of a mutiny in an Italian
+Reformatory, was tattooed with designs representing all the most
+important episodes of his life, and the idea of revenge was<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> paramount.
+On his right forearm figured two crossed swords, underneath them the
+initials M. N. (of an intimate friend), and on the inner side, traced
+longitudinally, the motto: "Death to cowards. Long live our alliance."</p>
+
+<p>Tattooing, as practised by criminals, is a perfect substitute for
+writing with symbols and hieroglyphics, and they take a keen pleasure in
+this mode of adorning their skins.</p>
+
+<p>Of atavistic origin, also, is the practice, common to members of the
+<i>camorra</i>, of branding their sweethearts on the face, not from motives
+of revenge, but as a sign of proprietorship, like the chiefs of savage
+tribes, who mark their wives and other belongings; and the form of
+tattooing called "Paranza," which distinguishes the various bands of
+malefactors,&mdash;the band of the "banner," of the "three arrows," of the
+"bell-ringer," of the "Carmelites," etc.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">The Criminal Type</span></h4>
+
+<p>All the physical and psychic peculiarities of which we have spoken are
+found singly in many normal individuals. Moreover, crime is not always
+the result of degeneration and atavism; and, on the other hand, many
+persons who are considered perfectly normal are not so in reality.
+However, in normal individuals, we never find that accumulation<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span> of
+physical, psychic, functional, and skeletal anomalies in one and the
+same person, that we do in the case of criminals, among whom also entire
+freedom from abnormal characteristics is more rare than among ordinary
+individuals.</p>
+
+<p>Just as a musical theme is the result of a sum of notes, and not of any
+single note, the criminal type results from the aggregate of these
+anomalies, which render him strange and terrible, not only to the
+scientific observer, but to ordinary persons who are capable of an
+impartial judgment.</p>
+
+<p>Painters and poets, unhampered by false doctrines, divined this type
+long before it became the subject of a special branch of study. The
+assassins, executioners, and devils painted by Mantegna, Titian, and
+Ribera the Spagnoletto embody with marvellous exactitude the
+characteristics of the born criminal; and the descriptions of great
+writers, Dante, Shakespeare, Dostoyevsky, and Ibsen, are equally
+faithful representations, physically and psychically, of this morbid
+type.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">The Criminal in Proverbial Sayings</span></h4>
+
+<p>The conclusions of instinctive observers have found expression in many
+proverbs, which warn the world against the very characteristics we have
+noted in criminals.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span>A proverb common in Romagna, says: "Poca barba e niun colore, sotto il
+cielo non vi ha peggiore" (There is nothing worse under Heaven than a
+scanty beard and a colourless face), and in Piedmont there is a saying,
+"Faccia smorta, peggio che scabbia" (An ashen face is worse than the
+itch). The Venetians have a number of proverbs expressing distrust of
+the criminal type: "Uomo rosso e femina barbuta da lontan xe megio la
+saluta" (Greet from afar the red-haired man and the bearded woman);
+"V&agrave;rdete da chi te parla e guarda in la, e v&agrave;rdete da chi tiene i oci
+bassi e da chi camina a corti passi" (Beware of him who looks away when
+he speaks to you, and of him who keeps his eyes cast down and takes
+mincing steps); "El guerzo xe maledetto per ogni verso" (The squint-eyed
+are on all sides accursed); "Megio vendere un campo e una c&agrave; che tor una
+dona dal naso lev&agrave;" (Better sell a field and a house than take a wife
+with a turned-up nose); "Naso che guarda in testa &egrave; peggior che la
+tempesta" (A turned-up nose is worse than hail); etc.</p>
+
+
+<p>There are innumerable cases on record, in which persons quite ignorant
+of criminology have escaped robbery or murder, thanks to the timely
+distrust awakened in them by the appearance of individuals who had tried
+to win their confidence. My father once placed before forty children,
+twenty portraits<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> of thieves and twenty representing great men, and 80%
+recognised in the first the portraits of bad and deceitful people.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, the born criminal possesses certain physical and mental
+characteristics, which mark him out as a special type, materially and
+morally diverse from the bulk of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>Like the little cage-bred bird which instinctively crouches and trembles
+at the sight of the hawk, although ignorant of its ferocity, an honest
+man feels instinctive repugnance at the sight of a miscreant and thus
+signalises the abnormality of the criminal type.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_1.2" id="CHAPTER_1.2"></a>CHAPTER II</h3>
+
+<h3><i>THE BORN CRIMINAL AND HIS RELATION TO MORAL INSANITY AND EPILEPSY</i></h3>
+
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">No</span> one, before my father, had ever recognised in the criminal an
+abnormal being driven by an irresistible atavistic impulse to commit
+anti-social acts, but many had observed (cases of the kind were too
+frequent to escape notice) the existence of certain individuals, nearly
+always members of degenerate families, who seemed from their earliest
+infancy to be prompted by some fatal impulse to do evil to their
+fellow-men. They differed from ordinary people, because they hated the
+very persons who to normal beings are the nearest and dearest, parents,
+husbands, wives, and children, and because their inhuman deeds seemed to
+cause them no remorse. These individuals, who were sometimes treated as
+lunatics, sometimes as diseased persons, and sometimes as criminals,
+were said by the earliest observers to be afflicted with moral
+insanity.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span><i>Analogy.</i> Those who are familiar with all that Pinel, Morel, Richard
+Connon, and other great alienists have written on the morally insane
+cannot help remarking the analogy, nay identity, of the physical,
+intellectual, and moral characteristics of this type of lunatic and
+those of the born criminal.</p>
+
+<p>The same physical anomalies already observed in criminals, as described
+in the first chapter (cranial deformities, asymmetry, physical and
+functional left-handedness, anomalies in the teeth, hands, and feet),
+are described by these older writers as being characteristic of the
+morally insane, as are also those mental and moral qualities already
+noted in the born criminal&mdash;vanity, want of affection, cruelty,
+idleness, and love of orgies.</p>
+
+<p>Only the analogy of the origin and early manifestations was lacking to
+complete the proof of the identity of the two forms. It is true that
+moral insanity is more often found in the descendants of insane,
+neurotic, or dipsomaniac forebears than in those of criminals, and that
+the characteristics are manifested at an earlier age than is the case
+with born criminals, but these differences are not of fundamental
+importance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cases.</i> During many years of observation, my father was able to follow
+innumerable cases of moral<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span> insanity in which perversity was manifested
+literally from the cradle, and in which the victims of this disease grew
+up into delinquents in no wise distinguishable from born criminals.</p>
+
+<p>A typical instance is that of a certain Rizz... who was brought to him
+by the mother because, while still at the breast, he bit his nurse so
+viciously that bottle-feeding had to be substituted. At the age of two
+years, careful training and medical treatment notwithstanding, this
+child was separated from his brothers, because he stuck pins into their
+pillows and played dangerous tricks on them. Two years later, he broke
+open his father's cash-box and stole money to buy sweets; at six,
+although decidedly intelligent, he was expelled from every private
+school in the town, because he instigated the others to mischief or
+ill-treated them. At fourteen, he seduced a servant and ran away, and at
+twenty he killed his fianc&eacute;e by throwing her out of a window. Thanks to
+the testimony of a great many doctors, Rizz... was declared to be
+morally insane, but if the family had been poor instead of well-to-do,
+and the mother had neglected to have her child examined in infancy by a
+medical man, thus obtaining ample proof of the pathological nature of
+his perversity, Rizz... would have been condemned as an ordinary
+criminal, because, like all morally insane persons, he <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>was very
+intelligent and able to reason clearly, like a normal individual.</p>
+
+<p>Another typical case is that of a child named Rav... (see <a href="#fig12">Fig. 12</a>) a
+native of the Romagna, who was brought to my father at the age of eight,
+because his parents were convinced that his conduct was due to a morbid
+condition. Unlike the above-mentioned case, his evil acts were always
+carried out in an underhand way. He showed great spite towards his
+brothers and sisters, especially the smaller ones, whom he attempted to
+strangle on several occasions, and was expelled from school on account
+of the bad influence he exercised over his schoolfellows. He delighted
+above everything in robbing his parents, employers, and the neighbours
+and in falsely accusing others, and so cleverly did he manage this that
+he caused a great deal of mischief before his double-dealing was
+discovered. When only eight, on leaving home early every morning to go
+to work, he would secretly throw all the milk left at the neighbours'
+doors into the dust-bin, then he accused the janitor of stealing it and
+got him dismissed. A year later, he nearly succeeded in causing the
+arrest of a pawnbroker, whom he accused of having lent him money on a
+cloak, it being illegal in Italy to accept anything in pawn from a
+minor. The cloak, however, was discovered by his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> mother hidden in the
+cellar. At ten years of age, he alleged that his father had brutally
+ill-treated him, and as severe marks and bruises on his body gave colour
+to the accusation, the poor man was arrested. The marks, however, were
+self-inflicted.</p>
+
+<p>Another boy, a certain Man..., a peasant from the Val d'Aosta, an
+Alpine valley in Piedmont, where cretinism is indigenous, exhibited
+perverse tendencies from his earliest infancy. When twelve years old, he
+killed his companion in a squabble over an egg. (See <a href="#fig13">Fig. 13</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>In the above-mentioned cases, the subjects all belonged to well-to-do or
+honest families and the pathological heredity was therefore exclusively
+nervous, not criminal. For this reason, the parents were struck by the
+abnormal depravity of their sons and had them medically examined and
+treated, thus discovering that they were morally insane. If, on the
+other hand, the parents had been criminals and had, themselves, set a
+bad example, nobody would have supposed that these depraved tendencies
+were innate in the children or had developed precociously. The fact of
+the prevalence of moral insanity in neurotic families (with frequent
+cases of lunacy, alcoholism, etc.) rather than in those of criminal
+tendencies appears at first sight strange, but according to the new
+theory advanced by my father,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> the criminal is a mentally diseased
+person; and we shall see in a later chapter that the heredity of insane,
+neurotic, and dipsomaniac parents is completely equivalent to a criminal
+heredity.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><a name="fig12" id="fig12"></a><a name="fig13" id="fig13"></a></p>
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Boys">
+<tr><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Fig. 12</span></strong></td><td align="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Fig. 13</strong></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/Fig_12.jpg" alt="Boy Morally Insane" /></td><td align="center"><img src="images/Fig_13.jpg" alt="Boy Morally Insane" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Boy Morally Insane</span><br />(see <a href="#Page_55">page 55</a>)</strong></td><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Boy Morally Insane</span><br />(see <a href="#Page_56">page 56</a>)</strong></td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Proofs of Analogy.</i> Thus the genesis and early manifestations, which
+might have been diverse, really constitute a counter-proof. Careful
+anamnesis shows that both born criminals and the morally insane begin at
+a very early age to exhibit symptoms of the morbid tendencies which make
+them such a danger to society, and if the general public and the police,
+when such cases are brought to their notice, usually fail to realise
+that they arise from precocious perversity, it is because atrocious
+actions are excused on the ground of extreme youth and attributed to
+this cause rather than to vicious propensities. In many cases, indeed,
+they are revealed only to the physician.</p>
+
+<p>A counter-proof is likewise furnished by investigations of the origin of
+these pathological cases, since the study of born criminals shows that
+they, as well as the morally insane, are as frequently the offspring of
+insane, epileptic, neurotic, and drunken parents as of criminals, but in
+the latter case, the morbid origin of their perversity is seldom brought
+to light owing to the criminality of the parents, who naturally view
+with indifference symptoms of vice in their children.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Epileptics, and their Relation to Born Criminals and the Morally Insane</span></h4>
+
+<p>We have already stated that the physical and psychic characteristics of
+born criminals coincide with those of the morally insane. Both are
+identical with those of another class of degenerates, known to the world
+as epileptics.</p>
+
+<p>The term epilepsy was applied to a malady frequently studied but little
+understood by the ancient medical world, the chief symptoms of which
+were repeated tonic and clonic fits, preceded by the so-called
+"epileptic aura" and followed by a deep sleep. It was called <i>morbus
+sacer</i> and believed to be of divine origin.</p>
+
+<p>Careful examination of epileptics by clinical and mental experts, showed
+that in addition to the characteristic seizure, these unfortunate beings
+were subject to other phenomena, which sometimes took the place of the
+convulsive fit and in other cases preceded or followed it. These were
+<i>pavor nocturnus</i>, sudden sweats, heat, neuralgia, sialorrhea,
+periodical cephalalgia and, above all, vertigo; and these symptoms were
+not always accompanied by unconsciousness nor followed by coma.
+Sometimes the seizure was only manifested by paroxysms of rage or
+ferocious and brutal impulses (devouring animals<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span> alive), which, if
+consciously committed, would be considered criminal. This fact led
+doctors and mental experts to examine other patients, and they were able
+to advance positive proof that a certain number of epileptics never
+experience the typical seizure, the disease being manifested in this
+milder form with cephalalgia, sialorrhea, delirious ferocity, and above
+all, giddiness.</p>
+
+<p>The multiformity of epilepsy has been fully confirmed by the experiments
+of Luciani, Zehen, and others, who produced various forms of epilepsy by
+submitting different cerebral zones to varying degrees of irritation. By
+graduating the electric current, Rosenbach was able to provoke the whole
+series of epileptic phenomena described above, from the mildest to the
+most serious manifestations. A slight irritation of the motor areas gave
+rise to tetanic contractions and clonic convulsions in a given joint; an
+increase in the strength of the current produced more violent movements
+which spread over the whole limb, and by intensifying the current still
+further, to half the body. Finally, on the application of a very strong
+current, the typical fit was produced with clonic spasms in all the
+body, unconsciousness, nystagmus, and rigidity of the pupils.</p>
+
+<p>By irritating the frontal lobes of dogs, Richet<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span> and Bernard produced
+vertigo and certain physical phenomena (snuffing, barking, and biting).</p>
+
+<p>Taking these investigations as a basis, Jackson came to the conclusion
+that epileptic fits are due to a rapid and excessive explosion of the
+grey matter, which, instead of developing its force gradually, develops
+it all of a sudden because it is irritated. And as it has been shown
+conclusively that the disease can be manifested in such varied
+forms&mdash;vertigo, twitching of the muscles, sialorrhea, cephalalgia, fits
+of rage, and ferocious actions&mdash;which appear to be the equivalent of the
+typical seizure, individuals subject to these forms of neurosis should
+be classed as epileptics, even if they never experience the typical
+motor attack.</p>
+
+<p>It is in this category, which may be called attenuated epilepsy, that we
+should place criminals, who in addition to the psychic and physical
+characteristics of the epileptic, possess others peculiar to themselves.
+Physical anomalies (plagiocephaly, microcephaly, macrocephaly,
+strabismus, facial and cranial asymmetry, prominent frontal sinuses,
+median occipital fossa, receding forehead, projecting ears,
+progeneismus, and badly shaped teeth) are characteristic both of
+criminals and epileptics, as was demonstrated in certain epileptics
+treated by my father (Figs. <a href="#fig14">14</a> and <a href="#fig15">15</a>), and the same holds<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> good
+of functional and histological anomalies. The histological anomaly
+discovered by Roncoroni in the frontal lobe of born criminals,
+consisting of the atrophy of the deep granular layer, the inversion of
+the pyramidal layers and small cells with enlargement and rarefaction of
+the pyramidal cells, and the existence of nervous cells in the white
+substance, is found in about the same proportion in cases of
+non-criminal epileptics. We find also in the same proportion in the
+field of vision of epileptics, as of born criminals, the anomaly
+discovered by Ottolenghi, consisting of peripheral scotoma intersecting
+the nearly uniform line of varying size common to normal eyes.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig14" id="fig14"></a></p>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14</span></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/Fig_14.jpg" alt="An Epileptic Boy" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">An Epileptic Boy</span><br /> (see <a href="#Page_60">page 60</a>)</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><i>Psychological Characteristics.</i> The complete identity of epileptics,
+born criminals and the morally insane becomes evident as soon as we
+study their psychology.</p>
+
+<p>Epilepsy, congenital criminality, and moral insanity alone are capable
+of comprising in one clinical form intellectual divergencies which range
+from genius to imbecility. In epileptics, this divergence is sometimes
+manifested in one and the same person in the space of twenty-four hours.
+An individual at one time afflicted with loss of will-power and amnesia,
+and incapable of formulating the simplest notion, will shortly
+afterwards give expression to original ideas and reason logically.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>Contradictions and exaggerations of sentiment are salient
+characteristics of epileptics as of born criminals and the morally
+insane. Quarrelsome, suspicious, and cynical individuals suddenly become
+gentle, respectful, and affectionate. The cynic expresses religious
+sentiments, and the man who has brutally ill-treated his first wife,
+kneels before the second. An epileptic observed by Tonnini fancied
+himself at times to be Napoleon; at others, he would lick the ground
+like the humblest slave.</p>
+
+<p>The extreme excitability manifested by born criminals is shared by
+epileptics. Distrustful, intolerant, and incapable of sincere
+attachment, a gesture or a look is sufficient to infuriate them and
+incite them to the most atrocious deeds.</p>
+
+<p>Epilepsy has a disastrous effect on the character. It destroys the moral
+sense, causes irritability, alters the sensations through constant
+hallucinations and delusions, deadens the natural feelings or leads them
+into morbid channels.</p>
+
+<p><i>Affection for Animals.</i> The hatred frequently manifested by criminals
+and epileptics towards the members of their own families is in many
+cases accompanied by an extraordinary fondness for animals as is shown
+by the cases of Caligula, Commodus, Lacenaire, Rosas, Dr. Francia, and
+La Sola,&mdash;who preferred kittens to her own children. A morally<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> insane
+individual known to my father would spend months in training dogs,
+horses, birds, geese, and other fowls. He was wont to remark that all
+animals were friendly to him as though they recognised in him one of
+their own kind. Dostoyevsky's fellow-convicts showed great fondness for
+a horse, an eagle, and a number of geese. They were so attached to a
+goat that they wanted to gild its horns.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig15" id="fig15"></a></p>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15</span></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/Fig_15.jpg" alt="Epileptic" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fernando</span><br /> Epileptic<br /> (see <a href="#Page_60">page 60</a>)</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><i>Somnambulism.</i> This is a frequent characteristic of epileptics. Krafft-Ebing says:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The seizure is often followed by a condition approaching
+somnambulism. The patient appears to have recovered consciousness,
+talks coherently, behaves in an orderly manner, and resumes his
+ordinary occupations. Yet he is not really conscious as is shown by
+the fact that, later he is entirely ignorant of what he has been
+doing during this stage. This peculiar state of mental daze may
+last a long time, sometimes during the whole interval between two
+seizures."</p></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Many of the criminals observed by Dostoyevsky were given to
+gesticulating and talking agitatedly in their sleep.</p>
+
+<p>Obscenity is a common characteristic. Kowalewsky (<i>Archivio di
+Psichiatria</i>, 1885) notes the resemblance between the reproductive act
+and the epileptic seizure, the tonic tension of the muscles, loss of
+consciousness and mydriasis in both cases, and remarks also on the
+frequency with which epileptic attacks are accompanied by sexual
+propensities.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span>The desire for sexual indulgence, like the taste for alcohol, is
+distinguished by the precocity peculiar to criminals and the morally
+insane. Precocious sexual instincts have been observed in children of
+four years, and in one case obscenity was manifested by an infant of one
+year.</p>
+
+<p>Marro (<i>Annali di Freniatria</i>, 1890) describes a child of three years
+and ten months, who had exhibited signs of epilepsy from birth and was
+of a jealous, irascible disposition. He was in the habit of scratching
+and biting his brothers and sisters, knocking over the furniture, hiding
+things, and tearing his clothes, and when unable to hurt or annoy
+others, would vent his rage upon himself. If punished, he would continue
+his misdeeds in an underhand way.</p>
+
+<p>Another child had been afflicted with convulsions from his earliest
+infancy, in consequence of which his character deteriorated, and while
+still a mere infant, he behaved with the utmost violence. He killed a
+cat, attempted to strangle his brother, and to set fire to the house.</p>
+
+<p>Invulnerability, another characteristic common to criminals, has been
+observed by Tonnini in epileptics, whose wounds and injuries heal with
+astonishing rapidity, and he is inclined to regard this peculiarity in
+the light of a reversion to a stage<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> of evolution, at which animals like
+lizards and salamanders were able to replace severed joints by new
+growths. This invulnerability is shared by all degenerates: epileptics,
+imbeciles, and the morally insane.</p>
+
+<p>"One of these latter," says Tonnini, "tore out his moustache bodily and
+with it a large piece of skin. In a few days the wound was nearly
+healed."</p>
+
+<p>Very characteristic is the almost automatic tendency to destroy animate
+and inanimate objects, which results in frequent wounding, suicides, and
+homicides. This desire to destroy is also common to children. Fernando
+P. (<a href="#fig15">Fig. 15</a>), an epileptic treated by my father, when enraged was in the
+habit of smashing all the furniture within his reach and throwing the
+pieces over a wall some twenty-five feet high.</p>
+
+<p>Misdea, a regimental barber, to whom we shall refer later, roused to
+fury by dismissal from his post, broke four razors into small pieces
+with his teeth. Another epileptic, Piz... used to break all the
+crockery in his cell regularly every other day, "just to give vent to
+his feelings."</p>
+
+<p>This tendency to destroy everything in the cell is common also to
+ordinary criminals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cases of Moral Insanity with Latent Epileptic Phenomena.</i> The following
+cases, which were treated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span> by my father and which were subject to
+careful observation and study, will serve to give a clear idea of the
+criminal form of epilepsy.</p>
+
+<p>Subject: Giuliano Celestino, age 16. Yellow skin abundantly tattooed,
+absence of hair on face or body. Cranium: plagiocephaly on the left
+frontal and right parietal regions, obliquely-placed eyes, narrow
+forehead, prominent orbital arches, line of the mouth horizontal as in
+apes, lateral incisors of upper jaw resembling the canines with rugged
+margins, excessive zygomatic and maxillary development, tactile
+sensibility very obtuse, dolorific sensibility non-existent on the
+right, very obtuse on the left, rotular reflex action exaggerated on the
+right, very feeble on the left. Devoid of natural feeling. When asked if
+he was fond of his mother, he replied: "When she brings me cigars and
+money." When questioned concerning his crimes he showed neither shame
+nor confusion. On the contrary, he confessed with a smile that when only
+ten he had tried to kill his youngest brother, who was then an infant in
+the cradle, and when hindered by his mother, had struck and bitten her.
+His father was a drunkard afflicted with syphilis, and Giuliano had
+suffered from epilepsy from the age of seven. At this age he began to
+indulge in alcohol and self-abuse, and stole from his parents in order<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span>
+to buy sweets. He appears to have been subject to an ambulatory mania,
+which caused him to wander aimlessly about the country, and if kept
+within doors he would let himself down from the windows, climb up the
+chimney, or, failing in these attempts to escape, would break the
+furniture and attract the attention of the neighbours by his terrific
+yells. From the age of eight, despite his parents' efforts to apprentice
+him, he was always immediately dismissed by his employers. He ran away
+with a strolling company of acrobats, and later apprenticed himself to a
+butcher in order to revel in the horrors of the slaughter-house. At
+fifteen he was confined in a reformatory, where he twice attempted to
+escape and to set fire to the building, and was sentenced to two years'
+imprisonment. For the space of a few days, he appears to have suffered
+from epileptic attacks, although in a masked form, accompanied by
+various attempts at suicide. These were renewed every other month for a
+whole year. When asked what he would do for a living when released, he
+would reply laughingly that there was plenty of money in other people's
+pockets.</p>
+
+<p>L... a morally insane subject, age 16, native of Turin, the son of an
+aged, but extremely respectable man. Height 1.50 m., weight, 46.2 kg.,
+with abundant hair, and down on the forehead, incisors<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> crowded
+together, excessive development of the canines, and exaggerated orbital
+angle of the frontal bone. He was entirely devoid of affection for his
+family, remarking cynically that he was fond of his father when he gave
+him money and did not worry him. Sometimes he kicked the poor old man
+and otherwise abused him. When unable to obtain money, he would smash
+all the furniture in the house, until, for the sake of economy, his
+family gave him what he wanted. In order to get a five-pound note from
+money-lenders he would sign promissory notes for ten times that amount.
+He changed his ideas from one hour to another. Sometimes he wanted to
+enter the army, at others to emigrate to France, etc. When only fourteen
+he frequented houses of ill-fame, where he played the bully.</p>
+
+<p>Although this case may be regarded as a typical instance of moral
+insanity, there were apparently no symptoms of vertigo or convulsions.
+At the age of sixteen, however, while suffering from rheumatism, this
+subject tried to throw himself from the balcony of his bedroom at the
+same hour three nights running. After this he seems to have suffered
+from amnesia.</p>
+
+<p>These frenzied attempts at self-destruction, which seem to have taken
+the place of the epileptic seizure, were related to my father casually
+by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span> boy's mother; but in other cases, similar incidents, although of
+the utmost importance to the criminologist, often pass unnoticed.</p>
+
+<p>In the <i>Actes du Congr&egrave;s d'Anthropologie</i>, Angelucci describes another
+typical case of epileptic moral insanity. E. G. (brother a criminal
+epileptic, father a sufferer from cancer) was sentenced several times
+for assaulting people often without motive. Tattooed with the figure of
+a naked woman, microcephalous (39.2 cubic inches = 589 c.c.), having
+cranial and facial asymmetry, he was vain, deceitful, and violent, and
+made great show of scepticism although he wore a great many medals of
+the Virgin. This subject was over twenty-five when the first epileptic
+seizure took place.</p>
+
+<p>The connection between epilepsy and crime is one of derivation rather
+than identity. Epilepsy represents the genus of which criminality and
+moral insanity are the species.</p>
+
+<p>The born criminal is an epileptic, inasmuch as he possesses the
+anatomical, skeletal, physiognomical, psychological, and moral
+characteristics peculiar to the recognised form of epilepsy, and
+sometimes also its motorial phenomena, although at rare intervals. More
+frequently he exhibits its substitutes (vertigo, twitching, sialorrhea,
+emotional attacks). But the criminal epileptic possesses other
+characteristics<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span> peculiar to himself; in particular, that desire of evil
+for its own sake, which is unknown to ordinary epileptics. In view of
+this fact this form of epilepsy must be considered apart from the purely
+nervous anomaly, both in the clinical diagnosis and the methods of cure
+and social prophylaxis.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the nervous anomaly, which in the case of criminals appears on
+the scene from time to time, accentuating the criminal tendency till it
+reaches the atavistic form and producing morbid complications which
+sometimes prove fatal, serves to point out the true nature of the
+disease and to emphasise the fact that while it is attenuated so far as
+motor attacks are concerned, it is aggravated on the other hand by
+criminal impulses, which render the patient semi-immune and permit him a
+longer and less troubled existence, but provoke a constant brain
+irritation, which clouds and disturbs his intellectual and moral nature.</p>
+
+<p>In order better to understand these two forms of epilepsy, we must
+recall two analogous forms of another and equally multiform disease,
+tuberculosis in its forms of quick consumption and scrofula. The
+etiology is identical and the symptoms frequently alike, but while the
+latter proceeds very slowly and allows the patient a long life, the
+former is rapid and severs life in its prime.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>In motory epilepsy, the irritation is manifested on a sudden, but leaves
+the mind healthy in the interval, although the attacks may lead to rapid
+dementia. In criminal epilepsy this irritation does not break out in
+violent seizures and is compatible with a long life, but it changes the
+whole physical and psychic complexion of the individual.</p>
+
+<p>The epileptic origin of criminality explains many characteristics of the
+criminal, the genesis of which was previously obscure. Many of the moral
+and physical peculiarities of born criminals and the morally insane may
+be classed as professional characteristics acquired through the habit of
+evil-doing, especially the naso-labial and zygomatic wrinkles, cynical
+expression, tapering fingers, etc. Many anomalies also in the bones,
+hair, ears, eyes, and the monstrous development of the jaws and teeth,
+must be explained by arrested development in the fifth or sixth month of
+ultra-uterine existence, corresponding to the characteristics of
+inferior races by the usual law of ontogeny which recapitulates
+phylogeny. But there is a final series of anomalies, the origin of which
+was formerly wrapped in mystery: plagiocephaly, sclerosis, the
+thickening of the meninges, cranial asymmetry, and other changes in the
+cerebral layers, which can be explained only by a disease altering<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span>
+precociously the whole cerebral conformation, as is exactly the case in
+epilepsy.</p>
+
+<p>The born criminal is an epileptic, not however afflicted with the common
+form of this disease, but with a special kind. The pathological basis,
+the etiology, and the anatomical and psychological characteristics are
+identical, but there are many differences. While in the ordinary form
+motor anomalies are very common, in the criminal form they are very
+rare, while in ordinary epilepsy the mental explosions are accompanied
+by unconsciousness, in the other form they are weakened and spread over
+the whole existence, and consciousness is, relatively speaking,
+preserved; and while, finally, the ordinary epileptic has not always the
+tendency to do evil for its own sake&mdash;nay, may even achieve holiness&mdash;in
+the hidden form the bent towards evil endures from birth to death. The
+perversity concentrated in one second in the motor attack, is attenuated
+in the second form, but spread over the whole existence. We have
+therefore an epilepsy <i>sui generis</i>, a variety of epilepsy which may be
+called criminal.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the primitive idea of crime has become organic and complete. The
+criminal is only a diseased person, an epileptic, in whom the cerebral
+malady, begun in some cases during prenatal existence,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> or later, in
+consequence of some infection or cerebral poisoning, produces, together
+with certain signs of physical degeneration in the skull, face, teeth,
+and brain, a return to the early brutal egotism natural to primitive
+races, which manifests itself in homicide, theft, and other crimes.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_1.3" id="CHAPTER_1.3"></a>CHAPTER III</h3>
+
+<h3><i>THE INSANE CRIMINAL</i></h3>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">General Forms of Criminal Lunacy</span></h4>
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">Epileptic</span> born criminals and the morally insane may be classed as
+lunatics under certain aspects, but only by the scientific observer and
+professional psychologist. Outside these two forms, there is an
+important series of offenders, who are not criminals from birth, but
+become such at a given moment of their lives, in consequence of an
+alteration of the brain, which completely upsets their moral nature and
+makes them unable to discriminate between right and wrong. They are
+really insane; that is, entirely without responsibility for their
+actions.</p>
+
+<p>Nearly every class of mental derangement contributes a special form of
+crime.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Idiot</i> is prompted by paroxysms of rage to commit murderous attacks
+on his fellow-creatures. His exaggerated sexual propensities incite him
+to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span> rape, and his childish delight at the sight of flames, to arson.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Imbecile</i>, or weak-minded individual, yields to his first impulse,
+or, dominated by the influence of others, becomes an accomplice in the
+hope of some trivial reward.</p>
+
+<p>The victims of <i>Melancholia</i> are driven to suicide by suppressed grief,
+precordial agitation, or hallucinations. Sometimes the suicidal attempt
+is indirect and takes the form of the murder of some important personage
+or their own kin, in the hope that their own condemnation may follow, or
+it is to save those dear to them from the miseries of life.</p>
+
+<p>Persons afflicted with <i>General Paralysis</i> frequently steal, in the
+belief that everything they see belongs to them, or because they are
+incapable of understanding the meaning of property. If accused of theft,
+they deny their guilt or assert that the stolen articles have been
+hidden on their persons by others. They are inclined to forgery and
+fraudulent bankruptcy, and when their misdeeds are brought home to them
+they show no shame. Unnatural sexual offences and crimes against the
+authorities are also common. While they are seldom guilty of murder,
+they frequently commit arson, through carelessness, or with the idea of
+destroying their homes because they think them<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> too small, or wish to
+get rid of the vermin in them, such as rats.</p>
+
+<p>The sufferer from <i>Dementia</i> forgets his promises, however serious they
+may be. Cerebral irritability often leads him to commit violent acts,
+homicide, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In some cases, mental alienation is manifested in a mania for
+litigation, which urges the sufferer to offend statesmen, state lawyers,
+and judges.</p>
+
+<p>A common symptom of <i>Pellagra</i> is the tendency to unpremeditated murder
+or suicide, without the slightest cause. The sight of water suggests
+drowning, in the form of murder or suicide.</p>
+
+<p>Young persons at the approach of puberty and women subject to amenorrhea
+often exhibit a tendency to arson and crimes of an erotic nature.
+Similar tendencies are sometimes displayed during pregnancy, and an
+inclination to theft is not uncommon.</p>
+
+<p>Maniacs are prone to satyriasis and bacchanalian excesses. They commit
+rape and indecent acts in public and often appropriate strange objects,
+hair or wearing apparel, with the idea of obtaining means to satisfy
+their vices, either because they are unconscious of doing wrong or
+because, like true megalomaniacs, they believe the stolen goods to be
+their own property. Sometimes a feverish activity<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span> prompts them to
+steal; "I felt a kind of uneasiness, a demon in my fingers," said one,
+"which forced me to move them and carry off something."</p>
+
+<p>Monomaniacs, especially if subject to hallucinations, frequently
+manifest a tendency to homicide, either to escape imaginary persecutions
+or in obedience to equally imaginary injunctions. The same motives
+prompt them to commit special kinds of theft and arson. Na... (see <a href="#fig16">Fig. 16</a>)
+murdered his friend without any reason, after suffering from delusions for one year.</p>
+
+<p>The characteristics of insane criminals are so marked that it is not
+difficult to distinguish them from habitual delinquents. They seldom
+show any fear of the penalty incurred nor do they try to escape. They
+take little trouble to hide their misdeeds, or to get rid of any clue.
+If poisoners, they leave poison about in their victim's room; if
+forgers, they take no trouble to make their signatures appear genuine;
+if thieves, they exhibit stolen goods in public, or appropriate them in
+the presence of witnesses. They frequently manifest unbounded rage and
+assault those present, entirely forgetting the stolen objects. Once
+their crime is accomplished, not only do they give themselves no trouble
+to hide it, but are prone to confess it immediately, and are eager to
+talk about it, saying with satisfaction that<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> they feel relieved at what
+they have done, that they have obeyed the order of superior beings and
+consider their actions praiseworthy. They deny that they are insane, or
+if they admit it in some cases, it is only because they are persuaded to
+do so by their lawyers or fellow-prisoners. And even then, they are
+ready at the first opportunity to contradict the idea, eulogising and
+exaggerating their criminal acts.</p>
+
+<p>A full confession in court is not uncommon, and in the case of impulsive
+monomaniacs, epileptics, and insane inebriates, the descriptions are
+full of characteristic expressions, showing what was the offender's
+state of mind when dominated by criminal frenzy.</p>
+
+<p>Rom..., an impulsive monomaniac, who stabbed an acquaintance, felt "the
+blood rushing to his head, which seemed to be in flames."</p>
+
+<p>Tixier narrates that, on seeing the old man he afterward murdered pass
+him on a country road, "something went to his head." Frequently such
+criminals are quick to give themselves up to justice.</p>
+
+<p><i>Antecedents.</i> Unlike the ordinary offender, insane criminals are often
+perfectly law-abiding up to the moment of the crime.</p>
+
+<p><i>Motive.</i> Perhaps the greatest difference between born criminals and
+insane criminals lies in the motive for the act, which in the case of
+the latter is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span> not only entirely disproportionate to it, but nearly
+always absurd and depends far less on personal susceptibility.</p>
+
+<p>Here are a few typical cases: A father fancies he hears a voice bidding
+him kill his favourite child. He goes home, has the little victim
+dressed in its best clothes and cuts off its head with perfect calmness.
+A lady, ignorant of horticulture, plants some flowers on her husband's
+grave. A day or two later, noticing that they are drooping, she imagines
+that the gardener has watered them with boiling water, and after
+reproaching him bitterly, wounds him with a pair of scissors.</p>
+
+<p>These unfortunate beings frequently show perfect mental clearness before
+the crime and even in the act of striking the fatal blow; yet their
+action is purely instinctive and not prompted by passion or any other
+cause. Although such individuals appear to reason, can it be said that
+they are in full possession of their mental faculties? If they are, how
+shall we explain the wholesale destruction of those they hold most dear?
+A husband kills the wife to whom he is sincerely attached; a father, the
+son he loves most; or a mother, the infant at her breast.</p>
+
+<p>Such an extraordinary phenomenon can only be explained by a sudden
+suspension of the intellectual and moral faculties and of the powers of
+the will.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Special Forms of Criminal Insanity</span></h4>
+
+<h4>ALCOHOLISM</h4>
+
+<p>In addition to these casual forms of lunacy, in which the individual is
+led to commit crime by a momentary alteration of his moral nature, we
+find other forms which might be called specific, because the criminal
+act forms the culminating point of the malady. The sufferers from these
+forms are less easily distinguished from ordinary criminals and normal
+persons than are the lunatics of whom we have just spoken. These mental
+diseases, which should be studied separately, are alcoholism, hysteria,
+and epilepsy.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known that temporary drunkenness may transform an honest,
+peacable individual into a rowdy, a murderer, or a thief.</p>
+
+<p>Gall narrates the case of a certain Petri, who manifested homicidal
+tendencies when excited by alcohol. Locatelli mentions a workman of
+thirty, who, when under the influence of drink, would smash everything
+around him and stab the companions who sought to restrain his drunken
+fury. Ladelci and Carmignani cite the case of a miner, who was
+repeatedly arrested for drunken brawls, and when reproved replied: "I
+cannot help it. As soon as I drink, I must start fighting."</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>Very characteristic is the case of a certain Papor... who was imprisoned
+for some time at Turin. His father was a drunkard and ill treated his
+wife. The son became a soldier, then an excise officer, fireman, and
+finally nurse in an infirmary, and was known as a respectable, temperate
+man. In 1876, he was transferred to the Island of Lipari, where
+malvoisie only costs 25 centimes a litre, and there he acquired a taste
+for wine, without, however, drinking to excess. But a year later, a
+change in the hospital regulations gave him longer hours of leisure, and
+he began to drink deeply. In 1881, while intoxicated, he accosted a
+sportsman and pretending to be a police officer, ordered him to give up
+his gun. At that moment he was arrested by a genuine constable and taken
+to the barracks, where he was sentenced, without any one's observing his
+drunken condition. After his release, he committed other offences of the
+same type, which were followed by confession and repentance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chronic Alcoholism.</i> The phenomena developed by chronic inebriety are,
+however, still more important from the point of view of the
+criminologist than the immediate effects of alcohol on certain
+constitutions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physical and Functional Characteristics of Chronic Inebriety.</i> The
+habitual drunkard rarely exhibits<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> traces of congenital degeneracy, but
+frequently that of an acquired character, especially paresis, facial
+hemiparesis, slight exophthalmia (see <a href="#fig6">Fig. 6</a>), inequality of the pupils,
+insensibility to touch and pain, which is often unilateral, especially
+in the tongue, thermoanalgesia, hyper&aelig;sthesia, experienced at various
+points not corresponding to the nervous territories and modified
+spontaneously or by esthesiogenic agents (Grasset), alphalgesia
+(sensation of pain at contact with painless bodies), a deficiency of
+urea in the urine, out of proportion to the general state of
+nourishment, and a proneness of the symptoms to return after trauma,
+poisoning, agitation, or serious illness.</p>
+
+<p>The gravest phenomena, however, are atrophy or degeneration in the
+liver, heart, stomach, seminal canaliculi, and central nervous system,
+which give rise to serious functional disturbances; most of all, in the
+digestion&mdash;as manifested by the characteristic gastric catarrh,
+matutinal vomit and cramp&mdash;and in the reproductive system, with
+resulting impotence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Psychic Disturbances&mdash;Hallucinations.</i> The most frequent and precocious
+symptoms are delusions and hallucinations, generally of a gloomy or even
+of a terrible nature, and extremely varied and fleeting, which, like
+dreams, in nearly every instance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> arise from recent and strong
+impressions. The most characteristic hallucinations are those which
+persuade the patient that he experiences the contact of disgusting
+vermin, corpses, or other horrible objects. He is gnawed by imaginary
+worms, burnt by matches, or persecuted by spies and the police.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig16" id="fig16"></a></p>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig.</span> 16</div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/Fig_16.jpg" alt="Italian Criminal: A Case of Alcoholism" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Italian Criminal</span><br />A Case of Alcoholism<br />(see <a href="#Page_82">page 82</a>)</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The strange pathological conditions resulting from chronic alcoholism
+give rise to other fearful hallucinations. Cutaneous an&aelig;sthesia and
+alcoholic anaphrodisia make the sufferers fancy they have lost the
+generative organs, nose, legs, etc.; dyspepsia, exhaustion, and paresis,
+that they have been poisoned or are being persecuted. The reaction
+following excessively prolonged stimuli causes furious lypemania and
+gloomy fancies. Sometimes chronic inebriates believe that they are
+accused of imaginary crimes and loaded with chains amid heaps of
+corpses. They implore mercy and try to kill themselves in order to
+escape from their shame; or they remain motionless, bewildered, and
+terrified. Not infrequently, because of the profound faith, which,
+unlike many other lunatics, they have in their hallucinations, they pass
+from melancholy broodings to a fit of mad energy, often of a homicidal
+or suicidal nature. They imagine they are struggling with thieves or
+wild beasts and hurl themselves from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> window or rush naked through
+the streets, killing the first person that crosses their path. In some,
+this delirium of energy breaks out suddenly like an epileptic attack,
+which it resembles in its brevity and intensity. With hair standing on
+end, they rush about like savage beasts, grinding their teeth, biting,
+rending their clothes, or tearing up the sod, or hurling themselves from
+some height. These symptoms are preceded by vertigo, periodical
+cephalalgia, and flushing of the face, and are manifested more
+frequently by those who are already predisposed through trauma to the
+head, or through typhus or heredity, or after great agitation and
+prolonged fasting, and often bear no relation to the quantity of alcohol
+imbibed, which may be small, or to the general physical state; but
+depend on cerebral irritation caused by chronic alcoholism. The attacks
+may disappear in a few hours without leaving the slightest recollection
+in the mind of the patient (Krafft-Ebing, p. 182). They are, in short, a
+species of disguised epilepsy, and thus they may well be styled, since
+true alcoholic epilepsy is noted in many inebriates, specially in
+absinthe-drinkers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Apathy.</i> Another characteristic almost invariably found in inebriates
+who have committed a crime, is a strange apathy and indifference, a
+total lack of concern regarding their state&mdash;a trait common<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> also to
+ordinary criminals, but in a less marked degree. They make themselves at
+home in prison without showing the faintest interest in their trial or
+in the offence which has caused their arrest, and only when brought
+before the judge do they rouse themselves for a moment from their
+lethargy.</p>
+
+<p>A well-educated man, after a varied career as doctor, chemist, and
+clerk, during which time he had been constantly dismissed from his posts
+for drunkenness, met a policeman in the street and killed him, in the
+belief that the officer wanted to arrest him. When taken to prison, the
+first thing he did was to write to his mother begging her to send him
+some pomade. When interrogated, he informed the examining magistrate
+that the interrogatory was useless, since he had already chosen a fresh
+trade, that of photographer. It was only after several months of total
+abstinence in prison, that he began to come to his senses and to realise
+the gravity of his situation. (Tardieu, <i>De la Folie</i>, 1870.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Contrast between Apathy and Impulsiveness.</i> This apathy alternates with
+strange impulses, which, although strongly at variance with the
+patient's former habits, he is unable to control, even when he is aware
+that they are criminal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Crimes peculiar to Inebriates.</i> Since modification of the reproductive
+organs is a common cause of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> hallucinations, inebriate criminals
+frequently suffer from a species of erotic delirium, during which they
+murder those whom they believe guilty of offences against
+themselves&mdash;generally their wives or mistresses. This is partly owing to
+the sexual nature of their hallucinations and partly to the wretchedness
+of their homes, which are in such striking contrast to the rosy dreams
+inspired by alcohol and which tend to increase the melancholy natural to
+drunkards. They imagine they are being deceived and their impotence
+derided, the most innocent gestures being interpreted as deadly insults.</p>
+
+<p>In the prison at Turin, my father had under observation two of these
+unfortunate beings, one a man of sixty and the other quite young. Both
+had murdered their wives with the most revolting cruelty, because they
+believed them to be unfaithful, although in reality both the women led
+blameless lives.</p>
+
+<p><i>Course of the Disease.</i> The continued abuse of alcohol ends at last in
+complete dementia or general pseudo-paralysis. The body is at first
+obese, but rapidly loses flesh, the skin becomes greasy and damp, owing
+to hypersecretion of the sebaceous and sudoriparous glands, and soils
+the garments. Memory becomes enfeebled, speech uncertain and defective
+(dysarthria), the association of ideas sluggish,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span> sensibility blunted,
+perception confused, judgment erroneous, and every species of regular
+and continued application impossible. The earlier hallucinations
+reappear, but in a less vivid form and only at long intervals; then
+paralysis more or less rapidly becomes general and ends in death.</p>
+
+
+<h4>EPILEPSY</h4>
+
+<p>We have spoken of this disease in another chapter and have shown that
+the born criminal is in reality an epileptic, in whom the malady,
+instead of manifesting itself suddenly in strange muscular contortions
+or terrible spasms, develops slowly in continual brain irritation, which
+causes the individual thus affected to reproduce the ferocious egotism
+natural to primitive savages, irresistibly bent on harming others.</p>
+
+<p>But besides these epileptics, who are morally insane from their birth
+and pass their lives in prisons and lunatic asylums, without any one
+being able to mark the exact boundary between their perversity and their
+irresponsibility; besides these individuals, whom society has a right,
+nay a moral obligation, to remove from its midst because they are ever a
+source of danger there are those who are afflicted with other forms of
+epilepsy;&mdash;forms in which irritation is manifested in seizures exactly
+similar to the typical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span> convulsive fit, which they resemble also with
+regard to variation in intensity and duration. Generally speaking, they
+are likewise accompanied by complete loss of memory and consciousness,
+but in some cases there may be partial or complete consciousness, and
+yet the sufferer is not responsible for his actions. This variety of
+epilepsy, termed by Samt psychic epilepsy (epilepsy with psychic
+seizures), manifests itself at long intervals, sometimes only once, but
+more frequently twice or thrice in the course of a lifetime, and during
+the attack the personality of the individual undergoes a complete
+change.</p>
+
+<p>The attack is described by Samt as follows: During the seizure, the
+individual behaves like a somnambulist. Sometimes he is dazed, mute, and
+immovable; at others, he talks incessantly; at still others, he goes on
+with his ordinary occupations, travelling, reading, and writing: but in
+every case his personality suffers a complete metamorphosis, his habits,
+actions, and even handwriting assume a different character. Sometimes he
+is seized by a mania for walking and tramps for miles; at others, he
+undertakes interminable railway journeys. Tissi&eacute; (<i>Les ali&eacute;n&eacute;s
+voyageurs</i>, 1887) cites cases of epileptics who travelled from Paris to
+Bombay, who covered 71 kilometres on foot, and who wandered unconscious
+for 31 months.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span>Sometimes epilepsy is manifested only by the tendency to undertake
+purposeless journeys, as in the case of Ferretti and a certain M... who
+visited the Mahdi in Africa and from thence travelled aimlessly to
+Australia.</p>
+
+<p>This ambulatory form of epilepsy is very common amongst lads of fourteen
+or fifteen. Scarcely a week passes without the police receiving
+information from parents that their son has disappeared from home with
+only a few pence in his pocket. The wanderer is discovered later,
+frequently in some small provincial town, which he has reached after
+tramping aimlessly for days, sleeping in barns, and living on charity.
+When questioned, the boy usually displays total ignorance regarding all
+that has happened to him during the interval.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Maccabruni in his <i>Notes on Hidden Forms of Epilepsy</i>, 1886,
+narrates the case of an epileptic, who during childhood received an
+injury to his skull. Later, he started out on a series of wanderings to
+Venice, Padua, Rome, Milan, Monaco, and Mentone. His journeys,
+especially those to distant parts, were undertaken in a state of
+unconsciousness and generally a short time before the commencement of a
+fit.</p>
+
+<p>These attacks may last any length of time, from a few minutes to several
+months. In one of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> the cases observed by my father, the attack lasted a
+fortnight. The patient, a young officer with whom we were personally
+acquainted, was one of the quietest persons possible, but suddenly he
+was seized with a mania for writing innumerable letters, especially on
+stamped paper, in exaggeratedly large writing very different from his
+usual style. These letters, which were full of absurdities, were posted
+by the writer from the different towns he passed through on his aimless
+journeyings, which lasted a whole fortnight. During one of these
+seizures, he was arrested as a deserter and was unable to give any
+explanation of his conduct.</p>
+
+<p>In this particular patient, the disease assumed the mild form of absurd
+letters and still more absurd journeys, but other individuals in the
+same state may commit criminal acts like homicide, equally without
+reason or gain to themselves. Once the fit is passed, these unfortunate
+individuals have generally no recollection of their past actions, and
+since in their normal state they are quiet, law-abiding persons, it is
+extremely difficult to trace back the deed to the right source, or to
+discover the disease, because they show no other symptoms of epilepsy,
+apart from the particular criminal act.</p>
+
+<p>Samt describes a still more complicated form of this psychic seizure, in
+which the personality is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> altered without there being any loss of
+consciousness. In a case of this kind, a servant, after forty years of
+faithful service, murdered his old mistress during the night, having
+previously cut all the bell-wires to prevent communication with the
+other servants. He escaped with some valuables, but returned in a few
+days and gave himself up to the police, to whom he gave a detailed
+account of his crime without showing either horror or remorse. He was
+tried and condemned, and a few months later was again seized with
+epileptic fits during one of which he died. Samt, who saw him in this
+state, came to the conclusion that the murder had been committed during
+a similar seizure and he was able to prove that attacks of this kind are
+not necessarily accompanied by loss of consciousness.</p>
+
+<p>As in the above case, these psychic attacks are sometimes accompanied by
+an insatiable thirst for blood, destruction and violence of all kinds,
+as well as by an extraordinary development of muscular strength with
+apparent lucidity of mind. They may last from a few minutes to half an
+hour, after which the patient falls into a sound sleep and forgets
+everything that has happened, or else retains only a vague recollection.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the case of the epileptic Misdea, which first suggested to my
+father the idea of a link between<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> crime and epilepsy. As this case has
+become famous in the annals of crime in Italy, it will perhaps be of
+interest to the reader. Misdea, the son of degenerate parents,
+manifested a series of typical epileptic anomalies&mdash;asymmetry,
+vaso-motor disturbances, impulsiveness, ferocity, etc. At the age of
+twenty, while serving in the army, for some trivial motive he suddenly
+attacked and killed his superior officer and eight or ten soldiers who
+tried to overpower him. Finally he was bound and placed in a cell, where
+he fell into a sound slumber and on awaking had entirely forgotten what
+he had done. He was condemned to death, but my father, who examined him
+medically, was able to prove conclusively that the crime had been
+committed during an attack of epilepsy.</p>
+
+<p>The physical and psychic characters of this class of epileptic are those
+common to all non-criminal epileptics, and indeed we are justified in
+considering them insane rather than criminal, because, with the
+exception of the attack, which assumes this terrible form, they do not
+manifest criminal tendencies.</p>
+
+
+<h4>HYSTERIA</h4>
+
+<p>Hysteria is a disease allied to epilepsy, of which it appears to be a
+milder form, and is much more common among women than men in the ratio
+of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span> twenty to one. The disease may frequently be traced to hereditary
+influences, similar to those found in epilepsy, transmitted by
+epileptic, neurotic, or inebriate parents, frequently also, to some
+traumatic or toxic influence, such as typhus, meningitis, a blow, a
+fall, or fright.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physical Characteristics.</i> These are fewer than in epileptics. The most
+common peculiarities are small, obliquely-placed eyes of timid glance,
+pale, elongated face, crowded or loosened teeth, nervous movements of
+the face and hands, facial asymmetry, and black hair.</p>
+
+<p><i>Functional Characteristics.</i> These are of great importance. Hysterical
+subjects manifest special sensibility to the contact of certain metals
+such as magnetised iron, copper, and gold. Characteristic symptoms are
+the insensibility of the larynx or the sensation of a foreign body in it
+(<i>globus hystericus</i>), neuralgic pains, which disappear with extreme
+suddenness, reappearing often on the side opposite that where they were
+first felt, the prevalence of sensory and motor anomalies on one side
+(hemian&aelig;sthesia), the confusion of different colours (dyschromatopsia);
+greater sensibility in certain parts of the body, such as the ovary and
+the breasts, which when subjected to pressure give rise to neuropathic
+phenomena (hysterogenous points); a sense of pleasure in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> presence
+of pain, the abolition of pharyngeal reflex action, the absence of the
+sensation of warmth in certain parts of the body and a tendency to the
+so-called attacks of "hysterics." These characteristics, which are
+closely allied, if not precisely similar to those of epilepsy, are
+preceded by a number of premonitory symptoms&mdash;hallucinations, sudden
+change of character, contractions, laryngeal spasms, strabismus,
+frequent spitting, inordinate laughter or yawning, cardiac palpitations,
+loss of strength, trembling, an&aelig;sthesia and (just before the attack,)
+pains in some fixed spot, generally in the head, ovary, or nape of the
+neck.</p>
+
+<p><i>Psychology.</i> The psychological manifestations of hysterical subjects
+are of still greater interest and importance.</p>
+
+<p>They show, on the whole, a fair amount of intelligence, although little
+power of concentration. In disposition they are profoundly egotistical
+and so preoccupied with their own persons that they will do anything to
+arouse attention and obtain notoriety. They are exceedingly
+impressionable, therefore easily roused to anger and cruelty, and are
+prone to take sudden and unreasonable likes and dislikes. They are
+fickle and easily swayed. They take special delight in slandering
+others, and when unable to excite public notice by unfounded
+accusations, to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span> which they resort as a means of revenge, they embitter
+the lives of those around them by continual quarrels and dissensions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Susceptibility to Suggestion.</i> Of still greater importance for the
+criminologist is the facility with which hysterical women are dominated
+by hypnotic suggestion. Their wills become entirely subordinated to that
+of the hypnotiser, by whose influence they can be induced to believe
+that they have changed their sex so that they forthwith adopt habits of
+the opposite sex, or to entertain <i>id&eacute;es fixes</i>&mdash;strange, impulsive, or
+even criminal ideas. They are, in fact, obedient automatons when under
+hypnotic influence, but they cannot be prevailed upon to perform acts
+contrary to their nature, to commit crimes or reveal secrets entrusted
+to them, if they are naturally upright.</p>
+
+<p><i>Variability.</i> Mobility of mood is a still more salient characteristic
+of hysteria. The subject passes with extraordinary rapidity from
+laughter to tears "like children," says Richet, "who laugh immoderately
+before their tears are dry."</p>
+
+<p>"For one hour," says Sydenham, "they will be irascible and discontented;
+the next, they are cheerful and follow their friends about with all the
+signs of the old attachment."</p>
+
+<p>Their sensibility is affected by the most trifling<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span> causes. A word will
+grieve them like some real misfortune. Their impulses are not lacking in
+intellectual control, but are followed by action with excessive
+rapidity. Although of such changeable disposition, they are subject to
+fixed ideas, to which they cling with a kind of cataleptic intensity. A
+woman will be dumb or motionless for months, on the pretext that speech
+or motion would injure her. But this is the only form of constancy they
+exhibit, otherwise they are indolent by nature. Sometimes they will show
+activity for a few days only to relapse again into idleness.</p>
+
+<p><i>Erotomania.</i> This is almost a pathognomonical symptom and is shown in
+hallucinations and nightmares of an erotic character, preceded by
+epigastric aura. This erotomania is so impulsive that hysterical women
+frequently engage in a <i>liaison</i>, from a desire of adventure or of
+experiencing sudden emotions. The criminality of the hysterical is
+always connected with the sexual functions.</p>
+
+<p>Of twenty-one women found guilty of slander, nine made false accusations
+of rape, four accused their husbands of sexual violence, and one of
+sodomy. Such accusations, when made by minors, are generally full of
+disgusting details, which would be repugnant to any adult.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mendacity.</i> Another peculiarity of hysterical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span> women is the
+irresistible tendency to lie, which leads them to utter senseless
+falsehoods just for the pleasure of deceiving and making believe. They
+sham suicide and sickness or write anonymous letters full of inventions.
+Many, from motives of spite or vanity, accuse servants of dishonesty, in
+order to revel in their disgrace and imprisonment. The favourite
+calumny, however, is always an accusation of indecent behaviour,
+sometimes made against their fathers and brothers, but generally against
+a priest or medical man. The accusations, in most cases, are so strange
+and fantastic as to be quite unworthy of belief, but sometimes,
+unfortunately, they obtain credence. The commonest method adopted for
+spreading these calumnies is by means of anonymous letters. In one case,
+a young girl of twenty-five belonging to a distinguished family,
+pestered a respectable priest with love-letters and shortly afterwards
+accused him of seduction. Another girl of eighteen informed the Attorney
+for the State that she had frequently been the victim of immoral priests
+and accused one of her female cousins of complicity. According to her
+story, while praying at church, a certain Abbot R... took her into the
+sacristy and entreated her to elope with him to Spain. She refused
+indignantly, and hoping to soften her, he twice stabbed himself in her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span>
+presence, whereat she fainted, and on recovering consciousness, found
+the priest at her feet, begging forgiveness. She further accused the
+same cousin of having taken her to a convent, where she was seduced by a
+priest, the nuns acting as accomplices. A subsequent medical examination
+proved that no seduction had taken place and that she was suffering from
+hysteria.</p>
+
+<p>In another case, a girl of sixteen, the daughter of an Italian general,
+complained to her father that a certain lieutenant, her neighbour at
+table, had used indecent language to her. Shortly afterwards, a shower
+of anonymous letters troubled the peace of the household&mdash;declarations
+of love addressed to the girl's mother and threats to the daughter. It
+was discovered that the girl herself was the writer of all these
+letters.</p>
+
+<p>Anonymous letter-writing is so common among hysterical persons, that it
+may be considered a pathognomonical characteristic. The handwriting is
+of a peculiar character, or rather it shows a peculiar tendency to vary
+from excessive size to extreme smallness, a characteristic we have
+noticed in epileptics.</p>
+
+<p><i>Delirium.</i> Hysterical, like epileptic, subjects often suffer from
+melancholia or monomaniacal delirium. Indeed, according to Morel, this
+symptom<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> is more frequent when the other morbid phenomena are absent.</p>
+
+<p>Psychic hysteria, like epilepsy, may exist unaccompanied by the
+characteristic hysterical attack, and then, as is the case with
+epilepsy, it is most dangerous to society.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, although up to the present, medical men have been
+disposed to consider hysteria as a disease distinct from epilepsy,
+careful study of this malady inclined my father to class it as a
+variation of epilepsy, prevalent among women, who in this disease, as in
+many others, manifest an attenuated form.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_1.4" id="CHAPTER_1.4"></a>CHAPTER IV</h3>
+
+<h3><i>CRIMINALOIDS</i></h3>
+
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">We</span> have seen how, owing to disease, alcoholism and epilepsy, physically
+and psychically degenerate individuals make their appearance in a
+community of normal persons. But a large proportion of the crimes
+committed cannot be attributed to lunatics, epileptics, or the morally
+insane, nor do all criminals show that aggregate of atavistic and morbid
+characters,&mdash;the cruelty and bestial insensibility of the savage, the
+impulsiveness of the epileptic, the licentiousness, delusions, and
+impetuosity of the madman,&mdash;which we find united in the born criminal.</p>
+
+<p>According to statistics obtained by my father, the share contributed to
+the sum total of criminality by this latter type is only 33%, which
+appears to be a magic figure for the criminal, since it corresponds to
+the percentage of the histological anomaly discovered by Roncoroni and
+to that of all important anomalies,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> including those of the field of
+vision. But besides this percentage of born criminals, doomed even
+before birth to a career of crime, whom all educational efforts fail to
+redeem and who therefore should be segregated at once; besides the
+epileptic, hysterical, and inebriate lunatics and those insane from
+alcoholisation, of whom we have already spoken, there remain a number of
+criminals, amounting to a full half, in whom the virus is, so to speak,
+attenuated, who, although they are epileptoids, suffer from a milder
+form of the disease, so that without some adequate cause (<i>causa
+criminis</i>) criminality is not manifested. The inhibitory centres are
+somewhat obtuse, but not altogether absent, so that a healthy
+environment, careful training, habits of industry, the inculcation of
+moral and humane sentiments may prevent these individuals from yielding
+to dishonest impulses, provided always that no special temptation to sin
+comes in their path.</p>
+
+<p>We have said that education is not sufficient to convert a criminal into
+an honest man. Conversely, trials and difficulties and the want of
+education are powerless to make a criminal of an honest individual.
+Hypnotism, the most powerful means of suggestion possible, cannot induce
+a good man to commit a crime during the hypnotic sleep, but vicious
+training has an enormous influence on weak natures,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> who are candidates
+for good or evil according to circumstances. Such individuals were
+classified by my father as <i>criminaloids</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physical Characteristics.</i> Criminaloids have no special skeletal,
+anatomical, or functional peculiarities. As the criminaloid represents a
+milder type of the born criminal, he may possess the same physical
+defects in the skull, hair, beard, ears, eyes, teeth, lips, joints,
+hands, and feet, as well as all the sensory anomalies, lessened
+sensibility to touch and pain, hyper-sensibility to the magnet and
+barometrical variations, etc.; but all these anomalies are never found
+in the same proportion as in born criminals; that is, criminaloids never
+manifest the aggregate of physical and psychic peculiarities which
+distinguish born criminals and the morally insane. On the other hand, we
+find in criminaloids certain characteristics, such as premature greyness
+and baldness, etc., which are never exhibited by the born criminal. The
+real distinction between the criminaloid and the born criminal is
+psychological rather than physical.</p>
+
+<p><i>Psychological Characteristics.</i> The difference between born criminals
+and criminaloids becomes apparent directly on considering the age at
+which the latter enter on their anti-social career and the motives which
+cause them to adopt it. While the born criminal begins to perpetrate
+crimes from the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> very cradle, so to speak, and always for very trivial
+motives, the criminaloid commits his initial offence later in life and
+always for some adequate reason.</p>
+
+<p>A criminal of this attenuated type, a certain Salvador, without cranial
+or facial anomalies, had led an honest life for many years, but on
+returning home after a prolonged absence on business, he found his house
+ransacked by his wife, who had deserted him. From that time he seems to
+have deliberately adopted a career of dishonesty, as the leader of a
+band of thieves.</p>
+
+<p>In another case, an engraver who showed no pathological anomalies,
+except excessive frontal sinuses, was ordered by a society to strike a
+medal for them. This happened to be exactly similar to a coin current in
+his country and the coincidence incited him to the making of counterfeit
+coin.</p>
+
+<p>But the most characteristic case, which aroused much interest in its
+time, is that of Olivo. He was a man of handsome appearance, with normal
+olfactory acuteness and sensibility to touch and pain. He had, however,
+inherited from neurotic and insane forebears secondary epileptic
+phenomena, which subsequently developed into convulsive epilepsy, and
+certain indications of degeneracy (facial and cranial asymmetry,
+abnormal capillary vortices and length of arm, scotoma in the field of
+vision and exaggerated<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> tendinous reflex action). Up to the age of
+thirty he led an irreproachable life; in fact, he was scrupulous to
+excess, and this, coupled with pronounced conceit and stinginess, was
+his only fault. He married a woman of common origin, who was not really
+depraved, but she was coarse and unfaithful, and, worst of all in his
+eyes, unscrupulous and wasteful. These defects, and her habits of lying
+and trickery embittered the poor man's existence. One night, feeling
+very ill, probably owing to an approaching seizure, he appealed to his
+wife for assistance and received an unfeeling reply, whereupon he sprang
+out of bed, picked up a knife and stabbed her. Afterwards he fell into a
+deep sleep. In order to obliterate all traces of the crime, he cut the
+corpse into small pieces, packed it into a portmanteau and threw it into
+the sea. Two months later, when he was arrested, he immediately made a
+full confession, showing deep repentance and sincere attachment to his
+victim, whose merits he celebrated in a poem of his own composition. At
+the trial, he made no attempt to defend himself; during the hearing of
+evidence, which appeared greatly to agitate him, he was seized with an
+epileptic fit. He was absolved by the jury and returned to his former
+peaceful occupation of bookkeeper, nor did he again come into conflict
+with the law.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span><i>Reluctance to Commit Crimes.</i> Another trait characteristic of
+criminaloids is the hesitation they show before committing a crime,
+especially the first time, when it is not done, as in the above
+mentioned case, during an epileptic seizure.</p>
+
+<p>Feuerbach's fine collection contains a description of the brothers
+Kleinroth, whose father cruelly ill-treated and starved his wife and
+family while lavishing his money on low women and their bastards. The
+sons were unwilling to run away and leave the invalid mother to bear the
+brunt of her husband's fury, and while they were in this terrible
+situation, a certain individual offered to assassinate their tormentor.
+After great hesitation this offer was accepted; when arrested, the
+youths immediately confessed their complicity and manifested deep
+repentance.</p>
+
+<p><i>Confession.</i> The criminaloid is easily induced to confess his misdeed.</p>
+
+<p>A certain C... on returning from abroad, found his former mistress
+married to his father. The pair resumed their liaison, but after a time,
+fearing a scandal, the woman threatened to drown herself unless her
+lover could find some means of adjusting matters on a satisfactory
+basis. C..., who disliked his father, poisoned him and disappeared with
+the widow taking with him a few valuables belonging to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> his father. A
+year later, the woman having died meanwhile, he returned home and made
+full confession, first to his sister and subsequently in court.</p>
+
+<p><i>Moral Sense&mdash;Intelligence.</i> In the place of a weak, clouded, or
+unbalanced mind and that cynicism and absence of moral sense and natural
+feelings which distinguish born criminals of the most elevated type and
+even geniuses, criminaloids generally possess lucidity and balance of
+mind and may show themselves worthy of guiding the destinies of a
+nation. The men implicated in the French Panama Scandal and the case of
+the Banca Romana (Bank of Rome) are instances. When under a cloud of
+disgrace, instead of that insensibility, cynicism, or levity common to
+true criminals, they show deep sorrow, shame, and remorse, which not
+infrequently result in serious illness or death. Their natural
+affections and other sentiments are normal.</p>
+
+<p>It is notorious, too, that as soon as accusations were made against
+those implicated in the French Panama Scandal and the affair of the Bank
+of Rome, the greater number became ill and two died suddenly at the end
+of the trial.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike born criminals, criminaloids manifest deep repugnance towards
+common offenders. They demand solitary confinement and forego exercise,
+the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> only recreation prison life affords, in order to avoid all contact
+with their fellow-prisoners.</p>
+
+<p><i>Social Position and Culture of the Criminaloid.</i> Criminaloids, as we
+have seen, are recruited from all ranks of society and strike every note
+in the scale of criminality, from petty larceny to complicated and
+premeditated murder, from minting spurious coins to compassing gigantic
+frauds, which inflict incalculable damage upon the community. The
+magnitude of a crime does not imply greater criminality on the part of
+its author, but rather that he is a man of brilliant endowments, whose
+culture and talents multiply his opportunities and means for evil. In
+all cases where opportunity plays an important part, the crime must
+necessarily be committed by individuals exposed to special temptations:
+cashiers who handle other people's money, which they may be tempted to
+spend with the illusory idea of being able later to replace what they
+have taken, officials and public men, who possess a certain amount of
+power and an apparent impunity, and bankers who are entrusted with
+wealth belonging to others, of which in that capacity they are
+accustomed to make use. Thus is explained why men of great talent and
+only slight criminal tendencies have taken part in gigantic frauds, such
+as the affairs of the Bank of Rome and the French Panama Canal.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span>A characteristic case is that of Lord S&mdash;&mdash;, First Lord of the Treasury,
+who committed forgeries to the extent of half a million sterling. "No
+torture," he writes, "would be an adequate punishment for my crime. Step
+by step, I have become the author of innumerable misdeeds and ruined
+more than ten thousand families. With less talent and greater
+uprightness, I might be now what I once was, an honest man. Now remorse
+is in vain."</p>
+
+<p>In Lord S&mdash;&mdash; we find united all the characteristics of the criminaloid:
+repentance, the desire to confess, irreproachable antecedents, a strong
+incentive to dishonesty, and great intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>Although the damage inflicted on society by this man was probably far
+greater than any evil wrought by a vulgar born criminal could have been,
+his criminality is nevertheless of an attenuated type. The mischief he
+wrought owed its gravity, not to the intensity of his criminal
+tendencies, but to his remarkable talents, which increased his power for
+evil as for good.</p>
+
+<p>In this category of criminals must be inscribed those clever swindlers,
+who set the whole world talking of their exploits: Madame Humbert,
+Lemoine, and the cobbler-captain of K&ouml;penick.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes, especially in political or commercial criminals, we find
+cases of an auto-illusion, of which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> the author of the crime is as much
+a victim as the public. Sometimes it is some device or mechanism which
+an inventor is convinced he has invented or is about to invent, an
+enterprise, in which the promoter imagines he will gain enormous wealth.
+Sometimes it is a trick in which the cupidity of the victims and their
+readiness to swallow promises of large and immediate profits play as
+important a part as the ability of the swindler. Sometimes it is a
+gigantic hoax, in which the deviser himself becomes keenly interested
+and for the carrying out of which he spends as much talent and energy as
+would suffice, if employed honestly, to acquire considerable wealth; but
+the swindler delights in his ingenious fraud as though he were taking
+part in some thrilling drama.</p>
+
+<p>A typical instance is that of a certain C... who was imprisoned about
+twenty years ago for defrauding a woman. My father undertook to cure him
+while in prison and was able to follow him in his subsequent career.
+This C... was a young man of good family, intelligent, honest, and a
+good linguist. His countenance was pleasing and bore no trace of
+precocious criminality. At the age of twenty he developed an
+unrestrained love of gambling and in order to indulge this vice,
+promised to marry a rich woman considerably older than himself, from
+whom he borrowed large sums, on the understanding that they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> should be
+paid back. However, shortly afterwards, he fell in love with a young
+girl and married her. His ex-fianc&eacute;e brought legal action against him
+and he was sentenced to two years' imprisonment. During this time he
+shrank from seeing anybody and refused to exercise in order to avoid all
+contact with his fellow-prisoners. He showed great affection for his
+wife and declared his intention of turning over a new leaf. The offence
+he had committed, however seemed to cause him little or no regret,
+because, as he said, he would never have continued the deception had not
+his victim shown such willingness to be gulled. From prison he went to
+London, where lack of funds caused him to perpetrate another swindle,
+but this time he was able to escape to Naples. Here for twelve years, he
+worked honestly in a large hotel, but once again a pressing need of
+money made him engage in a third fraud of considerable importance, for
+which he is still undergoing imprisonment.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Habitual Criminals</span></h4>
+
+<p>The degrading influence of prison life and contact with vulgar
+criminals, or the abuse of alcohol, to which better natures frequently
+have recourse in order to stifle the pangs of conscience, may cause
+criminaloids who have committed their initial offences<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> with repugnance
+and hesitation, to develop later into habitual criminals,&mdash;that is,
+individuals who regard systematic violation of the law in the light of
+an ordinary trade or occupation and commit their offences with
+indifference.</p>
+
+<p>Physically, habitual criminals do not resemble born criminals, but they
+exhibit some of the characteristics of those offenders from whom their
+ranks are recruited, besides, in a more marked degree, certain acquired
+characters, like sinister wrinkles and a shifty and sneaking look.</p>
+
+<p>Psychologically, criminaloids tend to resemble born criminals, whose
+habits, tastes, slang, tattooing, orgies, idleness, etc., they gradually
+develop, in the same way as old couples, living isolated in the country,
+adopt identical habits, gestures, and tone of voice.</p>
+
+<p>The type of criminaloid, who develops into an habitual criminal is well
+illustrated by the case of Eyraud, who in conjunction with Gabrielle
+Bompard, murdered Gouffr&eacute; and packed the corpse in a trunk. Through his
+marked weakness for women, Eyraud became successively a deserter, a
+thief, and a murderer. He certainly possessed a few of the
+characteristics peculiar to degenerates&mdash;long, projecting ears,
+excessive development, amounting to asymmetry, of the left frontal
+sinus, prognathism,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> exaggerated brachycephaly, and the span of the arms
+exceeding the total height, but he had not the general criminal type,
+his teeth were regular, beard abundant, and hair scanty.</p>
+
+<p>His psychology corresponds exactly to his physical individuality. During
+infancy and youth, he showed nothing abnormal, except an unusual
+predominance of the sexual instincts. He exhibited no signs of that love
+of evil for its own sake, so characteristic of criminals, above all, of
+murderers. According to all accounts, he was a jovial individual, fond
+of making merry, but at the same time, brusque and violent and easily
+roused to passionate fury. His extreme susceptibility to the attractions
+of the opposite sex made him regardless of all moral considerations. In
+order to gratify this weakness, he became a deserter, dissipated all the
+money he had earned in a distillery and as a dealer in skins, and
+finally committed murder. At his trial, it was shown that before his
+escape to America, he had attempted to kill a woman who refused to leave
+her husband for him. He became violently enamoured of his accomplice,
+Gabrielle Bompard, to whom, like many criminaloids, he was attracted by
+reason of her greater depravity.</p>
+
+<p>The extreme levity displayed by Eyraud seems to be the strongest link
+between him and the born criminal. He passed with extraordinary
+facility<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> from gaiety to melancholy. His intellect was well developed,
+he spoke three or four languages, and was successful in most things he
+undertook, though he seems to have been incapable of remaining constant
+to anything for long. As a business man he wasted his capital, and even
+in the execution of his crimes he showed frivolity and incoherence. At
+Lyons, he hired a carriage, in which he placed the corpse of Gouffr&eacute; and
+after driving about the streets with Gabrielle Bompard like a madman,
+left the body of his victim in a spot near which people were constantly
+passing.</p>
+
+<p>Eyraud appears to have been a dissolute criminaloid whose unbridled
+passions and connection with Gabrielle Bompard caused him to develop
+into an habitual criminal. This diagnosis is confirmed by the absence of
+morbid heredity.</p>
+
+<p>It would be futile to cite a long series of cases, in which, although
+the details may vary, we always find the same phenomenon, the gradual
+development of a criminaloid into a criminal. It will suffice to name a
+large class of criminals, in whom this phenomenon may often be
+observed&mdash;the brigands common to Spain and Italy.</p>
+
+<p>These outlaws, and particularly their leaders, notwithstanding the
+gravity of their offences, are seldom born criminals, nor do they
+(except in rare<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span> cases) begin their career at a very early age. They
+possess, moreover, good qualities<small><a name="f3.1" id="f3.1" href="#f3">[3]</a></small> and are capable of affection,
+generosity, and chivalry, which explains why their memories are
+cherished by the common people long after good and law-abiding men have
+been forgotten.</p>
+
+<p>The brigand Mandrin, known as the "Smuggler General" is remembered with
+love and affection in Dauphin&eacute; and other regions of France, Switzerland,
+and Savoy; and this feeling is easy to understand, since he was the
+enemy of the "fermiers g&eacute;n&eacute;raux," who, in the eighteenth century, leased
+from the French Government the right to levy excise duties, and sorely
+oppressed the people.</p>
+
+<p>Louis Mandrin, who in early life showed no signs of perversity nor
+possessed criminal traits, became a bandit, because he had been unjustly
+treated by these same "fermiers g&eacute;n&eacute;raux" who refused him payment for
+work done. He became the chief of a small band of smugglers and spread
+terror among excise officers and gendarmes. He used to bring smuggled
+goods openly into the vicinity of villages and towns and invite the
+people to buy them, and the buying and selling went on without either
+gendarmes' or excise officers' daring to interfere. The Administration
+of the "fermiers g&eacute;n&eacute;raux"<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> promulgated a terrible edict against all
+purchasers of contraband goods; whereupon Mandrin, who was not without a
+sense of humour, declared he would force the Administration itself to
+buy the merchandise, and from time to time he would oblige the excise
+officers to buy smuggled wares at a fair price.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><a name="fig18" id="fig18"></a><a name="fig19" id="fig19"></a></p>
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Lady and Salomone">
+<tr><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Fig. 18</span></strong></td><td align="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Fig. 19</strong></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/Fig_18.jpg" alt="Criminal Girl" /></td><td align="center"><img src="images/Fig_19.jpg" alt="The Brigand Salomone" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Criminal Girl</span></strong></td><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">The Brigand Salomone</span></strong></td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p>The brigand Gasparone (<a href="#fig20">Fig. 20</a>), whose memory is still held in great
+esteem by Sicilians, was an individual of much the same disposition.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Juridical Criminals</span></h4>
+
+<p>This category comprises individuals who break the law, not because of
+any natural depravity, nor owing to distressing circumstances, but by
+mere accident. They may be divided into two classes:</p>
+
+<p>First, the authors of accidental misdeeds, such as involuntary homicide
+or arson, who are not considered criminal by public opinion or by
+anthropologists, but who are obliged by the law to make compensation for
+the damage caused. Naturally, this class of law-breaker is in no way
+distinguishable, physically or psychically, from normal individuals,
+except that he is generally lacking in prudence, care, and forethought.</p>
+
+<p>Second, the authors of offences, which do not cause any damage socially,
+nor are they considered<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span> criminal by the general public, but have been
+deemed such by the law, in obedience to some dominating opinion or
+prejudice. Bad language, seditious writings, atheism, drunkenness,
+evasion of customs, and any violation of petty by-laws come under this
+head. Instances of such offences are too well known to need citation.
+They may best be summed up in the words of an American judge, who
+pointed out how easy it would be to sentence the most honest citizen of
+the Republic to imprisonment for a hundred years and fines exceeding a
+thousand dollars for breaking a number of petty local regulations
+against spitting, drinking, disrobing near a window, swearing, opening
+places of amusement on Sunday, or employing persons on certain days or
+under certain conditions prohibited by the law, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Although persons who commit these acts are often in no wise
+distinguishable from ordinary individuals, both criminals and
+criminaloids are more often guilty of such offences than are normal
+persons, who instinctively avoid coming into conflict with the law.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulty of judging these misdeeds lies in the necessity for
+careful weighing of the motive which gives rise to them, whether, that
+is, they have been unwittingly committed by an honest individual, or
+whether they are but an item in the long list of offences perpetrated by
+a criminal. This differential<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> diagnosis should be based principally on
+the antecedents of the offender.</p>
+
+<p>To this group belong also the authors of more serious infractions of the
+law that are not generally considered such at the time, or in the
+district in which they take place. Misdeeds of this nature are: thefts
+of fuel in rural districts, poaching, the petty dishonesty current in
+commerce and in certain professions, and in countries where secret
+societies like the <i>camorra</i> at Naples and the <i>mafia</i> in Sicily, exist,
+a connection with such organisations, which to a certain extent is
+necessary in self-defence. Such, too, are theft and homicide during
+revolutions, insurrections, wars, and the conquest and exploitation of
+new territories and mines.</p>
+
+<p>Rochefort and Whitman have pointed out that during the gold-fever in
+Australia and California there was an enormous increase in crime.
+Individuals of good antecedents engaged in deadly struggles for the
+possession of the most valuable territories, and unbridled orgies
+followed these bloody affrays.</p>
+
+<p>During the expedition of Europeans to China in 1900, looting was carried
+on by soldiers of previously blameless career.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Criminals of Passion</span></h4>
+
+<p>This type of criminal, if indeed such he may be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span> called, represents the
+antithesis of the common offender, whose evil acts are the outcome of
+his ferocious and egotistical impulses, whereas criminals from passion
+are urged to violate the law by a pure spirit of altruism. In fact, they
+stand in no relation whatsoever to ordinary delinquents, and it is only
+by a legislative compromise that they are classed together. They
+represent the ultra-violet ray of the criminal spectrum, of which the
+vulgar criminal represents the ultra-red. Not only are they free from
+the egotism, insensibility, laziness, and lack of moral sense peculiar
+to the ordinary criminal, but their abnormality consists in the
+excessive development of noble qualities, sensibility, altruism,
+integrity, affection, which if carried to an extreme, may result in
+actions forbidden by law, or worse still, dangerous to society.</p>
+
+<p><i>Physical Characteristics.</i> These, too, are in complete contrast to
+those of the born criminal. The countenance is frequently handsome, with
+lofty forehead, serene and gentle expression, and the beard is abundant.
+The sensibility is extremely acute; there is a high degree of
+excitability and exaggerated reflex action, all characteristics of the
+normal (or rather hypernormal) individual, from whom nothing
+distinguishes the criminal of passion except the anti-social effects of
+his action.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span><i>Psychology.</i> Here, as in all physical characteristics, criminals of
+passion are scarcely distinguishable from their fellow-men, except that
+we find in an excessive degree those qualities we consider peculiar to
+good and holy persons&mdash;love, honour, noble ambitions, patriotism. In
+fact, the motive of the crime is always adequate, frequently noble, and
+sometimes sublime. Love prompts certain natures to kill those who insult
+their beloved ones or are the cause of their dishonour and, in some
+cases, even the object of their affection who proves unfaithful. Crimes
+of this character are the murder by brothers of the man who dishonours
+their sister, the murder of an infant by its unmarried mother, the
+murder of an unfaithful wife by her husband. Sometimes the motive is a
+patriotic one, as in the cases of Charlotte Corday, Orsini Sand, and
+Caserio (<a href="#fig21">Fig. 21</a>) all of whom had been persons of gentle disposition and
+blameless conduct up to the moment of their crimes.</p>
+
+<p>This class of offender not infrequently commits suicide after his crime,
+or, if this is prevented, he seeks to expiate it by long years of
+remorse and self-inflicted martyrdom.</p>
+
+<p>The deed is almost always unpremeditated and committed publicly, without
+accomplices and with the simplest means at hand&mdash;be they nails, teeth,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span>
+scissors, or a stick. The previous career is always blameless.</p>
+
+<p>Cumano, Verano, Guglielmotti, Harry, Curti, Milani, Brenner, Mari,
+Zucca, Bechis, Bouley, Tacco, Berruto and Sand, and Camicia, Vinci, and
+Leoni (these last three women), all attacked their victims single-handed
+and in public.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of Chalanton, the woman he had rescued by marriage from a
+low life, not content with betraying her benefactor, covered him in
+public with abuse and persecuted him with anonymous accusations. His
+demand for a separation was unsuccessful and at last, finding himself,
+in spite of his integrity, involved in a scandalous action, in which his
+wife figured as a go-between, and tormented by public curiosity and the
+implacable questionings of reporters, he murdered the cause of all his
+misfortunes. Another murderer, Del Prete, was prompted to kill his
+victim, an old woman with a reputation for witchcraft, because he
+believed she had caused the illness of his mother, to whom he was
+greatly attached.</p>
+
+<p>The motive for the crime is generally a serious one and in most cases
+immediately precedes it. Bouley committed his crime only a few hours
+after receiving the news which prompted it; Bounin, Bechis, and Verano,
+only a few minutes; Milani,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span> twenty-four hours, Zucca eight hours;
+Curti, a few days. Thus the crime is seldom premeditated, or if so, for
+only a short space of time, never for months or years.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig21" id="fig21"></a></p>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21</span></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/Fig_21.jpg" alt="Brigand Caserio" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Brigand Caserio</span><br />
+(see <a href="#Page_119">page 119</a>)</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>Homicide forms 91% of the criminality of this group of offenders. There
+is a certain proportion also of infanticide, owing to the prevailing
+prejudice which condemns immorality more harshly when the results are
+evident. Arson and theft form only 2%. Such cases are however possible.
+A young girl, whom my father had under observation in prison, seeing her
+family in dire poverty, committed arson in order to get the insurance
+money.</p>
+
+<p>In another case a woman of refinement, education, and of gentle
+disposition, who had fallen from prosperity into extreme want, stole in
+order to pay her son's school-fees. When arrested, she refused to give
+her name so that the lad should not be dishonoured, and her identity
+might never have been discovered had she not been recognised by a lawyer
+in court. She died of a broken heart a few days after her trial.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="PART_II" id="PART_II"></a>PART II</h2>
+
+<h2>CRIME, ITS ORIGIN, CAUSE, AND CURE</h2>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_2.1" id="CHAPTER_2.1"></a>CHAPTER I</h3>
+
+<h3><i>ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF CRIME</i></h3>
+
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">In</span> order to determine the origin of actions which we call criminal, we
+shall be forced to hark back to a very remote period in the history of
+the human race. In all the epochs of which records exist, we find traces
+of criminal actions. In fact, if we study minutely the customs of savage
+peoples, past and present, we find that many acts that are now
+considered criminal by civilised nations were legitimate in former
+times, and are to-day reputed such among primitive races.</p>
+
+<p>According to Pictet the Latin word <i>crimen</i> is derived from the Sanscrit
+<i>karman</i>, which signifies action corresponding to <i>kri</i> to do. This is
+contradicted by Vanicek who derives it from <i>kru</i>, to hear, <i>croemen</i>
+(accusation). At any rate, the Sanscrit word <i>apaz</i>, which means sin,
+corresponds to <i>apas</i>, work (<i>opus</i>), the Latin <i>facinus</i> derives from
+<i>facere</i>, and <i>culpa</i> according to Pictet and Pott, from the Sanscrit
+<i>kalp</i>, to do or execute. The Latin word <i>fur</i><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span> (thief) which Vanicek
+derives from <i>bahr</i>, to carry, the Hebrew <i>ganav</i> and the Sanscrit
+<i>sten</i> only signify to put aside, to hide, to cover (<i>gonav</i>). The Greek
+word <i>peirao</i> (&#960;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#940;&#969;) from which pirate is derived, signifies
+to risk; the Greek <i>chleptein</i> (&#967;&#955;&#941;&#960;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#957;) to hide or steal, is
+derived from the Sanscrit <i>harp-hlap</i> to hide and steal (Vanicek).</p>
+
+<p>In India, from Ceylon to the Himalayas, infanticide is sanctified by
+religion, not only among the more barbarous races, but also among the
+Rajputs, the nobles, who think themselves dishonoured if one of their
+daughters remains unmarried. The inhabitants of the Island of Tikopia,
+kill more male children than female, a fact that accounts for their
+practice of polygamy.</p>
+
+<p>Marco Polo speaks of the infanticide practised in Japan and China, which
+was then, as it is now, a means of regulating the population. The same
+practice&mdash;common to Bushmen, Hottentots, Fijians, also existed among the
+natives of Hawaii and America. In the Island of Tahiti, according to the
+testimony of missionaries, two thirds of the children born are destroyed
+by their parents.</p>
+
+<p>"Amongst the Guaranys," says D'Azara, "mothers kill a large proportion
+of their female infants, in order that the survivors may be more highly
+valued." (<i>Travels in America</i>, 1835.)</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span>The Carthaginians had originally the custom of offering the noblest and
+most beautiful children to Kronos (Moloch), but later victims were
+always bought and bred for the purpose. After their defeat at the hand
+of Agathokles they sacrificed two hundred children belonging to the
+noblest Carthaginian families, in order to appease the Divine wrath.</p>
+
+<p>Ph&oelig;nicians, Egyptians, Cretans, Cypriotes, Rhodians, and Persians had
+similar practices.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Lydians, the sacred courtesans were so numerous and wealthy
+that their contributions to the Mausoleum of Alyattes exceeded those of
+the artists and merchants combined (Herodotus, Book I.); in Armenia
+(Strabo XII.) the priestesses alone were permitted to practise
+polyandry, and in Media, a woman boasting of five husbands was greatly
+honoured, which shows that polyandry was not only allowed, but esteemed.</p>
+
+<p>In Thibet, the eldest male of a family shares his wife with his
+brothers, the whole family live in the bride's house and the children
+inherit from her. Among the <i>Todas</i>, the wife espouses all her husband's
+younger brothers as they attain their majority, and they in their turn
+become the husbands of her younger sisters (Short).</p>
+
+<p>Among the <i>Nairs</i>, a noble negro caste of Malabar, it is customary for
+one woman to have five or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> six husbands, the maximum number allowed
+being ten.</p>
+
+<p>In Egypt, the business of thief was a recognised one. Those who wished
+to exercise this calling inscribed their names on a public tablet,
+collected all the stolen goods in one spot and restored them to their
+owners in exchange for a certain coin. The ancient Germans encouraged
+the youthful portion of the population to make raids on the property of
+neighbouring peoples, so that they should not develop habits of
+idleness. Thucydides states that the Greeks, as well as the barbarous
+peoples inhabiting the islands and along the coasts, were pirates, and
+the calling was a noble one.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst Spartans, as is well known, theft was allowed, but the unlucky
+marauder who was caught in the act, was punished, not for the deed
+itself, but for his want of skill. In East Africa, according to Burton
+(<i>First Footsteps in East Africa</i>, p. 176), robbery is considered
+honourable. In Caramanza (Portuguese Guinea) in Africa, side by side
+with the peaceful rice-cultivating Bagnous dwell the Balantes who
+subsist upon the chase and the spoils of their raids. While they kill
+the individual who presumes to steal in his native village, they
+encourage depredations upon the other tribes (<i>Revue d' Anthropologie</i>,
+1874). The cleverest thieves are greatly esteemed,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span> are paid for
+instructing boys in their profession, and are chosen to lead the
+expeditions.</p>
+
+<p>In India the tribe Zakka Khel is devoted to this dishonest calling, and
+at birth every male child is consecrated to thievish practices by a
+peculiar ceremony, in which the new-born infant is passed through a
+breach in the wall of his father's house, whilst the words "Become a
+thief" are chanted three times in chorus. Amongst the ancient Germans,
+according to Tacitus, thefts perpetrated outside the boundary of the
+tribe itself were by no means infamous. In the midst of a great
+assembly, the chief called upon those he wished to follow him; they
+showed their willingness by rising to their feet amid the applause of
+the crowd. Those who refused to take part were looked upon as deserters
+and traitors (Spencer, <i>Principles of Ethics</i>, 1895). Among the
+Comanches (M&uuml;lhausen, <i>Diary of a Journey from the Mississippi to the
+Pacific</i>) no man was considered worthy of being numbered among the
+warriors of the tribe, unless he had taken part in some successful
+pillaging expedition. The cleverest thieves were the most respected
+members of the tribe. No Patagonian is deemed worthy of a wife unless he
+has graduated in the art of despoiling a stranger (Snow, <i>Two Years'
+Cruise round Tierra del Fuego</i>). Among the Kukis (Dalton, <i>Descriptive
+<ins class="correction" title="Original reads 'Ethnolgy'.">Ethnology</ins> of Bengal</i>) skill in stealing
+is the most esteemed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span> talent. In
+Mongolia (Gilmour, <i>Among the Mongols</i>), thieves are regarded as
+respectable members of the community, provided they steal cleverly and
+escape detection.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Criminality in Children</span></h4>
+
+<p>The criminal instincts common to primitive savages would be found
+proportionally in nearly all children, if they were not influenced by
+moral training and example. This does not mean that without educative
+restraints, all children would develop into criminals. According to the
+observations made by Prof. Mario Carrara at Cagliari, the bands of
+neglected children who run wild in the streets of the Sardinian capital
+and are addicted to thievish practices and more serious vices,
+spontaneously correct themselves of these habits as soon as they have
+arrived at puberty.</p>
+
+<p>This fact, that the germs of moral insanity and criminality are found
+normally in mankind in the first stages of his existence, in the same
+way as forms considered monstrous when exhibited by adults, frequently
+exist in the f&oelig;tus, is such a simple and common phenomenon that it
+eluded notice until it was demonstrated clearly by observers like
+Moreau, Perez, and Bain. The child, like certain adults, whose
+abnormality consists in a lack of moral<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span> sense, represents what is known
+to alienists as a morally insane being and to criminologists as a born
+criminal, and it certainly resembles these types in its impetuous
+violence.</p>
+
+<p>Perez (<i>Psychologie de l'enfant</i>, 2d ed., 1882) remarks on the frequency
+and precocity of anger in children:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"During the first two months, it manifests by movements of the
+eyebrows and hands undoubted fits of temper when undergoing any
+distasteful process, such as washing or when deprived of any object
+it takes a fancy to. At the age of one, it goes to the length of
+striking those who incur its displeasure, of breaking plates or
+throwing them at persons it dislikes, exactly like savages."</p></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Moreau (<i>De l'Homicide chez les enfants</i>, 1882) cites numerous cases of
+children who fly into a passion if their wishes are not complied with
+immediately. In one instance observed by him a very intelligent child of
+eight, when reproved, even in the mildest manner by his parents or
+strangers, would give way to violent anger, snatching up the nearest
+weapon, or if he found himself unable to take revenge, would break
+anything he could lay his hands on.</p>
+
+<p>A baby girl showed an extremely violent temper, but became of gentle
+disposition after she had reached the age of two (Perez). Another,
+observed by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> same author, when only eleven months old, flew into a
+towering rage, because she was unable to pull off her grandfather's
+nose. Yet another, at the age of two, tried to bite another child who
+had a doll like her own, and she was so much affected by her anger that
+she was ill for three days afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>Nino Bixio, when a boy of seven (<i>Vita</i>, Guerzoni, 1880) on seeing his
+teacher laugh because he had written his exercise on office
+letter-paper, threw the inkstand at the man's face. This boy was
+literally the terror of the school, on account of the violence he
+displayed at the slightest offence.</p>
+
+<p>Infants of seven or eight months have been known to scratch at any
+attempt to withdraw the breast from them, and to retaliate when slapped.</p>
+
+<p>A backward and slightly hydrocephalous boy whom my father had under
+observation, began at the age of six to show violent irritation at the
+slightest reproof or correction. If he was able to strike the person who
+had annoyed him, his rage cooled immediately; if not, he would scream
+incessantly and bite his hands with gestures similar to those often
+witnessed in caged bears who have been teased and cannot retaliate.</p>
+
+<p>The above cases show that the desire for revenge is extremely common and
+precocious in children. Anger is an elementary instinct innate in human<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span>
+beings. It should be guided and restrained, but can never be extirpated.</p>
+
+<p>Children are quite devoid of moral sense during the first months or
+first years of their existence. Good and evil in their estimation are
+what is allowed and what is forbidden by their elders, but they are
+incapable of judging independently of the moral value of an action.</p>
+
+<p>"Lying and disobedience are very wrong," said a boy to Perez, "because
+they displease mother." Everything he was accustomed to was right and
+necessary.</p>
+
+<p>A child does not grasp abstract ideas of justice, or the rights of
+property, until he has been deprived of some possession. He is prone to
+detest injustice, especially when he is the victim. Injustice, in his
+estimation, is the discord between a habitual mode of treatment and an
+accidental one. When subjected to altered conditions, he shows complete
+uncertainty. A child placed under Perez's care modified his ways
+according to each new arrival. He began ordering his companions about
+and refused to obey any one but Perez.</p>
+
+<p>Affection is very slightly developed in children. Their fancy is easily
+caught by a pleasing exterior or by anything that contributes to their
+amusement; like domestic animals that they enjoy teasing and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span> pulling
+about, and they exhibit great antipathy to unfamiliar objects that
+inspire them with fear. Up to the age of seven or even after, they show
+very little real attachment to anybody. Even their mothers, whom they
+appear to love, are speedily forgotten after a short separation.</p>
+
+<p>In conclusion, children manifest a great many of the impulses we have
+observed in criminals; anger, a spirit of revenge, idleness, volubility
+and lack of affection.</p>
+
+<p>We have also pointed out that many actions considered criminal in
+civilised communities, are normal and legitimate practices among
+primitive races. It is evident, therefore, that such actions are natural
+to the early stages, both of social evolution and individual psychic
+development.</p>
+
+<p>In view of these facts, it is not strange that civilised communities
+should produce a certain percentage of adults who commit actions reputed
+injurious to society and punishable by law. It is only an atavistic
+phenomenon, the return to a former state. In the criminal, moreover, the
+phenomenon is accompanied by others also natural to a primitive stage of
+evolution. These have already been referred to in the first chapter,
+which contains a description of many strange practices common to
+delinquents, and evidently of primitive origin&mdash;tattooing, cruel games,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>
+love of orgies, a <ins class="correction" title="Original reads 'pecuilar'.">peculiar</ins> slang resembling in certain features the
+languages of primitive peoples, and the use of hieroglyphics and
+pictography.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig22" id="fig22"></a></p>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22</span></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/Fig_22.jpg" alt="Terra-cotta Bowls" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Terra-cotta Bowls</span><br />Designed by a Criminal<br />(see <a href="#Page_135">page 135</a>)</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>The artistic manifestations of the criminal show the same
+characteristics. In spite of the thousands of years which separate him
+from prehistoric savages, his art is a faithful reproduction of the
+first, crude artistic attempts of primitive races. The museum of
+criminal anthropology created by my father contains numerous specimens
+of criminal art, stones shaped to resemble human figures, like those
+found in Australia, rude pottery covered with designs that recall
+Egyptian decorations (<a href="#fig22">Fig. 22</a>) or scenes fashioned in terra-cotta (<a href="#fig23">Fig. 23</a>) that
+resemble the grotesque creations of children or savages.</p>
+
+<p>The criminal is an atavistic being, a relic of a vanished race. This is
+by no means an uncommon occurrence in nature. Atavism, the reversion to
+a former state, is the first feeble indication of the reaction opposed
+by nature to the perturbing causes which seek to alter her delicate
+mechanism. Under certain unfavourable conditions, cold or poor soil, the
+common oak will develop characteristics of the oak of the Quaternary
+period. The dog left to run wild in the forest will in a few generations
+revert to the type of his original wolf-like progenitor, and the
+cultivated garden roses when neglected show a tendency to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> reassume the
+form of the original dog-rose. Under special conditions produced by
+alcohol, chloroform, heat, or injuries, ants, dogs, and pigeons become
+irritable and savage like their wild ancestors.</p>
+
+<p>This tendency to alter under special conditions is common to human
+beings, in whom hunger, syphilis, trauma, and, still more frequently,
+morbid conditions inherited from insane, criminal, or diseased
+progenitors, or the abuse of nerve poisons, such as alcohol, tobacco, or
+morphine, cause various alterations, of which criminality&mdash;that is, a
+return to the characteristics peculiar to primitive savages&mdash;is in
+reality the least serious, because it represents a less advanced stage
+than other forms of cerebral alteration.</p>
+
+<p>The &aelig;tiology of crime, therefore, mingles with that of all kinds of
+degeneration: rickets, deafness, monstrosity, hairiness, and cretinism,
+of which crime is only a variation. It has, however, always been
+regarded as a thing apart, owing to a general instinctive repugnance to
+admit that a phenomenon, whose extrinsications are so extensive and
+penetrate every fibre of social life, derives, in fact, from the same
+causes as socially insignificant forms like rickets, sterility, etc. But
+this repugnance is really only a sensory illusion, like many others of
+widely diverse nature.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig23" id="fig23"></a></p>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23</span></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/Fig_23.jpg" alt="Art Production from Prison" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Art Production from Prison</span><br />(see <a href="#Page_135">page 135</a>)</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig24" id="fig24"></a></p>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24</span></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/Fig_24.jpg" alt="A Combat between Brigands and Gendarmes" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">A Combat between Brigands and Gendarmes</span><br />Designed by a Criminal<br />(see <a href="#Page_135">page 135</a>)</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span><i>Pathological Origin of Crime.</i> The atavistic origin of crime is
+certainly one of the most important discoveries of criminal
+anthropology, but it is important only theoretically, since it merely
+explains the phenomenon. Anthropologists soon realised how necessary it
+was to supplement this discovery by that of the origin, or causes which
+call forth in certain individuals these atavistic or criminal instincts,
+for it is the immediate causes that constitute the practical nucleus of
+the problem and it is their removal that renders possible the cure of
+the disease.</p>
+
+<p>These causes are divided into organic and external factors of crime: the
+former remote and deeply rooted, the latter momentary but frequently
+determining the criminal act, and both closely related and fused
+together.</p>
+
+<p>Heredity is the principal organic cause of criminal tendencies. It may
+be divided into two classes: indirect heredity from a generically
+degenerate family with frequent cases of insanity, deafness, syphilis,
+epilepsy, and alcoholism among its members; direct heredity from
+criminal parentage.</p>
+
+<p><i>Indirect Heredity.</i> Almost all forms of chronic, constitutional
+diseases, especially those of a nervous character: chorea, sciatica,
+hysteria, insanity, and above all, epilepsy, may give rise to
+criminality in the descendants.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span>Of 559 soldiers convicted of offences, examined by Brancaleone Ribaudo,
+10% had epileptic parents. According to Dejerine, this figure reaches
+74.6% among criminal epileptics. Arthritis and gout have been known to
+generate criminality in the descendants. But the most serious, and at
+the same time most common, form of indirect heredity is alcoholism,
+which, contrary to general belief, wreaks destruction in all classes of
+society, amongst the rich and poor without distinction of sex, for
+alcohol may insinuate itself everywhere under the most refined and
+pleasant disguises, in liqueurs, sweets, and coffee.</p>
+
+<p>According to calculations made by my father, 20% of Italian criminals
+descend from inebriate families; according to Penta the percentage is 27
+and in dangerous criminals, 33%. The Jukes family, of whom we shall
+speak later, descended from a drunkard.</p>
+
+<p>The first salient characteristic in hereditary alcoholism is the
+precocious taste for intoxicants; secondly, the susceptibility to
+alcohol, which is infinitely more injurious to the offspring of
+inebriates than to normal individuals; and thirdly, the growth of the
+craving for strong drinks, which inevitably undermine the constitution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Direct Heredity.</i> The effects of direct heredity are still more
+serious, for they are aggravated by<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span> environment and education. Official
+statistics show that 20% of juvenile offenders belong to families of
+doubtful reputation and 26% to those whose reputation is thoroughly bad.
+The criminal Galletto, a native of Marseilles, was the nephew of the
+equally ferocious anthropophagous violator of women, Orsolano. Dumollar
+was the son of a murderer; Patetot's grandfather and great-grandfather
+were in prison, as were the grandfathers and fathers of Papa, Crocco,
+Serravalle and Cavallante, Comptois and Lempave; the parents of the
+celebrated female thief Sans Refus, were both thieves.</p>
+
+<p>The genealogical study of certain families has shown that there are
+whole generations, almost all the members of which belong to the ranks
+of crime, insanity, and prostitution (this last being amongst women the
+equivalent of criminality amongst men). A striking example is furnished
+by the notorious Jukes family, with 77 criminal descendants.</p>
+
+<p>Ancestor, Max Jukes: 77 criminals; 142 vagabonds; 120 prostitutes; 18
+keepers of houses of ill-fame; 91 illegitimates; 141 idiots or afflicted
+with impotency or syphilis; 46 sterile females.</p>
+
+<p>A like criminal contingent may be found in the pedigrees of Chr&ecirc;tien,
+the Lemaires, the Fieschi family, etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>Race.</i> This is of great importance in view of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span> atavistic origin of
+crime. There exist whole tribes and races more or less given to crime,
+such as the tribe Zakka Khel in India. In all regions of Italy, whole
+villages constitute hot-beds of crime, owing, no doubt, to ethnical
+causes: Artena in the province of Rome, Carde and San Giorgio Canavese
+in Piedmont, Pergola in Tuscany, San Severo in Apulia, San Mauro and
+Nicosia in Sicily. The frequency of homicide in Calabria, Sicily, and
+Sardinia is fundamentally due to African and Oriental elements.</p>
+
+<p>In the gipsies we have an entire race of criminals with all the passions
+and vices common to delinquent types: idleness, ignorance, impetuous
+fury, vanity, love of orgies, and ferocity. Murder is often committed
+for some trifling gain. The women are skilled thieves and train their
+children in dishonest practices. On the contrary, the percentage of
+crimes among Jews is always lower than that of the surrounding
+population; although there is a prevalence of certain specific forms of
+offences, often hereditary, such as fraud, forgery, libel, and chief of
+all, traffic in prostitution; murder is extremely rare.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Illnesses, Intoxications, Traumatism</span></h4>
+
+<p>These causes, although apparently as important as heredity, are in fact,
+decidedly less so. Both disease and trauma may intensify or call forth
+latent<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> perversity, but they are less frequently the cause of it. There
+are, however, certain cases in which traumatism meningitis, typhus, or
+other diseases that affect the brain have undoubtedly evoked criminal
+tendencies in individuals hitherto normal. Twenty out of 290 criminals
+studied by my father with minute care had suffered from injury to the
+head in childhood; and recently a case came under his notice in which a
+youth of good family and excellent character received an injury to his
+head at the age of fourteen and became epileptic, developing
+subsequently into a gambler, thief, and murderer. Such cases, however,
+are not very common.</p>
+
+<p>There is one disease that without other causes&mdash;either inherited
+degeneracy or vices resulting from a bad education and environment&mdash;is
+capable of transforming a healthy individual into a vicious, hopelessly
+evil being. That disease is alcoholism, which has been discussed in a
+previous chapter, but to which I must refer briefly again, because it is
+such an important factor of criminality.</p>
+
+<p>Temporary drunkenness alone will give rise to crime, since it inflames
+the passions, obscures the mental and moral faculties, and destroys all
+sense of decency, causing men to commit offences in a state of
+automatism or a species of somnambulism. Sometimes drunkenness produces
+kleptomania. A<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span> slight excess in drinking will cause men of absolute
+honesty to appropriate any objects they can lay their hands upon. When
+the effects of drink have worn off, they feel shame and remorse and
+hasten to restore the stolen goods. Alcohol, however, more often causes
+violence. An officer known to my father, when drunk, twice attempted to
+run his sword through his friends and his own attendant.</p>
+
+<p>Among Oriental sects of murderers, as is well known, homicidal fury was
+excited and maintained by a drink brewed for the purpose from hemp-seed.</p>
+
+<p>B&uuml;chner shows that dishonest instincts can be developed in bees by a
+special food consisting of honey mixed with brandy. The insects acquire
+a taste for this drink in the same way as human beings do, and under its
+influence cease to work. Ants show similar symptoms after narcosis by
+means of chloroform. Their bodies remain motionless, with the exception
+of their heads, with which they snap at all who approach them.</p>
+
+<p>The above cited cases show that there exists a species of alcoholic
+psychic epilepsy, similar to congenital epilepsy, in which after
+alcoholic poisoning, the individual is incited to raise his hand against
+himself or others without any due cause. But besides the crimes of
+violence committed during a drunken fit, the prolonged abuse of alcohol,
+opium,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> morphia, coca, and other nervines may give rise to chronic
+perturbation of the mind, and without other causes, congenital or
+educative, will transform an honest, well-bred, and industrious man into
+an idle, violent, and apathetic fellow,&mdash;into an ignoble being, capable
+of any depraved action, even when he is not directly under the influence
+of the drug.</p>
+
+<p>When we were children, a frequent visitor at our house was a certain
+Belm... (see <a href="#fig16">Fig. 16</a>, Chap. III.), a very intelligent man and an
+accomplished linguist. He was a military officer, but later took to
+journalism, and his writings were distinguished by vivacious style and
+elevation of thought. He married and had several children, but at the
+age of thirty some trouble caused him to take to drink. His character
+soon underwent a complete change. Although formerly a proud man, he was
+not ashamed to pester all his friends for money and to let his family
+sink into the direst poverty.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Social Causes of Crime</span></h4>
+
+<p><i>Education.</i> We now come to the second series of criminal factors, those
+which depend, not on the organism, but on external conditions. We have
+already stated that the best and most careful education, moral and
+intellectual, is powerless to effect an improvement in the morally
+insane, but that in other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> cases, education, environment, and example
+are extremely important, for which reason neglected and destitute
+children are easily initiated into evil practices.</p>
+
+<p>At Naples, "Esposito" (foundling) is a common name amongst prisoners, as
+is at Bologna and in Lombardy the name "Colombo," which signifies the
+same thing. In Prussia, illegitimate males form 6% of offenders,
+illegitimate females 1.8%; in Austria, 10 and 2% respectively. The
+percentage is considerably larger amongst juvenile criminals,
+prostitutes, and recidivists. In France, in 1864, 65% of the minors
+arrested were bastards or orphans, and at Hamburg 30% of the prostitutes
+are illegitimate. In Italy, 30% of recidivists are natural children and
+foundlings.</p>
+
+<p>This depends largely on hereditary influences, which are generally bad,
+but still more on the difficulty of finding a means of subsistence,
+owing to the state of neglect in which these wretched beings exist, even
+when herded together in charity schools and orphanages&mdash;both of which
+are even more anti-hygienic morally, than they are physically.</p>
+
+<p>A depraved environment, which counsels or even insists on wrong-doing,
+and the bad example of parents or relatives, exercise a still more
+sinister influence on children than desertion. The criminal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span> family
+Cornu, finding one of their children, a little girl, strongly averse to
+their evil ways, forced her to carry the head of one of their victims in
+her pinafore for a couple of miles, after which she became one of the
+most ferocious of the band.</p>
+
+<p><i>Meteoric Causes</i> are frequently the determining factor of the ultimate
+impulsive act, which converts the latent criminal into an effective one.
+Excessively high temperature and rapid barometric changes, while
+predisposing epileptics to convulsive seizures and the insane to
+uneasiness, restlessness, and noisy outbreaks, encourage quarrels,
+brawls, and stabbing affrays. To the same reason may be ascribed the
+prevalence during the hot months, of rape, homicide, insurrections, and
+revolts. In comparing statistics of criminality in France with those of
+the variations in temperature, Ferri noted an increase in crimes of
+violence during the warmer years. An examination of European and
+American statistics shows that the number of homicides decreases as we
+pass from hot to cooler climates. Holzendorf calculates that the number
+of murders committed in the Southern States of North America is fifteen
+times greater than those committed in the Northern States. A low
+temperature, on the contrary, has the effect of increasing the number of
+crimes against property, due to increased need, and both in Italy and
+America<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> the proportion of thefts increases the farther north we go.</p>
+
+<p><i>Density of Population.</i> The agglomeration of persons in a large town is
+a certain incentive to crimes against property. Robbery, frauds, and
+criminal associations increase, while there is a decrease in crimes
+against the person, due to the restraints imposed by mutual supervision.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"He who has studied mankind, or, better still, himself [writes my
+father], must have remarked how often an individual, who is
+respectable and self-controlled in the bosom of his family, becomes
+indecent and even immoral when he finds himself in the company of a
+number of his fellows, to whatever class they may belong. The
+primitive instincts of theft, homicide, and lust, the germs of
+which lie dormant in each individual as long as he is alone,
+particularly if kept in check by sound moral training, awaken and
+develop suddenly into gigantic proportions when he comes into
+contact with others, the increase being greater in those who
+already possess such criminal tendencies in a marked degree."</p></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>In all large cities, low lodging-houses form the favourite haunts of crime.</p>
+
+<p><i>Imitation.</i> The detailed accounts of crimes circulated in large towns
+by newspapers, have an extremely pernicious influence, because example
+is a powerful agent for evil as well as for good.</p>
+
+<p>At Marseilles in 1868 and 1872, the newspaper reports of a case of child
+desertion provoked a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span> perfect epidemic of such cases, amounting in one
+instance to eight in one day.</p>
+
+<p>Before Corridori murdered the Head-master of his boarding-school, he is
+said to have declared: "There will be a repetition of what happened to
+the Head-master at Catanzaro" (who had been murdered in the same way).</p>
+
+<p>The anarchist Lucchesi killed Banti at Leghorn shortly after the murder
+of Carnot by Caserio, and in a similar manner. Certain forms of crime
+which become common at given periods, the throwing of bombs, the cutting
+up of the bodies of murdered persons, particularly those of women, and
+frauds of a peculiar type may certainly be attributed to imitation, as
+may also the violence committed by mobs, in whom cruelty takes the form
+of an epidemic affecting even individuals of mild disposition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Immigration.</i> The agglomeration of population produced by immigration
+is a strong incentive to crime, especially that of an associated
+nature,&mdash;due to increased want, lessened supervision and the consequent
+ease with which offenders avoid detection. In New York the largest
+contingent of criminality is furnished by the immigrant population.</p>
+
+<p>The fact of agglomeration explains the greater<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> frequency of homicide in
+France in thickly populated districts.</p>
+
+<p>The criminality of immigrant populations increases in direct ratio to
+its instability. This applies to the migratory population in the
+interior of a country, specially that which has no fixed destination, as
+peddlers, etc. Even those immigrants whom we should naturally assume to
+be of good disposition&mdash;religious pilgrims&mdash;commit a remarkable number
+of associated crimes. The Italian word <i>mariuolo</i> which signifies
+"rogue" owes its origin to the behaviour of certain pilgrims to the
+shrines of Loreto and Assisi, who, while crying <i>Viva Maria!</i> ("Hail to
+the Virgin Mary!") committed the most atrocious crimes, confident that
+the pilgrimage itself would serve as a means of expiation. In his
+<i>Reminiscences</i> Massimo d' Azeglio notes that places boasting of
+celebrated shrines always enjoy a bad reputation.</p>
+
+<p><i>Prison Life.</i> The density of population in the most criminal of cities
+has not such a bad influence as has detention in prisons, which may well
+be called "Criminal Universities."</p>
+
+<p>Nearly all the leaders of malefactors: Maino, Lombardo, La Gala,
+Lacenaire, Soufflard, and Hardouin were escaped convicts, who chose
+their accomplices among those of their fellow-prisoners who had shown
+audacity and ferocity. In fact, in prison, criminals<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> have an
+opportunity of becoming acquainted with each other, of instructing those
+less skilled in infamy, and of banding together for evil purposes. Even
+the expensive cellular system, from which so many advantages were
+expected, has not attained its object and does not prevent communication
+between prisoners. Moreover, in prison, mere children of seven or eight,
+imprisoned for stealing a bunch of grapes or a fowl, come into close
+contact with adults and become initiated into evil practices, of which
+these poor little victims of stupid laws were previously quite ignorant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Education.</i> Contrary to general belief, the influence of education on
+crime is very slight.</p>
+
+<p>The number of illiterates arrested in Europe is less, proportionally,
+than that of educated individuals. Nevertheless, although a certain
+degree of instruction is often an aid to crime, its extension acts as a
+corrective, or at least tends to mitigate the nature of crimes
+committed, rendering them less ferocious, and to decrease crimes of
+violence, while increasing fraudulent and sexual offences.</p>
+
+<p><i>Professions.</i> The trades and professions which encourage inebriety in
+those who follow them (cooks, confectioners, and inn-keepers), those
+which bring the poor (servants of all kinds, especially footmen,
+coachmen, and chauffeurs) into contact with wealth, or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> which provide
+means for committing crimes (bricklayers, blacksmiths, etc.) furnish a
+remarkable share of criminality. Still more so is this the case with the
+professions of notary, usher of the courts, attorneys, and military men.</p>
+
+<p>It should be observed, however, that the characteristic idleness of
+criminals makes them disinclined to adopt any profession, and when they
+do, their extreme fickleness prompts them to change continually.</p>
+
+<p><i>Economic Conditions.</i> Poverty is often a direct incentive to theft,
+when the miserable victims of economic conditions find themselves and
+their families face to face with starvation, and it acts further
+indirectly through certain diseases: pellagra, alcoholism, scrofula, and
+scurvy, which are the outcome of misery and produce criminal
+degeneration; its influence has nevertheless often been exaggerated. If
+thieves are generally penniless, it is because of their extreme idleness
+and astonishing extravagance, which makes them run through huge sums
+with the greatest ease, not because poverty has driven them to theft. On
+the other hand the possession of wealth is frequently an incentive to
+crime, because it creates an ever-increasing appetite for riches,
+besides furnishing those occupying high public offices or important
+positions in the banking and commercial world with numerous<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>
+opportunities for dishonesty and persuading them that money will cover
+any evil deed.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sex.</i> Statistics of every country show that women contribute a very
+small share of criminality compared with that furnished by the opposite
+sex. This share becomes still smaller when we eliminate infanticide, in
+view of the fact that the guilty parties in nearly all such cases should
+be classed as criminals from passion. In Austria, crimes committed by
+females barely constitute 15% of the total criminality; in Spain 11%;
+and in Italy 8.2%.</p>
+
+<p>However, this applies only to serious crimes. For those of lesser
+gravity, statistics are at variance with the results obtained by the
+Modern School, which classes prostitutes as criminals. According to this
+mode of calculation, the difference between the criminality of the two
+sexes shows a considerable diminution, resulting perhaps in a slight
+prevalence of crime in women. In any case, female criminality tends to
+increase proportionally with the increase of civilisation and to equal
+that of men.</p>
+
+<p><i>Age.</i> The greater number of crimes are committed between the ages of 15
+and 30, whereas, outbreaks of insanity between these ages are extremely
+rare, the maximum number occurring between 40 and 50. On the whole,
+criminality is far more precocious than mental alienation, and its
+precocity, which is<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span> greater among thieves than among murderers,
+swindlers, and those guilty of violence and assault is another proof of
+the congenital nature of crime and its atavistic origin, since precocity
+is a characteristic of savage races.</p>
+
+<p>Seldom do we find among born criminals any indication of that so-called
+criminal scale, leading by degrees from petty offences to crimes of the
+most serious nature. As a general rule, they commence their career with
+just those crimes which distinguish it throughout, even when these are
+of the gravest kind, like robbery and murder. Rather may it be said that
+every age has its specific criminality, and this is the case especially
+with criminaloids. On the borderland between childhood and adolescence,
+there seems to be a kind of instinctive tendency to law-breaking, which
+by immature minds is often held to be a sign of virility. The Italian
+novelist and poet Manzoni describes this idea very well in his <i>Promessi
+Sposi</i>, when speaking of the half-witted lad Gervaso, who "because he
+had taken part in a plot savouring of crime, felt that he had suddenly
+become a man."</p>
+
+<p>This idea lurks in the slang word <i>omerta</i> used by Italian criminals,
+which signifies not only to be a man but a man daring enough to break
+the law.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_2.2" id="CHAPTER_2.2"></a>CHAPTER II</h3>
+
+<h3><i>THE PREVENTION OF CRIME</i></h3>
+
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">The</span> curability of crime is an entirely novel idea, due to the Modern
+Penal School. As long as, in the eyes of the world, the criminal was a
+normal individual, who voluntarily and consciously violated the laws,
+there could be no thought of a cure, but rather of a punishment
+sufficiently severe to prevent his recidivation and to inspire others
+with a salutary fear of offending the law.</p>
+
+<p>The penalties excogitated in past centuries were varied: flogging, hard
+labour, imprisonment, and exile. During the last century they have been
+crystallised in the form of imprisonment, as being the most humane,
+although in reality it is the most illogical form, since it serves
+neither to intimidate the offender nor to reform him. In fact, although
+prison with its forced separation from home and family is a terrible
+penalty for those honest persons, who sometimes suffer with the guilty,
+it is a haven of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> rest for ordinary criminals, or at the worst, in no
+wise inferior to their usual haunts. There is a certain amount of
+privation of air, light, and food, but these disadvantages are fully
+counterbalanced by the enjoyment of complete leisure and the company of
+men of their own stamp.</p>
+
+<p>If imprisonment does not serve to intimidate instinctive criminals,
+still less is it a means of rehabilitation. In virtue of what law,
+should any man, even if he be normal, become reformed after a varying
+period of detention in a gloomy cell, where he is isolated from the
+better elements of society and deprived of every elevating
+influence&mdash;art, science, and high ideals; where he loses regular habits
+of work, the disciplining struggle with circumstances, and the sense of
+responsibility natural to free citizens and is tainted by constant
+contact with the worst types of humanity?</p>
+
+<p>The autobiographies of criminals show us that far from reforming
+evil-doers, prison is in reality a criminal university which houses all
+grades of offenders during varying periods; that far from being a means
+of redemption, it is a hot-bed of depravity, where are prepared and
+developed the germs which are later to infect society, yet it is to this
+incubator of crime that society looks for defence against those very
+elements of lawlessness which it is actively fostering.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>In his book <i>Prison Palimpsests</i> my father has made a collection of all
+the inscriptions, drawings, and allegories scratched or written by
+criminals while in prison, on walls, utensils, and books. Of
+lamentations, despair, and repentance, scarcely a trace, but innumerable
+imprecations, plans of revenge against enemies without, project of
+future burglaries and murders, and advice for the sound instruction of
+criminals.</p>
+
+<p>Although the Modern School has demonstrated the uselessness, nay the
+injuriousness of prison, it has no desire to leave society suddenly
+unprotected and the criminal at large. Nature does not proceed by leaps,
+and the Modern School aims at effecting a revolution, not a revolt, in
+Penal Jurisprudence. It proposes, therefore, the gradual transformation
+of the present system, which is to be rendered as little injurious and
+as beneficial as possible. Such has been the course pursued by the
+modern science of medicine, which from the original absurd remedies and
+equally absurd empirical operations, has now succeeded in placing the
+cure of diseases on the more solid basis of experience.</p>
+
+<p>The Modern School aims at preventing the formation of criminals, not
+punishing them, or, failing prevention, at effecting their cure; and,
+failing cure, at segregating such hopeless cases for life in suitable<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span>
+institutes, which shall protect society better than the present system
+of imprisonment, but be entirely free from the infamy attaching to the
+prison. The Modern School proposes the cure of criminals by preventive
+and legislative measures.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Preventive Institutions for Destitute Children</span></h4>
+
+<p>The cure of crime, as of any other disease, has the greater chance of
+success, the earlier it is taken in hand. Attention, therefore, should
+be specially concentrated on the childhood of those likely to become
+criminals: orphans and destitute children, who as adults contribute the
+largest contingent of criminality. A community seriously resolved to
+protect itself from evil should, above all, provide a sound education
+for those unfortunate waifs who have been deprived of their natural
+protectors by death or vice. The greatest care must be exercised in
+placing them, whenever it is possible, in respectable private families
+where they will have careful supervision, or in suitable institutes
+where no pains are spared to give them a good education and, more
+important still, sound moral training.</p>
+
+<p>In order to attain this end, the State cannot do better than follow in
+the footsteps of philanthropists of rare talent like Don Bosco, Dr.
+Barnardo, General<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> Booth, Brockway, and many others, who have been so
+successful in rescuing destitute children.</p>
+
+<p>Don Bosco, the Black Pope, as he was familiarly styled at Turin, where
+he lived during the latter half of the last century, was a Roman
+Catholic priest who founded numerous institutes for orphans in all parts
+of Italy and many parts of both Americas, especially South America. The
+psychological basis on which he founded the training of children in
+these schools, was mainly derived from experience, and proved so
+successful in practice that it is worthy of quotation:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"Most neglected and abandoned children [he said], are of ordinary
+character and disposition, but inclined to changeableness and
+indifference. Brief, but frequent exhortations, good advice, small
+rewards, and encouragements to persevere are very efficacious, but
+above all the teacher must show perfect trust in his charges, while
+being careful never to relax his vigilance. The greatest solicitude
+should, however, be reserved for the unruly characters, who
+generally form about one fifth of the whole number. The teacher
+should make a special effort to become thoroughly acquainted with
+their dispositions and past life and to convince them that he is
+their friend. They should be encouraged to chatter freely, while
+the conversation of the master should be brief and abound in
+examples, maxims, and anecdotes. Above all, while showing perfect
+confidence in his pupils, he should never lose sight of them.</p>
+
+<p>"Occasional treats of a wholesome and attractive nature, picnics
+and walks, will keep the boys happy and contented. Lasciviousness
+is the only vice that need be feared; any lad persisting in immoral
+practices should be expelled.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span>"Harsh punishments should never be resorted to. The repressive
+system may check unruliness, but can never influence for good. It
+involves little trouble on the part of those who make use of it and
+may be efficacious in the army, which is composed of responsible
+adults, but it has a harmful effect on the young, who err more from
+thoughtlessness than from evil disposition. Far more suitable in
+their case is the preventive system, which consists in making them
+thoroughly acquainted with the regulations they have to obey and in
+watching over them. In this way they are always conscious of the
+vigilance of the Head-master or his assistants, who are ready to
+guide and advise them in every difficulty and to anticipate their
+wants. The pupils should never be left to their own devices, yet
+they should have complete freedom to run, jump, and enjoy
+themselves in their own noisy fashion. Gymnastics, vocal and
+instrumental music, and plenty of outdoor exercise are the most
+efficacious means of maintaining discipline and improving the boys,
+bodily and mentally."</p></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>Only children over seven were admitted to the Institutes founded by Don
+Bosco. Dr. Barnardo, on the other hand, who rescued thousands of orphans
+and destitute children in London and was able to witness a decided
+decrease in the criminality of that capital, concentrated his beneficent
+efforts on destitute children from their earliest years, with the idea
+of removing them as soon as possible from the bad environment in which
+they were born. He was, moreover, desirous that they should share with
+more fortunate children the boon of happy childhood, and resolved that
+up to the age of seven they should be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span> brought up without educational or
+other restraints, save the affection of those appointed to watch over
+them during the first years, so that they might imbibe sufficient love
+and joy for the rest of their lives. Such is the rule followed in the
+buildings set apart for the infants, Bird Castle, Tiny House, and Jersey
+House, which are perfect nests of happy birds.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the seeming impossibility of obtaining individual education
+in a school, thanks to a system devised by Dr. Barnardo, the older
+children actually enjoy this advantage. New-comers are placed in a
+special department until facts relative to their past life are
+ascertained and an idea formed of their individuality. The results of
+these preliminary inquiries determine in which school the boy shall be
+placed and what trade he shall follow. Moreover, any boy desiring to
+change his occupation is encouraged to do so. Every year a
+re-distribution is made according to the aptitudes shown by the lads in
+study and manual work and their physical and intellectual development,
+special care being taken that the younger children should not be put
+with those who have arrived at a more advanced stage of physical and
+mental evolution. Free development of the various individual aptitudes
+is thus secured, while avoiding that common defect of schools, the
+turning<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span> out of numerous lads all made after one regulation pattern.</p>
+
+<p>Having come to the conclusion that life in an institute, in spite of all
+these precautions, is unsuited to girls, Dr. Barnardo founded a village
+at a short distance from London with cottage homes for children of both
+sexes. Each cottage contains from fifteen to twenty children and forms a
+family, the domestic duties of the homes being discharged by the girls.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Barnardo realised, however, that the placing of children in private
+families is the best means of effecting their salvation, and he made
+great efforts in private and public to induce benevolent persons to
+adopt his prot&eacute;g&eacute;s. Finally, he organised a regular emigration of lads
+to Canada, where a special agent provides them with situations on farms
+or in factories.</p>
+
+<p>America certainly does not lag behind Europe in the number and
+excellence of its organisations for rescuing the little derelicts of its
+cities. In every town of the United States visited by me, I had the
+pleasure of inspecting such institutions, all of which are kept with
+extraordinary care, and in some cases, with elegance. Amongst others, I
+may mention the Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society in New York City and
+the George Junior Republic at Freeville, near Ithaca, both of which
+seemed to me the most original of their kind.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>The Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society is an orphanage for the Jews,
+managed with rare insight and intelligence by Mr. Lewisohn. The
+Institute being founded for orphans only, there is no limit as to age or
+condition. Infants and young people, diseased and healthy, intelligent
+and mentally deficient, normal and abnormal, good and bad, are all
+welcome. In order to prevent the overcrowding of the institution and to
+provide homes for as many children as possible, a committee has been
+organised for the purpose of finding homes in private families for all
+children under six years of age and for those who are sickly and
+delicate. A certain proportion are adopted, and others are boarded out,
+but the sum paid for their keep is always less than it would cost to
+place them in a school; and there is, moreover, always a chance of their
+being adopted later. At the age of six, all healthy and robust children
+enter the Institute, which becomes their home, providing them with
+board, lodging, clothing, moral and religious instruction, and training
+in some kind of work, but in order that they shall mix with other
+children, they are educated at the public schools, and the consequent
+saving in money and space enables the Institute to receive a larger
+number of children than it otherwise could.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of the uniform customary in such institutions<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> which serves to
+accentuate in a humiliating way the contrast between the inmates and
+more fortunate children who possess parents and homes, the clothing worn
+by the orphans of the Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society is varied in
+colour and style. Girls skilled in the use of their needle alter their
+dresses to suit their individual tastes, and are allowed to sew, either
+gratis or for payment, for the boys and other girls of the Institute,
+who are unable or unwilling to make these alterations themselves. When
+school-tasks are finished, boys and girls of over twelve are allowed to
+engage in light occupations&mdash;needlework, writing, etc., supplied by the
+Institute to enable them to earn a little pocket-money and learn to
+spend it properly.</p>
+
+<p>When the boys and girls have passed all the standards of the elementary
+schools, they enter trade schools, where they remain until they are
+proficient in some craft which will enable them to earn a living. Those
+who show decided intellectual or business aptitudes are sent to colleges
+or commercial schools.</p>
+
+<p>The children are encouraged to take an interest in social and political
+life by the foundation of a miniature republic, or rather two separate
+republics, one for the boys and the other for the girls, each with its
+president, a boy or a girl according to the case. In reality, however,
+they are under the management of a lady, who devises various
+amusements for the children, reading, games, etc., teaches them music
+and drawing, and helps the little President to organise entertainments
+to which outsiders, relatives, and schoolfellows are invited.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span></p>
+
+<p><a name="fig17" id="fig17"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/Fig_17.jpg" alt="Signatures of Criminals" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17</span><br />Signatures of Criminals</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>The George Junior Republic (America) is a very different institution,
+having been founded for unruly and turbulent boys, who are beyond their
+parents' control. It is a species of Reformatory, not a Home for Waifs.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. George, the founder of the Republic, a man of original and
+intelligent cast of mind, if I may judge of his individuality from
+hearsay, decided on its establishment after many attempts of a similar
+nature. Being anxiously concerned for the future of so many unruly
+youths who, left to their own devices during the summer vacations,
+degenerate into rowdies, he invited about a hundred of these lads to
+spend the summer months on his estate at Freeville, near Ithaca, and
+tried to influence them for good. The attempt did not meet with much
+success at first. Mr. George soon realised that however easy it is to
+exercise a beneficial influence on one or two boys by adopting gentle
+methods, it is extremely difficult to manage hundreds in this way. He
+had, however, observed how fair and rigidly honest boys generally are in
+their games and how ready they are to condemn<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span> any meanness, and he
+conceived the idea of making his charges look after each other. Thus
+each one would feel himself a responsible judge of his companions'
+actions.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of the summer holidays in 1895, when the time came for the
+boys to return home, five remained behind at Freeville in a cottage
+standing on three acres of land; the next year the number of lads
+remaining was doubled or trebled. A miniature Republic was founded, of
+which the lads were the citizens, and in this capacity, were obliged to
+make laws and to insist on their being respected. The Republic proved to
+be a great success, the temporary colony became a permanent one capable
+of reforming wild, unruly boys, who if allowed to wander about in the
+streets and to mix with older and more vicious lads, would possibly have
+been ruined. A recent census of the Republic showed that it possessed
+150 citizens, 82 boys and 68 girls, three hundred acres of land,
+twenty-four buildings, a chapel, prison, school, and court of justice.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig20" id="fig20"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/Fig_20.jpg" alt="Brigand Gasparone" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap"> Fig. 20</span><br /> Brigand Gasparone</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>In order that the colonists should not completely lose touch with the
+outside world, but should in some measure be prepared for the social
+exigencies of their future lives, the colony is organised like a
+miniature town. The children, boys and girls, are divided into so many
+families, each consisting of ten or twelve<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> members presided over by two
+adults, who take the place of parents and look after the household. The
+greater part of the population is engaged in agriculture, in cultivating
+the land belonging to the Republic, but a certain proportion adopt the
+arts and crafts necessary to every community: joinery, book-binding,
+printing, shoemaking, or shop-keeping. The colony coins its own money
+and possesses a bank run by the boys themselves, where the colonists can
+deposit their savings. All labour and produce are paid for separately.
+The colony has its own laws sanctioned by its Parliament, its Tribunal,
+the members of which, chosen from amongst the citizens, are charged with
+enforcing the laws. The Parliament, composed without distinction of sex,
+of boys and girls, decrees the holidays, organises the games and
+entertainments, and establishes the public expenditure,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> revenue, and
+taxes, etc. (see <a href="#fig19">Figs. 19</a> and <a href="#fig20">20</a>).</p>
+
+<p>The results of this system appear to be excellent; most of the
+ex-colonists have turned out well, and in view of this fact, republics
+on similar lines are being organised in various parts of the United
+States. This Republic admits only children over twelve, who remain in
+the colony about three years.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Preventive Institutions for Destitute Adults</span></h4>
+
+<p>Besides institutions for the careful training of the young, methods for
+preventing crime also include all attempts to help young or adult
+persons at any crisis in their lives when they are friendless and out of
+work, for it is precisely then that they are most exposed to temptation.</p>
+
+<p>People's hotels, shelters for emigrants or strangers, reading-rooms,
+inexpensive but wholesome entertainments, evening classes for
+instruction in manual work, labour bureaus, organisations for assisting
+emigrants, etc., are the most efficacious institutions of this kind. And
+in this connection, I must refer to the work done by the Salvation Army,
+which from what I was able to observe in America, seems to me the best
+organised of all existing benevolent associations, since by means of a
+thousand arms it reaches every form of poverty and misery and seeks to
+make all its institutions self-supporting. It fights drunkenness by
+lectures,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> recreation rooms, and temperance hotels; it fights poverty by
+investigating each individual case of destitution, visiting poor
+families, dispensing sympathy and help, providing shelter for the night
+at a minimum price and industrial homes for those who are out of work.
+Sometimes the rooms are turned into recreation halls for drunkards or
+industrial schools for the girls of poor mothers who are obliged to go
+out to work, or temporary hospitals for some urgent case which, owing to
+bureaucratic formalities, the hospitals are unable to attend to
+immediately, or rooms with moving pictures for friendly gatherings on
+holidays, thus grafting one benevolent work on to another so as to
+obtain the best results at the smallest cost.</p>
+
+<p>That interesting book <i>Where the Shadows Lengthen</i> gives an account of
+the different institutions founded by the Salvation Army in the United
+States. There are sixty-five Industrial Homes, where unemployed of all
+classes can apply for work. In these Homes refuse and worn-out articles
+collected from individual homes of their respective towns are
+disinfected and transformed into useful articles, which are sold at low
+prices to the neighbouring poor, thus benefiting purchasers,
+work-people, and society in general. During one year these Homes gave
+employment to 8696 men, distributed 1,318,044<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span> meals (work-people who
+are temporarily employed in these Homes have a right only to board and
+lodging), and gave a night's shelter to 463,550 persons.</p>
+
+<p>In addition, the Army has seventy-seven Hotels where the working-classes
+find a night's lodging at a low price (just sufficient to cover the
+maintenance of the Shelter), and 7990 Accommodations which in one year
+supplied a night's rest to 2,114,037 persons. It has, besides, three
+colonies with 420 inhabitants, two boarding-houses for servants and
+shop-girls out of employment, where for a few pence they may have a bed,
+cook their own meals, wash and mend their clothes, and are assisted to
+find work.</p>
+
+<p>The Salvation Army has also 22 Rescue Homes, where young girls condemned
+by the Juvenile Court and generally more neglected than vicious, are
+reformed with a little care and affection, and 3599 Accommodations to
+which during one year 1701 girls were admitted.</p>
+
+<p>To ensure careful supervision of all the poor quarters, the Salvation
+Army has divided them into twenty slums, in each of which they have
+established their Headquarters and send out their soldiers to
+investigate and assist cases of poverty and misery of every kind. Each
+slum Headquarters is provided with halls for meetings, rooms for the
+officials, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span> Kindergarten, and Dormitories which also serve as shelters
+or hospitals for urgent cases. In one year 26,290 families were visited
+by the Army and 38,290 received assistance. Employment, temporary and
+permanent, was found for 66,621 persons.</p>
+
+<p>All poor of whatever condition, nationality, or religion, whether honest
+or criminal, on applying to the nearest of these Headquarters may be
+sure of finding sympathy and help.</p>
+
+<p>Five Homes have been founded by the Army for waifs and children whose
+mothers are obliged to go out to work, and 225 Accommodations where
+children may find a temporary or permanent home.</p>
+
+<p>A special squad of soldiers has recently undertaken work amongst
+prisoners with great success. In two months they visited 43 prisons,
+wrote 1732 letters to prisoners, and distributed 10,000 pamphlets.
+19,882 prisoners attended meetings held in the prisons, 194 articles of
+clothing were distributed, 128 persons provided with work on their
+release and 300 with sleeping accommodation.</p>
+
+<p>In South America the Army has founded similar institutions, which
+embrace others, such as hospitals, etc., suited to the needs of each
+place.</p>
+
+<p>Other benevolent organisations which seem to me admirable, are the
+Sisterhoods founded twenty years ago by the Rabbi Gottheil. These
+Sisterhoods, as<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> may be assumed from the name, are entirely directed by
+women. They consist of premises, sometimes annexed to the synagogue; at
+others, situated independently, which form a species of Headquarters for
+the philanthropical work done in the surrounding districts. The
+Sisterhood is open day and night to all the poor who are in need of help
+of any kind. There is a resident Directress, under whose orders a number
+of ladies take turns in helping applicants. The Sisterhoods were founded
+on the principle that human beings are capable of doing the maximum
+amount of good to others when they follow their own particular
+tendencies and try to utilise their individual talents in satisfying the
+intellectual, moral, or recreative needs of the poor. Some of the ladies
+devote themselves to simple legal questions, tracing an absent husband
+or wife, registering births, taking unruly children to the Juvenile
+Courts, or looking after them, etc. Others take charge of medical
+matters, arrange for the admission of children or adults to the
+hospitals, etc.; others organise entertainments, teach singing, drawing,
+needlework, and cooking classes. The premises are used in turn by
+working-girls learning sewing, or others rehearsing some play or opera
+chorus. Almost all the Sisterhoods possess a permanent Kindergarten for
+the children of women who are obliged to work outside their homes,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> and
+an employment bureau. All the ladies, except the Directress, give their
+services gratis. For all help given by the Sisterhood, except in the
+case of the very poor, a small fee is demanded, and this enables the
+Sisterhood to pay its way without depending much on donations and
+subscriptions from private persons, and to spread and increase its work
+without difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>"The Educational Alliance" of New York, founded to give assistance to
+Jewish emigrants arriving at that city from all parts of the world, is
+another institution deserving of mention. This "Alliance" has a large
+building in the Jewish quarter near the docks, where emigrants can
+obtain instruction in gymnastics, cookery, domestic economy, English,
+needlework, etc. There are also recreation rooms, baths, a library, and
+rooms where school children can prepare their lessons. Men and women are
+assisted in obtaining employment and receive medical and legal aid.
+There is also a species of tribunal for settling petty disputes in cases
+where the parties interested object to applying to the ordinary courts.
+It was crowded when I saw it, and I was not surprised to learn that it
+is of great service to the emigrants. For public holidays, the Alliance
+organises concerts, excursions, and lectures, and during the summer
+vacations it opens a number of boarding-houses in the country.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span>All these benevolent institutions, schools, rescue homes, orphanages,
+and shelters, organised with so much care for the prevention of crime
+and adopted in America by all communities of whatever religion,
+regardless of cost, have given excellent results. Bosco and Rice (<i>Les
+Homicides aux Etats-Unis</i>) and my father (<i>Crimes, Ancient and Modern</i>)
+have demonstrated statistically that in States like Massachusetts, where
+there is no great influx of immigration nor a large coloured population,
+the diminution in the number of crimes has been very rapid, the
+percentage of homicides being about equal to those of England, that is,
+lower than the majority of European States.</p>
+
+<p>It must be confessed in honour to the people of the United States, that
+they are very ready to admit their own short-comings and constantly
+regret the large proportion of crimes in their country. But when they
+reflect that the constant stream of immigration contains many lawless
+elements, that the different laws in force in the different States make
+evasions of justice in many cases easy, that the construction of houses
+with the fire-escape communicating directly with the public thoroughfare
+provides an easy means of ingress and egress, and that an enormous
+proportion of the dense population of their cities is composed of people
+from all parts of the world,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span> accustomed to varying moral codes, they
+may realise with pride that the percentage of crime in the United States
+is certainly lower than it would be in any Continental State under
+similar conditions.</p>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_2.3" id="CHAPTER_2.3"></a>CHAPTER III</h3>
+
+<h3><i>METHODS FOR THE CURE AND REPRESSION OF CRIME</i></h3>
+
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">Preventive</span> methods, the careful training of children, and assistance
+rendered to adults in critical moments of their lives, may diminish
+crime, but cannot suppress it entirely. Such methods should be
+supplemented by institutions which undertake to cure criminals, while
+protecting society from their attacks, and by others for the segregation
+of incurable offenders, who should be rendered as useful as possible in
+order to minimise in every way the injury they inflict on the community.</p>
+
+<p>Although unjustly accused of desiring to revolutionise penal
+jurisprudence, criminal anthropologists realised from the very beginning
+that laws cannot be changed before there is a corresponding change in
+public opinion, and that even equitable modifications in the laws, if
+too sudden, are always fraught with dangerous consequences. Therefore,
+instead of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> radical change in the penal code, their aim was to effect
+a few slight alterations in the graduation of penalties, in accordance
+with age, sex, and the degree of depravity manifested by culprits in
+their offences. They also counselled certain modifications in the
+application of the laws, the reformation according to modern ideas, of
+prisons, asylums, penal colonies, and all institutions for the
+punishment and redemption of offenders, and an extensive application of
+those penalties devised in past ages as substitutes for imprisonment,
+which have the advantage of corrupting the culprit less, and costing the
+community very little.</p>
+
+<p><i>Juvenile Offenders.</i> Young people, and, above all, children, should be
+dealt with separately by special legislative methods.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of England, where quite recently a children's court
+has been opened at Westminster, special tribunals for the young are
+unknown in Europe. However, in modern times, the penal codes of nearly
+every European State make marked allowance for the age of offenders, and
+where there is no differentiation in the laws, the magistrate uses his
+own discretion and refuses in many cases to convict juvenile offenders,
+even when they are guilty of serious offences.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>These instinctive methods of dealing with the young have many drawbacks:</p>
+
+<p>1. Without special courts, children guilty of simple acts of
+insubordination or petty offences (thefts of fruit or riding in trams
+and trains without paying the fare) which cannot be separated by a hard
+and fast line from ordinary childish pranks, come into contact with
+criminal types in court or in prison, and this is greatly detrimental to
+them morally. If naturally inclined to dishonesty, they run the risk of
+developing into occasional criminals and of losing all sense of shame:
+or if really honest, contact with bad characters cannot fail to shock
+and perturb them, even though their stay in prison be only a short one.</p>
+
+<p>2. The magistrate has no legal powers to supervise juvenile offenders,
+nor when their actions show grave depravity, to segregate and cure them
+to prevent their developing into criminals. It has already been shown
+that born criminals begin their career at a very early age. In one case
+cited in a previous chapter, a morally insane child of twelve killed one
+of his companions for a trifling motive&mdash;a dispute about an egg; in
+another, a child of ten caused the arrest of his father by a false
+accusation; he had previously attempted to strangle a little brother.
+Children of this type, notwithstanding their tender age, are a social
+danger, and the moral disease from which they<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> suffer should be taken in
+hand at once. In any case they should be carefully segregated until a
+cure appears to be effected.</p>
+
+<p>Minors require a special code, which takes into consideration the fact
+that certain offences are incidental to childhood and that children who
+have committed these offences may still develop into honest men. It
+should also contain provisions for dealing with born criminals,
+epileptics, and the morally insane at an early age, by segregation in
+special reformatories where they cannot corrupt juvenile offenders of a
+non-criminal type, and where a thorough-going attempt to cure them may
+be made.</p>
+
+<p>An excellent reform of this character has been effected in many of the
+United States of America with the adoption of the probation system and
+juvenile courts which protect children from the corruption of prison
+life and contact with habitual offenders. The juvenile court, this
+tribunal exclusively instituted for minors, has been brought to great
+perfection in many of the United States. In some, special buildings have
+been erected for the hearing of cases against children, by which means
+all contact with adult criminals is avoided: in others, where this is
+not practicable, a part of the ordinary court is set aside for them with
+a separate entrance.</p>
+
+<p>Nor are juvenile offenders judged according to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> the common law; their
+offences are tried by special magistrates, who deal with them in a
+paternal, rather than in a strictly judicial spirit, and the penalties
+are slight, varied, and suited to children. The magistrates are assisted
+by officers, who obtain information from teachers, parents, and
+neighbours as to the character, conduct, faults, and good qualities of
+the culprit, and with these indications the magistrate is able to essay
+the correction, not of the particular offence which has brought the
+child within his jurisdiction, but his general organic defects. The
+punishments do not include imprisonment, and are drawn from practical
+experience and common-sense, not from any article of the penal code.</p>
+
+<p>I was present at the hearing of a case against a lad, who was accused of
+having travelled on a subway without paying. He was sentenced to copy
+out the by-laws twenty times, to learn them by heart and repeat them a
+month later at the same court. In the case of more serious offences,
+children may be sent to some public or private reformatory, according to
+the circumstances of the parents. However, none of these punishments are
+infamous, and parents themselves, when unable to control their children,
+have recourse to the juvenile court.</p>
+
+<p>It is supplemented in a very efficacious manner by the probation system,
+the organisation of a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> number of men and women who undertake the
+supervision of children when the court decides that they require it.
+These protectors use every means at their disposal to prevent their
+charges falling into bad ways and assist them in every possible way to
+correct their defects.</p>
+
+<p>This system has proved to be so efficacious, and at the same time so
+devoid of any drawbacks, that its unconditional adoption by all the
+States of Europe and America would be of great social advantage.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Institutions for Female Offenders</span></h4>
+
+<p>The weighty reasons which call for separate courts and reformatories for
+juvenile offenders are equally valid in the case of female law-breakers,
+for whom special tribunals and legislation should be provided.</p>
+
+<p>The percentage of criminality among women is considerably lower than
+that of men, and in nearly all cases offenders belong to the category of
+criminaloids.</p>
+
+<p>My father's work <i>The Female Offender</i> demonstrates that prostitution is
+the true equivalent of criminality. When we except this class of
+unfortunates, there remain only hysterical and occasional offenders,
+guilty generally of petty larceny (particularly of a domestic nature) or
+of harbouring criminals<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span> and acting as more or less passive accomplices;
+and criminals from passion, who commit infanticide or kill faithless
+husbands and lovers. In all these cases, imprisonment should not be
+resorted to; in fact, the greater number might be dealt with by a
+magisterial reprimand or the granting of conditional liberty. In view
+also, of the important part played by dress, ornaments, etc., in the
+feminine world, penalties inflicted on vanity&mdash;the cutting off of the
+hair, the obligation to wear a certain costume, etc., might with
+advantage be substituted for imprisonment.</p>
+
+<p>The milder nature of feminine criminality, the usefulness of women in
+the home, and the serious injury inflicted on the family and society in
+general by the segregation of the wife and mother (if only for a short
+period), are reasons for advocating the institution of special tribunals
+for dealing with the offences of women and special legislation which
+would take into consideration their position in the family and the fact
+that they are rarely a violent social danger.</p>
+
+<p>At present, in Europe at least, no such differential treatment exists.
+The reduction of penalties is left entirely to the discretion and
+humanity of judges, who in many cases, it is true, are instinctively
+disposed to be more indulgent towards women and to take<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span> these
+conditions into account. But it would be a far more satisfactory state
+of things if legislation paid due regard to such circumstances, just as
+in Italy in enrolling recruits for compulsory military service,
+allowance is made for social and family relations, the only sons of
+widowed mothers, men of delicate constitution, etc., being exempted.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the low percentage and, generally speaking, trifling
+importance of the crimes committed by women, there are a small number of
+female delinquents, some of whom show an extraordinary degree of
+depravity, as though all the perversity lacking in the others were
+concentrated in these few. They are true born criminals, epileptics, and
+morally insane subjects.</p>
+
+<p>These serious anti-social elements, murderers, poisoners, and swindlers,
+might be secluded in a small reformatory with compulsory labour and
+silence as additional penalties. Separate cells, however, are not
+necessary. All reformatories for women should be provided with a nursery
+where children born in prison could be nursed by their mothers, thereby
+diminishing the social injury which must result from the imprisonment of
+any mother, and fostering the growth of the sublime and sacred maternal
+sentiment, which is unfortunately so often lacking in criminals.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>The Reformatory Prison for Women at South Framingham, near Boston, under
+the management of Mrs. Morton, is an excellent example of an institution
+conducted on the lines laid down by criminologists. The Reformatory is
+situated at about an hour's journey by rail from Boston, in the midst of
+fields which are cultivated by a part of the convict population. No high
+walls surround the building and separate it from the outer world, nor is
+it watched by guards. A broad avenue leads to the entrance, where, in
+answer to my ring, I was welcomed by neat white-clad attendants and
+shown into a charming room looking out upon a lovely garden. I passed
+through corridors, unmolested by the sound of keys grating in locks,
+from this room to the dining-rooms, dormitories, recreation and work
+rooms.</p>
+
+<p>As soon as prisoners enter the Reformatory, they are carefully examined
+by an intelligent and pleasant woman physician, who is in charge of the
+infirmary where the anthropological examination takes place. When the
+prisoner has been declared able-bodied, she is placed in one of the
+work-rooms to learn and follow the trade indicated by the medical
+officer as the best adapted to her constitution and aptitude. At night,
+she is conducted to a second-class cell situated in a large,
+well-lighted corridor. The cell is furnished with a table, bed, chair,
+pegs to hang<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> clothes on, a calendar, a picture, and a book or two.</p>
+
+<p>Work is compulsory and done by the piece, and when each prisoner has
+finished her allotted task, she is at liberty to work for herself or to
+read books supplied from the library. If unskilled, she receives
+instruction in some manual work, and the payment for her labour is put
+aside and handed over to her on her release, with the small outfit she
+has prepared and sewed during detention.</p>
+
+<p>Women with children under a year, or those who give birth to a child in
+the Reformatory, are allowed to have their little ones with them during
+the night and part of the day. When they go to work every morning, the
+babies are left in the nursery, which adjoins the infirmary, and is
+under the direct supervision of the doctor. The nursery, a large,
+well-lighted room, spotlessly clean and bright with flowers, is a
+veritable paradise for the little ones.</p>
+
+<p>At noon, the prisoner is permitted to fetch her baby, feed, and keep it
+near her during dinner-hour. At two o'clock she resumes work until five,
+when she again takes charge of her baby till next morning. A cradle is
+placed in her cell for the infant, and she is provided with a small
+bath.</p>
+
+<p>A series of trifling rewards encourage moral improvement. Those who show
+good conduct during the first two months are transferred to the first
+class<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> with its accompanying privileges, a better and more spacious
+cell, a smart collar, the right to correspond with friends and to
+receive visitors more frequently, to have an hour's recreation in
+company with other good-conduct prisoners and to receive relatives in a
+pretty sitting-room instead of in the common visitors' room.</p>
+
+<p>The final reward for uninterrupted improvement and untiring industry on
+the part of the prisoner is her ultimate release, which since the
+sentence is unlimited, may take place as soon as the Directress
+considers her competent to earn an honest living. But released prisoners
+are not left to their own devices with the risk of speedily succumbing
+to temptation. A commission of ladies interested in the Reformatory (one
+of whom, Mrs. Russell, was my guide on the occasion of my visit there)
+are consulted before the release of each prisoner and undertake to
+furnish her with suitable employment, and to guide and watch over her
+during the first few months so that she may be sure of advice and
+assistance in any difficulties.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Institutions for Minor Offenders</span></h4>
+
+<p>Punishments should vary according to the type of criminal, distinction
+being made between criminals of passion, criminaloids, and born
+criminals.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span><i>Criminals of Passion.</i> The true criminal of passion suffers more from
+remorse than from any penalty the law can inflict. Additional
+punishments should be: exile of the offender from his native town or
+from that in which the person offended resides; indemnity for the injury
+caused, in money, or in compulsory labour if the offender is not
+possessed of sufficient means. Recourse should never be had to
+imprisonment, which has an injurious effect even upon the better types
+of law-breakers; and criminals from passion do not constitute a menace
+to society. On the contrary, they are not infrequently superior to
+average humanity and are only prompted to crime by an exaggerated
+altruism which with care might be turned into good channels.</p>
+
+<p>This applies equally to political offenders, for whom exile is the
+oldest, most dreaded, and most efficacious punishment, and the disuse
+into which it has fallen does not appear to be justified, since it
+admits of graduation, is temporary, and an adequate check on any attempt
+at insurrection.</p>
+
+<p><i>Criminaloids.</i> Repeated short terms of detention in prison should be
+avoided and other penalties substituted for petty offences against
+police regulations, cheating the Customs, etc., when committed by
+criminaloids who are not recidivists and have no accomplices. A short
+term of imprisonment, which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> brings this type of offender into contact
+with habitual criminals, not only does not serve as a deterrent, but
+generally has an injurious effect, because it tends to lessen respect
+for the law, and, in the case of recidivists, to rob punishment of all
+its terrors; and because criminaloids, when once branded with the infamy
+of prison and corrupted by <ins class="correction" title="Original reads 'associaton'.">association</ins> with worse types, are liable to
+commit more serious crimes.</p>
+
+<p>For all minor offences, fines are more efficacious than imprisonment
+and, in the case of the poor, should be replaced by compulsory labour at
+the discretion of the magistrate. Binding over under a guarantee to make
+good the injury done, corporal punishment, confinement to the house,
+judicial reprimands and cautions are applicable to offenders of this
+type, as is also the system of remitting first offences used in France
+with great success by Magnaud. Under this system, the offender is
+sentenced to an adequate penalty, which, however, is only inflicted in
+the case of recidivation.</p>
+
+<p>An efficacious, and at the same time, more serious method of dealing
+with criminaloids, is by means of the probation system and indeterminate
+sentence. The offender is sentenced to the maximum penalty applicable to
+his particular offence, but it may be diminished after a certain time if
+he shows signs of improvement. During this interval he is on probation,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span>
+that is, under supervision, much in the same way as juvenile offenders.</p>
+
+<p>The probation system is extensively and successfully adopted in America,
+either singly or in conjunction with other penalties, as shown above.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">The Probation System</span></h4>
+
+<p>This is an ideal manner of dealing with offenders of a less serious
+type, minors and criminaloids, who have fallen into bad ways, since,
+instead of punishing them, it seeks to encourage in them habits of
+integrity and to check the growth of vices by means of a benevolent but
+strict supervision. The offender is placed under the guidance of a
+respectable person, who tries in every way to smooth the path of reform
+by providing his charge with employment if he has none, or putting him
+in the way of learning some trade if he is unskilled, by isolating him
+from bad company, by rewarding any improvement, and reporting progress
+to the central office, which has to decide whether the period of
+probation is sufficient, or, in cases where it has not been efficacious,
+to have recourse to sterner measures.</p>
+
+<p>The only drawback to this system is the difficulty of applying it,
+because it is not always possible to find in every town a number of
+persons of high moral standing, who are able and willing to exercise
+vigilance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span> over offenders. However, to the honour of the United States
+it must be said that in many States this supervision is organised in a
+truly admirable manner. At Boston I visited the Probation Office
+organised and managed by Miss Mary Dewson, which undertakes the
+supervision of girls and is a model worthy of imitation from the general
+arrangement down to the smallest details.</p>
+
+<p>The relations between the officers and their charges are in most cases
+very cordial. The little girls write most affectionate letters, in which
+they narrate their joys and sorrows, express penitence for their
+shortcomings and ask advice and help as of guardian spirits. The
+officers in their turn show themselves to be affectionate protectors and
+are scrupulous in the fulfilment of their duties towards the central
+office. Upwards of one hundred lockers were opened at my request, and I
+was able to examine the documents relating to each of the children with
+their antecedents, improvement, or the reverse, methodically entered up
+to a few days previous to my visit.</p>
+
+<p>The splendid results obtained everywhere by this system are leading to
+its gradual adoption in nearly all the States of the Union and in many
+parts of Australia and England, in dealing with young people, adults,
+and all first offenders convicted of petty infractions of the law,
+drunkenness, disturbance<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> of the peace, and disorderly conduct, and also
+for prisoners released on ticket-of-leave. The probationer is obliged to
+report himself every fortnight, or at any time the probation officer may
+desire. The officer is empowered to supervise the conduct of the
+probationer at home and in his place of employment, and to threaten him
+with legal proceedings should his conduct be unsatisfactory.</p>
+
+<p>The supervision of adults, as may be supposed, is a far more delicate
+and complicated matter than that of children, and however discreetly the
+officer proceeds in order to keep the matter hidden from neighbours and
+employers, the position is such a humiliating one for adults that many
+prefer imprisonment to supervision. I was told that special
+reformatories have been established at Boston for the detention of those
+who prefer prison to vigilance.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps this aversion of adult offenders in America to the probation
+system is due to the fact that the probation officer is vested with
+powers almost exceeding those of any magistrate. If he thinks fit, he
+may extend the period of supervision almost indefinitely or convert it
+into imprisonment. Moreover, the feeling that every movement and action,
+however innocent, is being watched is very galling to a grown-up person.
+However, these drawbacks could no doubt be remedied.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>In England, supervision is replaced by a pledge of good behaviour
+guaranteed by the culprit or a surety, who is induced to exercise
+vigilance by the knowledge that he will lose the sum deposited in the
+case of recidivation. The magistrate is obliged by English law to fix
+the period of probation, which cannot be extended without another
+sentence. In France, Belgium, and Australia, the probation system
+appears to have given good results.</p>
+
+<p><i>Corporal Punishment.</i> Although repugnant to civilised ideas, the
+various forms of corporal punishment, fasting, cold shower-bath, or even
+the rod, are very suitable substitutes for imprisonment in the case of
+children guilty of petty offences, because not only are these
+punishments inexpensive and have the advantage of creating a deeper and
+more immediate impression, but they do not corrupt minor offenders nor
+do they interrupt their regular occupations, whether work or study.
+Fines should always be inflicted for slight infractions of the law and
+in all cases of petty larceny, frauds, and forgeries committed by
+minors. The fines should be proportioned to the means of the individual
+and the gravity of the offence, and replaced by compulsory labour in the
+case of those who refuse to pay.</p>
+
+<p><i>Indemnity.</i> The obligation to make adequate compensation for the injury
+caused would be an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span> ideal punishment, but is extremely difficult to put
+into practice. The magistrate, however, should do his utmost to make
+suitable use of this penalty, and the victim should be legally entitled
+to receive a part of the proceeds from work done by the culprit during
+detention.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Reformatories</span></h4>
+
+<p>Minors convicted for the first time of such serious offences that
+supervision becomes an insufficient guarantee against recidivation,
+should be relegated to reformatories or other institutions which
+undertake to punish offences and to segregate and correct offenders.</p>
+
+<p>For the truly magnificent scale on which such reclaiming institutions
+are conducted in North and South America, both continents merit special
+mention.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest and most celebrated of these reformatories, that founded at
+Elmira by Brockway, owed its inspiration to my father's book <i>Criminal
+Man</i> and is the first reformatory that has been instituted on similar
+principles.</p>
+
+<p>The convicts admitted to Elmira are young men between the ages of
+sixteen and thirty, convicted for the first time of any offence, except
+those of the most serious kind. The Administrative Council is invested
+with unlimited powers for determining the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> period of detention and may
+release prisoners long before the expiration of their sentence.</p>
+
+<p>Each newcomer has a bath, dons the uniform of the Institute, is
+photographed, registered, medically examined, and finally shut up in a
+cell to meditate upon his offence. During this time the superintendent
+obtains all the available information concerning his character,
+environment, and the probable causes that have led to his crime, and
+this information serves as a basis for the cure. According to the
+aptitude and culture of the prisoner, he is placed in a technical or
+industrial class, where he learns some trade which will enable him to
+become honestly self-supporting on his release. He is immediately
+acquainted with his duties and rights and the conditions under which he
+may regain his liberty.</p>
+
+<p>Education in the Reformatory consists of instruction in general
+knowledge and special training in some trade. Moral and intellectual
+progress is stimulated by the publication of a weekly review, <i>The
+Summary</i>, which gives a report on political matters and the news of the
+Reformatory.</p>
+
+<p>The convicts are divided into three categories: good, middling, and bad.
+The transference from the second to the first class entails certain
+privileges, especially those respecting communication with the outer
+world, the right to receive visitors, to have<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span> books, and to eat at a
+common table instead of partaking of a solitary meal in a cell. Those
+who obtain the highest marks for good conduct are at liberty to walk
+about the grounds and are entrusted with confidential missions, such as
+the supervision of the other convicts. Bad conduct marks cause prisoners
+to be transferred from a higher to the lowest division, where they are
+obliged to perform the rudest labour.</p>
+
+<p>First-class convicts are purposely exposed to temptations of various
+kinds, and when they have passed through this ordeal triumphantly, they
+obtain a conditional release. This cannot take place, however, until the
+prisoner is provided with regular employment of some kind, procured by
+his own exertions, through friends, or by the director of the
+Reformatory.</p>
+
+<p>For six months after his release he is obliged to give an account of
+himself regularly in the manner prescribed by the Director; after one
+year absolute liberty is regained.</p>
+
+<p>In order to reduce the working expenses of the Reformatory as much as
+possible, all posts, even that of superintendent or teacher in the
+technical schools, are filled by the convicts.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Penitentiaries</span></h4>
+
+<p>Although born criminals, habitual criminals, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span> recidivists should be
+carefully isolated from minor offenders, they nevertheless require
+institutes conducted on nearly similar principles. A prison, which is to
+punish, but at the same time to correct and redeem, demands strict
+discipline: in fact, milder punishments have very little effect and
+their constant repetition is harmful, although any exaggeration of brute
+force is more injurious than useful. Harshness may cow criminals, but
+does not improve them: on the contrary, it only serves to irritate them
+or to convert them into hypocrites. Even the adult offender should be
+looked upon in the light of a child or a moral invalid, who must be
+cured by a mixture of gentleness and severity, but gentleness should
+predominate, since criminals are naturally prone to vindictiveness and
+are apt to regard even slight punishments as unjust tortures. Even a too
+rigid adherence to the rule of silence may have a detrimental effect on
+the character of the prisoners. An old convict once said to Despine:
+"When you winked at slight offences against the rules, we used to talk
+more, but there was no harm in what we said. Now we talk less, but when
+we do, we blaspheme and plot evil."</p>
+
+<p>In Danish prisons under rigorous discipline, infractions of prison
+regulations amounted to 30%;<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> more recently under milder rule such
+infractions only amount to 6%.</p>
+
+<p>In order to strengthen the sense of justice which, as we have said, is
+little developed in criminals, if indeed it is not altogether suffocated
+by ignoble passions, it is often advisable to appeal to their vanity and
+self-esteem to aid in maintaining discipline and increasing industry, by
+constituting them judges of each other's conduct. Obermayer used to
+divide the convicts into small groups and ask them to elect their own
+superintendents and teachers, thus establishing a spirit of
+good-comradeship and rendering possible a system of detailed and
+individual instruction, the sole kind that is really efficacious. The
+385 convicts at Detroit showed the highest percentage of efficiency,
+because they were divided into 21 classes with 28 teachers, all of whom,
+with the exception of one, were prisoners. It was noticed that the worst
+convicts were the best teachers (Pears, <i>Prisons and Reform</i>, 1872),
+which proves that even the most perverse elements may often be utilised
+for the improvement of others.</p>
+
+<p>Equally good was Despine's method of letting a certain time elapse
+before inflicting punishment, so that it should not be attributed to
+mere anger on his part. As soon as the infraction was noted, the
+prisoner was left to reflect on his conduct, and an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> hour later the
+teacher and Director came to show him the penalty prescribed by the
+regulations. Sometimes it was found efficacious to administer a rebuke
+and punishment to the whole group to which the offender belonged.
+Obermayer considered this method to be advantageous.</p>
+
+<p>Work should be the motive force, aim, and recreation of every institute
+of this kind, in order to stimulate flagging energies, to accustom
+prisoners to useful pursuits after release, to reinforce prison
+discipline and to compensate the State for the expense incurred. This
+latter object should, however, always be subordinated to the others, and
+lucrative trades must occasionally be avoided. Occupations which might
+pave the way for other crimes: lockmaking, brasswork, engraving,
+photography, and calligraphy should not be adopted, but choice made,
+instead, of those agricultural employments which show the lowest
+mortality and are much in demand. The manufacture of articles in straw,
+esparto, and string, printing, tailoring, the making of pottery, and
+building are all suitable trades, but those which require dangerous
+tools&mdash;shoemaking, cabinet-making, and carpentering&mdash;should be resorted
+to last of all. The rush baskets made by the convicts at Noto (Sicily)
+obtained several medals.</p>
+
+<p>The tasks allotted to prisoners should always be<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span> proportioned to their
+strength and tastes. Unskilled or physically weaker individuals who
+conscientiously do their best, should be rewarded in some way, if not
+pecuniarily, at least by a reduction of their sentences. In this way
+work becomes profitable and a spirit of comradeship and friendly
+emulation develops among the prisoners.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Institutes For Habitual Criminals</span></h4>
+
+<p>To protect society against the repeated misdeeds of these offenders and
+those of born criminals, segregation is essential. However, the
+institutions set apart to receive these classes should still regard the
+redemption of the inmates as their chief aim, and only when all attempts
+have proved futile should they be replaced by almost perpetual isolation
+in a penal colony.</p>
+
+<p>The Penitenciario Nacional of Buenos Ayres is a splendid instance of an
+institute founded for the redemption of adult offenders as well as for
+the punishment of their offences. The inmates of this penitentiary
+comprise offenders of all types&mdash;criminaloids, habitual and born
+criminals&mdash;belonging to the Province of Buenos Ayres. It was established
+a few years after the Reformatory at Elmira, the fundamental principles
+of which it has imitated with certain wise modifications to suit diverse
+circumstances.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span>Externally, it has nothing in common with the gloomy European prisons.
+It is a large, white edifice with a broad flight of steps leading to the
+street and is devoid of all signs of force, soldiers, sentry-boxes, etc.</p>
+
+<p>After passing through a wide vestibule, I reached a large, shady
+court-yard with low walls almost hidden beneath a wealth of flowers and
+foliage. A corridor opening on to the court-yard was flanked on each
+side by a row of open, white cells, each well lighted by a fair-sized
+window during the day, and by electricity at night. Each cell is
+furnished with book-shelves, a table with paper, pen and inkstand, and a
+chair. All the corridors, which are gay with plants, converge towards a
+central glass-room, whence the sub-inspector surveys all the radiating
+corridors under his jurisdiction. Each corridor ends in a workshop,
+where printing, lithography, shoemaking, metal and steel work are
+carried on, and between the corridors are garden plots in which fruit,
+vegetables, and flowers are cultivated. The workshops are reckoned among
+the best the Republic contains. The printing-office turns out many
+weekly papers, illustrated magazines, and scientific and literary
+reviews. Footgear of the finest and most elegant quality is manufactured
+in the shoe-factory, and the foundry and workshop produce lathes,
+boilers, industrial and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> agricultural machines and implements. All the
+cooking in the Penitentiary is done by steam, and the plant is installed
+in a large building erected by the prisoners themselves.</p>
+
+<p>Work in the Penitentiary is compulsory. On arrival, each convict
+receives instruction in some handicraft, chosen by himself or one of the
+foremen. Of course swindlers and forgers are not admitted to trades like
+lithography, for reasons easy to understand.</p>
+
+<p>The convicts receive regular wages which vary according to their
+abilities and are about equal to the standard wages in each particular
+trade. All earnings are put aside and handed to the convict on his
+release when he is also provided with suitable employment.</p>
+
+<p>Work is finished at five o'clock in the evening and after a substantial
+supper the prisoners are divided into nine classes, six elementary and
+three secondary, according to their culture and intelligence. If
+illiterate, they are taught reading and writing and later, arithmetic,
+geography, history, languages, and drawing,&mdash;this latter being adapted
+to the particular trade of each individual. When school is finished,
+prisoners are allowed to go to the library to return the books they have
+read and take others for the night.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span>Instead of a weekly newspaper like that published at Elmira,
+intellectual development is stimulated by means of lectures delivered
+each week by the prisoners or their teachers and attended by the
+Director, Vice-Director, and all the convicts.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to the care lavished by the Director, Se&ntilde;or Ballv&eacute;, on the
+work and education of his charges, he spares no pains to encourage moral
+progress by rewarding good conduct. As each convict enters the
+Penitentiary, his name, trial, sentence, and antecedents are entered in
+a book with his photograph and particulars of his physical and psychic
+individuality, and these data are supplemented by remarks on his conduct
+and good actions, if any, so that on his release a clear idea is
+obtained of the moral progress he has made while in prison.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Penal Colonies</span></h4>
+
+<p>When after unsparing efforts for the redemption of a criminal, repeated
+convictions prove him to be a hopeless recidivist, the community should
+decline to allow him to perfect his anti-social abilities at their
+expense in prisons or at large, and should segregate him permanently,
+unless, indeed, there is any hope of reform, or circumstances render him
+harmless. Perpetual confinement in a prison, even of an improved type
+is, however, both cruel and expensive, but an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> excellent substitute may
+be found in the Penal Colony. Here the chief object should be, not to
+educate, elevate, or redeem the criminal, but to render him as useful as
+possible, so that he does not prove too great a burden on the community.</p>
+
+<p>Penal colonies should be situated on islands or in remote territories,
+that is, completely isolated from populous districts. The agricultural
+colony at Meseplas founded by the Belgian Government is a model worthy
+of imitation.</p>
+
+<p>In this colony the convict population is divided into four categories:</p>
+
+<p>1. Turbulent and dangerous individuals, who exercise an injurious
+influence over the other inmates of reformatories and prisons;</p>
+
+<p>2. Recidivists, ticket-of-leave men, escaped and mutinous convicts;</p>
+
+<p>3. Persons of bad reputation, who have hitherto avoided conviction;</p>
+
+<p>4. The better types, who have been convicted three or four times only
+and although not depraved, lack moral stamina and are constantly
+yielding to temptation when at large.</p>
+
+<p>All the common necessities of life are supplied by the colonists
+themselves, beginning with the dwellings which are erected as they are
+required and according to the resources available. In this way,
+extensive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span> building operations are carried out at a very slight cost to
+the State. Cattle and crops are raised on the land, which is cultivated
+by a number of the convicts, while others manufacture articles which
+find a ready market in the vicinity and for which they possess suitable
+tools.</p>
+
+<p>Any convict refusing to work is imprisoned on bread and water. All work
+is paid for in special coin current only in the colony itself, but
+which, on the release of the owner, is exchanged for the coin of the
+country.</p>
+
+<p>The "Open Door," an institution on similar lines, was founded by
+Professor Cabred for the insane of the Province of Buenos Ayres, and
+judging from what I was able to observe during my short visit, it
+fulfils its purpose admirably. It consists of a large village populated
+by some ten or twelve thousand lunatics. With the exception of the price
+of the land and the cost of erecting the first buildings, this colony
+does not cost the community anything; on the contrary, the colonists are
+able to make large profits.</p>
+
+<p>The ultimate plan of the village with streets and edifices has already
+been mapped out, and the patients are continually occupied in erecting
+new buildings, etc. There is a brick-kiln, a carpenter shop, and a
+smithy, which produce all the materials<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span> used in building and furnishing
+the dwellings. Only the less dangerous patients are employed in these
+operations: those of weaker mind make brushes and wicker articles.</p>
+
+<p>The colony is situated in the midst of a vast stretch of land in the
+Province of Buenos Ayres, on which fruit and vegetables are grown by a
+number of the patients. Others are occupied in raising fowls and pigs,
+which supply the colony with eggs and meat and yield a large profit when
+sold outside.</p>
+
+<p>Professor Cabred wisely prefers agriculture of this kind to the raising
+of large crops of wheat or maize, because it simplifies the task of
+supervision necessary in any colony, and gives the colonists, whose toil
+is compulsory, a continual and regular occupation of an almost unvarying
+character. (This applies equally to the case of a penal colony.)
+Workmen, foremen, engineers, builders, mechanics, gardeners,&mdash;all are
+patients, with the exception of the Director, the doctor, and about a
+hundred mounted warders, who pass rapidly from one part to another and
+are able to intervene in suicidal or homicidal outbreaks.</p>
+
+<p>A colony on these lines would be suitable for the large mass of habitual
+criminals, who, although unable to resist the temptations of ordinary
+life, are capable of useful work under supervision, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span> under such
+conditions may prove beneficial to themselves and to the community.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Institutions for Born Criminals and the Morally Insane</span></h4>
+
+<p><i>Asylums for Criminal Insane.</i> We have still to consider born criminals,
+epileptics, and the morally insane, whose crimes spring from inherited
+perverse instincts. These unfortunate beings cannot be consigned to
+ordinary prisons, since, owing to their state of mental alienation, they
+do not possess even the modesty of the vicious&mdash;hypocrisy&mdash;and they
+never fail to pervert those criminaloids with whom they come in contact.
+Malcontents by nature, they distrust everybody and everything, and as
+they see an enemy in every warder and official, they are the centres of
+constant mutinies.</p>
+
+<p>To confine them in common asylums would be still more injurious, for
+they preach sodomy, flight, and revolt and incite the others to robbery,
+and their indecent and savage ways, as well as the terrible reputation
+which often precedes them, make them objects of terror and repulsion to
+the quieter patients and their relatives, who dread to see their kin in
+such company.</p>
+
+<p>Ordinary asylums are equally unsuited to those victims of mental
+derangement who, although devoid of the depraved instincts of the
+morally insane<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span> and generally of blameless career up to the moment in
+which they are led to commit a crime by some isolated evil impulse, have
+a bad influence on the other inmates. Unlike other lunatics, they do not
+shrink from the company of others, whom they torment with their violence
+and contaminate with that spirit of restlessness and discontent which
+distinguished them even before they became insane or criminals. Firm in
+the belief that they are always being ill treated and insulted, they
+instil these ideas into their companions and suggest thoughts of flight
+and revolt, which would never occur to ordinary lunatics, absorbed as
+they are by their own world of fancies. The condition of the inmates is
+thereby aggravated, and it becomes impossible to accord them that large
+measure of freedom advocated by all modern alienists.</p>
+
+<p>To leave these madmen at large would be more dangerous still. Beneath an
+appearance of perfect calm and mental lucidity are hidden morbid
+impulses, which may give terrible results at some unexpected moment.</p>
+
+<p>All these offenders&mdash;insane criminals and the morally insane whose
+irresistible tendencies are detrimental to the community&mdash;should be
+confined in special institutes to be cured, or at any rate <ins class="correction" title="Original reads 'segregrated'.">segregated</ins>
+for life. No infamy would attach to their names, because their
+irresponsibility would be clearly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> recognised, and society would be
+secure from their attacks.</p>
+
+<p>England was the first country to provide asylums for the criminal
+insane. In 1840 a portion of Bedlam was set aside for this purpose.
+Fisherton House, a special private asylum of this kind, was opened in
+1844, and later others were instituted at Dundrum (Ireland) in 1850, at
+Broadmoor in 1863, and at Perth (Scotland) in 1858, to receive criminals
+who commit crimes in a state of insanity, or become insane during their
+trial, and all prisoners whose state of lunacy or imbecility renders
+them unable to conform to the discipline of a prison. Of course
+sanguinary and violent scenes often occur in these asylums, where the
+pernicious influence this type of lunatic exercises over his
+surroundings in ordinary asylums or prisons is multiplied and
+intensified a hundred-fold. Conspiracies, almost unknown in common
+asylums, and the murder of warders or officials are very common.
+Despairing of release and conscious of their irresponsibility, these
+wretched beings attack the warders, destroy the walls which confine
+them, murder and wound others and themselves; but at any rate the injury
+is limited to a small circle, and both harmless lunatics and common
+criminals are not contaminated. Moreover, even in criminal asylums, long
+experience with these strange pathological types and the adoption<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> of
+subdivisions like those recently introduced into Broadmoor by Orange
+have done much towards improving the general condition and eliminating
+many drawbacks. According to this classification insane criminals are
+divided into two classes, <i>unconvicted</i> and <i>convicted</i>, the former
+class being subdivided into <i>untried</i> and <i>tried</i>. Untried offenders,
+those who are considered to have been insane before committing the
+crime, are sent to a common county asylum, where are also confined
+persons convicted of minor offences and declared insane (the percentage
+of cures in this class is considerable) and others suspected of shamming
+insanity. In this way, the better elements are eliminated and the
+inmates of the criminal insane asylum reduced to the worst and most
+dangerous types only.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Capital Punishment</span></h4>
+
+<p>When, notwithstanding prisons, deportation, and criminal asylums,
+individuals of ineradicable anti-social instincts make repeated attempts
+on the lives of others, whether honest men or their own companions in
+evil-doing, the only remedy is the application of the extreme
+penalty&mdash;death.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst barbarous peoples, on whom prison makes but slight impression,
+or in primitive communities that do not possess criminal asylums,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span>
+penitentiaries, and other means of social defence and redemption, the
+death penalty has always been considered the most certain and at the
+same time the most economical means of common protection. But criminal
+anthropologists realise that the desire to abolish this penalty, which
+so often finds expression in civilised countries, arises from a noble
+sentiment and one they have no wish to destroy.</p>
+
+<p>Capital punishment, according to the opinion of my father, should only
+be applied in extreme cases, but the fear of it, suspended like a sword
+of Damocles above their heads, would serve as a check to the murderous
+proclivities displayed by some criminals when they are condemned to
+perpetual imprisonment.</p>
+
+<p>We have, it is true, no right to take the lives of others but if we
+refuse to recognise the legitimacy of self-defence, exile and
+imprisonment are equally unjustifiable.</p>
+
+<p>When we realise that there exist beings, born criminals, who are
+organised for evil, who reproduce the instincts common to the wildest
+savages and even those of ferocious carnivora, and are destined by
+nature to injure others, our resentment becomes softened; but
+notwithstanding our sense of pity, we feel justified in demanding their
+extermination when they prove to be dangerous and absolutely
+irredeemable.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Penalties Proposed by the Modern School</span></h4>
+
+<p>The following tables, compiled by Senator Garofalo, a celebrated jurist
+of the Modern School and inserted in <i>Criminal Man</i>, vol. iii, show the
+distribution of penalties systematically arranged.</p>
+
+<p>I. Born Criminals who are utterly devoid of the sentiment of pity.</p>
+
+<table width="90%" cellspacing="10" summary="I">
+<tr><td align="center"><i>Offender</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>Crime</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>Penalty</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Murderers exhibiting moral insensibility and instinctive cruelty, convicted of</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td>Murder for lucre or some other egotistical object<br /><br />Murder without provocation on the part of the victim<br /><br />Murder with ferocious execution</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+<td valign="top">Prison, penal colony, criminal insane asylum, or capital punishment if recidivists.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>II. Violent and Impulsive Criminals, Criminaloids, and those guilty
+through insufficiency of pity, of decency, of inhibitory power, and
+through prejudiced notions of honor.</p>
+
+<table width="90%" cellspacing="10" summary="II">
+<tr><td align="center"><i>Offender</i></td><td align="center"><i>Crime</i></td><td align="center"><i>Penalty</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Adults convicted of</td>
+<td valign="top">Cruelty, assault and battery, rape,<br /> kidnapping</td>
+<td>Criminal insane asylum for epileptics, or<br />Indefinite seclusion for a period equal to<br />one of the natural divisions of a man's life,<br />with period of supervision.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Minors convicted of</td>
+<td valign="top">Murder, cruelty and other offences against<br />the person without provocation<br /><br />Offences against decency</td>
+<td>Special reformatories, criminal insane asylum<br />if there are congenital tendencies.<br /><br />Penal colony and deportation in cases of recidivation.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Adults convicted of</td>
+<td>Homicide provoked by injury or genuine<br /> grievances</td>
+<td>Exile from native place and from the town in which<br />the victim's family live.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Adults convicted of</td>
+<td>Homicide in self-defence<br /><br />Homicide to avenge some wrong or<br /> personal dishonour</td>
+<td>Exile, segregation for an indefinite period in some<br />remote town or settlement.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Adults convicted of</td>
+<td>Assault in quarrels, or ill-treatment when<br /> intoxicated, blows, insults, or slander</td>
+<td>Compensation for injury caused, fines, reprimand,<br /> security, conditional liberty.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Adults convicted of</td><td>Mutiny and revolt</td><td>Reprimand, security, imprisonment for a definite period.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>III. Criminals Devoid of a Sense of Honesty</p>
+
+<table width="90%" cellspacing="10" summary="III">
+<tr><td align="center"><i>Offender</i></td><td align="center"><i>Crime</i></td><td align="center"><i>Penalty</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Adults (habitual offenders)<br /> convicted of</td>
+<td valign="top">Theft, fraud, arson, forgery, blackmail</td>
+<td valign="top">Criminal lunatic asylums (if insane or epileptic),<br /> deportation (for sane offenders).</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Adults (occasional offenders)<br /> convicted of</td>
+<td valign="top">Theft, fraud, arson, forgery, blackmail</td>
+<td valign="top">Reformatories, conditional liberty,<br /> exclusion from particular profession.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Adults convicted of</td>
+<td valign="top">Peculation, concussion</td>
+<td valign="top">Loss of office, exclusion from all public offices,<br /> fines, compensation for damage done.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Adults convicted of</td>
+<td valign="top">Arson, malicious damage to property</td>
+<td valign="top">Compensation, or as a substitute, imprisonment.<br />Criminal lunatic asylums (if insane).<br />Penal colonies (for recidivists).</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Adults convicted of</td>
+<td valign="top">Fraudulent bankruptcy</td>
+<td valign="top">Compensation for damage caused, exclusion from<br /> business and public offices.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Adults convicted of</td>
+<td valign="top">Counterfeiting, forging cheques,<br /> public title-deeds, etc.</td>
+<td valign="top">Reformatories, fines, compensation for damage,<br /> exclusion from office.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Adults convicted of</td>
+<td valign="top">Bigamy, substitution or suppression<br /> of child</td>
+<td valign="top">Seclusion for an indefinite period.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">Minors convicted of</td>
+<td valign="top">Theft, fraud, and picking pockets</td>
+<td valign="top">Magisterial reprimand, probation, reformatory,<br /> or agricultural colony.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>IV. Offenders Lacking in Industry</p>
+
+<table width="55%" cellspacing="10" summary="IV">
+<tr><td align="center"><i>Offender</i></td><td><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;</span></td><td align="center"><i>Penalty</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>Beggars, vagabonds, loafers</td><td><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;</span></td><td>Agricultural colony for country offenders,<br />workshop for city offenders.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>V. Offenders Deficient in Misoneism (Hatred of Change)</p>
+
+<table width="55%" cellspacing="10" summary="V">
+<tr><td align="center"><i>Offender</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>Penalty</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">Political, social, and religious rebels</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Temporary exile.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<h4><span class="smcap">Symbiosis</span></h4>
+
+<p>The punishment of offenders and the protection of society from the
+insane are the two chief objects of criminal jurisprudence, but criminal
+anthropologists aim at something higher, the utilisation of anti-social<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span>
+elements, thus redeeming them completely and justifying their existence
+in the eyes of mankind and in the scheme of nature.</p>
+
+<p>We find, in fact, in nature numerous instances of a partnership for
+mutual benefit between animals and plants of very diverse species and
+tendencies. Lichens are a living symbiosis of alg&aelig; and fungi: the
+pagurus allows the actini&aelig; to settle on his dwelling, where they attract
+his prey and in return are housed and conveyed from place to place.</p>
+
+<p>In imitation of this principle, criminal anthropologists seek to devise
+a means of making offenders serviceable to civilisation by carefully
+analysing their tendencies and psychology, and fitting them into some
+suitable groove in the social scheme, where they may be useful to
+themselves and to others. Side by side with depraved instincts,
+criminals frequently possess invaluable gifts: an abnormal degree of
+intelligence, great audacity, and love of innovation. The wonderful
+galleries and fortifications cut out in the rocks at Gibraltar and Malta
+by English convicts and the complete transformation of parts of Sardinia
+have led criminologists to the conclusion that the ancient penalty of
+enforced labour was more logical, useful, and advantageous both for the
+culprit and the community than all modern punishments. The Mormons of
+America and the religious sects persecuted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span> in Russia by an omnipotent
+bureaucracy, have by their energy transformed uninhabitable regions into
+lands of extraordinary fertility. Still greater results might be
+obtained, if the abnormal tendencies of certain individuals were turned
+into useful channels, instead of being pent up until they manifest
+themselves in anti-social acts, and this beneficent and lofty task
+should devolve on teachers and protectors of such of the young as show
+physical and psychic anomalies at an early age.</p>
+
+<p>The colonisation of wild regions and all professions (motoring, cycling,
+acrobatic and circus feats) which demand audacity, activity, love of
+adventure, and intense efforts followed by long periods of repose are
+eminently suited to criminals. There are cases on record in which young
+men have actually become thieves and even murderers in order to gain
+sufficient means to become comedians or professional cyclists, and there
+is every reason to suppose that these crimes would never have been
+committed had the youths been able to obtain the required sums honestly.
+On the other hand, men of bad character, ready to develop into
+criminals, often undergo a complete transformation when they find some
+outlet for their intelligence and aptitudes, in becoming pioneers in
+virgin regions or soldiers. War, the original, perpetual and exclusive
+occupation of our ancestors, is eminently<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span> suited to the tendencies of
+criminals. All the characteristics of the criminal, impulsiveness,
+cynicism, physical and moral insensibility, and invulnerability are
+valuable qualities in the soldier in times of war, especially when waged
+against savage and barbarous nations, when cunning and ability have to
+be employed against primitive races who laugh at the rules and ethics of
+civilised warfare.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst brigands, we find a few badly-armed individuals performing
+marvels of valour, and the leaders, although ignorant men, manifesting
+an intelligence and tactical skill that puts trained armies to shame.
+Could not the tendencies of criminals be used for the good of their
+country? The qualities developed in primitive races by constant warfare
+against the forces of nature are characteristic also of criminals. Let
+those whom nature has destined to reproduce impulsive and brutal
+instincts in a civil and industrial age be permitted to employ them in
+defending civilisation with true primitive valour against external and
+internal enemies, against barbarous peoples who would restrict its
+boundaries, or reactionary elements who seek to hinder its progress.</p>
+
+<p>The Great Redeemer, who in pardoning the adulteress, said, "He that is
+without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her," and the
+Prophet who foretold the day when the wolf and the lamb<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span> should dwell
+together and the lion should eat straw like the ox and should "not hurt
+nor destroy," divined perhaps this noble aim. If criminal anthropology
+is destined to lead mankind to this goal, it may well be pardoned all
+the harsh measures it has seen fit to suggest in order to realise the
+supreme end&mdash;social safety.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_217" id="Page_217">[Pg 217]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="PART_III" id="PART_III"></a>PART III</h2>
+
+<h2>CHARACTERS AND TYPES OF CRIMINALS</h2>
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_219" id="Page_219">[Pg 219]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_3.1" id="CHAPTER_3.1"></a>CHAPTER I</h3>
+
+<h3><i>EXAMINATION OF CRIMINALS</i></h3>
+
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">Criminal</span> anthropologists are unanimous in insisting on the importance of
+the results to be gained from a careful examination of the physical and
+psychic individuality of the offender, with a view to establishing the
+extent of his responsibility, the probabilities of recidivation on his
+part, the cure to be prescribed or the punishment to be meted out to
+him; but besides furnishing the magistrate with a sound basis for his
+decisions, the anthropological examination will prove of great
+assistance to probation officers, superintendents of orphanages and
+rescue homes and all those who are entrusted with the destinies of
+actual offenders or candidates for crime. I have therefore decided to
+devote this part of my summary to a minute demonstration of the methods
+to be employed in these examinations, which should be conducted on the
+one hand with the scientific precision that distinguishes clinical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_220" id="Page_220">[Pg 220]</a></span>
+diagnoses of diseases and on the other with special rules deduced from
+the long experience of criminologists in dealing with criminals and the
+insane, between whom there is so much affinity.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Antecedents and Psychic Individuality</span></h4>
+
+<p>The examination of a criminal or person of criminal tendencies should,
+if possible, be preceded by a careful investigation of his antecedents.
+Questions put to relatives and friends often bring to light facts
+relating to his past life, and give an idea of the surroundings in which
+he has grown up and the illnesses suffered by him during childhood
+(meningitis, typhus, convulsions, hemicrania, giddiness, <i>pavor
+nocturnus</i>, trauma). The prevalence of disease in the family (parents,
+grandparents, uncles, cousins, etc.) should be elicited and note taken
+not only of nervous maladies, but of arthritic, tuberculous, pellagrous,
+and inebriate forms, including a tendency to morphiomania. Even goitre
+should not escape notice, since it may indicate cretinism or any other
+form of degeneration. The existence of criminality in the family is of
+still greater importance, but it is extremely difficult to obtain any
+information on this head, either from the patient himself or his
+relatives. A certain amount of strategy must be used in eliciting facts
+of this kind, by suddenly asking,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_221" id="Page_221">[Pg 221]</a></span> for instance, whether a certain
+individual of the same name, already deceased or confined in
+such-and-such an asylum or prison, is any relation of the patient.</p>
+
+<p>Next should be ascertained whether he is single or married, and in the
+latter case, whether his wife is still living; also what profession or
+professions he has exercised. In this connection it should be observed
+that although criminals are generally successful in everything they
+undertake, they are incapable of remaining constant to one thing for any
+length of time.</p>
+
+<p>Many persons, cooks, tavern-keepers, confectioners, etc., exercise
+callings that have a deleterious effect on the nervous centres and
+encourage an abuse of alcohol; others like bakers, have night work,
+which is equally harmful. Professions which bring poor men, servants,
+secretaries, cashiers, etc., into close contact with wealth, are
+sometimes the cause of dishonesty in those who in the absence of special
+temptations, would have remained upright; others provide criminaloids
+with opportunities or instruments for accomplishing some crime, as in
+the case of locksmiths, blacksmiths, soldiers, doctors, lawyers, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The time of the year and other circumstances under which the crime takes
+place should be elicited,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_222" id="Page_222">[Pg 222]</a></span> and it should be borne in mind that the
+vintage season in countries of Southern Europe and extremes of heat and
+cold are favourable to seizures of an epileptic nature.</p>
+
+<p>When the subject under examination is a recidivist, care should be taken
+to ascertain at what age and under what circumstances the initial
+offence was committed. Precocity in crime is a characteristic of born
+criminals, and puberty and senility have their peculiar offences, as
+have the extremes of poverty and wealth.</p>
+
+<p><i>Intelligence.</i> As we are not dealing with an ordinary patient, who is
+generally only too ready to talk about his troubles, but with an
+individual who has been put on his guard by constant cross-examination,
+his suspicions should first of all be allayed by a series of general
+questions on his native place or the town in which he is now living, his
+trade, etc. "Why did you leave your native town? Why do you not return?
+Are you married? How many children have you?" etc. Then an attempt
+should be made to gain an idea of his intellectual powers by asking easy
+questions: "How many shillings are there in a pound? How many hours are
+there in a day? In what year were you married?" etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>Affection.</i> The affections should be tested in an indirect way. "Is
+your father a bad man?" or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_223" id="Page_223">[Pg 223]</a></span> "Are your neighbours worthless people? Do
+they treat you with due respect? Has any one a spite against you? Are
+you fond of your parents? Are you aware that your brother (or mother) is
+seriously ill?" Questions concerning relatives and friends are of
+special interest, because they enable the examiner to ascertain whether
+they cause the patient emotion of any kind, whether he has any real
+affection for those beings to whom normal persons are attached, but
+towards whom born criminals and the insane in general do not manifest
+love. In the absence of instruments, we must judge of the feelings of
+patients by their answers and the facial changes caused by emotion, but
+medico-legal experts naturally prefer a scientific test by means of
+accurate instruments, by which the exact degree of emotion is
+registered. These instruments are the plethysmograph and the
+hydrosphygmograph.</p>
+
+
+<p><a name="fig28" id="fig28"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/Fig_28.jpg" alt="Criminal's Ear" /><br />
+<strong><span class="smcap">Fig. 28</span><br />Criminal's Ear</strong></div>
+
+<p>It is well known that any emotion which causes the heart-beats to
+quicken or become slower makes us blush or turn pale, and these
+vaso-motor phenomena are entirely beyond our control. If we plunge one
+of our hands into the volumetric tank invented by Francis Frank, the
+level of the liquid registered on the tube above will rise and fall at
+every pulsation, and besides these regular fluctuations, variations may
+be observed which correspond to every<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_224" id="Page_224">[Pg 224]</a></span> stimulation of the senses, every
+thought and above all, every emotion. The volumetric glove invented by
+Patrizi (see <a href="#fig25">Fig. 25</a>), an improvement on the above-mentioned instrument,
+is a still more practical and convenient apparatus. It consists of a
+large gutta-percha glove, which is put on the hand and hermetically
+sealed at the wrist by a mixture of mastic and vaseline. The glove is
+filled with air as the tank was with water. The greater or smaller
+pressure exercised on the air by the pulsations of blood in the veins of
+the hands reacts on the aerial column of an india-rubber tube, and this
+in its turn on Marey's tympanum (a small chamber half metal and half
+gutta-percha). This chamber supports a lever carrying an indicator,
+which rises and falls with the greater or slighter flow of blood in the
+hand. This lever registers the oscillations on a moving cylinder covered
+with smoked paper. If after talking to the patient on indifferent
+subjects, the examiner suddenly mentions persons, friends, or relatives,
+who interest him and cause him a certain amount of emotion, the curve
+registered on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_225" id="Page_225">[Pg 225]</a></span> revolving cylinder suddenly drops and rises rapidly,
+thus proving that he possesses natural affections. If, on the other
+hand, when alluding to relatives and their illnesses, or vice-versa, no
+corresponding movement is registered on the cylinder, it may be assumed
+that the patient does not possess much affection.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><a name="fig25" id="fig25"></a><a name="fig26" id="fig26"></a></p>
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Images">
+<tr><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Fig. 25</span></strong></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Fig. 26</strong></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/Fig_25.jpg" alt="A Volumetric Glove" /></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><img src="images/Fig_26.jpg" alt="Head of a Criminal: Epileptic" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">A Volumetric Glove</span><br />(see <a href="#Page_224">page 224</a>)</strong></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Head of a Criminal</span><br />Epileptic</strong></td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p>Thus when Bianchi and Patrizi spoke to the notorious brigand Musolino
+about life in his native woods, his mother, and his sweetheart, there
+was an immediate alteration in the pulse, and the line registered by the
+plethysmograph suddenly changed, nor did it return to its previous level
+until some time afterward.</p>
+
+<p>My father sometimes made successful use of the plethysmograph to
+discover whether an accused person was guilty of the crime imputed to
+him, by mentioning it suddenly while his hands were in the
+plethysmograph or placing the photograph of the victim unexpectedly
+before his eyes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Morbid Phenomena.</i> When examining a criminal or even a suspected
+person, who is nearly always more or less abnormal, it is advisable to
+investigate the more common morbid phenomena he may be subject to, on
+which he is not likely to give information spontaneously because he is
+ignorant of their importance. He should be questioned about his sleep,
+whether he has dreams, etc. Mental<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_226" id="Page_226">[Pg 226]</a></span> sufferers nearly always sleep badly
+and are frequently tormented by insomnia and hallucinations. The
+inebriate imagines he is being pursued by disgusting, misshapen
+creatures, from which he cannot escape. Epileptics, and frequently also
+hysterical persons have peculiar obsessions. They fancy they cannot
+perform certain actions unless they are preceded by certain words and
+gestures.</p>
+
+<p>The susceptibility of the patient to suggestion should also be tested,
+to determine what value can be attached to his assertions. Sufferers
+from hysteria and general paralysis are like children, highly
+susceptible to suggestion, not necessarily of an hypnotic nature. If you
+tell an hysterical person with conviction that he suffers pain in a
+certain part of his body, is feverish or pale or something of the sort,
+he will inform you spontaneously after a few minutes that he feels pain
+or fever, etc. After a crime of a startling nature has been committed by
+some unknown person, it not unfrequently happens that some hysterical
+subject, generally a youth, who imagines he has been accused of the
+crime by the neighbours or his acquaintances, becomes convinced that he
+is really guilty and gives himself up to the police.</p>
+
+<p><i>Speech.</i> Special attention should be directed during the examination to
+the way in which the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_227" id="Page_227">[Pg 227]</a></span> patient replies to questions and his mode of
+pronunciation. There may be peculiarities of pronunciation and
+stammering, characteristic of certain forms of mental alienation, or at
+any rate of some nervous anomaly; or articulation may be tremulous and
+forced, as in precocious dementia and chronic inebriety. In other cases
+the words are jumbled and confused, especially if long and difficult. In
+the first stages of progressive paralysis the letter <i>r</i> is not
+pronounced. To test this anomaly, which is of great importance in the
+diagnosis, the patient should be requested to pronounce difficult words,
+such as, corroborate, reread, rewrite, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In order not to lose such valuable indications, in cases where personal
+examination is impossible, phonograph impressions of conversations
+between the patient and some third person will serve as a substitute.</p>
+
+<p>The inquiry may reveal still more serious anomalies in the ideas,
+intelligence, and mental condition of the patient. Sometimes the answers
+given are sensible but are followed by nonsense. Other patients,
+especially when afflicted with melancholia, speak unwillingly, as if the
+words were forced from them, one by one. Idiots, cretins, and demented
+persons are sometimes incapable of expressing themselves. Some patients
+who have had<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_228" id="Page_228">[Pg 228]</a></span> apoplectic strokes substitute one word for another,
+"bread" for "wine," etc., or elide one part of the sentence and only
+repeat the last word.</p>
+
+<p><i>Memory.</i> To form an idea of the memory of the subject, questions should
+be put to him concerning recent and remote personal facts and
+circumstances, the year in which he or his children were born, what he
+had for his supper on the previous evening, etc., etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>Visual memory</i> may be tested by giving the patient a sheet of paper, on
+which are drawn various common objects, letters, or easy words. He
+should be allowed to look at these for five or ten seconds and requested
+to enumerate them after the paper has been withdrawn. In order to test
+the memory of sounds, the examiner should utter five or six easy words
+and ask the patient to repeat them immediately afterwards.</p>
+
+<p>To test sense of colour, a picture on which various colours are painted
+is placed before the patient, as well as a skein of wool of the same
+shade as one of the colours in the picture, which he is requested to point out.</p>
+
+<p><i>Handwriting</i> is very important, particularly in <ins class="correction" title="Original reads 'distinguising'.">distinguishing</ins> a born
+criminal from a lunatic, and between the various kinds of mental alienation.</p>
+
+<p>Monomaniacs and mattoids (cranks) who give<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_229" id="Page_229">[Pg 229]</a></span> the police the most trouble
+often speak in a perfectly sane manner, but pour out all their insanity
+on paper, without an examination of which it is not easy to detect
+mental derangement. They write with rapidity and at great length. Their
+pockets, bags, etc., are always full of sheets of paper covered with
+small handwriting, sometimes scribbled in all directions. The matter is
+generally absurd or simply stupid, consisting of endless repetitions.</p>
+
+<p>Individuals in the first stage of paralysis make orthographical errors,
+which coincide with their mistakes in pronunciation, like <i>Garigaldi</i>,
+instead of <i>Garibaldi</i>. Care must be taken to test this defect
+thoroughly. If the patient is fairly well-educated, his signature, which
+is the last to alter, is not sufficient; nor are a few lines a
+satisfactory test, since he can easily concentrate his attention on
+them, but he should be requested to write a page or two and be exhorted
+to make haste.</p>
+
+<p>Alcoholism and paralysis generally give rise to tremulous handwriting
+with unsteady strokes, as in old people. After epileptic seizures and
+attacks of hysteria the writing is shaky. The slightest trembling of the
+hand is detected if Edison's electric pen be used.</p>
+
+<p>In progressive general paralysis and some forms of dementia shakiness is
+so excessive that it becomes<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_230" id="Page_230">[Pg 230]</a></span> dysgraphy, with zigzag letters. The
+handwriting of persons subject to apoplectic strokes has often the
+appearance of copper-plate. Monomaniacs intersperse their writings with
+illustrations and symbols. They write very closely in imitation of
+print, as do mattoids, hysterical persons, and megalomaniacs, and use
+many notes of exclamation and capital letters. Their writings are full
+of badly-spelled words, scrolls, and flourishes.</p>
+
+<p>Criminals guilty of sanguinary offences generally have a clumsy but
+energetic handwriting and cross their <i>t's</i> with dashing strokes. The
+handwriting of thieves can scarcely be distinguished from that of
+ordinary persons, but the handwriting of swindlers is easier to
+recognise, as it generally lacks clearness although it preserves a
+certain uniformity. The signature is usually indecipherable and
+enveloped in an infinite number of arabesques.</p>
+
+<p><i>Clothing.</i> The manner in which a patient is dressed often gives an
+exact indication of his individuality. Members of those secret
+organizations of Naples and Sicily, the Camorra and Mafia, are fond of
+dressing in a loud manner with an abundance of jewelry. Murderers,
+epileptics, and the morally insane, who lead isolated lives, attach no
+importance to dress and are frequently dirty and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_231" id="Page_231">[Pg 231]</a></span> shabby. (See <a href="#fig26">Fig. 26</a>,
+A. D., a morally insane epileptic, the perpetrator of three murders.)
+Swindlers are always dressed in faultless style, the cin&aelig;dus is fond of
+giving his costume a feminine air, and monomaniacs trick themselves out
+with ribbons, decorations, and medals: their clothes are generally of a
+strange cut. The cretin and the idiot go about with their clothes torn
+and in disorder and not infrequently emit a strong odour of ammonia.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Physical Examination</span></h4>
+
+<p>Having carefully investigated the past history of the subject and made a
+minute study of his abnormal psychic phenomena, the expert should
+proceed to the examination of his physical characters.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_1.1">Chapter I of Part I</a> contains a detailed description of the principal
+physiognomical anomalies of the criminal that may be discerned by the
+naked eye. They will now be briefly recapitulated.</p>
+
+<p><i>Skin.</i> The skin frequently shows scars and (in the epileptic subject to
+seizures) lesions on the elbows and temples. Marks of wounds inflicted
+in quarrels and attempted suicide are frequent in habitual criminals.
+The forehead and nose must be examined for traces of acne rosacea
+frequent in drunkards, and for erythema on the back of the hands,
+characteristic of pellagra. Ichthyosis, psoriasis, or other skin<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_232" id="Page_232">[Pg 232]</a></span>
+diseases are very common in cases of mental alienation, and scurvy often
+indicates long seclusion in prison.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tattooing.</i> Great care must be taken to ascertain whether the subject
+is tattooed, and if so, on what parts of his body. Tattooing often
+reveals obscenity, vindictiveness, cupidity, and other characteristics
+of the patient, besides furnishing his name or initials, that of his
+native town or village, and the symbol of the trade he refuses to reveal
+(sometimes such indications have been blurred or effaced). (See <a href="#fig27">Fig. 27</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>One of the chief proofs showing the untruthfulness of the statements
+made by the Tichborne claimant was the fact that his person was devoid
+of tattooing, whereas it was well known that Roger Tichborne had been
+tattooed.</p>
+
+<p>Tattooing often reveals the psychology, habits, and vices of the
+individual. The tattooing on pederasts usually consists of portraits of
+those with whom they have unnatural commerce, or phrases of an
+affectionate nature addressed to them. A pederast and forger examined by
+Professor Filippi was tattooed on his forearm with a sentimental
+declaration addressed to the object of his unnatural desires; a criminal
+convicted of rape was covered with pictorial representations of his
+obscene adventures.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_233" id="Page_233">[Pg 233]</a></span> From these few instances, it is apparent that these
+personal decorations are of the utmost value as evidence of hidden vices
+and crimes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Wrinkles.</i> We have already spoken of the abundance and precocity of
+wrinkles in born criminals. They are also a characteristic of the
+insane.</p>
+
+<p>The following are of special importance: the vertical and horizontal
+lines on the forehead, the oblique and triangular lines of the brows,
+the horizontal or circumflex lines at the root of the nose and the
+vertical and horizontal lines on the neck. (The ferocious leader of a
+band of criminals at twenty-five, and a savage murderer under thirty
+years of age.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Beard.</i> The beard is scanty in born criminals and often altogether
+absent in epileptics. On the other hand, it is common in insane females
+and in normal women after the menopause. Degenerates of both sexes
+frequently manifest characteristics of the opposite sex in the
+distribution of hair on the body. A tuft of hair in the sacro-lumbar
+region, suggestive of the tail of the mythological faun, is frequently
+found in epileptics and idiots, and in some cases the back and breast
+are covered with thick down which makes them resemble animals.</p>
+
+<p>The hair covering the head is generally thick and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_234" id="Page_234">[Pg 234]</a></span> dark, the growth is
+often abnormal with square or triangular zones growing in a different
+direction from the rest, or in small tufts like those inserted in a
+brush. Still more frequently do we find anomalies in the position of the
+vortex, or that point whence the hair-growth diverges circularly, which
+in normal persons is nearly always situated on the crown. In degenerates
+it is frequently on one side of the head and in cretins on the forehead.
+Precocious greyness and baldness are common in the insane criminals, and
+cretins, on the contrary, show these initial signs of senility at a much
+later period than normal persons.</p>
+
+<p><i>Teeth.</i> The greatest percentage of anomalies is found in the incisors;
+next come the premolars, the molars, and lastly the canines. In
+criminals, especially if epileptics, the middle incisors of the upper
+jaw are sometimes missing and their absence is compensated by the
+excessive development of the lateral incisors. In other cases the
+lateral incisors are of the same size as the middle ones, and sometimes
+the teeth are so nearly uniform that it is difficult to distinguish
+between incisors, canines, and molars, a circumstance which recalls the
+homodontism of the lower vertebrates. After the incisors, the premolars
+show the greatest number of anomalies. While in normal persons they are
+smaller than the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_235" id="Page_235">[Pg 235]</a></span> molars, in degenerates they are frequently of the same
+size or even larger. Supernumerary teeth, amounting sometimes to a
+double row, are not uncommon. In other cases there is extraordinary
+development of the canines. Inherited degeneracy from inebriate,
+syphilitic, or tuberculous parents frequently manifests itself in
+rickety teeth with longitudinal and transverse <i>stri&aelig;</i> or serration of
+the edges, due to irregularities in the formation of the enamel. In
+idiots and epileptics, dentition is often backward and stunted; the
+milk-teeth are not replaced by others, or are almond-shaped and
+otherwise of abnormal aspect.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ears.</i> The ears of criminals and epileptics exhibit a number of
+anomalies. They are sometimes of abnormal size or stand out from the
+face. Darwin's tubercle, which is like a point turned forward when the
+helix folds over, and turned backward when the helix is flat, is
+frequently encountered in the ears of degenerates. The lobe is subject
+to a great many anomalies, sometimes it is absent altogether, in some
+cases it adheres to the face or is of huge dimensions and square in
+shape. Sometimes the helix is prolonged so as to divide the concha in
+two. Idiots often show excessive development of the anti-helix, while
+the helix itself is reduced to a flattened strip.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_236" id="Page_236">[Pg 236]</a></span><i>Eyes.</i> The eyebrows are generally bushy in murderers and violators of
+women. Ptosis, a species of paralysis of the upper lid, which gives the
+eye a half-closed appearance, is common in all criminals; but more
+frequently we find strabismus, a want of parallelism in the visual axes,
+bichromatism of the iris, and rigidity of the pupils.</p>
+
+<p><i>Nose.</i> In thieves the base of the nose often slants upwards, and this
+characteristic of rogues is so common in Italy that it has given rise to
+a number of proverbs. The nose is often twisted in epileptics, flattened
+and trilobate in cretins.</p>
+
+<p><i>Jaws.</i> Enormous maxillary development is one of the most frequent
+anomalies in criminals and is related to the greater size of the zygom&aelig;
+and teeth. (See <a href="#fig27">Fig. 27</a>.) The lemurian apophysis already alluded to is
+not uncommon.</p>
+
+<p><i>Chin.</i> This part of the face, which in Europeans is generally
+prominent, round and proportioned to the size of the face, in
+degenerates as in apes is frequently receding, flat, too long or too
+short.</p>
+
+<p>These anomalies may be studied rapidly with the naked eye, but height,
+weight, the proportions of the various parts of the body, shape of the
+skull, etc., should be measured with the aid of special instruments.</p>
+
+<p><i>Height.</i> Criminals are rarely tall. Like all degenerates, they are
+under medium height. Imbeciles<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_237" id="Page_237">[Pg 237]</a></span> and idiots are remarkably undersized. The
+span of the arms, which in normal persons about equals the height, is
+often disproportionately wide in criminals. The hands are either
+exaggeratedly large or exaggeratedly small.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig27" id="fig27"></a></p>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27</span></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/Fig_27.jpg" alt="Anton Otto Krauser: Apache" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Anton Otto Krauser</span><br /> Apache<br /> (see <a href="#Page_236">page 236</a>)</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig29" id="fig29"></a></p>
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/Fig_29.jpg" alt="Anthropometer" /><br /><strong><span class="smcap">Fig. 29</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Anthropometer</span></strong></div>
+
+<p>The height of a patient must be compared with the mean height of his
+fellow-countrymen, or, to be more exact, of those inhabitants of his
+native province or district who are, needless to say, of the same age
+and social condition. The average height of a male Italian of twenty is
+5 feet 4 inches (1.624 m.), that of a female of the same age, 5 feet
+(1.525 m.). The distances from the sole of the foot to the navel and
+from the navel to the top of the head are in ratio of 60 to 40, if the
+total height be taken as 100.</p>
+
+<p>These measurements may be effected very rapidly by using the
+tachyanthropometer invented by Anfossi (see <a href="#fig29">Fig. 29</a>). It consists of a
+vertical<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_238" id="Page_238">[Pg 238]</a></span> column against which the subject under examination places his
+shoulders, a horizontal bar adjustable vertically until it rests on the
+shoulders, and can be used at the same time for ascertaining the length
+of the arms and middle finger: a graduated sliding scale in the vertical
+column for rapid measurements of the other parts of the body and a
+couple of scales at the base for measuring the feet.</p>
+
+<p><i>Weight.</i> In proportion to their height, criminals generally weigh less
+than normal individuals, whose weight in kilogrammes is given by the
+decimal figures of his height as expressed in metres and centimetres.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig30" id="fig30"></a></p>
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/Fig_30.jpg" alt="Craniograph Anfossi" /><br /><strong><span class="smcap">Fig. 30</span><br />
+<span class="smcap">Craniograph Anfossi</span></strong></div>
+
+<p><i>Head.</i> The head, or rather the skull, the shape of which is influenced
+by the cerebral mass it contains, is rarely free from anomalies, and for
+this reason the careful examination of this part is of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_239" id="Page_239">[Pg 239]</a></span> utmost
+importance. We have no means of studying subtle cranial alterations in
+the living subject, but we can ascertain the form and capacity of his
+skull. This is rendered easy and rapid by means of a very convenient
+craniograph invented by Anfossi (see <a href="#fig30">Fig. 30</a>), which traces the cranial
+profile on a piece of specially prepared cardboard.</p>
+
+<p><a name="fig31" id="fig31"></a></p>
+<div class="figright"><img src="images/Fig_31.jpg" alt="Pelvimeter" /><br />
+<strong><span class="smcap">Fig. 31</span><br /><span class="smcap">Pelvimeter</span></strong></div>
+
+<p>In the absence of a craniometer, measurements may be taken with
+calipers, the arms of which are curved like the ordinary pelvimeters
+used in obstetrics (see <a href="#fig31">Fig. 31</a>), and a graduated steel tape.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the principal measurements:</p>
+
+<p>1. Maximum antero-posterior diameter, which is obtained by applying one
+arm of the instrument above the root of the nose just between the
+eyebrows and sliding the other arm over the vault of the skull till it
+reaches the occiput. The distance between the two arms furnishes the
+maximum longitudinal diameter.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_240" id="Page_240">[Pg 240]</a></span>2. The maximum transverse diameter or breadth of the skull is measured
+by placing the arms of the calipers, one on each side of the head on the
+most prominent spot.</p>
+
+<p>3. The antero-posterior curve is obtained by fixing the graduated tape
+at zero on the root of the nose (on the fronto-nasal suture) and passing
+it over the middle of the forehead, vertex, and occiput to the external
+occipital protuberance.</p>
+
+<p>4. The transverse, or biauricular curve is obtained by applying the
+steel tape at zero to a point just above the ear, and carrying it over
+the head in a vertical direction till it reaches the corresponding point
+on the other side.</p>
+
+<p>5. The maximum circumference is obtained by encircling the head with the
+steel tape, touching the forehead immediately above the eyebrows, the
+occiput at the most prominent point, and the sides of the head more or
+less at the level, where the external ear joins the head, according to
+whether the position of the occipital protuberance is more or less
+elevated. (See <a href="#fig32">Figs. 32</a>, <a href="#fig33">33</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>6. The cranial capacity is obtained by adding together these five
+measurements, the antero-posterior diameter, maximum transverse
+diameter, antero-posterior curve, transverse curve, and maximum<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_241" id="Page_241">[Pg 241]</a></span>
+circumference. For a normal male the capacity is generally 92 inches
+(1500 c.c).</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig32" id="fig32"></a></p><p><a name="fig33" id="fig33"></a></p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="Figures 2 and 3">
+<tr><td align="left"><img src="images/Fig_32.jpg" alt="Skull Formation" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+<td align="right"><img src="images/Fig_33.jpg" alt="Skull Formation" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Fig. 32</span></strong></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+<td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Fig. 33</span></strong></td></tr></table>
+<div class="caption">Diagram of Skull</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>7. The cephalic index is obtained by multiplying the maximum width by
+100 and dividing the product by the maximum length, according to the
+following formula:</p>
+
+<table width="50%" summary="formula">
+<tr><td align="center">W &times; 100</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td><td>= X (cephalic index).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">L</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>If the longitudinal diameter is 200 and the transverse diameter 100, the
+cephalic index is 10,000 divided by 200 = 50.</p>
+
+<p>The cephalic indices of degenerates, like their height, have only a
+relative importance; that is, when they are compared with the mean
+cephalic index<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_242" id="Page_242">[Pg 242]</a></span> prevalent in the regions of which the subject is a
+native. The cephalic index of Italians varies between 77.5 (Sardinians)
+and 85.9 (Piedmontese).</p>
+
+<p>Skulls are classified according to the cephalic index, in the following
+manner:</p>
+
+
+<table width="50%" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Skull Classification">
+<tr><td>Hyperdolichocephalic</td><td align="right">under 66</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Dolichocephalic</td><td align="right">66-75</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Subdolichocephalic</td><td align="right">75-77</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Mesaticephalic</td><td align="right">77-80</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Subbrachycephalic</td><td align="right">80-83</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Brachycephalic</td><td align="right">83-90</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Hyperbrachycephalic</td><td align="right">above 90</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>We shall find among criminals frequent instances of microcephaly,
+macrocephaly, and asymmetry, one side of the head being larger than the
+other. Sometimes the skull is pointed in the bregmatic region
+(hypsicephaly), sometimes it is narrow in the frontal region in
+correlation to the insertion of the temporal muscles and the excessive
+development of the zygomatic arches (stenocrotaphy, see <a href="#fig5">Fig. 5</a>, Part I.,
+Chapter I.), or depression of the bregmatic region (cymbocephaly).</p>
+
+<p><i>Face.</i> We have already remarked on the excessive size of the face
+compared with the brain-case, owing chiefly to the high cheek-bones,
+which are one of the most salient characteristics of criminals,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_243" id="Page_243">[Pg 243]</a></span> and to
+the enormous development of the jaws, which gives them the appearance of
+ferocious animals (see <a href="#fig5">Fig. 5</a>). To these peculiarities may be added
+progeneismus, the projection of the lower jaw beyond the upper, a
+characteristic found only in 10% of normal persons, receding forehead as
+in apes, and the lemurian apophysis already mentioned.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arms and Hands.</i> With the exception of the excessive length as compared
+with the stature, anomalies in the arms are rare, but the hands show
+some interesting characteristics, which have already been described in
+the first chapter of Part I, an increase or decrease in the number of
+fingers and syndactylism or palmate fingers. Also the lines in the palm
+and those on the palmar surfaces of the finger-tips show deviations from
+the normal type resembling characteristics of apes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Feet.</i> Degenerates and more especially epileptics, frequently have flat
+or prehensile feet and an elongated big-toe with which, like the
+Japanese, they are able to grasp objects.</p>
+
+<p>All these anomalies vary in number and degree according to whether the
+subject examined is a born criminal or a criminaloid, and according,
+also, to the special type of crime to which he is addicted. Thieves
+commonly show great mobility of the face and hands. Their eyes are
+small, shifty and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_244" id="Page_244">[Pg 244]</a></span> obliquely placed, and glance rapidly from one object
+to another. The eyebrows are bushy and close together, the nose twisted
+or flattened, beard scanty, hair not particularly abundant, forehead
+small and receding, and the ears standing out from the head. Projecting
+ears are common also to sexual offenders, who have glittering eyes,
+delicate physiognomy excepting the jaws, which are strongly developed,
+thick lips, swollen eyelids, abundant hair, and hoarse voices. They are
+often slight in build and hump-backed, sometimes half impotent and half
+insane, with malformation of the nose and reproductive organs. They
+frequently suffer from hernia and goitre and commit their first offences
+at an advanced age.</p>
+
+<p>The cin&aelig;dus is distinguished by his feminine air. He wears his hair long
+and plaited, and even in prison his clothing seems to retain its
+feminine aspect. The genitals are frequently atrophied, the skin
+glabrous, and gynecomastia not uncommon.</p>
+
+<p>The eyes of murderers are cold, glassy, immovable, and bloodshot, the
+nose aquiline, and always voluminous, the hair curly, abundant, and
+black. Strong jaws, long ears, broad cheek-bones, scanty beard, strongly
+developed canines, thin lips, frequent nystagmus and contractions on one
+side of the face, which bare the canines in a kind<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_245" id="Page_245">[Pg 245]</a></span> of menacing grin,
+are other characteristics of the assassin.</p>
+
+<p>Forgers and swindlers wear a singular, stereotyped expression of
+amiability on their pale faces, which appear incapable of blushing and
+assume only a more pallid hue under the stress of any emotion. They have
+small eyes, twisted and large noses, become bald and grey-haired at an
+early age, and often possess faces of a feminine cast.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Sensibility</span></h4>
+
+<p>This external inspection of the criminal should be followed by a minute
+examination of his senses and sensibility.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig34" id="fig34"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/Fig_34.jpg" alt="Esthesiometer" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34</span><br />Esthesiometer</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><i>General Sensibility and Sensibility to Touch and Pain.</i> Tactile
+sensibility should be measured by Weber's esthesiometer, which consists
+of two pointed legs, one of which is fixed at the end of a scale
+graduated in millimetres, along which the other slides (see <a href="#fig34">Fig. 34</a>).
+After separating the two<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_246" id="Page_246">[Pg 246]</a></span> points three or four millimetres, they are
+placed on the finger-tips of the patient, who closes his eyes and is
+asked to state whether he feels two points or one. Normal individuals
+feel the points as two when they are only 2 mm. or 2.5 mm. apart; when,
+however, tactile sensibility is obtuse (as in most criminals) the points
+must be separated from 3 to 4.5 mm. or even more, before they are felt
+as two. Obtuseness varies with the type of crime committed habitually by
+the subject; in burglars, swindlers, and assaulters, being approximately
+double, while in violators, murderers, and incendiaries it stands in the
+ratio of 5 to 1 compared with normal persons.</p>
+
+<p>In the absence of an esthesiometer, a rough calculation may be made by
+using an ordinary drawing compass or even a hairpin, separating the two
+points and measuring with the eye the distance at which they are felt to
+be separate.</p>
+
+<p><i>General Sensibility and Sensibility to Pain</i> are measured by a common
+electric apparatus (Du Bois-Reymond), adapted by Lombroso for use as an
+algometer. (See <a href="#fig35">Fig. 35</a>.) It consists of an induction coil, put into
+action by a bichromate battery. The poles of the secondary coil are
+placed in contact with the back of the patient's hand and brought slowly
+up behind the index finger, when the strength<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_247" id="Page_247">[Pg 247]</a></span> of the induced current is
+increased until the patient feels a prickling sensation in the skin
+(general sensibility) and subsequently a sharp pain (sensibility to
+pain). The general sensibility of normal individuals is 40 and the
+sensibility to pain, 10-25: the sensibility of the criminal is much less
+acute and sometimes non-existent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sensibility to Pressure.</i> Various metal cubes of equal size but
+different weight, are placed two by two, one on each side, on different
+parts of the back of the hand. The patient is then asked to state which
+of any two weights is the lighter or heavier. This sense is fairly acute
+in criminals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sensibility to Heat.</i> Experiments are made by placing on the skin of
+the patient various receptacles filled with water at different
+temperatures. If great exactitude is desirable, Nothnagel's
+thermo-esthesiometer should be used. This is an instrument very similar
+to Weber's esthesiometer, but the points are replaced by receptacles
+filled with water of varying heat and furnished with thermometers. The
+patient must state which is the colder, and which the hotter spot.
+Sensibility to heat is less acute in criminals than in normal
+individuals.</p>
+
+<p><i>Localisation of Sensibility.</i> After the patient has been requested to
+close his eyes, various parts of his body are touched with the finger
+and he is asked to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_248" id="Page_248">[Pg 248]</a></span> point out the exact spot touched. Should he not be
+able to reach it with his finger, a statuette should be placed before
+him on which he should mark with a pencil the part touched. Normal
+persons are always able to localise the sensation exactly: inability to
+do so signifies disease of the brain or some kind of anomaly.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sensibility to Metals</i> is tested by placing discs of different metals,
+copper, zinc, lead, and gold, or the poles of a magnet, on the frontal
+and occipital parts of the patient's head. Sometimes he feels pricking
+or heat, giddiness, somnolence, or a sense of bodily well-being. In
+general, criminals show great sensibility to metals; in hysterical
+persons this sensibility reaches an extraordinary degree of acuteness.
+By applying a magnet to the nape of the neck, the sensations of such
+individuals become polarised, that is, what appeared white to them
+before becomes black; bitter, what was formerly sweet, or vice versa.
+This is an excellent way of distinguishing between bona-fide cases of
+hysteria and sham ones. My father once detected simulation in a
+<i>soi-disant</i> hysterical patient by means of a piece of wood shaped and
+coloured to represent a magnet. On application of either magnet, the
+real or sham one, the patient's sensations were identical, whereas
+hysterical persons experience very diverse sensations and are able to
+distinguish<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_249" id="Page_249">[Pg 249]</a></span> very sharply between the contact, not only of wood and
+metal, but of the different kinds of metal, and are particularly
+sensitive to the magnet.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p><a name="fig35" id="fig35"></a><a name="fig36" id="fig36"></a></p>
+<table width="100%" border="0" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Images">
+<tr><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Fig. 35</span></strong></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><span class="smcap"><strong>Fig. 36</strong></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/Fig_35.jpg" alt="Algometer" /></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><img src="images/Fig_36.jpg" alt="Campimeter of Landolt" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Algometer</span><br />(see <a href="#Page_246">page 246</a>)</strong></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><strong><span class="smcap">Campimeter of Landolt</span> <br />(Modified)<br /> (see <a href="#Page_249">page 249</a>)</strong></td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Sight&mdash;Acuteness of Vision&mdash;Chromatic Sensibility&mdash;Field of Vision.</i>
+Visual acuteness is tested by holding letters of a specified size at a
+certain distance. Sight is generally more acute in criminals than in
+normal persons; not so, chromatic sensibility, which is tested by giving
+the patient a number of skeins of different coloured silks, and
+requesting him to arrange them in series. Persons afflicted with
+dyschromatopsia confuse the different colours and the different shades
+of the same colour. Colour-blind people confuse black and red.</p>
+
+<p>Especially important is the examination of the field of vision, as the
+seat of one of the most serious anomalies discovered by the Modern
+School, the presence of peripheral scotoma, frequently found in
+epileptics and born criminals. To test this anomaly, use should be made
+of Landolt's apparatus (<a href="#fig36">Fig. 36</a>). This consists of a semicircular band,
+which can revolve around a column. The patient rests his chin on a
+support placed in front of the semicircle in such a manner that the eye
+under examination is exactly in the centre, and looks directly at the
+middle point of the semicircle, corresponding to 0 in the scale: the
+testing object, a small ball, is passed backwards<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_250" id="Page_250">[Pg 250]</a></span> or forwards along the
+semicircle. A graduated scale, placed on the semicircle, marks the point
+limiting the field of vision, and the result is registered on a diagram.
+The average limit of the normal field of vision is 90 mm. on the
+temporal side, 55 mm. on the nasal side, 55 mm. above and 60 mm. below
+(see <a href="#fig37">Fig. <ins class="correction" title="original reads '42'">37</ins></a>). If a suitable instrument is not available, a series of
+concentric circles may be traced on a slate and the patient placed at a
+certain distance with one eye covered. The examiner then touches the
+different points of the circles with his hand and asks the patient
+whether he can see it when his eye is fixed on the central point. In
+this way the various points limiting the field of vision are noted and
+furnish, when united, the boundary line.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig37" id="fig37"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/Fig_37.jpg" alt="Diagram Showing Normal Vision" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37</span><br />Diagram Showing Normal Vision</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_251" id="Page_251">[Pg 251]</a></span><i>Hearing</i> is generally less acute in the criminal than in the normal
+individual, but does not show special anomalies. It may be tested by
+speaking in a low voice at a certain distance from the patient, or by
+holding an ordinary watch a little way from his ear.</p>
+
+<p><i>Smell.</i> Olfactory acuteness is tested by solutions of essences of
+varying strength, which the patient should be requested to place in
+order, indicating the one in which he first detects an odour. Ottolenghi
+has invented a graduated osmometer which is easy to use. The criminal
+generally shows olfactory obtuseness.</p>
+
+<p><i>Taste</i> is tested in the same way as smell, by varying solutions of
+saccharine or strychnine dropped on to the patient's tongue by means of
+a special medicine dropper. The mouth should be rinsed out each time.
+Normal persons taste the bitterness of sulphate of strychnine in a
+solution 1:600,000; the sweetness of saccharine in a solution 1:100,000.
+The sense of taste is less acute in criminaloids than in normal persons,
+and is specially obtuse in born criminals, 33% of whom show complete
+obtuseness.</p>
+
+<p><i>Movements.</i> Normal individuals in a state of repose remain almost
+motionless, and their gestures<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_252" id="Page_252">[Pg 252]</a></span> are always appropriate. Lunatics and
+imbeciles have a habit of speaking and gesticulating even when they are
+not interrogated. Nervous diseases manifest themselves in facial
+contortions or slight spasmodic contractions. In melancholia and all
+forms of depression, the patient does not gesticulate but remains
+immovable like a statue with his eyes cast down. Degenerates manifest a
+fairly varied series of involuntary motions,&mdash;twitchings of the muscles,
+as in chorea, tonic and clonic convulsions and tremors. In senility,
+chorea, and Parkinson's disease, the tremors are incessant and continue
+even when the body is in a state of repose; in sclerosis, goitre, and
+chronic inebriety they accompany voluntary movements, and in this case
+they are easily detected by making the patient lift the tip of his
+finger to his nose or a filled glass to his lips. The nearer the hand
+approaches its goal, the more intense the oscillations become. Above
+all, the examiner should not fail to ask the patient to put out his
+tongue. If it protrudes on one side, it is a sign of a serious nervous
+alteration and nearly always denotes the beginning or remains of
+paralysis, or partial apoplectic strokes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Muscular Strength</i> is measured by a common dynamometer (<a href="#fig38">Fig. 38</a>), which
+the patient is requested to grasp with all his might. Compressive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_253" id="Page_253">[Pg 253]</a></span>
+strength is tested by compressing the oval. In order to test tractive
+strength, the dynamometer is fastened to a nail at the point C, and the
+patient pulls with all his strength at D. The effort is registered on a
+graduated scale and is of importance for detecting left-handedness and
+measuring the extraordinary force that is displayed in certain states of
+excitement.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig38" id="fig38"></a></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/Fig_38.jpg" alt="Dynamometer" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38</span><br />
+Dynamometer</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><i>Reflex Action</i> consists of movements and contractions produced by an
+impression exciting the nerves of the cutis (cutaneous reflex) or
+tendons (tendinous reflex).</p>
+
+<p><i>Cutaneous Reflex Movements</i> may be tested by placing the patient in a
+recumbent position and stroking methodically certain parts of the body,
+the sole of the foot (plantar reflex), the under side of the knee-joint
+(popliteal reflex), the abdominal wall<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_254" id="Page_254">[Pg 254]</a></span> (abdominal reflex). Certain
+reflex movements are of special importance: the cremasteric reflex, on
+the inner side of the thigh (obtuse in old people and individuals
+addicted to onanism), the reflex action of the mucous membrane covering
+the cornea (suspended during stupor, coma, and epileptic convulsions),
+and the pharyngeal reflex along the isthmus of the fauces (absent in
+hysterical persons).</p>
+
+<p>The dilatation and contraction of the pupil in accommodation to the
+distance of the object viewed or in response to light stimuli is
+undoubtedly the most important cutaneous reflex movement. It may be
+tested by requesting the patient to look at a distant object and
+immediately afterwards at the examiner's finger, placed close to his
+eye, or bringing him suddenly from semi-darkness into the light. If the
+pupil reacts very slightly to the light, it is called torpid: if it does
+not react at all, it is called rigid. Rigidity of the pupil always
+denotes some serious nervous disturbance. In certain diseases,
+especially tabes, the pupils do not respond to light stimuli, but
+accommodate themselves to objects.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tendinous Reflex Action</i> may be tested in every part of the body, but
+the rotular reflex movement is generally sufficient. The patient is
+asked to sit on the edge of the bed or on a chair with his legs crossed.
+If he is healthy, the reflex movement is fairly strong,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_255" id="Page_255">[Pg 255]</a></span> but in some
+illnesses spastic movements may be provoked and extend to the abdomen
+(exaggerated reflex action); in others no reflex is forthcoming. This is
+one of the first symptoms of tabes.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="fig39" id="fig39"></a></p>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39</span></div>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/Fig_39.jpg" alt="Head of an Italian Criminal" /></div>
+<div class="caption"><span class="smcap">Head of an Italian Criminal</span></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><i>Urine</i> and <i>Feces</i>. As the functions are anomalous, the chemical
+changes must also be anomalous, owing to the correlation of organs. In
+born criminals there is a diminished excretion of nitrogen, whereas that
+of chlorides is normal. The elimination of phosphoric acid is increased,
+especially when compared with the nitrogen excreted. Pepton is sometimes
+found in the excretions of paralytic persons in whom there is always an
+increased elimination of phosphates and calcium carbonate.</p>
+
+<p>The temperature is generally higher than in normal persons, and, more
+important still, varies less in febrile illnesses.</p>
+
+<hr style='width: 45%;' />
+
+<p>For the reader's convenience, I have drawn up a list of the different
+points that should be noted in a careful examination.</p>
+
+
+<p><i>Table showing the Anthropological Examination of Insane and Criminal
+Patients</i> (<i>drawn up by Tamburini, Strassmann, Benelli, and Mario Carrara</i>).</p>
+
+<table width="80%" cellpadding="5" summary="Anthropological Examination of Insane and Criminal Patients">
+<tr><td valign="top">A&mdash;</td><td><i>Anamnesis.</i> Name&mdash;surname&mdash;nationality&mdash;domicile&mdash;profession&mdash;age&mdash;education.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Economic and hygienic conditions of native place.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_256" id="Page_256">[Pg 256]</a></span></td><td>Family circumstances&mdash;pre-natal conditions&mdash;infancy&mdash;puberty.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Causes to which decease of parents may be attributed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Cases of insanity&mdash;neurosis&mdash;imbecility&mdash;perversity&mdash;suicide&mdash;crime&mdash;or eccentricity in the family.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Progressive diseases or trauma in the subject.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Offence and causes thereof.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">B&mdash;</td><td><i>Physique.</i> Skeletal development&mdash;height&mdash;span of the arms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">C&mdash;</td><td><i>Physical Examination.</i> Muscular development.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Colour of hair and eyes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Quantity and distribution of hair.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Tattooing.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Craniometry: Antero-posterior diameter&mdash;transverse diameter&mdash; antero-posterior curve&mdash;transverse curve&mdash;cephalic index&mdash;type and
+anomalies of the skull&mdash;circumference&mdash;probable capacity&mdash;semi-circumference (anterior, posterior)&mdash;forehead&mdash;face, length, diameter (bizygomatic and bigoniac)&mdash;facial type&mdash;facial index&mdash;anomalies of conformation and development in the skull, in the face, in the ears, in the teeth, in other parts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">D&mdash;</td><td><i>Functions.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">E&mdash;</td><td><i>Animal Life.</i> Sensibility: meteoric&mdash;tactile&mdash;thermal&mdash;dolorific and muscular&mdash;visual&mdash;auditory&mdash;of the other senses.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Motivity: Sensory left-handedness&mdash;motory left-handedness&mdash;voluntary and involuntary movements&mdash;reflex action (tendinous or muscular, abnormal, chorea).</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">F&mdash;</td><td><i>Vegetative Life.</i> Muscular strength.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Circulation.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Respiration.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Thermo-genesis.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Digestion: Rumination&mdash;bulimy&mdash;vomiting&mdash;dyspepsia&mdash;constipation&mdash;diarrh&oelig;a.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Secretions: Milk&mdash;saliva&mdash;perspiration&mdash;urine&mdash;menstruation.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_257" id="Page_257">[Pg 257]</a></span></td><td>Dyscrasia: poisoning.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">G&mdash;</td><td><i>Psychic Examination.</i> Language&mdash;writing&mdash;slang.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Attention&mdash;perception.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Memory (textual)&mdash;reason.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Dreams&mdash;excitability&mdash;passions.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Sentiments: Affection&mdash;morality&mdash;religion.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Instincts and tendencies.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Moral character&mdash;industry.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Physiognomical expression.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Education&mdash;aptitudes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">H&mdash;</td><td><i>Morbid Phenomena.</i> Illusions&mdash;hallucinations&mdash;delusions&mdash;susceptibility to suggestion.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top">I&mdash;</td><td><i>Offences.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Cause of first offence: Environment&mdash;occasion&mdash;spontaneous or premeditated&mdash;drunkenness.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Conduct after the offence: Repentance&mdash;recidivation.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_258" id="Page_258">[Pg 258]</a></span></p>
+<h3><a name="CHAPTER_3.2" id="CHAPTER_3.2"></a>CHAPTER II</h3>
+
+<h3><i>SUMMARY OF THE CHIEF FORMS OF CRIMINALITY TO AID IN DISTINGUISHING
+BETWEEN CRIMINALS AND LUNATICS AND IN DETECTING SIMULATIONS OF INSANITY.
+A FEW CASES SHOWING THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY</i></h3>
+
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">The</span> cases described in this chapter show the necessity of being able to
+estimate correctly accusations made against insane persons by criminals
+or normal individuals. Since, moreover, criminals are prone to sham
+insanity in order to avoid punishment, I sum up the characteristics that
+distinguish the various types of criminals. With regard to insane
+criminals, it must be remembered that every form of mental alienation
+assumes a specific criminality.</p>
+
+<p>The idiot is addicted to bursts of rage, savage assaults, and homicide.
+His unbridled sexual appetite prompts him to commit rape. He is
+sometimes guilty of arson in order to gratify a childish pleasure at the
+sight of the flames.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_259" id="Page_259">[Pg 259]</a></span>The imbecile or weak-minded egotist is a frequent though unnecessary
+accomplice in nearly every crime, owing to his susceptibility to
+suggestion and incapability of understanding the gravity of his actions.</p>
+
+<p>Melancholia is often the cause of suicide or homicide (as a species of
+indirect suicide). The sufferer generally confesses and gives himself up
+to the police. Delusions that he is being poisoned or insulted are often
+the cause of the murders committed by this type of lunatic.</p>
+
+<p>Maniacs commit robbery, rape, homicide, and arson, and behave indecently
+in public.</p>
+
+<p>Stealing is common among those afflicted with general paralysis, who
+believe everything they see belongs to them, or do not understand the
+meaning of property.</p>
+
+<p>Dementia causes general cerebral irritation, which frequently results in
+murder and violence.</p>
+
+<p>Hysterical persons invent slanders, especially of an erotic nature. They
+are given to sexual aberrations and delight in fraud and extravagant
+actions to make themselves notorious.</p>
+
+<p>Persons subject to a mania for litigation offend statesmen and others.</p>
+
+<p>Epileptics, of whom born criminals and the morally insane are the most
+dangerous variety, are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_260" id="Page_260">[Pg 260]</a></span> familiar with the whole scale of criminality.
+Their special offences are assault and battery, rape, theft, and
+forgery. The first offences are committed intermittingly at the
+prompting of attacks of cortical irritation, the last two almost
+continuously owing to a state of constant irritation.</p>
+
+<p>To distinguish between genuine insanity and simulation, it must be
+remembered that exaggeration of the symptoms is one of the chief
+characteristics of shamming. The simulator exaggerates the morbid
+phenomena and manifests a greater inco-ordination of ideas than does the
+genuine lunatic who gives sensible replies to simple questions, whereas
+the simulator talks nonsense. For instance, if a simulator is asked his
+name, his answer will show no connection with the question. He will say,
+perhaps: "Did you bring the bill?" or if asked how old he is, will
+answer: "I am not hungry."</p>
+
+<p>Above all, in order to distinguish between dementia, idiocy, cretinism,
+and an imitation of these forms, a minute somatic examination is
+necessary. It should be remarked that in idiots, imbeciles, and cretins
+we generally find hypertrophy of the connective tissues, earthen hue,
+scanty beard, <i>stenocrotaphy</i>, malformations of the skull, ears, teeth,
+face, and especially jaws, and there are invariably anomalies in the
+field of vision, lessened sensibility to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_261" id="Page_261">[Pg 261]</a></span> touch and pain (which cannot
+be simulated since pain invariably produces dilatation of the pupils),
+meteoric sensibility, attacks of hemicrania, neuralgia, hallucinations,
+and even convulsions, epileptic fits, tremors disposing to propulsive
+forms, and, psychologically, absence of natural feeling, sadism, and the
+inability to adopt a regular occupation.</p>
+
+<p>When dealing with a simulation of epilepsy, it must be borne in mind
+that the epileptic always manifests salient degenerate characteristics,
+especially asymmetry of the face, skull, and thorax; and a careful
+investigation reveals neurosis of some kind in the family and trauma or
+serious illness in childhood. During the seizure, the pupil does not
+react (this cannot be simulated) or there is excessive mydriasis. The
+sudden pallor, and the exhaustion which follows the fit, are absent in
+the simulator, nor does he bite his tongue or injure himself in other
+ways. Furthermore, he reacts at the application of ammonia, and as he is
+not in that state of asphyxia in which the epileptic lies during the
+fit, the closing of his mouth and nostrils likewise produces a reaction.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hysteria.</i> Here the detection of shamming is more difficult, since
+deceit is a characteristic of this disease. Tests with metals, to which
+hysterical persons are extremely sensitive, suggestion and hypnotism
+should be resorted to. The character of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_262" id="Page_262">[Pg 262]</a></span> crime should be specially
+considered, because, as we stated, the foundation of hysteria is an
+erotic one, and offences committed by the hysterical are nearly always
+of this nature in the means or the end.</p>
+
+<p>An examination of sensibility with suitable instruments, and of reflex
+action, is to be recommended in all cases.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Practical Application of Criminal Anthropology</span></h4>
+
+<p>The minute study of the criminal admits of infinite applications. It is
+generally used in deciding to which category of crime a particular
+offender belongs, whether he is a born criminal, a morally insane
+subject, an occasional criminal, or a criminaloid; but in certain cases
+the examination may be of value in establishing the innocence of an
+accused person, or in recognising in an accuser an insane individual
+whose accusation originates in some delusion and not in a knowledge of
+the facts.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">An Accused Man Proved Innocent by The Anthropological Examination</span></h4>
+
+<p>On the 12th of January, 1902, a little girl of six, living at Turin,
+suddenly disappeared. Two months later, the corpse was discovered hidden
+in a case in a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_263" id="Page_263">[Pg 263]</a></span> cellar of the very house the little victim had
+inhabited. It bore traces of criminal violence and the clothing was in
+disorder. Various persons were arrested, among them a coachman named
+Tosetti, who had been seen joking and playing with the child on several
+occasions.</p>
+
+<p>Tosetti was of honest extraction, his grandparents and parents having
+died at an advanced age (between sixty and ninety) without having
+manifested nervous anomalies, vices, or crimes. Tosetti himself,
+although fond of drinking, was rarely, if ever, intoxicated, and was an
+individual of quiet, peaceful aspect with a benevolent smile and
+serenity of look and countenance. His hair had become grey at an early
+age, and he was devoid of any degenerate characteristics except
+excessive maxillary development. [Height 5 feet, 7 inches (1.70 m.);
+weight, 158 lbs. (72 kilogrammes); cranial capacity, 93 inches (1531
+c.c.); cephalic index, 84 (brachycephaly; characteristic of the
+Piedmontese); tactile sensibility, 3 mm. left, 2.5 mm. right; general
+sensibility, 83 right, 78 left; sensibility to pain, 55 right, 45 left.
+The sensibility was, therefore, almost normal without any trace of
+left-handedness. Analysis of urine&mdash;absence of earthy phosphates common
+to born criminals. Tendinous reflex action feeble, few cutaneous
+reflexes, no tremors. The field of vision was not much reduced<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_264" id="Page_264">[Pg 264]</a></span> but
+manifested a few peculiarities, due no doubt to the abuse of alcohol.]</p>
+
+<p>Psychologically, Tosetti appeared to be a man of average or perhaps
+slightly less than average intelligence. He was quiet, very respectful,
+not to say servile, entirely devoid of impulsiveness of any form, and
+averse to quarrels, on which account he was rather despised by his
+companions. His natural affections were normal, and he was a good son
+and brother; he was excessively timid and disconcerted by the slightest
+reproof from his employer. He was rather fond of wine, though not of
+liquors. His sexual instincts he had lost very early, a fact which
+caused his companions to indulge in many jokes at his expense. His
+stinginess bordered on avarice, and he had never changed his trade.</p>
+
+<p>During his trial he showed no resentment against anyone, not even the
+police and warders, of whom he said on one occasion, "They have treated
+me like a son."</p>
+
+<p>The examination proved beyond a doubt that Tosetti was not a born
+criminal, and was incapable of committing the action of which he was
+suspected&mdash;the murder of a child for purely bestial pleasure.</p>
+
+<p>To obtain stronger proof, my father adopted the plethysmograph and found
+a slight diminution of the pulse when Tosetti was set to do a sum;
+when,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_265" id="Page_265">[Pg 265]</a></span> however, skulls and portraits of children covered with wounds
+were placed before him, the line registered showed no sudden variation,
+not even at the sight of the little victim's photograph.</p>
+
+<p>The results of the foregoing examination proved conclusively that
+Tosetti was innocent of a crime which can only be committed by sadists,
+idiots, and the most degenerate types of madmen, like Vacher and Verzeni
+and all bestial criminals, who have reached the summit of criminality
+and unite in their persons the greatest number of morbid physical and
+psychic characteristics.</p>
+
+<p>A few months after my father had diagnosed this case, an assault of the
+same nature was committed on another little girl living in the same
+house. In this case, however, the victim survived and was able to point
+out the criminal&mdash;an imbecile, afflicted with goitre, stammering,
+strabismus, hydrocephaly, trochocephaly, and plagiocephaly, with arms of
+disproportionate length, the son and grandson of drunkards, who
+confessed the double crime and entreated pardon for the "trifling
+offence" since he had always done his duty and swept the staircase, even
+on the day he committed the crime.</p>
+
+<p>Other cases of this kind might be cited, but one instance will suffice.
+I may, however, mention a case in which my father demonstrated the
+innocence of an<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_266" id="Page_266">[Pg 266]</a></span> unfortunate individual who had been sentenced to ten
+years' penal servitude and released at the expiration of his sentence.
+By means of a thorough examination, which showed a complete absence of
+criminal characteristics, my father declared the man to be innocent of
+the crime for which he had been imprisoned; and subsequent
+investigations resulted in his rehabilitation and the discovery of the
+actual culprit.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Accusation Proved To Be False by the Anthropological Examination</span></h4>
+
+<p>An individual named Ferreri suddenly disappeared, and ten days later his
+corpse was found down a well. The evidence of several persons led to the
+arrest of the owner of the well, a certain Fissore, a man of very bad
+reputation, with whom Ferreri had been seen on the day of his
+disappearance.</p>
+
+<p>On being arrested, Fissore admitted having committed the crime, but not
+alone, and named as his accomplices three others, Martinengo, Boulan,
+and a prostitute, named Ada. All three strenuously denied their guilt.
+They all appeared perfectly normal.</p>
+
+<p>But after a month of investigations, Martinengo, a tipsy porter of
+thirty-five, the son and grandson of drunkards, who at first had
+advanced an alibi, after being confronted several times with Fissore,
+admitted<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_267" id="Page_267">[Pg 267]</a></span> his complicity, and in the latter's absence added various
+details to his (Fissore's) version.</p>
+
+<p>The four accused persons were examined anthropologically with the
+following results:</p>
+
+<p>Boulan had the appearance of an honest country notary with broad
+forehead, precocious grey hairs and baldness, small jaws and a
+well-shaped mouth. He was a quiet man and had only once come into
+conflict with the law, but for an action which is not a crime in the
+eyes of an anthropologist (striking a carabinier who had ill-treated his
+father). He worked hard at his trade, which was that of a journeyman
+baker, and showed his kindly nature by substituting for sick comrades.
+He showed great attachment to all his companions, relatives, and family,
+and was generally beloved. In short, he was an honest, hard-working man.
+His alibi was corroborated by several persons who had been playing cards
+with him on the evening of the crime.</p>
+
+<p>The second prisoner, Ada, although a prostitute, had never shown other
+criminal tendencies; she had adopted her calling in order to maintain
+her father and children, of whom she was very fond.</p>
+
+<p>Martinengo, who had admitted his complicity, had no previous
+convictions. He was, however, an individual of earthy hue, with
+precocious wrinkles. Height, 5 feet, 3 inches (1.60 m.); span of the
+arms,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_268" id="Page_268">[Pg 268]</a></span> 5 feet, 7 inches (1.70 m.); flattened, nanocephalous head, normal
+urine (phosphates 3.1), but anomalous reflex action and senses. Rigid,
+unequal pupils, tongue and lips inclined towards the right, shaky hand,
+astasia, aphasia, strong rotular reflex action, absence of cutaneous and
+cremasteric reflexes, illegible handwriting&mdash;a defect of long standing,
+since it was also found in writing dating back nine months before his
+arrest, uncertainty and errors of pronunciation (bradyphasia and
+dysarthria), complete insensibility to touch and the electric current,
+which gave him no sensation of pain. On the other hand, he was subject
+to unbearable pains in various parts of the body.</p>
+
+<p>He was in the habit of laughing continually, even when reprimanded, or
+when sad subjects were mentioned. In spite of sharp pains in the
+epigastric region, he appeared to be in a strange state of euphoria or
+morbid bodily well-being, which prevented him from realising that he was
+in prison. He manifested regret when taken from his cell, where he said
+he had enjoyed himself so much in passing the hours in reading.
+Occasionally he had hallucinations of ghosts, lizards, mice, etc.</p>
+
+<p>At night, he seemed to suffer from acute mental confusion, which caused
+him to spring out of bed.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_269" id="Page_269">[Pg 269]</a></span> Sometimes he was seized by a fit of chorea,
+followed by deep sleep.</p>
+
+<p>These phenomena led my father to the conclusion that Martinengo was an
+inebriate in the first stage of paralytical dementia.</p>
+
+<p>The demented paralytic and the imbecile, like children, are easily
+influenced by the suggestions of others or their own fancies. Mere
+reading may produce a strong impression on such minds, as in the case of
+the little girl who accused the Mayor of Gratz of assault, because she
+had listened to the account of a similar case; and the impression is
+intensified when, as in the case of Martinengo, it is preceded by
+arrest, seclusion in a cell, the remarks of magistrates, warders, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In order to test Martinengo's susceptibility to suggestion, my father
+told him that his cell was a room in the "Albergo del Sole," the name of
+a hotel in his native town. At first the idea amused him, but after a
+few days he began to mention it to other persons and at last he firmly
+believed in it. A few months later, he was transferred in a state of
+paralysis to the asylum, and there he was fond of boasting of the
+"Albergo del Sole" where he had been staying a few months before, and
+where they had treated him to choice dishes, etc.</p>
+
+<p>We now come to Fissore, the accuser of the other<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_270" id="Page_270">[Pg 270]</a></span> three. Investigation
+of his origin showed that a male cousin had died raving mad, a female
+cousin had died in an asylum, a great-uncle on the maternal side had
+been crazy and had committed suicide; another cousin was weak-minded and
+subject to fits; another, a deaf-mute, had died in an asylum; another
+great-uncle was a drunkard and a loafer; one sister was an idiot, the
+other had run away from home, and a brother had been convicted several
+times.</p>
+
+<p>Giuseppe Fissore had suffered from somnambulism and <i>pavor nocturnus</i>
+(fear of darkness) when quite a child; when a little older, he used to
+get up in the night, walk about and try to throw himself out of the
+window. At school he shunned the company of other boys and grew
+violently angry when called by his name. When ten years old, he was
+bitten by a mad dog and while being tended in Turin by the wife of an
+inn-keeper, had an epileptic seizure. At thirteen, he was seized by
+another fit, and in falling broke his arm. His restless and capricious
+character led him to change his occupation a great many times; he
+became, in turn, baker, carpenter, forester, and farm-labourer. He
+appeared to have little affection for his mother and still less for his
+father, with whom he had come to blows on one occasion. At the age of
+twenty, in a quarrel with some companions, one<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</a></span> of them struck him with
+a sickle and fractured his skull. He had been convicted several times of
+theft, assault, etc.</p>
+
+<p>He manifested only a few physical anomalies,&mdash;exaggerated facial
+asymmetry, due to the disproportionate development of the left side of
+his skull, Carrara's lines in the palm of his hands, and a scar
+resulting from the fracture of his skull; but the convulsions, the
+<i>pavor nocturnus</i>, the two fits, and other characteristics showed him to
+be an epileptic and an abnormal individual, and explained how he could
+have accomplished a murder single-handed, which was moreover rendered
+more easy by the fact that the victim had been drinking heavily. Nor was
+the crime without a motive, since the murdered man had been robbed of a
+large sum of money. The total lack of moral sense that distinguished
+Fissore explains why he should have sought to implicate three persons
+who had never wronged him for the pleasure of harming and enjoying the
+sufferings of others. In fact, during his trial he made many false
+accusations against the police merely for the sake of lying, which is
+characteristic of degenerates.</p>
+
+<p>Irrefutable alibis and a mass of evidence in favour of the three others
+corroborated the anthropological diagnoses and led to their acquittal,
+while Fissore was convicted of the crime.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</a></span></p>
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Simulation of Dementia and Aphasia by Morally Insane Subject</span></h4>
+
+<p>In August, 1899, a certain E. M. (see <ins class="correction" title="Original text does not include a Fig.44.">Fig. 44</ins>) was removed from prison
+to an asylum. Although only eighteen, he had been convicted several
+times of theft and robbery. As a child he had always shown a strong
+dislike to school and was given to inventing strange falsehoods. In one
+instance, he asserted that he had killed and robbed a man, although it
+was known that he had not left the house during the time.</p>
+
+<p>After six months in prison, he began to show signs of mental alienation,
+with insomnia, loss of speech, and coprophagy. Whenever the cells were
+opened, he made wild attempts to escape by climbing up the grating. He
+was often seized with epileptic convulsions.</p>
+
+<p>On the 30th of August, 1899, he was examined medically with the
+following results:</p>
+
+<p>Stature, 5 ft., 1 in. (1.55 m.); weight, 130 lbs. (59 kilogrammes).
+Other measurements could not be obtained, owing to the subject's
+obstinate resistance. His skeletal constitution appeared to be regular
+and his body well nourished. His skull was brachycephalic, with strongly
+developed frontal sinuses, and fine, long, dark-brown hair. In the
+parieto-occipital<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</a></span> region were a scar and lesion of the bone, the marks
+of a wound received during one of his dishonest adventures. He had a
+normal type of face with frequent contractions of the mimic muscles; the
+hair-growth on the face scanty for his age. Extremely mobile eyes of
+vivacious expression, slight strabismus. An examination of the mouth
+showed a slight obliqueness of the palate, and the mucous membrane was
+rather pale. The colourless skin was inclined to sallowness.</p>
+
+<p>The functions showed an extraordinary degree of cutaneous an&aelig;sthesia and
+analgesia. In winter and summer the patient wore only a pair of trousers
+and a thin jersey covering his chest and leaving the arms bare; these he
+was fond of adorning with ribbons and medals. He was in the habit of
+slipping pieces of ice between his clothing and skin, and pricking
+himself on the chin with a needle for the purpose of inserting hairs in
+the holes. On one occasion, one of the doctors came quietly behind him
+and thrust a needle rather deeply into the nape of his neck, apparently
+without producing any sensation. Various tests were made by pricking him
+with a needle when asleep, but without causing the slightest reflex
+movement on his part.</p>
+
+<p><i>Psychology.</i> He was subject to strange impulses, which appeared to be
+irresistible. On one occasion<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</a></span> he was caught cutting off the head of a
+cat, and at times he would devour mice, spiders, nails, excrements, and
+the sputum of the other patients. He committed acts of self-abuse
+publicly, with ostentatious indecency; was in the habit of snatching at
+bright objects and frequently tore his clothes. His obstinate mutism
+procured him the nickname of "the mute," but he talked in his sleep and
+replied to questions by signs.</p>
+
+<p>At first, medical men judged him to be in the first stages of dementia,
+but the course of the symptoms and certain biological and psychic data
+obtained from the examination led them to the conclusion that the case
+was one of simulation by a morally insane individual.</p>
+
+<p>In the first place, the patient's look expressed a certain amount of
+confusion and constant distrust; furthermore, it was noticed that the
+filthy, indecent, and cruel acts practised by him were committed only
+when he knew he was being observed. The warders often saw him retire to
+a quiet spot and vomit all the nauseous substances he had swallowed
+publicly. As soon as he believed himself to be secure from observation,
+the usual apathetic look on his face was replaced by one of vivacity and
+intelligence.</p>
+
+<p>In November of the same year, although he had not discarded his air of
+imbecility, he gave abundant<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</a></span> proofs of intelligence. He helped the
+asylum barber, and showed skill and neatness in the way he soaped the
+other patients' faces, but if a doctor appeared on the scene, he would
+daub the soap clumsily in their eyes and mouths. In playing cards he
+showed no lack of skill and never missed an opportunity of cheating.</p>
+
+<p>All these facts pointed to shamming, and the suspicions of medical men
+were amply confirmed by his escape on the 26th of November. The manner
+in which he had prepared and executed this plan showed great astuteness
+on his part. Some time before, he had completely changed his clothes and
+dressed with a certain amount of elegance. He left a note bidding an
+affectionate farewell to everyone. Later on, he confessed to a
+fellow-prisoner that he had prepared everything beforehand for his
+escape as soon as he should have sufficient money. He also asserted that
+he had felt pain when pricked.</p>
+
+<p>Some of the peculiarities manifested in this case, aphasia,
+insensibility, and coprophagia, have been noticed in other simulators,
+and it is easy to see why morally insane persons, who are naturally
+insensible and filthy in their habits, should adopt these peculiarities
+as traits of their insanity. The stubborn resistance offered by the
+subject to all attempts to apply diagnostic instruments, except those
+for measuring<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</a></span> insensibility, may be explained by fear lest the
+simulation should be detected.</p>
+
+<p>Simulators of insanity are generally psycho-physiologically, and often
+anatomically, degenerate, and their inferiority obliges them to resort
+to violence and trickery&mdash;the traits of savage races&mdash;to counter-balance
+their natural disadvantages. The simulation of insanity resembles in its
+motive the mimicry of certain insects which assume a protective
+resemblance to other and noxious species. Naturally inferior individuals
+tend to imitate characters of a terrifying nature (psychic in this case)
+which serve to protect them and enable them to compete with others who
+are better equipped for the battle of life.</p>
+
+
+<h4><span class="smcap">Mental Derangement and Criminal Monomania Demonstrated by the Anthropological Examination</span></h4>
+
+<p>In June, 1895, Michele Balmi, aged 30, was arrested for stabbing Maria
+Balmi in the neck and hands. The deed had been committed in broad
+daylight and apparently without any motive, but the accused asserted
+that it was done in revenge, because the girls were always jeering at
+him.</p>
+
+<p>From evidence given, it appeared that far from insulting Balmi, the
+girls of the village were in the habit of avoiding him as much as
+possible on account<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</a></span> of his lubricity. The testimony of other witnesses,
+including the mayor of the place, showed that he was looked upon
+generally as a semi-insane person, because in a very short time he had
+squandered all his inheritance and had quite ceased to work.</p>
+
+<p><i>Somatic Examination.</i> Body fairly well nourished, height 5 ft., 3 in.
+(1.60 m.), weight 150 lbs. (68 kilogrammes). Shape of the skull
+apparently normal but more exaggeratedly brachycephalic than the mean
+cephalic index of the Piedmontese, which is 85; probable capacity 90 cu.
+in. (1475 c.c.), or slightly below that of a normal male skull, but
+proportioned to the low stature.</p>
+
+<p>General sensibility and sensibility to pain and touch more obtuse on the
+left, the general sensibility of the right hand being 68 and the left
+81. Dolorific sensibility, 35 right and 41 left; tactile sensibility,
+1.5 right, 3.5 left. The strength tested by the dynamometer showed 47 on
+the right and 54 on the left, which proved that the subject was
+left-handed.</p>
+
+<p>The field of vision manifested extraordinary irregularities, with
+serious scotoma on the inner side of the right eye; on the left side the
+eye showed only slight scotoma but there was myopia on the inner side.</p>
+
+<p><i>Psychic Examination.</i> The behaviour of the subject was very strange.
+From the very first day of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</a></span> his imprisonment he seemed to be perfectly
+calm and composed, as though nothing had happened. When asked how he
+found prison life, he only remarked: "I certainly thought the food was
+better."</p>
+
+<p>When asked why he had committed the crime, he replied:</p>
+
+<p>"Crime indeed! I have only done my duty. Those women were always
+annoying me. Even in the night, they would come tapping at my window and
+calling me [acoustic hallucinations] and they insulted me because they
+wanted me to marry them."</p>
+
+<p>"Did they insult you during your absence from Italy?"</p>
+
+<p>"Yes, they worried me all the time I was in America. It was no use
+changing my occupation. I tried everything; first I was a musician, then
+a barber, then I tried weaving, but they went on just the same, until I
+lost my situations through them and had to leave the country."</p>
+
+<p>"Have you ever been insane or suffered from pains in the head?"</p>
+
+<p>"At Chicago, all of a sudden, a doctor called on me, but I have never
+been mad and should be all right if those women would leave me alone.
+After all, I only wanted to give them a lesson."</p>
+
+<p>He showed a profound and unshaken belief in his<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</a></span> own assertions, such as
+is rare in simulators or in sufferers from melancholia, but is peculiar
+to monomaniacs, especially if subject to delusions and convinced that
+they are the object of general persecution.</p>
+
+<p>Careful investigation of the crime showed that it was entirely without
+motives and had been committed openly without any attempt to escape or
+to establish an alibi. It bore no resemblance to ordinary crimes and was
+clearly a case of monomania with hallucinations. This diagnosis was
+confirmed by the fact of the anomalies in the field of vision and
+sensibility, the acoustic hallucinations, and, psychologically, the
+anomalous nature of the affections and moral sense.</p>
+
+<p>It was impossible to suppose that any of these peculiarities had been
+simulated, because the subject was far too ignorant to be aware of the
+importance of hallucinations and alterations in the senses and
+affections. Moreover, his whole bearing was that of a man profoundly
+convinced that he had done his duty, and he had no motive for shamming
+to escape punishment, since it evidently never entered his head that he
+ran any risk of incurring it. He was sent to an asylum.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="APPENDIX" id="APPENDIX"></a>APPENDIX</h2>
+
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</a></span></p>
+<h3>WORKS OF CESARE LOMBROSO (BRIEFLY SUMMARISED)</h3>
+
+<h3>I</h3>
+
+<h4><i>The Man of Genius (L'Uomo di Genio)</i></h4>
+
+<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">In</span> 1863, my father was appointed to deliver a series of lectures on
+psychiatry to the University of Pavia. His introductory lecture, "Genius
+and Insanity," showed the close relationship existing between genius and
+insanity; and the theme proved so absorbingly interesting to him that he
+threw himself into the study of the problem with all the ardour of which
+he was capable.</p>
+
+<p>Those who have never come into contact with mentally deranged persons
+may deem it absurd to mention genius and insanity in the same breath,
+and still more absurd to seek to demonstrate the existence of flashes of
+inspiration in insane persons. In the minds of most people, the word
+<i>lunatic</i> has from earliest childhood conjured up the vision of an
+incoherent, stupid, or demented being, with wildly streaming hair,
+raging in paroxysms of maniacal fury, or sunk in imbecile apathy; not,
+certainly, a sharp-witted individual capable of reasoning logically. But
+the briefest of visits to an ordinary asylum will make it plain to any
+observer that such extreme types form only a very small minority. The
+greater number, when drawn outside the small circle of their delusions,
+often reason with greater acumen than normal persons; and their ideas,
+unhampered by stale prejudices which<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</a></span> hinder freedom of thought, are
+remarkable for their originality. Fine fragments of prose and poetry and
+really beautiful snatches of melody, the work of inmates of lunatic
+asylums, were collected by my father and published, as special
+monographs, in <i>The Man of Genius</i>; and his museum at Turin contains
+specimens of embroidery of marvellously beautiful design and execution,
+and carvings of extreme delicacy.</p>
+
+<p>The well-known cases of mathematical, musical, and artistic prodigies
+and somnambulists with prophetic gifts, who nevertheless appear to be
+perfectly imbecile apart from their special talents, are interesting
+examples of the transition from madness to genius. The solving of
+equations of the fourth and fifth degree or mental calculations
+involving the multiplication or division of a large number of figures,
+are difficult operations for normal persons; yet individuals barely able
+to read and write, and often afflicted with insanity or imbecility, have
+been known to possess marvellous mathematical faculties. Imualdi was a
+cretin, and Dase, Juller, Buxton, Mondeur, and Prolongeau, men of feeble
+intellect. Among the inmates of asylums, we may find cretins and idiots
+that are able to play on a whistle any melody they have heard. The
+drawings of cats, executed by a Norwegian cretin, have been deemed
+worthy of a place among the treasures of art-galleries and museums. Such
+cases prove that the possession of one highly developed faculty does not
+imply a corresponding development of all the intellectual powers.
+Unintelligent, unbalanced, or even mentally deficient women, when in a
+somnambulistic or hypnotic state, are able to predict future events, an
+impossible feat for normal persons, or to discover the whereabouts of
+objects hidden at a distance, a marvellous phenomenon, which can be
+explained only by presuming the existence of a far-seeing vision, and
+the working of a powerful synthetic process resembling the inspirations
+of genius.</p>
+
+<p>Although not a difficult task to prove the existence of traits of genius
+in mentally diseased persons, the bringing to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</a></span> light of instances of
+insanity in men of genius was a much simpler matter.</p>
+
+<p>These instances, carefully classified, form the longest and most
+important part of <i>The Man of Genius</i>, but it is not necessary to give
+space to any of these instances here. The proofs of the connection
+between genius and insanity were supplemented by data supplied by the
+physical examination of a number of geniuses, compared with insane
+subjects, and a careful investigation of the ethnical, social, and
+geographical causes which influence the formation of both types. All the
+facts elicited demonstrated their complete analogy.</p>
+
+<p>But my father's studies did not stop short at the discovery of this
+analogy, or that of the sources whence the diverse varieties of genius
+spring, which is perhaps the most interesting part of the book, or even
+at the application of the new doctrines for the purpose of clearing up
+obscure points in history and shedding light on the lives of great men.
+He pursued his investigations until he found the keystone of the edifice
+reared by insanity and genius&mdash;epilepsy.</p>
+
+<p>It is a well-known fact that a great many men of genius have suffered
+from epileptic seizures and a still greater number from those symptoms
+which we have shown to be the equivalent of the seizure. Julius C&aelig;sar,
+St. Paul, Mahomet, Petrarca, Swift, Peter the Great, Richelieu,
+Napoleon, Flaubert, Guerrazzi, De Musset, and Dostoyevsky were subject
+to fits of morbid rage; and Swift, Marlborough, Faraday, and Dickens
+suffered from vertigo.</p>
+
+<p>But it is in the descriptions written by men of genius of their methods
+of working and creating that we find the strongest resemblance to the
+different phenomena of epilepsy, which have already been described in
+detail in this work, in the part treating of the connection between
+epilepsy and crime. While writing his poems, Tasso appeared to be out of
+his senses; Alfieri felt everything go dark around him; Lagrange's pulse
+became irregular; Milton, Leibnitz, Cujas, Rossini, and Thomas could
+work only under special conditions.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</a></span> Others have encouraged inspiration
+by using those stimulants which provoke epileptic attacks. Baudelaire
+made use of hashish; and wine evoked the creative spirit in Gluck,
+Gerard de Nerval, Verlaine, De Musset, Hoffmann, Burns, Coleridge, Poe,
+Byron, Praga, and Carducci. Gluck was wont to declare that he valued
+money only because it enabled him to procure wine, and that he loved
+wine because it inspired him and transported him to the seventh heaven.
+Schiller was satisfied with cider; and Goethe could not work unless he
+felt the warmth of a ray of sunlight on his head. Many have asserted
+that their writings, inventions, and solutions of difficult problems
+have been done in a state of unconsciousness. Mozart confessed that he
+composed in his dreams, and Lamartine and Alfieri made similar
+statements. The <i>Henriade</i> was suggested to Voltaire in a dream; Newton
+and Cardano solved the most difficult problems in a similar manner; and
+Mrs. Beecher Stowe, George Eliot, and George Sand asserted that their
+novels had been written in a dream-like state, and that they themselves
+were ignorant of the ultimate fate of their personages. In a preface to
+one of her books Mrs. Beecher Stowe even went to the length of denying
+her authorship. Socrates and Tolstoi declared that their works were
+written in a condition of semi-unconsciousness; Leopardi, that he
+followed an inspiration; and Dante described the source of his genius in
+those beautiful lines:</p>
+
+<div class="offset"><span style="margin-left: 11em;">"... quando</span><br />
+Amore spira, noto, ed a quel modo<br />
+Che detta dentro, vo significando."<br />
+<br />
+"When love inspires, I write,<br />
+And put my thoughts as it dictates in me."</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>"I call inspiration," says Beethoven, "that mysterious state during
+which the whole world seems to form one vast harmony, and all the forces
+of Nature become instruments, when every sentiment and thought resounds
+within me, a<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</a></span> shudder thrills through my frame, and every hair on my
+head stands on end."</p>
+
+<p>These expressions show that when a genius attains to the fulness of his
+development and, consequently, to the widest possible deviation from the
+normal, he is more or less in that condition of unconsciousness which
+characterises psychic epilepsy and is represented by a series of
+unconscious psychic activities.</p>
+
+<p>Having demonstrated the frequent existence of a spice of insanity in the
+genius and flashes of genius in the insane, and, further, that geniuses
+are subject to a special form of insanity, my father, who was no mere
+theorist, but an admirer of facts and eager to turn them to account,
+considered next the possibility of making practical use of these
+discoveries. This he had no difficulty in doing.</p>
+
+<p>The prevalence of insanity in men of genius explained innumerable
+contradictions and mad traits in their lives and works, the true meaning
+of which had hitherto escaped biographers, who either ignored them
+altogether or covered reams of paper with vain attempts to represent
+them as inspirations or, at any rate, reasonable actions. It also
+explained the origin of some of the extraordinary errors committed by
+great men; for example, the absurdly contradictory actions of Cola di
+Rienzi, who, after making himself master of Rome when the city was in a
+state of chaos, restoring peace and order, reorganising the army and
+conceiving the vast idea of a united Italy, ended his patriotic mission
+with a series of extravagances worthy of a madhouse.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that traits of genius are so often found in mentally unsound
+persons and <i>vice versa</i>, permits us to suppose that lunatics have not
+infrequently held the destinies of nations in their hands and furthered
+progress by revolutionary movements, of which by reason of their natural
+tendencies and marked originality they are so often the promoters.</p>
+
+<p>It may seem a simple idea to class great men, who have exercised such an
+enormous influence on civilisation, with<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</a></span> wretched beings, to whom no
+brilliant part has been allotted, and to estimate mad ideas at their
+true worth; yet it had never occurred to any one before.</p>
+
+<p>It is in the minor works of geniuses that the greater number of
+absurdities abound, but they are little known to the general public, who
+are acquainted only with the masterpieces. Critics either ignored the
+absurdities and heresies contained in these works, or, dazzled by the
+genius of the author, made them the subject of infinite studies, in the
+conviction that they were merely allusions or symbols demanding
+interpretation. All the defects of great men, all the extravagant
+
+notions written or spoken by them were covered with the magic veil of
+glory; and there was no innocent little child, as in Andersen's charming
+story, to tell the world of the nakedness of geniuses.</p>
+
+<p>Thus idiocy, epilepsy and genius, crimes and sublime deeds were forged
+into one single chain; and the brilliant lights of some of its links,
+and the gloomy shadows thrown by others, were reduced to a play of
+molecules, like those which transform carbon into a refulgent diamond or
+a sombre lump of graphite.</p>
+
+
+<h3>II</h3>
+
+<h4><i>Criminal Man (L'Uomo Delinquente) considered in relation to Anthropology, Jurisprudence, and Psychiatry</i></h4>
+
+<p>Although my father's theories on the male criminal have already been set
+forth in the volume now presented to the public, I feel that it would
+not be inappropriate to add to the descriptions of his other important
+works a brief survey of the original book for the use of readers
+desirous of studying the subject more thoroughly.</p>
+
+<p>The first volume is devoted to an investigation of the atavistic origin
+of crime among plants, animals, savages, and<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</a></span> children. This is followed
+by an exhaustive study of the physical nature of the born criminal and
+the epileptic, modern craniology, the anomalies connected with the
+different classes of offences, the spine, pelvis, limbs, and
+physiognomy. The data given are based on the results obtained from the
+examination of about 7000 criminals.</p>
+
+<p>In the study of the brain, the macroscopic anomalies in the convolutions
+and histological structure of the cerebral cortex of criminals and
+epileptics are the object of special consideration, since these
+anomalies solve the problem of the origin of criminality.</p>
+
+<p>Certain additional degenerate characters, the prehensile foot, wrinkles,
+lines on the finger-tips, the ethmoid-lachrymal suture, anomalies of
+dentition, the existence of a single horizontal line on the palm of the
+hand, etc., are further described, and a careful examination made of the
+field of vision and olfactory and auditory sensibility.</p>
+
+<p>The psychological examination of the criminal includes psychometry, the
+discovery of new characteristics, such as neophily, lack of exactitude,
+frequent existence of traits of genius, pictography, hieroglyphics,
+gestures, and the arts and crafts peculiar to the criminal.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, the different types of offenders&mdash;epileptic and morally insane
+criminals, political and passionate offenders, inebriate, hysterical,
+and mentally unbalanced (mattoid) criminals&mdash;are described separately
+and compared with each other, their diversities and analogies being
+thrown into relief. Around these types are grouped juridical figures of
+crimes, reproduced from psychiatric forms. These are followed by an
+examination of occasional or pseudo-criminals, criminaloids, latent
+criminals, and geniuses.</p>
+
+<p>The second volume treats of epileptics, and discusses, among other
+things, their ergography, psychology, graphology, and anomalies of the
+field of vision. The studies on criminals of passion are supplemented by
+observations on suicides and political offenders, those on the insane
+include<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_290" id="Page_290">[Pg 290]</a></span> investigations of their age, psychology, sex, tattooing,
+heredity, and the difference between insane and ordinary criminals with
+respect to the motives that prompt their crimes, and the manner in which
+these are carried out, thus furnishing a new theory of sexual
+psychopathy.</p>
+
+<p>The third volume of the fifth edition treats of the etiology and cure of
+crime.</p>
+
+<p>In the part dealing with the etiology of crime, the geological,
+ethnical, political, and economical factors determining or influencing
+criminality, as well as other causes,&mdash;density of population, food,
+alcoholism, sex, heredity, instruction, religion, etc., are examined
+statistically and sifted with critical care. For the first time, light
+is thrown on the influence exercised by criminality and wealth on the
+increase or decrease of emigration.</p>
+
+<p>My father demonstrates by means of data, contributed for the most part
+by Bodio and Cognetti, that the importance attributed to poverty as a
+factor of criminality, especially by certain socialistic schools, has
+been largely exaggerated; while, at the same time, the fact that both
+wealth and education have their specific crimes, has been ignored by
+these schools.</p>
+
+<p>In dealing with collective criminality, my father merely repeats the
+original theories on the subject, expressed by him in 1872 and
+constantly confirmed since then. These theories have been utilised and
+illustrated by a number of writers: Ferri, Sighele, Ferrero, Le Bon, and
+Tarde.</p>
+
+<p>In the prophylaxis and cure of crime, not content with mere criticism of
+present methods, the new doctrines suggest practical and efficacious
+means of repressing crime.</p>
+
+<p>In view of the fact that criminality is assuming a changed aspect,
+adapted to the conditions of modern life and civilisation, it should be
+combated by the very means furnished by progress,&mdash;the telegraph, press,
+all measures for fighting alcoholism, popular places of recreation, etc.</p>
+
+<p>For the prevention of crime, besides those measures designed to minimise
+the influence of physical and economic<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_291" id="Page_291">[Pg 291]</a></span> factors,&mdash;baths, sanitary
+regulations, clearing of forests, prevention of over-crowding, social
+legislation, limitation of wealth, graduated system of taxation,
+collective services, expropriation, etc.,&mdash;my father suggests special
+measures for diminishing certain kinds of crime,&mdash;divorce for sexual
+offences, affiliation orders for infanticide and government of a truly
+liberal character, with freedom of the press and public opinion to
+combat political crime. He also emphasises the importance of provident
+and charitable institutions, specially for orphan and destitute
+children, to aid in suffocating germs of criminality, in view of the
+fact that it is to ragged schools and similar institutions that the
+decrease of crime in England is certainly due.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, with regard to the direct repression of crime, the new methods
+of identification devised by Bertillon and Anfosso, and all modern aids
+for the detection and apprehension of criminals, such as rapid
+communication and publicity, should be utilised in all countries where
+the police aspire to be considered scientific in their methods.</p>
+
+<p>A minute and intelligent individualisation of penalties is suggested as
+being far more efficacious than the uniform and injurious punishment of
+detention in prison; so that while society defends itself, it tends to
+improve the perverted faculties of criminals, or where improvement is
+impossible, to utilise them in their natural state, following the
+example set by nature in the transformation of injurious parasitical
+relationships into pacific and mutually beneficial symbioses.</p>
+
+
+<h3>III</h3>
+
+<h4><i>The Female Offender (La Donna Delinquente); The Prostitute and the Normal Woman</i></h4>
+
+<p class="center">(In Collaboration with Guglielmo Ferrero)</p>
+
+<p>The first part of this book is devoted to a study of the normal woman,
+or rather the female of every species,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_292" id="Page_292">[Pg 292]</a></span> beginning with the lowest strata
+of the zo&ouml;logical world and working upwards through the higher mammals
+and primitive human races to civilised peoples.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of this study, it is shown that although in the lower
+species, the female is the superior in intelligence, strength, and
+longevity, among the higher mammals she is surpassed in strength,
+intelligence, and beauty by the male, who is developed and perfected by
+the struggle for the possession of the female; while on the other hand,
+owing to her maternal functions, the female tends to a perpetuation of
+her physical and psychic characters; and this prevents variation and
+evolution.</p>
+
+<p>The same phenomenon is encountered in the human race. After a careful
+examination of the normal woman (height, weight, brain, nervous system,
+hair, senses, physiognomy, and intellectual and moral manifestations),
+the authors arrived at the conclusion that the physical, anatomical,
+physiological, functional, and sensory characters of the female show a
+lower degree of variability than those of the male.</p>
+
+<p>In the same way, cases of monstrosity, degeneration, epilepsy, and
+insanity are less frequent in the female of the human race; and the
+percentage of genius and criminality is decidedly lower. The examination
+of the senses showed that the normal human female possesses a lower
+degree of tactile, olfactory, auditory, and visual sensibility than the
+male, and also, contrary to the hitherto accepted opinion, a diminished
+moral and dolorific sensibility. Among savage peoples, the female
+appears to be less sensitive,&mdash;that is, more cruel than the male and
+more inclined to vindictiveness.</p>
+
+<p>But when we consider woman from the point of view of her maternal
+functions, her physiological, psychological, and intellectual nature
+assumes an entirely changed aspect; for maternity is the natural
+function of the female, the end to which she has been created. Lofty
+sentiments, complete altruism, and far-sighted intelligence develop all
+of a sudden when she becomes a mother. Maternity neutralises her<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_293" id="Page_293">[Pg 293]</a></span> moral
+and physical inferiority, pity extinguishes cruelty, and maternal love
+counteracts sexual indifference. Maternity stimulates her intelligence
+and sharpens her senses, explains and exalts those characteristics which
+have hitherto constituted her inferiority until they become signs of
+superiority when considered from the point of view of the reproduction
+of the species.</p>
+
+<p>A lessened sensibility enables woman to bear with greater ease the pains
+inherent to childbirth; her refractoriness to all kinds of
+variation&mdash;also that of a degenerate nature&mdash;serves to correct morbid
+heredity and to bring back the race, which owes its continuation to her,
+to its normal state.</p>
+
+<p>Women commit fewer crimes than men; and offenders of the female sex,
+generally speaking, exhibit fewer degenerate characteristics. This is
+due in part to the tenacity with which the female adheres to normality,
+but also to the deviation caused in her criminality by prostitution. The
+history of this social phenomenon, and an examination of the anatomy and
+functions of the types representing this variation of criminality show
+that the prostitute generally exhibits a greater number of degenerate
+and criminal characters than the ordinary female offender.</p>
+
+<p>Prostitution is therefore the feminine equivalent of criminality in the
+male, because it satisfies the desire for licence, idleness, and
+indecency, characteristic of the criminal nature.</p>
+
+<p>In addition to prostitutes and ordinary offenders, who constitute the
+larger part of female criminality, there exists a small number of born
+criminals of the female sex, who are more ferocious and terrible even
+than the male criminal of the same type. The criminality of this class
+of women develops on the same foundation of epilepsy and moral insanity.
+The physical characters are those peculiar to the male born
+criminal&mdash;projecting ears, strabismus, anomalies of dentition, and
+abnormal conformation of the skull, brain, etc.; in addition, an absence
+of feminine traits. In voice, structure of the pelvis, distribution of
+hair, etc., she tends to<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_294" id="Page_294">[Pg 294]</a></span> resemble the opposite sex and to lose all the
+instincts peculiar to her own.</p>
+
+<p>From this brief description it may be gathered that this work on the
+female offender owes much of its interest to the light it throws on the
+normal woman. It is true that it casts doubt on many of the postulates
+of feminism; but, on the other hand, it lays stress on and exalts the
+many invaluable qualities characteristic of the female sex.</p>
+
+<p>The preface to the work concludes with the following remarks:</p>
+
+<p>"Not one of the conclusions drawn from the history and examination of
+woman can justify the tyranny of which she has been and is still a
+victim, from the laws of savage peoples, which forbade her to eat meat
+and the flesh of the cocoanut, to those modern restrictions, which shut
+her out from the advantages of higher education and prevent her from
+exercising certain professions for which she is qualified. These
+ridiculous, cruel, and tyrannical prohibitions have certainly been
+largely instrumental in maintaining or, worse still, increasing her
+present state of inferiority and permitting her exploitation by the
+other sex. The very praises, not always sincere, alas, heaped on the
+docile victim, are often intended more as a preparation for further
+sacrifices than as an honour or reward."</p>
+
+
+<h3>IV</h3>
+
+<h4><i>Political Crime (Delitto Politico)</i></h4>
+
+<p class="center">(In Collaboration with Rodolfo Laschi)</p>
+
+<p>The law of inertia governs nature. Every organism tends to adhere
+indefinitely to the same mode of life and will not change unless forced
+to do so.</p>
+
+<p>In the depths of the ocean, where existence, comparatively speaking, is
+uniform and undisturbed, we still find organisms allied to the species
+of pre-historic epochs. Those stars and suns, which are outside the
+sphere of action of other worlds,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_295" id="Page_295">[Pg 295]</a></span> continue eternally their vertiginous
+gyrations in the trajectories assigned to them at the beginning of all
+things.</p>
+
+<p>Every progress in nature is the result of a struggle between the
+tendency to immobility, manifested by misoneism, or the hatred of
+novelty, and a foreign force which seeks to conquer this tendency.</p>
+
+<p>As in nature, misoneism dominates every human community. It is most
+invincible in children and neuropathic and insane individuals, very
+powerful among barbarous peoples, and more or less disguised among
+civilised nations. But the world progresses: every day new conditions
+and new interests arise to combat the law of inertia and render
+impossible the realisation of the much-desired invariability; and
+progress, unwelcome yet inevitable, prevails.</p>
+
+<p>By political crime we understand every action which attacks the laws,
+the historical, economical, political and social traditions of a nation
+or, in fact, any part of the existing social fabric, and which comes
+into collision with the law of inertia.</p>
+
+<p>Any attempt to obtain forcibly a change in existing systems, to enforce
+by violence, for instance, the claims of free trade in a protectionist
+country, to plunge a nation into war or to incite workers to strike&mdash;all
+such actions represent the first steps in political crime, which reaches
+its climax in revolts and insurrections, and which victory alone can
+exalt above a host of blameworthy and base deeds, and crown with glory.</p>
+
+<p>Revolution is the struggle between the tendency to immobility innate in
+a community, and the force which urges it to move. Revolution is the
+historical expression of evolution and has always great and sublime ends
+in view. It is the struggle against an institution or a system which
+hinders the progress of a nation, never against any temporary
+oppression, no matter how unbearable it may be. The French revolution
+was not a struggle against an individual king or even a dynasty, but
+against the institutions of monarchy and feudalism; nor was Lutheranism
+a revolt against any pope, but against the corruption that had invaded
+the Roman Catholic Church.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_296" id="Page_296">[Pg 296]</a></span> The Italian revolution was not directed
+against foreign rule, which indeed was mild and generous in some parts
+of the country, but it voiced an imperious demand for independence
+indispensable to every people that desires to become truly civilised.</p>
+
+<p>A revolution is therefore a slow, constant effort towards progress,
+preceded by propaganda. In some instances, it may last for years; in
+others, for centuries, until an entire nation, from the humblest citizen
+to the most wealthy patrician, is convinced of the necessity of the
+proposed change, and the habitual misoneism of the masses overcome, the
+existing order of things being defended by only a few, whose personal
+interests are bound up in the old system. The ultimate triumph is
+inevitable, even when the leaders of the movement perish and the first
+risings are suffocated in blood; nay, death and martyrdom serve only to
+kindle greater enthusiasm for an ideal, if it be worthy to live. This
+becomes apparent when we consider the impulse given to Christianity by
+the crucifixion of its Leader, and to Italian independence by the death
+of the two brothers, Emilio and Attilio Bandiera.</p>
+
+<p>But bloody episodes are not always essential to the march of a
+revolution. The triumph of Hungary over Austria was almost a bloodless
+one, and that of Free Trade in England was effected practically without
+violence.</p>
+
+<p>Since a revolution implies a change in the ideas of the masses and not
+of a minority, be this of the elect or merely of turbulent spirits,
+revolutions are rare occurrences in history and their effects are
+lasting. In fact, after the death of Cromwell, feudalism was extinct in
+England.</p>
+
+<p>Like the pear which falls in autumn when the process of ripening has
+caused the gradual reabsorption of the juices in the stalk, revolution
+triumphs and the ancient system perishes when an entire people is
+persuaded of the necessity for a change. The fall of the pear, however,
+is not always the result of a slow physiological process, but may be
+caused by a gust of wind, which dashes it to the ground before the pulp<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_297" id="Page_297">[Pg 297]</a></span>
+has developed the sweet juices that are the sign of its maturity. In the
+same way, a revolt or an armed rising of men, whose demands are enforced
+by threats, may result in the carrying into effect of some programme of
+reform which is nevertheless too progressive or reactionary, or
+otherwise unsuited to the country.</p>
+
+<p>In fact, nearly every revolution is preceded by an insurrection, which
+is suppressed by violence, because it seeks to realise premature ideals,
+and on this account is frequently followed by a counter-revolution,
+provoked by reactionary elements.</p>
+
+<p>Unlike revolutions, insurrections are always the work of a minority,
+inspired by an excessive love or hatred of change, who seek forcibly to
+establish systems or ideas rejected by the majority. Unlike revolutions,
+also, they may break out for mere temporary causes&mdash;a famine, a tax, the
+tyranny of some official, which suddenly disturbs the tranquil march of
+daily life; in many cases they may languish and die without outside
+interference.</p>
+
+<p>In practice, however, it is extremely difficult to distinguish a revolt
+from a revolution since the results alone determine its nature, victory
+being the proof that the ideas have permeated the whole mass of the
+people.</p>
+
+<p>Political offenders, insurrectionists, and revolutionists are the men
+who seize the standard of progress and contest every inch of the ground
+with the masses, who naturally incline towards a dislike of a new order
+of things. The army of progress is recruited from all ranks and
+conditions&mdash;men of genius, intellectual spirits who are the first to
+realise the defects of the old system and to conceive a new one,
+synthesising the needs and aspirations of the people; lunatics,
+enthusiastic propagandists of the new ideas, which they spread with all
+the impetuous ardour characteristic of unbalanced minds; criminals, the
+natural enemies of order, who flock to the standard of revolt and bring
+to it their special gifts, audacity and contempt of death. These latter
+types accomplish the work of destruction which inevitably accompanies<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_298" id="Page_298">[Pg 298]</a></span>
+every revolution: they are the faithful and unerring arm ready to carry
+out the ideas that others conceive but lack the courage to execute.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, there are the saints, the men who live solely for high purposes
+and to whom the revolution is a veritable apostolate. They rank high
+above the mass of mankind, from whom they are frequently distinguished
+by a singular beauty of countenance, recalling ancient paintings of holy
+men. They are consumed by a passion for altruism and self-immolation,
+and experience a strange delight in martyrdom for their ideals. These
+men sweep the masses along with them and lead to victory with their
+propaganda, their inspired songs, and thrilling accents. Tyrt&aelig;us was not
+the only poet who led soldiers to war: every insurrection has had its
+own songs, in which the love of a whole people is crystallised.</p>
+
+<p>Lunatics, unbalanced individuals, and saints are the promoters of
+progress and revolutions. These types have one thing in common&mdash;their
+passionate devotion to a sublime ideal and their love for humanity,
+which torments and crushes them in every case where they fail to attain
+that for which they have fought. But whether victorious or defeated, on
+the throne or on the scaffold, their efforts are not lost. Love is the
+spiritual sun of mankind. A ray shed by a human heart may spread far and
+wide, traversing unknown regions and sojourning with unknown races; and
+if powerless to revive some timid flower that has been numbed by the
+chilly night, it may still be stored up in the songs of a people, like
+the sunlight in green plants, to be retransformed at some future time
+into light and warmth.</p>
+
+
+<h3>V</h3>
+
+<h4><i>Too Soon! (Troppo Presto!)</i></h4>
+
+<p class="center">(A Criticism of the New Italian Penal Code)</p>
+
+<p>In this book, which was written during the interval between the
+publication of the new Penal Code and its sanction by the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_299" id="Page_299">[Pg 299]</a></span> Italian
+Parliament, my father makes a rapid criticism of the Code, which he
+considered premature. Only a few decades had elapsed since the
+proclamation of Italian Unity; and the widely differing races that
+people the provinces constituting the kingdom of Italy had not been able
+in that brief period to acquire sufficient uniformity of customs to make
+a single code of laws desirable.</p>
+
+<p>But the book is not merely a criticism. It also contains an exposition
+of the fundamental principles that, according to my father, should
+underlie every serious and efficacious code of laws. It is this part
+that makes this somewhat hastily written book of such importance to
+criminologists; because it sets forth under the chief heads the
+juridical desiderata of the New School.</p>
+
+<p>The following brief extract gives an indication of the nature of these
+principles:</p>
+
+<p>1. The legislation of a country should always be regulated by the
+customs of the people whom it is to govern; and although a system of
+different penal codes to suit the varying races and customs in the
+different regions of one State may offer certain disadvantages, they are
+always of less importance than the difficulties caused by a uniform
+code.</p>
+
+<p>2. The object of every code should be the attainment of social safety,
+not the careful weighing of guilt and individual responsibility. The
+worst and most dangerous criminals should be treated with the greatest
+severity; but indulgence should be shown towards minor offenders. The
+former should be segregated for life in prisons or asylums; the latter
+should never be allowed to become acquainted with prison life, but
+should be corrected by means of other penalties, which would not bring
+them into contact with true criminals, nor necessitate their temporary
+retirement from civil life.</p>
+
+<p>3. Certain reprehensible actions (abortion, infanticide, suicide or
+complicity therein, passionate crimes, duelling, swearing, adultery,
+etc.), which are not considered criminal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_300" id="Page_300">[Pg 300]</a></span> by the general public, should
+be non-criminal in the eyes of the law.</p>
+
+<p>4. Born criminals, the morally insane, and hopeless recidivists, whose
+first convictions are not followed by any signs of improvement, should
+be regarded as incurable and confined for life in criminal lunatic
+asylums, relegated to penal colonies, or condemned to death.</p>
+
+<p>A second edition of this book was published shortly afterwards with the
+title <i>Notes on the New Penal Code</i>. In this edition, each of the most
+notable adherents of the new doctrines: Ferri, Garofalo, Ballestrini,
+Rossi, Mas&eacute; Dari, Carelli, Caragnani, and others, discussed one special
+point of the code and suggested the necessary modifications.</p>
+
+
+<h3>VI</h3>
+
+<h4><i>Prison Palimpsests</i> (<i>I Palimsesti del Carcere</i>)</h4>
+
+<p class="center">(A Collection of Prison Inscriptions for the Use of Criminologists)</p>
+
+<p>"Ordinary individuals, and even scientific observers, are apt to regard
+prisons, especially those in which the cellular system prevails, as mute
+and paralytical organisms, deprived of speech and action, because
+silence and immobility have been imposed on them by law. Since, however,
+no decree, even when backed up by physical force, avails against the
+nature of things, these organisms speak and act, and sometimes manifest
+themselves in brutal assaults and murders; but as always happens when
+human needs come into conflict with laws, all these manifestations are
+made in hidden and subterranean ways. Walls, drinking-vessels, planks of
+the prisoners' beds, margins of books, medicine wrappers, and even the
+unstable sands of the exercise-grounds, and the uniform in which the
+prisoner is garbed, supply him with a surface on which to imprint his
+thoughts and feelings."</p>
+
+<p>With this paragraph my father begins the introduction<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_301" id="Page_301">[Pg 301]</a></span> to his book
+<i>Prison Palimpsests</i>, a collection of inscriptions and documents
+revealing the inmost thoughts of prisoners.</p>
+
+<p>In the first part, these inscriptions are classified under different
+headings: opinions on prison life, penalties, morality, women, etc., and
+according to the surface on which they are inscribed&mdash;books, walls,
+pitchers, clothing, paper, etc.</p>
+
+<p>For the psychologist and the student of degenerate types of humanity,
+this collection is of the greatest interest. The inscriptions are
+followed by a series of poems, autobiographies, and letters written by
+intending suicides, and criminals immediately before their execution.
+The comments made by criminals on the margins of books belonging to the
+prison library are especially interesting, because they enable the
+student to compare the effect produced on criminals by certain works
+with the impressions of normal individuals. The poems written by
+prisoners are equally interesting, since, like popular songs, they
+represent the intimate expression of the poet's desires and aspirations.</p>
+
+<p>In the second part, these prison inscriptions are compared with the
+remarks commonly found scribbled in the streets, on school benches, and
+on the walls of public buildings of all kinds&mdash;courts of justice, places
+of worship, and even those edifices in which the legislation of the
+State is framed. All the inscriptions are classified according to the
+sentiments they express and the sex of the writer, distinction being
+made between the writings of prisoners and those of the ordinary public.</p>
+
+<p>The book closes with practical suggestions regarding the use to which
+similar collections might be put, as critical hints on the present
+methods of dealing with criminals and as an aid in investigating the
+characters of accused persons.</p>
+
+<p>All offenders, except the most degenerate types, born criminals or the
+morally insane, desire work or occupation of some kind, and books of an
+interesting character. This demand emanates from innumerable
+inscriptions on the walls of cells and the margins of prison books: "How
+unbearable is enforced idleness for a man who has always been
+accustomed<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_302" id="Page_302">[Pg 302]</a></span> to work and study, and in whom activity and the desire of
+some ennobling pursuit are not quite extinct!" ... "The nun of Cracow
+cried, 'Bread, bread!' but my voice pleads from my solitary cell, 'Work,
+work!'"</p>
+
+<p>"If jurists would leave their desks and libraries," says my father in
+conclusion, "put aside all pre-conceived notions, enter the prisons and
+study the problem of criminality not on the walls of the cells, but on
+the living documents they enclose, they would speedily realise that all
+reforms evolved and applied without the aid of practical experience are
+only dangerous illusions."</p>
+
+
+<h3>VII</h3>
+
+<h4><i>Ancient and Modern Crimes</i> (<i>Delitti Vecchi e Delitti Nuovi</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>"This volume contains a collection of facts, sometimes valuable, at
+other times merely curious, that I was able to glean during long years
+of study in the field of criminal anthropology and psychiatry. They all
+tend to show the great difference that exists between ancient and modern
+crimes."</p>
+
+<p>With these words my father begins the preface to this book, in which
+cases of recent crimes are described and compared with those committed
+in by-gone ages.</p>
+
+<p>It is divided into three parts. The first part contains a comparative
+and statistical study of criminality in Europe, Mexico, the United
+States, and Australia.</p>
+
+<p>The second part describes the careers of typical criminals of former
+times, such as the Tozzis of Rome, a family of anthropophagous
+criminals, and Vacher, Ballor, and other assassins of the
+Jack-the-Ripper type, whose perverted sexual instincts prompted them to
+murder a number of women and mutilate the corpses in a horrible fashion.</p>
+
+<p>The third part treats of those modern criminals, like Holmes and Peace,
+who accomplish their misdeeds in a refined and elegant manner,
+substituting for the more brutal<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_303" id="Page_303">[Pg 303]</a></span> knife or hammer, the resources of
+chemistry, physics, and modern toxicology. In other cases, some product
+of modern times, such as the motor-car or bicycle, forms the motive for
+the crime, or is of assistance in its accomplishment.</p>
+
+<p>"From the data we have been able to gather relating to crime in by-gone
+ages," continues my father in his preface, "we are led to conclude that
+crimes of a violent and bloody nature predominated exclusively in more
+barbarous times, and that fraudulent offences are characteristic of
+modern communities. Violence is more primitive than trickery and must
+always precede it, exactly as a more barbarous state in which property
+is gained or maintained by force, at the point of the sword, precedes a
+state in which ownership is regulated by means of contracts; and crime
+always adapts itself to the prevailing customs.</p>
+
+<p>"The admirable work of Coghlan shows criminality in Australia to be of
+this latter type, as contrasted with its semi-barbarous nature in states
+like Mexico, and gives us a picture of the character it will assume a
+century or two later in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>"As the fundamental nature of the criminal has not changed, his actions
+are still of the same character; and violence and cunning are mingled or
+alternate in modern crime. But though the individual remains unchanged,
+he is subordinated to a more powerful factor than himself&mdash;modern
+progress. It is true that many modern crimes are facilitated by modern
+contrivances; but the same contrivances often furnish means for their
+defeat; and so we may foresee a time, perhaps not very remote, when such
+anti-social elements shall partially, if not totally, have disappeared."</p>
+
+
+<h3>VIII</h3>
+
+<h4><i>Diagnostic Methods of Legal Psychiatry</i> (<i>La Perizia Psichiatrica Legale</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This work was not intended to introduce the doctrines of modern
+criminology to the general public, but as a text-book<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_304" id="Page_304">[Pg 304]</a></span> for the guidance
+of jurists, doctors, experts&mdash;in short, all those whose professions
+bring them, into contact with criminals.</p>
+
+<p>It consists of two parts, the first of which contains about fifty cases
+diagnosed according to the new methods, and collected by the author of
+the work and his followers. These cases include all types of
+delinquents: born criminals, morally insane individuals, hysterical,
+insane, inebriate, and epileptic criminals, criminaloids, criminals of
+passion, etc.</p>
+
+<p>In each case, as the diagnosis was intended to serve a practical
+purpose, the criminal is examined physically, psychologically, and
+psychiatrically; and his antecedents are investigated with great care.</p>
+
+<p>In the second part, "The Technical Aspect of Criminal Anthropology," a
+detailed description is given of the methods to be employed in the
+examination of a supposed criminal, the rules for determining to what
+class he belongs, the manner in which the physical examination should be
+conducted, a list of the necessary measurements, a description of the
+most suitable apparatus, and the mode of using them, the methods of
+procedure in the interrogation of a criminal, in order to elicit useful
+information, and instructions for analysing his intellectual
+manifestations (handwriting, drawing, and work), movements, attitude,
+and gestures.</p>
+
+<p>Thanks to the methodical instruction imparted by this book, the
+inexperienced student is enabled to progress gradually until he is in a
+position to conduct a complete psychiatric and medico-legal examination.</p>
+
+<p>The third part treats of the methods for discriminating between
+criminals and lunatics. The various forms of mental alienation are
+described in detail; and an examination of cases of feigned insanity
+shows that simulators of lunacy are generally mentally unsound.</p>
+
+<p>In the concluding part are discussed the various uses to which a careful
+diagnosis may be applied.</p>
+
+<p>The Appendix contains studies on the application of mental tests in
+medico-legal practice, and a glossary, alphabetically<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_305" id="Page_305">[Pg 305]</a></span> arranged, of the
+terms commonly employed in criminal anthropology, compiled by Dr.
+Legiardi-Laura.</p>
+
+
+<h3>IX</h3>
+
+<h4><i>Anarchists</i> (<i>Gli Anarchici</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>The book opens with an examination of the theories of anarchists, from
+which the author arrives at the conclusion that in view of the
+importance generally conceded to economic ideals to-day and the
+universal abuse of power, these theories in reality are not so absurd as
+they are supposed to be. It is the methods adopted by anarchists for the
+realisation of their ideals that are both absurd and dangerous.</p>
+
+<p>"However valuable many of the proposals of anarchism may be," says the
+author, "they become absurd in practice; because all reforms should be
+introduced very gradually in order to escape the inevitable reaction
+which neutralises all previous efforts."</p>
+
+<p>The crimes of anarchists tend to mingle with ordinary crimes when
+certain dreamers attempt to reach their goal by any means
+possible&mdash;theft, or the murder of a few, often innocent, persons. It is
+easy to realise, therefore, why, with a few exceptions, anarchists are
+recruited from among ordinary criminals, lunatics, and insane criminals.
+Investigations made by the author showed that 12 per cent. of the
+communards were of a criminal type, and this percentage was still higher
+in anarchists (31 per cent.). Of forty-five anarchists examined at
+Chicago, 40 per cent. had faces of a criminal cast. The majority of
+anarchists possess the passions and vices peculiar to ordinary
+criminals: impulsiveness, love of orgies, lack of natural affections and
+moral sense; and similar intellectual manifestations, such as slang,
+ballads, tattooing, hieroglyphics. But there are a greater number of
+genuine epileptic and hysterical subjects, lunatics, and indirect
+suicides among anarchists than among ordinary criminals; greater, too,
+is the proportion of criminals from passion. These truly<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_306" id="Page_306">[Pg 306]</a></span> heroic
+natures, profoundly convinced that the remedy for so many social evils
+lies in the murder of certain personages of high standing, who appear to
+bear the greatest share of responsibility for the existing system, do
+not hesitate to have recourse to violence when they deem it necessary;
+although it is distasteful to them and although they have hitherto
+disassociated themselves from the excesses of their companions. The
+anarchists Caserio and Bresci were of this type. The crimes of these
+passionate criminals are always accomplished single-handed; they always
+surrender to the police immediately afterwards and make no attempt to
+defend themselves. On the contrary, when in court, they frequently give
+a lucid explanation of the motives that have induced them to commit
+their crimes and affront the penalty with stoicism.</p>
+
+<p>Such being the origin, and such the promoters of anarchism, it is
+evident that the methods for curing crimes deriving from this source
+should differ greatly from those used in suppressing ordinary crime.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of the fact that anarchists are frequently criminals, their
+ideas, although often absurd, imply a greater elevation of character
+than the cynical apathy in which the worst types of criminals are sunk.</p>
+
+<p>Instead of combating violence by violence and dealing out death
+sentences with a prodigality almost rivalling that of anarchists
+themselves, the authorities should segregate the most dangerous types or
+relegate them to distant islands, and adopt exile as a penalty for
+genuine criminals of passion. However, political liberty and some
+safety-valve, whereby lawless instincts may be turned into harmless
+channels, are the best methods for preventing anarchism. Constitutional
+government and freedom of speech and the press may go a long way towards
+combating anarchism; but the restoration of popular tribunates, like
+those to which Rome owed her balance and tranquillity, would be still
+more efficacious. If the governing bodies were to favour, instead of
+hindering, the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_307" id="Page_307">[Pg 307]</a></span> formation of such institutions, which tend to spring up
+everywhere and to voice the grievances of the people, just causes would
+not be abandoned exclusively to the advocacy of extremists.</p>
+
+
+<h3>X</h3>
+
+<h4><i>Lectures on Legal Medicine</i> (<i>Lezioni di Medicina Legale</i>)</h4>
+
+<p>This book, as the preface explains, was an attempt to present in a
+concise and popular form the theories of criminal anthropologists, on
+which the author had previously delivered a series of university
+lectures, and which he feared might have been erroneously or imperfectly
+understood by those of his hearers who were diffident or insufficiently
+prepared.</p>
+
+<p>It is divided into three parts, criminal anthropology, mental
+alienation, and the relation of serious offences (assault, murder,
+poisoning, etc.) to legal medicine.</p>
+
+<p>The first part contains a summing-up of the author's ideas on the
+atavistic and pathological origin of the criminal. He examines the
+equivalents of crime among plants, animals, savages, and children,
+describes the pathological causes which call forth atavistic instincts
+and alludes to other special kinds of degeneration peculiar to
+criminals. Finally, the anatomy, functions, and internal organs of the
+criminal are examined, and a careful study made of his intellectual
+manifestations and psychology. Similar studies on epileptics and the
+morally insane show that the three forms are only variations of the same
+degeneration.</p>
+
+<p>We have an examination of occasional, habitual, and latent criminals,
+who represent an attenuated type of delinquency, following on the
+investigations of these serious forms, admitting of correction,
+prevention, or cure. It develops much later in life than the vicious
+propensities of instinctive<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_308" id="Page_308">[Pg 308]</a></span> criminals or may even remain latent; yet at
+the root we always find the same anatomical and pathological anomalies,
+although less marked and fewer in number.</p>
+
+<p>The origin of passionate and political criminals is entirely diverse.
+Their criminality springs from an excess of noble passions, the
+impetuosity of which prevents them from exercising sober judgment and
+urges them to unpremeditated actions that afterwards cause them the
+deepest remorse.</p>
+
+<p>After a rapid survey of feminine criminality and its equivalent,
+prostitution, the author discusses juridical and social methods of
+curing crime.</p>
+
+<p>In the second part, mental alienation in relation to legal medicine, the
+author examines the anthropological and psychic characters of lunacy,
+which he divides into various classes: congenital mental alienation
+(cretinism, idiocy, imbecility, eccentricity); acquired mental
+alienation (mania, melancholia, paranoia, circular insanity, dementia);
+mental alienation in conjunction with neurosis (epilepsy, hysteria,
+progressive general paralysis); alienation resulting from toxic
+influences (alcoholism, including forms produced by indulgence in
+absinthe and coca, saturnine encephalopathy, pellagra). An investigation
+is made into the etiology of these various forms with special reference
+to their juridical importance.</p>
+
+<p>The third part is devoted exclusively to medico-legal questions, to an
+examination of the various forms of violent death: by heat, electricity,
+starvation, hanging, strangulation, asphyxia, and poisoning, the
+symptoms which distinguish each type being carefully defined. This is
+followed by a study on wounds produced by firearms, pointed weapons or
+blades, on living and dead bodies, in order to determine the exact
+situation of the wound and the manner in which it has been inflicted.
+Finally, we have an examination of the different forms of poisoning.</p>
+
+<p>A separate lecture treats of sexual psychopathy and offences against
+morality; and other lectures discuss questions of legal obstetrics:
+abortion, infanticide, and matrimonial questions.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_309" id="Page_309">[Pg 309]</a></span></p>
+
+<h3>XI</h3>
+
+<h4><i>Recent Discoveries in Psychiatry and Criminal Anthropology and the Practical Application of these Sciences</i></h4>
+
+<p>This volume was published in 1893. It contains a complete summary of the
+latest research of criminologists in jurisprudence, psychiatry, and
+anthropology, during the interval between the publication of the fifth
+and that of the last edition of Prof. Lombroso's <i>Criminal Man</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The research includes anthropological discoveries in the skull,
+skeleton, internal organs, and brains of criminals, as well as others of
+a biological and functional nature. They are followed by a study of the
+methods to be employed for the cure and punishment of crime.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_310" id="Page_310">[Pg 310]</a></span></p>
+<h3>BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE CHIEF WORKS OF CESARE LOMBROSO</h3>
+
+
+<p>Archivio di Psichiatria, antropologia criminale e scienze affini
+(Archives of Psychiatry, Criminal Anthropology and Kindred Sciences).
+Thirty-two volumes. Published by Fratelli Bocca, Turin and Lausanne.</p>
+
+<p>L'Uomo Delinquente (Criminal Man). Fifth Edition. Vols. I, II and III of
+xxxv + 650, 576, and 677 pages respectively, with separate volume of plates, maps, etc. Bocca, Turin, 1906, 1907.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Translations:</i></p>
+
+<p>L'Hommea criminel. Vols. I and II published 1895, Vol. III (Le crime, ses causes et rem&egrave;des) 1907, by F. Alcan, Paris.</p>
+
+<p>Die Ursachen und Bek&acirc;mpfung des Verbrechens. Bermuheler Verlag, Berlin, 1902.</p>
+
+<p>El Delito, sus causas y remedios. Librer&iacute;a de Victoriano Su&aacute;rez, Madrid, 1902.</p></div>
+
+<p>La Donna Delinquente, la prostituta e la donna normale. (With Guglielmo Ferrero.) New Edition. Bocca, Turin, 1903.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Translations:</i></p>
+
+<p>Das Weib als Verbrecherin und Prostitute. Verlagsanstalt und Druckerei, Hamburg, 1894.</p>
+
+<p>The Female Offender. Fisher Unwin, London, 1895.</p></div>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_311" id="Page_311">[Pg 311]</a></span>Il Delitto Politico e le Rivoluzioni. (With R. Laschi.) Bocca, Turin, 1890.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Translations:</i></p>
+
+<p>Das politische Verbrechen und die Revolutionen. Two vols. 1890.</p>
+
+<p>Le Crime politique. Two vols. F&eacute;lix Alcan, Paris, 1890.</p></div>
+
+<p>Le piu recenti scoperte ed applicazioni della psichiatria ed antropologia criminale. Bocca, Turin, 1893.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Translations:</i></p>
+
+<p>Neue Fortschritte in den Verbrecherstudien. Wilhelm Friedrich, Leipzig. 1894.</p>
+
+<p>Neue Fortschritte der kriminellen Anthropologie. Marhold, Halle, 1908.</p>
+
+<p>Neue Verbrecherstudien. Marhold, Halle, 1908.</p>
+
+<p>Nouvelles recherches de Psychiatrie et d'Anthropologie criminelle. Alcan, Paris, 1890.</p></div>
+
+<p>Gli anarchici. Bocca, Turin, 1894.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Translations:</i></p>
+
+<p>Die Anarchisten. Verlagsanstalt und Druckerei, Hamburg, 1895.</p>
+
+<p>Les Anarchistes. E. Flammarion, Paris, 1896.</p></div>
+
+<p>La Perizia psichiatrico-legale. Bocca, Turin, 1905.</p>
+
+<p>Lezioni di Medicina legale. Bocca, Turin, 1900.</p>
+
+<p>Troppo Presto: Appunti al nuovo codice penale. Bocca, Turin, 1888.</p>
+
+<p>Palimsesti del carcere. Bocca, Turin, 1888.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Translations:</i></p>
+
+<p>Kerker Palimpsesten. Hamburg, 1899.</p>
+
+<p>Les Palimpsestes des prisons. Stock, Lyon.</p></div>
+
+<p>La Delinquenza e la rivoluzione francese. Treves, Milan, 1897.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_312" id="Page_312">[Pg 312]</a></span>Criminal Anthropology. (Twentieth Century Practice of Medicine, Vol. XII, pp. 372-433.) New York, 1897.</p>
+
+<p>Luccheni e l'antropologia criminale. Bocca, Turin, 1899.</p>
+
+<p>Il caso Olivo. (With A. G. Bianchi.) Libreria Editrice Internazionale, Milan, 1905.</p>
+
+<p>Ricerche sui fenomeni ipnotici e spiritici. Unione Tip. Edit. Turin, 1909.</p>
+
+<p>L'Uomo di genio. Sixth Edition. Bocca, Turin, 1894.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Translations:</i></p>
+
+<p>L'Homme de g&eacute;nie. Alcan, Paris, 1889.</p>
+
+<p>The Man of Genius. Walter Scott, London, 1891.</p></div>
+
+<p>Genio e degenerazione. Second Edition. Remo Sandron, Palermo, 1908.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Translations:</i></p>
+
+<p>Entartung und Genie. Wiegand, Leipzig, 1894.</p></div>
+
+<p>Nuovi studi sul genio. Two vols. Sandron, Palermo, 1902.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Translations:</i></p>
+
+<p>Neue Studien &uuml;ber Genialit&auml;t (Schmidt's Jahrb&uuml;cher der gesammten Medizin, 1907).</p></div>
+
+<p>Pazzi e anormali. Lapi, Citta di Castello, 1890.</p>
+
+<p>In Calabria. Niccolo Giannotta, Catania, Sicily, 1898.</p>
+
+<p>L'Antisemitismo e le scienze moderne. Roux, Turin, 1894.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Translations:</i></p>
+
+<p>Der Antisemitismus und die Juden. Wiegand's Verlag, Leipzig, 1894.</p>
+
+<p>L'Antis&eacute;mitisme. Giard et Bri&egrave;re, Paris, 1899.</p></div>
+
+<p>Probl&egrave;mes du jour. Flammarion, Paris, 1906.</p>
+
+<p>Il momento attuale in Italia. Casa Editrice Nazionale, Milan, 1905.</p>
+
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_313" id="Page_313">[Pg 313]</a></span>Grafologia. Ulrich Hoepli, Milan, 1895.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Translations:</i></p>
+
+<p>Graphologie. Reclam, Leipzig.</p></div>
+
+<p>Trattato profilattico e clinico della pellagra. Bocca, Turin, 1890.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><i>Translations:</i></p>
+
+<p>Die Lehre von der Pellagra. Oscar Coblenz, Berlin, 1898.</p></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_315" id="Page_315">[Pg 315]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX</h2>
+
+
+<p>
+<strong>A</strong><br />
+<br />
+Affection for animals, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Affections, of born criminals, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in children, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">examination of, <a href="#Page_222">222-225</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Age and crime, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br />
+<br />
+Akkas, tribe of Central Africa, <a href="#Page_15">15</a><br />
+<br /><a name="alcohol" id="alcohol"></a>
+Alcoholism, and hallucinations, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82-84</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">chronic, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142-143</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">physical characteristics, <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">psychic disturbances caused by, <a href="#Page_82">82-84</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">results of, <a href="#Page_83">83</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">apathy and impulsiveness of victims, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">crimes peculiarly due to, <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">course of the disease, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hereditary, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">important factor in criminality, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">temporary, <a href="#Page_141">141-142</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and epilepsy, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect on handwriting, <a href="#Page_229">229</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Algometer, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br />
+<br />
+Anfossi's tachyanthropometer, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">craniograph, <a href="#Page_239">239</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Angelucci (<i>Actes du Congr&egrave;s d' Anthropologie</i>), case of epileptic moral insanity, <a href="#Page_69">69</a><br />
+<br />
+Anomalies, of criminals, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10-24</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231-235</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of morally insane, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Anthropology, criminal, defined, <a href="#Page_5">5</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">most important discovery of, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">practical application of, <a href="#Page_262">262-279</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Aphasia, simulation of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a> <i>ff.</i>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+<br />
+Arson, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
+<br />
+Arts and industries of criminals, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br />
+<br />
+Assaulters, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Asylums for criminal insane, <a href="#Page_205">205-208</a><br />
+<br />
+Asymmetry, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_242">242</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a><br />
+<br />
+Atavism, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a><br />
+<br />
+Atavistic origin of the criminal, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_135">135</a><br />
+<br />
+Australia, probation system in, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Austria, percentage of illegitimates among criminals, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">percentage of women among criminals, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Auto-illusion, <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, <a href="#Page_109">109</a><br />
+<br />
+Aymaras, the, an Indian tribe of South America, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Azara, d' (<i>Travels in America</i>, 1835), <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br />
+<br />
+Azeglio, Massimo d' (<i>Reminiscences</i>), <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>B</strong><br />
+<br />
+Bain, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br />
+<br />
+Ballv&eacute;, Se&ntilde;or, director of Penitenciario Nacional of Buenos Ayres, <a href="#Page_201">201</a><br />
+<br />
+Bank of Rome case, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br />
+<br />
+Barnardo, Dr., work for orphans and destitute children of London, <a href="#Page_158">158-160</a><br />
+<br />
+Beccaria, Cesare, founder of Classical School of Penal Jurisprudence, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br />
+<br />
+Bedlam, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
+<br />
+Belgian Government, agricultural colony founded at Meseplas by, <a href="#Page_202">202</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_316" id="Page_316">[Pg 316]</a></span><br />
+Belgium, probation system in, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Bernard, experiments with dogs, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Blasio, de, explanation of hieroglyphics of the Camorristi, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+Booth, General, <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
+<br />
+Born criminals, <a href="#Page_3">3-51</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">percentage of, among criminals, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">physical characteristics, <a href="#Page_10">10-24</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231-255</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sensory and functional peculiarities, <a href="#Page_24">24-27</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">affections and passions, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">moral characteristics, <a href="#Page_28">28-40</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intelligence, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relation to moral insanity and epilepsy, <a href="#Page_58">58-73</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">professional characteristics, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">difference between epileptics and, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">no criminal scale among, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">institutions for, <a href="#Page_205">205</a> <i>ff.</i></span><br />
+<br />
+Bosco and Rice (<i>Les Homicides aux Etats-Unis</i>), on crime in Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<br />
+Brigands, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113-115</a>, <a href="#Page_215">215</a><br />
+<br />
+Broadmoor, <a href="#Page_207">207</a>, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br />
+<br />
+Brockway, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+<br />
+B&uuml;chner, on instincts in bees and ants, <a href="#Page_142">142</a><br />
+<br />
+Burglars, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Burton (<i>First Footsteps in East Africa</i>), <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>C</strong><br />
+<br />
+Cabred, Professor, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br />
+<br />
+Camorra, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br />
+<br />
+Camorristi, hieroglyphics of, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dress, 230</span><br />
+<br />
+Canada, homes for destitute children, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br />
+<br />
+Capital punishment, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
+<br />
+Carrara, Francesco, <a href="#Page_4">4</a><br />
+<br />
+Carrara, Prof. Mario, on neglected children, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br />
+<br />
+Cephalic index, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_241">241</a><br />
+<br />
+Children, destructive tendency, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">instincts, <a href="#Page_130">130</a> <i>ff.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">affection, <a href="#Page_133">133</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect of environment on, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">institutions for destitute, <a href="#Page_156">156</a> <i>ff.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">methods of dealing with, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> <i>ff.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">susceptibility to suggestion, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Children's courts. <i>See</i> <a href="#juvcourts">Juvenile courts</a><br />
+<br />
+Cin&aelig;dus, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br />
+<br />
+Classical School of Penal Jurisprudence, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+<br />
+Classification of criminals, <a href="#Page_8">8</a><br />
+<br />
+Colour-blindness, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+Confession of criminaloids, <a href="#Page_105">105</a><br />
+<br />
+Connon, Richard, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Coprophagia, <a href="#Page_274">274</a>, <a href="#Page_275">275</a><br />
+<br />
+Corporal punishment, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Cretins, physical characteristics, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dress, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Crime, origin of the word, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among primitive races, <a href="#Page_125">125</a> <i>ff.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in civilised communities, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">atavistic origin, <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&aelig;tiology of, <a href="#Page_136">136</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">pathological origin, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">organic factors, <a href="#Page_137">137</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">percentage of, among Jews, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social causes, <a href="#Page_143">143</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">prevention, <a href="#Page_153">153</a> <i>ff.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">curability, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Criminal, the, defined, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+<br />
+Criminal type, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Criminaloids, <a href="#Page_100">100-121</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">percentage of, among criminals, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">physical characteristics, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_251">251</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">psychological distinctions between born criminals and, <a href="#Page_102">102</a> <i>ff.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cases of, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reluctance to commit crimes, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">easily induced to confess, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">moral sense and intelligence, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">natural affections and sentiments, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">social position and culture, <a href="#Page_107">107</a> <i>ff.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">clever swindlers, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">development into habitual criminals, <a href="#Page_111">111-113</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and certain crimes, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">punishment, <a href="#Page_186">186</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cruelty, <a href="#Page_39">39</a><br />
+<br />
+Cynicism, <a href="#Page_31">31</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>D</strong><br />
+<br />
+Dalton (<i>Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal</i>), <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br />
+<br />
+Danish prisons, <a href="#Page_195">195</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_317" id="Page_317">[Pg 317]</a></span><br />
+"Darwin's tubercle," <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a><br />
+<br />
+Dejerine, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
+<br />
+Delirium, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Dementia, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">simulations of, <a href="#Page_272">272</a> <i>ff.</i></span><br />
+<br />
+Despine's method of punishment, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
+<br />
+Destitute children, care of, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">institutions for, <a href="#Page_156">156</a> <i>ff.</i></span><br />
+<br />
+Dewson, Miss Mary, <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br />
+<br />
+Disease and its relation to crime, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a><br />
+<br />
+Don Bosco, the Black Pope, <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<br />
+Drunkenness, temporary, <a href="#Page_141">141</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#alcohol">Alcoholism</a><br />
+<br />
+Du Bois-Reymond's apparatus, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br />
+<br />
+Dundrum, Ireland, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
+<br />
+Dynamometer, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_253">253</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>E</strong><br />
+<br />
+Economic conditions, relation to crime, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br />
+<br />
+Education, and moral insanity, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and crime, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Elmira Reformatory, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
+<br />
+"Educational Alliance," for Jewish emigrants, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<br />
+Egypt, theft in, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br />
+<br />
+Elmira Reformatory, <a href="#Page_192">192-194</a><br />
+<br />
+England, crime in, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">juvenile court in, <a href="#Page_176">176</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">probation system in, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">asylums for criminal insane, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Environment, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<br />
+Epilepsy, ancient application of the term, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristic phenomena, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">mild forms, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">multiformity, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">psychological characteristics, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">effect on character, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relation to crime, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">motory and criminal, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">psychic, <a href="#Page_88">88</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ambulatory, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">alcoholic psychic, <a href="#Page_142">142</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Epileptics, brain cells of, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relation to born criminals and morally insane <a href="#Page_58">58</a> <i>ff.</i>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">physical anomalies common to criminals and, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">psychological characteristics, <a href="#Page_61">61</a> <i>ff.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cases, <a href="#Page_64">64-65</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">criminal, <a href="#Page_66">66-69</a>, <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">difference between born criminals and, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">non-criminal, <a href="#Page_89">89-92</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">obsessions, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dress, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">special offences, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Epileptoids, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
+<br />
+Erotomania, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Esthesiometer, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br />
+<br />
+Examination of criminals, <a href="#Page_219">219-257</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">antecedents and psychic individuality, <a href="#Page_220">220-222</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">intelligence, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">affections, <a href="#Page_222">222-225</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">morbid phenomena, <a href="#Page_225">225-226</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">speech, <a href="#Page_226">226-228</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">memory, <a href="#Page_228">228</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">handwriting, <a href="#Page_228">228-230</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dress, <a href="#Page_230">230-231</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">physical, <a href="#Page_231">231-245</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sensibility, <a href="#Page_245">245-251</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">movements, <a href="#Page_251">251-255</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">functions, <a href="#Page_255">255</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">table of, <a href="#Page_255">255-257</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>F</strong><br />
+<br />
+Fines, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+Fisherton House, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
+<br />
+Forgers, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br />
+<br />
+France, percentage of illegitimates or orphans among minors arrested, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">system for minor offences, <a href="#Page_187">187</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">probation system in, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Frank, Francis, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br />
+<br />
+French Panama Scandal, <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>G</strong><br />
+<br />
+Gambling, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+<br />
+Games, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+<br />
+Garofalo, Senator, his table of penalties, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br />
+<br />
+George, Henry, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
+<br />
+George Junior Republic, <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164-167</a><br />
+<br />
+Germans, ancient, theft among, <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_318" id="Page_318">[Pg 318]</a></span>Gilmour (<i>Among the Mongols</i>), <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br />
+<br />
+Gipsies, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
+<br />
+Goitre, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_244">244</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>H</strong><br />
+<br />
+Habitual criminals, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, <a href="#Page_110">110-115</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br />
+<br />
+Hallucinations, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82-84</a><br />
+<br />
+Hamburg, percentage of illegitimates among prostitutes, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
+<br />
+Handwriting, <a href="#Page_228">228-230</a><br />
+<br />
+Harwick, quoted, on sense of right and wrong, <a href="#Page_33">33</a><br />
+<br />
+Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society in New York City, <a href="#Page_160">160-164</a><br />
+<br />
+Heredity, indirect, <a href="#Page_137">137</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">direct, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_137">137-139</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">influence of, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_220">220</a>, <a href="#Page_235">235</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Hieroglyphics, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+Homicide, among criminaloids, <a href="#Page_121">121</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Italy, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relation of temperature to, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in Massachusetts, <a href="#Page_173">173</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and melancholia, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Hydrosphygmograph, <a href="#Page_223">223</a><br />
+<br />
+Hypnotism, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
+<br />
+Hysteria, <a href="#Page_92">92-99</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relation to epilepsy, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">physical and functional characteristics, <a href="#Page_93">93</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">psychology, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">susceptibility to suggestion, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and delirium, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sensibility to metals, <a href="#Page_248">248</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">special offences of, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">simulation of, <a href="#Page_261">261</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>I</strong><br />
+<br />
+Idiots, impulses, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_258">258</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">speech, <a href="#Page_227">227</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">physical characteristics, <a href="#Page_235">235</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Idleness, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br />
+<br />
+Illegitimates, percentage of, among criminals, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
+<br />
+Imbeciles, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br />
+<br />
+Imitation, <a href="#Page_146">146</a><br />
+<br />
+Immigration and its relation to crime, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br />
+<br />
+Imprisonment, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a>, <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br />
+<br />
+Impulsiveness, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+<br />
+Incendiaries, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<br />
+Indemnity, <a href="#Page_191">191</a><br />
+<br />
+India, infanticide in, <a href="#Page_126">126</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">theft in, <a href="#Page_129">129</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Industrial Homes of the Salvation Army, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br />
+<br />
+Inebriates, crimes peculiar to, <a href="#Page_85">85-86</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">hallucinations of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Infanticide, <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br />
+<br />
+Insane, the morally, relation to born criminals, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cases, <a href="#Page_53">53</a> <i>ff.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relation to epileptics, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a> <i>ff.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">professional characteristics, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">institutions for, <a href="#Page_206">206</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dress, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">special offences, <a href="#Page_259">259</a>, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Insane criminals, <a href="#Page_74">74-99</a>, <a href="#Page_234">234</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">characteristics distinguishing them from habitual criminals, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">antecedents, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">motives, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">typical cases, <a href="#Page_79">79</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">institutions for, <a href="#Page_205">205</a> <i>ff.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">two classes, <a href="#Page_208">208</a></span><br />
+<br /><a name="insanity" id="insanity"></a>
+Insanity, moral, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65-69</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a> <i>ff.</i><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">criminal, <a href="#Page_74">74-99</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">genuine and simulation of, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#lunacy">Lunacy</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Institutions, for destitute children, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for destitute adults, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for women criminals, <a href="#Page_180">180</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for minor offenders, <a href="#Page_185">185</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for habitual criminals, <a href="#Page_198">198</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for born criminals and the morally insane, <a href="#Page_205">205</a>. <i>See also</i> <a href="#reform">Reformatories</a>, <a href="#peniten">Penitentiaries</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Intellectual manifestations of born criminals, <a href="#Page_42">42-44</a><br />
+<br />
+Intelligence, of born criminals, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of criminaloids, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">examination, <a href="#Page_222">222</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Invulnerability of criminals, <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+Italy, hot-beds of crime in, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">percentage of illegitimates among criminals, <a href="#Page_144">144</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">percentage of women among criminals, <a href="#Page_151">151</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">institutions for orphans, <a href="#Page_157">157</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>J</strong><br />
+<br />
+Jackson, on epileptic fits, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_319" id="Page_319">[Pg 319]</a></span><br />
+Jews, percentage of crime among, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
+<br />
+Jukes family, the, <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
+<br />
+Juridical criminals, <a href="#Page_115">115-117</a><br />
+<br />
+<a name="juvcourts" id="juvcourts"></a>
+Juvenile courts, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+<br />
+Juvenile offenders, <a href="#Page_139">139</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">methods of dealing with, <a href="#Page_176">176</a> <i>ff.</i>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>K</strong><br />
+<br />
+Kleptomania, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br />
+<br />
+Kowalewsky (<i>Archivio di Psichiatria</i>, 1885), <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Krafft-Ebing, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">quoted, on somnambulism and epileptics, <a href="#Page_63">63</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>L</strong><br />
+<br />
+Labour, in reformatories, <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, <a href="#Page_199">199</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">enforced, profitable to the State, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_213">213</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Lacassagne, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+Ladelci (<i>Il Vino</i>, 1868), <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+<br />
+Landolt's apparatus for testing the field of vision, <a href="#Page_249">249</a><br />
+<br />
+Lewisohn, Mr., <a href="#Page_161">161</a><br />
+<br />
+Lombroso, Cesare, discovery of <i>median occipital fossa</i>, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">new theory as to criminals, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">view of hysteria and epilepsy, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on percentage of criminals of inebriate families, <a href="#Page_138">138</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on criminal associations, <a href="#Page_146">146</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Criminal Man</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_288">288-291</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Modern Forms of Crime</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Recent Research in Criminal Anthropology</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_309">309</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Prison Palimpsests</i>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_300">300-302</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>The Female Offender</i>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, <a href="#Page_291">291-294</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Crimes, Ancient and Modern</i>, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_302">302-303</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>The Man of Genius</i>, <a href="#Page_283">283-288</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Political Crime</i>, <a href="#Page_294">294-298</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Too Soon</i>, <a href="#Page_298">298-300</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Diagnostic Methods of Legal Psychiatry</i>, <a href="#Page_303">303-305</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Anarchists</i>, <a href="#Page_305">305-307</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Lectures on Legal Medicine</i>, <a href="#Page_307">307-308</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Luciani, experiments of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br /><a name="lunacy" id="lunacy"></a>
+Lunacy, general forms, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <i>See also</i> <a href="#insanity">Insanity</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>M</strong><br />
+<br />
+Maccabruni, Dr. (<i>Notes on Hidden Forms of Epilepsy</i>, 1886), <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+<br />
+Mafia, <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a><br />
+<br />
+Magnaud, <a href="#Page_187">187</a><br />
+<br />
+Maniacs, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br />
+<br />
+Manzoni (<i>Promessi Sposi</i>), on instinctive tendency to law-breaking, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br />
+<br />
+Marey's tympanum, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br />
+<br />
+Marro (<i>Annalidi Freniatia</i>, 1890), <a href="#Page_64">64</a><br />
+<br />
+Massachusetts, crime in, <a href="#Page_173">173</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">probation office in Boston, <a href="#Page_189">189</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reformatories at Boston, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Mattoids, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Median occipital fossa</i>, discovery of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a><br />
+<br />
+Melancholia, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_227">227</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br />
+<br />
+Memory, <a href="#Page_228">228</a><br />
+<br />
+Mendacity, <a href="#Page_96">96-98</a><br />
+<br />
+Meseplas, agricultural colony at, <a href="#Page_202">202</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a><br />
+<br />
+Metchnikoff, <a href="#Page_14">14</a><br />
+<br />
+Meteoric sensibility, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<br /><a name="modern" id="modern"></a>
+Modern School of Penal Jurisprudence, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
+<br />
+Monomaniacs, impulses and motives, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cases, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, <a href="#Page_276">276</a> <i>ff.</i></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">handwriting, <a href="#Page_228">228</a>, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dress, <a href="#Page_231">231</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">examination of, <a href="#Page_276">276</a> <i>ff.</i></span><br />
+<br />
+Moral sense, of criminals, <a href="#Page_28">28-40</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of criminaloids, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Moreau, <a href="#Page_130">130</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">(<i>De l' Homicide chez les enfants</i>, 1882), <a href="#Page_131">131</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Morel, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+M&uuml;lhausen (<i>Diary of a Journey from the Mississippi to the Pacific</i>), <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br />
+<br />
+Murder, among gipsies, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among Jews, <a href="#Page_140">140</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in United States, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Murderers, physical characteristics, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_320" id="Page_320">[Pg 320]</a></span><span style="margin-left: 1em;">moral sense, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imprisonment, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dress, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>N</strong><br />
+<br />
+Newspaper reports of crimes, influence of, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_147">147</a><br />
+<br />
+Nothnagel's thermo-esthesiometer, <a href="#Page_247">247</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>O</strong><br />
+<br />
+Obermayer's methods in prisons, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>, <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
+<br />
+Obscenity, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Occupations suitable for prisoners, <a href="#Page_197">197</a>, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br />
+<br />
+"Open Door," the, penal institution in Buenos Ayres, <a href="#Page_203">203</a>, <a href="#Page_204">204</a><br />
+<br />
+Orange, <a href="#Page_208">208</a><br />
+<br />
+Orgies, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+<br />
+Osmometer, <a href="#Page_251">251</a><br />
+<br />
+Ottolenghi, discoveries of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>P</strong><br />
+<br />
+Paralysis, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_226">226</a>, <a href="#Page_229">229</a><br />
+<br />
+Paralytic, demented, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br />
+<br />
+"Paranza," <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Paresis, <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+<br />
+Parkinson's disease, <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br />
+<br />
+Passion, criminals of, <a href="#Page_117">117-121</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br />
+<br />
+Patrizi, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br />
+<br />
+"Patta, La" <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+Pears (<i>Prisons and Reform</i>, 1872), <a href="#Page_196">196</a><br />
+<br />
+Pederasts, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br />
+<br />
+Pellagra, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br />
+<br />
+Pelvimeter, <a href="#Page_239">239</a><br />
+<br />
+Penal codes, <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Penal colonies, <a href="#Page_201">201-204</a><br />
+<br />
+Penalties, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">table of, proposed by the Modern School, <a href="#Page_210">210-212</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Penitenciario Nacional of Buenos Ayres, <a href="#Page_198">198-203</a><br />
+<br /><a name="peniten" id="peniten"></a>
+Penitentiaries, <a href="#Page_194">194-198</a><br />
+<br />
+Penta, on percentage of criminals of inebriate families, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
+<br />
+Perez,(<i>Psychologie de l'enfant</i>), quoted, on anger in children, <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br />
+<br />
+Perth, Scotland, <a href="#Page_207">207</a><br />
+<br />
+Peruvian Indians, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_7">7</a><br />
+<br />
+Physical anomalies of criminals, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10-24</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231-245</a><br />
+<br />
+Pictet, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br />
+<br />
+Pictography, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Pinel, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a><br />
+<br />
+Plethysmograph, <a href="#Page_223">223</a>, <a href="#Page_225">225</a>, <a href="#Page_264">264</a><br />
+<br />
+Poisoners, <a href="#Page_31">31</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+<br />
+Political offenders, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br />
+<br />
+Polyandry, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br />
+<br />
+Population, density of, effect on criminality, <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, <a href="#Page_148">148</a><br />
+<br />
+Positive School of Penal Jurisprudence. <i>See</i> <a href="#modern">Modern School of Penal Jurisprudence</a><br />
+<br />
+Pott, <a href="#Page_125">125</a><br />
+<br />
+Poverty and crime, <a href="#Page_150">150</a><br />
+<br />
+Precocity in crime, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br />
+<br />
+Preventive methods, <a href="#Page_175">175</a> <i>ff.</i><br />
+<br />
+Primitive races, tattooing among, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">views of crime, <a href="#Page_125">125-129</a>, <a href="#Page_134">134</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">death penalty among, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Prison life, effect upon criminals, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_186">186</a><br />
+<br />
+Probation Office in Boston, <a href="#Page_189">189</a><br />
+<br />
+Probation system, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_179">179</a>, <a href="#Page_188">188-191</a><br />
+<br />
+Professions and crime, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_221">221</a><br />
+<br />
+Progeneismus, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243</a><br />
+<br />
+Prognathism, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+Prostitution, <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
+<br />
+Proverbial sayings concerning criminals, <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Prussia, percentage of illegitimates among criminals, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
+<br />
+Psychology of born criminals, <a href="#Page_27">27</a> <i>ff.</i><br />
+<br />
+Ptosis, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br />
+<br />
+Punishments, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">corporal, <a href="#Page_191">191</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">capital, <a href="#Page_208">208</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>R</strong><br />
+<br />
+Race and crime, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
+<br />
+Recidivists, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_222">222</a><br />
+<br /><a name="reform" id="reform"></a>
+Reformatories, <a href="#Page_182">182</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Reformatory Prison for Women</i> at South Framingham, near Boston, <a href="#Page_183">183-185</a><br />
+<br />
+Remorse, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+<br />
+Repentance, <a href="#Page_29">29</a><br />
+<br />
+Rescue Homes of the Salvation Army, <a href="#Page_169">169</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Revue d'Anthropologie</i>, 1874, <a href="#Page_128">128</a><br />
+<br />
+Ribaudo, Brancaleone, <a href="#Page_138">138</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_321" id="Page_321">[Pg 321]</a></span><br />
+Richet, experiments with dogs, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on hysteria, <a href="#Page_95">95</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Roncoroni, discoveries of, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Rosenbach, experiments of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+"Rota, La" <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>S</strong><br />
+<br />
+Salvation Army, <a href="#Page_167">167-170</a><br />
+<br />
+Samt, on epilepsy, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br />
+<br />
+San Stefano, island, convict population, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+<br />
+Sensibility, general, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to touch and pain, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to the magnet, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">meteoric, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of the senses, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_249">249-251</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">localisation of, <a href="#Page_247">247</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">to metals, <a href="#Page_248">248</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Simulation, <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, <a href="#Page_261">261</a>, <a href="#Page_272">272</a><br />
+<br />
+Sisterhoods founded by Rabbi Gottheil, <a href="#Page_170">170-172</a><br />
+<br />
+Skin diseases, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br />
+<br />
+Skull, formations, <a href="#Page_10">10-12</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">measurements, <a href="#Page_239">239-242</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Slang, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br />
+<br />
+Smugglers, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<br />
+Snow (<i>Two Years' Cruise round Tierra del Fuego</i>), <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br />
+<br />
+Social causes of crime, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
+<br />
+Somatic examination, <a href="#Page_260">260</a>, <a href="#Page_277">277</a><br />
+<br />
+Somnambulism, <a href="#Page_63">63</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br />
+<br />
+South America, institutions for orphans, <a href="#Page_157">157</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Salvation Army in, <a href="#Page_170">170</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reformatories, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">penal institution in Buenos Ayres, <a href="#Page_203">203</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Spain, percentage of women among criminals, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br />
+<br />
+Spencer (<i>Principles of Ethics</i>, 1895), <a href="#Page_129">129</a><br />
+<br />
+Strabismus, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a><br />
+<br />
+Strength, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_252">252</a><br />
+<br />
+Suggestion, susceptibility to, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, <a href="#Page_269">269</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">examination of, <a href="#Page_226">226</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">case, <a href="#Page_269">269</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Suicide, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, <a href="#Page_259">259</a><br />
+<br />
+Swindlers, characteristics, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_231">231</a>, <a href="#Page_245">245</a>, <a href="#Page_246">246</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">percentage among criminaloids, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cases, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">imprisonment of, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Sydenham, on hysteria, <a href="#Page_95">95</a><br />
+<br />
+Symbiosis, <a href="#Page_212">212-215</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>T</strong><br />
+<br />
+Tachyanthropometer, <a href="#Page_237">237</a><br />
+<br />
+Tamburini, quoted, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+<br />
+Tardieu (<i>De la Folie</i>, 1870), <a href="#Page_85">85</a><br />
+<br />
+Tattooing, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45-48</a>, <a href="#Page_232">232</a><br />
+<br />
+Temperature, relation to crime, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<br />
+Theft, instincts of, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">petty, <a href="#Page_117">117</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">percentage of, among criminaloids, <a href="#Page_121">121</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">among primitive races, <a href="#Page_128">128-130</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and paralysis, <a href="#Page_259">259</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">and epileptics, <a href="#Page_260">260</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Thieves, physical characteristics, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, <a href="#Page_150">150</a>, <a href="#Page_236">236</a>, <a href="#Page_243">243-244</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cases, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_29">29</a>, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">moral sense, <a href="#Page_32">32-35</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">handwriting, <a href="#Page_230">230</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Tissi&eacute; (<i>Les alien&eacute;s voyageurs</i>, 1887), <a href="#Page_88">88</a><br />
+<br />
+Tonnini, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_65">65</a><br />
+<br />
+Traumatism, <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, <a href="#Page_141">141</a><br />
+<br />
+Treachery, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>U</strong><br />
+<br />
+United States, institutions for destitute <ins class="correction" title="Original reads 'chlidren'.">children</ins>, <a href="#Page_160">160</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">percentage of crime in, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, <a href="#Page_174">174</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">probation system in, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>, <a href="#Page_189">189</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">juvenile courts in, <a href="#Page_178">178</a></span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">reformatories in, <a href="#Page_192">192</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>V</strong><br />
+<br />
+Vanicek, <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, <a href="#Page_127">127</a><br />
+<br />
+Vanity, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+<br />
+Vidocq, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+<br />
+Vindictiveness, <a href="#Page_38">38</a><br />
+<br />
+Volumetric glove, <a href="#Page_224">224</a><br />
+<br />
+Volumetric tank, <a href="#Page_233">223</a><br />
+<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_322" id="Page_322">[Pg 322]</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<strong>W</strong><br />
+<br />
+Weber's esthesiometer, <a href="#Page_245">245</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Where the Shadows Lengthen</i>, <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br />
+<br />
+Women, percentage of criminality among, <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, <a href="#Page_180">180</a><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">nature of criminality among, <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Work, motive force of every institute, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br />
+Wormian bones, <a href="#Page_12">12</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<strong>Z</strong><br />
+<br />
+Zakka Khel, criminal tribe in India, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_140">140</a><br />
+<br />
+Zehen, experiments of, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Zino, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<h2>THE SCIENCE SERIES</h2>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Edited by Edward Lee Thorndike, Ph.D., and F. E. Beddard. M.A., F.R.S.</span></p>
+
+
+<p>1.&mdash;<strong>The Study of Man.</strong> By Professor <span class="smcap">A. C. Haddon</span>, M.A., D.Sc., M.R.I.A.
+Fully illustrated. 8&ordm;. $2.00.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"A timely and useful volume.... The author wields a pleasing pen
+and knows how to make the subject attractive.... The work is
+calculated to spread among its readers an attraction to the science
+of anthropology. The author's observations are exceedingly genuine
+and his descriptions are vivid."&mdash;<i>London Athen&aelig;um.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>2.&mdash;<strong>The Groundwork of Science.</strong> A Study of Epistemology. By <span class="smcap">St. George
+Mivart</span>, F.R.S. 8&ordm;. $1.75.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The book is cleverly written and is one of the best works of its
+kind ever put before the public. It will be interesting to all
+readers, and especially to those interested in the Study of
+science."&mdash;<i>New Haven Leader.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>3.&mdash;<strong>Rivers of North America.</strong> A Reading Lesson for Students of Geography
+and Geology. By <span class="smcap">Israel C. Russell</span>, Professor of Geology, University of
+Michigan, author of "Lakes of North America," "Glaciers of North
+America," "Volcanoes of North America," etc. Fully illustrated. 8&ordm;.
+$2.00.</p>
+
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+entertaining as it is instructive."&mdash;<i>Boston Transcript.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>4.&mdash;<strong>Earth Sculpture</strong>; or, <strong>The Origin of Land-Forms</strong>. By <span class="smcap">James Geikie</span>,
+LL.D., D.C.L., F.R.S., etc., Murchison Professor of Geology and
+Mineralogy in the University of Edinburgh; author of "The Great Ice
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+
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+know of of the origin and development of land-forms, and we
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+nature."&mdash;<i>Science.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>5.&mdash;<strong>Volcanoes.</strong> By <span class="smcap">T. G. Bonney</span>, F.R.S., University College, London.
+Fully illustrated. 8&ordm;. $2.00.</p>
+
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+
+<p>6.&mdash;<strong>Bacteria</strong>: Especially as they are related to the economy of nature,
+to industrial processes, and to the public health. By <span class="smcap">George Newman</span>,
+M.D., F.R.S. (Edin.), D.P.H. (Camb.), etc., Demonstrator of Bacteriology
+in King's College, London. With 24 micro-photographs of actual organisms
+and over 70 other illustrations. 8&ordm;. $2.00.</p>
+
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+are to be commended to all seeking information on these points. Any
+discussion of bacteria will seem technical to the uninitiated, but
+all such will find in this book popular treatment and scientific
+accuracy happily combined."&mdash;<i>The Dial.</i></p></div>
+
+
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+$2.00.</p>
+
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+book that shall be acceptable to the zo&ouml;logist and the
+naturalist."&mdash;<i>N. Y. Times.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>8.&mdash;<strong>Comparative Physiology of the Brain and Comparative Psychology.</strong> With
+special reference to the Invertebrates. By <span class="smcap">Jacques Loeb</span>, M.D., Professor
+of Physiology in the University of Chicago. Illustrated. 8&ordm;. $1.75.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"No student of this most interesting phase of the problems of life
+can afford to remain in ignorance of the wide range of facts and
+the suggestive series of interpretations which Professor Loeb has
+brought together in this volume."&mdash;<span class="smcap">Joseph Jastrow</span>, in the <i>Chicago
+Dial</i>.</p></div>
+
+<p>9.&mdash;<strong>The Stars.</strong> By Professor <span class="smcap">Simon Newcomb</span>, U.S.N., Nautical Almanac
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+mail, $2.00.)</p>
+
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+
+<p>10.&mdash;<strong>The Basis of Social Relations.</strong> A Study in Ethnic Psychology. By
+<span class="smcap">Daniel G. Brinton</span>, A.M., M.D., LL.D., Sc.D., Late Professor of American
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+
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+
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+
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+
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+
+
+<p>14.&mdash;<strong>Earthquakes.</strong> In the Light of the New Seismology. By <span class="smcap">Clarence E.
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+
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+literature of modern science."&mdash;<i>Chicago Tribune.</i></p></div>
+
+<p>15.&mdash;<strong>The Nature of Man.</strong> Studies in Optimistic Philosophy. By <span class="smcap">&Eacute;lie
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+
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+
+<p>16.&mdash;<strong>The Hygiene of Nerves and Mind in Health and Disease.</strong> By <span class="smcap">August
+Forel</span>, M.D., formerly Professor of Psychiatry in the University of
+Zurich. Authorized Translation. 8&ordm;. Net, $2.00. (By mail, $2.20.)</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A comprehensive and concise summary of the results of science in
+its chosen field. Its authorship is a guarantee that the statements
+made are authoritative as far as the statement of an individual can
+be so regarded.</p></div>
+
+<p>17.&mdash;<strong>The Prolongation of Life.</strong> Optimistic Essays. By <span class="smcap">&Eacute;lie Metchnikoff</span>,
+Sub-Director of the Pasteur Institute. Author of "The Nature of Man,"
+etc. 8&ordm;. Illustrated. Net, $2.50. (By mail, $2.70.) Popular Edition.
+With an introduction by Prof. <span class="smcap">Charles S. Minot</span>. Net, $1.75.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>In his new work Professor Metchnikoff expounds at greater length,
+in the light of additional knowledge gained in the last few years,
+his main thesis that human life is not only unnaturally short but
+unnaturally burdened with physical and mental disabilities. He
+analyzes the causes of these disharmonies and explains his reasons
+for hoping that they may be counteracted by a rational hygiene.</p></div>
+
+<p>18.&mdash;<strong>The Solar System.</strong> A Study of Recent Observations. By Prof. <span class="smcap">Charles
+Lane Poor</span>, Professor of Astronomy in Columbia University. 8&ordm;.
+Illustrated. Net, $2.00.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The subject is presented in untechnical language and without the
+use of mathematics. Professor Poor shows by what steps the precise
+knowledge of to-day has been reached and explains the marvellous
+results of modern observations.</p></div>
+
+<p>19.&mdash;<strong>Climate&mdash;Considered Especially in Relation to Man.</strong> By <span class="smcap">Robert
+DeCourcy Ward</span>, Assistant Professor of Climatology in Harvard University.
+8&ordm;. Illustrated. Net, $2.00.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This volume is intended for persons who have not had special
+training in the technicalities of climatology. Climate covers a
+wholly different field from that included in the meteorological
+text-books. It handles broad questions of climate in a way which
+has not been attempted in a single volume. The needs of the teacher
+and student have been kept constantly in mind.</p></div>
+
+<p>20.&mdash;<strong>Heredity.</strong> By <span class="smcap">J. Arthur Thomson</span>, M.A., Professor of Natural History
+in the University of Aberdeen; Author of "The Science of Life," etc. 8&ordm;.
+Illustrated. Net, $3.50.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The aim of this work is to expound, in a simple manner, the facts
+of heredity and inheritance as at present known, the general
+conclusions which have been securely established, and the more
+important theories which have been formulated.</p></div>
+
+<p>21.&mdash;<strong>Age, Growth, and Death.</strong> By <span class="smcap">Charles S. Minot</span>, James Stillman
+Professor of Comparative Anatomy in Harvard University, President of the
+Boston Society of Natural History, and Author of "Human Embryology," "A
+Laboratory Text-book of Embryology," etc. 8&ordm;. Illustrated.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This volume deals with some of the fundamental problems of biology,
+and presents a series of views (the results of nearly thirty years
+of study), which the author has correlated for the first time in
+systematic form.</p></div>
+
+
+
+<p>22.&mdash;<strong>The Interpretation of Nature.</strong> By <span class="smcap">C. Lloyd Morgan</span>, LL. D., F. R. S.
+Crown 8vo. Net, $1.25.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>Dr. Morgan seeks to prove that a belief in purpose as the causal
+reality of which Nature is an expression is not inconsistent with a
+full and whole-hearted acceptance of the explanations of
+naturalism.</p></div>
+
+<p>23.&mdash;<strong>Mosquito Life.</strong> The Habits and Life Cycles of the Known Mosquitoes
+of the United States; Methods for their Control; and Keys for Easy
+Identification of the Species in their Various Stages. An account based
+on the investigation of the late James William Dupree, Surgeon-General
+of Louisiana, and upon the original observations by the Writer. By
+<span class="smcap">Evelyn Groesbeeck Mitchell</span>, A.B., M.S. With 64 Illustrations. Crown 8vo.
+Net, $2.00.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>This volume has been designed to meet the demand of the constantly
+increasing number of students for a work presenting in compact form
+the essential facts so far made known by scientific investigation
+in regard to the different phases of this, as is now conceded,
+important and highly interesting subject. While aiming to keep
+within reasonable bounds, that it may be used for work in the field
+and in the laboratory, no portion of the work has been slighted, or
+fundamental information omitted, in the endeavor to carry this plan
+into effect.</p></div>
+
+<p>24.&mdash;<strong>Thinking, Feeling, Doing.</strong> An Introduction to Mental Science. By <span class="smcap">E.
+W. Scripture</span>, Ph.D., M.D., Assistant Neurologist Columbia University,
+formerly Director of the Psychological Laboratory at Yale University.
+189 Illustrations. 2d Edition, Revised and Enlarged. Crown 8vo. Net,
+$1.75.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>"The chapters on Time and Action, Reaction Time, Thinking Time,
+Rhythmic Action, and Power and Will are most interesting. This book
+should be carefully read by every one who desires to be familiar
+with the advances made in the study of the mind, which advances, in
+the last twenty-five years, have been quite as striking and
+epoch-making as the strides made in the more material lines of
+knowledge."&mdash;<i>Jour. Amer. Med. Ass'n.</i>, Feb. 22, 1908.</p></div>
+
+<p>25.&mdash;<strong>The World's Gold.</strong> By <span class="smcap">L. de Launay</span>, Professor at the &Eacute;cole
+Superieure des Mines. Translated by Orlando Cyprian Williams. With an
+Introduction by Charles A. Conant, author of "History of Modern Banks of
+Issue," etc. Crown 8vo. Net, $1.75.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>M. de Launay is a professor of considerable repute not only in
+France, but among scientists throughout the world. In this work he
+traces the various uses and phases of gold; first, its geology;
+secondly, its extraction; thirdly, its economic value.</p></div>
+
+<p>26.&mdash;<strong>The Interpretation of Radium.</strong> By <span class="smcap">Frederick Soddy</span>, Lecturer in
+Physical Chemistry in the University of Glasgow. 8vo. With Diagrams.
+Net, $1.75.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>As the application of the present-day interpretation of Radium
+(that it is an element undergoing spontaneous disintegration) is
+not confined to the physical sciences, but has a wide and general
+bearing upon our whole outlook on Nature, Mr. Soddy has presented
+the subject in non-technical language, so that the ideas involved
+are within reach of the lay reader. No effort has been spared to
+get to the root of the matter and to secure accuracy, so that the
+book should prove serviceable to other fields of science and
+investigation, as well as to the general public.</p></div>
+
+<p>27.&mdash;<strong>Criminal Man.</strong> According to the Classification of <span class="smcap">Cesare Lombroso</span>.
+Briefly Summarized by his Daughter, Gina Lombroso Ferrero. With 36
+Illustrations and a Bibliography of Lombroso's Publications on the
+Subject.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>In preparation:</i></p>
+
+<p><strong>The Invisible Spectrum.</strong> By Professor <span class="smcap">C. E. Mendenhall</span>, University of
+Wisconsin.</p>
+
+<p><strong>The Physiology and Hygiene of Exercise.</strong> By Dr. <span class="smcap">G. L. Meylan</span>, Columbia
+University.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Other volumes to be announced later</i></p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><strong>Footnotes:</strong></p>
+
+<p><a name="f1" id="f1" href="#f1.1">[1]</a> For a description of the methods employed in measuring skulls see <a href="#PART_III">Part III</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f2" id="f2" href="#f2.1">[2]</a> For a description of the methods used in measuring the acuteness of these senses, see <a href="#PART_III">Part III</a>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="f3" id="f3" href="#f3.1">[3]</a> As in the case of the Sicilian brigand Salomone (see <a href="#fig19">Fig. 19</a>).</p>
+
+
+
+<hr style="width: 65%;" />
+<p><span class="u">Transcriber's Notes:</span></p>
+
+<p>Additional spacing after some of the quotes is intentional to indicate
+both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new paragraph as presented in the original text.</p>
+
+<p>Moving some images to the end of a paragraph has resulted in a few alterations in page numbers.</p>
+
+<p>Missing page numbers refer to blank pages in the original.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Criminal Man, by Gina Lombroso-Ferrero
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+</pre>
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+</body>
+</html>
+
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@@ -0,0 +1,9650 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Criminal Man, by Gina Lombroso-Ferrero
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Criminal Man
+       According to the Classification of Cesare Lombroso
+
+Author: Gina Lombroso-Ferrero
+
+Commentator: Cesare Lombroso
+
+Release Date: September 3, 2009 [EBook #29895]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK CRIMINAL MAN ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marilynda Fraser-Cunliffe, Stephanie Eason,
+and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net. (This file was made using scans of
+public domain works from the University of Michigan Digital
+Libraries.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE SCIENCE SERIES
+
+Edited by EDWARD LEE THORNDIKE, Ph.D., and F. E. BEDDARD, M.A., F.R.S.
+
+1. +The Study of Man.+ By A. C. HADDON.
+
+2. +The Groundwork of Science.+ By ST. GEORGE MIVART.
+
+3. +Rivers of North America.+ By ISRAEL C. RUSSELL.
+
+4. +Earth Sculpture, or; The Origin of Land Forms.+ By JAMES GEIKIE.
+
+5. +Volcanoes; Their Structure and Significance.+ By T. G. BONNEY.
+
+6. +Bacteria.+ By GEORGE NEWMAN.
+
+7. +A Book of Whales.+ By F. E. BEDDARD.
+
+8. +Comparative Physiology of the Brain,+ etc. By JACQUES LOEB.
+
+9. +The Stars.+ By SIMON NEWCOMB.
+
+10. +The Basis of Social Relations.+ By DANIEL G. BRINTON.
+
+11. +Experiments on Animals.+ By STEPHEN PAGET.
+
+12. +Infection and Immunity.+ By GEORGE M. STERNBERG.
+
+13. +Fatigue.+ By A. MOSSO.
+
+14. +Earthquakes.+ By CLARENCE E. DUTTON.
+
+15. +The Nature of Man.+ By ELIE METCHNIKOFF.
+
+16. +Nervous and Mental Hygiene in Health and Disease.+ By AUGUST FOREL.
+
+17. +The Prolongation of Life.+ By ELIE METCHNIKOFF.
+
+18. +The Solar System.+ By CHARLES LANE POOR.
+
+19. +Heredity.+ By J. ARTHUR THOMPSON, M.A.
+
+20. +Climate.+ By ROBERT DECOURCY WARD.
+
+21. +Age, Growth, and Death.+ By CHARLES S. MINOT.
+
+22. +The Interpretation of Nature.+ By C. LLOYD MORGAN.
+
+23. +Mosquito Life.+ By EVELYN GROESBEECK MITCHELL.
+
+24. +Thinking, Feeling, Doing.+ By E. W. SCRIPTURE.
+
+25. +The World's Gold.+ By L. DE LAUNAY.
+
+26. +The Interpretation of Radium.+ By F. SODDY.
+
+27. +Criminal Man.+ By CESARE LOMBROSO.
+
+_For list of works in preparation see end of this volume_
+
+
+
+
+The Science Series
+
+
+CRIMINAL MAN
+
+
+
+
+  CRIMINAL MAN
+  ACCORDING TO THE CLASSIFICATION OF
+  CESARE LOMBROSO
+
+
+  BRIEFLY SUMMARISED BY HIS DAUGHTER
+  GINA LOMBROSO-FERRERO
+
+
+  WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
+  CESARE LOMBROSO
+
+
+  _ILLUSTRATED_
+
+
+  G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+
+  NEW YORK AND LONDON
+  The Knickerbocker Press
+  1911
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT, 1911
+  BY
+  G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS
+
+
+  The Knickerbocker Press, New York
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+_PART I.--THE CRIMINAL WORLD_
+
+CHAPTER I PAGE
+
+THE BORN CRIMINAL                                                         3
+Classical and modern schools of penal jurisprudence--Physical anomalies
+of the born criminal--Senses and functions--Psychology--Intellectual
+manifestations--The criminal in proverbial sayings.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE BORN CRIMINAL AND HIS RELATION TO MORAL INSANITY AND EPILEPSY        52
+Identity of born criminals and the morally insane--Analogy of physical
+and psychic characters, origin and development--Epilepsy--Multiformity
+of disease--Equivalence of certain forms to criminality--Physical and
+psychic characters--Cases of moral insanity with latent epileptic
+phenomena.
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+THE INSANE CRIMINAL                                                      74
+General forms of criminal insanity, imbecility, melancholia, general
+paralysis, dementia, monomania--Physical and psychic characters of the
+mentally deranged--Special forms of criminal insanity--Inebriate
+lunatics from inebriation--Physical and psychic characters--Specific
+crimes--Epileptic lunatics--Manifestations--Hysterical lunatics--
+Physical and functional characters--Psychology.
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+CRIMINALOIDS                                                            100
+Psychology--Tardy adoption of criminal career--Repentance--
+Confession--Moral sense and affections--Habitual criminals--Juridical
+criminals--Criminals of passion.
+
+
+_PART II.--CRIME, ITS ORIGIN, CAUSE, AND CURE_
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF CRIME                                              125
+Atavistic origin of crime--Criminality in children--Pathological
+origin of crime--Direct and indirect heredity--Illnesses,
+intoxications, and traumatism--Alcoholism--Social causes of crime--
+Education and environment--Atmospheric and climatic influences--
+Density of population--Imitation--Immigration--Prison life--Economic
+conditions--Sex--Age.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE PREVENTION OF CRIME                                                 153
+Preventive institutions for children and young people--Homes for
+orphans and destitute children--Colonies for unruly youths--
+Institutions for assisting adults--Salvation Army.
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+METHODS FOR THE CURE AND REPRESSION OF CRIME                            175
+Juvenile offenders--Children's Courts--Institutions for female
+offenders--Minor offenders, criminals of passion, political offenders,
+and criminaloids--Probation system and indeterminate sentence--
+Reformatories--Penitentiaries--Institutes for habitual criminals--
+Penal colonies--Institutions for born criminals and the morally
+insane--Asylums for insane criminals--Capital punishment--Symbiosis.
+
+
+_PART III.--CHARACTERS AND TYPES OF CRIMINALS_
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+EXAMINATION OF CRIMINALS                                                219
+Antecedents and psychology--Methods of testing intelligence and
+emotions--Morbid phenomena--Speech, memory, and handwriting--
+Clothing--Physical examination--Tests of sensibility and senses--
+Excretions--Table of anthropological examination of criminals and
+the insane.
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+SUMMARY OF CHIEF FORMS OF CRIMINALITY TO AID IN DISTINGUISHING
+BETWEEN CRIMINALS AND LUNATICS AND IN DETECTING SIMULATIONS OF
+INSANITY                                                                258
+A few cases showing the practical application of criminal anthropology.
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+WORKS OF CESARE LOMBROSO (BRIEFLY SUMMARISED)
+
+_I._ THE MAN OF GENIUS                                                  283
+
+_II._ CRIMINAL MAN                                                      288
+
+_III._ THE FEMALE OFFENDER. (In Collaboration with Guglielmo Ferrero.)  291
+
+_IV._ POLITICAL CRIME. (In Collaboration with Rodolfo Laschi.)          294
+
+_V._ TOO SOON: A Criticism of the New Italian Penal Code                298
+
+_VI._ PRISON PALIMPSESTS: Studies in Prison Inscriptions                300
+
+_VII._ ANCIENT AND MODERN CRIMES                                        302
+
+_VIII._ DIAGNOSTIC METHODS OF LEGAL PSYCHIATRY                          303
+
+_IX._ ANARCHISTS                                                        305
+
+_X._ LECTURES ON LEGAL MEDICINE                                         307
+
+_XI._ RECENT DISCOVERIES IN PSYCHIATRY AND CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND
+      THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF THESE SCIENCES                       309
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE CHIEF WORKS OF CESARE LOMBROSO                      310
+
+INDEX                                                                   315
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+PAGE
+
+Fig. 1. FOSSETTE OCCIPITAL                                        6
+
+Fig. 2. SKULL FORMATION                                          11
+
+Fig. 3. SKULL FORMATION                                          11
+
+Fig. 4. HEAD OF CRIMINAL                                         16
+
+Fig. 5. HEAD OF CRIMINAL                                         16
+
+Fig. 6. LAYERS OF THE FRONTAL REGION                             23
+
+Fig. 7. FIGURES MADE IN PRISON. MURDER OF A SLEEPING VICTIM      32
+
+Fig. 8. CRUCIFIX POIGNARD                                        32
+
+Fig. 9. WATER-JUGS                                               42
+
+Fig. 10. DRAWINGS IN SCRIPT. DISCOVERED BY DE BLASIO             44
+
+Fig. 11. ALPHABET. DISCOVERED BY DE BLASIO                       45
+
+Fig. 12. BOY MORALLY INSANE                                      56
+
+Fig. 13. BOY MORALLY INSANE                                      56
+
+Fig. 14. AN EPILEPTIC BOY                                        60
+
+Fig. 15. FERNANDO. EPILEPTIC                                     60
+
+Fig. 16. ITALIAN CRIMINAL. A CASE OF ALCOHOLISM                  82
+
+Fig. 17. SIGNATURES OF CRIMINALS                                163
+
+Fig. 18. CRIMINAL GIRL                                          114
+
+Fig. 19. THE BRIGAND SALOMONE                                   114
+
+Fig. 20. BRIGAND GASPARONE                                      166
+
+Fig. 21. BRIGAND CASERIO                                        120
+
+Fig. 22. TERRA-COTTA BOWLS. DESIGNED BY A CRIMINAL              134
+
+Fig. 23. ART PRODUCTION FROM PRISON                             136
+
+Fig. 24. A COMBAT BETWEEN BRIGANDS AND GENDARMES. DESIGNED
+         BY A CRIMINAL                                          136
+
+Fig. 25. A VOLUMETRIC GLOVE                                     224
+
+Fig. 26. HEAD OF A CRIMINAL. EPILEPTIC                          224
+
+Fig. 27. ANTON OTTO KRAUSER. APACHE                             236
+
+Fig. 28. A CRIMINAL'S EAR                                       224
+
+Fig. 29. ANTHROPOMETER                                          237
+
+Fig. 30. CRANIOGRAPH ANFOSSI                                    238
+
+Fig. 31. PELVIMETER                                             239
+
+Fig. 32. DIAGRAM OF SKULL                                       241
+
+Fig. 33. DIAGRAM OF SKULL                                       241
+
+Fig. 34. ESTHESIOMETER                                          245
+
+Fig. 35. ALGOMETER                                              248
+
+Fig. 36. CAMPIMETER OF LANDOLT (MODIFIED)                       248
+
+Fig. 37. DIAGRAM SHOWING NORMAL VISION                          250
+
+Fig. 38. DYNAMOMETER                                            253
+
+Fig. 39. HEAD OF AN ITALIAN CRIMINAL                            254
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+BY CESARE LOMBROSO
+
+     [Professor Lombroso was able before his death to give his personal
+     attention to the volume prepared by his daughter and collaborator,
+     Gina Lombroso Ferrero (wife of the distinguished historian), in
+     which is presented a summary of the conclusions reached in the
+     great treatise by Lombroso on the causes of criminality and the
+     treatment of criminals. The preparation of the introduction to this
+     volume was the last literary work which the distinguished author
+     found it possible to complete during his final illness.]
+
+
+It will, perhaps, be of interest to American readers of this book, in
+which the ideas of the Modern Penal School, set forth in my work,
+_Criminal Man_, have been so pithily summed up by my daughter, to learn
+how the first outlines of this science arose in my mind and gradually
+took shape in a definite work--how, that is, combated by some, the
+object of almost fanatical adherence on the part of others, especially
+in America, where tradition has little hold, the Modern Penal School
+came into being.
+
+On consulting my memory and the documents relating to my studies on this
+subject, I find that its two fundamental ideas--that, for instance,
+which claims as an essential point the study not of crime in the
+abstract, but of the criminal himself, in order adequately to deal with
+the evil effects of his wrong-doing, and that which classifies the
+congenital criminal as an anomaly, partly pathological and partly
+atavistic, a revival of the primitive savage--did not suggest themselves
+to me instantaneously under the spell of a single deep impression, but
+were the offspring of a series of impressions. The slow and almost
+unconscious association of these first vague ideas resulted in a new
+system which, influenced by its origin, has preserved in all its
+subsequent developments the traces of doubt and indecision, the marks of
+the travail which attended its birth.
+
+The first idea came to me in 1864, when, as an army doctor, I beguiled
+my ample leisure with a series of studies on the Italian soldier. From
+the very beginning I was struck by a characteristic that distinguished
+the honest soldier from his vicious comrade: the extent to which the
+latter was tattooed and the indecency of the designs that covered his
+body. This idea, however, bore no fruit.
+
+The second inspiration came to me when on one occasion, amid the
+laughter of my colleagues, I sought to base the study of psychiatry on
+experimental methods. When in '66, fresh from the atmosphere of clinical
+experiment, I had begun to study psychiatry, I realised how inadequate
+were the methods hitherto held in esteem, and how necessary it was, in
+studying the insane, to make the patient, not the disease, the object of
+attention. In homage to these ideas, I applied to the clinical
+examination of cases of mental alienation the study of the skull, with
+measurements and weights, by means of the esthesiometer and craniometer.
+Reassured by the result of these first steps, I sought to apply this
+method to the study of criminals--that is, to the differentiation of
+criminals and lunatics, following the example of a few investigators,
+such as Thomson and Wilson; but as at that time I had neither criminals
+nor moral imbeciles available for observation (a remarkable circumstance
+since I was to make the criminal my starting-point), and as I was
+skeptical as to the existence of those "moral lunatics" so much insisted
+on by both French and English authors, whose demonstrations, however,
+showed a lamentable lack of precision, I was anxious to apply the
+experimental method to the study of the diversity, rather than the
+analogy, between lunatics, criminals, and normal individuals. Like him,
+however, whose lantern lights the road for others, while he himself
+stumbles in the darkness, this method proved useless for determining the
+differences between criminals and lunatics, but served instead to
+indicate a new method for the study of penal jurisprudence, a matter to
+which I had never given serious thought. I began dimly to realise that
+the _a priori_ studies on crime in the abstract, hitherto pursued by
+jurists, especially in Italy, with singular acumen, should be superseded
+by the direct analytical study of the criminal, compared with normal
+individuals and the insane.
+
+I, therefore, began to study criminals in the Italian prisons, and,
+amongst others, I made the acquaintance of the famous brigand Vilella.
+This man possessed such extraordinary agility, that he had been known to
+scale steep mountain heights bearing a sheep on his shoulders. His
+cynical effrontery was such that he openly boasted of his crimes. On his
+death one cold grey November morning, I was deputed to make the
+_post-mortem_, and on laying open the skull I found on the occipital
+part, exactly on the spot where a spine is found in the normal skull, a
+distinct depression which I named _median occipital fossa_, because of
+its situation precisely in the middle of the occiput as in inferior
+animals, especially rodents. This depression, as in the case of animals,
+was correlated with the hypertrophy of the _vermis_, known in birds as
+the middle cerebellum.
+
+This was not merely an idea, but a revelation. At the sight of that
+skull, I seemed to see all of a sudden, lighted up as a vast plain
+under a flaming sky, the problem of the nature of the criminal--an
+atavistic being who reproduces in his person the ferocious instincts of
+primitive humanity and the inferior animals. Thus were explained
+anatomically the enormous jaws, high cheek-bones, prominent superciliary
+arches, solitary lines in the palms, extreme size of the orbits,
+handle-shaped or sessile ears found in criminals, savages, and apes,
+insensibility to pain, extremely acute sight, tattooing, excessive
+idleness, love of orgies, and the irresistible craving for evil for its
+own sake, the desire not only to extinguish life in the victim, but to
+mutilate the corpse, tear its flesh, and drink its blood.
+
+I was further encouraged in this bold hypothesis by the results of my
+studies on Verzeni, a criminal convicted of sadism and rape, who showed
+the cannibalistic instincts of primitive anthropophagists and the
+ferocity of beasts of prey.
+
+The various parts of the extremely complex problem of criminality were,
+however, not all solved hereby. The final key was given by another case,
+that of Misdea, a young soldier of about twenty-one, unintelligent but
+not vicious. Although subject to epileptic fits, he had served for some
+years in the army when suddenly, for some trivial cause, he attacked and
+killed eight of his superior officers and comrades. His horrible work
+accomplished, he fell into a deep slumber, which lasted twelve hours and
+on awaking appeared to have no recollection of what had happened.
+Misdea, while representing the most ferocious type of animal,
+manifested, in addition, all the phenomena of epilepsy, which appeared
+to be hereditary in all the members of his family. It flashed across my
+mind that many criminal characteristics not attributable to atavism,
+such as facial asymmetry, cerebral sclerosis, impulsiveness,
+instantaneousness, the periodicity of criminal acts, the desire of evil
+for evil's sake, were morbid characteristics common to epilepsy, mingled
+with others due to atavism.
+
+Thus were traced the first clinical outlines of my work which had
+hitherto been entirely anthropological. The clinical outlines confirmed
+the anthropological contours, and _vice versa_; for the greatest
+criminals showed themselves to be epileptics, and, on the other hand,
+epileptics manifested the same anomalies as criminals. Finally, it was
+shown that epilepsy frequently reproduced atavistic characteristics,
+including even those common to lower animals.
+
+That synthesis which mighty geniuses have often succeeded in creating by
+one inspiration (but at the risk of errors, for a genius is only human
+and in many cases more fallacious than his fellow-men) was deduced by
+me gradually from various sources--the study of the normal individual,
+the lunatic, the criminal, the savage, and finally the child. Thus, by
+reducing the penal problem to its simplest expression, its solution was
+rendered easier, just as the study of embryology has in a great measure
+solved the apparently strange and mysterious riddle of teratology.
+
+But these attempts would have been sterile, had not a solid phalanx of
+jurists, Russian, German, Hungarian, Italian, and American, fertilised
+the germ by correcting hasty and one-sided conclusions, suggesting
+opportune reforms and applications, and, most important of all, applying
+my ideas on the offender to his individual and social prophylaxis and
+cure.
+
+Enrico Ferri was the first to perceive that the congenital epileptoid
+criminal did not form a single species, and that if this class was
+irretrievably doomed to perdition, crime in others was only a brief
+spell of insanity, determined by circumstances, passion, or illness. He
+established new types--the occasional criminal and the criminal by
+passion,--and transformed the basis of the penal code by asking if it
+were more just to make laws obey facts instead of altering facts to suit
+the laws, solely in order to avoid troubling the placidity of those who
+refused to consider this new element in the scientific field. Therefore,
+putting aside those abstract formulae for which high talents have panted
+in vain, like the thirsty traveller at the sight of the desert mirage,
+the advocates of the Modern School came to the conclusion that sentences
+should show a decrease in infamy and ferocity proportionate to the
+increase in length and social safety. In lieu of infamy they substituted
+a longer period of segregation, and for cases in which alienists were
+unable to decide between criminality and insanity, they advocated an
+intermediate institution, in which merciful treatment and social
+security were alike considered. They also emphasised the importance of
+certain measures which hitherto had been universally regarded as a pure
+abstraction or an unattainable desideratum--measures for the prevention
+of crime by tracing it to its source, divorce laws to diminish adultery,
+legislation of an anti-alcoholistic tendency to prevent crimes of
+violence, associations for destitute children, and co-operative
+associations to check the tendency to theft. Above all, they insisted on
+those regulations--unfortunately fallen into disuse--which indemnify the
+victim at the expense of the aggressor, in order that society, having
+suffered once for the crime, should not be obliged to suffer
+pecuniarily for the detention of the offender, solely in homage to a
+theoretical principle that no one believes in, according to which prison
+is a kind of baptismal font in whose waters sin of all kinds is washed
+away.
+
+Thus the edifice of criminal anthropology, circumscribed at first,
+gradually extended its walls and embraced special studies on homicide,
+political crime, crimes connected with the banking world, crimes by
+women, etc.
+
+But the first stone had been scarcely laid when from all quarters of
+Europe arose those calumnies and misrepresentations which always follow
+in the train of audacious innovations. We were accused of wishing to
+proclaim the impunity of crime, of demanding the release of all
+criminals, of refusing to take into account climatic and racial
+influences and of asserting that the criminal is a slave eternally
+chained to his instincts; whereas the Modern School, on the contrary,
+gave a powerful impetus to the labors of statisticians and sociologists
+on these very matters. This is clearly shown in the third volume of
+_Criminal Man_, which contains a summary of the ideas of modern
+criminologists and my own.
+
+One nation, however--America,--gave a warm and sympathetic reception to
+the ideas of the Modern School which they speedily put into practice,
+with the brilliant results shown by the Reformatory at Elmira, the
+Probation System, Juvenile Courts, and the George Junior Republic. They
+also initiated the practice, now in general use, of anthropological
+co-operation in every criminal trial of importance.
+
+For this reason, and in view of the fact that America does not possess a
+complete translation of my works--_The Criminal, Male and Female_, and
+_Political Crime_ (translation and distribution being alike difficult on
+account of the length of these volumes)--I welcome with pleasure this
+summary, in which the principal points are explained with precision and
+loving care by my daughter Gina, who has worked with me from childhood,
+has seen the edifice of my science rise stone upon stone, and has shared
+in my anxieties, insults, and triumphs; without whose help I might,
+perhaps, never have witnessed the completion of that edifice, nor the
+application of its fundamental principles.
+
+
+
+
+
+PART I
+
+THE CRIMINAL WORLD
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+_THE BORN CRIMINAL_
+
+
+A criminal is a man who violates the laws decreed by the State to
+regulate the relations between its citizens, but the voluminous codes
+which in past times set forth these laws treat only of crime, never of
+the criminal. That ignoble multitude whom Dante relegated to the
+Infernal Regions were consigned by magistrates and judges to the care of
+gaolers and executioners, who alone deigned to deal with them. The
+judge, immovable in his doctrine, unshaken by doubts, solemn in all his
+inviolability and convinced of his wisdom, which no one dared to
+question, passed sentence without remission according to his whim, and
+both judge and culprit were equally ignorant of the ultimate effect of
+the penalties inflicted.
+
+In 1764, the great Italian jurist and economist, Cesare Beccaria first
+called public attention to those wretched beings, whose confessions (if
+statements extorted by torture can thus be called) formed the sole
+foundation for the trial, the sole guide in the application of the
+punishment, which was bestowed blindly, without formality, without
+hearing the defence, exactly as though sentence were being passed on
+abstract symbols, not on human souls and bodies.
+
+The Classical School of Penal Jurisprudence, of which Beccaria was the
+founder and Francesco Carrara the greatest and most glorious disciple,
+aimed only at establishing sound judgments and fixed laws to guide
+capricious and often undiscerning judges in the application of
+penalties. In writing his great work, the founder of this School was
+inspired by the highest of all human sentiments--pity; but although the
+criminal incidentally receives notice, the writings of this School treat
+only of the application of the law, not of offenders themselves.
+
+This is the difference between the Classical and the Modern School of
+Penal Jurisprudence. The Classical School based its doctrines on the
+assumption that all criminals, except in a few extreme cases, are
+endowed with intelligence and feelings like normal individuals, and that
+they commit misdeeds consciously, being prompted thereto by their
+unrestrained desire for evil. The offence alone was considered, and on
+it the whole existing penal system has been founded, the severity of the
+sentence meted out to the offender being regulated by the gravity of his
+misdeed.
+
+The Modern, or Positive, School of Penal Jurisprudence, on the contrary,
+maintains that the anti-social tendencies of criminals are the result of
+their physical and psychic organisation, which differs essentially from
+that of normal individuals; and it aims at studying the morphology and
+various functional phenomena of the criminal with the object of curing,
+instead of punishing him. The Modern School is therefore founded on a
+new science, Criminal Anthropology, which may be defined as the Natural
+History of the Criminal, because it embraces his organic and psychic
+constitution and social life, just as anthropology does in the case of
+normal human beings and the different races.
+
+If we examine a number of criminals, we shall find that they exhibit
+numerous anomalies in the face, skeleton, and various psychic and
+sensitive functions, so that they strongly resemble primitive races. It
+was these anomalies that first drew my father's attention to the close
+relationship between the criminal and the savage and made him suspect
+that criminal tendencies are of atavistic origin.
+
+When a young doctor at the Asylum in Pavia, he was requested to make a
+post-mortem examination on a criminal named Vilella, an Italian Jack the
+Ripper, who by atrocious crimes had spread terror in the Province of
+Lombardy. Scarcely had he laid open the skull, when he perceived at the
+base, on the spot where the internal occipital crest or ridge is found
+in normal individuals, a small hollow, which he called _median occipital
+fossa_ (see Fig. 1). This abnormal character was correlated to a still
+greater anomaly in the cerebellum, the hypertrophy of the vermis,
+_i.e._, the spinal cord which separates the cerebellar lobes lying
+underneath the cerebral hemispheres. This vermis was so enlarged in the
+case of Vilella, that it almost formed a small, intermediate cerebellum
+like that found in the lower types of apes, rodents, and birds. This
+anomaly is very rare among inferior races, with the exception of the
+South American Indian tribe of the Aymaras of Bolivia and Peru, in whom
+it is not infrequently found (40%). It is seldom met with in the insane
+or other degenerates, but later investigations have shown it to be
+prevalent in criminals.
+
+This discovery was like a flash of light. "At the sight of that skull,"
+says my father, "I seemed to see all at once, standing out clearly
+illumined as in a vast plain under a flaming sky, the problem of the
+nature of the criminal, who reproduces in civilised times
+characteristics, not only of primitive savages, but of still lower types
+as far back as the carnivora."
+
+
+  =FIG. 1
+  FOSSETTE OCCIPITAL
+  (see page 6)=
+
+
+Thus was explained the origin of the enormous jaws, strong canines,
+prominent zygomae, and strongly developed orbital arches which he had so
+frequently remarked in criminals, for these peculiarities are common to
+carnivores and savages, who tear and devour raw flesh. Thus also it was
+easy to understand why the span of the arms in criminals so often
+exceeds the height, for this is a characteristic of apes, whose
+fore-limbs are used in walking and climbing. The other anomalies
+exhibited by criminals--the scanty beard as opposed to the general
+hairiness of the body, prehensile foot, diminished number of lines in
+the palm of the hand, cheek-pouches, enormous development of the middle
+incisors and frequent absence of the lateral ones, flattened nose and
+angular or sugar-loaf form of the skull, common to criminals and apes;
+the excessive size of the orbits, which, combined with the hooked nose,
+so often imparts to criminals the aspect of birds of prey, the
+projection of the lower part of the face and jaws (prognathism) found in
+negroes and animals, and supernumerary teeth (amounting in some cases to
+a double row as in snakes) and cranial bones (epactal bone as in the
+Peruvian Indians): all these characteristics pointed to one conclusion,
+the atavistic origin of the criminal, who reproduces physical, psychic,
+and functional qualities of remote ancestors.
+
+Subsequent research on the part of my father and his disciples showed
+that other factors besides atavism come into play in determining the
+criminal type. These are: disease and environment. Later on, the study
+of innumerable offenders led them to the conclusion that all
+law-breakers cannot be classed in a single species, for their ranks
+include very diversified types, who differ not only in their bent
+towards a particular form of crime, but also in the degree of tenacity
+and intensity displayed by them in their perverse propensities, so that,
+in reality, they form a graduated scale leading from the born criminal
+to the normal individual.
+
+Born criminals form about one third of the mass of offenders, but,
+though inferior in numbers, they constitute the most important part of
+the whole criminal army, partly because they are constantly appearing
+before the public and also because the crimes committed by them are of a
+peculiarly monstrous character; the other two thirds are composed of
+criminaloids (minor offenders), occasional and habitual criminals, etc.,
+who do not show such a marked degree of diversity from normal persons.
+
+Let us commence with the born criminal, who as principal nucleus of the
+wretched army of law-breakers, naturally manifests the most numerous and
+salient anomalies.
+
+The median occipital fossa and other abnormal features just enumerated
+are not the only peculiarities exhibited by this aggravated type of
+offender. By careful research, my father and others of his School have
+brought to light many anomalies in bodily organs, and functions both
+physical and mental, all of which serve to indicate the atavistic and
+pathological origin of the instinctive criminal.
+
+It would be incompatible with the scope of this summary, were I to give
+a minute description of the innumerable anomalies discovered in
+criminals by the Modern School, to attempt to trace such abnormal traits
+back to their source, or to demonstrate their effect on the organism.
+This has been done in a very minute fashion in the three volumes of my
+father's work _Criminal Man_ and his subsequent writings on the same
+subject, _Modern Forms of Crime_, _Recent Research in Criminal
+Anthropology_, _Prison Palimpsests_, etc., etc., to which readers
+desirous of obtaining a more thorough knowledge of the subject should
+refer.
+
+The present volume will only touch briefly on the principal
+characteristics of criminals, with the object of presenting a general
+outline of the studies of criminologists.
+
+
+PHYSICAL ANOMALIES OF THE BORN CRIMINAL
+
+_The Head._ As the seat of all the greatest disturbances, this part
+naturally manifests the greatest number of anomalies, which extend from
+the external conformation of the brain-case to the composition of its
+contents.
+
+The criminal skull does not exhibit any marked characteristics of size
+and shape. Generally speaking, it tends to be larger or smaller than the
+average skull common to the region or country from which the criminal
+hails. It varies between 1200 and 1600 c.c.; _i.e._, between 73 and 100
+cubic inches, the normal average being 92. This applies also to the
+cephalic index; that is, the ratio of the maximum width to the maximum
+length of the skull[1] multiplied by 100, which serves to give a
+concrete idea of the form of the skull, because the higher the index,
+the nearer the skull approaches a spherical form, and the lower the
+index, the more elongated it becomes. The skulls of criminals have no
+characteristic cephalic index, but tend to an exaggeration of the
+ethnical type prevalent in their native countries. In regions where
+dolichocephaly (index less than 80) abounds, the skulls of criminals
+show a very low index; if, on the contrary, they are natives of
+districts where brachycephaly (index 80 or more) prevails, they exhibit
+a very high index.
+
+
+  =SKULL FORMATION
+  FIG. 2          FIG. 3=
+
+
+In 15.5% we find trochocephalous or abnormally round heads (index 91). A
+very high percentage (nearly double that of normal individuals) have
+submicrocephalous or small skulls. In other cases the skull is
+excessively large (macrocephaly) or abnormally small and ill-shaped with
+a narrow, receding forehead (microcephaly, 0.2%). More rarely the skull
+is of normal size, but shaped like the keel of a boat (scaphocephaly,
+0.1% and subscaphocephaly 6%). (See Fig. 2.) Sometimes the anomalies are
+still more serious and we find wholly asymmetrical skulls with
+protuberances on either side (plagiocephaly 10.9%, see Fig. 3), or
+terminating in a peak on the bregma or anterior fontanel (acrocephaly,
+see Fig. 4), or depressed in the middle (cymbocephaly, sphenocephaly).
+At times, there are crests or grooves along the sutures (11.9%) or the
+cranial bones are abnormally thick, a characteristic of savage peoples
+(36.6%) or abnormally thin (8.10%). Other anomalies of importance are
+the presence of Wormian bones in the sutures of the skull (21.22%), the
+bone of the Incas already alluded to (4%), and above all, the median
+occipital fossa. Of great importance also are the prominent frontal
+sinuses found in 25% (double that of normal individuals), the
+semicircular line of the temples, which is sometimes so exaggerated that
+it forms a ridge and is correlated to an excessive development of the
+temporal muscles, a common characteristic of primates and carnivores.
+Sometimes the forehead is receding, as in apes (19%), or low and narrow
+(10%).
+
+_The Face._ In striking contrast to the narrow forehead and low vault of
+the skull, the face of the criminal, like those of most animals, is of
+disproportionate size, a phenomenon intimately connected with the
+greater development of the senses as compared with that of the nervous
+centres. Prognathism, the projection of the lower portion of the face
+beyond the forehead, is found in 45.7% of criminals. Progeneismus, the
+projection of the lower teeth and jaw beyond the upper, is found in 38%,
+whereas among normal persons the proportion is barely 28%. As a natural
+consequence of this predominance of the lower portion of the face, the
+orbital arches and zygomae show a corresponding development (35%) and the
+size of the jaws is naturally increased, the mean diameter being 103.9 mm.
+(4.09 inches) as against 93 mm. (3.66 inches) in normal persons. Among
+criminals 29% have voluminous jaws.
+
+The excessive dimensions of the jaws and cheek-bones admit of other
+explanations besides the atavistic one of a greater development of the
+masticatory system. They may have been influenced by the habit of
+certain gestures, the setting of the teeth or tension of the muscles of
+the mouth, which accompany violent muscular efforts and are natural to
+men who form energetic or violent resolves and meditate plans of
+revenge.
+
+Asymmetry is a common characteristic of the criminal physiognomy. The
+eyes and ears are frequently situated at different levels and are of
+unequal size, the nose slants towards one side, etc. This asymmetry, as
+we shall see later, is connected with marked irregularities in the
+senses and functions.
+
+_The Eye._ This window, through which the mind opens to the outer
+world, is naturally the centre of many anomalies of a psychic character,
+hard expression, shifty glance, which are difficult to describe but are,
+nevertheless, apparent to all observers (see Fig. 4). Side by side with
+peculiarities of expression, we find many physical anomalies--ptosis, a
+drooping of the upper eyelid, which gives the eye a half-closed
+appearance and is frequently unilateral; and strabismus, a want of
+parallelism between the visual axes, which is insignificant if it arises
+from errors of refraction, but is very serious if it betokens
+progressive or congenital diseases of the brain or its membranous
+coverings. Other anomalies are asymmetry of the iris, which frequently
+differs in colour from its fellow; oblique eyelids, a Mongolian
+characteristic, with the edge of the upper eyelid folding inward or a
+prolongation of the internal fold of the eyelid, which Metchnikoff
+regards as a persistence of embryonic characters.
+
+_The Ear._ The external ear is often of large size; occasionally also it
+is smaller than the ears of normal individuals. Twenty-eight per cent.
+of criminals have handle-shaped ears standing out from the face as in
+the chimpanzee: in other cases they are placed at different levels.
+Frequently too, we find misshapen, flattened ears, devoid of helix,
+tragus, and anti-tragus, and with a protuberance on the upper part of
+the posterior margin (Darwin's tubercle), a relic of the pointed ear
+characteristic of apes. Anomalies are also found in the lobe, which in
+some cases adheres too closely to the face, or is of huge size as in the
+ancient Egyptians; in other cases, the lobe is entirely absent, or is
+atrophied till the ear assumes a form like that common to apes.
+
+_The Nose._ This is frequently twisted, up-turned or of a flattened,
+negroid character in thieves; in murderers, on the contrary, it is often
+aquiline like the beak of a bird of prey. Not infrequently we meet with
+the trilobate nose, its tip rising like an isolated peak from the
+swollen nostrils, a form found among the Akkas, a tribe of pygmies of
+Central Africa. All these peculiarities have given rise to popular saws,
+of a character more or less prevalent everywhere.
+
+_The Mouth._ This part shows perhaps a greater number of anomalies than
+any other facial organ. We have already alluded to the excessive
+development of the jaws in criminals. They are sometimes the seat of
+other abnormal characters,--the lemurine apophysis, a bony elevation at
+the angle of the jaw, which may easily be recognised externally by
+passing the hand over the skin; and the canine fossa, a depression in
+the upper jaw for the attachment of the canine muscle. This muscle,
+which is strongly developed in the dog, serves when contracted to draw
+back the lip leaving the canines exposed.
+
+The lips of violators of women and murderers are fleshy, swollen and
+protruding, as in negroes. Swindlers have thin, straight lips. Hare-lip
+is more common in criminals than in normal persons.
+
+_The Cheek-pouches._ Folds in the flesh of the cheek which recall the
+pouches of certain species of mammals, are not uncommon in criminals.
+
+_The Palate._ A central ridge (_torus palatinus_), more easily felt than
+seen, may sometimes be found on the palate, or this part may exhibit
+other peculiarities, a series of cavities and protuberances
+corresponding to the palatal teeth of reptiles. Another frequent
+abnormality is cleft palate, a fissure in the palate, due to defective
+development.
+
+_The Teeth._ These are specially important, for criminals rarely have
+normal dentition. The incisors show the greatest number of anomalies.
+Sometimes both the lateral incisors are absent and the middle ones are
+of excessive size, a peculiarity which recalls the incisors of rodents.
+The teeth are frequently striated transversely or set very wide apart
+(diastema) with gaps on either side of the upper canines into which the
+lower ones fit, a simian characteristic. In some cases, these spaces
+occur between the middle incisors or between these and the lateral ones.
+
+
+  =FIG. 4
+  HEAD OF CRIMINAL
+  (see page 14)=
+
+
+  =FIG. 5
+  HEAD OF CRIMINAL
+  (see page 18)=
+
+
+
+Very often the teeth show a strange uniformity, which recalls the
+homodontism of the lower vertebrates. In some cases, however, this
+uniformity is limited to the premolars, which are furnished with
+tubercles like the molars, a peculiarity of gorillas and orang-outangs.
+In 4% the canines are very strongly developed, long, sharp, and curving
+inwardly as in carnivores. Premature caries is common.
+
+_The Chin._ Generally speaking, this part of the face projects
+moderately in Europeans. In criminals it is often small and receding, as
+in children, or else excessively long, short or flat, as in apes.
+
+_Wrinkles._ Although common to normal individuals, the abundance,
+variety, and precocity of wrinkles almost invariably manifested by
+criminals, cannot fail to strike the observer. The following are the
+most common: horizontal and vertical lines on the forehead, horizontal
+and circumflex lines at the root of the nose, the so-called crow's-feet
+on the temple at the outer corners of the eyes, naso-labial wrinkles
+around the region of the mouth and nose.
+
+_The Hair._ The hair of the scalp, cheeks and chin, eyebrows, and other
+parts of the body, shows a number of anomalies. In general it may be
+said that in the distribution of hair, criminals of both sexes tend to
+exhibit characteristics of the opposite sex. Dark hair prevails
+especially in murderers, and curly and woolly hair in swindlers. Both
+grey hair and baldness are rare and when found make their appearance
+later in life than in the case of normal individuals. The beard is
+scanty and frequently missing altogether. On the other hand, the
+forehead is often covered with down. The eyebrows are bushy and tend to
+meet across the nose. Sometimes they grow in a slanting direction and
+give the face a satyr-like expression (see Fig. 5).
+
+The blemishes peculiar to the delinquent are not only confined to the
+face and head, but are found in the trunk and limbs.
+
+_The Thorax._ An increase or decrease in the number of ribs is found in
+12% of criminals. This is an atavistic character common to animals and
+lower or prehistoric human races and contrasts with the numerical
+uniformity characteristic of civilised mankind.
+
+Polymastia, or the presence of supernumerary nipples (which are
+generally placed symmetrically below the normal ones as in many mammals)
+is not an uncommon anomaly. Gynecomastia or hypertrophy of the mammae is
+still more frequent in male criminals. In female criminals, on the
+contrary, we often find imperfect development or absence of the
+nipples, a characteristic of monotremata or lowest order of the mammals;
+or the breasts are flabby and pendent like those of Hottentot women.
+
+The chest is often covered with hair which gives the subject the
+appearance of an animal.
+
+_The Pelvis and Abdomen._ The abdomen, pelvis, and reproductive organs
+sometimes show an inversion of sex-characters. In 42% the sacral canal
+is uncovered, and in some cases there is a prolongation of the coccyx,
+which resembles the stump of a tail, sometimes tufted with hair.
+
+_The Upper Limbs._ One of the most striking and frequent anomalies
+exhibited by criminals is the excessive length of the arms as compared
+with the lower limbs, owing to which the span of the arms exceeds the
+total height, an ape-like character.
+
+Six per cent. exhibit an anomaly which is extremely rare among normal
+individuals--the olecranon foramen, a perforation in the head of the
+humerus where it articulates with the ulna. This is normal in the ape
+and dog and is frequently found in the bones of prehistoric man and in
+some of the existing inferior races of mankind.
+
+Several abnormal characters, which point to an atavistic origin, are
+found in the palm and fingers. Supernumerary fingers (polydactylism) or
+a reduction in the usual number are not uncommon. Sometimes we find
+syndactylism, or palmate fingers, a continuation of the interdigital
+skin to the second phalanx. The length of the fingers varies according
+to the type of crime to which the individual is addicted. Those guilty
+of crimes against the person have short, clumsy fingers and especially
+short thumbs. Long fingers are common to swindlers, thieves, sexual
+offenders, and pickpockets. The lines on the palmar surfaces of the
+finger-tips are often of a simple nature as in the anthropoids. The
+principal lines on the palm are of special significance. Normal persons
+possess three, two horizontal and one vertical, but in criminals these
+lines are often reduced to one or two of horizontal or transverse
+direction, as in apes.
+
+_The Lower Limbs._ Of a number of criminals examined, 16% showed an
+unusual development of the third trochanter, a protuberance on the head
+of the femur where it articulates with the pelvis. This distinctly
+atavistic character is connected with the position of the hind-limb in
+quadrupeds.
+
+_The Feet._ Spaces between the toes like the interdigital spaces of the
+hand are very common, and in conjunction with the greater mobility of
+the toes and greater length of the big-toe, produce the prehensile foot,
+of the quadrumana, which is used for grasping. The foot is often flat,
+as in negroes. In the feet, as in the hands, there is frequently a
+tendency to greater strength or dexterity on the left side, contrary to
+what happens in normal persons, and this tendency is manifested in many
+cases where there is no trace of functional and motorial
+left-handedness.
+
+_The Cerebrum and the Cerebellum._ The chief and most common anomaly is
+the prevalence of macroscopic anomalies in the left hemisphere, which
+are correlated to the sensory and functional left-handedness common to
+criminals and acquired through illness. The most notable anomaly of the
+cerebellum is the hypertrophy of the vermis, which represents the middle
+lobe found in the lower mammals. Anomalies in the cerebral convolutions
+consist principally of anastomotic folds, the doubling of the fissure of
+Rolando, the frequent existence of a fourth frontal convolution, the
+imperfect development of the precuneus (as in many types of apes), etc.
+Anomalies of a purely pathological character are still more common.
+These are: adhesions of the meninges, thickening of the pia mater,
+congestion of the meninges, partial atrophy, centres of softening,
+seaming of the optic thalami, atrophy of the corpus callosum, etc.
+
+Of great importance, too, are the histological anomalies discovered by
+Roncoroni in the brains of criminals and epileptics. In normal
+individuals the layers of the frontal region are disposed in the
+following manner:
+
+1. Molecular layer. 2. Superficial layer of small cells. 3. Layer of
+small pyramidal cells. 4. Deep layer of small nerve cells. 5. Layer of
+polymorphous cells (see Fig. 6).
+
+In certain animals, the dog, ape, rabbit, ox, and domestic fowl, the
+superficial layer is frequently non-existent and the deep one is found
+only to some extent in the ape.
+
+In born criminals and epileptics there is a prevalence of large,
+pyramidal, and polymorphous cells, whereas in normal individuals small,
+triangular, and star-shaped cells predominate. Also the transition from
+the small superficial to the large pyramidal cells is not so regular,
+and the number of nervous cells is noticeably below the average.
+Whereas, moreover, in the normally constituted brain, nervous cells are
+very scarce or entirely absent in the white substance, in the case of
+born criminals and epileptics they abound in this part of the brain.
+
+The abnormal morphological arrangement described by Roncoroni is
+probably the anatomical expression of hereditary alterations, and
+reveals disorders in nervous development which lead to moral insanity
+or epilepsy according to the gravity of the morbid conditions which give
+rise to them.
+
+
+
+  =FIG. 6
+
+  _a_) Cortical strata of the circumvolutions of the parietal lobes of a
+  normal person.
+
+  _b_) Cortical strata of the circumvolutions of the parietal lobes of a
+  criminal epileptic.
+
+  1. Molecular stratum. 2. External granular stratum. 3. Stratum of the
+  small pyramidal cells. 4. Stratum of the large pyramidal cells. 5. Deep
+  stratum of the small nervous cells or the deep granular stratum. 6.
+  Stratum of polymorphic cells. S.B. White matter.=
+
+
+These anomalies in the limbs, trunk, skull and, above all, in the face,
+when numerous and marked, constitute what is known to criminal
+anthropologists as the criminal type, in exactly the same way as the sum
+of the characters peculiar to cretins form what is called the cretinous
+type. In neither case have the anomalies an intrinsic importance, since
+they are neither the cause of the anti-social tendencies of the criminal
+nor of the mental deficiencies of the cretin. They are the outward and
+visible signs of a mysterious and complicated process of degeneration,
+which in the case of the criminal evokes evil impulses that are largely
+of atavistic origin.
+
+
+SENSORY AND FUNCTIONAL PECULIARITIES OF THE BORN CRIMINAL
+
+The above-mentioned physiognomical and skeletal anomalies are further
+supplemented by functional peculiarities, and all these abnormal
+characteristics converge, as mountain streams to the hollow in the
+plain, towards a central idea--the atavistic nature of the born
+criminal.
+
+An examination of the senses and sensibility of criminals gives the
+following results:
+
+_General Sensibility._ Tested simply by touching with the finger, a
+certain degree of obtuseness is noted. By using an apparatus invented by
+Du Bois-Reymond and adopted by my father, the degree of sensibility
+obtained was 49.6 mm. in criminals as against 64.2 mm. in normal
+individuals. Criminals are more sensitive on the left side, contrary to
+normal persons, in whom greater sensibility prevails on the right.
+
+_Sensibility to Pain._ Compared with ordinary individuals, the criminal
+shows greater insensibility to pain as well as to touch. This obtuseness
+sometimes reaches complete analgesia or total absence of feeling (16%),
+a phenomenon never encountered in normal persons. The mean degree of
+dolorific sensibility in criminals is 34.1 mm. whereas it is rarely
+lower than 40 mm. in normal individuals. Here again the left-handedness
+of criminals becomes apparent, 39% showing greater sensibility on the
+left.
+
+_Tactile Sensibility._ The distance at which two points applied to the
+finger-tips are felt separately is more than 4 mm. in 30% of criminals,
+a degree of obtuseness only found in 4% of normal individuals. Criminals
+exhibit greater tactile sensibility on the left. Tactile obtuseness
+varies with the class of crime practised by the individual. While in
+burglars, swindlers, and assaulters, it is double that of normal
+persons, in murderers, violators, and incendiaries it is often four or
+five times as great.
+
+_Sensibility to the Magnet_, which scarcely exists in normal persons, is
+common to a marked degree in criminals (48%).
+
+_Meteoric Sensibility._ This is far more apparent in criminals and the
+insane than in normal individuals. With variations of temperature and
+atmospheric pressure, both criminals and lunatics become agitated and
+manifest changes of disposition and sensations of various kinds, which
+are rarely experienced by normal persons.
+
+_Sight_ is generally acute, perhaps more so than in ordinary
+individuals, and in this the criminal resembles the savage. Chromatic
+sensibility, on the contrary, is decidedly defective, the percentage of
+colour-blindness being twice that of normal persons. The field of vision
+is frequently limited by the white and exhibits much stranger anomalies,
+a special irregularity of outline with deep peripheral scotoma, which we
+shall see is a special characteristic of the epileptic.
+
+_Hearing_, _Smell_, _Taste_ are generally of less than average acuteness
+in criminals. Cases of complete anosmia and qualitative obtuseness are
+not uncommon.[2]
+
+_Agility._ Criminals are generally agile and preserve this quality even
+at an advanced age. When over seventy, Vilella sprang like a goat up the
+steep rocks of his native Calabria, and the celebrated thief "La Vecchia,"
+when quite an old man, escaped from his captors by leaping from a high
+rampart at Pavia.
+
+_Strength._ Contrary to what might be expected, tests by means of the
+dynamometer show that criminals do not usually possess an extraordinary
+degree of strength. There is frequently a slight difference between the
+strength of the right and left limbs, but more often ambidexterity, as
+in children, and a greater degree of strength in the left limbs.
+
+
+PSYCHOLOGY OF THE BORN CRIMINAL
+
+The physical type of the criminal is completed and intensified by his
+moral and intellectual physiognomy, which furnishes a further proof of
+his relationship to the savage and epileptic.
+
+_Natural Affections._ These play an important part in the life of a
+normally constituted individual and are in fact the _raison d'etre_ of
+his existence, but the criminal rarely, if ever, experiences emotions of
+this kind and least of all regarding his own kin. On the other hand, he
+shows exaggerated and abnormal fondness for animals and strangers. La
+Sola, a female criminal, manifested about as much affection for her
+children as if they had been kittens and induced her accomplice to
+murder a former paramour, who was deeply attached to her; yet she tended
+the sick and dying with the utmost devotion.
+
+In the place of domestic and social affections, the criminal is
+dominated by a few absorbing passions: vanity, impulsiveness, desire for
+revenge, licentiousness.
+
+
+MORAL SENSE
+
+The ability to discriminate between right and wrong, which is the
+highest attribute of civilised humanity, is notably lacking in
+physically and psychically stunted organisms. Many criminals do not
+realise the immorality of their actions. In French criminal jargon
+conscience is called "la muette," the thief "l'ami," and "travailler"
+and "servir" signify to steal. A Milanese thief once remarked to my
+father: "I don't steal. I only relieve the rich of their superfluous
+wealth." Lacenaire, speaking of his accomplice Avril, remarked, "I
+realised at once that we should be able to work together." A thief asked
+by Ferri what he did when he found the purse stolen by him contained no
+money, replied, "I call them rogues." The notions of right and wrong
+appear to be completely inverted in such minds. They seem to think they
+have a right to rob and murder and that those who hinder them are
+acting unfairly. Murderers, especially when actuated by motives of
+revenge, consider their actions righteous in the extreme.
+
+_Repentance and Remorse._ We hear a great deal about the remorse of
+criminals, but those who come into contact with these degenerates
+realise that they are rarely, if ever, tormented by such feelings. Very
+few confess their crimes: the greater number deny all guilt in a most
+strenuous manner and are fond of protesting that they are victims of
+injustice, calumny, and jealousy. As Despine once remarked with much
+insight, nothing resembles the sleep of the just more closely than the
+slumbers of an assassin.
+
+Many criminals, indeed, allege repentance, but generally from
+hypocritical motives; either because they hope to gain some advantage by
+working on the feelings of philanthropists, or with a view to escaping,
+or, at any rate, improving their condition while in prison. Thus
+Lacenaire, when convicted for the first time, wrote in a moving strain
+to his friend Vigouroux in order to get money and help from him,
+"Repentance is the only course left open to me. You may well feel
+pleased at having turned a man from a path of crime for which he was not
+intended by nature." A few hours later he committed another theft, and
+before he died remarked cynically that he had never experienced
+remorse. When tried at the Assizes at Pavia, Rognoni pronounced a
+touching discourse on his repentance and refused the wine brought him in
+prison for some days because it reminded him of his murdered brother.
+But he obtained it surreptitiously from his fellow-prisoners, and when
+one of them grumbled at having to give up his own portion, Rognoni
+threatened him saying, "I have already murdered four, and shall make no
+bones about killing a fifth."
+
+Sometimes remorse is advanced by criminals as a palliation of their
+crimes. Michelieu justified the _coup de grace_ inflicted on his victim
+by saying, "When I saw her in that state, I felt such terrible remorse
+that I shot her dead in order not to meet her glance."
+
+Sometimes an appearance of remorse is produced by hallucinations due to
+alcoholism. Philippe and Lucke imagined they saw the spectres of the
+persons they had murdered a short time before, but in reality they were
+suffering from the effects of drink and so little true remorse did they
+feel that on being sentenced, Philippe remarked, "If they had not sent
+me to Cayenne, I should have done it again." Generally speaking, what
+seems to be repentance is only the fear of death or some superstitious
+dread, which assumes an appearance of remorse, but is devoid of real
+feeling.
+
+A typical instance of hypocrisy and cynicism is furnished by the
+Marquise de Brinvilliers, the notorious poisoner, who succeeded in
+deceiving the venerable prison-chaplain so completely that he regarded
+her as a model of penitence, yet in her last moments she wrote to her
+husband denying her guilt and exhibited lascivious and revengeful
+feelings.
+
+Many criminals, when in prison, model sculptural representations of
+their crimes with crumbs of bread (see Fig. 7).
+
+_Cynicism._ The strongest proof of the total lack of remorse in
+criminals and their inability to distinguish between good and evil is
+furnished by the callous way in which they boast of their depraved
+actions and feign pious sentiments which they do not feel. One criminal
+humbly entreated to be allowed to retain his own crucifix while in
+prison. It was subsequently discovered that the sacred image served as a
+sheath for his dagger (see Fig. 8).
+
+Philippe made the following statement to one of his female companions.
+"My way of loving women is a very strange one. After enjoying their
+caresses, I take the greatest delight in strangling them or cutting
+their throats. Soon you will hear everyone talking about me." Shortly
+before he murdered his father, Lachaud said to his friends, "This
+evening I shall dig a grave and lay my father there to rest eternally."
+
+Sometimes, indeed, a criminal realises dimly the depravity of his
+actions; he rarely judges them, however, as a normal person would, but
+seeks to explain and justify them after his own fashion. When asked by
+the magistrate if he denied having stolen a horse, Ansalone replied,
+"Surely you do not call that a theft; a leader of brigands could hardly
+be expected to go on foot!"
+
+Others consider that their actions are less criminal if their intentions
+were good; like Holland, who murdered to obtain food for his wife and
+children. Others, again, think themselves excused by the fact that many
+do worse things with impunity. Any circumstance, the lack or
+insufficiency of evidence against them or the fact that they are accused
+of an offence different from the one they have really committed, is
+seized upon as a mitigation of their guilt, and they always manifest
+much resentment against those who administer the law. "London thieves,"
+observes Mayhew, "realise that they do wrong, but think that they are no
+worse than ordinary bankrupts."
+
+The constant perusal of newspaper reports leads criminals to believe
+that there are a great many rogues in higher circles, and by taking
+exceptions to be the rule, they flatter themselves that their own
+actions are not very reprehensible, because the wealthy are not censured
+for similar actions.
+
+
+  =FIG. 7
+  Figures made in Prison
+  MURDER OF A SLEEPING VICTIM
+  Work of a Prisoner
+  (see page 31)=
+
+
+  =FIG. 8
+  CRUCIFIX POIGNARD
+  (see page 31)=
+
+
+These instances show that criminals are not entirely unable to
+distinguish between right and wrong. Nevertheless, their moral sense is
+sterile because it is suffocated by passions and the deadening force of
+habit.
+
+In the cant of Spanish thieves, justice is called "la justa" (the just),
+and this name is given in French slang to the Assizes, but, as Mayor
+observes, it may be applied ironically.
+
+In alluding to the unknown author of the crimes committed in reality by
+himself, the murderer Prevost remarked, "Whoever it is, he is bound to
+end by the guillotine sooner or later." In such cases, although a sense
+of truth and justice exists, the desire to act according to it is
+lacking.
+
+     "It is one thing [observes Harwick] to possess a theoretical notion
+     of what is right and wrong, but quite another to act according to
+     it. In order that the knowledge of good should be transformed into
+     an ardent desire for its triumph, as food is converted into chyle
+     and blood, it must be urged to action by elevated sentiments, and
+     these are generally lacking in the criminal. If, on the contrary,
+     good feelings really exist, the individual desires to do right and
+     his convictions are translated into action with the same energy
+     that he displayed in doing wrong."
+
+
+A philanthropist once invited a number of young London thieves to a
+friendly gathering, and it was noticed that the most hardened offenders
+were greeted with the greatest amount of applause from the company.
+Nevertheless, when the President requested one of them to change a gold
+coin outside, and he did not return, those present showed great
+indignation and anxiety, abusing and threatening their absent companion,
+whose ultimate return was hailed with genuine relief. In this case, no
+doubt, envy and vanity played as great a part as a sense of integrity,
+in the resentment shown at this fancied breach of faith.
+
+In the prisons at Moscow, offences against discipline are dealt with by
+the offenders' fellow-prisoners. The convict population on the island of
+San Stefano compiled spontaneously a Draconian code to quell internal
+discord arising from racial jealousies.
+
+_Treachery._ This species of morality and justice, which unexpectedly
+makes its appearance in the midst of a naturally unrighteous community,
+can only be forced and temporary. When, instead of reaping advantages,
+interests and passions are injured by acting rightly, these notions of
+justice, unsustained by innate integrity suddenly fail. Contrary to
+universal belief, criminals are very prone to betray their companions
+and accomplices, and are easily induced to act as informers in the hope
+of gaining some personal advantage or of injuring those they envy or
+suspect of treachery towards themselves.
+
+"Many thieves," says Vidocq, "consider it a stroke of luck to be
+consulted by the police." In fact, Bouscaut, one of a notorious band of
+malefactors in France, was chiefly instrumental in causing the arrest of
+the gang; and the brigand Caruso aided the authorities in capturing his
+former companions.
+
+_Vanity._ Pride, or rather vanity, and an exaggerated notion of their
+own importance, which we find in the masses, generally in inverse
+proportion to real merit, is especially strong in criminals. In the cell
+occupied by La Gala, the following notice was found in his handwriting:
+"March 24th. On this date La Gala learnt to knit." Another criminal,
+Crocco, tried hard to save his brother, "Lest," he said, "my race should
+die out." Lacenaire was less troubled by the death-sentence than by
+adverse criticisms of his bad verse and the fear of public contempt. "I
+do not fear being hated," he is reported to have said, "but I dread
+being despised--the tempest leaves traces of its passage, but unobserved
+the humble flower fades."
+
+Thus thieves are loth to confess that they are guilty of only petty
+larceny, and are sometimes prompted by vanity to commit more serious
+robberies. The same false shame is common to fallen women, among whom
+contempt is incurred, not by excess of depravity but by the failure to
+command high prices. Grellinier, a petty thief, boasted in court of
+imaginary offences, with the desire of appearing in the light of a great
+criminal. The crimes in the haunted castle, attributed by Holmes to
+himself, were certainly in part inventions. The female poisoner,
+Buscemi, when writing to her accomplice, signed herself, "Your Lucrezia
+Borgia."
+
+One of the most frequent causes of modern crime is the desire to gratify
+personal vanity and to become notorious.
+
+_Impulsiveness._ This is another and almost pathognomonical
+characteristic of born criminals, and also, as we shall see later on, of
+epileptics and the morally insane. That which in ordinary individuals is
+only an eccentric and fugitive suggestion vanishing as soon as it
+arises, in the case of abnormal subjects is rapidly translated into
+action, which, although unconscious, is not the less dangerous. A youth
+of this impulsive type, returning home one evening flushed with wine,
+met a peasant leading his ass and cried out, "As I have not come to
+blows with anyone to-day, I must vent my rage on this beast," at the
+same time drawing his knife and plunging it several times into the poor
+animal's body (Ladelci, _Il Vino_, Rome, 1868). Pinel describes a
+morally insane subject, who was in the habit of giving way to his
+passions, killing any horses that did not please him and thrashing his
+political opponents. He even went to the length of throwing a lady down
+a well, because she ventured to contradict him.
+
+     "The most trifling causes [remarks Tamburini, speaking of Sbro...]
+     that stand in the way of his wishes, provoke a fit of rage in which
+     he appears to lose all self-control, like little children, who in
+     resenting any offence show no sense of proportion. The most trivial
+     reasons for disliking anyone awaken in him an irresistible desire
+     to kill the object of his aversion, and if any new blasphemy rises
+     to his lips, he feels constrained to repeat it."
+
+
+A thief once said to my father: "It is in our very blood. It may be only
+a pin, but I cannot help taking it, although I am quite ready to give it
+back to its owner." The pickpocket Bor... confessed that at the age of
+twelve he had begun to steal in the streets and at school, to the extent
+of taking things from under his schoolfellows' pillows, and that it was
+impossible for him to resist stealing, even when his pockets were full.
+If he had not stolen some article before going to bed, he was unable to
+sleep, and when midnight struck, he felt obliged to take the first thing
+that came to his hand, destroying it frequently as soon as he had
+appropriated it.
+
+"To give up stealing," said Deham to Lauvergne, "would be like ceasing
+to exist. Stealing is a passion that burns like love and when I feel the
+blood seething in my brain and fingers, I think I should be capable of
+robbing myself, if that were possible." When sentenced to the galleys,
+he stole the bands from the masts, nails, and copper plates, and he
+himself fixed the number of lashes he was to receive after each of these
+exploits, which did not prevent his recommencing stealing directly
+afterward (_Les Forcats_, p. 358).
+
+Ponticelli once saw a thief, who was dying of consumption, steal an old
+slipper from his neighbour and hide it under the bedclothes.
+
+_Vindictiveness._ Closely allied to this impulsiveness and exaggerated
+personal vanity, we find an extraordinary thirst for revenge. Lebuc
+murdered a man who had stolen some matches from him. Baron R... caused
+the death of a man, because he had failed to order a religious
+procession to halt under the windows of his palace.
+
+  "To see expire the one you hate--
+  Such is the joy of the gods.
+  My sole desire is to hate and be avenged."
+
+wrote Lacenaire.
+
+After a slight dispute with Voit, whose hospitality he had enjoyed,
+Renaud threw his friend down a well. He was arrested, and when Voit, who
+had been rescued, pardoned him, he said, "I only regret not having
+finished him, but when I come out of prison, I will do so." And he kept
+his word.
+
+The tattooing on the persons of criminals and their writings while in
+prison are full of solemn oaths of vengeance. A female thief once said,
+"If it were true that those who refuse to pardon will be damned
+eternally, I should still withhold my forgiveness."
+
+_Cruelty_ depends on moral and physical insensibility, those incapable
+of feeling pain being indifferent to the sufferings of others.
+
+The post of executioner was eagerly competed for at the prison of
+Rochefort. Mammon used to drink the blood of his victims and when this
+was not to be had, he drank his own. The executioner Jean became so
+maddened by the sight of blood flowing beneath his lash, that guards
+were stationed to prevent undue prolongation of the punishment. Dippe
+wrote: "My chief pleasure is beheading. When I was young, stabbing was
+my sole pastime."
+
+It has often been observed that the ferocity of women exceeds that of
+men. Rulfi killed her own niece, whom she detested, by thrusting long
+pins into her, and the female brigand Ciclope reproached her lover for
+murdering his victims too quickly.
+
+_Idleness._ Like savages, criminals are dominated by an incorrigible
+laziness, which in certain cases leads them to prefer death from
+starvation to regular work. This idleness alternates with periods of
+ferocious impulsiveness, during which they display the greatest energy.
+Like savages, too, they are passionately fond of alcohol, orgies, and
+sensual pleasures, which alone rouse them to activity.
+
+_Orgies._ Those who have observed children absorbed all day long by a
+game that pleases them, can understand the meaning of these words,
+spoken by a woman: "Criminals are grown-up children." The love of
+habitual debauch is so intense that, as soon as thieves have made some
+great haul or escaped from prison, they return to their haunts to
+carouse and make merry, in spite of the evident danger of falling once
+more into the hands of the police.
+
+_Gambling._ The passion for gambling is so strong that the criminal is
+always in a penniless condition, no matter how much treasure he has
+appropriated, and cases of starvation in prison are not unknown,
+prisoners having sold their rations in order to gratify this vice.
+
+_Games._ Many primitive and cruel amusements, similar to the pastimes of
+savages, have been preserved or reconstructed by criminals. Such are
+the games known to Italian offenders as "La Patta," in which one of the
+players tries to avoid being struck while passing his head between two
+points brought together horizontally by another, who stands with his
+arms outstretched; and "La Rota," in which the players run in a circle,
+one behind the other, seeking to escape, by dodging, the blows from a
+stout stick, aimed at them by one of their companions.
+
+_Intelligence_ is feeble in some and exaggerated in others. Prudence and
+forethought are generally lacking. A very common characteristic is
+recklessness, which leads criminals to run the risk of arrest for the
+sake of being witty, or to leave some blood-stained weapon on the very
+spot where they have committed a crime, notwithstanding the fact that
+they have taken a hundred precautions to avoid detection. This same
+recklessness prompts them, when the danger is scarcely past, to make
+verses or pictures of their exploits or to tattoo them upon their
+persons, heedless of consequences.
+
+Zino relates the story of a Sicilian schoolboy, who illustrated his
+criminal relations with his schoolfellows by a series of sketches in his
+album. A certain Cavaglia, called "Fusil" robbed and murdered an
+accomplice and hid the body in a cupboard. He was arrested and in prison
+decided to commit suicide a hundred days after the date of his crime,
+but before doing so, he adorned his water-jug with an account of his
+misdeed, partly in pictures and partly in writing, as though he desired
+to raise a monument to himself (see Fig. 9). The clearest and strangest
+instance of this recklessness was furnished by a photograph discovered
+by the police, in which, at the risk of arrest and detection, three
+criminals had had themselves photographed in the very act of committing
+a murder.
+
+
+INTELLECTUAL MANIFESTATIONS
+
+_Slang._ This is a peculiar jargon used by criminals when speaking among
+themselves. The syntax and grammatical construction of the language
+remain unchanged, but the meanings of words are altered, many being
+formed in the same way as in primitive languages; _i.e._, an object
+frequently receives the name of one of its attributes. Thus a kid is
+called "jumper," death "the lean or cruel one," the soul "the false or
+shameful one," the body "the veil," the hour "the swift one," the moon
+"the spy," a purse "the saint," alms "the rogue," a sermon "the tedious
+one," etc. Many words are formed as among savages, by onomatopoeia, as
+"tuff" (pistol), "tic" (watch), "guanguana" (sweetheart), "fric frac"
+(lottery).
+
+
+  =FIG. 9
+  WATER-JUGS
+  (see page 42)=
+
+
+The necessity of eluding police investigations is the reason usually
+given for the origin of this slang. No doubt it was one of the chief
+causes, but does not explain the continued use of a jargon which is too
+well known now to serve this purpose; moreover, it is employed in poems,
+the object of which is to invite public attention, not to avoid it, and
+by criminals in their homes where there is no need for secrecy.
+
+_Pictography._ One of the strangest characteristics of criminals is the
+tendency to express their ideas pictorially. While in prison, Troppmann
+painted the scene of his misdeed, for the purpose of showing that it had
+been committed by others. We have already mentioned the rude
+illustrations engraved by the murderer Cavaglia on his pitcher,
+representing his crime, imprisonment, and suicide. Books, crockery,
+guns, all the utensils criminals have in constant use, serve as a canvas
+on which to portray their exploits.
+
+From pictography it is but an easy step to hieroglyphics like those used
+by ancient peoples. The hieroglyphics of criminals are closely allied to
+their slang, of which in fact they are only a pictorial representation,
+and, although largely inspired by the necessity for secrecy, show, in
+addition, evident atavistic tendencies.
+
+
+  =FIG. 10
+  Drawings in Script.
+  Discovered by De Blasio=
+
+
+De Blasio has explained the meaning of the hieroglyphics used by the
+"camorristi" (members of the _camorra_ at Naples), especially when they
+are in prison. For instance, to indicate the President of the Tribunal,
+they use a crown with three points; to indicate a judge, the judge's cap
+(see Fig. 10). The following is a list of some of the hieroglyphics
+mentioned by De Blasio:
+
+_Police Inspector_--a hat like those worn by the Italian soldiers who
+are called Alpini (a helmet with flat top and an upright feather on the
+left side).
+
+_Public Prosecutor_--an open-mouthed viper (see Fig. 10).
+
+_Carabineer_--a bugle.
+
+_Theft_--a skull and cross-bones.
+
+_Commissary of the Police_--a dwarf with the three-cornered hat worn by
+the _carabinieri_.
+
+_Arts and Industries of the Criminal._ Although habitual criminals show
+a strong aversion to any kind of useful labour, in prison and at large,
+they, nevertheless, apply themselves with great diligence to certain
+tasks, sometimes of an illegal nature, such as the manufacture of
+implements to aid them in escaping, sometimes merely artistic, such as
+modelling, with breadcrumbs, brickdust, or soap, the figures of persons.
+Sometimes they make baskets, machines, dominoes, draughts,
+playing-cards, etc., or form means of communication with their
+fellow-prisoners and construct weapons for executing their schemes of
+vengeance. They also devote themselves to eccentric and useless
+occupations, like the training of animals, such as mice, marmosets,
+birds, and even fleas (Lattes). This morbid and misguided activity,
+which frequently shows gleams of talent, might well be utilised for
+increasing the scope of prison industries.
+
+
+TATTOOING
+
+This personal decoration so often found on great criminals is one of the
+strangest relics of a former state. It consists of designs,
+hieroglyphics, and words punctured in the skin by a special and very
+painful process.
+
+
+  =FIG. 11
+  Alphabet Discovered by De Blasio=
+
+
+Among primitive peoples, who live in a more or less nude condition,
+tattooing takes the place of decorations or ornamental garments, and
+serves as a mark of distinction or rank. When an Eskimo slays an enemy,
+he adorns his upper-lip with a couple of blue stripes, and the warriors
+of Sumatra add a special sign to their decorations for every foe they
+kill. In Wuhaiva, ladies of noble birth are more extensively tattooed
+than women of humbler rank. Among the Maoris, tattooing is a species of
+armorial bearings indicative of noble birth.
+
+According to ancient writers, tattooing was practised by Thracians,
+Picts, and Celts. Roman soldiers tattooed their arms with the names of
+their generals, and artisans in the Middle Ages were marked with the
+insignia of their crafts. In modern times this custom has fallen into
+disuse among the higher classes and only exists among sailors, soldiers,
+peasants, and workmen.
+
+Although not exclusively confined to criminals, tattooing is practised
+by them to a far larger extent than by normal persons: 9% of adult
+criminals and 40% of minors are tattooed; whereas, in normal persons the
+proportion is only 0.1%. Recidivists and born criminals, whether thieves
+or murderers, show the highest percentage of tattooing. Forgers and
+swindlers are rarely tattooed.
+
+Sometimes tattooing consists of a motto symbolical of the career of the
+criminal it adorns. Tardieu found on the arm of a sailor who had served
+various terms of imprisonment, the words, "Pas de chance." The
+notorious criminal Malassen was tattooed on the chest with the drawing
+of a guillotine, under which was written the following prophecy: "J'ai
+mal commence, je finirai mal. C'est la fin qui m'attend."
+
+Tattooing frequently bears witness to indecency. Of 142 criminals
+examined by my father, the tattooing on five showed obscenity of design
+and position and furnished also a remarkable proof of the insensibility
+to pain characteristic of criminals, the parts tattooed being the most
+sensitive of the whole body, and therefore left untouched even by
+savages.
+
+Another fact worthy of mention is the extent to which criminals are
+tattooed. Thirty-five out of 378 criminals examined by Lacassagne were
+decorated literally from head to foot.
+
+In a great many cases, the designs reveal violence of character and a
+desire for revenge. A Piedmontese sailor, who had perpetrated fraud and
+murder from motives of revenge, bore on his breast between two daggers,
+the words: "I swear to revenge myself." Another had written on his
+forehead, "Death to the middle classes," with the drawing of a dagger
+underneath. A young Ligurian, the leader of a mutiny in an Italian
+Reformatory, was tattooed with designs representing all the most
+important episodes of his life, and the idea of revenge was paramount.
+On his right forearm figured two crossed swords, underneath them the
+initials M. N. (of an intimate friend), and on the inner side, traced
+longitudinally, the motto: "Death to cowards. Long live our alliance."
+
+Tattooing, as practised by criminals, is a perfect substitute for
+writing with symbols and hieroglyphics, and they take a keen pleasure in
+this mode of adorning their skins.
+
+Of atavistic origin, also, is the practice, common to members of the
+_camorra_, of branding their sweethearts on the face, not from motives
+of revenge, but as a sign of proprietorship, like the chiefs of savage
+tribes, who mark their wives and other belongings; and the form of
+tattooing called "Paranza," which distinguishes the various bands of
+malefactors,--the band of the "banner," of the "three arrows," of the
+"bell-ringer," of the "Carmelites," etc.
+
+
+THE CRIMINAL TYPE
+
+All the physical and psychic peculiarities of which we have spoken are
+found singly in many normal individuals. Moreover, crime is not always
+the result of degeneration and atavism; and, on the other hand, many
+persons who are considered perfectly normal are not so in reality.
+However, in normal individuals, we never find that accumulation of
+physical, psychic, functional, and skeletal anomalies in one and the
+same person, that we do in the case of criminals, among whom also entire
+freedom from abnormal characteristics is more rare than among ordinary
+individuals.
+
+Just as a musical theme is the result of a sum of notes, and not of any
+single note, the criminal type results from the aggregate of these
+anomalies, which render him strange and terrible, not only to the
+scientific observer, but to ordinary persons who are capable of an
+impartial judgment.
+
+Painters and poets, unhampered by false doctrines, divined this type
+long before it became the subject of a special branch of study. The
+assassins, executioners, and devils painted by Mantegna, Titian, and
+Ribera the Spagnoletto embody with marvellous exactitude the
+characteristics of the born criminal; and the descriptions of great
+writers, Dante, Shakespeare, Dostoyevsky, and Ibsen, are equally
+faithful representations, physically and psychically, of this morbid
+type.
+
+
+THE CRIMINAL IN PROVERBIAL SAYINGS
+
+The conclusions of instinctive observers have found expression in many
+proverbs, which warn the world against the very characteristics we have
+noted in criminals.
+
+A proverb common in Romagna, says: "Poca barba e niun colore, sotto il
+cielo non vi ha peggiore" (There is nothing worse under Heaven than a
+scanty beard and a colourless face), and in Piedmont there is a saying,
+"Faccia smorta, peggio che scabbia" (An ashen face is worse than the
+itch). The Venetians have a number of proverbs expressing distrust of
+the criminal type: "Uomo rosso e femina barbuta da lontan xe megio la
+saluta" (Greet from afar the red-haired man and the bearded woman);
+"Vardete da chi te parla e guarda in la, e vardete da chi tiene i oci
+bassi e da chi camina a corti passi" (Beware of him who looks away when
+he speaks to you, and of him who keeps his eyes cast down and takes
+mincing steps); "El guerzo xe maledetto per ogni verso" (The squint-eyed
+are on all sides accursed); "Megio vendere un campo e una ca che tor una
+dona dal naso leva" (Better sell a field and a house than take a wife
+with a turned-up nose); "Naso che guarda in testa e peggior che la
+tempesta" (A turned-up nose is worse than hail); etc.
+
+There are innumerable cases on record, in which persons quite ignorant
+of criminology have escaped robbery or murder, thanks to the timely
+distrust awakened in them by the appearance of individuals who had tried
+to win their confidence. My father once placed before forty children,
+twenty portraits of thieves and twenty representing great men, and 80%
+recognised in the first the portraits of bad and deceitful people.
+
+In conclusion, the born criminal possesses certain physical and mental
+characteristics, which mark him out as a special type, materially and
+morally diverse from the bulk of mankind.
+
+Like the little cage-bred bird which instinctively crouches and trembles
+at the sight of the hawk, although ignorant of its ferocity, an honest
+man feels instinctive repugnance at the sight of a miscreant and thus
+signalises the abnormality of the criminal type.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+_THE BORN CRIMINAL AND HIS RELATION TO MORAL INSANITY AND EPILEPSY_
+
+
+No one, before my father, had ever recognised in the criminal an
+abnormal being driven by an irresistible atavistic impulse to commit
+anti-social acts, but many had observed (cases of the kind were too
+frequent to escape notice) the existence of certain individuals, nearly
+always members of degenerate families, who seemed from their earliest
+infancy to be prompted by some fatal impulse to do evil to their
+fellow-men. They differed from ordinary people, because they hated the
+very persons who to normal beings are the nearest and dearest, parents,
+husbands, wives, and children, and because their inhuman deeds seemed to
+cause them no remorse. These individuals, who were sometimes treated as
+lunatics, sometimes as diseased persons, and sometimes as criminals,
+were said by the earliest observers to be afflicted with moral
+insanity.
+
+_Analogy._ Those who are familiar with all that Pinel, Morel, Richard
+Connon, and other great alienists have written on the morally insane
+cannot help remarking the analogy, nay identity, of the physical,
+intellectual, and moral characteristics of this type of lunatic and
+those of the born criminal.
+
+The same physical anomalies already observed in criminals, as described
+in the first chapter (cranial deformities, asymmetry, physical and
+functional left-handedness, anomalies in the teeth, hands, and feet),
+are described by these older writers as being characteristic of the
+morally insane, as are also those mental and moral qualities already
+noted in the born criminal--vanity, want of affection, cruelty,
+idleness, and love of orgies.
+
+Only the analogy of the origin and early manifestations was lacking to
+complete the proof of the identity of the two forms. It is true that
+moral insanity is more often found in the descendants of insane,
+neurotic, or dipsomaniac forebears than in those of criminals, and that
+the characteristics are manifested at an earlier age than is the case
+with born criminals, but these differences are not of fundamental
+importance.
+
+_Cases._ During many years of observation, my father was able to follow
+innumerable cases of moral insanity in which perversity was manifested
+literally from the cradle, and in which the victims of this disease grew
+up into delinquents in no wise distinguishable from born criminals.
+
+A typical instance is that of a certain Rizz... who was brought to him
+by the mother because, while still at the breast, he bit his nurse so
+viciously that bottle-feeding had to be substituted. At the age of two
+years, careful training and medical treatment notwithstanding, this
+child was separated from his brothers, because he stuck pins into their
+pillows and played dangerous tricks on them. Two years later, he broke
+open his father's cash-box and stole money to buy sweets; at six,
+although decidedly intelligent, he was expelled from every private
+school in the town, because he instigated the others to mischief or
+ill-treated them. At fourteen, he seduced a servant and ran away, and at
+twenty he killed his fiancee by throwing her out of a window. Thanks to
+the testimony of a great many doctors, Rizz... was declared to be
+morally insane, but if the family had been poor instead of well-to-do,
+and the mother had neglected to have her child examined in infancy by a
+medical man, thus obtaining ample proof of the pathological nature of
+his perversity, Rizz... would have been condemned as an ordinary
+criminal, because, like all morally insane persons, he was very
+intelligent and able to reason clearly, like a normal individual.
+
+Another typical case is that of a child named Rav... (see Fig. 12) a
+native of the Romagna, who was brought to my father at the age of eight,
+because his parents were convinced that his conduct was due to a morbid
+condition. Unlike the above-mentioned case, his evil acts were always
+carried out in an underhand way. He showed great spite towards his
+brothers and sisters, especially the smaller ones, whom he attempted to
+strangle on several occasions, and was expelled from school on account
+of the bad influence he exercised over his schoolfellows. He delighted
+above everything in robbing his parents, employers, and the neighbours
+and in falsely accusing others, and so cleverly did he manage this that
+he caused a great deal of mischief before his double-dealing was
+discovered. When only eight, on leaving home early every morning to go
+to work, he would secretly throw all the milk left at the neighbours'
+doors into the dust-bin, then he accused the janitor of stealing it and
+got him dismissed. A year later, he nearly succeeded in causing the
+arrest of a pawnbroker, whom he accused of having lent him money on a
+cloak, it being illegal in Italy to accept anything in pawn from a
+minor. The cloak, however, was discovered by his mother hidden in the
+cellar. At ten years of age, he alleged that his father had brutally
+ill-treated him, and as severe marks and bruises on his body gave colour
+to the accusation, the poor man was arrested. The marks, however, were
+self-inflicted.
+
+Another boy, a certain Man..., a peasant from the Val d'Aosta, an
+Alpine valley in Piedmont, where cretinism is indigenous, exhibited
+perverse tendencies from his earliest infancy. When twelve years old, he
+killed his companion in a squabble over an egg. (See Fig. 13.)
+
+In the above-mentioned cases, the subjects all belonged to well-to-do or
+honest families and the pathological heredity was therefore exclusively
+nervous, not criminal. For this reason, the parents were struck by the
+abnormal depravity of their sons and had them medically examined and
+treated, thus discovering that they were morally insane. If, on the
+other hand, the parents had been criminals and had, themselves, set a
+bad example, nobody would have supposed that these depraved tendencies
+were innate in the children or had developed precociously. The fact of
+the prevalence of moral insanity in neurotic families (with frequent
+cases of lunacy, alcoholism, etc.) rather than in those of criminal
+tendencies appears at first sight strange, but according to the new
+theory advanced by my father, the criminal is a mentally diseased
+person; and we shall see in a later chapter that the heredity of insane,
+neurotic, and dipsomaniac parents is completely equivalent to a criminal
+heredity.
+
+
+  =FIG. 12
+  BOY MORALLY INSANE
+  (see page 55)=
+
+
+  =FIG. 13
+  BOY MORALLY INSANE
+  (see page 56)=
+
+
+_Proofs of Analogy._ Thus the genesis and early manifestations, which
+might have been diverse, really constitute a counter-proof. Careful
+anamnesis shows that both born criminals and the morally insane begin at
+a very early age to exhibit symptoms of the morbid tendencies which make
+them such a danger to society, and if the general public and the police,
+when such cases are brought to their notice, usually fail to realise
+that they arise from precocious perversity, it is because atrocious
+actions are excused on the ground of extreme youth and attributed to
+this cause rather than to vicious propensities. In many cases, indeed,
+they are revealed only to the physician.
+
+A counter-proof is likewise furnished by investigations of the origin of
+these pathological cases, since the study of born criminals shows that
+they, as well as the morally insane, are as frequently the offspring of
+insane, epileptic, neurotic, and drunken parents as of criminals, but in
+the latter case, the morbid origin of their perversity is seldom brought
+to light owing to the criminality of the parents, who naturally view
+with indifference symptoms of vice in their children.
+
+
+EPILEPTICS, AND THEIR RELATION TO BORN CRIMINALS AND THE MORALLY INSANE
+
+We have already stated that the physical and psychic characteristics of
+born criminals coincide with those of the morally insane. Both are
+identical with those of another class of degenerates, known to the world
+as epileptics.
+
+The term epilepsy was applied to a malady frequently studied but little
+understood by the ancient medical world, the chief symptoms of which
+were repeated tonic and clonic fits, preceded by the so-called
+"epileptic aura" and followed by a deep sleep. It was called _morbus
+sacer_ and believed to be of divine origin.
+
+Careful examination of epileptics by clinical and mental experts, showed
+that in addition to the characteristic seizure, these unfortunate beings
+were subject to other phenomena, which sometimes took the place of the
+convulsive fit and in other cases preceded or followed it. These were
+_pavor nocturnus_, sudden sweats, heat, neuralgia, sialorrhea,
+periodical cephalalgia and, above all, vertigo; and these symptoms were
+not always accompanied by unconsciousness nor followed by coma.
+Sometimes the seizure was only manifested by paroxysms of rage or
+ferocious and brutal impulses (devouring animals alive), which, if
+consciously committed, would be considered criminal. This fact led
+doctors and mental experts to examine other patients, and they were able
+to advance positive proof that a certain number of epileptics never
+experience the typical seizure, the disease being manifested in this
+milder form with cephalalgia, sialorrhea, delirious ferocity, and above
+all, giddiness.
+
+The multiformity of epilepsy has been fully confirmed by the experiments
+of Luciani, Zehen, and others, who produced various forms of epilepsy by
+submitting different cerebral zones to varying degrees of irritation. By
+graduating the electric current, Rosenbach was able to provoke the whole
+series of epileptic phenomena described above, from the mildest to the
+most serious manifestations. A slight irritation of the motor areas gave
+rise to tetanic contractions and clonic convulsions in a given joint; an
+increase in the strength of the current produced more violent movements
+which spread over the whole limb, and by intensifying the current still
+further, to half the body. Finally, on the application of a very strong
+current, the typical fit was produced with clonic spasms in all the
+body, unconsciousness, nystagmus, and rigidity of the pupils.
+
+By irritating the frontal lobes of dogs, Richet and Bernard produced
+vertigo and certain physical phenomena (snuffing, barking, and biting).
+
+Taking these investigations as a basis, Jackson came to the conclusion
+that epileptic fits are due to a rapid and excessive explosion of the
+grey matter, which, instead of developing its force gradually, develops
+it all of a sudden because it is irritated. And as it has been shown
+conclusively that the disease can be manifested in such varied
+forms--vertigo, twitching of the muscles, sialorrhea, cephalalgia, fits
+of rage, and ferocious actions--which appear to be the equivalent of the
+typical seizure, individuals subject to these forms of neurosis should
+be classed as epileptics, even if they never experience the typical
+motor attack.
+
+It is in this category, which may be called attenuated epilepsy, that we
+should place criminals, who in addition to the psychic and physical
+characteristics of the epileptic, possess others peculiar to themselves.
+Physical anomalies (plagiocephaly, microcephaly, macrocephaly,
+strabismus, facial and cranial asymmetry, prominent frontal sinuses,
+median occipital fossa, receding forehead, projecting ears,
+progeneismus, and badly shaped teeth) are characteristic both of
+criminals and epileptics, as was demonstrated in certain epileptics
+treated by my father (Figs. 14 and 15), and the same holds good of
+functional and histological anomalies. The histological anomaly
+discovered by Roncoroni in the frontal lobe of born criminals,
+consisting of the atrophy of the deep granular layer, the inversion of
+the pyramidal layers and small cells with enlargement and rarefaction of
+the pyramidal cells, and the existence of nervous cells in the white
+substance, is found in about the same proportion in cases of
+non-criminal epileptics. We find also in the same proportion in the
+field of vision of epileptics, as of born criminals, the anomaly
+discovered by Ottolenghi, consisting of peripheral scotoma intersecting
+the nearly uniform line of varying size common to normal eyes.
+
+
+  =FIG. 14
+  AN EPILEPTIC BOY
+  (see page 60)=
+
+
+_Psychological Characteristics._ The complete identity of epileptics,
+born criminals and the morally insane becomes evident as soon as we
+study their psychology.
+
+Epilepsy, congenital criminality, and moral insanity alone are capable
+of comprising in one clinical form intellectual divergencies which range
+from genius to imbecility. In epileptics, this divergence is sometimes
+manifested in one and the same person in the space of twenty-four hours.
+An individual at one time afflicted with loss of will-power and amnesia,
+and incapable of formulating the simplest notion, will shortly
+afterwards give expression to original ideas and reason logically.
+
+Contradictions and exaggerations of sentiment are salient
+characteristics of epileptics as of born criminals and the morally
+insane. Quarrelsome, suspicious, and cynical individuals suddenly become
+gentle, respectful, and affectionate. The cynic expresses religious
+sentiments, and the man who has brutally ill-treated his first wife,
+kneels before the second. An epileptic observed by Tonnini fancied
+himself at times to be Napoleon; at others, he would lick the ground
+like the humblest slave.
+
+The extreme excitability manifested by born criminals is shared by
+epileptics. Distrustful, intolerant, and incapable of sincere
+attachment, a gesture or a look is sufficient to infuriate them and
+incite them to the most atrocious deeds.
+
+Epilepsy has a disastrous effect on the character. It destroys the moral
+sense, causes irritability, alters the sensations through constant
+hallucinations and delusions, deadens the natural feelings or leads them
+into morbid channels.
+
+_Affection for Animals._ The hatred frequently manifested by criminals
+and epileptics towards the members of their own families is in many
+cases accompanied by an extraordinary fondness for animals as is shown
+by the cases of Caligula, Commodus, Lacenaire, Rosas, Dr. Francia, and
+La Sola,--who preferred kittens to her own children. A morally insane
+individual known to my father would spend months in training dogs,
+horses, birds, geese, and other fowls. He was wont to remark that all
+animals were friendly to him as though they recognised in him one of
+their own kind. Dostoyevsky's fellow-convicts showed great fondness for
+a horse, an eagle, and a number of geese. They were so attached to a
+goat that they wanted to gild its horns.
+
+
+  =FIG. 15
+  FERNANDO
+  Epileptic
+  (see page 60)=
+
+
+_Somnambulism._ This is a frequent characteristic of epileptics.
+Krafft-Ebing says:
+
+     "The seizure is often followed by a condition approaching
+     somnambulism. The patient appears to have recovered consciousness,
+     talks coherently, behaves in an orderly manner, and resumes his
+     ordinary occupations. Yet he is not really conscious as is shown by
+     the fact that, later he is entirely ignorant of what he has been
+     doing during this stage. This peculiar state of mental daze may
+     last a long time, sometimes during the whole interval between two
+     seizures."
+
+
+Many of the criminals observed by Dostoyevsky were given to
+gesticulating and talking agitatedly in their sleep.
+
+Obscenity is a common characteristic. Kowalewsky (_Archivio di
+Psichiatria_, 1885) notes the resemblance between the reproductive act
+and the epileptic seizure, the tonic tension of the muscles, loss of
+consciousness and mydriasis in both cases, and remarks also on the
+frequency with which epileptic attacks are accompanied by sexual
+propensities.
+
+The desire for sexual indulgence, like the taste for alcohol, is
+distinguished by the precocity peculiar to criminals and the morally
+insane. Precocious sexual instincts have been observed in children of
+four years, and in one case obscenity was manifested by an infant of one
+year.
+
+Marro (_Annali di Freniatria_, 1890) describes a child of three years
+and ten months, who had exhibited signs of epilepsy from birth and was
+of a jealous, irascible disposition. He was in the habit of scratching
+and biting his brothers and sisters, knocking over the furniture, hiding
+things, and tearing his clothes, and when unable to hurt or annoy
+others, would vent his rage upon himself. If punished, he would continue
+his misdeeds in an underhand way.
+
+Another child had been afflicted with convulsions from his earliest
+infancy, in consequence of which his character deteriorated, and while
+still a mere infant, he behaved with the utmost violence. He killed a
+cat, attempted to strangle his brother, and to set fire to the house.
+
+Invulnerability, another characteristic common to criminals, has been
+observed by Tonnini in epileptics, whose wounds and injuries heal with
+astonishing rapidity, and he is inclined to regard this peculiarity in
+the light of a reversion to a stage of evolution, at which animals like
+lizards and salamanders were able to replace severed joints by new
+growths. This invulnerability is shared by all degenerates: epileptics,
+imbeciles, and the morally insane.
+
+"One of these latter," says Tonnini, "tore out his moustache bodily and
+with it a large piece of skin. In a few days the wound was nearly
+healed."
+
+Very characteristic is the almost automatic tendency to destroy animate
+and inanimate objects, which results in frequent wounding, suicides, and
+homicides. This desire to destroy is also common to children. Fernando P.
+(Fig. 15), an epileptic treated by my father, when enraged was in the
+habit of smashing all the furniture within his reach and throwing the
+pieces over a wall some twenty-five feet high.
+
+Misdea, a regimental barber, to whom we shall refer later, roused to
+fury by dismissal from his post, broke four razors into small pieces
+with his teeth. Another epileptic, Piz... used to break all the
+crockery in his cell regularly every other day, "just to give vent to
+his feelings."
+
+This tendency to destroy everything in the cell is common also to
+ordinary criminals.
+
+_Cases of Moral Insanity with Latent Epileptic Phenomena._ The following
+cases, which were treated by my father and which were subject to
+careful observation and study, will serve to give a clear idea of the
+criminal form of epilepsy.
+
+Subject: Giuliano Celestino, age 16. Yellow skin abundantly tattooed,
+absence of hair on face or body. Cranium: plagiocephaly on the left
+frontal and right parietal regions, obliquely-placed eyes, narrow
+forehead, prominent orbital arches, line of the mouth horizontal as in
+apes, lateral incisors of upper jaw resembling the canines with rugged
+margins, excessive zygomatic and maxillary development, tactile
+sensibility very obtuse, dolorific sensibility non-existent on the
+right, very obtuse on the left, rotular reflex action exaggerated on the
+right, very feeble on the left. Devoid of natural feeling. When asked if
+he was fond of his mother, he replied: "When she brings me cigars and
+money." When questioned concerning his crimes he showed neither shame
+nor confusion. On the contrary, he confessed with a smile that when only
+ten he had tried to kill his youngest brother, who was then an infant in
+the cradle, and when hindered by his mother, had struck and bitten her.
+His father was a drunkard afflicted with syphilis, and Giuliano had
+suffered from epilepsy from the age of seven. At this age he began to
+indulge in alcohol and self-abuse, and stole from his parents in order
+to buy sweets. He appears to have been subject to an ambulatory mania,
+which caused him to wander aimlessly about the country, and if kept
+within doors he would let himself down from the windows, climb up the
+chimney, or, failing in these attempts to escape, would break the
+furniture and attract the attention of the neighbours by his terrific
+yells. From the age of eight, despite his parents' efforts to apprentice
+him, he was always immediately dismissed by his employers. He ran away
+with a strolling company of acrobats, and later apprenticed himself to a
+butcher in order to revel in the horrors of the slaughter-house. At
+fifteen he was confined in a reformatory, where he twice attempted to
+escape and to set fire to the building, and was sentenced to two years'
+imprisonment. For the space of a few days, he appears to have suffered
+from epileptic attacks, although in a masked form, accompanied by
+various attempts at suicide. These were renewed every other month for a
+whole year. When asked what he would do for a living when released, he
+would reply laughingly that there was plenty of money in other people's
+pockets.
+
+L... a morally insane subject, age 16, native of Turin, the son of an
+aged, but extremely respectable man. Height 1.50 m., weight, 46.2 kg.,
+with abundant hair, and down on the forehead, incisors crowded
+together, excessive development of the canines, and exaggerated orbital
+angle of the frontal bone. He was entirely devoid of affection for his
+family, remarking cynically that he was fond of his father when he gave
+him money and did not worry him. Sometimes he kicked the poor old man
+and otherwise abused him. When unable to obtain money, he would smash
+all the furniture in the house, until, for the sake of economy, his
+family gave him what he wanted. In order to get a five-pound note from
+money-lenders he would sign promissory notes for ten times that amount.
+He changed his ideas from one hour to another. Sometimes he wanted to
+enter the army, at others to emigrate to France, etc. When only fourteen
+he frequented houses of ill-fame, where he played the bully.
+
+Although this case may be regarded as a typical instance of moral
+insanity, there were apparently no symptoms of vertigo or convulsions.
+At the age of sixteen, however, while suffering from rheumatism, this
+subject tried to throw himself from the balcony of his bedroom at the
+same hour three nights running. After this he seems to have suffered
+from amnesia.
+
+These frenzied attempts at self-destruction, which seem to have taken
+the place of the epileptic seizure, were related to my father casually
+by the boy's mother; but in other cases, similar incidents, although of
+the utmost importance to the criminologist, often pass unnoticed.
+
+In the _Actes du Congres d'Anthropologie_, Angelucci describes another
+typical case of epileptic moral insanity. E. G. (brother a criminal
+epileptic, father a sufferer from cancer) was sentenced several times
+for assaulting people often without motive. Tattooed with the figure of
+a naked woman, microcephalous (39.2 cubic inches = 589 c.c.), having
+cranial and facial asymmetry, he was vain, deceitful, and violent, and
+made great show of scepticism although he wore a great many medals of
+the Virgin. This subject was over twenty-five when the first epileptic
+seizure took place.
+
+The connection between epilepsy and crime is one of derivation rather
+than identity. Epilepsy represents the genus of which criminality and
+moral insanity are the species.
+
+The born criminal is an epileptic, inasmuch as he possesses the
+anatomical, skeletal, physiognomical, psychological, and moral
+characteristics peculiar to the recognised form of epilepsy, and
+sometimes also its motorial phenomena, although at rare intervals. More
+frequently he exhibits its substitutes (vertigo, twitching, sialorrhea,
+emotional attacks). But the criminal epileptic possesses other
+characteristics peculiar to himself; in particular, that desire of evil
+for its own sake, which is unknown to ordinary epileptics. In view of
+this fact this form of epilepsy must be considered apart from the purely
+nervous anomaly, both in the clinical diagnosis and the methods of cure
+and social prophylaxis.
+
+Moreover, the nervous anomaly, which in the case of criminals appears on
+the scene from time to time, accentuating the criminal tendency till it
+reaches the atavistic form and producing morbid complications which
+sometimes prove fatal, serves to point out the true nature of the
+disease and to emphasise the fact that while it is attenuated so far as
+motor attacks are concerned, it is aggravated on the other hand by
+criminal impulses, which render the patient semi-immune and permit him a
+longer and less troubled existence, but provoke a constant brain
+irritation, which clouds and disturbs his intellectual and moral nature.
+
+In order better to understand these two forms of epilepsy, we must
+recall two analogous forms of another and equally multiform disease,
+tuberculosis in its forms of quick consumption and scrofula. The
+etiology is identical and the symptoms frequently alike, but while the
+latter proceeds very slowly and allows the patient a long life, the
+former is rapid and severs life in its prime.
+
+In motory epilepsy, the irritation is manifested on a sudden, but leaves
+the mind healthy in the interval, although the attacks may lead to rapid
+dementia. In criminal epilepsy this irritation does not break out in
+violent seizures and is compatible with a long life, but it changes the
+whole physical and psychic complexion of the individual.
+
+The epileptic origin of criminality explains many characteristics of the
+criminal, the genesis of which was previously obscure. Many of the moral
+and physical peculiarities of born criminals and the morally insane may
+be classed as professional characteristics acquired through the habit of
+evil-doing, especially the naso-labial and zygomatic wrinkles, cynical
+expression, tapering fingers, etc. Many anomalies also in the bones,
+hair, ears, eyes, and the monstrous development of the jaws and teeth,
+must be explained by arrested development in the fifth or sixth month of
+ultra-uterine existence, corresponding to the characteristics of
+inferior races by the usual law of ontogeny which recapitulates
+phylogeny. But there is a final series of anomalies, the origin of which
+was formerly wrapped in mystery: plagiocephaly, sclerosis, the
+thickening of the meninges, cranial asymmetry, and other changes in the
+cerebral layers, which can be explained only by a disease altering
+precociously the whole cerebral conformation, as is exactly the case in
+epilepsy.
+
+The born criminal is an epileptic, not however afflicted with the common
+form of this disease, but with a special kind. The pathological basis,
+the etiology, and the anatomical and psychological characteristics are
+identical, but there are many differences. While in the ordinary form
+motor anomalies are very common, in the criminal form they are very
+rare, while in ordinary epilepsy the mental explosions are accompanied
+by unconsciousness, in the other form they are weakened and spread over
+the whole existence, and consciousness is, relatively speaking,
+preserved; and while, finally, the ordinary epileptic has not always the
+tendency to do evil for its own sake--nay, may even achieve holiness--in
+the hidden form the bent towards evil endures from birth to death. The
+perversity concentrated in one second in the motor attack, is attenuated
+in the second form, but spread over the whole existence. We have
+therefore an epilepsy _sui generis_, a variety of epilepsy which may be
+called criminal.
+
+Thus the primitive idea of crime has become organic and complete. The
+criminal is only a diseased person, an epileptic, in whom the cerebral
+malady, begun in some cases during prenatal existence, or later, in
+consequence of some infection or cerebral poisoning, produces, together
+with certain signs of physical degeneration in the skull, face, teeth,
+and brain, a return to the early brutal egotism natural to primitive
+races, which manifests itself in homicide, theft, and other crimes.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+_THE INSANE CRIMINAL_
+
+
+GENERAL FORMS OF CRIMINAL LUNACY
+
+Epileptic born criminals and the morally insane may be classed as
+lunatics under certain aspects, but only by the scientific observer and
+professional psychologist. Outside these two forms, there is an
+important series of offenders, who are not criminals from birth, but
+become such at a given moment of their lives, in consequence of an
+alteration of the brain, which completely upsets their moral nature and
+makes them unable to discriminate between right and wrong. They are
+really insane; that is, entirely without responsibility for their
+actions.
+
+Nearly every class of mental derangement contributes a special form of
+crime.
+
+_The Idiot_ is prompted by paroxysms of rage to commit murderous attacks
+on his fellow-creatures. His exaggerated sexual propensities incite him
+to rape, and his childish delight at the sight of flames, to arson.
+
+_The Imbecile_, or weak-minded individual, yields to his first impulse,
+or, dominated by the influence of others, becomes an accomplice in the
+hope of some trivial reward.
+
+The victims of _Melancholia_ are driven to suicide by suppressed grief,
+precordial agitation, or hallucinations. Sometimes the suicidal attempt
+is indirect and takes the form of the murder of some important personage
+or their own kin, in the hope that their own condemnation may follow, or
+it is to save those dear to them from the miseries of life.
+
+Persons afflicted with _General Paralysis_ frequently steal, in the
+belief that everything they see belongs to them, or because they are
+incapable of understanding the meaning of property. If accused of theft,
+they deny their guilt or assert that the stolen articles have been
+hidden on their persons by others. They are inclined to forgery and
+fraudulent bankruptcy, and when their misdeeds are brought home to them
+they show no shame. Unnatural sexual offences and crimes against the
+authorities are also common. While they are seldom guilty of murder,
+they frequently commit arson, through carelessness, or with the idea of
+destroying their homes because they think them too small, or wish to
+get rid of the vermin in them, such as rats.
+
+The sufferer from _Dementia_ forgets his promises, however serious they
+may be. Cerebral irritability often leads him to commit violent acts,
+homicide, etc.
+
+In some cases, mental alienation is manifested in a mania for
+litigation, which urges the sufferer to offend statesmen, state lawyers,
+and judges.
+
+A common symptom of _Pellagra_ is the tendency to unpremeditated murder
+or suicide, without the slightest cause. The sight of water suggests
+drowning, in the form of murder or suicide.
+
+Young persons at the approach of puberty and women subject to amenorrhea
+often exhibit a tendency to arson and crimes of an erotic nature.
+Similar tendencies are sometimes displayed during pregnancy, and an
+inclination to theft is not uncommon.
+
+Maniacs are prone to satyriasis and bacchanalian excesses. They commit
+rape and indecent acts in public and often appropriate strange objects,
+hair or wearing apparel, with the idea of obtaining means to satisfy
+their vices, either because they are unconscious of doing wrong or
+because, like true megalomaniacs, they believe the stolen goods to be
+their own property. Sometimes a feverish activity prompts them to
+steal; "I felt a kind of uneasiness, a demon in my fingers," said one,
+"which forced me to move them and carry off something."
+
+Monomaniacs, especially if subject to hallucinations, frequently
+manifest a tendency to homicide, either to escape imaginary persecutions
+or in obedience to equally imaginary injunctions. The same motives prompt
+them to commit special kinds of theft and arson. Na... (see Fig. 16)
+murdered his friend without any reason, after suffering from
+delusions for one year.
+
+The characteristics of insane criminals are so marked that it is not
+difficult to distinguish them from habitual delinquents. They seldom
+show any fear of the penalty incurred nor do they try to escape. They
+take little trouble to hide their misdeeds, or to get rid of any clue.
+If poisoners, they leave poison about in their victim's room; if
+forgers, they take no trouble to make their signatures appear genuine;
+if thieves, they exhibit stolen goods in public, or appropriate them in
+the presence of witnesses. They frequently manifest unbounded rage and
+assault those present, entirely forgetting the stolen objects. Once
+their crime is accomplished, not only do they give themselves no trouble
+to hide it, but are prone to confess it immediately, and are eager to
+talk about it, saying with satisfaction that they feel relieved at what
+they have done, that they have obeyed the order of superior beings and
+consider their actions praiseworthy. They deny that they are insane, or
+if they admit it in some cases, it is only because they are persuaded to
+do so by their lawyers or fellow-prisoners. And even then, they are
+ready at the first opportunity to contradict the idea, eulogising and
+exaggerating their criminal acts.
+
+A full confession in court is not uncommon, and in the case of impulsive
+monomaniacs, epileptics, and insane inebriates, the descriptions are
+full of characteristic expressions, showing what was the offender's
+state of mind when dominated by criminal frenzy.
+
+Rom..., an impulsive monomaniac, who stabbed an acquaintance, felt "the
+blood rushing to his head, which seemed to be in flames."
+
+Tixier narrates that, on seeing the old man he afterward murdered pass
+him on a country road, "something went to his head." Frequently such
+criminals are quick to give themselves up to justice.
+
+_Antecedents._ Unlike the ordinary offender, insane criminals are often
+perfectly law-abiding up to the moment of the crime.
+
+_Motive._ Perhaps the greatest difference between born criminals and
+insane criminals lies in the motive for the act, which in the case of
+the latter is not only entirely disproportionate to it, but nearly
+always absurd and depends far less on personal susceptibility.
+
+Here are a few typical cases: A father fancies he hears a voice bidding
+him kill his favourite child. He goes home, has the little victim
+dressed in its best clothes and cuts off its head with perfect calmness.
+A lady, ignorant of horticulture, plants some flowers on her husband's
+grave. A day or two later, noticing that they are drooping, she imagines
+that the gardener has watered them with boiling water, and after
+reproaching him bitterly, wounds him with a pair of scissors.
+
+These unfortunate beings frequently show perfect mental clearness before
+the crime and even in the act of striking the fatal blow; yet their
+action is purely instinctive and not prompted by passion or any other
+cause. Although such individuals appear to reason, can it be said that
+they are in full possession of their mental faculties? If they are, how
+shall we explain the wholesale destruction of those they hold most dear?
+A husband kills the wife to whom he is sincerely attached; a father, the
+son he loves most; or a mother, the infant at her breast.
+
+Such an extraordinary phenomenon can only be explained by a sudden
+suspension of the intellectual and moral faculties and of the powers of
+the will.
+
+
+SPECIAL FORMS OF CRIMINAL INSANITY
+
+ALCOHOLISM
+
+In addition to these casual forms of lunacy, in which the individual is
+led to commit crime by a momentary alteration of his moral nature, we
+find other forms which might be called specific, because the criminal
+act forms the culminating point of the malady. The sufferers from these
+forms are less easily distinguished from ordinary criminals and normal
+persons than are the lunatics of whom we have just spoken. These mental
+diseases, which should be studied separately, are alcoholism, hysteria,
+and epilepsy.
+
+It is well known that temporary drunkenness may transform an honest,
+peacable individual into a rowdy, a murderer, or a thief.
+
+Gall narrates the case of a certain Petri, who manifested homicidal
+tendencies when excited by alcohol. Locatelli mentions a workman of
+thirty, who, when under the influence of drink, would smash everything
+around him and stab the companions who sought to restrain his drunken
+fury. Ladelci and Carmignani cite the case of a miner, who was
+repeatedly arrested for drunken brawls, and when reproved replied: "I
+cannot help it. As soon as I drink, I must start fighting."
+
+Very characteristic is the case of a certain Papor... who was imprisoned
+for some time at Turin. His father was a drunkard and ill treated his
+wife. The son became a soldier, then an excise officer, fireman, and
+finally nurse in an infirmary, and was known as a respectable, temperate
+man. In 1876, he was transferred to the Island of Lipari, where
+malvoisie only costs 25 centimes a litre, and there he acquired a taste
+for wine, without, however, drinking to excess. But a year later, a
+change in the hospital regulations gave him longer hours of leisure, and
+he began to drink deeply. In 1881, while intoxicated, he accosted a
+sportsman and pretending to be a police officer, ordered him to give up
+his gun. At that moment he was arrested by a genuine constable and taken
+to the barracks, where he was sentenced, without any one's observing his
+drunken condition. After his release, he committed other offences of the
+same type, which were followed by confession and repentance.
+
+_Chronic Alcoholism._ The phenomena developed by chronic inebriety are,
+however, still more important from the point of view of the
+criminologist than the immediate effects of alcohol on certain
+constitutions.
+
+_Physical and Functional Characteristics of Chronic Inebriety._ The
+habitual drunkard rarely exhibits traces of congenital degeneracy, but
+frequently that of an acquired character, especially paresis, facial
+hemiparesis, slight exophthalmia (see Fig. 6), inequality of the pupils,
+insensibility to touch and pain, which is often unilateral, especially
+in the tongue, thermoanalgesia, hyperaesthesia, experienced at various
+points not corresponding to the nervous territories and modified
+spontaneously or by esthesiogenic agents (Grasset), alphalgesia
+(sensation of pain at contact with painless bodies), a deficiency of
+urea in the urine, out of proportion to the general state of
+nourishment, and a proneness of the symptoms to return after trauma,
+poisoning, agitation, or serious illness.
+
+The gravest phenomena, however, are atrophy or degeneration in the
+liver, heart, stomach, seminal canaliculi, and central nervous system,
+which give rise to serious functional disturbances; most of all, in the
+digestion--as manifested by the characteristic gastric catarrh,
+matutinal vomit and cramp--and in the reproductive system, with
+resulting impotence.
+
+_Psychic Disturbances--Hallucinations._ The most frequent and precocious
+symptoms are delusions and hallucinations, generally of a gloomy or even
+of a terrible nature, and extremely varied and fleeting, which, like
+dreams, in nearly every instance arise from recent and strong
+impressions. The most characteristic hallucinations are those which
+persuade the patient that he experiences the contact of disgusting
+vermin, corpses, or other horrible objects. He is gnawed by imaginary
+worms, burnt by matches, or persecuted by spies and the police.
+
+
+  =FIG. 16
+  ITALIAN CRIMINAL
+  A Case of Alcoholism
+  (see page 82)=
+
+
+The strange pathological conditions resulting from chronic alcoholism
+give rise to other fearful hallucinations. Cutaneous anaesthesia and
+alcoholic anaphrodisia make the sufferers fancy they have lost the
+generative organs, nose, legs, etc.; dyspepsia, exhaustion, and paresis,
+that they have been poisoned or are being persecuted. The reaction
+following excessively prolonged stimuli causes furious lypemania and
+gloomy fancies. Sometimes chronic inebriates believe that they are
+accused of imaginary crimes and loaded with chains amid heaps of
+corpses. They implore mercy and try to kill themselves in order to
+escape from their shame; or they remain motionless, bewildered, and
+terrified. Not infrequently, because of the profound faith, which,
+unlike many other lunatics, they have in their hallucinations, they pass
+from melancholy broodings to a fit of mad energy, often of a homicidal
+or suicidal nature. They imagine they are struggling with thieves or
+wild beasts and hurl themselves from the window or rush naked through
+the streets, killing the first person that crosses their path. In some,
+this delirium of energy breaks out suddenly like an epileptic attack,
+which it resembles in its brevity and intensity. With hair standing on
+end, they rush about like savage beasts, grinding their teeth, biting,
+rending their clothes, or tearing up the sod, or hurling themselves from
+some height. These symptoms are preceded by vertigo, periodical
+cephalalgia, and flushing of the face, and are manifested more
+frequently by those who are already predisposed through trauma to the
+head, or through typhus or heredity, or after great agitation and
+prolonged fasting, and often bear no relation to the quantity of alcohol
+imbibed, which may be small, or to the general physical state; but
+depend on cerebral irritation caused by chronic alcoholism. The attacks
+may disappear in a few hours without leaving the slightest recollection
+in the mind of the patient (Krafft-Ebing, p. 182). They are, in short, a
+species of disguised epilepsy, and thus they may well be styled, since
+true alcoholic epilepsy is noted in many inebriates, specially in
+absinthe-drinkers.
+
+_Apathy._ Another characteristic almost invariably found in inebriates
+who have committed a crime, is a strange apathy and indifference, a
+total lack of concern regarding their state--a trait common also to
+ordinary criminals, but in a less marked degree. They make themselves at
+home in prison without showing the faintest interest in their trial or
+in the offence which has caused their arrest, and only when brought
+before the judge do they rouse themselves for a moment from their
+lethargy.
+
+A well-educated man, after a varied career as doctor, chemist, and
+clerk, during which time he had been constantly dismissed from his posts
+for drunkenness, met a policeman in the street and killed him, in the
+belief that the officer wanted to arrest him. When taken to prison, the
+first thing he did was to write to his mother begging her to send him
+some pomade. When interrogated, he informed the examining magistrate
+that the interrogatory was useless, since he had already chosen a fresh
+trade, that of photographer. It was only after several months of total
+abstinence in prison, that he began to come to his senses and to realise
+the gravity of his situation. (Tardieu, _De la Folie_, 1870.)
+
+_Contrast between Apathy and Impulsiveness._ This apathy alternates with
+strange impulses, which, although strongly at variance with the
+patient's former habits, he is unable to control, even when he is aware
+that they are criminal.
+
+_Crimes peculiar to Inebriates._ Since modification of the reproductive
+organs is a common cause of hallucinations, inebriate criminals
+frequently suffer from a species of erotic delirium, during which they
+murder those whom they believe guilty of offences against
+themselves--generally their wives or mistresses. This is partly owing to
+the sexual nature of their hallucinations and partly to the wretchedness
+of their homes, which are in such striking contrast to the rosy dreams
+inspired by alcohol and which tend to increase the melancholy natural to
+drunkards. They imagine they are being deceived and their impotence
+derided, the most innocent gestures being interpreted as deadly insults.
+
+In the prison at Turin, my father had under observation two of these
+unfortunate beings, one a man of sixty and the other quite young. Both
+had murdered their wives with the most revolting cruelty, because they
+believed them to be unfaithful, although in reality both the women led
+blameless lives.
+
+_Course of the Disease._ The continued abuse of alcohol ends at last in
+complete dementia or general pseudo-paralysis. The body is at first
+obese, but rapidly loses flesh, the skin becomes greasy and damp, owing
+to hypersecretion of the sebaceous and sudoriparous glands, and soils
+the garments. Memory becomes enfeebled, speech uncertain and defective
+(dysarthria), the association of ideas sluggish, sensibility blunted,
+perception confused, judgment erroneous, and every species of regular
+and continued application impossible. The earlier hallucinations
+reappear, but in a less vivid form and only at long intervals; then
+paralysis more or less rapidly becomes general and ends in death.
+
+
+EPILEPSY
+
+We have spoken of this disease in another chapter and have shown that
+the born criminal is in reality an epileptic, in whom the malady,
+instead of manifesting itself suddenly in strange muscular contortions
+or terrible spasms, develops slowly in continual brain irritation, which
+causes the individual thus affected to reproduce the ferocious egotism
+natural to primitive savages, irresistibly bent on harming others.
+
+But besides these epileptics, who are morally insane from their birth
+and pass their lives in prisons and lunatic asylums, without any one
+being able to mark the exact boundary between their perversity and their
+irresponsibility; besides these individuals, whom society has a right,
+nay a moral obligation, to remove from its midst because they are ever a
+source of danger there are those who are afflicted with other forms of
+epilepsy;--forms in which irritation is manifested in seizures exactly
+similar to the typical convulsive fit, which they resemble also with
+regard to variation in intensity and duration. Generally speaking, they
+are likewise accompanied by complete loss of memory and consciousness,
+but in some cases there may be partial or complete consciousness, and
+yet the sufferer is not responsible for his actions. This variety of
+epilepsy, termed by Samt psychic epilepsy (epilepsy with psychic
+seizures), manifests itself at long intervals, sometimes only once, but
+more frequently twice or thrice in the course of a lifetime, and during
+the attack the personality of the individual undergoes a complete
+change.
+
+The attack is described by Samt as follows: During the seizure, the
+individual behaves like a somnambulist. Sometimes he is dazed, mute, and
+immovable; at others, he talks incessantly; at still others, he goes on
+with his ordinary occupations, travelling, reading, and writing: but in
+every case his personality suffers a complete metamorphosis, his habits,
+actions, and even handwriting assume a different character. Sometimes he
+is seized by a mania for walking and tramps for miles; at others, he
+undertakes interminable railway journeys. Tissie (_Les alienes
+voyageurs_, 1887) cites cases of epileptics who travelled from Paris to
+Bombay, who covered 71 kilometres on foot, and who wandered unconscious
+for 31 months.
+
+Sometimes epilepsy is manifested only by the tendency to undertake
+purposeless journeys, as in the case of Ferretti and a certain M... who
+visited the Mahdi in Africa and from thence travelled aimlessly to
+Australia.
+
+This ambulatory form of epilepsy is very common amongst lads of fourteen
+or fifteen. Scarcely a week passes without the police receiving
+information from parents that their son has disappeared from home with
+only a few pence in his pocket. The wanderer is discovered later,
+frequently in some small provincial town, which he has reached after
+tramping aimlessly for days, sleeping in barns, and living on charity.
+When questioned, the boy usually displays total ignorance regarding all
+that has happened to him during the interval.
+
+Dr. Maccabruni in his _Notes on Hidden Forms of Epilepsy_, 1886,
+narrates the case of an epileptic, who during childhood received an
+injury to his skull. Later, he started out on a series of wanderings to
+Venice, Padua, Rome, Milan, Monaco, and Mentone. His journeys,
+especially those to distant parts, were undertaken in a state of
+unconsciousness and generally a short time before the commencement of a
+fit.
+
+These attacks may last any length of time, from a few minutes to several
+months. In one of the cases observed by my father, the attack lasted a
+fortnight. The patient, a young officer with whom we were personally
+acquainted, was one of the quietest persons possible, but suddenly he
+was seized with a mania for writing innumerable letters, especially on
+stamped paper, in exaggeratedly large writing very different from his
+usual style. These letters, which were full of absurdities, were posted
+by the writer from the different towns he passed through on his aimless
+journeyings, which lasted a whole fortnight. During one of these
+seizures, he was arrested as a deserter and was unable to give any
+explanation of his conduct.
+
+In this particular patient, the disease assumed the mild form of absurd
+letters and still more absurd journeys, but other individuals in the
+same state may commit criminal acts like homicide, equally without
+reason or gain to themselves. Once the fit is passed, these unfortunate
+individuals have generally no recollection of their past actions, and
+since in their normal state they are quiet, law-abiding persons, it is
+extremely difficult to trace back the deed to the right source, or to
+discover the disease, because they show no other symptoms of epilepsy,
+apart from the particular criminal act.
+
+Samt describes a still more complicated form of this psychic seizure, in
+which the personality is altered without there being any loss of
+consciousness. In a case of this kind, a servant, after forty years of
+faithful service, murdered his old mistress during the night, having
+previously cut all the bell-wires to prevent communication with the
+other servants. He escaped with some valuables, but returned in a few
+days and gave himself up to the police, to whom he gave a detailed
+account of his crime without showing either horror or remorse. He was
+tried and condemned, and a few months later was again seized with
+epileptic fits during one of which he died. Samt, who saw him in this
+state, came to the conclusion that the murder had been committed during
+a similar seizure and he was able to prove that attacks of this kind are
+not necessarily accompanied by loss of consciousness.
+
+As in the above case, these psychic attacks are sometimes accompanied by
+an insatiable thirst for blood, destruction and violence of all kinds,
+as well as by an extraordinary development of muscular strength with
+apparent lucidity of mind. They may last from a few minutes to half an
+hour, after which the patient falls into a sound sleep and forgets
+everything that has happened, or else retains only a vague recollection.
+
+Such was the case of the epileptic Misdea, which first suggested to my
+father the idea of a link between crime and epilepsy. As this case has
+become famous in the annals of crime in Italy, it will perhaps be of
+interest to the reader. Misdea, the son of degenerate parents,
+manifested a series of typical epileptic anomalies--asymmetry,
+vaso-motor disturbances, impulsiveness, ferocity, etc. At the age of
+twenty, while serving in the army, for some trivial motive he suddenly
+attacked and killed his superior officer and eight or ten soldiers who
+tried to overpower him. Finally he was bound and placed in a cell, where
+he fell into a sound slumber and on awaking had entirely forgotten what
+he had done. He was condemned to death, but my father, who examined him
+medically, was able to prove conclusively that the crime had been
+committed during an attack of epilepsy.
+
+The physical and psychic characters of this class of epileptic are those
+common to all non-criminal epileptics, and indeed we are justified in
+considering them insane rather than criminal, because, with the
+exception of the attack, which assumes this terrible form, they do not
+manifest criminal tendencies.
+
+
+HYSTERIA
+
+Hysteria is a disease allied to epilepsy, of which it appears to be a
+milder form, and is much more common among women than men in the ratio
+of twenty to one. The disease may frequently be traced to hereditary
+influences, similar to those found in epilepsy, transmitted by
+epileptic, neurotic, or inebriate parents, frequently also, to some
+traumatic or toxic influence, such as typhus, meningitis, a blow, a
+fall, or fright.
+
+_Physical Characteristics._ These are fewer than in epileptics. The most
+common peculiarities are small, obliquely-placed eyes of timid glance,
+pale, elongated face, crowded or loosened teeth, nervous movements of
+the face and hands, facial asymmetry, and black hair.
+
+_Functional Characteristics._ These are of great importance. Hysterical
+subjects manifest special sensibility to the contact of certain metals
+such as magnetised iron, copper, and gold. Characteristic symptoms are
+the insensibility of the larynx or the sensation of a foreign body in it
+(_globus hystericus_), neuralgic pains, which disappear with extreme
+suddenness, reappearing often on the side opposite that where they were
+first felt, the prevalence of sensory and motor anomalies on one side
+(hemianaesthesia), the confusion of different colours (dyschromatopsia);
+greater sensibility in certain parts of the body, such as the ovary and
+the breasts, which when subjected to pressure give rise to neuropathic
+phenomena (hysterogenous points); a sense of pleasure in the presence
+of pain, the abolition of pharyngeal reflex action, the absence of the
+sensation of warmth in certain parts of the body and a tendency to the
+so-called attacks of "hysterics." These characteristics, which are
+closely allied, if not precisely similar to those of epilepsy, are
+preceded by a number of premonitory symptoms--hallucinations, sudden
+change of character, contractions, laryngeal spasms, strabismus,
+frequent spitting, inordinate laughter or yawning, cardiac palpitations,
+loss of strength, trembling, anaesthesia and (just before the attack,)
+pains in some fixed spot, generally in the head, ovary, or nape of the
+neck.
+
+_Psychology._ The psychological manifestations of hysterical subjects
+are of still greater interest and importance.
+
+They show, on the whole, a fair amount of intelligence, although little
+power of concentration. In disposition they are profoundly egotistical
+and so preoccupied with their own persons that they will do anything to
+arouse attention and obtain notoriety. They are exceedingly
+impressionable, therefore easily roused to anger and cruelty, and are
+prone to take sudden and unreasonable likes and dislikes. They are
+fickle and easily swayed. They take special delight in slandering
+others, and when unable to excite public notice by unfounded
+accusations, to which they resort as a means of revenge, they embitter
+the lives of those around them by continual quarrels and dissensions.
+
+_Susceptibility to Suggestion._ Of still greater importance for the
+criminologist is the facility with which hysterical women are dominated
+by hypnotic suggestion. Their wills become entirely subordinated to that
+of the hypnotiser, by whose influence they can be induced to believe
+that they have changed their sex so that they forthwith adopt habits of
+the opposite sex, or to entertain _idees fixes_--strange, impulsive, or
+even criminal ideas. They are, in fact, obedient automatons when under
+hypnotic influence, but they cannot be prevailed upon to perform acts
+contrary to their nature, to commit crimes or reveal secrets entrusted
+to them, if they are naturally upright.
+
+_Variability._ Mobility of mood is a still more salient characteristic
+of hysteria. The subject passes with extraordinary rapidity from
+laughter to tears "like children," says Richet, "who laugh immoderately
+before their tears are dry."
+
+"For one hour," says Sydenham, "they will be irascible and discontented;
+the next, they are cheerful and follow their friends about with all the
+signs of the old attachment."
+
+Their sensibility is affected by the most trifling causes. A word will
+grieve them like some real misfortune. Their impulses are not lacking in
+intellectual control, but are followed by action with excessive
+rapidity. Although of such changeable disposition, they are subject to
+fixed ideas, to which they cling with a kind of cataleptic intensity. A
+woman will be dumb or motionless for months, on the pretext that speech
+or motion would injure her. But this is the only form of constancy they
+exhibit, otherwise they are indolent by nature. Sometimes they will show
+activity for a few days only to relapse again into idleness.
+
+_Erotomania._ This is almost a pathognomonical symptom and is shown in
+hallucinations and nightmares of an erotic character, preceded by
+epigastric aura. This erotomania is so impulsive that hysterical women
+frequently engage in a _liaison_, from a desire of adventure or of
+experiencing sudden emotions. The criminality of the hysterical is
+always connected with the sexual functions.
+
+Of twenty-one women found guilty of slander, nine made false accusations
+of rape, four accused their husbands of sexual violence, and one of
+sodomy. Such accusations, when made by minors, are generally full of
+disgusting details, which would be repugnant to any adult.
+
+_Mendacity._ Another peculiarity of hysterical women is the
+irresistible tendency to lie, which leads them to utter senseless
+falsehoods just for the pleasure of deceiving and making believe. They
+sham suicide and sickness or write anonymous letters full of inventions.
+Many, from motives of spite or vanity, accuse servants of dishonesty, in
+order to revel in their disgrace and imprisonment. The favourite
+calumny, however, is always an accusation of indecent behaviour,
+sometimes made against their fathers and brothers, but generally against
+a priest or medical man. The accusations, in most cases, are so strange
+and fantastic as to be quite unworthy of belief, but sometimes,
+unfortunately, they obtain credence. The commonest method adopted for
+spreading these calumnies is by means of anonymous letters. In one case,
+a young girl of twenty-five belonging to a distinguished family,
+pestered a respectable priest with love-letters and shortly afterwards
+accused him of seduction. Another girl of eighteen informed the Attorney
+for the State that she had frequently been the victim of immoral priests
+and accused one of her female cousins of complicity. According to her
+story, while praying at church, a certain Abbot R... took her into the
+sacristy and entreated her to elope with him to Spain. She refused
+indignantly, and hoping to soften her, he twice stabbed himself in her
+presence, whereat she fainted, and on recovering consciousness, found
+the priest at her feet, begging forgiveness. She further accused the
+same cousin of having taken her to a convent, where she was seduced by a
+priest, the nuns acting as accomplices. A subsequent medical examination
+proved that no seduction had taken place and that she was suffering from
+hysteria.
+
+In another case, a girl of sixteen, the daughter of an Italian general,
+complained to her father that a certain lieutenant, her neighbour at
+table, had used indecent language to her. Shortly afterwards, a shower
+of anonymous letters troubled the peace of the household--declarations
+of love addressed to the girl's mother and threats to the daughter. It
+was discovered that the girl herself was the writer of all these
+letters.
+
+Anonymous letter-writing is so common among hysterical persons, that it
+may be considered a pathognomonical characteristic. The handwriting is
+of a peculiar character, or rather it shows a peculiar tendency to vary
+from excessive size to extreme smallness, a characteristic we have
+noticed in epileptics.
+
+_Delirium._ Hysterical, like epileptic, subjects often suffer from
+melancholia or monomaniacal delirium. Indeed, according to Morel, this
+symptom is more frequent when the other morbid phenomena are absent.
+
+Psychic hysteria, like epilepsy, may exist unaccompanied by the
+characteristic hysterical attack, and then, as is the case with
+epilepsy, it is most dangerous to society.
+
+In conclusion, although up to the present, medical men have been
+disposed to consider hysteria as a disease distinct from epilepsy,
+careful study of this malady inclined my father to class it as a
+variation of epilepsy, prevalent among women, who in this disease, as in
+many others, manifest an attenuated form.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+_CRIMINALOIDS_
+
+
+We have seen how, owing to disease, alcoholism and epilepsy, physically
+and psychically degenerate individuals make their appearance in a
+community of normal persons. But a large proportion of the crimes
+committed cannot be attributed to lunatics, epileptics, or the morally
+insane, nor do all criminals show that aggregate of atavistic and morbid
+characters,--the cruelty and bestial insensibility of the savage, the
+impulsiveness of the epileptic, the licentiousness, delusions, and
+impetuosity of the madman,--which we find united in the born criminal.
+
+According to statistics obtained by my father, the share contributed to
+the sum total of criminality by this latter type is only 33%, which
+appears to be a magic figure for the criminal, since it corresponds to
+the percentage of the histological anomaly discovered by Roncoroni and
+to that of all important anomalies, including those of the field of
+vision. But besides this percentage of born criminals, doomed even
+before birth to a career of crime, whom all educational efforts fail to
+redeem and who therefore should be segregated at once; besides the
+epileptic, hysterical, and inebriate lunatics and those insane from
+alcoholisation, of whom we have already spoken, there remain a number of
+criminals, amounting to a full half, in whom the virus is, so to speak,
+attenuated, who, although they are epileptoids, suffer from a milder
+form of the disease, so that without some adequate cause (_causa
+criminis_) criminality is not manifested. The inhibitory centres are
+somewhat obtuse, but not altogether absent, so that a healthy
+environment, careful training, habits of industry, the inculcation of
+moral and humane sentiments may prevent these individuals from yielding
+to dishonest impulses, provided always that no special temptation to sin
+comes in their path.
+
+We have said that education is not sufficient to convert a criminal into
+an honest man. Conversely, trials and difficulties and the want of
+education are powerless to make a criminal of an honest individual.
+Hypnotism, the most powerful means of suggestion possible, cannot induce
+a good man to commit a crime during the hypnotic sleep, but vicious
+training has an enormous influence on weak natures, who are candidates
+for good or evil according to circumstances. Such individuals were
+classified by my father as _criminaloids_.
+
+_Physical Characteristics._ Criminaloids have no special skeletal,
+anatomical, or functional peculiarities. As the criminaloid represents a
+milder type of the born criminal, he may possess the same physical
+defects in the skull, hair, beard, ears, eyes, teeth, lips, joints,
+hands, and feet, as well as all the sensory anomalies, lessened
+sensibility to touch and pain, hyper-sensibility to the magnet and
+barometrical variations, etc.; but all these anomalies are never found
+in the same proportion as in born criminals; that is, criminaloids never
+manifest the aggregate of physical and psychic peculiarities which
+distinguish born criminals and the morally insane. On the other hand, we
+find in criminaloids certain characteristics, such as premature greyness
+and baldness, etc., which are never exhibited by the born criminal. The
+real distinction between the criminaloid and the born criminal is
+psychological rather than physical.
+
+_Psychological Characteristics._ The difference between born criminals
+and criminaloids becomes apparent directly on considering the age at
+which the latter enter on their anti-social career and the motives which
+cause them to adopt it. While the born criminal begins to perpetrate
+crimes from the very cradle, so to speak, and always for very trivial
+motives, the criminaloid commits his initial offence later in life and
+always for some adequate reason.
+
+A criminal of this attenuated type, a certain Salvador, without cranial
+or facial anomalies, had led an honest life for many years, but on
+returning home after a prolonged absence on business, he found his house
+ransacked by his wife, who had deserted him. From that time he seems to
+have deliberately adopted a career of dishonesty, as the leader of a
+band of thieves.
+
+In another case, an engraver who showed no pathological anomalies,
+except excessive frontal sinuses, was ordered by a society to strike a
+medal for them. This happened to be exactly similar to a coin current in
+his country and the coincidence incited him to the making of counterfeit
+coin.
+
+But the most characteristic case, which aroused much interest in its
+time, is that of Olivo. He was a man of handsome appearance, with normal
+olfactory acuteness and sensibility to touch and pain. He had, however,
+inherited from neurotic and insane forebears secondary epileptic
+phenomena, which subsequently developed into convulsive epilepsy, and
+certain indications of degeneracy (facial and cranial asymmetry,
+abnormal capillary vortices and length of arm, scotoma in the field of
+vision and exaggerated tendinous reflex action). Up to the age of
+thirty he led an irreproachable life; in fact, he was scrupulous to
+excess, and this, coupled with pronounced conceit and stinginess, was
+his only fault. He married a woman of common origin, who was not really
+depraved, but she was coarse and unfaithful, and, worst of all in his
+eyes, unscrupulous and wasteful. These defects, and her habits of lying
+and trickery embittered the poor man's existence. One night, feeling
+very ill, probably owing to an approaching seizure, he appealed to his
+wife for assistance and received an unfeeling reply, whereupon he sprang
+out of bed, picked up a knife and stabbed her. Afterwards he fell into a
+deep sleep. In order to obliterate all traces of the crime, he cut the
+corpse into small pieces, packed it into a portmanteau and threw it into
+the sea. Two months later, when he was arrested, he immediately made a
+full confession, showing deep repentance and sincere attachment to his
+victim, whose merits he celebrated in a poem of his own composition. At
+the trial, he made no attempt to defend himself; during the hearing of
+evidence, which appeared greatly to agitate him, he was seized with an
+epileptic fit. He was absolved by the jury and returned to his former
+peaceful occupation of bookkeeper, nor did he again come into conflict
+with the law.
+
+_Reluctance to Commit Crimes._ Another trait characteristic of
+criminaloids is the hesitation they show before committing a crime,
+especially the first time, when it is not done, as in the above
+mentioned case, during an epileptic seizure.
+
+Feuerbach's fine collection contains a description of the brothers
+Kleinroth, whose father cruelly ill-treated and starved his wife and
+family while lavishing his money on low women and their bastards. The
+sons were unwilling to run away and leave the invalid mother to bear the
+brunt of her husband's fury, and while they were in this terrible
+situation, a certain individual offered to assassinate their tormentor.
+After great hesitation this offer was accepted; when arrested, the
+youths immediately confessed their complicity and manifested deep
+repentance.
+
+_Confession._ The criminaloid is easily induced to confess his misdeed.
+
+A certain C... on returning from abroad, found his former mistress
+married to his father. The pair resumed their liaison, but after a time,
+fearing a scandal, the woman threatened to drown herself unless her
+lover could find some means of adjusting matters on a satisfactory
+basis. C..., who disliked his father, poisoned him and disappeared with
+the widow taking with him a few valuables belonging to his father. A
+year later, the woman having died meanwhile, he returned home and made
+full confession, first to his sister and subsequently in court.
+
+_Moral Sense--Intelligence._ In the place of a weak, clouded, or
+unbalanced mind and that cynicism and absence of moral sense and natural
+feelings which distinguish born criminals of the most elevated type and
+even geniuses, criminaloids generally possess lucidity and balance of
+mind and may show themselves worthy of guiding the destinies of a
+nation. The men implicated in the French Panama Scandal and the case of
+the Banca Romana (Bank of Rome) are instances. When under a cloud of
+disgrace, instead of that insensibility, cynicism, or levity common to
+true criminals, they show deep sorrow, shame, and remorse, which not
+infrequently result in serious illness or death. Their natural
+affections and other sentiments are normal.
+
+It is notorious, too, that as soon as accusations were made against
+those implicated in the French Panama Scandal and the affair of the Bank
+of Rome, the greater number became ill and two died suddenly at the end
+of the trial.
+
+Unlike born criminals, criminaloids manifest deep repugnance towards
+common offenders. They demand solitary confinement and forego exercise,
+the only recreation prison life affords, in order to avoid all contact
+with their fellow-prisoners.
+
+_Social Position and Culture of the Criminaloid._ Criminaloids, as we
+have seen, are recruited from all ranks of society and strike every note
+in the scale of criminality, from petty larceny to complicated and
+premeditated murder, from minting spurious coins to compassing gigantic
+frauds, which inflict incalculable damage upon the community. The
+magnitude of a crime does not imply greater criminality on the part of
+its author, but rather that he is a man of brilliant endowments, whose
+culture and talents multiply his opportunities and means for evil. In
+all cases where opportunity plays an important part, the crime must
+necessarily be committed by individuals exposed to special temptations:
+cashiers who handle other people's money, which they may be tempted to
+spend with the illusory idea of being able later to replace what they
+have taken, officials and public men, who possess a certain amount of
+power and an apparent impunity, and bankers who are entrusted with
+wealth belonging to others, of which in that capacity they are
+accustomed to make use. Thus is explained why men of great talent and
+only slight criminal tendencies have taken part in gigantic frauds, such
+as the affairs of the Bank of Rome and the French Panama Canal.
+
+A characteristic case is that of Lord S----, First Lord of the Treasury,
+who committed forgeries to the extent of half a million sterling. "No
+torture," he writes, "would be an adequate punishment for my crime. Step
+by step, I have become the author of innumerable misdeeds and ruined
+more than ten thousand families. With less talent and greater
+uprightness, I might be now what I once was, an honest man. Now remorse
+is in vain."
+
+In Lord S---- we find united all the characteristics of the criminaloid:
+repentance, the desire to confess, irreproachable antecedents, a strong
+incentive to dishonesty, and great intelligence.
+
+Although the damage inflicted on society by this man was probably far
+greater than any evil wrought by a vulgar born criminal could have been,
+his criminality is nevertheless of an attenuated type. The mischief he
+wrought owed its gravity, not to the intensity of his criminal
+tendencies, but to his remarkable talents, which increased his power for
+evil as for good.
+
+In this category of criminals must be inscribed those clever swindlers,
+who set the whole world talking of their exploits: Madame Humbert,
+Lemoine, and the cobbler-captain of Koepenick.
+
+Sometimes, especially in political or commercial criminals, we find
+cases of an auto-illusion, of which the author of the crime is as much
+a victim as the public. Sometimes it is some device or mechanism which
+an inventor is convinced he has invented or is about to invent, an
+enterprise, in which the promoter imagines he will gain enormous wealth.
+Sometimes it is a trick in which the cupidity of the victims and their
+readiness to swallow promises of large and immediate profits play as
+important a part as the ability of the swindler. Sometimes it is a
+gigantic hoax, in which the deviser himself becomes keenly interested
+and for the carrying out of which he spends as much talent and energy as
+would suffice, if employed honestly, to acquire considerable wealth; but
+the swindler delights in his ingenious fraud as though he were taking
+part in some thrilling drama.
+
+A typical instance is that of a certain C... who was imprisoned about
+twenty years ago for defrauding a woman. My father undertook to cure him
+while in prison and was able to follow him in his subsequent career.
+This C... was a young man of good family, intelligent, honest, and a
+good linguist. His countenance was pleasing and bore no trace of
+precocious criminality. At the age of twenty he developed an
+unrestrained love of gambling and in order to indulge this vice,
+promised to marry a rich woman considerably older than himself, from
+whom he borrowed large sums, on the understanding that they should be
+paid back. However, shortly afterwards, he fell in love with a young
+girl and married her. His ex-fiancee brought legal action against him
+and he was sentenced to two years' imprisonment. During this time he
+shrank from seeing anybody and refused to exercise in order to avoid all
+contact with his fellow-prisoners. He showed great affection for his
+wife and declared his intention of turning over a new leaf. The offence
+he had committed, however seemed to cause him little or no regret,
+because, as he said, he would never have continued the deception had not
+his victim shown such willingness to be gulled. From prison he went to
+London, where lack of funds caused him to perpetrate another swindle,
+but this time he was able to escape to Naples. Here for twelve years, he
+worked honestly in a large hotel, but once again a pressing need of
+money made him engage in a third fraud of considerable importance, for
+which he is still undergoing imprisonment.
+
+
+HABITUAL CRIMINALS
+
+The degrading influence of prison life and contact with vulgar
+criminals, or the abuse of alcohol, to which better natures frequently
+have recourse in order to stifle the pangs of conscience, may cause
+criminaloids who have committed their initial offences with repugnance
+and hesitation, to develop later into habitual criminals,--that is,
+individuals who regard systematic violation of the law in the light of
+an ordinary trade or occupation and commit their offences with
+indifference.
+
+Physically, habitual criminals do not resemble born criminals, but they
+exhibit some of the characteristics of those offenders from whom their
+ranks are recruited, besides, in a more marked degree, certain acquired
+characters, like sinister wrinkles and a shifty and sneaking look.
+
+Psychologically, criminaloids tend to resemble born criminals, whose
+habits, tastes, slang, tattooing, orgies, idleness, etc., they gradually
+develop, in the same way as old couples, living isolated in the country,
+adopt identical habits, gestures, and tone of voice.
+
+The type of criminaloid, who develops into an habitual criminal is well
+illustrated by the case of Eyraud, who in conjunction with Gabrielle
+Bompard, murdered Gouffre and packed the corpse in a trunk. Through his
+marked weakness for women, Eyraud became successively a deserter, a
+thief, and a murderer. He certainly possessed a few of the
+characteristics peculiar to degenerates--long, projecting ears,
+excessive development, amounting to asymmetry, of the left frontal
+sinus, prognathism, exaggerated brachycephaly, and the span of the arms
+exceeding the total height, but he had not the general criminal type,
+his teeth were regular, beard abundant, and hair scanty.
+
+His psychology corresponds exactly to his physical individuality. During
+infancy and youth, he showed nothing abnormal, except an unusual
+predominance of the sexual instincts. He exhibited no signs of that love
+of evil for its own sake, so characteristic of criminals, above all, of
+murderers. According to all accounts, he was a jovial individual, fond
+of making merry, but at the same time, brusque and violent and easily
+roused to passionate fury. His extreme susceptibility to the attractions
+of the opposite sex made him regardless of all moral considerations. In
+order to gratify this weakness, he became a deserter, dissipated all the
+money he had earned in a distillery and as a dealer in skins, and
+finally committed murder. At his trial, it was shown that before his
+escape to America, he had attempted to kill a woman who refused to leave
+her husband for him. He became violently enamoured of his accomplice,
+Gabrielle Bompard, to whom, like many criminaloids, he was attracted by
+reason of her greater depravity.
+
+The extreme levity displayed by Eyraud seems to be the strongest link
+between him and the born criminal. He passed with extraordinary
+facility from gaiety to melancholy. His intellect was well developed,
+he spoke three or four languages, and was successful in most things he
+undertook, though he seems to have been incapable of remaining constant
+to anything for long. As a business man he wasted his capital, and even
+in the execution of his crimes he showed frivolity and incoherence. At
+Lyons, he hired a carriage, in which he placed the corpse of Gouffre and
+after driving about the streets with Gabrielle Bompard like a madman,
+left the body of his victim in a spot near which people were constantly
+passing.
+
+Eyraud appears to have been a dissolute criminaloid whose unbridled
+passions and connection with Gabrielle Bompard caused him to develop
+into an habitual criminal. This diagnosis is confirmed by the absence of
+morbid heredity.
+
+It would be futile to cite a long series of cases, in which, although
+the details may vary, we always find the same phenomenon, the gradual
+development of a criminaloid into a criminal. It will suffice to name a
+large class of criminals, in whom this phenomenon may often be
+observed--the brigands common to Spain and Italy.
+
+These outlaws, and particularly their leaders, notwithstanding the
+gravity of their offences, are seldom born criminals, nor do they
+(except in rare cases) begin their career at a very early age. They
+possess, moreover, good qualities[3] and are capable of affection,
+generosity, and chivalry, which explains why their memories are
+cherished by the common people long after good and law-abiding men have
+been forgotten.
+
+The brigand Mandrin, known as the "Smuggler General" is remembered with
+love and affection in Dauphine and other regions of France, Switzerland,
+and Savoy; and this feeling is easy to understand, since he was the
+enemy of the "fermiers generaux," who, in the eighteenth century, leased
+from the French Government the right to levy excise duties, and sorely
+oppressed the people.
+
+Louis Mandrin, who in early life showed no signs of perversity nor
+possessed criminal traits, became a bandit, because he had been unjustly
+treated by these same "fermiers generaux" who refused him payment for
+work done. He became the chief of a small band of smugglers and spread
+terror among excise officers and gendarmes. He used to bring smuggled
+goods openly into the vicinity of villages and towns and invite the
+people to buy them, and the buying and selling went on without either
+gendarmes' or excise officers' daring to interfere. The Administration
+of the "fermiers generaux" promulgated a terrible edict against all
+purchasers of contraband goods; whereupon Mandrin, who was not without a
+sense of humour, declared he would force the Administration itself to
+buy the merchandise, and from time to time he would oblige the excise
+officers to buy smuggled wares at a fair price.
+
+
+
+
+  =FIG. 18
+  CRIMINAL GIRL=
+
+
+  =FIG. 19
+  THE BRIGAND SALOMONE=
+
+
+The brigand Gasparone (Fig. 20), whose memory is still held in great
+esteem by Sicilians, was an individual of much the same disposition.
+
+
+JURIDICAL CRIMINALS
+
+This category comprises individuals who break the law, not because of
+any natural depravity, nor owing to distressing circumstances, but by
+mere accident. They may be divided into two classes:
+
+First, the authors of accidental misdeeds, such as involuntary homicide
+or arson, who are not considered criminal by public opinion or by
+anthropologists, but who are obliged by the law to make compensation for
+the damage caused. Naturally, this class of law-breaker is in no way
+distinguishable, physically or psychically, from normal individuals,
+except that he is generally lacking in prudence, care, and forethought.
+
+Second, the authors of offences, which do not cause any damage socially,
+nor are they considered criminal by the general public, but have been
+deemed such by the law, in obedience to some dominating opinion or
+prejudice. Bad language, seditious writings, atheism, drunkenness,
+evasion of customs, and any violation of petty by-laws come under this
+head. Instances of such offences are too well known to need citation.
+They may best be summed up in the words of an American judge, who
+pointed out how easy it would be to sentence the most honest citizen of
+the Republic to imprisonment for a hundred years and fines exceeding a
+thousand dollars for breaking a number of petty local regulations
+against spitting, drinking, disrobing near a window, swearing, opening
+places of amusement on Sunday, or employing persons on certain days or
+under certain conditions prohibited by the law, etc.
+
+Although persons who commit these acts are often in no wise
+distinguishable from ordinary individuals, both criminals and
+criminaloids are more often guilty of such offences than are normal
+persons, who instinctively avoid coming into conflict with the law.
+
+The difficulty of judging these misdeeds lies in the necessity for
+careful weighing of the motive which gives rise to them, whether, that
+is, they have been unwittingly committed by an honest individual, or
+whether they are but an item in the long list of offences perpetrated by
+a criminal. This differential diagnosis should be based principally on
+the antecedents of the offender.
+
+To this group belong also the authors of more serious infractions of the
+law that are not generally considered such at the time, or in the
+district in which they take place. Misdeeds of this nature are: thefts
+of fuel in rural districts, poaching, the petty dishonesty current in
+commerce and in certain professions, and in countries where secret
+societies like the _camorra_ at Naples and the _mafia_ in Sicily, exist,
+a connection with such organisations, which to a certain extent is
+necessary in self-defence. Such, too, are theft and homicide during
+revolutions, insurrections, wars, and the conquest and exploitation of
+new territories and mines.
+
+Rochefort and Whitman have pointed out that during the gold-fever in
+Australia and California there was an enormous increase in crime.
+Individuals of good antecedents engaged in deadly struggles for the
+possession of the most valuable territories, and unbridled orgies
+followed these bloody affrays.
+
+During the expedition of Europeans to China in 1900, looting was carried
+on by soldiers of previously blameless career.
+
+
+CRIMINALS OF PASSION
+
+This type of criminal, if indeed such he may be called, represents the
+antithesis of the common offender, whose evil acts are the outcome of
+his ferocious and egotistical impulses, whereas criminals from passion
+are urged to violate the law by a pure spirit of altruism. In fact, they
+stand in no relation whatsoever to ordinary delinquents, and it is only
+by a legislative compromise that they are classed together. They
+represent the ultra-violet ray of the criminal spectrum, of which the
+vulgar criminal represents the ultra-red. Not only are they free from
+the egotism, insensibility, laziness, and lack of moral sense peculiar
+to the ordinary criminal, but their abnormality consists in the
+excessive development of noble qualities, sensibility, altruism,
+integrity, affection, which if carried to an extreme, may result in
+actions forbidden by law, or worse still, dangerous to society.
+
+_Physical Characteristics._ These, too, are in complete contrast to
+those of the born criminal. The countenance is frequently handsome, with
+lofty forehead, serene and gentle expression, and the beard is abundant.
+The sensibility is extremely acute; there is a high degree of
+excitability and exaggerated reflex action, all characteristics of the
+normal (or rather hypernormal) individual, from whom nothing
+distinguishes the criminal of passion except the anti-social effects of
+his action.
+
+_Psychology._ Here, as in all physical characteristics, criminals of
+passion are scarcely distinguishable from their fellow-men, except that
+we find in an excessive degree those qualities we consider peculiar to
+good and holy persons--love, honour, noble ambitions, patriotism. In
+fact, the motive of the crime is always adequate, frequently noble, and
+sometimes sublime. Love prompts certain natures to kill those who insult
+their beloved ones or are the cause of their dishonour and, in some
+cases, even the object of their affection who proves unfaithful. Crimes
+of this character are the murder by brothers of the man who dishonours
+their sister, the murder of an infant by its unmarried mother, the
+murder of an unfaithful wife by her husband. Sometimes the motive is a
+patriotic one, as in the cases of Charlotte Corday, Orsini Sand, and
+Caserio (Fig. 21) all of whom had been persons of gentle disposition and
+blameless conduct up to the moment of their crimes.
+
+This class of offender not infrequently commits suicide after his crime,
+or, if this is prevented, he seeks to expiate it by long years of
+remorse and self-inflicted martyrdom.
+
+The deed is almost always unpremeditated and committed publicly, without
+accomplices and with the simplest means at hand--be they nails, teeth,
+scissors, or a stick. The previous career is always blameless.
+
+Cumano, Verano, Guglielmotti, Harry, Curti, Milani, Brenner, Mari,
+Zucca, Bechis, Bouley, Tacco, Berruto and Sand, and Camicia, Vinci, and
+Leoni (these last three women), all attacked their victims single-handed
+and in public.
+
+In the case of Chalanton, the woman he had rescued by marriage from a
+low life, not content with betraying her benefactor, covered him in
+public with abuse and persecuted him with anonymous accusations. His
+demand for a separation was unsuccessful and at last, finding himself,
+in spite of his integrity, involved in a scandalous action, in which his
+wife figured as a go-between, and tormented by public curiosity and the
+implacable questionings of reporters, he murdered the cause of all his
+misfortunes. Another murderer, Del Prete, was prompted to kill his
+victim, an old woman with a reputation for witchcraft, because he
+believed she had caused the illness of his mother, to whom he was
+greatly attached.
+
+The motive for the crime is generally a serious one and in most cases
+immediately precedes it. Bouley committed his crime only a few hours
+after receiving the news which prompted it; Bounin, Bechis, and Verano,
+only a few minutes; Milani, twenty-four hours, Zucca eight hours;
+Curti, a few days. Thus the crime is seldom premeditated, or if so, for
+only a short space of time, never for months or years.
+
+
+  =FIG. 21
+  BRIGAND CASERIO
+  (see page 119)=
+
+
+Homicide forms 91% of the criminality of this group of offenders. There
+is a certain proportion also of infanticide, owing to the prevailing
+prejudice which condemns immorality more harshly when the results are
+evident. Arson and theft form only 2%. Such cases are however possible.
+A young girl, whom my father had under observation in prison, seeing her
+family in dire poverty, committed arson in order to get the insurance
+money.
+
+In another case a woman of refinement, education, and of gentle
+disposition, who had fallen from prosperity into extreme want, stole in
+order to pay her son's school-fees. When arrested, she refused to give
+her name so that the lad should not be dishonoured, and her identity
+might never have been discovered had she not been recognised by a lawyer
+in court. She died of a broken heart a few days after her trial.
+
+
+
+
+PART II
+
+CRIME, ITS ORIGIN, CAUSE, AND CURE
+
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+_ORIGIN AND CAUSES OF CRIME_
+
+
+In order to determine the origin of actions which we call criminal, we
+shall be forced to hark back to a very remote period in the history of
+the human race. In all the epochs of which records exist, we find traces
+of criminal actions. In fact, if we study minutely the customs of savage
+peoples, past and present, we find that many acts that are now
+considered criminal by civilised nations were legitimate in former
+times, and are to-day reputed such among primitive races.
+
+According to Pictet the Latin word _crimen_ is derived from the Sanscrit
+_karman_, which signifies action corresponding to _kri_ to do. This is
+contradicted by Vanicek who derives it from _kru_, to hear, _croemen_
+(accusation). At any rate, the Sanscrit word _apaz_, which means sin,
+corresponds to _apas_, work (_opus_), the Latin _facinus_ derives from
+_facere_, and _culpa_ according to Pictet and Pott, from the Sanscrit
+_kalp_, to do or execute. The Latin word _fur_ (thief) which Vanicek
+derives from _bahr_, to carry, the Hebrew _ganav_ and the Sanscrit
+_sten_ only signify to put aside, to hide, to cover (_gonav_). The Greek
+word _peirao_ from which pirate is derived, signifies to risk; the Greek
+_chleptein_ to hide or steal, is derived from the Sanscrit _harp-hlap_
+to hide and steal (Vanicek).
+
+In India, from Ceylon to the Himalayas, infanticide is sanctified by
+religion, not only among the more barbarous races, but also among the
+Rajputs, the nobles, who think themselves dishonoured if one of their
+daughters remains unmarried. The inhabitants of the Island of Tikopia,
+kill more male children than female, a fact that accounts for their
+practice of polygamy.
+
+Marco Polo speaks of the infanticide practised in Japan and China, which
+was then, as it is now, a means of regulating the population. The same
+practice--common to Bushmen, Hottentots, Fijians, also existed among the
+natives of Hawaii and America. In the Island of Tahiti, according to the
+testimony of missionaries, two thirds of the children born are destroyed
+by their parents.
+
+"Amongst the Guaranys," says D'Azara, "mothers kill a large proportion
+of their female infants, in order that the survivors may be more highly
+valued." (_Travels in America_, 1835.)
+
+The Carthaginians had originally the custom of offering the noblest and
+most beautiful children to Kronos (Moloch), but later victims were
+always bought and bred for the purpose. After their defeat at the hand
+of Agathokles they sacrificed two hundred children belonging to the
+noblest Carthaginian families, in order to appease the Divine wrath.
+
+Phoenicians, Egyptians, Cretans, Cypriotes, Rhodians, and Persians had
+similar practices.
+
+Among the Lydians, the sacred courtesans were so numerous and wealthy
+that their contributions to the Mausoleum of Alyattes exceeded those of
+the artists and merchants combined (Herodotus, Book I.); in Armenia
+(Strabo XII.) the priestesses alone were permitted to practise
+polyandry, and in Media, a woman boasting of five husbands was greatly
+honoured, which shows that polyandry was not only allowed, but esteemed.
+
+In Thibet, the eldest male of a family shares his wife with his
+brothers, the whole family live in the bride's house and the children
+inherit from her. Among the _Todas_, the wife espouses all her husband's
+younger brothers as they attain their majority, and they in their turn
+become the husbands of her younger sisters (Short).
+
+Among the _Nairs_, a noble negro caste of Malabar, it is customary for
+one woman to have five or six husbands, the maximum number allowed
+being ten.
+
+In Egypt, the business of thief was a recognised one. Those who wished
+to exercise this calling inscribed their names on a public tablet,
+collected all the stolen goods in one spot and restored them to their
+owners in exchange for a certain coin. The ancient Germans encouraged
+the youthful portion of the population to make raids on the property of
+neighbouring peoples, so that they should not develop habits of
+idleness. Thucydides states that the Greeks, as well as the barbarous
+peoples inhabiting the islands and along the coasts, were pirates, and
+the calling was a noble one.
+
+Amongst Spartans, as is well known, theft was allowed, but the unlucky
+marauder who was caught in the act, was punished, not for the deed
+itself, but for his want of skill. In East Africa, according to Burton
+(_First Footsteps in East Africa_, p. 176), robbery is considered
+honourable. In Caramanza (Portuguese Guinea) in Africa, side by side
+with the peaceful rice-cultivating Bagnous dwell the Balantes who
+subsist upon the chase and the spoils of their raids. While they kill
+the individual who presumes to steal in his native village, they
+encourage depredations upon the other tribes (_Revue d' Anthropologie_,
+1874). The cleverest thieves are greatly esteemed, are paid for
+instructing boys in their profession, and are chosen to lead the
+expeditions.
+
+In India the tribe Zakka Khel is devoted to this dishonest calling, and
+at birth every male child is consecrated to thievish practices by a
+peculiar ceremony, in which the new-born infant is passed through a
+breach in the wall of his father's house, whilst the words "Become a
+thief" are chanted three times in chorus. Amongst the ancient Germans,
+according to Tacitus, thefts perpetrated outside the boundary of the
+tribe itself were by no means infamous. In the midst of a great
+assembly, the chief called upon those he wished to follow him; they
+showed their willingness by rising to their feet amid the applause of
+the crowd. Those who refused to take part were looked upon as deserters
+and traitors (Spencer, _Principles of Ethics_, 1895). Among the
+Comanches (Muelhausen, _Diary of a Journey from the Mississippi to the
+Pacific_) no man was considered worthy of being numbered among the
+warriors of the tribe, unless he had taken part in some successful
+pillaging expedition. The cleverest thieves were the most respected
+members of the tribe. No Patagonian is deemed worthy of a wife unless he
+has graduated in the art of despoiling a stranger (Snow, _Two Years'
+Cruise round Tierra del Fuego_). Among the Kukis (Dalton, _Descriptive
+Ethnology of Bengal_) skill in stealing is the most esteemed talent. In
+Mongolia (Gilmour, _Among the Mongols_), thieves are regarded as
+respectable members of the community, provided they steal cleverly and
+escape detection.
+
+
+CRIMINALITY IN CHILDREN
+
+The criminal instincts common to primitive savages would be found
+proportionally in nearly all children, if they were not influenced by
+moral training and example. This does not mean that without educative
+restraints, all children would develop into criminals. According to the
+observations made by Prof. Mario Carrara at Cagliari, the bands of
+neglected children who run wild in the streets of the Sardinian capital
+and are addicted to thievish practices and more serious vices,
+spontaneously correct themselves of these habits as soon as they have
+arrived at puberty.
+
+This fact, that the germs of moral insanity and criminality are found
+normally in mankind in the first stages of his existence, in the same
+way as forms considered monstrous when exhibited by adults, frequently
+exist in the foetus, is such a simple and common phenomenon that it
+eluded notice until it was demonstrated clearly by observers like
+Moreau, Perez, and Bain. The child, like certain adults, whose
+abnormality consists in a lack of moral sense, represents what is known
+to alienists as a morally insane being and to criminologists as a born
+criminal, and it certainly resembles these types in its impetuous
+violence.
+
+Perez (_Psychologie de l'enfant_, 2d ed., 1882) remarks on the frequency
+and precocity of anger in children:
+
+     "During the first two months, it manifests by movements of the
+     eyebrows and hands undoubted fits of temper when undergoing any
+     distasteful process, such as washing or when deprived of any object
+     it takes a fancy to. At the age of one, it goes to the length of
+     striking those who incur its displeasure, of breaking plates or
+     throwing them at persons it dislikes, exactly like savages."
+
+
+Moreau (_De l'Homicide chez les enfants_, 1882) cites numerous cases of
+children who fly into a passion if their wishes are not complied with
+immediately. In one instance observed by him a very intelligent child of
+eight, when reproved, even in the mildest manner by his parents or
+strangers, would give way to violent anger, snatching up the nearest
+weapon, or if he found himself unable to take revenge, would break
+anything he could lay his hands on.
+
+A baby girl showed an extremely violent temper, but became of gentle
+disposition after she had reached the age of two (Perez). Another,
+observed by the same author, when only eleven months old, flew into a
+towering rage, because she was unable to pull off her grandfather's
+nose. Yet another, at the age of two, tried to bite another child who
+had a doll like her own, and she was so much affected by her anger that
+she was ill for three days afterwards.
+
+Nino Bixio, when a boy of seven (_Vita_, Guerzoni, 1880) on seeing his
+teacher laugh because he had written his exercise on office
+letter-paper, threw the inkstand at the man's face. This boy was
+literally the terror of the school, on account of the violence he
+displayed at the slightest offence.
+
+Infants of seven or eight months have been known to scratch at any
+attempt to withdraw the breast from them, and to retaliate when slapped.
+
+A backward and slightly hydrocephalous boy whom my father had under
+observation, began at the age of six to show violent irritation at the
+slightest reproof or correction. If he was able to strike the person who
+had annoyed him, his rage cooled immediately; if not, he would scream
+incessantly and bite his hands with gestures similar to those often
+witnessed in caged bears who have been teased and cannot retaliate.
+
+The above cases show that the desire for revenge is extremely common and
+precocious in children. Anger is an elementary instinct innate in human
+beings. It should be guided and restrained, but can never be extirpated.
+
+Children are quite devoid of moral sense during the first months or
+first years of their existence. Good and evil in their estimation are
+what is allowed and what is forbidden by their elders, but they are
+incapable of judging independently of the moral value of an action.
+
+"Lying and disobedience are very wrong," said a boy to Perez, "because
+they displease mother." Everything he was accustomed to was right and
+necessary.
+
+A child does not grasp abstract ideas of justice, or the rights of
+property, until he has been deprived of some possession. He is prone to
+detest injustice, especially when he is the victim. Injustice, in his
+estimation, is the discord between a habitual mode of treatment and an
+accidental one. When subjected to altered conditions, he shows complete
+uncertainty. A child placed under Perez's care modified his ways
+according to each new arrival. He began ordering his companions about
+and refused to obey any one but Perez.
+
+Affection is very slightly developed in children. Their fancy is easily
+caught by a pleasing exterior or by anything that contributes to their
+amusement; like domestic animals that they enjoy teasing and pulling
+about, and they exhibit great antipathy to unfamiliar objects that
+inspire them with fear. Up to the age of seven or even after, they show
+very little real attachment to anybody. Even their mothers, whom they
+appear to love, are speedily forgotten after a short separation.
+
+In conclusion, children manifest a great many of the impulses we have
+observed in criminals; anger, a spirit of revenge, idleness, volubility
+and lack of affection.
+
+We have also pointed out that many actions considered criminal in
+civilised communities, are normal and legitimate practices among
+primitive races. It is evident, therefore, that such actions are natural
+to the early stages, both of social evolution and individual psychic
+development.
+
+In view of these facts, it is not strange that civilised communities
+should produce a certain percentage of adults who commit actions reputed
+injurious to society and punishable by law. It is only an atavistic
+phenomenon, the return to a former state. In the criminal, moreover, the
+phenomenon is accompanied by others also natural to a primitive stage of
+evolution. These have already been referred to in the first chapter,
+which contains a description of many strange practices common to
+delinquents, and evidently of primitive origin--tattooing, cruel games,
+love of orgies, a peculiar slang resembling in certain features the
+languages of primitive peoples, and the use of hieroglyphics and
+pictography.
+
+
+  =FIG. 22
+  TERRA-COTTA BOWLS
+  Designed by a Criminal
+  (see page 135)=
+
+
+The artistic manifestations of the criminal show the same
+characteristics. In spite of the thousands of years which separate him
+from prehistoric savages, his art is a faithful reproduction of the
+first, crude artistic attempts of primitive races. The museum of
+criminal anthropology created by my father contains numerous specimens
+of criminal art, stones shaped to resemble human figures, like those
+found in Australia, rude pottery covered with designs that recall
+Egyptian decorations (Fig. 22) or scenes fashioned in terra-cotta (Fig.
+23) that resemble the grotesque creations of children or savages.
+
+The criminal is an atavistic being, a relic of a vanished race. This is
+by no means an uncommon occurrence in nature. Atavism, the reversion to
+a former state, is the first feeble indication of the reaction opposed
+by nature to the perturbing causes which seek to alter her delicate
+mechanism. Under certain unfavourable conditions, cold or poor soil, the
+common oak will develop characteristics of the oak of the Quaternary
+period. The dog left to run wild in the forest will in a few generations
+revert to the type of his original wolf-like progenitor, and the
+cultivated garden roses when neglected show a tendency to reassume the
+form of the original dog-rose. Under special conditions produced by
+alcohol, chloroform, heat, or injuries, ants, dogs, and pigeons become
+irritable and savage like their wild ancestors.
+
+This tendency to alter under special conditions is common to human
+beings, in whom hunger, syphilis, trauma, and, still more frequently,
+morbid conditions inherited from insane, criminal, or diseased
+progenitors, or the abuse of nerve poisons, such as alcohol, tobacco, or
+morphine, cause various alterations, of which criminality--that is, a
+return to the characteristics peculiar to primitive savages--is in
+reality the least serious, because it represents a less advanced stage
+than other forms of cerebral alteration.
+
+The aetiology of crime, therefore, mingles with that of all kinds of
+degeneration: rickets, deafness, monstrosity, hairiness, and cretinism,
+of which crime is only a variation. It has, however, always been
+regarded as a thing apart, owing to a general instinctive repugnance to
+admit that a phenomenon, whose extrinsications are so extensive and
+penetrate every fibre of social life, derives, in fact, from the same
+causes as socially insignificant forms like rickets, sterility, etc. But
+this repugnance is really only a sensory illusion, like many others of
+widely diverse nature.
+
+
+  =FIG. 23
+  ART PRODUCTION FROM PRISON
+  (see page 135)=
+
+
+  =FIG. 24
+  A COMBAT BETWEEN BRIGANDS AND GENDARMES
+  Designed by a Criminal
+  (see page 135)=
+
+
+_Pathological Origin of Crime._ The atavistic origin of crime is
+certainly one of the most important discoveries of criminal
+anthropology, but it is important only theoretically, since it merely
+explains the phenomenon. Anthropologists soon realised how necessary it
+was to supplement this discovery by that of the origin, or causes which
+call forth in certain individuals these atavistic or criminal instincts,
+for it is the immediate causes that constitute the practical nucleus of
+the problem and it is their removal that renders possible the cure of
+the disease.
+
+These causes are divided into organic and external factors of crime: the
+former remote and deeply rooted, the latter momentary but frequently
+determining the criminal act, and both closely related and fused
+together.
+
+Heredity is the principal organic cause of criminal tendencies. It may
+be divided into two classes: indirect heredity from a generically
+degenerate family with frequent cases of insanity, deafness, syphilis,
+epilepsy, and alcoholism among its members; direct heredity from
+criminal parentage.
+
+_Indirect Heredity._ Almost all forms of chronic, constitutional
+diseases, especially those of a nervous character: chorea, sciatica,
+hysteria, insanity, and above all, epilepsy, may give rise to
+criminality in the descendants.
+
+Of 559 soldiers convicted of offences, examined by Brancaleone Ribaudo,
+10% had epileptic parents. According to Dejerine, this figure reaches
+74.6% among criminal epileptics. Arthritis and gout have been known to
+generate criminality in the descendants. But the most serious, and at
+the same time most common, form of indirect heredity is alcoholism,
+which, contrary to general belief, wreaks destruction in all classes of
+society, amongst the rich and poor without distinction of sex, for
+alcohol may insinuate itself everywhere under the most refined and
+pleasant disguises, in liqueurs, sweets, and coffee.
+
+According to calculations made by my father, 20% of Italian criminals
+descend from inebriate families; according to Penta the percentage is 27
+and in dangerous criminals, 33%. The Jukes family, of whom we shall
+speak later, descended from a drunkard.
+
+The first salient characteristic in hereditary alcoholism is the
+precocious taste for intoxicants; secondly, the susceptibility to
+alcohol, which is infinitely more injurious to the offspring of
+inebriates than to normal individuals; and thirdly, the growth of the
+craving for strong drinks, which inevitably undermine the constitution.
+
+_Direct Heredity._ The effects of direct heredity are still more
+serious, for they are aggravated by environment and education. Official
+statistics show that 20% of juvenile offenders belong to families of
+doubtful reputation and 26% to those whose reputation is thoroughly bad.
+The criminal Galletto, a native of Marseilles, was the nephew of the
+equally ferocious anthropophagous violator of women, Orsolano. Dumollar
+was the son of a murderer; Patetot's grandfather and great-grandfather
+were in prison, as were the grandfathers and fathers of Papa, Crocco,
+Serravalle and Cavallante, Comptois and Lempave; the parents of the
+celebrated female thief Sans Refus, were both thieves.
+
+The genealogical study of certain families has shown that there are
+whole generations, almost all the members of which belong to the ranks
+of crime, insanity, and prostitution (this last being amongst women the
+equivalent of criminality amongst men). A striking example is furnished
+by the notorious Jukes family, with 77 criminal descendants.
+
+Ancestor, Max Jukes: 77 criminals; 142 vagabonds; 120 prostitutes; 18
+keepers of houses of ill-fame; 91 illegitimates; 141 idiots or afflicted
+with impotency or syphilis; 46 sterile females.
+
+A like criminal contingent may be found in the pedigrees of Chretien,
+the Lemaires, the Fieschi family, etc.
+
+_Race._ This is of great importance in view of the atavistic origin of
+crime. There exist whole tribes and races more or less given to crime,
+such as the tribe Zakka Khel in India. In all regions of Italy, whole
+villages constitute hot-beds of crime, owing, no doubt, to ethnical
+causes: Artena in the province of Rome, Carde and San Giorgio Canavese
+in Piedmont, Pergola in Tuscany, San Severo in Apulia, San Mauro and
+Nicosia in Sicily. The frequency of homicide in Calabria, Sicily, and
+Sardinia is fundamentally due to African and Oriental elements.
+
+In the gipsies we have an entire race of criminals with all the passions
+and vices common to delinquent types: idleness, ignorance, impetuous
+fury, vanity, love of orgies, and ferocity. Murder is often committed
+for some trifling gain. The women are skilled thieves and train their
+children in dishonest practices. On the contrary, the percentage of
+crimes among Jews is always lower than that of the surrounding
+population; although there is a prevalence of certain specific forms of
+offences, often hereditary, such as fraud, forgery, libel, and chief of
+all, traffic in prostitution; murder is extremely rare.
+
+
+ILLNESSES, INTOXICATIONS, TRAUMATISM
+
+These causes, although apparently as important as heredity, are in fact,
+decidedly less so. Both disease and trauma may intensify or call forth
+latent perversity, but they are less frequently the cause of it. There
+are, however, certain cases in which traumatism meningitis, typhus, or
+other diseases that affect the brain have undoubtedly evoked criminal
+tendencies in individuals hitherto normal. Twenty out of 290 criminals
+studied by my father with minute care had suffered from injury to the
+head in childhood; and recently a case came under his notice in which a
+youth of good family and excellent character received an injury to his
+head at the age of fourteen and became epileptic, developing
+subsequently into a gambler, thief, and murderer. Such cases, however,
+are not very common.
+
+There is one disease that without other causes--either inherited
+degeneracy or vices resulting from a bad education and environment--is
+capable of transforming a healthy individual into a vicious, hopelessly
+evil being. That disease is alcoholism, which has been discussed in a
+previous chapter, but to which I must refer briefly again, because it is
+such an important factor of criminality.
+
+Temporary drunkenness alone will give rise to crime, since it inflames
+the passions, obscures the mental and moral faculties, and destroys all
+sense of decency, causing men to commit offences in a state of
+automatism or a species of somnambulism. Sometimes drunkenness produces
+kleptomania. A slight excess in drinking will cause men of absolute
+honesty to appropriate any objects they can lay their hands upon. When
+the effects of drink have worn off, they feel shame and remorse and
+hasten to restore the stolen goods. Alcohol, however, more often causes
+violence. An officer known to my father, when drunk, twice attempted to
+run his sword through his friends and his own attendant.
+
+Among Oriental sects of murderers, as is well known, homicidal fury was
+excited and maintained by a drink brewed for the purpose from hemp-seed.
+
+Buechner shows that dishonest instincts can be developed in bees by a
+special food consisting of honey mixed with brandy. The insects acquire
+a taste for this drink in the same way as human beings do, and under its
+influence cease to work. Ants show similar symptoms after narcosis by
+means of chloroform. Their bodies remain motionless, with the exception
+of their heads, with which they snap at all who approach them.
+
+The above cited cases show that there exists a species of alcoholic
+psychic epilepsy, similar to congenital epilepsy, in which after
+alcoholic poisoning, the individual is incited to raise his hand against
+himself or others without any due cause. But besides the crimes of
+violence committed during a drunken fit, the prolonged abuse of alcohol,
+opium, morphia, coca, and other nervines may give rise to chronic
+perturbation of the mind, and without other causes, congenital or
+educative, will transform an honest, well-bred, and industrious man into
+an idle, violent, and apathetic fellow,--into an ignoble being, capable
+of any depraved action, even when he is not directly under the influence
+of the drug.
+
+When we were children, a frequent visitor at our house was a certain
+Belm... (see Fig. 16, Chap. III.), a very intelligent man and an
+accomplished linguist. He was a military officer, but later took to
+journalism, and his writings were distinguished by vivacious style and
+elevation of thought. He married and had several children, but at the
+age of thirty some trouble caused him to take to drink. His character
+soon underwent a complete change. Although formerly a proud man, he was
+not ashamed to pester all his friends for money and to let his family
+sink into the direst poverty.
+
+
+SOCIAL CAUSES OF CRIME
+
+_Education._ We now come to the second series of criminal factors, those
+which depend, not on the organism, but on external conditions. We have
+already stated that the best and most careful education, moral and
+intellectual, is powerless to effect an improvement in the morally
+insane, but that in other cases, education, environment, and example
+are extremely important, for which reason neglected and destitute
+children are easily initiated into evil practices.
+
+At Naples, "Esposito" (foundling) is a common name amongst prisoners, as
+is at Bologna and in Lombardy the name "Colombo," which signifies the
+same thing. In Prussia, illegitimate males form 6% of offenders,
+illegitimate females 1.8%; in Austria, 10 and 2% respectively. The
+percentage is considerably larger amongst juvenile criminals,
+prostitutes, and recidivists. In France, in 1864, 65% of the minors
+arrested were bastards or orphans, and at Hamburg 30% of the prostitutes
+are illegitimate. In Italy, 30% of recidivists are natural children and
+foundlings.
+
+This depends largely on hereditary influences, which are generally bad,
+but still more on the difficulty of finding a means of subsistence,
+owing to the state of neglect in which these wretched beings exist, even
+when herded together in charity schools and orphanages--both of which
+are even more anti-hygienic morally, than they are physically.
+
+A depraved environment, which counsels or even insists on wrong-doing,
+and the bad example of parents or relatives, exercise a still more
+sinister influence on children than desertion. The criminal family
+Cornu, finding one of their children, a little girl, strongly averse to
+their evil ways, forced her to carry the head of one of their victims in
+her pinafore for a couple of miles, after which she became one of the
+most ferocious of the band.
+
+_Meteoric Causes_ are frequently the determining factor of the ultimate
+impulsive act, which converts the latent criminal into an effective one.
+Excessively high temperature and rapid barometric changes, while
+predisposing epileptics to convulsive seizures and the insane to
+uneasiness, restlessness, and noisy outbreaks, encourage quarrels,
+brawls, and stabbing affrays. To the same reason may be ascribed the
+prevalence during the hot months, of rape, homicide, insurrections, and
+revolts. In comparing statistics of criminality in France with those of
+the variations in temperature, Ferri noted an increase in crimes of
+violence during the warmer years. An examination of European and
+American statistics shows that the number of homicides decreases as we
+pass from hot to cooler climates. Holzendorf calculates that the number
+of murders committed in the Southern States of North America is fifteen
+times greater than those committed in the Northern States. A low
+temperature, on the contrary, has the effect of increasing the number of
+crimes against property, due to increased need, and both in Italy and
+America the proportion of thefts increases the farther north we go.
+
+_Density of Population._ The agglomeration of persons in a large town is
+a certain incentive to crimes against property. Robbery, frauds, and
+criminal associations increase, while there is a decrease in crimes
+against the person, due to the restraints imposed by mutual supervision.
+
+     "He who has studied mankind, or, better still, himself [writes my
+     father], must have remarked how often an individual, who is
+     respectable and self-controlled in the bosom of his family, becomes
+     indecent and even immoral when he finds himself in the company of a
+     number of his fellows, to whatever class they may belong. The
+     primitive instincts of theft, homicide, and lust, the germs of
+     which lie dormant in each individual as long as he is alone,
+     particularly if kept in check by sound moral training, awaken and
+     develop suddenly into gigantic proportions when he comes into
+     contact with others, the increase being greater in those who
+     already possess such criminal tendencies in a marked degree."
+
+
+In all large cities, low lodging-houses form the favourite haunts of
+crime.
+
+_Imitation._ The detailed accounts of crimes circulated in large towns
+by newspapers, have an extremely pernicious influence, because example
+is a powerful agent for evil as well as for good.
+
+At Marseilles in 1868 and 1872, the newspaper reports of a case of child
+desertion provoked a perfect epidemic of such cases, amounting in one
+instance to eight in one day.
+
+Before Corridori murdered the Head-master of his boarding-school, he is
+said to have declared: "There will be a repetition of what happened to
+the Head-master at Catanzaro" (who had been murdered in the same way).
+
+The anarchist Lucchesi killed Banti at Leghorn shortly after the murder
+of Carnot by Caserio, and in a similar manner. Certain forms of crime
+which become common at given periods, the throwing of bombs, the cutting
+up of the bodies of murdered persons, particularly those of women, and
+frauds of a peculiar type may certainly be attributed to imitation, as
+may also the violence committed by mobs, in whom cruelty takes the form
+of an epidemic affecting even individuals of mild disposition.
+
+_Immigration._ The agglomeration of population produced by immigration
+is a strong incentive to crime, especially that of an associated
+nature,--due to increased want, lessened supervision and the consequent
+ease with which offenders avoid detection. In New York the largest
+contingent of criminality is furnished by the immigrant population.
+
+The fact of agglomeration explains the greater frequency of homicide in
+France in thickly populated districts.
+
+The criminality of immigrant populations increases in direct ratio to
+its instability. This applies to the migratory population in the
+interior of a country, specially that which has no fixed destination, as
+peddlers, etc. Even those immigrants whom we should naturally assume to
+be of good disposition--religious pilgrims--commit a remarkable number
+of associated crimes. The Italian word _mariuolo_ which signifies
+"rogue" owes its origin to the behaviour of certain pilgrims to the
+shrines of Loreto and Assisi, who, while crying _Viva Maria!_ ("Hail to
+the Virgin Mary!") committed the most atrocious crimes, confident that
+the pilgrimage itself would serve as a means of expiation. In his
+_Reminiscences_ Massimo d' Azeglio notes that places boasting of
+celebrated shrines always enjoy a bad reputation.
+
+_Prison Life._ The density of population in the most criminal of cities
+has not such a bad influence as has detention in prisons, which may well
+be called "Criminal Universities."
+
+Nearly all the leaders of malefactors: Maino, Lombardo, La Gala,
+Lacenaire, Soufflard, and Hardouin were escaped convicts, who chose
+their accomplices among those of their fellow-prisoners who had shown
+audacity and ferocity. In fact, in prison, criminals have an
+opportunity of becoming acquainted with each other, of instructing those
+less skilled in infamy, and of banding together for evil purposes. Even
+the expensive cellular system, from which so many advantages were
+expected, has not attained its object and does not prevent communication
+between prisoners. Moreover, in prison, mere children of seven or eight,
+imprisoned for stealing a bunch of grapes or a fowl, come into close
+contact with adults and become initiated into evil practices, of which
+these poor little victims of stupid laws were previously quite ignorant.
+
+_Education._ Contrary to general belief, the influence of education on
+crime is very slight.
+
+The number of illiterates arrested in Europe is less, proportionally,
+than that of educated individuals. Nevertheless, although a certain
+degree of instruction is often an aid to crime, its extension acts as a
+corrective, or at least tends to mitigate the nature of crimes
+committed, rendering them less ferocious, and to decrease crimes of
+violence, while increasing fraudulent and sexual offences.
+
+_Professions._ The trades and professions which encourage inebriety in
+those who follow them (cooks, confectioners, and inn-keepers), those
+which bring the poor (servants of all kinds, especially footmen,
+coachmen, and chauffeurs) into contact with wealth, or which provide
+means for committing crimes (bricklayers, blacksmiths, etc.) furnish a
+remarkable share of criminality. Still more so is this the case with the
+professions of notary, usher of the courts, attorneys, and military men.
+
+It should be observed, however, that the characteristic idleness of
+criminals makes them disinclined to adopt any profession, and when they
+do, their extreme fickleness prompts them to change continually.
+
+_Economic Conditions._ Poverty is often a direct incentive to theft,
+when the miserable victims of economic conditions find themselves and
+their families face to face with starvation, and it acts further
+indirectly through certain diseases: pellagra, alcoholism, scrofula, and
+scurvy, which are the outcome of misery and produce criminal
+degeneration; its influence has nevertheless often been exaggerated. If
+thieves are generally penniless, it is because of their extreme idleness
+and astonishing extravagance, which makes them run through huge sums
+with the greatest ease, not because poverty has driven them to theft. On
+the other hand the possession of wealth is frequently an incentive to
+crime, because it creates an ever-increasing appetite for riches,
+besides furnishing those occupying high public offices or important
+positions in the banking and commercial world with numerous
+opportunities for dishonesty and persuading them that money will cover
+any evil deed.
+
+_Sex._ Statistics of every country show that women contribute a very
+small share of criminality compared with that furnished by the opposite
+sex. This share becomes still smaller when we eliminate infanticide, in
+view of the fact that the guilty parties in nearly all such cases should
+be classed as criminals from passion. In Austria, crimes committed by
+females barely constitute 15% of the total criminality; in Spain 11%;
+and in Italy 8.2%.
+
+However, this applies only to serious crimes. For those of lesser
+gravity, statistics are at variance with the results obtained by the
+Modern School, which classes prostitutes as criminals. According to this
+mode of calculation, the difference between the criminality of the two
+sexes shows a considerable diminution, resulting perhaps in a slight
+prevalence of crime in women. In any case, female criminality tends to
+increase proportionally with the increase of civilisation and to equal
+that of men.
+
+_Age._ The greater number of crimes are committed between the ages of 15
+and 30, whereas, outbreaks of insanity between these ages are extremely
+rare, the maximum number occurring between 40 and 50. On the whole,
+criminality is far more precocious than mental alienation, and its
+precocity, which is greater among thieves than among murderers,
+swindlers, and those guilty of violence and assault is another proof of
+the congenital nature of crime and its atavistic origin, since precocity
+is a characteristic of savage races.
+
+Seldom do we find among born criminals any indication of that so-called
+criminal scale, leading by degrees from petty offences to crimes of the
+most serious nature. As a general rule, they commence their career with
+just those crimes which distinguish it throughout, even when these are
+of the gravest kind, like robbery and murder. Rather may it be said that
+every age has its specific criminality, and this is the case especially
+with criminaloids. On the borderland between childhood and adolescence,
+there seems to be a kind of instinctive tendency to law-breaking, which
+by immature minds is often held to be a sign of virility. The Italian
+novelist and poet Manzoni describes this idea very well in his _Promessi
+Sposi_, when speaking of the half-witted lad Gervaso, who "because he
+had taken part in a plot savouring of crime, felt that he had suddenly
+become a man."
+
+This idea lurks in the slang word _omerta_ used by Italian criminals,
+which signifies not only to be a man but a man daring enough to break
+the law.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+_THE PREVENTION OF CRIME_
+
+
+The curability of crime is an entirely novel idea, due to the Modern
+Penal School. As long as, in the eyes of the world, the criminal was a
+normal individual, who voluntarily and consciously violated the laws,
+there could be no thought of a cure, but rather of a punishment
+sufficiently severe to prevent his recidivation and to inspire others
+with a salutary fear of offending the law.
+
+The penalties excogitated in past centuries were varied: flogging, hard
+labour, imprisonment, and exile. During the last century they have been
+crystallised in the form of imprisonment, as being the most humane,
+although in reality it is the most illogical form, since it serves
+neither to intimidate the offender nor to reform him. In fact, although
+prison with its forced separation from home and family is a terrible
+penalty for those honest persons, who sometimes suffer with the guilty,
+it is a haven of rest for ordinary criminals, or at the worst, in no
+wise inferior to their usual haunts. There is a certain amount of
+privation of air, light, and food, but these disadvantages are fully
+counterbalanced by the enjoyment of complete leisure and the company of
+men of their own stamp.
+
+If imprisonment does not serve to intimidate instinctive criminals,
+still less is it a means of rehabilitation. In virtue of what law,
+should any man, even if he be normal, become reformed after a varying
+period of detention in a gloomy cell, where he is isolated from the
+better elements of society and deprived of every elevating
+influence--art, science, and high ideals; where he loses regular habits
+of work, the disciplining struggle with circumstances, and the sense of
+responsibility natural to free citizens and is tainted by constant
+contact with the worst types of humanity?
+
+The autobiographies of criminals show us that far from reforming
+evil-doers, prison is in reality a criminal university which houses all
+grades of offenders during varying periods; that far from being a means
+of redemption, it is a hot-bed of depravity, where are prepared and
+developed the germs which are later to infect society, yet it is to this
+incubator of crime that society looks for defence against those very
+elements of lawlessness which it is actively fostering.
+
+In his book _Prison Palimpsests_ my father has made a collection of all
+the inscriptions, drawings, and allegories scratched or written by
+criminals while in prison, on walls, utensils, and books. Of
+lamentations, despair, and repentance, scarcely a trace, but innumerable
+imprecations, plans of revenge against enemies without, project of
+future burglaries and murders, and advice for the sound instruction of
+criminals.
+
+Although the Modern School has demonstrated the uselessness, nay the
+injuriousness of prison, it has no desire to leave society suddenly
+unprotected and the criminal at large. Nature does not proceed by leaps,
+and the Modern School aims at effecting a revolution, not a revolt, in
+Penal Jurisprudence. It proposes, therefore, the gradual transformation
+of the present system, which is to be rendered as little injurious and
+as beneficial as possible. Such has been the course pursued by the
+modern science of medicine, which from the original absurd remedies and
+equally absurd empirical operations, has now succeeded in placing the
+cure of diseases on the more solid basis of experience.
+
+The Modern School aims at preventing the formation of criminals, not
+punishing them, or, failing prevention, at effecting their cure; and,
+failing cure, at segregating such hopeless cases for life in suitable
+institutes, which shall protect society better than the present system
+of imprisonment, but be entirely free from the infamy attaching to the
+prison. The Modern School proposes the cure of criminals by preventive
+and legislative measures.
+
+
+PREVENTIVE INSTITUTIONS FOR DESTITUTE CHILDREN
+
+The cure of crime, as of any other disease, has the greater chance of
+success, the earlier it is taken in hand. Attention, therefore, should
+be specially concentrated on the childhood of those likely to become
+criminals: orphans and destitute children, who as adults contribute the
+largest contingent of criminality. A community seriously resolved to
+protect itself from evil should, above all, provide a sound education
+for those unfortunate waifs who have been deprived of their natural
+protectors by death or vice. The greatest care must be exercised in
+placing them, whenever it is possible, in respectable private families
+where they will have careful supervision, or in suitable institutes
+where no pains are spared to give them a good education and, more
+important still, sound moral training.
+
+In order to attain this end, the State cannot do better than follow in
+the footsteps of philanthropists of rare talent like Don Bosco, Dr.
+Barnardo, General Booth, Brockway, and many others, who have been so
+successful in rescuing destitute children.
+
+Don Bosco, the Black Pope, as he was familiarly styled at Turin, where
+he lived during the latter half of the last century, was a Roman
+Catholic priest who founded numerous institutes for orphans in all parts
+of Italy and many parts of both Americas, especially South America. The
+psychological basis on which he founded the training of children in
+these schools, was mainly derived from experience, and proved so
+successful in practice that it is worthy of quotation:
+
+     "Most neglected and abandoned children [he said], are of ordinary
+     character and disposition, but inclined to changeableness and
+     indifference. Brief, but frequent exhortations, good advice, small
+     rewards, and encouragements to persevere are very efficacious, but
+     above all the teacher must show perfect trust in his charges, while
+     being careful never to relax his vigilance. The greatest solicitude
+     should, however, be reserved for the unruly characters, who
+     generally form about one fifth of the whole number. The teacher
+     should make a special effort to become thoroughly acquainted with
+     their dispositions and past life and to convince them that he is
+     their friend. They should be encouraged to chatter freely, while
+     the conversation of the master should be brief and abound in
+     examples, maxims, and anecdotes. Above all, while showing perfect
+     confidence in his pupils, he should never lose sight of them.
+
+     "Occasional treats of a wholesome and attractive nature, picnics
+     and walks, will keep the boys happy and contented. Lasciviousness
+     is the only vice that need be feared; any lad persisting in immoral
+     practices should be expelled.
+
+     "Harsh punishments should never be resorted to. The repressive
+     system may check unruliness, but can never influence for good. It
+     involves little trouble on the part of those who make use of it and
+     may be efficacious in the army, which is composed of responsible
+     adults, but it has a harmful effect on the young, who err more from
+     thoughtlessness than from evil disposition. Far more suitable in
+     their case is the preventive system, which consists in making them
+     thoroughly acquainted with the regulations they have to obey and in
+     watching over them. In this way they are always conscious of the
+     vigilance of the Head-master or his assistants, who are ready to
+     guide and advise them in every difficulty and to anticipate their
+     wants. The pupils should never be left to their own devices, yet
+     they should have complete freedom to run, jump, and enjoy
+     themselves in their own noisy fashion. Gymnastics, vocal and
+     instrumental music, and plenty of outdoor exercise are the most
+     efficacious means of maintaining discipline and improving the boys,
+     bodily and mentally."
+
+
+Only children over seven were admitted to the Institutes founded by Don
+Bosco. Dr. Barnardo, on the other hand, who rescued thousands of orphans
+and destitute children in London and was able to witness a decided
+decrease in the criminality of that capital, concentrated his beneficent
+efforts on destitute children from their earliest years, with the idea
+of removing them as soon as possible from the bad environment in which
+they were born. He was, moreover, desirous that they should share with
+more fortunate children the boon of happy childhood, and resolved that
+up to the age of seven they should be brought up without educational or
+other restraints, save the affection of those appointed to watch over
+them during the first years, so that they might imbibe sufficient love
+and joy for the rest of their lives. Such is the rule followed in the
+buildings set apart for the infants, Bird Castle, Tiny House, and Jersey
+House, which are perfect nests of happy birds.
+
+In spite of the seeming impossibility of obtaining individual education
+in a school, thanks to a system devised by Dr. Barnardo, the older
+children actually enjoy this advantage. New-comers are placed in a
+special department until facts relative to their past life are
+ascertained and an idea formed of their individuality. The results of
+these preliminary inquiries determine in which school the boy shall be
+placed and what trade he shall follow. Moreover, any boy desiring to
+change his occupation is encouraged to do so. Every year a
+re-distribution is made according to the aptitudes shown by the lads in
+study and manual work and their physical and intellectual development,
+special care being taken that the younger children should not be put
+with those who have arrived at a more advanced stage of physical and
+mental evolution. Free development of the various individual aptitudes
+is thus secured, while avoiding that common defect of schools, the
+turning out of numerous lads all made after one regulation pattern.
+
+Having come to the conclusion that life in an institute, in spite of all
+these precautions, is unsuited to girls, Dr. Barnardo founded a village
+at a short distance from London with cottage homes for children of both
+sexes. Each cottage contains from fifteen to twenty children and forms a
+family, the domestic duties of the homes being discharged by the girls.
+
+Dr. Barnardo realised, however, that the placing of children in private
+families is the best means of effecting their salvation, and he made
+great efforts in private and public to induce benevolent persons to
+adopt his proteges. Finally, he organised a regular emigration of lads
+to Canada, where a special agent provides them with situations on farms
+or in factories.
+
+America certainly does not lag behind Europe in the number and
+excellence of its organisations for rescuing the little derelicts of its
+cities. In every town of the United States visited by me, I had the
+pleasure of inspecting such institutions, all of which are kept with
+extraordinary care, and in some cases, with elegance. Amongst others, I
+may mention the Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society in New York City and
+the George Junior Republic at Freeville, near Ithaca, both of which
+seemed to me the most original of their kind.
+
+The Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society is an orphanage for the Jews,
+managed with rare insight and intelligence by Mr. Lewisohn. The
+Institute being founded for orphans only, there is no limit as to age or
+condition. Infants and young people, diseased and healthy, intelligent
+and mentally deficient, normal and abnormal, good and bad, are all
+welcome. In order to prevent the overcrowding of the institution and to
+provide homes for as many children as possible, a committee has been
+organised for the purpose of finding homes in private families for all
+children under six years of age and for those who are sickly and
+delicate. A certain proportion are adopted, and others are boarded out,
+but the sum paid for their keep is always less than it would cost to
+place them in a school; and there is, moreover, always a chance of their
+being adopted later. At the age of six, all healthy and robust children
+enter the Institute, which becomes their home, providing them with
+board, lodging, clothing, moral and religious instruction, and training
+in some kind of work, but in order that they shall mix with other
+children, they are educated at the public schools, and the consequent
+saving in money and space enables the Institute to receive a larger
+number of children than it otherwise could.
+
+Instead of the uniform customary in such institutions which serves to
+accentuate in a humiliating way the contrast between the inmates and
+more fortunate children who possess parents and homes, the clothing worn
+by the orphans of the Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society is varied in
+colour and style. Girls skilled in the use of their needle alter their
+dresses to suit their individual tastes, and are allowed to sew, either
+gratis or for payment, for the boys and other girls of the Institute,
+who are unable or unwilling to make these alterations themselves. When
+school-tasks are finished, boys and girls of over twelve are allowed to
+engage in light occupations--needlework, writing, etc., supplied by the
+Institute to enable them to earn a little pocket-money and learn to
+spend it properly.
+
+When the boys and girls have passed all the standards of the elementary
+schools, they enter trade schools, where they remain until they are
+proficient in some craft which will enable them to earn a living. Those
+who show decided intellectual or business aptitudes are sent to colleges
+or commercial schools.
+
+The children are encouraged to take an interest in social and political
+life by the foundation of a miniature republic, or rather two separate
+republics, one for the boys and the other for the girls, each with its
+president, a boy or a girl according to the case. In reality, however,
+they are under the management of a lady, who devises various
+amusements for the children, reading, games, etc., teaches them music
+and drawing, and helps the little President to organise entertainments
+to which outsiders, relatives, and schoolfellows are invited.
+
+
+  =FIG. 17
+  Signatures of Criminals=
+
+
+The George Junior Republic (America) is a very different institution,
+having been founded for unruly and turbulent boys, who are beyond their
+parents' control. It is a species of Reformatory, not a Home for Waifs.
+
+Mr. George, the founder of the Republic, a man of original and
+intelligent cast of mind, if I may judge of his individuality from
+hearsay, decided on its establishment after many attempts of a similar
+nature. Being anxiously concerned for the future of so many unruly
+youths who, left to their own devices during the summer vacations,
+degenerate into rowdies, he invited about a hundred of these lads to
+spend the summer months on his estate at Freeville, near Ithaca, and
+tried to influence them for good. The attempt did not meet with much
+success at first. Mr. George soon realised that however easy it is to
+exercise a beneficial influence on one or two boys by adopting gentle
+methods, it is extremely difficult to manage hundreds in this way. He
+had, however, observed how fair and rigidly honest boys generally are in
+their games and how ready they are to condemn any meanness, and he
+conceived the idea of making his charges look after each other. Thus
+each one would feel himself a responsible judge of his companions'
+actions.
+
+At the end of the summer holidays in 1895, when the time came for the
+boys to return home, five remained behind at Freeville in a cottage
+standing on three acres of land; the next year the number of lads
+remaining was doubled or trebled. A miniature Republic was founded, of
+which the lads were the citizens, and in this capacity, were obliged to
+make laws and to insist on their being respected. The Republic proved to
+be a great success, the temporary colony became a permanent one capable
+of reforming wild, unruly boys, who if allowed to wander about in the
+streets and to mix with older and more vicious lads, would possibly have
+been ruined. A recent census of the Republic showed that it possessed
+150 citizens, 82 boys and 68 girls, three hundred acres of land,
+twenty-four buildings, a chapel, prison, school, and court of justice.
+
+
+  =FIG. 20
+  Brigand Gasparone=
+
+
+In order that the colonists should not completely lose touch with the
+outside world, but should in some measure be prepared for the social
+exigencies of their future lives, the colony is organised like a
+miniature town. The children, boys and girls, are divided into so many
+families, each consisting of ten or twelve members presided over by two
+adults, who take the place of parents and look after the household. The
+greater part of the population is engaged in agriculture, in cultivating
+the land belonging to the Republic, but a certain proportion adopt the
+arts and crafts necessary to every community: joinery, book-binding,
+printing, shoemaking, or shop-keeping. The colony coins its own money
+and possesses a bank run by the boys themselves, where the colonists can
+deposit their savings. All labour and produce are paid for separately.
+The colony has its own laws sanctioned by its Parliament, its Tribunal,
+the members of which, chosen from amongst the citizens, are charged with
+enforcing the laws. The Parliament, composed without distinction of sex,
+of boys and girls, decrees the holidays, organises the games and
+entertainments, and establishes the public expenditure, revenue, and
+taxes, etc. (see Figs. 19 and 20).
+
+The results of this system appear to be excellent; most of the
+ex-colonists have turned out well, and in view of this fact, republics
+on similar lines are being organised in various parts of the United
+States. This Republic admits only children over twelve, who remain in
+the colony about three years.
+
+
+PREVENTIVE INSTITUTIONS FOR DESTITUTE ADULTS
+
+Besides institutions for the careful training of the young, methods for
+preventing crime also include all attempts to help young or adult
+persons at any crisis in their lives when they are friendless and out of
+work, for it is precisely then that they are most exposed to temptation.
+
+People's hotels, shelters for emigrants or strangers, reading-rooms,
+inexpensive but wholesome entertainments, evening classes for
+instruction in manual work, labour bureaus, organisations for assisting
+emigrants, etc., are the most efficacious institutions of this kind. And
+in this connection, I must refer to the work done by the Salvation Army,
+which from what I was able to observe in America, seems to me the best
+organised of all existing benevolent associations, since by means of a
+thousand arms it reaches every form of poverty and misery and seeks to
+make all its institutions self-supporting. It fights drunkenness by
+lectures, recreation rooms, and temperance hotels; it fights poverty by
+investigating each individual case of destitution, visiting poor
+families, dispensing sympathy and help, providing shelter for the night
+at a minimum price and industrial homes for those who are out of work.
+Sometimes the rooms are turned into recreation halls for drunkards or
+industrial schools for the girls of poor mothers who are obliged to go
+out to work, or temporary hospitals for some urgent case which, owing to
+bureaucratic formalities, the hospitals are unable to attend to
+immediately, or rooms with moving pictures for friendly gatherings on
+holidays, thus grafting one benevolent work on to another so as to
+obtain the best results at the smallest cost.
+
+That interesting book _Where the Shadows Lengthen_ gives an account of
+the different institutions founded by the Salvation Army in the United
+States. There are sixty-five Industrial Homes, where unemployed of all
+classes can apply for work. In these Homes refuse and worn-out articles
+collected from individual homes of their respective towns are
+disinfected and transformed into useful articles, which are sold at low
+prices to the neighbouring poor, thus benefiting purchasers,
+work-people, and society in general. During one year these Homes gave
+employment to 8696 men, distributed 1,318,044 meals (work-people who
+are temporarily employed in these Homes have a right only to board and
+lodging), and gave a night's shelter to 463,550 persons.
+
+In addition, the Army has seventy-seven Hotels where the working-classes
+find a night's lodging at a low price (just sufficient to cover the
+maintenance of the Shelter), and 7990 Accommodations which in one year
+supplied a night's rest to 2,114,037 persons. It has, besides, three
+colonies with 420 inhabitants, two boarding-houses for servants and
+shop-girls out of employment, where for a few pence they may have a bed,
+cook their own meals, wash and mend their clothes, and are assisted to
+find work.
+
+The Salvation Army has also 22 Rescue Homes, where young girls condemned
+by the Juvenile Court and generally more neglected than vicious, are
+reformed with a little care and affection, and 3599 Accommodations to
+which during one year 1701 girls were admitted.
+
+To ensure careful supervision of all the poor quarters, the Salvation
+Army has divided them into twenty slums, in each of which they have
+established their Headquarters and send out their soldiers to
+investigate and assist cases of poverty and misery of every kind. Each
+slum Headquarters is provided with halls for meetings, rooms for the
+officials, a Kindergarten, and Dormitories which also serve as shelters
+or hospitals for urgent cases. In one year 26,290 families were visited
+by the Army and 38,290 received assistance. Employment, temporary and
+permanent, was found for 66,621 persons.
+
+All poor of whatever condition, nationality, or religion, whether honest
+or criminal, on applying to the nearest of these Headquarters may be
+sure of finding sympathy and help.
+
+Five Homes have been founded by the Army for waifs and children whose
+mothers are obliged to go out to work, and 225 Accommodations where
+children may find a temporary or permanent home.
+
+A special squad of soldiers has recently undertaken work amongst
+prisoners with great success. In two months they visited 43 prisons,
+wrote 1732 letters to prisoners, and distributed 10,000 pamphlets.
+19,882 prisoners attended meetings held in the prisons, 194 articles of
+clothing were distributed, 128 persons provided with work on their
+release and 300 with sleeping accommodation.
+
+In South America the Army has founded similar institutions, which
+embrace others, such as hospitals, etc., suited to the needs of each
+place.
+
+Other benevolent organisations which seem to me admirable, are the
+Sisterhoods founded twenty years ago by the Rabbi Gottheil. These
+Sisterhoods, as may be assumed from the name, are entirely directed by
+women. They consist of premises, sometimes annexed to the synagogue; at
+others, situated independently, which form a species of Headquarters for
+the philanthropical work done in the surrounding districts. The
+Sisterhood is open day and night to all the poor who are in need of help
+of any kind. There is a resident Directress, under whose orders a number
+of ladies take turns in helping applicants. The Sisterhoods were founded
+on the principle that human beings are capable of doing the maximum
+amount of good to others when they follow their own particular
+tendencies and try to utilise their individual talents in satisfying the
+intellectual, moral, or recreative needs of the poor. Some of the ladies
+devote themselves to simple legal questions, tracing an absent husband
+or wife, registering births, taking unruly children to the Juvenile
+Courts, or looking after them, etc. Others take charge of medical
+matters, arrange for the admission of children or adults to the
+hospitals, etc.; others organise entertainments, teach singing, drawing,
+needlework, and cooking classes. The premises are used in turn by
+working-girls learning sewing, or others rehearsing some play or opera
+chorus. Almost all the Sisterhoods possess a permanent Kindergarten for
+the children of women who are obliged to work outside their homes, and
+an employment bureau. All the ladies, except the Directress, give their
+services gratis. For all help given by the Sisterhood, except in the
+case of the very poor, a small fee is demanded, and this enables the
+Sisterhood to pay its way without depending much on donations and
+subscriptions from private persons, and to spread and increase its work
+without difficulty.
+
+"The Educational Alliance" of New York, founded to give assistance to
+Jewish emigrants arriving at that city from all parts of the world, is
+another institution deserving of mention. This "Alliance" has a large
+building in the Jewish quarter near the docks, where emigrants can
+obtain instruction in gymnastics, cookery, domestic economy, English,
+needlework, etc. There are also recreation rooms, baths, a library, and
+rooms where school children can prepare their lessons. Men and women are
+assisted in obtaining employment and receive medical and legal aid.
+There is also a species of tribunal for settling petty disputes in cases
+where the parties interested object to applying to the ordinary courts.
+It was crowded when I saw it, and I was not surprised to learn that it
+is of great service to the emigrants. For public holidays, the Alliance
+organises concerts, excursions, and lectures, and during the summer
+vacations it opens a number of boarding-houses in the country.
+
+All these benevolent institutions, schools, rescue homes, orphanages,
+and shelters, organised with so much care for the prevention of crime
+and adopted in America by all communities of whatever religion,
+regardless of cost, have given excellent results. Bosco and Rice (_Les
+Homicides aux Etats-Unis_) and my father (_Crimes, Ancient and Modern_)
+have demonstrated statistically that in States like Massachusetts, where
+there is no great influx of immigration nor a large coloured population,
+the diminution in the number of crimes has been very rapid, the
+percentage of homicides being about equal to those of England, that is,
+lower than the majority of European States.
+
+It must be confessed in honour to the people of the United States, that
+they are very ready to admit their own short-comings and constantly
+regret the large proportion of crimes in their country. But when they
+reflect that the constant stream of immigration contains many lawless
+elements, that the different laws in force in the different States make
+evasions of justice in many cases easy, that the construction of houses
+with the fire-escape communicating directly with the public thoroughfare
+provides an easy means of ingress and egress, and that an enormous
+proportion of the dense population of their cities is composed of people
+from all parts of the world, accustomed to varying moral codes, they
+may realise with pride that the percentage of crime in the United States
+is certainly lower than it would be in any Continental State under
+similar conditions.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+_METHODS FOR THE CURE AND REPRESSION OF CRIME_
+
+
+Preventive methods, the careful training of children, and assistance
+rendered to adults in critical moments of their lives, may diminish
+crime, but cannot suppress it entirely. Such methods should be
+supplemented by institutions which undertake to cure criminals, while
+protecting society from their attacks, and by others for the segregation
+of incurable offenders, who should be rendered as useful as possible in
+order to minimise in every way the injury they inflict on the community.
+
+Although unjustly accused of desiring to revolutionise penal
+jurisprudence, criminal anthropologists realised from the very beginning
+that laws cannot be changed before there is a corresponding change in
+public opinion, and that even equitable modifications in the laws, if
+too sudden, are always fraught with dangerous consequences. Therefore,
+instead of a radical change in the penal code, their aim was to effect
+a few slight alterations in the graduation of penalties, in accordance
+with age, sex, and the degree of depravity manifested by culprits in
+their offences. They also counselled certain modifications in the
+application of the laws, the reformation according to modern ideas, of
+prisons, asylums, penal colonies, and all institutions for the
+punishment and redemption of offenders, and an extensive application of
+those penalties devised in past ages as substitutes for imprisonment,
+which have the advantage of corrupting the culprit less, and costing the
+community very little.
+
+_Juvenile Offenders._ Young people, and, above all, children, should be
+dealt with separately by special legislative methods.
+
+With the exception of England, where quite recently a children's court
+has been opened at Westminster, special tribunals for the young are
+unknown in Europe. However, in modern times, the penal codes of nearly
+every European State make marked allowance for the age of offenders, and
+where there is no differentiation in the laws, the magistrate uses his
+own discretion and refuses in many cases to convict juvenile offenders,
+even when they are guilty of serious offences.
+
+These instinctive methods of dealing with the young have many drawbacks:
+
+1. Without special courts, children guilty of simple acts of
+insubordination or petty offences (thefts of fruit or riding in trams
+and trains without paying the fare) which cannot be separated by a hard
+and fast line from ordinary childish pranks, come into contact with
+criminal types in court or in prison, and this is greatly detrimental to
+them morally. If naturally inclined to dishonesty, they run the risk of
+developing into occasional criminals and of losing all sense of shame:
+or if really honest, contact with bad characters cannot fail to shock
+and perturb them, even though their stay in prison be only a short one.
+
+2. The magistrate has no legal powers to supervise juvenile offenders,
+nor when their actions show grave depravity, to segregate and cure them
+to prevent their developing into criminals. It has already been shown
+that born criminals begin their career at a very early age. In one case
+cited in a previous chapter, a morally insane child of twelve killed one
+of his companions for a trifling motive--a dispute about an egg; in
+another, a child of ten caused the arrest of his father by a false
+accusation; he had previously attempted to strangle a little brother.
+Children of this type, notwithstanding their tender age, are a social
+danger, and the moral disease from which they suffer should be taken in
+hand at once. In any case they should be carefully segregated until a
+cure appears to be effected.
+
+Minors require a special code, which takes into consideration the fact
+that certain offences are incidental to childhood and that children who
+have committed these offences may still develop into honest men. It
+should also contain provisions for dealing with born criminals,
+epileptics, and the morally insane at an early age, by segregation in
+special reformatories where they cannot corrupt juvenile offenders of a
+non-criminal type, and where a thorough-going attempt to cure them may
+be made.
+
+An excellent reform of this character has been effected in many of the
+United States of America with the adoption of the probation system and
+juvenile courts which protect children from the corruption of prison
+life and contact with habitual offenders. The juvenile court, this
+tribunal exclusively instituted for minors, has been brought to great
+perfection in many of the United States. In some, special buildings have
+been erected for the hearing of cases against children, by which means
+all contact with adult criminals is avoided: in others, where this is
+not practicable, a part of the ordinary court is set aside for them with
+a separate entrance.
+
+Nor are juvenile offenders judged according to the common law; their
+offences are tried by special magistrates, who deal with them in a
+paternal, rather than in a strictly judicial spirit, and the penalties
+are slight, varied, and suited to children. The magistrates are assisted
+by officers, who obtain information from teachers, parents, and
+neighbours as to the character, conduct, faults, and good qualities of
+the culprit, and with these indications the magistrate is able to essay
+the correction, not of the particular offence which has brought the
+child within his jurisdiction, but his general organic defects. The
+punishments do not include imprisonment, and are drawn from practical
+experience and common-sense, not from any article of the penal code.
+
+I was present at the hearing of a case against a lad, who was accused of
+having travelled on a subway without paying. He was sentenced to copy
+out the by-laws twenty times, to learn them by heart and repeat them a
+month later at the same court. In the case of more serious offences,
+children may be sent to some public or private reformatory, according to
+the circumstances of the parents. However, none of these punishments are
+infamous, and parents themselves, when unable to control their children,
+have recourse to the juvenile court.
+
+It is supplemented in a very efficacious manner by the probation system,
+the organisation of a number of men and women who undertake the
+supervision of children when the court decides that they require it.
+These protectors use every means at their disposal to prevent their
+charges falling into bad ways and assist them in every possible way to
+correct their defects.
+
+This system has proved to be so efficacious, and at the same time so
+devoid of any drawbacks, that its unconditional adoption by all the
+States of Europe and America would be of great social advantage.
+
+
+INSTITUTIONS FOR FEMALE OFFENDERS
+
+The weighty reasons which call for separate courts and reformatories for
+juvenile offenders are equally valid in the case of female law-breakers,
+for whom special tribunals and legislation should be provided.
+
+The percentage of criminality among women is considerably lower than
+that of men, and in nearly all cases offenders belong to the category of
+criminaloids.
+
+My father's work _The Female Offender_ demonstrates that prostitution is
+the true equivalent of criminality. When we except this class of
+unfortunates, there remain only hysterical and occasional offenders,
+guilty generally of petty larceny (particularly of a domestic nature) or
+of harbouring criminals and acting as more or less passive accomplices;
+and criminals from passion, who commit infanticide or kill faithless
+husbands and lovers. In all these cases, imprisonment should not be
+resorted to; in fact, the greater number might be dealt with by a
+magisterial reprimand or the granting of conditional liberty. In view
+also, of the important part played by dress, ornaments, etc., in the
+feminine world, penalties inflicted on vanity--the cutting off of the
+hair, the obligation to wear a certain costume, etc., might with
+advantage be substituted for imprisonment.
+
+The milder nature of feminine criminality, the usefulness of women in
+the home, and the serious injury inflicted on the family and society in
+general by the segregation of the wife and mother (if only for a short
+period), are reasons for advocating the institution of special tribunals
+for dealing with the offences of women and special legislation which
+would take into consideration their position in the family and the fact
+that they are rarely a violent social danger.
+
+At present, in Europe at least, no such differential treatment exists.
+The reduction of penalties is left entirely to the discretion and
+humanity of judges, who in many cases, it is true, are instinctively
+disposed to be more indulgent towards women and to take these
+conditions into account. But it would be a far more satisfactory state
+of things if legislation paid due regard to such circumstances, just as
+in Italy in enrolling recruits for compulsory military service,
+allowance is made for social and family relations, the only sons of
+widowed mothers, men of delicate constitution, etc., being exempted.
+
+In spite of the low percentage and, generally speaking, trifling
+importance of the crimes committed by women, there are a small number of
+female delinquents, some of whom show an extraordinary degree of
+depravity, as though all the perversity lacking in the others were
+concentrated in these few. They are true born criminals, epileptics, and
+morally insane subjects.
+
+These serious anti-social elements, murderers, poisoners, and swindlers,
+might be secluded in a small reformatory with compulsory labour and
+silence as additional penalties. Separate cells, however, are not
+necessary. All reformatories for women should be provided with a nursery
+where children born in prison could be nursed by their mothers, thereby
+diminishing the social injury which must result from the imprisonment of
+any mother, and fostering the growth of the sublime and sacred maternal
+sentiment, which is unfortunately so often lacking in criminals.
+
+The Reformatory Prison for Women at South Framingham, near Boston, under
+the management of Mrs. Morton, is an excellent example of an institution
+conducted on the lines laid down by criminologists. The Reformatory is
+situated at about an hour's journey by rail from Boston, in the midst of
+fields which are cultivated by a part of the convict population. No high
+walls surround the building and separate it from the outer world, nor is
+it watched by guards. A broad avenue leads to the entrance, where, in
+answer to my ring, I was welcomed by neat white-clad attendants and
+shown into a charming room looking out upon a lovely garden. I passed
+through corridors, unmolested by the sound of keys grating in locks,
+from this room to the dining-rooms, dormitories, recreation and work
+rooms.
+
+As soon as prisoners enter the Reformatory, they are carefully examined
+by an intelligent and pleasant woman physician, who is in charge of the
+infirmary where the anthropological examination takes place. When the
+prisoner has been declared able-bodied, she is placed in one of the
+work-rooms to learn and follow the trade indicated by the medical
+officer as the best adapted to her constitution and aptitude. At night,
+she is conducted to a second-class cell situated in a large,
+well-lighted corridor. The cell is furnished with a table, bed, chair,
+pegs to hang clothes on, a calendar, a picture, and a book or two.
+
+Work is compulsory and done by the piece, and when each prisoner has
+finished her allotted task, she is at liberty to work for herself or to
+read books supplied from the library. If unskilled, she receives
+instruction in some manual work, and the payment for her labour is put
+aside and handed over to her on her release, with the small outfit she
+has prepared and sewed during detention.
+
+Women with children under a year, or those who give birth to a child in
+the Reformatory, are allowed to have their little ones with them during
+the night and part of the day. When they go to work every morning, the
+babies are left in the nursery, which adjoins the infirmary, and is
+under the direct supervision of the doctor. The nursery, a large,
+well-lighted room, spotlessly clean and bright with flowers, is a
+veritable paradise for the little ones.
+
+At noon, the prisoner is permitted to fetch her baby, feed, and keep it
+near her during dinner-hour. At two o'clock she resumes work until five,
+when she again takes charge of her baby till next morning. A cradle is
+placed in her cell for the infant, and she is provided with a small
+bath.
+
+A series of trifling rewards encourage moral improvement. Those who show
+good conduct during the first two months are transferred to the first
+class with its accompanying privileges, a better and more spacious
+cell, a smart collar, the right to correspond with friends and to
+receive visitors more frequently, to have an hour's recreation in
+company with other good-conduct prisoners and to receive relatives in a
+pretty sitting-room instead of in the common visitors' room.
+
+The final reward for uninterrupted improvement and untiring industry on
+the part of the prisoner is her ultimate release, which since the
+sentence is unlimited, may take place as soon as the Directress
+considers her competent to earn an honest living. But released prisoners
+are not left to their own devices with the risk of speedily succumbing
+to temptation. A commission of ladies interested in the Reformatory (one
+of whom, Mrs. Russell, was my guide on the occasion of my visit there)
+are consulted before the release of each prisoner and undertake to
+furnish her with suitable employment, and to guide and watch over her
+during the first few months so that she may be sure of advice and
+assistance in any difficulties.
+
+
+INSTITUTIONS FOR MINOR OFFENDERS
+
+Punishments should vary according to the type of criminal, distinction
+being made between criminals of passion, criminaloids, and born
+criminals.
+
+_Criminals of Passion._ The true criminal of passion suffers more from
+remorse than from any penalty the law can inflict. Additional
+punishments should be: exile of the offender from his native town or
+from that in which the person offended resides; indemnity for the injury
+caused, in money, or in compulsory labour if the offender is not
+possessed of sufficient means. Recourse should never be had to
+imprisonment, which has an injurious effect even upon the better types
+of law-breakers; and criminals from passion do not constitute a menace
+to society. On the contrary, they are not infrequently superior to
+average humanity and are only prompted to crime by an exaggerated
+altruism which with care might be turned into good channels.
+
+This applies equally to political offenders, for whom exile is the
+oldest, most dreaded, and most efficacious punishment, and the disuse
+into which it has fallen does not appear to be justified, since it
+admits of graduation, is temporary, and an adequate check on any attempt
+at insurrection.
+
+_Criminaloids._ Repeated short terms of detention in prison should be
+avoided and other penalties substituted for petty offences against
+police regulations, cheating the Customs, etc., when committed by
+criminaloids who are not recidivists and have no accomplices. A short
+term of imprisonment, which brings this type of offender into contact
+with habitual criminals, not only does not serve as a deterrent, but
+generally has an injurious effect, because it tends to lessen respect
+for the law, and, in the case of recidivists, to rob punishment of all
+its terrors; and because criminaloids, when once branded with the infamy
+of prison and corrupted by association with worse types, are liable to
+commit more serious crimes.
+
+For all minor offences, fines are more efficacious than imprisonment
+and, in the case of the poor, should be replaced by compulsory labour at
+the discretion of the magistrate. Binding over under a guarantee to make
+good the injury done, corporal punishment, confinement to the house,
+judicial reprimands and cautions are applicable to offenders of this
+type, as is also the system of remitting first offences used in France
+with great success by Magnaud. Under this system, the offender is
+sentenced to an adequate penalty, which, however, is only inflicted in
+the case of recidivation.
+
+An efficacious, and at the same time, more serious method of dealing
+with criminaloids, is by means of the probation system and indeterminate
+sentence. The offender is sentenced to the maximum penalty applicable to
+his particular offence, but it may be diminished after a certain time if
+he shows signs of improvement. During this interval he is on probation,
+that is, under supervision, much in the same way as juvenile offenders.
+
+The probation system is extensively and successfully adopted in America,
+either singly or in conjunction with other penalties, as shown above.
+
+
+THE PROBATION SYSTEM
+
+This is an ideal manner of dealing with offenders of a less serious
+type, minors and criminaloids, who have fallen into bad ways, since,
+instead of punishing them, it seeks to encourage in them habits of
+integrity and to check the growth of vices by means of a benevolent but
+strict supervision. The offender is placed under the guidance of a
+respectable person, who tries in every way to smooth the path of reform
+by providing his charge with employment if he has none, or putting him
+in the way of learning some trade if he is unskilled, by isolating him
+from bad company, by rewarding any improvement, and reporting progress
+to the central office, which has to decide whether the period of
+probation is sufficient, or, in cases where it has not been efficacious,
+to have recourse to sterner measures.
+
+The only drawback to this system is the difficulty of applying it,
+because it is not always possible to find in every town a number of
+persons of high moral standing, who are able and willing to exercise
+vigilance over offenders. However, to the honour of the United States
+it must be said that in many States this supervision is organised in a
+truly admirable manner. At Boston I visited the Probation Office
+organised and managed by Miss Mary Dewson, which undertakes the
+supervision of girls and is a model worthy of imitation from the general
+arrangement down to the smallest details.
+
+The relations between the officers and their charges are in most cases
+very cordial. The little girls write most affectionate letters, in which
+they narrate their joys and sorrows, express penitence for their
+shortcomings and ask advice and help as of guardian spirits. The
+officers in their turn show themselves to be affectionate protectors and
+are scrupulous in the fulfilment of their duties towards the central
+office. Upwards of one hundred lockers were opened at my request, and I
+was able to examine the documents relating to each of the children with
+their antecedents, improvement, or the reverse, methodically entered up
+to a few days previous to my visit.
+
+The splendid results obtained everywhere by this system are leading to
+its gradual adoption in nearly all the States of the Union and in many
+parts of Australia and England, in dealing with young people, adults,
+and all first offenders convicted of petty infractions of the law,
+drunkenness, disturbance of the peace, and disorderly conduct, and also
+for prisoners released on ticket-of-leave. The probationer is obliged to
+report himself every fortnight, or at any time the probation officer may
+desire. The officer is empowered to supervise the conduct of the
+probationer at home and in his place of employment, and to threaten him
+with legal proceedings should his conduct be unsatisfactory.
+
+The supervision of adults, as may be supposed, is a far more delicate
+and complicated matter than that of children, and however discreetly the
+officer proceeds in order to keep the matter hidden from neighbours and
+employers, the position is such a humiliating one for adults that many
+prefer imprisonment to supervision. I was told that special
+reformatories have been established at Boston for the detention of those
+who prefer prison to vigilance.
+
+Perhaps this aversion of adult offenders in America to the probation
+system is due to the fact that the probation officer is vested with
+powers almost exceeding those of any magistrate. If he thinks fit, he
+may extend the period of supervision almost indefinitely or convert it
+into imprisonment. Moreover, the feeling that every movement and action,
+however innocent, is being watched is very galling to a grown-up person.
+However, these drawbacks could no doubt be remedied.
+
+In England, supervision is replaced by a pledge of good behaviour
+guaranteed by the culprit or a surety, who is induced to exercise
+vigilance by the knowledge that he will lose the sum deposited in the
+case of recidivation. The magistrate is obliged by English law to fix
+the period of probation, which cannot be extended without another
+sentence. In France, Belgium, and Australia, the probation system
+appears to have given good results.
+
+_Corporal Punishment._ Although repugnant to civilised ideas, the
+various forms of corporal punishment, fasting, cold shower-bath, or even
+the rod, are very suitable substitutes for imprisonment in the case of
+children guilty of petty offences, because not only are these
+punishments inexpensive and have the advantage of creating a deeper and
+more immediate impression, but they do not corrupt minor offenders nor
+do they interrupt their regular occupations, whether work or study.
+Fines should always be inflicted for slight infractions of the law and
+in all cases of petty larceny, frauds, and forgeries committed by
+minors. The fines should be proportioned to the means of the individual
+and the gravity of the offence, and replaced by compulsory labour in the
+case of those who refuse to pay.
+
+_Indemnity._ The obligation to make adequate compensation for the injury
+caused would be an ideal punishment, but is extremely difficult to put
+into practice. The magistrate, however, should do his utmost to make
+suitable use of this penalty, and the victim should be legally entitled
+to receive a part of the proceeds from work done by the culprit during
+detention.
+
+
+REFORMATORIES
+
+Minors convicted for the first time of such serious offences that
+supervision becomes an insufficient guarantee against recidivation,
+should be relegated to reformatories or other institutions which
+undertake to punish offences and to segregate and correct offenders.
+
+For the truly magnificent scale on which such reclaiming institutions
+are conducted in North and South America, both continents merit special
+mention.
+
+The oldest and most celebrated of these reformatories, that founded at
+Elmira by Brockway, owed its inspiration to my father's book _Criminal
+Man_ and is the first reformatory that has been instituted on similar
+principles.
+
+The convicts admitted to Elmira are young men between the ages of
+sixteen and thirty, convicted for the first time of any offence, except
+those of the most serious kind. The Administrative Council is invested
+with unlimited powers for determining the period of detention and may
+release prisoners long before the expiration of their sentence.
+
+Each newcomer has a bath, dons the uniform of the Institute, is
+photographed, registered, medically examined, and finally shut up in a
+cell to meditate upon his offence. During this time the superintendent
+obtains all the available information concerning his character,
+environment, and the probable causes that have led to his crime, and
+this information serves as a basis for the cure. According to the
+aptitude and culture of the prisoner, he is placed in a technical or
+industrial class, where he learns some trade which will enable him to
+become honestly self-supporting on his release. He is immediately
+acquainted with his duties and rights and the conditions under which he
+may regain his liberty.
+
+Education in the Reformatory consists of instruction in general
+knowledge and special training in some trade. Moral and intellectual
+progress is stimulated by the publication of a weekly review, _The
+Summary_, which gives a report on political matters and the news of the
+Reformatory.
+
+The convicts are divided into three categories: good, middling, and bad.
+The transference from the second to the first class entails certain
+privileges, especially those respecting communication with the outer
+world, the right to receive visitors, to have books, and to eat at a
+common table instead of partaking of a solitary meal in a cell. Those
+who obtain the highest marks for good conduct are at liberty to walk
+about the grounds and are entrusted with confidential missions, such as
+the supervision of the other convicts. Bad conduct marks cause prisoners
+to be transferred from a higher to the lowest division, where they are
+obliged to perform the rudest labour.
+
+First-class convicts are purposely exposed to temptations of various
+kinds, and when they have passed through this ordeal triumphantly, they
+obtain a conditional release. This cannot take place, however, until the
+prisoner is provided with regular employment of some kind, procured by
+his own exertions, through friends, or by the director of the
+Reformatory.
+
+For six months after his release he is obliged to give an account of
+himself regularly in the manner prescribed by the Director; after one
+year absolute liberty is regained.
+
+In order to reduce the working expenses of the Reformatory as much as
+possible, all posts, even that of superintendent or teacher in the
+technical schools, are filled by the convicts.
+
+
+PENITENTIARIES
+
+Although born criminals, habitual criminals, and recidivists should be
+carefully isolated from minor offenders, they nevertheless require
+institutes conducted on nearly similar principles. A prison, which is to
+punish, but at the same time to correct and redeem, demands strict
+discipline: in fact, milder punishments have very little effect and
+their constant repetition is harmful, although any exaggeration of brute
+force is more injurious than useful. Harshness may cow criminals, but
+does not improve them: on the contrary, it only serves to irritate them
+or to convert them into hypocrites. Even the adult offender should be
+looked upon in the light of a child or a moral invalid, who must be
+cured by a mixture of gentleness and severity, but gentleness should
+predominate, since criminals are naturally prone to vindictiveness and
+are apt to regard even slight punishments as unjust tortures. Even a too
+rigid adherence to the rule of silence may have a detrimental effect on
+the character of the prisoners. An old convict once said to Despine:
+"When you winked at slight offences against the rules, we used to talk
+more, but there was no harm in what we said. Now we talk less, but when
+we do, we blaspheme and plot evil."
+
+In Danish prisons under rigorous discipline, infractions of prison
+regulations amounted to 30%; more recently under milder rule such
+infractions only amount to 6%.
+
+In order to strengthen the sense of justice which, as we have said, is
+little developed in criminals, if indeed it is not altogether suffocated
+by ignoble passions, it is often advisable to appeal to their vanity and
+self-esteem to aid in maintaining discipline and increasing industry, by
+constituting them judges of each other's conduct. Obermayer used to
+divide the convicts into small groups and ask them to elect their own
+superintendents and teachers, thus establishing a spirit of
+good-comradeship and rendering possible a system of detailed and
+individual instruction, the sole kind that is really efficacious. The
+385 convicts at Detroit showed the highest percentage of efficiency,
+because they were divided into 21 classes with 28 teachers, all of whom,
+with the exception of one, were prisoners. It was noticed that the worst
+convicts were the best teachers (Pears, _Prisons and Reform_, 1872),
+which proves that even the most perverse elements may often be utilised
+for the improvement of others.
+
+Equally good was Despine's method of letting a certain time elapse
+before inflicting punishment, so that it should not be attributed to
+mere anger on his part. As soon as the infraction was noted, the
+prisoner was left to reflect on his conduct, and an hour later the
+teacher and Director came to show him the penalty prescribed by the
+regulations. Sometimes it was found efficacious to administer a rebuke
+and punishment to the whole group to which the offender belonged.
+Obermayer considered this method to be advantageous.
+
+Work should be the motive force, aim, and recreation of every institute
+of this kind, in order to stimulate flagging energies, to accustom
+prisoners to useful pursuits after release, to reinforce prison
+discipline and to compensate the State for the expense incurred. This
+latter object should, however, always be subordinated to the others, and
+lucrative trades must occasionally be avoided. Occupations which might
+pave the way for other crimes: lockmaking, brasswork, engraving,
+photography, and calligraphy should not be adopted, but choice made,
+instead, of those agricultural employments which show the lowest
+mortality and are much in demand. The manufacture of articles in straw,
+esparto, and string, printing, tailoring, the making of pottery, and
+building are all suitable trades, but those which require dangerous
+tools--shoemaking, cabinet-making, and carpentering--should be resorted
+to last of all. The rush baskets made by the convicts at Noto (Sicily)
+obtained several medals.
+
+The tasks allotted to prisoners should always be proportioned to their
+strength and tastes. Unskilled or physically weaker individuals who
+conscientiously do their best, should be rewarded in some way, if not
+pecuniarily, at least by a reduction of their sentences. In this way
+work becomes profitable and a spirit of comradeship and friendly
+emulation develops among the prisoners.
+
+
+INSTITUTES FOR HABITUAL CRIMINALS
+
+To protect society against the repeated misdeeds of these offenders and
+those of born criminals, segregation is essential. However, the
+institutions set apart to receive these classes should still regard the
+redemption of the inmates as their chief aim, and only when all attempts
+have proved futile should they be replaced by almost perpetual isolation
+in a penal colony.
+
+The Penitenciario Nacional of Buenos Ayres is a splendid instance of an
+institute founded for the redemption of adult offenders as well as for
+the punishment of their offences. The inmates of this penitentiary
+comprise offenders of all types--criminaloids, habitual and born
+criminals--belonging to the Province of Buenos Ayres. It was established
+a few years after the Reformatory at Elmira, the fundamental principles
+of which it has imitated with certain wise modifications to suit diverse
+circumstances.
+
+Externally, it has nothing in common with the gloomy European prisons.
+It is a large, white edifice with a broad flight of steps leading to the
+street and is devoid of all signs of force, soldiers, sentry-boxes, etc.
+
+After passing through a wide vestibule, I reached a large, shady
+court-yard with low walls almost hidden beneath a wealth of flowers and
+foliage. A corridor opening on to the court-yard was flanked on each
+side by a row of open, white cells, each well lighted by a fair-sized
+window during the day, and by electricity at night. Each cell is
+furnished with book-shelves, a table with paper, pen and inkstand, and a
+chair. All the corridors, which are gay with plants, converge towards a
+central glass-room, whence the sub-inspector surveys all the radiating
+corridors under his jurisdiction. Each corridor ends in a workshop,
+where printing, lithography, shoemaking, metal and steel work are
+carried on, and between the corridors are garden plots in which fruit,
+vegetables, and flowers are cultivated. The workshops are reckoned among
+the best the Republic contains. The printing-office turns out many
+weekly papers, illustrated magazines, and scientific and literary
+reviews. Footgear of the finest and most elegant quality is manufactured
+in the shoe-factory, and the foundry and workshop produce lathes,
+boilers, industrial and agricultural machines and implements. All the
+cooking in the Penitentiary is done by steam, and the plant is installed
+in a large building erected by the prisoners themselves.
+
+Work in the Penitentiary is compulsory. On arrival, each convict
+receives instruction in some handicraft, chosen by himself or one of the
+foremen. Of course swindlers and forgers are not admitted to trades like
+lithography, for reasons easy to understand.
+
+The convicts receive regular wages which vary according to their
+abilities and are about equal to the standard wages in each particular
+trade. All earnings are put aside and handed to the convict on his
+release when he is also provided with suitable employment.
+
+Work is finished at five o'clock in the evening and after a substantial
+supper the prisoners are divided into nine classes, six elementary and
+three secondary, according to their culture and intelligence. If
+illiterate, they are taught reading and writing and later, arithmetic,
+geography, history, languages, and drawing,--this latter being adapted
+to the particular trade of each individual. When school is finished,
+prisoners are allowed to go to the library to return the books they have
+read and take others for the night.
+
+Instead of a weekly newspaper like that published at Elmira,
+intellectual development is stimulated by means of lectures delivered
+each week by the prisoners or their teachers and attended by the
+Director, Vice-Director, and all the convicts.
+
+In addition to the care lavished by the Director, Senor Ballve, on the
+work and education of his charges, he spares no pains to encourage moral
+progress by rewarding good conduct. As each convict enters the
+Penitentiary, his name, trial, sentence, and antecedents are entered in
+a book with his photograph and particulars of his physical and psychic
+individuality, and these data are supplemented by remarks on his conduct
+and good actions, if any, so that on his release a clear idea is
+obtained of the moral progress he has made while in prison.
+
+
+PENAL COLONIES
+
+When after unsparing efforts for the redemption of a criminal, repeated
+convictions prove him to be a hopeless recidivist, the community should
+decline to allow him to perfect his anti-social abilities at their
+expense in prisons or at large, and should segregate him permanently,
+unless, indeed, there is any hope of reform, or circumstances render him
+harmless. Perpetual confinement in a prison, even of an improved type
+is, however, both cruel and expensive, but an excellent substitute may
+be found in the Penal Colony. Here the chief object should be, not to
+educate, elevate, or redeem the criminal, but to render him as useful as
+possible, so that he does not prove too great a burden on the community.
+
+Penal colonies should be situated on islands or in remote territories,
+that is, completely isolated from populous districts. The agricultural
+colony at Meseplas founded by the Belgian Government is a model worthy
+of imitation.
+
+In this colony the convict population is divided into four categories:
+
+1. Turbulent and dangerous individuals, who exercise an injurious
+influence over the other inmates of reformatories and prisons;
+
+2. Recidivists, ticket-of-leave men, escaped and mutinous convicts;
+
+3. Persons of bad reputation, who have hitherto avoided conviction;
+
+4. The better types, who have been convicted three or four times only
+and although not depraved, lack moral stamina and are constantly
+yielding to temptation when at large.
+
+All the common necessities of life are supplied by the colonists
+themselves, beginning with the dwellings which are erected as they are
+required and according to the resources available. In this way,
+extensive building operations are carried out at a very slight cost to
+the State. Cattle and crops are raised on the land, which is cultivated
+by a number of the convicts, while others manufacture articles which
+find a ready market in the vicinity and for which they possess suitable
+tools.
+
+Any convict refusing to work is imprisoned on bread and water. All work
+is paid for in special coin current only in the colony itself, but
+which, on the release of the owner, is exchanged for the coin of the
+country.
+
+The "Open Door," an institution on similar lines, was founded by
+Professor Cabred for the insane of the Province of Buenos Ayres, and
+judging from what I was able to observe during my short visit, it
+fulfils its purpose admirably. It consists of a large village populated
+by some ten or twelve thousand lunatics. With the exception of the price
+of the land and the cost of erecting the first buildings, this colony
+does not cost the community anything; on the contrary, the colonists are
+able to make large profits.
+
+The ultimate plan of the village with streets and edifices has already
+been mapped out, and the patients are continually occupied in erecting
+new buildings, etc. There is a brick-kiln, a carpenter shop, and a
+smithy, which produce all the materials used in building and furnishing
+the dwellings. Only the less dangerous patients are employed in these
+operations: those of weaker mind make brushes and wicker articles.
+
+The colony is situated in the midst of a vast stretch of land in the
+Province of Buenos Ayres, on which fruit and vegetables are grown by a
+number of the patients. Others are occupied in raising fowls and pigs,
+which supply the colony with eggs and meat and yield a large profit when
+sold outside.
+
+Professor Cabred wisely prefers agriculture of this kind to the raising
+of large crops of wheat or maize, because it simplifies the task of
+supervision necessary in any colony, and gives the colonists, whose toil
+is compulsory, a continual and regular occupation of an almost unvarying
+character. (This applies equally to the case of a penal colony.)
+Workmen, foremen, engineers, builders, mechanics, gardeners,--all are
+patients, with the exception of the Director, the doctor, and about a
+hundred mounted warders, who pass rapidly from one part to another and
+are able to intervene in suicidal or homicidal outbreaks.
+
+A colony on these lines would be suitable for the large mass of habitual
+criminals, who, although unable to resist the temptations of ordinary
+life, are capable of useful work under supervision, and under such
+conditions may prove beneficial to themselves and to the community.
+
+
+INSTITUTIONS FOR BORN CRIMINALS AND THE MORALLY INSANE
+
+_Asylums for Criminal Insane._ We have still to consider born criminals,
+epileptics, and the morally insane, whose crimes spring from inherited
+perverse instincts. These unfortunate beings cannot be consigned to
+ordinary prisons, since, owing to their state of mental alienation, they
+do not possess even the modesty of the vicious--hypocrisy--and they
+never fail to pervert those criminaloids with whom they come in contact.
+Malcontents by nature, they distrust everybody and everything, and as
+they see an enemy in every warder and official, they are the centres of
+constant mutinies.
+
+To confine them in common asylums would be still more injurious, for
+they preach sodomy, flight, and revolt and incite the others to robbery,
+and their indecent and savage ways, as well as the terrible reputation
+which often precedes them, make them objects of terror and repulsion to
+the quieter patients and their relatives, who dread to see their kin in
+such company.
+
+Ordinary asylums are equally unsuited to those victims of mental
+derangement who, although devoid of the depraved instincts of the
+morally insane and generally of blameless career up to the moment in
+which they are led to commit a crime by some isolated evil impulse, have
+a bad influence on the other inmates. Unlike other lunatics, they do not
+shrink from the company of others, whom they torment with their violence
+and contaminate with that spirit of restlessness and discontent which
+distinguished them even before they became insane or criminals. Firm in
+the belief that they are always being ill treated and insulted, they
+instil these ideas into their companions and suggest thoughts of flight
+and revolt, which would never occur to ordinary lunatics, absorbed as
+they are by their own world of fancies. The condition of the inmates is
+thereby aggravated, and it becomes impossible to accord them that large
+measure of freedom advocated by all modern alienists.
+
+To leave these madmen at large would be more dangerous still. Beneath an
+appearance of perfect calm and mental lucidity are hidden morbid
+impulses, which may give terrible results at some unexpected moment.
+
+All these offenders--insane criminals and the morally insane whose
+irresistible tendencies are detrimental to the community--should be
+confined in special institutes to be cured, or at any rate segregated
+for life. No infamy would attach to their names, because their
+irresponsibility would be clearly recognised, and society would be
+secure from their attacks.
+
+England was the first country to provide asylums for the criminal
+insane. In 1840 a portion of Bedlam was set aside for this purpose.
+Fisherton House, a special private asylum of this kind, was opened in
+1844, and later others were instituted at Dundrum (Ireland) in 1850, at
+Broadmoor in 1863, and at Perth (Scotland) in 1858, to receive criminals
+who commit crimes in a state of insanity, or become insane during their
+trial, and all prisoners whose state of lunacy or imbecility renders
+them unable to conform to the discipline of a prison. Of course
+sanguinary and violent scenes often occur in these asylums, where the
+pernicious influence this type of lunatic exercises over his
+surroundings in ordinary asylums or prisons is multiplied and
+intensified a hundred-fold. Conspiracies, almost unknown in common
+asylums, and the murder of warders or officials are very common.
+Despairing of release and conscious of their irresponsibility, these
+wretched beings attack the warders, destroy the walls which confine
+them, murder and wound others and themselves; but at any rate the injury
+is limited to a small circle, and both harmless lunatics and common
+criminals are not contaminated. Moreover, even in criminal asylums, long
+experience with these strange pathological types and the adoption of
+subdivisions like those recently introduced into Broadmoor by Orange
+have done much towards improving the general condition and eliminating
+many drawbacks. According to this classification insane criminals are
+divided into two classes, _unconvicted_ and _convicted_, the former
+class being subdivided into _untried_ and _tried_. Untried offenders,
+those who are considered to have been insane before committing the
+crime, are sent to a common county asylum, where are also confined
+persons convicted of minor offences and declared insane (the percentage
+of cures in this class is considerable) and others suspected of shamming
+insanity. In this way, the better elements are eliminated and the
+inmates of the criminal insane asylum reduced to the worst and most
+dangerous types only.
+
+
+CAPITAL PUNISHMENT
+
+When, notwithstanding prisons, deportation, and criminal asylums,
+individuals of ineradicable anti-social instincts make repeated attempts
+on the lives of others, whether honest men or their own companions in
+evil-doing, the only remedy is the application of the extreme
+penalty--death.
+
+Amongst barbarous peoples, on whom prison makes but slight impression,
+or in primitive communities that do not possess criminal asylums,
+penitentiaries, and other means of social defence and redemption, the
+death penalty has always been considered the most certain and at the
+same time the most economical means of common protection. But criminal
+anthropologists realise that the desire to abolish this penalty, which
+so often finds expression in civilised countries, arises from a noble
+sentiment and one they have no wish to destroy.
+
+Capital punishment, according to the opinion of my father, should only
+be applied in extreme cases, but the fear of it, suspended like a sword
+of Damocles above their heads, would serve as a check to the murderous
+proclivities displayed by some criminals when they are condemned to
+perpetual imprisonment.
+
+We have, it is true, no right to take the lives of others but if we
+refuse to recognise the legitimacy of self-defence, exile and
+imprisonment are equally unjustifiable.
+
+When we realise that there exist beings, born criminals, who are
+organised for evil, who reproduce the instincts common to the wildest
+savages and even those of ferocious carnivora, and are destined by
+nature to injure others, our resentment becomes softened; but
+notwithstanding our sense of pity, we feel justified in demanding their
+extermination when they prove to be dangerous and absolutely
+irredeemable.
+
+
+PENALTIES PROPOSED BY THE MODERN SCHOOL
+
+The following tables, compiled by Senator Garofalo, a celebrated jurist
+of the Modern School and inserted in _Criminal Man_, vol. iii, show the
+distribution of penalties systematically arranged.
+
+I. Born Criminals who are utterly devoid of the sentiment of pity.
+
+  _Offender_               _Crime_                   _Penalty_
+
+  Murderers exhibiting     Murder for lucre or       Prison, penal colony,
+  moral insensibility      some other egotistical    criminal insane
+  and instinctive          object                    asylum, or
+  cruelty,                                           capital punishment
+  convicted of             Murder without            if recidivists.
+                           provocation on the
+                           part of the victim
+
+                           Murder with ferocious
+                           execution
+
+
+II. Violent and Impulsive Criminals, Criminaloids, and those guilty
+through insufficiency of pity, of decency, of inhibitory power, and
+through prejudiced notions of honor.
+
+  _Offender_               _Crime_                   _Penalty_
+
+  Adults convicted of      Cruelty, assault          Criminal insane
+                           and battery, rape,        asylum for epileptics,
+                           kidnapping                or
+
+                                                     Indefinite seclusion
+                                                     for a period equal
+                                                     to one of the natural
+                                                     divisions of a man's
+                                                     life, with period of
+                                                     supervision.
+
+  Minors convicted of      Murder, cruelty           Special reformatories,
+                           and other offences        criminal insane
+                           against the person        asylum if there are
+                           without provocation       congenital tendencies.
+
+                           Offences against          Penal colony and
+                           decency                   deportation in cases
+                                                      of recidivation.
+
+  Adults convicted of      Homicide provoked by      Exile from native
+                           injury or                 place and from the
+                           genuine grievances        town in which the
+                                                     victim's family live.
+
+  Adults convicted of      Homicide in               Exile, segregation
+                           self-defence              for an indefinite
+                                                     period in some
+                           Homicide to avenge        remote town or
+                           some wrong or             settlement.
+                           personal dishonour
+
+  Adults convicted of      Assault in quarrels,      Compensation for
+                           or ill-treatment          injury caused, fines,
+                           when intoxicated,         reprimand, security,
+                           blows, insults, or        conditional liberty.
+                           slander
+
+  Adults convicted of      Mutiny and revolt         Reprimand, security,
+                                                     imprisonment for a
+                                                     definite period.
+
+
+III. Criminals Devoid of a Sense of Honesty
+
+  _Offender_               _Crime_                   _Penalty_
+
+  Adults (habitual         Theft, fraud, arson,      Criminal lunatic
+  offenders) convicted     forgery, blackmail        asylums (if insane
+  of                                                 or epileptic),
+                                                     deportation (for
+                                                     sane offenders).
+
+  Adults (occasional       Theft fraud, forgery,     Reformatories,
+  offenders) convicted     blackmail, arson          conditional liberty,
+  of                                                 exclusion from
+                                                     particular profession.
+
+  Adults convicted of      Peculation, concussion    Loss of office,
+                                                     exclusion from all
+                                                     public offices,
+                                                     fines, compensation
+                                                     for damage done.
+
+  Adults convicted of      Arson, malicious          Compensation, or
+                           damage to property        as a substitute,
+                                                     imprisonment.
+
+                                                     Criminal lunatic
+                                                     asylums (if insane).
+
+                                                     Penal colonies
+                                                     (for recidivists).
+
+  Adults convicted of      Fraudulent                Compensation for
+                           bankruptcy                damage caused,
+                                                     exclusion from
+                                                     business and
+                                                     public offices.
+
+  Adults convicted of      Counterfeiting,           Reformatories,
+                           forging cheques,          fines, compensation
+                           public title-deeds,       for damage, exclusion
+                           etc.                      from office.
+
+  Adults convicted of      Bigamy, substitution      Seclusion for an
+                           or suppression            indefinite period.
+                           of child
+
+  Minors convicted of      Theft, fraud, and         Magisterial
+                           picking pockets           reprimand, probation,
+                                                     reformatory, or
+                                                     agricultural
+                                                     colony.
+
+
+IV. Offenders Lacking in Industry
+
+  _Offender_                             _Penalty_
+
+  Beggars, vagabonds,                    Agricultural colony
+  loafers                                for country offenders,
+                                         workshop for city offenders.
+
+
+V. Offenders Deficient in Misoneism (Hatred of Change)
+
+  _Offender_                             _Penalty_
+
+  Political, social, and                 Temporary exile.
+  religious rebels
+
+
+SYMBIOSIS
+
+The punishment of offenders and the protection of society from the
+insane are the two chief objects of criminal jurisprudence, but criminal
+anthropologists aim at something higher, the utilisation of anti-social
+elements, thus redeeming them completely and justifying their existence
+in the eyes of mankind and in the scheme of nature.
+
+We find, in fact, in nature numerous instances of a partnership for
+mutual benefit between animals and plants of very diverse species and
+tendencies. Lichens are a living symbiosis of algae and fungi: the
+pagurus allows the actiniae to settle on his dwelling, where they attract
+his prey and in return are housed and conveyed from place to place.
+
+In imitation of this principle, criminal anthropologists seek to devise
+a means of making offenders serviceable to civilisation by carefully
+analysing their tendencies and psychology, and fitting them into some
+suitable groove in the social scheme, where they may be useful to
+themselves and to others. Side by side with depraved instincts,
+criminals frequently possess invaluable gifts: an abnormal degree of
+intelligence, great audacity, and love of innovation. The wonderful
+galleries and fortifications cut out in the rocks at Gibraltar and Malta
+by English convicts and the complete transformation of parts of Sardinia
+have led criminologists to the conclusion that the ancient penalty of
+enforced labour was more logical, useful, and advantageous both for the
+culprit and the community than all modern punishments. The Mormons of
+America and the religious sects persecuted in Russia by an omnipotent
+bureaucracy, have by their energy transformed uninhabitable regions into
+lands of extraordinary fertility. Still greater results might be
+obtained, if the abnormal tendencies of certain individuals were turned
+into useful channels, instead of being pent up until they manifest
+themselves in anti-social acts, and this beneficent and lofty task
+should devolve on teachers and protectors of such of the young as show
+physical and psychic anomalies at an early age.
+
+The colonisation of wild regions and all professions (motoring, cycling,
+acrobatic and circus feats) which demand audacity, activity, love of
+adventure, and intense efforts followed by long periods of repose are
+eminently suited to criminals. There are cases on record in which young
+men have actually become thieves and even murderers in order to gain
+sufficient means to become comedians or professional cyclists, and there
+is every reason to suppose that these crimes would never have been
+committed had the youths been able to obtain the required sums honestly.
+On the other hand, men of bad character, ready to develop into
+criminals, often undergo a complete transformation when they find some
+outlet for their intelligence and aptitudes, in becoming pioneers in
+virgin regions or soldiers. War, the original, perpetual and exclusive
+occupation of our ancestors, is eminently suited to the tendencies of
+criminals. All the characteristics of the criminal, impulsiveness,
+cynicism, physical and moral insensibility, and invulnerability are
+valuable qualities in the soldier in times of war, especially when waged
+against savage and barbarous nations, when cunning and ability have to
+be employed against primitive races who laugh at the rules and ethics of
+civilised warfare.
+
+Amongst brigands, we find a few badly-armed individuals performing
+marvels of valour, and the leaders, although ignorant men, manifesting
+an intelligence and tactical skill that puts trained armies to shame.
+Could not the tendencies of criminals be used for the good of their
+country? The qualities developed in primitive races by constant warfare
+against the forces of nature are characteristic also of criminals. Let
+those whom nature has destined to reproduce impulsive and brutal
+instincts in a civil and industrial age be permitted to employ them in
+defending civilisation with true primitive valour against external and
+internal enemies, against barbarous peoples who would restrict its
+boundaries, or reactionary elements who seek to hinder its progress.
+
+The Great Redeemer, who in pardoning the adulteress, said, "He that is
+without sin among you, let him first cast a stone at her," and the
+Prophet who foretold the day when the wolf and the lamb should dwell
+together and the lion should eat straw like the ox and should "not hurt
+nor destroy," divined perhaps this noble aim. If criminal anthropology
+is destined to lead mankind to this goal, it may well be pardoned all
+the harsh measures it has seen fit to suggest in order to realise the
+supreme end--social safety.
+
+
+
+
+PART III
+
+CHARACTERS AND TYPES OF CRIMINALS
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+_EXAMINATION OF CRIMINALS_
+
+
+Criminal anthropologists are unanimous in insisting on the importance of
+the results to be gained from a careful examination of the physical and
+psychic individuality of the offender, with a view to establishing the
+extent of his responsibility, the probabilities of recidivation on his
+part, the cure to be prescribed or the punishment to be meted out to
+him; but besides furnishing the magistrate with a sound basis for his
+decisions, the anthropological examination will prove of great
+assistance to probation officers, superintendents of orphanages and
+rescue homes and all those who are entrusted with the destinies of
+actual offenders or candidates for crime. I have therefore decided to
+devote this part of my summary to a minute demonstration of the methods
+to be employed in these examinations, which should be conducted on the
+one hand with the scientific precision that distinguishes clinical
+diagnoses of diseases and on the other with special rules deduced from
+the long experience of criminologists in dealing with criminals and the
+insane, between whom there is so much affinity.
+
+
+ANTECEDENTS AND PSYCHIC INDIVIDUALITY
+
+The examination of a criminal or person of criminal tendencies should,
+if possible, be preceded by a careful investigation of his antecedents.
+Questions put to relatives and friends often bring to light facts
+relating to his past life, and give an idea of the surroundings in which
+he has grown up and the illnesses suffered by him during childhood
+(meningitis, typhus, convulsions, hemicrania, giddiness, _pavor
+nocturnus_, trauma). The prevalence of disease in the family (parents,
+grandparents, uncles, cousins, etc.) should be elicited and note taken
+not only of nervous maladies, but of arthritic, tuberculous, pellagrous,
+and inebriate forms, including a tendency to morphiomania. Even goitre
+should not escape notice, since it may indicate cretinism or any other
+form of degeneration. The existence of criminality in the family is of
+still greater importance, but it is extremely difficult to obtain any
+information on this head, either from the patient himself or his
+relatives. A certain amount of strategy must be used in eliciting facts
+of this kind, by suddenly asking, for instance, whether a certain
+individual of the same name, already deceased or confined in
+such-and-such an asylum or prison, is any relation of the patient.
+
+Next should be ascertained whether he is single or married, and in the
+latter case, whether his wife is still living; also what profession or
+professions he has exercised. In this connection it should be observed
+that although criminals are generally successful in everything they
+undertake, they are incapable of remaining constant to one thing for any
+length of time.
+
+Many persons, cooks, tavern-keepers, confectioners, etc., exercise
+callings that have a deleterious effect on the nervous centres and
+encourage an abuse of alcohol; others like bakers, have night work,
+which is equally harmful. Professions which bring poor men, servants,
+secretaries, cashiers, etc., into close contact with wealth, are
+sometimes the cause of dishonesty in those who in the absence of special
+temptations, would have remained upright; others provide criminaloids
+with opportunities or instruments for accomplishing some crime, as in
+the case of locksmiths, blacksmiths, soldiers, doctors, lawyers, etc.
+
+The time of the year and other circumstances under which the crime takes
+place should be elicited, and it should be borne in mind that the
+vintage season in countries of Southern Europe and extremes of heat and
+cold are favourable to seizures of an epileptic nature.
+
+When the subject under examination is a recidivist, care should be taken
+to ascertain at what age and under what circumstances the initial
+offence was committed. Precocity in crime is a characteristic of born
+criminals, and puberty and senility have their peculiar offences, as
+have the extremes of poverty and wealth.
+
+_Intelligence._ As we are not dealing with an ordinary patient, who is
+generally only too ready to talk about his troubles, but with an
+individual who has been put on his guard by constant cross-examination,
+his suspicions should first of all be allayed by a series of general
+questions on his native place or the town in which he is now living, his
+trade, etc. "Why did you leave your native town? Why do you not return?
+Are you married? How many children have you?" etc. Then an attempt
+should be made to gain an idea of his intellectual powers by asking easy
+questions: "How many shillings are there in a pound? How many hours are
+there in a day? In what year were you married?" etc.
+
+_Affection._ The affections should be tested in an indirect way. "Is
+your father a bad man?" or "Are your neighbours worthless people? Do
+they treat you with due respect? Has any one a spite against you? Are
+you fond of your parents? Are you aware that your brother (or mother) is
+seriously ill?" Questions concerning relatives and friends are of
+special interest, because they enable the examiner to ascertain whether
+they cause the patient emotion of any kind, whether he has any real
+affection for those beings to whom normal persons are attached, but
+towards whom born criminals and the insane in general do not manifest
+love. In the absence of instruments, we must judge of the feelings of
+patients by their answers and the facial changes caused by emotion, but
+medico-legal experts naturally prefer a scientific test by means of
+accurate instruments, by which the exact degree of emotion is
+registered. These instruments are the plethysmograph and the
+hydrosphygmograph.
+
+
+  =FIG. 28
+  Criminal's Ear=
+
+
+It is well known that any emotion which causes the heart-beats to
+quicken or become slower makes us blush or turn pale, and these
+vaso-motor phenomena are entirely beyond our control. If we plunge one
+of our hands into the volumetric tank invented by Francis Frank, the
+level of the liquid registered on the tube above will rise and fall at
+every pulsation, and besides these regular fluctuations, variations may
+be observed which correspond to every stimulation of the senses, every
+thought and above all, every emotion. The volumetric glove invented by
+Patrizi (see Fig. 25), an improvement on the above-mentioned instrument,
+is a still more practical and convenient apparatus. It consists of a
+large gutta-percha glove, which is put on the hand and hermetically
+sealed at the wrist by a mixture of mastic and vaseline. The glove is
+filled with air as the tank was with water. The greater or smaller
+pressure exercised on the air by the pulsations of blood in the veins of
+the hands reacts on the aerial column of an india-rubber tube, and this
+in its turn on Marey's tympanum (a small chamber half metal and half
+gutta-percha). This chamber supports a lever carrying an indicator,
+which rises and falls with the greater or slighter flow of blood in the
+hand. This lever registers the oscillations on a moving cylinder covered
+with smoked paper. If after talking to the patient on indifferent
+subjects, the examiner suddenly mentions persons, friends, or relatives,
+who interest him and cause him a certain amount of emotion, the curve
+registered on the revolving cylinder suddenly drops and rises rapidly,
+thus proving that he possesses natural affections. If, on the other
+hand, when alluding to relatives and their illnesses, or vice-versa, no
+corresponding movement is registered on the cylinder, it may be assumed
+that the patient does not possess much affection.
+
+
+  =FIG. 25
+  A VOLUMETRIC GLOVE
+  (see page 224)=
+
+
+  =FIG. 26
+  HEAD OF A CRIMINAL
+  Epileptic=
+
+
+Thus when Bianchi and Patrizi spoke to the notorious brigand Musolino
+about life in his native woods, his mother, and his sweetheart, there
+was an immediate alteration in the pulse, and the line registered by the
+plethysmograph suddenly changed, nor did it return to its previous level
+until some time afterward.
+
+My father sometimes made successful use of the plethysmograph to
+discover whether an accused person was guilty of the crime imputed to
+him, by mentioning it suddenly while his hands were in the
+plethysmograph or placing the photograph of the victim unexpectedly
+before his eyes.
+
+_Morbid Phenomena._ When examining a criminal or even a suspected
+person, who is nearly always more or less abnormal, it is advisable to
+investigate the more common morbid phenomena he may be subject to, on
+which he is not likely to give information spontaneously because he is
+ignorant of their importance. He should be questioned about his sleep,
+whether he has dreams, etc. Mental sufferers nearly always sleep badly
+and are frequently tormented by insomnia and hallucinations. The
+inebriate imagines he is being pursued by disgusting, misshapen
+creatures, from which he cannot escape. Epileptics, and frequently also
+hysterical persons have peculiar obsessions. They fancy they cannot
+perform certain actions unless they are preceded by certain words and
+gestures.
+
+The susceptibility of the patient to suggestion should also be tested,
+to determine what value can be attached to his assertions. Sufferers
+from hysteria and general paralysis are like children, highly
+susceptible to suggestion, not necessarily of an hypnotic nature. If you
+tell an hysterical person with conviction that he suffers pain in a
+certain part of his body, is feverish or pale or something of the sort,
+he will inform you spontaneously after a few minutes that he feels pain
+or fever, etc. After a crime of a startling nature has been committed by
+some unknown person, it not unfrequently happens that some hysterical
+subject, generally a youth, who imagines he has been accused of the
+crime by the neighbours or his acquaintances, becomes convinced that he
+is really guilty and gives himself up to the police.
+
+_Speech._ Special attention should be directed during the examination to
+the way in which the patient replies to questions and his mode of
+pronunciation. There may be peculiarities of pronunciation and
+stammering, characteristic of certain forms of mental alienation, or at
+any rate of some nervous anomaly; or articulation may be tremulous and
+forced, as in precocious dementia and chronic inebriety. In other cases
+the words are jumbled and confused, especially if long and difficult. In
+the first stages of progressive paralysis the letter _r_ is not
+pronounced. To test this anomaly, which is of great importance in the
+diagnosis, the patient should be requested to pronounce difficult words,
+such as, corroborate, reread, rewrite, etc.
+
+In order not to lose such valuable indications, in cases where personal
+examination is impossible, phonograph impressions of conversations
+between the patient and some third person will serve as a substitute.
+
+The inquiry may reveal still more serious anomalies in the ideas,
+intelligence, and mental condition of the patient. Sometimes the answers
+given are sensible but are followed by nonsense. Other patients,
+especially when afflicted with melancholia, speak unwillingly, as if the
+words were forced from them, one by one. Idiots, cretins, and demented
+persons are sometimes incapable of expressing themselves. Some patients
+who have had apoplectic strokes substitute one word for another,
+"bread" for "wine," etc., or elide one part of the sentence and only
+repeat the last word.
+
+_Memory._ To form an idea of the memory of the subject, questions should
+be put to him concerning recent and remote personal facts and
+circumstances, the year in which he or his children were born, what he
+had for his supper on the previous evening, etc., etc.
+
+_Visual memory_ may be tested by giving the patient a sheet of paper, on
+which are drawn various common objects, letters, or easy words. He
+should be allowed to look at these for five or ten seconds and requested
+to enumerate them after the paper has been withdrawn. In order to test
+the memory of sounds, the examiner should utter five or six easy words
+and ask the patient to repeat them immediately afterwards.
+
+To test sense of colour, a picture on which various colours are painted
+is placed before the patient, as well as a skein of wool of the same
+shade as one of the colours in the picture, which he is requested to
+point out.
+
+_Handwriting_ is very important, particularly in distinguishing a born
+criminal from a lunatic, and between the various kinds of mental
+alienation.
+
+Monomaniacs and mattoids (cranks) who give the police the most trouble
+often speak in a perfectly sane manner, but pour out all their insanity
+on paper, without an examination of which it is not easy to detect
+mental derangement. They write with rapidity and at great length. Their
+pockets, bags, etc., are always full of sheets of paper covered with
+small handwriting, sometimes scribbled in all directions. The matter is
+generally absurd or simply stupid, consisting of endless repetitions.
+
+Individuals in the first stage of paralysis make orthographical errors,
+which coincide with their mistakes in pronunciation, like _Garigaldi_,
+instead of _Garibaldi_. Care must be taken to test this defect
+thoroughly. If the patient is fairly well-educated, his signature, which
+is the last to alter, is not sufficient; nor are a few lines a
+satisfactory test, since he can easily concentrate his attention on
+them, but he should be requested to write a page or two and be exhorted
+to make haste.
+
+Alcoholism and paralysis generally give rise to tremulous handwriting
+with unsteady strokes, as in old people. After epileptic seizures and
+attacks of hysteria the writing is shaky. The slightest trembling of the
+hand is detected if Edison's electric pen be used.
+
+In progressive general paralysis and some forms of dementia shakiness is
+so excessive that it becomes dysgraphy, with zigzag letters. The
+handwriting of persons subject to apoplectic strokes has often the
+appearance of copper-plate. Monomaniacs intersperse their writings with
+illustrations and symbols. They write very closely in imitation of
+print, as do mattoids, hysterical persons, and megalomaniacs, and use
+many notes of exclamation and capital letters. Their writings are full
+of badly-spelled words, scrolls, and flourishes.
+
+Criminals guilty of sanguinary offences generally have a clumsy but
+energetic handwriting and cross their _t's_ with dashing strokes. The
+handwriting of thieves can scarcely be distinguished from that of
+ordinary persons, but the handwriting of swindlers is easier to
+recognise, as it generally lacks clearness although it preserves a
+certain uniformity. The signature is usually indecipherable and
+enveloped in an infinite number of arabesques.
+
+_Clothing._ The manner in which a patient is dressed often gives an
+exact indication of his individuality. Members of those secret
+organizations of Naples and Sicily, the Camorra and Mafia, are fond of
+dressing in a loud manner with an abundance of jewelry. Murderers,
+epileptics, and the morally insane, who lead isolated lives, attach no
+importance to dress and are frequently dirty and shabby. (See Fig. 26,
+A. D., a morally insane epileptic, the perpetrator of three murders.)
+Swindlers are always dressed in faultless style, the cinaedus is fond of
+giving his costume a feminine air, and monomaniacs trick themselves out
+with ribbons, decorations, and medals: their clothes are generally of a
+strange cut. The cretin and the idiot go about with their clothes torn
+and in disorder and not infrequently emit a strong odour of ammonia.
+
+
+PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
+
+Having carefully investigated the past history of the subject and made a
+minute study of his abnormal psychic phenomena, the expert should
+proceed to the examination of his physical characters.
+
+Chapter I of Part I contains a detailed description of the principal
+physiognomical anomalies of the criminal that may be discerned by the
+naked eye. They will now be briefly recapitulated.
+
+_Skin._ The skin frequently shows scars and (in the epileptic subject to
+seizures) lesions on the elbows and temples. Marks of wounds inflicted
+in quarrels and attempted suicide are frequent in habitual criminals.
+The forehead and nose must be examined for traces of acne rosacea
+frequent in drunkards, and for erythema on the back of the hands,
+characteristic of pellagra. Ichthyosis, psoriasis, or other skin
+diseases are very common in cases of mental alienation, and scurvy often
+indicates long seclusion in prison.
+
+_Tattooing._ Great care must be taken to ascertain whether the subject
+is tattooed, and if so, on what parts of his body. Tattooing often
+reveals obscenity, vindictiveness, cupidity, and other characteristics
+of the patient, besides furnishing his name or initials, that of his
+native town or village, and the symbol of the trade he refuses to reveal
+(sometimes such indications have been blurred or effaced). (See Fig. 27.)
+
+One of the chief proofs showing the untruthfulness of the statements
+made by the Tichborne claimant was the fact that his person was devoid
+of tattooing, whereas it was well known that Roger Tichborne had been
+tattooed.
+
+Tattooing often reveals the psychology, habits, and vices of the
+individual. The tattooing on pederasts usually consists of portraits of
+those with whom they have unnatural commerce, or phrases of an
+affectionate nature addressed to them. A pederast and forger examined by
+Professor Filippi was tattooed on his forearm with a sentimental
+declaration addressed to the object of his unnatural desires; a criminal
+convicted of rape was covered with pictorial representations of his
+obscene adventures. From these few instances, it is apparent that these
+personal decorations are of the utmost value as evidence of hidden vices
+and crimes.
+
+_Wrinkles._ We have already spoken of the abundance and precocity of
+wrinkles in born criminals. They are also a characteristic of the
+insane.
+
+The following are of special importance: the vertical and horizontal
+lines on the forehead, the oblique and triangular lines of the brows,
+the horizontal or circumflex lines at the root of the nose and the
+vertical and horizontal lines on the neck. (The ferocious leader of a
+band of criminals at twenty-five, and a savage murderer under thirty
+years of age.)
+
+_Beard._ The beard is scanty in born criminals and often altogether
+absent in epileptics. On the other hand, it is common in insane females
+and in normal women after the menopause. Degenerates of both sexes
+frequently manifest characteristics of the opposite sex in the
+distribution of hair on the body. A tuft of hair in the sacro-lumbar
+region, suggestive of the tail of the mythological faun, is frequently
+found in epileptics and idiots, and in some cases the back and breast
+are covered with thick down which makes them resemble animals.
+
+The hair covering the head is generally thick and dark, the growth is
+often abnormal with square or triangular zones growing in a different
+direction from the rest, or in small tufts like those inserted in a
+brush. Still more frequently do we find anomalies in the position of the
+vortex, or that point whence the hair-growth diverges circularly, which
+in normal persons is nearly always situated on the crown. In degenerates
+it is frequently on one side of the head and in cretins on the forehead.
+Precocious greyness and baldness are common in the insane criminals, and
+cretins, on the contrary, show these initial signs of senility at a much
+later period than normal persons.
+
+_Teeth._ The greatest percentage of anomalies is found in the incisors;
+next come the premolars, the molars, and lastly the canines. In
+criminals, especially if epileptics, the middle incisors of the upper
+jaw are sometimes missing and their absence is compensated by the
+excessive development of the lateral incisors. In other cases the
+lateral incisors are of the same size as the middle ones, and sometimes
+the teeth are so nearly uniform that it is difficult to distinguish
+between incisors, canines, and molars, a circumstance which recalls the
+homodontism of the lower vertebrates. After the incisors, the premolars
+show the greatest number of anomalies. While in normal persons they are
+smaller than the molars, in degenerates they are frequently of the same
+size or even larger. Supernumerary teeth, amounting sometimes to a
+double row, are not uncommon. In other cases there is extraordinary
+development of the canines. Inherited degeneracy from inebriate,
+syphilitic, or tuberculous parents frequently manifests itself in
+rickety teeth with longitudinal and transverse _striae_ or serration of
+the edges, due to irregularities in the formation of the enamel. In
+idiots and epileptics, dentition is often backward and stunted; the
+milk-teeth are not replaced by others, or are almond-shaped and
+otherwise of abnormal aspect.
+
+_Ears._ The ears of criminals and epileptics exhibit a number of
+anomalies. They are sometimes of abnormal size or stand out from the
+face. Darwin's tubercle, which is like a point turned forward when the
+helix folds over, and turned backward when the helix is flat, is
+frequently encountered in the ears of degenerates. The lobe is subject
+to a great many anomalies, sometimes it is absent altogether, in some
+cases it adheres to the face or is of huge dimensions and square in
+shape. Sometimes the helix is prolonged so as to divide the concha in
+two. Idiots often show excessive development of the anti-helix, while
+the helix itself is reduced to a flattened strip.
+
+_Eyes._ The eyebrows are generally bushy in murderers and violators of
+women. Ptosis, a species of paralysis of the upper lid, which gives the
+eye a half-closed appearance, is common in all criminals; but more
+frequently we find strabismus, a want of parallelism in the visual axes,
+bichromatism of the iris, and rigidity of the pupils.
+
+_Nose._ In thieves the base of the nose often slants upwards, and this
+characteristic of rogues is so common in Italy that it has given rise to
+a number of proverbs. The nose is often twisted in epileptics, flattened
+and trilobate in cretins.
+
+_Jaws._ Enormous maxillary development is one of the most frequent
+anomalies in criminals and is related to the greater size of the zygomae
+and teeth. (See Fig. 27.) The lemurian apophysis already alluded to is
+not uncommon.
+
+_Chin._ This part of the face, which in Europeans is generally
+prominent, round and proportioned to the size of the face, in
+degenerates as in apes is frequently receding, flat, too long or too
+short.
+
+These anomalies may be studied rapidly with the naked eye, but height,
+weight, the proportions of the various parts of the body, shape of the
+skull, etc., should be measured with the aid of special instruments.
+
+_Height._ Criminals are rarely tall. Like all degenerates, they are
+under medium height. Imbeciles and idiots are remarkably undersized. The
+span of the arms, which in normal persons about equals the height, is
+often disproportionately wide in criminals. The hands are either
+exaggeratedly large or exaggeratedly small.
+
+
+  =FIG. 27
+  ANTON OTTO KRAUSER
+  Apache
+  (see page 236)=
+
+
+The height of a patient must be compared with the mean height of his
+fellow-countrymen, or, to be more exact, of those inhabitants of his
+native province or district who are, needless to say, of the same age
+and social condition. The average height of a male Italian of twenty is
+5 feet 4 inches (1.624 m.), that of a female of the same age, 5 feet
+(1.525 m.). The distances from the sole of the foot to the navel and
+from the navel to the top of the head are in ratio of 60 to 40, if the
+total height be taken as 100.
+
+
+  =FIG. 29
+  Anthropometer=
+
+
+These measurements may be effected very rapidly by using the
+tachyanthropometer invented by Anfossi (see Fig. 29). It consists of a
+vertical column against which the subject under examination places his
+shoulders, a horizontal bar adjustable vertically until it rests on the
+shoulders, and can be used at the same time for ascertaining the length
+of the arms and middle finger: a graduated sliding scale in the vertical
+column for rapid measurements of the other parts of the body and a
+couple of scales at the base for measuring the feet.
+
+_Weight._ In proportion to their height, criminals generally weigh less
+than normal individuals, whose weight in kilogrammes is given by the
+decimal figures of his height as expressed in metres and centimetres.
+
+
+  =FIG. 30
+  Craniograph Anfossi=
+
+
+_Head._ The head, or rather the skull, the shape of which is influenced
+by the cerebral mass it contains, is rarely free from anomalies, and for
+this reason the careful examination of this part is of the utmost
+importance. We have no means of studying subtle cranial alterations in
+the living subject, but we can ascertain the form and capacity of his
+skull. This is rendered easy and rapid by means of a very convenient
+craniograph invented by Anfossi (see Fig. 30), which traces the cranial
+profile on a piece of specially prepared cardboard.
+
+
+  =FIG. 31
+  Pelvimeter=
+
+
+In the absence of a craniometer, measurements may be taken with
+calipers, the arms of which are curved like the ordinary pelvimeters
+used in obstetrics (see Fig. 31), and a graduated steel tape.
+
+The following are the principal measurements:
+
+1. Maximum antero-posterior diameter, which is obtained by applying one
+arm of the instrument above the root of the nose just between the
+eyebrows and sliding the other arm over the vault of the skull till it
+reaches the occiput. The distance between the two arms furnishes the
+maximum longitudinal diameter.
+
+2. The maximum transverse diameter or breadth of the skull is measured
+by placing the arms of the calipers, one on each side of the head on the
+most prominent spot.
+
+3. The antero-posterior curve is obtained by fixing the graduated tape
+at zero on the root of the nose (on the fronto-nasal suture) and passing
+it over the middle of the forehead, vertex, and occiput to the external
+occipital protuberance.
+
+4. The transverse, or biauricular curve is obtained by applying the
+steel tape at zero to a point just above the ear, and carrying it over
+the head in a vertical direction till it reaches the corresponding point
+on the other side.
+
+5. The maximum circumference is obtained by encircling the head with the
+steel tape, touching the forehead immediately above the eyebrows, the
+occiput at the most prominent point, and the sides of the head more or
+less at the level, where the external ear joins the head, according to
+whether the position of the occipital protuberance is more or less
+elevated. (See Figs. 32, 33.)
+
+6. The cranial capacity is obtained by adding together these five
+measurements, the antero-posterior diameter, maximum transverse
+diameter, antero-posterior curve, transverse curve, and maximum
+circumference. For a normal male the capacity is generally 92 inches
+(1500 c.c).
+
+
+  =FIG. 32        FIG. 33
+  Diagram of Skull=
+
+
+7. The cephalic index is obtained by multiplying the maximum width by
+100 and dividing the product by the maximum length, according to the
+following formula:
+
+  W x 100
+  ------- = X (cephalic index).
+    L
+
+
+If the longitudinal diameter is 200 and the transverse diameter 100, the
+cephalic index is 10,000 divided by 200 = 50.
+
+The cephalic indices of degenerates, like their height, have only a
+relative importance; that is, when they are compared with the mean
+cephalic index prevalent in the regions of which the subject is a
+native. The cephalic index of Italians varies between 77.5 (Sardinians)
+and 85.9 (Piedmontese).
+
+Skulls are classified according to the cephalic index, in the following
+manner:
+
+  Hyperdolichocephalic  under  66
+  Dolichocephalic              66-75
+  Subdolichocephalic           75-77
+  Mesaticephalic               77-80
+  Subbrachycephalic            80-83
+  Brachycephalic               83-90
+  Hyperbrachycephalic   above  90
+
+
+We shall find among criminals frequent instances of microcephaly,
+macrocephaly, and asymmetry, one side of the head being larger than the
+other. Sometimes the skull is pointed in the bregmatic region
+(hypsicephaly), sometimes it is narrow in the frontal region in
+correlation to the insertion of the temporal muscles and the excessive
+development of the zygomatic arches (stenocrotaphy, see Fig. 5, Part I.,
+Chapter I.), or depression of the bregmatic region (cymbocephaly).
+
+_Face._ We have already remarked on the excessive size of the face
+compared with the brain-case, owing chiefly to the high cheek-bones,
+which are one of the most salient characteristics of criminals, and to
+the enormous development of the jaws, which gives them the appearance of
+ferocious animals (see Fig. 5). To these peculiarities may be added
+progeneismus, the projection of the lower jaw beyond the upper, a
+characteristic found only in 10% of normal persons, receding forehead as
+in apes, and the lemurian apophysis already mentioned.
+
+_Arms and Hands._ With the exception of the excessive length as compared
+with the stature, anomalies in the arms are rare, but the hands show
+some interesting characteristics, which have already been described in
+the first chapter of Part I, an increase or decrease in the number of
+fingers and syndactylism or palmate fingers. Also the lines in the palm
+and those on the palmar surfaces of the finger-tips show deviations from
+the normal type resembling characteristics of apes.
+
+_Feet._ Degenerates and more especially epileptics, frequently have flat
+or prehensile feet and an elongated big-toe with which, like the
+Japanese, they are able to grasp objects.
+
+All these anomalies vary in number and degree according to whether the
+subject examined is a born criminal or a criminaloid, and according,
+also, to the special type of crime to which he is addicted. Thieves
+commonly show great mobility of the face and hands. Their eyes are
+small, shifty and obliquely placed, and glance rapidly from one object
+to another. The eyebrows are bushy and close together, the nose twisted
+or flattened, beard scanty, hair not particularly abundant, forehead
+small and receding, and the ears standing out from the head. Projecting
+ears are common also to sexual offenders, who have glittering eyes,
+delicate physiognomy excepting the jaws, which are strongly developed,
+thick lips, swollen eyelids, abundant hair, and hoarse voices. They are
+often slight in build and hump-backed, sometimes half impotent and half
+insane, with malformation of the nose and reproductive organs. They
+frequently suffer from hernia and goitre and commit their first offences
+at an advanced age.
+
+The cinaedus is distinguished by his feminine air. He wears his hair long
+and plaited, and even in prison his clothing seems to retain its
+feminine aspect. The genitals are frequently atrophied, the skin
+glabrous, and gynecomastia not uncommon.
+
+The eyes of murderers are cold, glassy, immovable, and bloodshot, the
+nose aquiline, and always voluminous, the hair curly, abundant, and
+black. Strong jaws, long ears, broad cheek-bones, scanty beard, strongly
+developed canines, thin lips, frequent nystagmus and contractions on one
+side of the face, which bare the canines in a kind of menacing grin,
+are other characteristics of the assassin.
+
+Forgers and swindlers wear a singular, stereotyped expression of
+amiability on their pale faces, which appear incapable of blushing and
+assume only a more pallid hue under the stress of any emotion. They have
+small eyes, twisted and large noses, become bald and grey-haired at an
+early age, and often possess faces of a feminine cast.
+
+
+SENSIBILITY
+
+This external inspection of the criminal should be followed by a minute
+examination of his senses and sensibility.
+
+
+  =FIG. 34
+  Esthesiometer=
+
+
+_General Sensibility and Sensibility to Touch and Pain._ Tactile
+sensibility should be measured by Weber's esthesiometer, which consists
+of two pointed legs, one of which is fixed at the end of a scale
+graduated in millimetres, along which the other slides (see Fig. 34).
+After separating the two points three or four millimetres, they are
+placed on the finger-tips of the patient, who closes his eyes and is
+asked to state whether he feels two points or one. Normal individuals
+feel the points as two when they are only 2 mm. or 2.5 mm. apart; when,
+however, tactile sensibility is obtuse (as in most criminals) the points
+must be separated from 3 to 4.5 mm. or even more, before they are felt
+as two. Obtuseness varies with the type of crime committed habitually by
+the subject; in burglars, swindlers, and assaulters, being approximately
+double, while in violators, murderers, and incendiaries it stands in the
+ratio of 5 to 1 compared with normal persons.
+
+In the absence of an esthesiometer, a rough calculation may be made by
+using an ordinary drawing compass or even a hairpin, separating the two
+points and measuring with the eye the distance at which they are felt to
+be separate.
+
+_General Sensibility and Sensibility to Pain_ are measured by a common
+electric apparatus (Du Bois-Reymond), adapted by Lombroso for use as an
+algometer. (See Fig. 35.) It consists of an induction coil, put into
+action by a bichromate battery. The poles of the secondary coil are
+placed in contact with the back of the patient's hand and brought slowly
+up behind the index finger, when the strength of the induced current is
+increased until the patient feels a prickling sensation in the skin
+(general sensibility) and subsequently a sharp pain (sensibility to
+pain). The general sensibility of normal individuals is 40 and the
+sensibility to pain, 10-25: the sensibility of the criminal is much less
+acute and sometimes non-existent.
+
+_Sensibility to Pressure._ Various metal cubes of equal size but
+different weight, are placed two by two, one on each side, on different
+parts of the back of the hand. The patient is then asked to state which
+of any two weights is the lighter or heavier. This sense is fairly acute
+in criminals.
+
+_Sensibility to Heat._ Experiments are made by placing on the skin of
+the patient various receptacles filled with water at different
+temperatures. If great exactitude is desirable, Nothnagel's
+thermo-esthesiometer should be used. This is an instrument very similar
+to Weber's esthesiometer, but the points are replaced by receptacles
+filled with water of varying heat and furnished with thermometers. The
+patient must state which is the colder, and which the hotter spot.
+Sensibility to heat is less acute in criminals than in normal
+individuals.
+
+_Localisation of Sensibility._ After the patient has been requested to
+close his eyes, various parts of his body are touched with the finger
+and he is asked to point out the exact spot touched. Should he not be
+able to reach it with his finger, a statuette should be placed before
+him on which he should mark with a pencil the part touched. Normal
+persons are always able to localise the sensation exactly: inability to
+do so signifies disease of the brain or some kind of anomaly.
+
+_Sensibility to Metals_ is tested by placing discs of different metals,
+copper, zinc, lead, and gold, or the poles of a magnet, on the frontal
+and occipital parts of the patient's head. Sometimes he feels pricking
+or heat, giddiness, somnolence, or a sense of bodily well-being. In
+general, criminals show great sensibility to metals; in hysterical
+persons this sensibility reaches an extraordinary degree of acuteness.
+By applying a magnet to the nape of the neck, the sensations of such
+individuals become polarised, that is, what appeared white to them
+before becomes black; bitter, what was formerly sweet, or vice versa.
+This is an excellent way of distinguishing between bona-fide cases of
+hysteria and sham ones. My father once detected simulation in a
+_soi-disant_ hysterical patient by means of a piece of wood shaped and
+coloured to represent a magnet. On application of either magnet, the
+real or sham one, the patient's sensations were identical, whereas
+hysterical persons experience very diverse sensations and are able to
+distinguish very sharply between the contact, not only of wood and
+metal, but of the different kinds of metal, and are particularly
+sensitive to the magnet.
+
+
+  =FIG. 35
+  ALGOMETER
+  (see page 246)=
+
+  =FIG. 36
+  CAMPIMETER OF LANDOLT
+  (Modified)
+  (see page 249)=
+
+
+_Sight--Acuteness of Vision--Chromatic Sensibility--Field of Vision._
+Visual acuteness is tested by holding letters of a specified size at a
+certain distance. Sight is generally more acute in criminals than in
+normal persons; not so, chromatic sensibility, which is tested by giving
+the patient a number of skeins of different coloured silks, and
+requesting him to arrange them in series. Persons afflicted with
+dyschromatopsia confuse the different colours and the different shades
+of the same colour. Colour-blind people confuse black and red.
+
+Especially important is the examination of the field of vision, as the
+seat of one of the most serious anomalies discovered by the Modern
+School, the presence of peripheral scotoma, frequently found in
+epileptics and born criminals. To test this anomaly, use should be made
+of Landolt's apparatus (Fig. 36). This consists of a semicircular band,
+which can revolve around a column. The patient rests his chin on a
+support placed in front of the semicircle in such a manner that the eye
+under examination is exactly in the centre, and looks directly at the
+middle point of the semicircle, corresponding to 0 in the scale: the
+testing object, a small ball, is passed backwards or forwards along the
+semicircle. A graduated scale, placed on the semicircle, marks the point
+limiting the field of vision, and the result is registered on a diagram.
+The average limit of the normal field of vision is 90 mm. on the
+temporal side, 55 mm. on the nasal side, 55 mm. above and 60 mm. below
+(see Fig. 42). If a suitable instrument is not available, a series of
+concentric circles may be traced on a slate and the patient placed at a
+certain distance with one eye covered. The examiner then touches the
+different points of the circles with his hand and asks the patient
+whether he can see it when his eye is fixed on the central point. In
+this way the various points limiting the field of vision are noted and
+furnish, when united, the boundary line.
+
+
+  =FIG. 37
+  Diagram Showing Normal Vision=
+
+
+_Hearing_ is generally less acute in the criminal than in the normal
+individual, but does not show special anomalies. It may be tested by
+speaking in a low voice at a certain distance from the patient, or by
+holding an ordinary watch a little way from his ear.
+
+_Smell._ Olfactory acuteness is tested by solutions of essences of
+varying strength, which the patient should be requested to place in
+order, indicating the one in which he first detects an odour. Ottolenghi
+has invented a graduated osmometer which is easy to use. The criminal
+generally shows olfactory obtuseness.
+
+_Taste_ is tested in the same way as smell, by varying solutions of
+saccharine or strychnine dropped on to the patient's tongue by means of
+a special medicine dropper. The mouth should be rinsed out each time.
+Normal persons taste the bitterness of sulphate of strychnine in a
+solution 1:600,000; the sweetness of saccharine in a solution 1:100,000.
+The sense of taste is less acute in criminaloids than in normal persons,
+and is specially obtuse in born criminals, 33% of whom show complete
+obtuseness.
+
+_Movements._ Normal individuals in a state of repose remain almost
+motionless, and their gestures are always appropriate. Lunatics and
+imbeciles have a habit of speaking and gesticulating even when they are
+not interrogated. Nervous diseases manifest themselves in facial
+contortions or slight spasmodic contractions. In melancholia and all
+forms of depression, the patient does not gesticulate but remains
+immovable like a statue with his eyes cast down. Degenerates manifest a
+fairly varied series of involuntary motions,--twitchings of the muscles,
+as in chorea, tonic and clonic convulsions and tremors. In senility,
+chorea, and Parkinson's disease, the tremors are incessant and continue
+even when the body is in a state of repose; in sclerosis, goitre, and
+chronic inebriety they accompany voluntary movements, and in this case
+they are easily detected by making the patient lift the tip of his
+finger to his nose or a filled glass to his lips. The nearer the hand
+approaches its goal, the more intense the oscillations become. Above
+all, the examiner should not fail to ask the patient to put out his
+tongue. If it protrudes on one side, it is a sign of a serious nervous
+alteration and nearly always denotes the beginning or remains of
+paralysis, or partial apoplectic strokes.
+
+_Muscular Strength_ is measured by a common dynamometer (Fig. 38), which
+the patient is requested to grasp with all his might. Compressive
+strength is tested by compressing the oval. In order to test tractive
+strength, the dynamometer is fastened to a nail at the point C, and the
+patient pulls with all his strength at D. The effort is registered on a
+graduated scale and is of importance for detecting left-handedness and
+measuring the extraordinary force that is displayed in certain states of
+excitement.
+
+
+  =Fig. 38
+  Dynamometer=
+
+
+_Reflex Action_ consists of movements and contractions produced by an
+impression exciting the nerves of the cutis (cutaneous reflex) or
+tendons (tendinous reflex).
+
+_Cutaneous Reflex Movements_ may be tested by placing the patient in a
+recumbent position and stroking methodically certain parts of the body,
+the sole of the foot (plantar reflex), the under side of the knee-joint
+(popliteal reflex), the abdominal wall (abdominal reflex). Certain
+reflex movements are of special importance: the cremasteric reflex, on
+the inner side of the thigh (obtuse in old people and individuals
+addicted to onanism), the reflex action of the mucous membrane covering
+the cornea (suspended during stupor, coma, and epileptic convulsions),
+and the pharyngeal reflex along the isthmus of the fauces (absent in
+hysterical persons).
+
+The dilatation and contraction of the pupil in accommodation to the
+distance of the object viewed or in response to light stimuli is
+undoubtedly the most important cutaneous reflex movement. It may be
+tested by requesting the patient to look at a distant object and
+immediately afterwards at the examiner's finger, placed close to his
+eye, or bringing him suddenly from semi-darkness into the light. If the
+pupil reacts very slightly to the light, it is called torpid: if it does
+not react at all, it is called rigid. Rigidity of the pupil always
+denotes some serious nervous disturbance. In certain diseases,
+especially tabes, the pupils do not respond to light stimuli, but
+accommodate themselves to objects.
+
+_Tendinous Reflex Action_ may be tested in every part of the body, but
+the rotular reflex movement is generally sufficient. The patient is
+asked to sit on the edge of the bed or on a chair with his legs crossed.
+If he is healthy, the reflex movement is fairly strong, but in some
+illnesses spastic movements may be provoked and extend to the abdomen
+(exaggerated reflex action); in others no reflex is forthcoming. This is
+one of the first symptoms of tabes.
+
+
+  =FIG. 39
+  HEAD OF AN ITALIAN CRIMINAL=
+
+
+_Urine_ and _Feces_. As the functions are anomalous, the chemical
+changes must also be anomalous, owing to the correlation of organs. In
+born criminals there is a diminished excretion of nitrogen, whereas that
+of chlorides is normal. The elimination of phosphoric acid is increased,
+especially when compared with the nitrogen excreted. Pepton is sometimes
+found in the excretions of paralytic persons in whom there is always an
+increased elimination of phosphates and calcium carbonate.
+
+The temperature is generally higher than in normal persons, and, more
+important still, varies less in febrile illnesses.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For the reader's convenience, I have drawn up a list of the different
+points that should be noted in a careful examination.
+
+
+_Table showing the Anthropological Examination of Insane and Criminal
+Patients_ (_drawn up by Tamburini, Strassmann, Benelli, and Mario
+Carrara_).
+
+  A--_Anamnesis._ Name--surname--nationality--domicile--profession--
+  age--education.
+    Economic and hygienic conditions of native place.
+    Family circumstances--pre-natal conditions--infancy--puberty.
+    Causes to which decease of parents may be attributed.
+    Cases of insanity--neurosis--imbecility--perversity--suicide--crime--or
+  eccentricity in the family.
+    Progressive diseases or trauma in the subject.
+    Offence and causes thereof.
+
+  B--_Physique._ Skeletal development--height--span of the arms.
+
+  C--_Physical Examination._ Muscular development.
+    Colour of hair and eyes.
+    Quantity and distribution of hair.
+    Tattooing.
+    Craniometry: Antero-posterior diameter--transverse diameter--
+  antero-posterior curve--transverse curve--cephalic index--type and
+  anomalies of the skull--circumference--probable capacity--
+  semi-circumference (anterior, posterior)--forehead--face, length,
+  diameter (bizygomatic and bigoniac)--facial type--facial index--
+  anomalies of conformation and development in the skull, in the face,
+  in the ears, in the teeth, in other parts.
+
+  D--_Functions._
+
+  E--_Animal Life._ Sensibility: meteoric--tactile--thermal--dolorific and
+  muscular--visual--auditory--of the other senses.
+    Motivity: Sensory left-handedness--motory left-handedness--voluntary
+  and involuntary movements--reflex action (tendinous or muscular,
+  abnormal, chorea).
+
+  F--_Vegetative Life._ Muscular strength.
+    Circulation.
+    Respiration.
+    Thermo-genesis.
+    Digestion: Rumination--bulimy--vomiting--dyspepsia--constipation--
+  diarrhoea.
+    Secretions: Milk--saliva--perspiration--urine--menstruation.
+    Dyscrasia: poisoning.
+
+  G--_Psychic Examination._ Language--writing--slang.
+    Attention--perception.
+    Memory (textual)--reason.
+    Dreams--excitability--passions.
+    Sentiments: Affection--morality--religion.
+    Instincts and tendencies.
+    Moral character--industry.
+    Physiognomical expression.
+    Education--aptitudes.
+
+  H--_Morbid Phenomena._ Illusions--hallucinations--delusions--
+  susceptibility to suggestion.
+
+  I--_Offences._
+    Cause of first offence: Environment--occasion--spontaneous or
+  premeditated--drunkenness.
+    Conduct after the offence: Repentance--recidivation.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+_SUMMARY OF THE CHIEF FORMS OF CRIMINALITY TO AID IN DISTINGUISHING
+BETWEEN CRIMINALS AND LUNATICS AND IN DETECTING SIMULATIONS OF INSANITY.
+A FEW CASES SHOWING THE PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY_
+
+
+The cases described in this chapter show the necessity of being able to
+estimate correctly accusations made against insane persons by criminals
+or normal individuals. Since, moreover, criminals are prone to sham
+insanity in order to avoid punishment, I sum up the characteristics that
+distinguish the various types of criminals. With regard to insane
+criminals, it must be remembered that every form of mental alienation
+assumes a specific criminality.
+
+The idiot is addicted to bursts of rage, savage assaults, and homicide.
+His unbridled sexual appetite prompts him to commit rape. He is
+sometimes guilty of arson in order to gratify a childish pleasure at the
+sight of the flames.
+
+The imbecile or weak-minded egotist is a frequent though unnecessary
+accomplice in nearly every crime, owing to his susceptibility to
+suggestion and incapability of understanding the gravity of his actions.
+
+Melancholia is often the cause of suicide or homicide (as a species of
+indirect suicide). The sufferer generally confesses and gives himself up
+to the police. Delusions that he is being poisoned or insulted are often
+the cause of the murders committed by this type of lunatic.
+
+Maniacs commit robbery, rape, homicide, and arson, and behave indecently
+in public.
+
+Stealing is common among those afflicted with general paralysis, who
+believe everything they see belongs to them, or do not understand the
+meaning of property.
+
+Dementia causes general cerebral irritation, which frequently results in
+murder and violence.
+
+Hysterical persons invent slanders, especially of an erotic nature. They
+are given to sexual aberrations and delight in fraud and extravagant
+actions to make themselves notorious.
+
+Persons subject to a mania for litigation offend statesmen and others.
+
+Epileptics, of whom born criminals and the morally insane are the most
+dangerous variety, are familiar with the whole scale of criminality.
+Their special offences are assault and battery, rape, theft, and
+forgery. The first offences are committed intermittingly at the
+prompting of attacks of cortical irritation, the last two almost
+continuously owing to a state of constant irritation.
+
+To distinguish between genuine insanity and simulation, it must be
+remembered that exaggeration of the symptoms is one of the chief
+characteristics of shamming. The simulator exaggerates the morbid
+phenomena and manifests a greater inco-ordination of ideas than does the
+genuine lunatic who gives sensible replies to simple questions, whereas
+the simulator talks nonsense. For instance, if a simulator is asked his
+name, his answer will show no connection with the question. He will say,
+perhaps: "Did you bring the bill?" or if asked how old he is, will
+answer: "I am not hungry."
+
+Above all, in order to distinguish between dementia, idiocy, cretinism,
+and an imitation of these forms, a minute somatic examination is
+necessary. It should be remarked that in idiots, imbeciles, and cretins
+we generally find hypertrophy of the connective tissues, earthen hue,
+scanty beard, _stenocrotaphy_, malformations of the skull, ears, teeth,
+face, and especially jaws, and there are invariably anomalies in the
+field of vision, lessened sensibility to touch and pain (which cannot
+be simulated since pain invariably produces dilatation of the pupils),
+meteoric sensibility, attacks of hemicrania, neuralgia, hallucinations,
+and even convulsions, epileptic fits, tremors disposing to propulsive
+forms, and, psychologically, absence of natural feeling, sadism, and the
+inability to adopt a regular occupation.
+
+When dealing with a simulation of epilepsy, it must be borne in mind
+that the epileptic always manifests salient degenerate characteristics,
+especially asymmetry of the face, skull, and thorax; and a careful
+investigation reveals neurosis of some kind in the family and trauma or
+serious illness in childhood. During the seizure, the pupil does not
+react (this cannot be simulated) or there is excessive mydriasis. The
+sudden pallor, and the exhaustion which follows the fit, are absent in
+the simulator, nor does he bite his tongue or injure himself in other
+ways. Furthermore, he reacts at the application of ammonia, and as he is
+not in that state of asphyxia in which the epileptic lies during the
+fit, the closing of his mouth and nostrils likewise produces a reaction.
+
+_Hysteria._ Here the detection of shamming is more difficult, since
+deceit is a characteristic of this disease. Tests with metals, to which
+hysterical persons are extremely sensitive, suggestion and hypnotism
+should be resorted to. The character of the crime should be specially
+considered, because, as we stated, the foundation of hysteria is an
+erotic one, and offences committed by the hysterical are nearly always
+of this nature in the means or the end.
+
+An examination of sensibility with suitable instruments, and of reflex
+action, is to be recommended in all cases.
+
+
+PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY
+
+The minute study of the criminal admits of infinite applications. It is
+generally used in deciding to which category of crime a particular
+offender belongs, whether he is a born criminal, a morally insane
+subject, an occasional criminal, or a criminaloid; but in certain cases
+the examination may be of value in establishing the innocence of an
+accused person, or in recognising in an accuser an insane individual
+whose accusation originates in some delusion and not in a knowledge of
+the facts.
+
+
+AN ACCUSED MAN PROVED INNOCENT BY THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXAMINATION
+
+On the 12th of January, 1902, a little girl of six, living at Turin,
+suddenly disappeared. Two months later, the corpse was discovered hidden
+in a case in a cellar of the very house the little victim had
+inhabited. It bore traces of criminal violence and the clothing was in
+disorder. Various persons were arrested, among them a coachman named
+Tosetti, who had been seen joking and playing with the child on several
+occasions.
+
+Tosetti was of honest extraction, his grandparents and parents having
+died at an advanced age (between sixty and ninety) without having
+manifested nervous anomalies, vices, or crimes. Tosetti himself,
+although fond of drinking, was rarely, if ever, intoxicated, and was an
+individual of quiet, peaceful aspect with a benevolent smile and
+serenity of look and countenance. His hair had become grey at an early
+age, and he was devoid of any degenerate characteristics except
+excessive maxillary development. [Height 5 feet, 7 inches (1.70 m.);
+weight, 158 lbs. (72 kilogrammes); cranial capacity, 93 inches (1531
+c.c.); cephalic index, 84 (brachycephaly; characteristic of the
+Piedmontese); tactile sensibility, 3 mm. left, 2.5 mm. right; general
+sensibility, 83 right, 78 left; sensibility to pain, 55 right, 45 left.
+The sensibility was, therefore, almost normal without any trace of
+left-handedness. Analysis of urine--absence of earthy phosphates common
+to born criminals. Tendinous reflex action feeble, few cutaneous
+reflexes, no tremors. The field of vision was not much reduced but
+manifested a few peculiarities, due no doubt to the abuse of alcohol.]
+
+Psychologically, Tosetti appeared to be a man of average or perhaps
+slightly less than average intelligence. He was quiet, very respectful,
+not to say servile, entirely devoid of impulsiveness of any form, and
+averse to quarrels, on which account he was rather despised by his
+companions. His natural affections were normal, and he was a good son
+and brother; he was excessively timid and disconcerted by the slightest
+reproof from his employer. He was rather fond of wine, though not of
+liquors. His sexual instincts he had lost very early, a fact which
+caused his companions to indulge in many jokes at his expense. His
+stinginess bordered on avarice, and he had never changed his trade.
+
+During his trial he showed no resentment against anyone, not even the
+police and warders, of whom he said on one occasion, "They have treated
+me like a son."
+
+The examination proved beyond a doubt that Tosetti was not a born
+criminal, and was incapable of committing the action of which he was
+suspected--the murder of a child for purely bestial pleasure.
+
+To obtain stronger proof, my father adopted the plethysmograph and found
+a slight diminution of the pulse when Tosetti was set to do a sum;
+when, however, skulls and portraits of children covered with wounds
+were placed before him, the line registered showed no sudden variation,
+not even at the sight of the little victim's photograph.
+
+The results of the foregoing examination proved conclusively that
+Tosetti was innocent of a crime which can only be committed by sadists,
+idiots, and the most degenerate types of madmen, like Vacher and Verzeni
+and all bestial criminals, who have reached the summit of criminality
+and unite in their persons the greatest number of morbid physical and
+psychic characteristics.
+
+A few months after my father had diagnosed this case, an assault of the
+same nature was committed on another little girl living in the same
+house. In this case, however, the victim survived and was able to point
+out the criminal--an imbecile, afflicted with goitre, stammering,
+strabismus, hydrocephaly, trochocephaly, and plagiocephaly, with arms of
+disproportionate length, the son and grandson of drunkards, who
+confessed the double crime and entreated pardon for the "trifling
+offence" since he had always done his duty and swept the staircase, even
+on the day he committed the crime.
+
+Other cases of this kind might be cited, but one instance will suffice.
+I may, however, mention a case in which my father demonstrated the
+innocence of an unfortunate individual who had been sentenced to ten
+years' penal servitude and released at the expiration of his sentence.
+By means of a thorough examination, which showed a complete absence of
+criminal characteristics, my father declared the man to be innocent of
+the crime for which he had been imprisoned; and subsequent
+investigations resulted in his rehabilitation and the discovery of the
+actual culprit.
+
+
+ACCUSATION PROVED TO BE FALSE BY THE ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXAMINATION
+
+An individual named Ferreri suddenly disappeared, and ten days later his
+corpse was found down a well. The evidence of several persons led to the
+arrest of the owner of the well, a certain Fissore, a man of very bad
+reputation, with whom Ferreri had been seen on the day of his
+disappearance.
+
+On being arrested, Fissore admitted having committed the crime, but not
+alone, and named as his accomplices three others, Martinengo, Boulan,
+and a prostitute, named Ada. All three strenuously denied their guilt.
+They all appeared perfectly normal.
+
+But after a month of investigations, Martinengo, a tipsy porter of
+thirty-five, the son and grandson of drunkards, who at first had
+advanced an alibi, after being confronted several times with Fissore,
+admitted his complicity, and in the latter's absence added various
+details to his (Fissore's) version.
+
+The four accused persons were examined anthropologically with the
+following results:
+
+Boulan had the appearance of an honest country notary with broad
+forehead, precocious grey hairs and baldness, small jaws and a
+well-shaped mouth. He was a quiet man and had only once come into
+conflict with the law, but for an action which is not a crime in the
+eyes of an anthropologist (striking a carabinier who had ill-treated his
+father). He worked hard at his trade, which was that of a journeyman
+baker, and showed his kindly nature by substituting for sick comrades.
+He showed great attachment to all his companions, relatives, and family,
+and was generally beloved. In short, he was an honest, hard-working man.
+His alibi was corroborated by several persons who had been playing cards
+with him on the evening of the crime.
+
+The second prisoner, Ada, although a prostitute, had never shown other
+criminal tendencies; she had adopted her calling in order to maintain
+her father and children, of whom she was very fond.
+
+Martinengo, who had admitted his complicity, had no previous
+convictions. He was, however, an individual of earthy hue, with
+precocious wrinkles. Height, 5 feet, 3 inches (1.60 m.); span of the
+arms, 5 feet, 7 inches (1.70 m.); flattened, nanocephalous head, normal
+urine (phosphates 3.1), but anomalous reflex action and senses. Rigid,
+unequal pupils, tongue and lips inclined towards the right, shaky hand,
+astasia, aphasia, strong rotular reflex action, absence of cutaneous and
+cremasteric reflexes, illegible handwriting--a defect of long standing,
+since it was also found in writing dating back nine months before his
+arrest, uncertainty and errors of pronunciation (bradyphasia and
+dysarthria), complete insensibility to touch and the electric current,
+which gave him no sensation of pain. On the other hand, he was subject
+to unbearable pains in various parts of the body.
+
+He was in the habit of laughing continually, even when reprimanded, or
+when sad subjects were mentioned. In spite of sharp pains in the
+epigastric region, he appeared to be in a strange state of euphoria or
+morbid bodily well-being, which prevented him from realising that he was
+in prison. He manifested regret when taken from his cell, where he said
+he had enjoyed himself so much in passing the hours in reading.
+Occasionally he had hallucinations of ghosts, lizards, mice, etc.
+
+At night, he seemed to suffer from acute mental confusion, which caused
+him to spring out of bed. Sometimes he was seized by a fit of chorea,
+followed by deep sleep.
+
+These phenomena led my father to the conclusion that Martinengo was an
+inebriate in the first stage of paralytical dementia.
+
+The demented paralytic and the imbecile, like children, are easily
+influenced by the suggestions of others or their own fancies. Mere
+reading may produce a strong impression on such minds, as in the case of
+the little girl who accused the Mayor of Gratz of assault, because she
+had listened to the account of a similar case; and the impression is
+intensified when, as in the case of Martinengo, it is preceded by
+arrest, seclusion in a cell, the remarks of magistrates, warders, etc.
+
+In order to test Martinengo's susceptibility to suggestion, my father
+told him that his cell was a room in the "Albergo del Sole," the name of
+a hotel in his native town. At first the idea amused him, but after a
+few days he began to mention it to other persons and at last he firmly
+believed in it. A few months later, he was transferred in a state of
+paralysis to the asylum, and there he was fond of boasting of the
+"Albergo del Sole" where he had been staying a few months before, and
+where they had treated him to choice dishes, etc.
+
+We now come to Fissore, the accuser of the other three. Investigation
+of his origin showed that a male cousin had died raving mad, a female
+cousin had died in an asylum, a great-uncle on the maternal side had
+been crazy and had committed suicide; another cousin was weak-minded and
+subject to fits; another, a deaf-mute, had died in an asylum; another
+great-uncle was a drunkard and a loafer; one sister was an idiot, the
+other had run away from home, and a brother had been convicted several
+times.
+
+Giuseppe Fissore had suffered from somnambulism and _pavor nocturnus_
+(fear of darkness) when quite a child; when a little older, he used to
+get up in the night, walk about and try to throw himself out of the
+window. At school he shunned the company of other boys and grew
+violently angry when called by his name. When ten years old, he was
+bitten by a mad dog and while being tended in Turin by the wife of an
+inn-keeper, had an epileptic seizure. At thirteen, he was seized by
+another fit, and in falling broke his arm. His restless and capricious
+character led him to change his occupation a great many times; he
+became, in turn, baker, carpenter, forester, and farm-labourer. He
+appeared to have little affection for his mother and still less for his
+father, with whom he had come to blows on one occasion. At the age of
+twenty, in a quarrel with some companions, one of them struck him with
+a sickle and fractured his skull. He had been convicted several times of
+theft, assault, etc.
+
+He manifested only a few physical anomalies,--exaggerated facial
+asymmetry, due to the disproportionate development of the left side of
+his skull, Carrara's lines in the palm of his hands, and a scar
+resulting from the fracture of his skull; but the convulsions, the
+_pavor nocturnus_, the two fits, and other characteristics showed him to
+be an epileptic and an abnormal individual, and explained how he could
+have accomplished a murder single-handed, which was moreover rendered
+more easy by the fact that the victim had been drinking heavily. Nor was
+the crime without a motive, since the murdered man had been robbed of a
+large sum of money. The total lack of moral sense that distinguished
+Fissore explains why he should have sought to implicate three persons
+who had never wronged him for the pleasure of harming and enjoying the
+sufferings of others. In fact, during his trial he made many false
+accusations against the police merely for the sake of lying, which is
+characteristic of degenerates.
+
+Irrefutable alibis and a mass of evidence in favour of the three others
+corroborated the anthropological diagnoses and led to their acquittal,
+while Fissore was convicted of the crime.
+
+
+SIMULATION OF DEMENTIA AND APHASIA BY MORALLY INSANE SUBJECT
+
+In August, 1899, a certain E. M. (see Fig. 44) was removed from prison
+to an asylum. Although only eighteen, he had been convicted several
+times of theft and robbery. As a child he had always shown a strong
+dislike to school and was given to inventing strange falsehoods. In one
+instance, he asserted that he had killed and robbed a man, although it
+was known that he had not left the house during the time.
+
+After six months in prison, he began to show signs of mental alienation,
+with insomnia, loss of speech, and coprophagy. Whenever the cells were
+opened, he made wild attempts to escape by climbing up the grating. He
+was often seized with epileptic convulsions.
+
+On the 30th of August, 1899, he was examined medically with the
+following results:
+
+Stature, 5 ft., 1 in. (1.55 m.); weight, 130 lbs. (59 kilogrammes).
+Other measurements could not be obtained, owing to the subject's
+obstinate resistance. His skeletal constitution appeared to be regular
+and his body well nourished. His skull was brachycephalic, with strongly
+developed frontal sinuses, and fine, long, dark-brown hair. In the
+parieto-occipital region were a scar and lesion of the bone, the marks
+of a wound received during one of his dishonest adventures. He had a
+normal type of face with frequent contractions of the mimic muscles; the
+hair-growth on the face scanty for his age. Extremely mobile eyes of
+vivacious expression, slight strabismus. An examination of the mouth
+showed a slight obliqueness of the palate, and the mucous membrane was
+rather pale. The colourless skin was inclined to sallowness.
+
+The functions showed an extraordinary degree of cutaneous anaesthesia and
+analgesia. In winter and summer the patient wore only a pair of trousers
+and a thin jersey covering his chest and leaving the arms bare; these he
+was fond of adorning with ribbons and medals. He was in the habit of
+slipping pieces of ice between his clothing and skin, and pricking
+himself on the chin with a needle for the purpose of inserting hairs in
+the holes. On one occasion, one of the doctors came quietly behind him
+and thrust a needle rather deeply into the nape of his neck, apparently
+without producing any sensation. Various tests were made by pricking him
+with a needle when asleep, but without causing the slightest reflex
+movement on his part.
+
+_Psychology._ He was subject to strange impulses, which appeared to be
+irresistible. On one occasion he was caught cutting off the head of a
+cat, and at times he would devour mice, spiders, nails, excrements, and
+the sputum of the other patients. He committed acts of self-abuse
+publicly, with ostentatious indecency; was in the habit of snatching at
+bright objects and frequently tore his clothes. His obstinate mutism
+procured him the nickname of "the mute," but he talked in his sleep and
+replied to questions by signs.
+
+At first, medical men judged him to be in the first stages of dementia,
+but the course of the symptoms and certain biological and psychic data
+obtained from the examination led them to the conclusion that the case
+was one of simulation by a morally insane individual.
+
+In the first place, the patient's look expressed a certain amount of
+confusion and constant distrust; furthermore, it was noticed that the
+filthy, indecent, and cruel acts practised by him were committed only
+when he knew he was being observed. The warders often saw him retire to
+a quiet spot and vomit all the nauseous substances he had swallowed
+publicly. As soon as he believed himself to be secure from observation,
+the usual apathetic look on his face was replaced by one of vivacity and
+intelligence.
+
+In November of the same year, although he had not discarded his air of
+imbecility, he gave abundant proofs of intelligence. He helped the
+asylum barber, and showed skill and neatness in the way he soaped the
+other patients' faces, but if a doctor appeared on the scene, he would
+daub the soap clumsily in their eyes and mouths. In playing cards he
+showed no lack of skill and never missed an opportunity of cheating.
+
+All these facts pointed to shamming, and the suspicions of medical men
+were amply confirmed by his escape on the 26th of November. The manner
+in which he had prepared and executed this plan showed great astuteness
+on his part. Some time before, he had completely changed his clothes and
+dressed with a certain amount of elegance. He left a note bidding an
+affectionate farewell to everyone. Later on, he confessed to a
+fellow-prisoner that he had prepared everything beforehand for his
+escape as soon as he should have sufficient money. He also asserted that
+he had felt pain when pricked.
+
+Some of the peculiarities manifested in this case, aphasia,
+insensibility, and coprophagia, have been noticed in other simulators,
+and it is easy to see why morally insane persons, who are naturally
+insensible and filthy in their habits, should adopt these peculiarities
+as traits of their insanity. The stubborn resistance offered by the
+subject to all attempts to apply diagnostic instruments, except those
+for measuring insensibility, may be explained by fear lest the
+simulation should be detected.
+
+Simulators of insanity are generally psycho-physiologically, and often
+anatomically, degenerate, and their inferiority obliges them to resort
+to violence and trickery--the traits of savage races--to counter-balance
+their natural disadvantages. The simulation of insanity resembles in its
+motive the mimicry of certain insects which assume a protective
+resemblance to other and noxious species. Naturally inferior individuals
+tend to imitate characters of a terrifying nature (psychic in this case)
+which serve to protect them and enable them to compete with others who
+are better equipped for the battle of life.
+
+
+MENTAL DERANGEMENT AND CRIMINAL MONOMANIA DEMONSTRATED BY THE
+ANTHROPOLOGICAL EXAMINATION
+
+In June, 1895, Michele Balmi, aged 30, was arrested for stabbing Maria
+Balmi in the neck and hands. The deed had been committed in broad
+daylight and apparently without any motive, but the accused asserted
+that it was done in revenge, because the girls were always jeering at
+him.
+
+From evidence given, it appeared that far from insulting Balmi, the
+girls of the village were in the habit of avoiding him as much as
+possible on account of his lubricity. The testimony of other witnesses,
+including the mayor of the place, showed that he was looked upon
+generally as a semi-insane person, because in a very short time he had
+squandered all his inheritance and had quite ceased to work.
+
+_Somatic Examination._ Body fairly well nourished, height 5 ft., 3 in.
+(1.60 m.), weight 150 lbs. (68 kilogrammes). Shape of the skull
+apparently normal but more exaggeratedly brachycephalic than the mean
+cephalic index of the Piedmontese, which is 85; probable capacity
+90 cu. in. (1475 c.c.), or slightly below that of a normal male skull,
+but proportioned to the low stature.
+
+General sensibility and sensibility to pain and touch more obtuse on the
+left, the general sensibility of the right hand being 68 and the left
+81. Dolorific sensibility, 35 right and 41 left; tactile sensibility,
+1.5 right, 3.5 left. The strength tested by the dynamometer showed 47 on
+the right and 54 on the left, which proved that the subject was
+left-handed.
+
+The field of vision manifested extraordinary irregularities, with
+serious scotoma on the inner side of the right eye; on the left side the
+eye showed only slight scotoma but there was myopia on the inner side.
+
+_Psychic Examination._ The behaviour of the subject was very strange.
+From the very first day of his imprisonment he seemed to be perfectly
+calm and composed, as though nothing had happened. When asked how he
+found prison life, he only remarked: "I certainly thought the food was
+better."
+
+When asked why he had committed the crime, he replied:
+
+"Crime indeed! I have only done my duty. Those women were always
+annoying me. Even in the night, they would come tapping at my window and
+calling me [acoustic hallucinations] and they insulted me because they
+wanted me to marry them."
+
+"Did they insult you during your absence from Italy?"
+
+"Yes, they worried me all the time I was in America. It was no use
+changing my occupation. I tried everything; first I was a musician, then
+a barber, then I tried weaving, but they went on just the same, until I
+lost my situations through them and had to leave the country."
+
+"Have you ever been insane or suffered from pains in the head?"
+
+"At Chicago, all of a sudden, a doctor called on me, but I have never
+been mad and should be all right if those women would leave me alone.
+After all, I only wanted to give them a lesson."
+
+He showed a profound and unshaken belief in his own assertions, such as
+is rare in simulators or in sufferers from melancholia, but is peculiar
+to monomaniacs, especially if subject to delusions and convinced that
+they are the object of general persecution.
+
+Careful investigation of the crime showed that it was entirely without
+motives and had been committed openly without any attempt to escape or
+to establish an alibi. It bore no resemblance to ordinary crimes and was
+clearly a case of monomania with hallucinations. This diagnosis was
+confirmed by the fact of the anomalies in the field of vision and
+sensibility, the acoustic hallucinations, and, psychologically, the
+anomalous nature of the affections and moral sense.
+
+It was impossible to suppose that any of these peculiarities had been
+simulated, because the subject was far too ignorant to be aware of the
+importance of hallucinations and alterations in the senses and
+affections. Moreover, his whole bearing was that of a man profoundly
+convinced that he had done his duty, and he had no motive for shamming
+to escape punishment, since it evidently never entered his head that he
+ran any risk of incurring it. He was sent to an asylum.
+
+
+
+
+APPENDIX
+
+
+
+WORKS OF CESARE LOMBROSO (BRIEFLY SUMMARISED)
+
+
+I
+
+_The Man of Genius (L'Uomo di Genio)_
+
+In 1863, my father was appointed to deliver a series of lectures on
+psychiatry to the University of Pavia. His introductory lecture, "Genius
+and Insanity," showed the close relationship existing between genius and
+insanity; and the theme proved so absorbingly interesting to him that he
+threw himself into the study of the problem with all the ardour of which
+he was capable.
+
+Those who have never come into contact with mentally deranged persons
+may deem it absurd to mention genius and insanity in the same breath,
+and still more absurd to seek to demonstrate the existence of flashes of
+inspiration in insane persons. In the minds of most people, the word
+_lunatic_ has from earliest childhood conjured up the vision of an
+incoherent, stupid, or demented being, with wildly streaming hair,
+raging in paroxysms of maniacal fury, or sunk in imbecile apathy; not,
+certainly, a sharp-witted individual capable of reasoning logically. But
+the briefest of visits to an ordinary asylum will make it plain to any
+observer that such extreme types form only a very small minority. The
+greater number, when drawn outside the small circle of their delusions,
+often reason with greater acumen than normal persons; and their ideas,
+unhampered by stale prejudices which hinder freedom of thought, are
+remarkable for their originality. Fine fragments of prose and poetry and
+really beautiful snatches of melody, the work of inmates of lunatic
+asylums, were collected by my father and published, as special
+monographs, in _The Man of Genius_; and his museum at Turin contains
+specimens of embroidery of marvellously beautiful design and execution,
+and carvings of extreme delicacy.
+
+The well-known cases of mathematical, musical, and artistic prodigies
+and somnambulists with prophetic gifts, who nevertheless appear to be
+perfectly imbecile apart from their special talents, are interesting
+examples of the transition from madness to genius. The solving of
+equations of the fourth and fifth degree or mental calculations
+involving the multiplication or division of a large number of figures,
+are difficult operations for normal persons; yet individuals barely able
+to read and write, and often afflicted with insanity or imbecility, have
+been known to possess marvellous mathematical faculties. Imualdi was a
+cretin, and Dase, Juller, Buxton, Mondeur, and Prolongeau, men of feeble
+intellect. Among the inmates of asylums, we may find cretins and idiots
+that are able to play on a whistle any melody they have heard. The
+drawings of cats, executed by a Norwegian cretin, have been deemed
+worthy of a place among the treasures of art-galleries and museums. Such
+cases prove that the possession of one highly developed faculty does not
+imply a corresponding development of all the intellectual powers.
+Unintelligent, unbalanced, or even mentally deficient women, when in a
+somnambulistic or hypnotic state, are able to predict future events, an
+impossible feat for normal persons, or to discover the whereabouts of
+objects hidden at a distance, a marvellous phenomenon, which can be
+explained only by presuming the existence of a far-seeing vision, and
+the working of a powerful synthetic process resembling the inspirations
+of genius.
+
+Although not a difficult task to prove the existence of traits of genius
+in mentally diseased persons, the bringing to light of instances of
+insanity in men of genius was a much simpler matter.
+
+These instances, carefully classified, form the longest and most
+important part of _The Man of Genius_, but it is not necessary to give
+space to any of these instances here. The proofs of the connection
+between genius and insanity were supplemented by data supplied by the
+physical examination of a number of geniuses, compared with insane
+subjects, and a careful investigation of the ethnical, social, and
+geographical causes which influence the formation of both types. All the
+facts elicited demonstrated their complete analogy.
+
+But my father's studies did not stop short at the discovery of this
+analogy, or that of the sources whence the diverse varieties of genius
+spring, which is perhaps the most interesting part of the book, or even
+at the application of the new doctrines for the purpose of clearing up
+obscure points in history and shedding light on the lives of great men.
+He pursued his investigations until he found the keystone of the edifice
+reared by insanity and genius--epilepsy.
+
+It is a well-known fact that a great many men of genius have suffered
+from epileptic seizures and a still greater number from those symptoms
+which we have shown to be the equivalent of the seizure. Julius Caesar,
+St. Paul, Mahomet, Petrarca, Swift, Peter the Great, Richelieu,
+Napoleon, Flaubert, Guerrazzi, De Musset, and Dostoyevsky were subject
+to fits of morbid rage; and Swift, Marlborough, Faraday, and Dickens
+suffered from vertigo.
+
+But it is in the descriptions written by men of genius of their methods
+of working and creating that we find the strongest resemblance to the
+different phenomena of epilepsy, which have already been described in
+detail in this work, in the part treating of the connection between
+epilepsy and crime. While writing his poems, Tasso appeared to be out of
+his senses; Alfieri felt everything go dark around him; Lagrange's pulse
+became irregular; Milton, Leibnitz, Cujas, Rossini, and Thomas could
+work only under special conditions. Others have encouraged inspiration
+by using those stimulants which provoke epileptic attacks. Baudelaire
+made use of hashish; and wine evoked the creative spirit in Gluck,
+Gerard de Nerval, Verlaine, De Musset, Hoffmann, Burns, Coleridge, Poe,
+Byron, Praga, and Carducci. Gluck was wont to declare that he valued
+money only because it enabled him to procure wine, and that he loved
+wine because it inspired him and transported him to the seventh heaven.
+Schiller was satisfied with cider; and Goethe could not work unless he
+felt the warmth of a ray of sunlight on his head. Many have asserted
+that their writings, inventions, and solutions of difficult problems
+have been done in a state of unconsciousness. Mozart confessed that he
+composed in his dreams, and Lamartine and Alfieri made similar
+statements. The _Henriade_ was suggested to Voltaire in a dream; Newton
+and Cardano solved the most difficult problems in a similar manner; and
+Mrs. Beecher Stowe, George Eliot, and George Sand asserted that their
+novels had been written in a dream-like state, and that they themselves
+were ignorant of the ultimate fate of their personages. In a preface to
+one of her books Mrs. Beecher Stowe even went to the length of denying
+her authorship. Socrates and Tolstoi declared that their works were
+written in a condition of semi-unconsciousness; Leopardi, that he
+followed an inspiration; and Dante described the source of his genius in
+those beautiful lines:
+
+                        "... quando
+  Amore spira, noto, ed a quel modo
+  Che detta dentro, vo significando."
+
+  "When love inspires, I write,
+  And put my thoughts as it dictates in me."
+
+
+"I call inspiration," says Beethoven, "that mysterious state during
+which the whole world seems to form one vast harmony, and all the forces
+of Nature become instruments, when every sentiment and thought resounds
+within me, a shudder thrills through my frame, and every hair on my
+head stands on end."
+
+These expressions show that when a genius attains to the fulness of his
+development and, consequently, to the widest possible deviation from the
+normal, he is more or less in that condition of unconsciousness which
+characterises psychic epilepsy and is represented by a series of
+unconscious psychic activities.
+
+Having demonstrated the frequent existence of a spice of insanity in the
+genius and flashes of genius in the insane, and, further, that geniuses
+are subject to a special form of insanity, my father, who was no mere
+theorist, but an admirer of facts and eager to turn them to account,
+considered next the possibility of making practical use of these
+discoveries. This he had no difficulty in doing.
+
+The prevalence of insanity in men of genius explained innumerable
+contradictions and mad traits in their lives and works, the true meaning
+of which had hitherto escaped biographers, who either ignored them
+altogether or covered reams of paper with vain attempts to represent
+them as inspirations or, at any rate, reasonable actions. It also
+explained the origin of some of the extraordinary errors committed by
+great men; for example, the absurdly contradictory actions of Cola di
+Rienzi, who, after making himself master of Rome when the city was in a
+state of chaos, restoring peace and order, reorganising the army and
+conceiving the vast idea of a united Italy, ended his patriotic mission
+with a series of extravagances worthy of a madhouse.
+
+The fact that traits of genius are so often found in mentally unsound
+persons and _vice versa_, permits us to suppose that lunatics have not
+infrequently held the destinies of nations in their hands and furthered
+progress by revolutionary movements, of which by reason of their natural
+tendencies and marked originality they are so often the promoters.
+
+It may seem a simple idea to class great men, who have exercised such an
+enormous influence on civilisation, with wretched beings, to whom no
+brilliant part has been allotted, and to estimate mad ideas at their
+true worth; yet it had never occurred to any one before.
+
+It is in the minor works of geniuses that the greater number of
+absurdities abound, but they are little known to the general public, who
+are acquainted only with the masterpieces. Critics either ignored the
+absurdities and heresies contained in these works, or, dazzled by the
+genius of the author, made them the subject of infinite studies, in the
+conviction that they were merely allusions or symbols demanding
+interpretation. All the defects of great men, all the extravagant
+notions written or spoken by them were covered with the magic veil of
+glory; and there was no innocent little child, as in Andersen's charming
+story, to tell the world of the nakedness of geniuses.
+
+Thus idiocy, epilepsy and genius, crimes and sublime deeds were forged
+into one single chain; and the brilliant lights of some of its links,
+and the gloomy shadows thrown by others, were reduced to a play of
+molecules, like those which transform carbon into a refulgent diamond or
+a sombre lump of graphite.
+
+
+II
+
+_Criminal Man (L'Uomo Delinquente) considered in relation to
+Anthropology, Jurisprudence, and Psychiatry_
+
+Although my father's theories on the male criminal have already been set
+forth in the volume now presented to the public, I feel that it would
+not be inappropriate to add to the descriptions of his other important
+works a brief survey of the original book for the use of readers
+desirous of studying the subject more thoroughly.
+
+The first volume is devoted to an investigation of the atavistic origin
+of crime among plants, animals, savages, and children. This is followed
+by an exhaustive study of the physical nature of the born criminal and
+the epileptic, modern craniology, the anomalies connected with the
+different classes of offences, the spine, pelvis, limbs, and
+physiognomy. The data given are based on the results obtained from the
+examination of about 7000 criminals.
+
+In the study of the brain, the macroscopic anomalies in the convolutions
+and histological structure of the cerebral cortex of criminals and
+epileptics are the object of special consideration, since these
+anomalies solve the problem of the origin of criminality.
+
+Certain additional degenerate characters, the prehensile foot, wrinkles,
+lines on the finger-tips, the ethmoid-lachrymal suture, anomalies of
+dentition, the existence of a single horizontal line on the palm of the
+hand, etc., are further described, and a careful examination made of the
+field of vision and olfactory and auditory sensibility.
+
+The psychological examination of the criminal includes psychometry, the
+discovery of new characteristics, such as neophily, lack of exactitude,
+frequent existence of traits of genius, pictography, hieroglyphics,
+gestures, and the arts and crafts peculiar to the criminal.
+
+Finally, the different types of offenders--epileptic and morally insane
+criminals, political and passionate offenders, inebriate, hysterical,
+and mentally unbalanced (mattoid) criminals--are described separately
+and compared with each other, their diversities and analogies being
+thrown into relief. Around these types are grouped juridical figures of
+crimes, reproduced from psychiatric forms. These are followed by an
+examination of occasional or pseudo-criminals, criminaloids, latent
+criminals, and geniuses.
+
+The second volume treats of epileptics, and discusses, among other
+things, their ergography, psychology, graphology, and anomalies of the
+field of vision. The studies on criminals of passion are supplemented by
+observations on suicides and political offenders, those on the insane
+include investigations of their age, psychology, sex, tattooing,
+heredity, and the difference between insane and ordinary criminals with
+respect to the motives that prompt their crimes, and the manner in which
+these are carried out, thus furnishing a new theory of sexual
+psychopathy.
+
+The third volume of the fifth edition treats of the etiology and cure of
+crime.
+
+In the part dealing with the etiology of crime, the geological,
+ethnical, political, and economical factors determining or influencing
+criminality, as well as other causes,--density of population, food,
+alcoholism, sex, heredity, instruction, religion, etc., are examined
+statistically and sifted with critical care. For the first time, light
+is thrown on the influence exercised by criminality and wealth on the
+increase or decrease of emigration.
+
+My father demonstrates by means of data, contributed for the most part
+by Bodio and Cognetti, that the importance attributed to poverty as a
+factor of criminality, especially by certain socialistic schools, has
+been largely exaggerated; while, at the same time, the fact that both
+wealth and education have their specific crimes, has been ignored by
+these schools.
+
+In dealing with collective criminality, my father merely repeats the
+original theories on the subject, expressed by him in 1872 and
+constantly confirmed since then. These theories have been utilised and
+illustrated by a number of writers: Ferri, Sighele, Ferrero, Le Bon, and
+Tarde.
+
+In the prophylaxis and cure of crime, not content with mere criticism of
+present methods, the new doctrines suggest practical and efficacious
+means of repressing crime.
+
+In view of the fact that criminality is assuming a changed aspect,
+adapted to the conditions of modern life and civilisation, it should be
+combated by the very means furnished by progress,--the telegraph, press,
+all measures for fighting alcoholism, popular places of recreation, etc.
+
+For the prevention of crime, besides those measures designed to minimise
+the influence of physical and economic factors,--baths, sanitary
+regulations, clearing of forests, prevention of over-crowding, social
+legislation, limitation of wealth, graduated system of taxation,
+collective services, expropriation, etc.,--my father suggests special
+measures for diminishing certain kinds of crime,--divorce for sexual
+offences, affiliation orders for infanticide and government of a truly
+liberal character, with freedom of the press and public opinion to
+combat political crime. He also emphasises the importance of provident
+and charitable institutions, specially for orphan and destitute
+children, to aid in suffocating germs of criminality, in view of the
+fact that it is to ragged schools and similar institutions that the
+decrease of crime in England is certainly due.
+
+Finally, with regard to the direct repression of crime, the new methods
+of identification devised by Bertillon and Anfosso, and all modern aids
+for the detection and apprehension of criminals, such as rapid
+communication and publicity, should be utilised in all countries where
+the police aspire to be considered scientific in their methods.
+
+A minute and intelligent individualisation of penalties is suggested as
+being far more efficacious than the uniform and injurious punishment of
+detention in prison; so that while society defends itself, it tends to
+improve the perverted faculties of criminals, or where improvement is
+impossible, to utilise them in their natural state, following the
+example set by nature in the transformation of injurious parasitical
+relationships into pacific and mutually beneficial symbioses.
+
+
+III
+
+_The Female Offender (La Donna Delinquente); The Prostitute and the
+Normal Woman_
+
+(In Collaboration with Guglielmo Ferrero)
+
+The first part of this book is devoted to a study of the normal woman,
+or rather the female of every species, beginning with the lowest strata
+of the zoological world and working upwards through the higher mammals
+and primitive human races to civilised peoples.
+
+As a result of this study, it is shown that although in the lower
+species, the female is the superior in intelligence, strength, and
+longevity, among the higher mammals she is surpassed in strength,
+intelligence, and beauty by the male, who is developed and perfected by
+the struggle for the possession of the female; while on the other hand,
+owing to her maternal functions, the female tends to a perpetuation of
+her physical and psychic characters; and this prevents variation and
+evolution.
+
+The same phenomenon is encountered in the human race. After a careful
+examination of the normal woman (height, weight, brain, nervous system,
+hair, senses, physiognomy, and intellectual and moral manifestations),
+the authors arrived at the conclusion that the physical, anatomical,
+physiological, functional, and sensory characters of the female show a
+lower degree of variability than those of the male.
+
+In the same way, cases of monstrosity, degeneration, epilepsy, and
+insanity are less frequent in the female of the human race; and the
+percentage of genius and criminality is decidedly lower. The examination
+of the senses showed that the normal human female possesses a lower
+degree of tactile, olfactory, auditory, and visual sensibility than the
+male, and also, contrary to the hitherto accepted opinion, a diminished
+moral and dolorific sensibility. Among savage peoples, the female
+appears to be less sensitive,--that is, more cruel than the male and
+more inclined to vindictiveness.
+
+But when we consider woman from the point of view of her maternal
+functions, her physiological, psychological, and intellectual nature
+assumes an entirely changed aspect; for maternity is the natural
+function of the female, the end to which she has been created. Lofty
+sentiments, complete altruism, and far-sighted intelligence develop all
+of a sudden when she becomes a mother. Maternity neutralises her moral
+and physical inferiority, pity extinguishes cruelty, and maternal love
+counteracts sexual indifference. Maternity stimulates her intelligence
+and sharpens her senses, explains and exalts those characteristics which
+have hitherto constituted her inferiority until they become signs of
+superiority when considered from the point of view of the reproduction
+of the species.
+
+A lessened sensibility enables woman to bear with greater ease the pains
+inherent to childbirth; her refractoriness to all kinds of
+variation--also that of a degenerate nature--serves to correct morbid
+heredity and to bring back the race, which owes its continuation to her,
+to its normal state.
+
+Women commit fewer crimes than men; and offenders of the female sex,
+generally speaking, exhibit fewer degenerate characteristics. This is
+due in part to the tenacity with which the female adheres to normality,
+but also to the deviation caused in her criminality by prostitution. The
+history of this social phenomenon, and an examination of the anatomy and
+functions of the types representing this variation of criminality show
+that the prostitute generally exhibits a greater number of degenerate
+and criminal characters than the ordinary female offender.
+
+Prostitution is therefore the feminine equivalent of criminality in the
+male, because it satisfies the desire for licence, idleness, and
+indecency, characteristic of the criminal nature.
+
+In addition to prostitutes and ordinary offenders, who constitute the
+larger part of female criminality, there exists a small number of born
+criminals of the female sex, who are more ferocious and terrible even
+than the male criminal of the same type. The criminality of this class
+of women develops on the same foundation of epilepsy and moral insanity.
+The physical characters are those peculiar to the male born
+criminal--projecting ears, strabismus, anomalies of dentition, and
+abnormal conformation of the skull, brain, etc.; in addition, an absence
+of feminine traits. In voice, structure of the pelvis, distribution of
+hair, etc., she tends to resemble the opposite sex and to lose all the
+instincts peculiar to her own.
+
+From this brief description it may be gathered that this work on the
+female offender owes much of its interest to the light it throws on the
+normal woman. It is true that it casts doubt on many of the postulates
+of feminism; but, on the other hand, it lays stress on and exalts the
+many invaluable qualities characteristic of the female sex.
+
+The preface to the work concludes with the following remarks:
+
+"Not one of the conclusions drawn from the history and examination of
+woman can justify the tyranny of which she has been and is still a
+victim, from the laws of savage peoples, which forbade her to eat meat
+and the flesh of the cocoanut, to those modern restrictions, which shut
+her out from the advantages of higher education and prevent her from
+exercising certain professions for which she is qualified. These
+ridiculous, cruel, and tyrannical prohibitions have certainly been
+largely instrumental in maintaining or, worse still, increasing her
+present state of inferiority and permitting her exploitation by the
+other sex. The very praises, not always sincere, alas, heaped on the
+docile victim, are often intended more as a preparation for further
+sacrifices than as an honour or reward."
+
+
+IV
+
+_Political Crime (Delitto Politico)_
+
+(In Collaboration with Rodolfo Laschi)
+
+The law of inertia governs nature. Every organism tends to adhere
+indefinitely to the same mode of life and will not change unless forced
+to do so.
+
+In the depths of the ocean, where existence, comparatively speaking, is
+uniform and undisturbed, we still find organisms allied to the species
+of pre-historic epochs. Those stars and suns, which are outside the
+sphere of action of other worlds, continue eternally their vertiginous
+gyrations in the trajectories assigned to them at the beginning of all
+things.
+
+Every progress in nature is the result of a struggle between the
+tendency to immobility, manifested by misoneism, or the hatred of
+novelty, and a foreign force which seeks to conquer this tendency.
+
+As in nature, misoneism dominates every human community. It is most
+invincible in children and neuropathic and insane individuals, very
+powerful among barbarous peoples, and more or less disguised among
+civilised nations. But the world progresses: every day new conditions
+and new interests arise to combat the law of inertia and render
+impossible the realisation of the much-desired invariability; and
+progress, unwelcome yet inevitable, prevails.
+
+By political crime we understand every action which attacks the laws,
+the historical, economical, political and social traditions of a nation
+or, in fact, any part of the existing social fabric, and which comes
+into collision with the law of inertia.
+
+Any attempt to obtain forcibly a change in existing systems, to enforce
+by violence, for instance, the claims of free trade in a protectionist
+country, to plunge a nation into war or to incite workers to strike--all
+such actions represent the first steps in political crime, which reaches
+its climax in revolts and insurrections, and which victory alone can
+exalt above a host of blameworthy and base deeds, and crown with glory.
+
+Revolution is the struggle between the tendency to immobility innate in
+a community, and the force which urges it to move. Revolution is the
+historical expression of evolution and has always great and sublime ends
+in view. It is the struggle against an institution or a system which
+hinders the progress of a nation, never against any temporary
+oppression, no matter how unbearable it may be. The French revolution
+was not a struggle against an individual king or even a dynasty, but
+against the institutions of monarchy and feudalism; nor was Lutheranism
+a revolt against any pope, but against the corruption that had invaded
+the Roman Catholic Church. The Italian revolution was not directed
+against foreign rule, which indeed was mild and generous in some parts
+of the country, but it voiced an imperious demand for independence
+indispensable to every people that desires to become truly civilised.
+
+A revolution is therefore a slow, constant effort towards progress,
+preceded by propaganda. In some instances, it may last for years; in
+others, for centuries, until an entire nation, from the humblest citizen
+to the most wealthy patrician, is convinced of the necessity of the
+proposed change, and the habitual misoneism of the masses overcome, the
+existing order of things being defended by only a few, whose personal
+interests are bound up in the old system. The ultimate triumph is
+inevitable, even when the leaders of the movement perish and the first
+risings are suffocated in blood; nay, death and martyrdom serve only to
+kindle greater enthusiasm for an ideal, if it be worthy to live. This
+becomes apparent when we consider the impulse given to Christianity by
+the crucifixion of its Leader, and to Italian independence by the death
+of the two brothers, Emilio and Attilio Bandiera.
+
+But bloody episodes are not always essential to the march of a
+revolution. The triumph of Hungary over Austria was almost a bloodless
+one, and that of Free Trade in England was effected practically without
+violence.
+
+Since a revolution implies a change in the ideas of the masses and not
+of a minority, be this of the elect or merely of turbulent spirits,
+revolutions are rare occurrences in history and their effects are
+lasting. In fact, after the death of Cromwell, feudalism was extinct in
+England.
+
+Like the pear which falls in autumn when the process of ripening has
+caused the gradual reabsorption of the juices in the stalk, revolution
+triumphs and the ancient system perishes when an entire people is
+persuaded of the necessity for a change. The fall of the pear, however,
+is not always the result of a slow physiological process, but may be
+caused by a gust of wind, which dashes it to the ground before the pulp
+has developed the sweet juices that are the sign of its maturity. In the
+same way, a revolt or an armed rising of men, whose demands are enforced
+by threats, may result in the carrying into effect of some programme of
+reform which is nevertheless too progressive or reactionary, or
+otherwise unsuited to the country.
+
+In fact, nearly every revolution is preceded by an insurrection, which
+is suppressed by violence, because it seeks to realise premature ideals,
+and on this account is frequently followed by a counter-revolution,
+provoked by reactionary elements.
+
+Unlike revolutions, insurrections are always the work of a minority,
+inspired by an excessive love or hatred of change, who seek forcibly to
+establish systems or ideas rejected by the majority. Unlike revolutions,
+also, they may break out for mere temporary causes--a famine, a tax, the
+tyranny of some official, which suddenly disturbs the tranquil march of
+daily life; in many cases they may languish and die without outside
+interference.
+
+In practice, however, it is extremely difficult to distinguish a revolt
+from a revolution since the results alone determine its nature, victory
+being the proof that the ideas have permeated the whole mass of the
+people.
+
+Political offenders, insurrectionists, and revolutionists are the men
+who seize the standard of progress and contest every inch of the ground
+with the masses, who naturally incline towards a dislike of a new order
+of things. The army of progress is recruited from all ranks and
+conditions--men of genius, intellectual spirits who are the first to
+realise the defects of the old system and to conceive a new one,
+synthesising the needs and aspirations of the people; lunatics,
+enthusiastic propagandists of the new ideas, which they spread with all
+the impetuous ardour characteristic of unbalanced minds; criminals, the
+natural enemies of order, who flock to the standard of revolt and bring
+to it their special gifts, audacity and contempt of death. These latter
+types accomplish the work of destruction which inevitably accompanies
+every revolution: they are the faithful and unerring arm ready to carry
+out the ideas that others conceive but lack the courage to execute.
+
+Finally, there are the saints, the men who live solely for high purposes
+and to whom the revolution is a veritable apostolate. They rank high
+above the mass of mankind, from whom they are frequently distinguished
+by a singular beauty of countenance, recalling ancient paintings of holy
+men. They are consumed by a passion for altruism and self-immolation,
+and experience a strange delight in martyrdom for their ideals. These
+men sweep the masses along with them and lead to victory with their
+propaganda, their inspired songs, and thrilling accents. Tyrtaeus was not
+the only poet who led soldiers to war: every insurrection has had its
+own songs, in which the love of a whole people is crystallised.
+
+Lunatics, unbalanced individuals, and saints are the promoters of
+progress and revolutions. These types have one thing in common--their
+passionate devotion to a sublime ideal and their love for humanity,
+which torments and crushes them in every case where they fail to attain
+that for which they have fought. But whether victorious or defeated, on
+the throne or on the scaffold, their efforts are not lost. Love is the
+spiritual sun of mankind. A ray shed by a human heart may spread far and
+wide, traversing unknown regions and sojourning with unknown races; and
+if powerless to revive some timid flower that has been numbed by the
+chilly night, it may still be stored up in the songs of a people, like
+the sunlight in green plants, to be retransformed at some future time
+into light and warmth.
+
+
+V
+
+_Too Soon! (Troppo Presto!)_
+
+(A Criticism of the New Italian Penal Code)
+
+In this book, which was written during the interval between the
+publication of the new Penal Code and its sanction by the Italian
+Parliament, my father makes a rapid criticism of the Code, which he
+considered premature. Only a few decades had elapsed since the
+proclamation of Italian Unity; and the widely differing races that
+people the provinces constituting the kingdom of Italy had not been able
+in that brief period to acquire sufficient uniformity of customs to make
+a single code of laws desirable.
+
+But the book is not merely a criticism. It also contains an exposition
+of the fundamental principles that, according to my father, should
+underlie every serious and efficacious code of laws. It is this part
+that makes this somewhat hastily written book of such importance to
+criminologists; because it sets forth under the chief heads the
+juridical desiderata of the New School.
+
+The following brief extract gives an indication of the nature of these
+principles:
+
+1. The legislation of a country should always be regulated by the
+customs of the people whom it is to govern; and although a system of
+different penal codes to suit the varying races and customs in the
+different regions of one State may offer certain disadvantages, they are
+always of less importance than the difficulties caused by a uniform
+code.
+
+2. The object of every code should be the attainment of social safety,
+not the careful weighing of guilt and individual responsibility. The
+worst and most dangerous criminals should be treated with the greatest
+severity; but indulgence should be shown towards minor offenders. The
+former should be segregated for life in prisons or asylums; the latter
+should never be allowed to become acquainted with prison life, but
+should be corrected by means of other penalties, which would not bring
+them into contact with true criminals, nor necessitate their temporary
+retirement from civil life.
+
+3. Certain reprehensible actions (abortion, infanticide, suicide or
+complicity therein, passionate crimes, duelling, swearing, adultery,
+etc.), which are not considered criminal by the general public, should
+be non-criminal in the eyes of the law.
+
+4. Born criminals, the morally insane, and hopeless recidivists, whose
+first convictions are not followed by any signs of improvement, should
+be regarded as incurable and confined for life in criminal lunatic
+asylums, relegated to penal colonies, or condemned to death.
+
+A second edition of this book was published shortly afterwards with the
+title _Notes on the New Penal Code_. In this edition, each of the most
+notable adherents of the new doctrines: Ferri, Garofalo, Ballestrini,
+Rossi, Mase Dari, Carelli, Caragnani, and others, discussed one special
+point of the code and suggested the necessary modifications.
+
+
+VI
+
+_Prison Palimpsests_ (_I Palimsesti del Carcere_)
+
+(A Collection of Prison Inscriptions for the Use of Criminologists)
+
+"Ordinary individuals, and even scientific observers, are apt to regard
+prisons, especially those in which the cellular system prevails, as mute
+and paralytical organisms, deprived of speech and action, because
+silence and immobility have been imposed on them by law. Since, however,
+no decree, even when backed up by physical force, avails against the
+nature of things, these organisms speak and act, and sometimes manifest
+themselves in brutal assaults and murders; but as always happens when
+human needs come into conflict with laws, all these manifestations are
+made in hidden and subterranean ways. Walls, drinking-vessels, planks of
+the prisoners' beds, margins of books, medicine wrappers, and even the
+unstable sands of the exercise-grounds, and the uniform in which the
+prisoner is garbed, supply him with a surface on which to imprint his
+thoughts and feelings."
+
+With this paragraph my father begins the introduction to his book
+_Prison Palimpsests_, a collection of inscriptions and documents
+revealing the inmost thoughts of prisoners.
+
+In the first part, these inscriptions are classified under different
+headings: opinions on prison life, penalties, morality, women, etc., and
+according to the surface on which they are inscribed--books, walls,
+pitchers, clothing, paper, etc.
+
+For the psychologist and the student of degenerate types of humanity,
+this collection is of the greatest interest. The inscriptions are
+followed by a series of poems, autobiographies, and letters written by
+intending suicides, and criminals immediately before their execution.
+The comments made by criminals on the margins of books belonging to the
+prison library are especially interesting, because they enable the
+student to compare the effect produced on criminals by certain works
+with the impressions of normal individuals. The poems written by
+prisoners are equally interesting, since, like popular songs, they
+represent the intimate expression of the poet's desires and aspirations.
+
+In the second part, these prison inscriptions are compared with the
+remarks commonly found scribbled in the streets, on school benches, and
+on the walls of public buildings of all kinds--courts of justice, places
+of worship, and even those edifices in which the legislation of the
+State is framed. All the inscriptions are classified according to the
+sentiments they express and the sex of the writer, distinction being
+made between the writings of prisoners and those of the ordinary public.
+
+The book closes with practical suggestions regarding the use to which
+similar collections might be put, as critical hints on the present
+methods of dealing with criminals and as an aid in investigating the
+characters of accused persons.
+
+All offenders, except the most degenerate types, born criminals or the
+morally insane, desire work or occupation of some kind, and books of an
+interesting character. This demand emanates from innumerable
+inscriptions on the walls of cells and the margins of prison books: "How
+unbearable is enforced idleness for a man who has always been
+accustomed to work and study, and in whom activity and the desire of
+some ennobling pursuit are not quite extinct!" ... "The nun of Cracow
+cried, 'Bread, bread!' but my voice pleads from my solitary cell, 'Work,
+work!'"
+
+"If jurists would leave their desks and libraries," says my father in
+conclusion, "put aside all pre-conceived notions, enter the prisons and
+study the problem of criminality not on the walls of the cells, but on
+the living documents they enclose, they would speedily realise that all
+reforms evolved and applied without the aid of practical experience are
+only dangerous illusions."
+
+
+VII
+
+_Ancient and Modern Crimes_ (_Delitti Vecchi e Delitti Nuovi_)
+
+"This volume contains a collection of facts, sometimes valuable, at
+other times merely curious, that I was able to glean during long years
+of study in the field of criminal anthropology and psychiatry. They all
+tend to show the great difference that exists between ancient and modern
+crimes."
+
+With these words my father begins the preface to this book, in which
+cases of recent crimes are described and compared with those committed
+in by-gone ages.
+
+It is divided into three parts. The first part contains a comparative
+and statistical study of criminality in Europe, Mexico, the United
+States, and Australia.
+
+The second part describes the careers of typical criminals of former
+times, such as the Tozzis of Rome, a family of anthropophagous
+criminals, and Vacher, Ballor, and other assassins of the
+Jack-the-Ripper type, whose perverted sexual instincts prompted them to
+murder a number of women and mutilate the corpses in a horrible fashion.
+
+The third part treats of those modern criminals, like Holmes and Peace,
+who accomplish their misdeeds in a refined and elegant manner,
+substituting for the more brutal knife or hammer, the resources of
+chemistry, physics, and modern toxicology. In other cases, some product
+of modern times, such as the motor-car or bicycle, forms the motive for
+the crime, or is of assistance in its accomplishment.
+
+"From the data we have been able to gather relating to crime in by-gone
+ages," continues my father in his preface, "we are led to conclude that
+crimes of a violent and bloody nature predominated exclusively in more
+barbarous times, and that fraudulent offences are characteristic of
+modern communities. Violence is more primitive than trickery and must
+always precede it, exactly as a more barbarous state in which property
+is gained or maintained by force, at the point of the sword, precedes a
+state in which ownership is regulated by means of contracts; and crime
+always adapts itself to the prevailing customs.
+
+"The admirable work of Coghlan shows criminality in Australia to be of
+this latter type, as contrasted with its semi-barbarous nature in states
+like Mexico, and gives us a picture of the character it will assume a
+century or two later in Europe.
+
+"As the fundamental nature of the criminal has not changed, his actions
+are still of the same character; and violence and cunning are mingled or
+alternate in modern crime. But though the individual remains unchanged,
+he is subordinated to a more powerful factor than himself--modern
+progress. It is true that many modern crimes are facilitated by modern
+contrivances; but the same contrivances often furnish means for their
+defeat; and so we may foresee a time, perhaps not very remote, when such
+anti-social elements shall partially, if not totally, have disappeared."
+
+
+VIII
+
+_Diagnostic Methods of Legal Psychiatry_ (_La Perizia Psichiatrica
+Legale_)
+
+This work was not intended to introduce the doctrines of modern
+criminology to the general public, but as a text-book for the guidance
+of jurists, doctors, experts--in short, all those whose professions
+bring them, into contact with criminals.
+
+It consists of two parts, the first of which contains about fifty cases
+diagnosed according to the new methods, and collected by the author of
+the work and his followers. These cases include all types of
+delinquents: born criminals, morally insane individuals, hysterical,
+insane, inebriate, and epileptic criminals, criminaloids, criminals of
+passion, etc.
+
+In each case, as the diagnosis was intended to serve a practical
+purpose, the criminal is examined physically, psychologically, and
+psychiatrically; and his antecedents are investigated with great care.
+
+In the second part, "The Technical Aspect of Criminal Anthropology," a
+detailed description is given of the methods to be employed in the
+examination of a supposed criminal, the rules for determining to what
+class he belongs, the manner in which the physical examination should be
+conducted, a list of the necessary measurements, a description of the
+most suitable apparatus, and the mode of using them, the methods of
+procedure in the interrogation of a criminal, in order to elicit useful
+information, and instructions for analysing his intellectual
+manifestations (handwriting, drawing, and work), movements, attitude,
+and gestures.
+
+Thanks to the methodical instruction imparted by this book, the
+inexperienced student is enabled to progress gradually until he is in a
+position to conduct a complete psychiatric and medico-legal examination.
+
+The third part treats of the methods for discriminating between
+criminals and lunatics. The various forms of mental alienation are
+described in detail; and an examination of cases of feigned insanity
+shows that simulators of lunacy are generally mentally unsound.
+
+In the concluding part are discussed the various uses to which a careful
+diagnosis may be applied.
+
+The Appendix contains studies on the application of mental tests in
+medico-legal practice, and a glossary, alphabetically arranged, of the
+terms commonly employed in criminal anthropology, compiled by Dr.
+Legiardi-Laura.
+
+
+IX
+
+_Anarchists_ (_Gli Anarchici_)
+
+The book opens with an examination of the theories of anarchists, from
+which the author arrives at the conclusion that in view of the
+importance generally conceded to economic ideals to-day and the
+universal abuse of power, these theories in reality are not so absurd as
+they are supposed to be. It is the methods adopted by anarchists for the
+realisation of their ideals that are both absurd and dangerous.
+
+"However valuable many of the proposals of anarchism may be," says the
+author, "they become absurd in practice; because all reforms should be
+introduced very gradually in order to escape the inevitable reaction
+which neutralises all previous efforts."
+
+The crimes of anarchists tend to mingle with ordinary crimes when
+certain dreamers attempt to reach their goal by any means
+possible--theft, or the murder of a few, often innocent, persons. It is
+easy to realise, therefore, why, with a few exceptions, anarchists are
+recruited from among ordinary criminals, lunatics, and insane criminals.
+Investigations made by the author showed that 12 per cent. of the
+communards were of a criminal type, and this percentage was still higher
+in anarchists (31 per cent.). Of forty-five anarchists examined at
+Chicago, 40 per cent. had faces of a criminal cast. The majority of
+anarchists possess the passions and vices peculiar to ordinary
+criminals: impulsiveness, love of orgies, lack of natural affections and
+moral sense; and similar intellectual manifestations, such as slang,
+ballads, tattooing, hieroglyphics. But there are a greater number of
+genuine epileptic and hysterical subjects, lunatics, and indirect
+suicides among anarchists than among ordinary criminals; greater, too,
+is the proportion of criminals from passion. These truly heroic
+natures, profoundly convinced that the remedy for so many social evils
+lies in the murder of certain personages of high standing, who appear to
+bear the greatest share of responsibility for the existing system, do
+not hesitate to have recourse to violence when they deem it necessary;
+although it is distasteful to them and although they have hitherto
+disassociated themselves from the excesses of their companions. The
+anarchists Caserio and Bresci were of this type. The crimes of these
+passionate criminals are always accomplished single-handed; they always
+surrender to the police immediately afterwards and make no attempt to
+defend themselves. On the contrary, when in court, they frequently give
+a lucid explanation of the motives that have induced them to commit
+their crimes and affront the penalty with stoicism.
+
+Such being the origin, and such the promoters of anarchism, it is
+evident that the methods for curing crimes deriving from this source
+should differ greatly from those used in suppressing ordinary crime.
+
+In spite of the fact that anarchists are frequently criminals, their
+ideas, although often absurd, imply a greater elevation of character
+than the cynical apathy in which the worst types of criminals are sunk.
+
+Instead of combating violence by violence and dealing out death
+sentences with a prodigality almost rivalling that of anarchists
+themselves, the authorities should segregate the most dangerous types or
+relegate them to distant islands, and adopt exile as a penalty for
+genuine criminals of passion. However, political liberty and some
+safety-valve, whereby lawless instincts may be turned into harmless
+channels, are the best methods for preventing anarchism. Constitutional
+government and freedom of speech and the press may go a long way towards
+combating anarchism; but the restoration of popular tribunates, like
+those to which Rome owed her balance and tranquillity, would be still
+more efficacious. If the governing bodies were to favour, instead of
+hindering, the formation of such institutions, which tend to spring up
+everywhere and to voice the grievances of the people, just causes would
+not be abandoned exclusively to the advocacy of extremists.
+
+
+X
+
+_Lectures on Legal Medicine_ (_Lezioni di Medicina Legale_)
+
+This book, as the preface explains, was an attempt to present in a
+concise and popular form the theories of criminal anthropologists, on
+which the author had previously delivered a series of university
+lectures, and which he feared might have been erroneously or imperfectly
+understood by those of his hearers who were diffident or insufficiently
+prepared.
+
+It is divided into three parts, criminal anthropology, mental
+alienation, and the relation of serious offences (assault, murder,
+poisoning, etc.) to legal medicine.
+
+The first part contains a summing-up of the author's ideas on the
+atavistic and pathological origin of the criminal. He examines the
+equivalents of crime among plants, animals, savages, and children,
+describes the pathological causes which call forth atavistic instincts
+and alludes to other special kinds of degeneration peculiar to
+criminals. Finally, the anatomy, functions, and internal organs of the
+criminal are examined, and a careful study made of his intellectual
+manifestations and psychology. Similar studies on epileptics and the
+morally insane show that the three forms are only variations of the same
+degeneration.
+
+We have an examination of occasional, habitual, and latent criminals,
+who represent an attenuated type of delinquency, following on the
+investigations of these serious forms, admitting of correction,
+prevention, or cure. It develops much later in life than the vicious
+propensities of instinctive criminals or may even remain latent; yet at
+the root we always find the same anatomical and pathological anomalies,
+although less marked and fewer in number.
+
+The origin of passionate and political criminals is entirely diverse.
+Their criminality springs from an excess of noble passions, the
+impetuosity of which prevents them from exercising sober judgment and
+urges them to unpremeditated actions that afterwards cause them the
+deepest remorse.
+
+After a rapid survey of feminine criminality and its equivalent,
+prostitution, the author discusses juridical and social methods of
+curing crime.
+
+In the second part, mental alienation in relation to legal medicine, the
+author examines the anthropological and psychic characters of lunacy,
+which he divides into various classes: congenital mental alienation
+(cretinism, idiocy, imbecility, eccentricity); acquired mental
+alienation (mania, melancholia, paranoia, circular insanity, dementia);
+mental alienation in conjunction with neurosis (epilepsy, hysteria,
+progressive general paralysis); alienation resulting from toxic
+influences (alcoholism, including forms produced by indulgence in
+absinthe and coca, saturnine encephalopathy, pellagra). An investigation
+is made into the etiology of these various forms with special reference
+to their juridical importance.
+
+The third part is devoted exclusively to medico-legal questions, to an
+examination of the various forms of violent death: by heat, electricity,
+starvation, hanging, strangulation, asphyxia, and poisoning, the
+symptoms which distinguish each type being carefully defined. This is
+followed by a study on wounds produced by firearms, pointed weapons or
+blades, on living and dead bodies, in order to determine the exact
+situation of the wound and the manner in which it has been inflicted.
+Finally, we have an examination of the different forms of poisoning.
+
+A separate lecture treats of sexual psychopathy and offences against
+morality; and other lectures discuss questions of legal obstetrics:
+abortion, infanticide, and matrimonial questions.
+
+
+XI
+
+_Recent Discoveries in Psychiatry and Criminal Anthropology and the
+Practical Application of these Sciences_
+
+This volume was published in 1893. It contains a complete summary of the
+latest research of criminologists in jurisprudence, psychiatry, and
+anthropology, during the interval between the publication of the fifth
+and that of the last edition of Prof. Lombroso's _Criminal Man_.
+
+The research includes anthropological discoveries in the skull,
+skeleton, internal organs, and brains of criminals, as well as others of
+a biological and functional nature. They are followed by a study of the
+methods to be employed for the cure and punishment of crime.
+
+
+
+
+BIBLIOGRAPHY OF THE CHIEF WORKS OF CESARE LOMBROSO
+
+
+Archivio di Psichiatria, antropologia criminale e scienze affini
+(Archives of Psychiatry, Criminal Anthropology and Kindred Sciences).
+Thirty-two volumes. Published by Fratelli Bocca, Turin and Lausanne.
+
+L'Uomo Delinquente (Criminal Man). Fifth Edition. Vols. I, II and III of
+xxxv + 650, 576, and 677 pages respectively, with separate volume of
+plates, maps, etc. Bocca, Turin, 1906, 1907.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     L'Hommea criminel. Vols. I and II published 1895, Vol. III (Le
+     crime, ses causes et remedes) 1907, by F. Alcan, Paris.
+
+     Die Ursachen und Bekampfung des Verbrechens. Bermuheler Verlag,
+     Berlin, 1902.
+
+     El Delito, sus causas y remedios. Libreria de Victoriano Suarez,
+     Madrid, 1902.
+
+
+La Donna Delinquente, la prostituta e la donna normale. (With Guglielmo
+Ferrero.) New Edition. Bocca, Turin, 1903.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Das Weib als Verbrecherin und Prostitute. Verlagsanstalt und
+     Druckerei, Hamburg, 1894.
+
+     The Female Offender. Fisher Unwin, London, 1895.
+
+
+Il Delitto Politico e le Rivoluzioni. (With R. Laschi.) Bocca, Turin,
+1890.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Das politische Verbrechen und die Revolutionen. Two vols. 1890.
+
+     Le Crime politique. Two vols. Felix Alcan, Paris, 1890.
+
+
+Le piu recenti scoperte ed applicazioni della psichiatria ed
+antropologia criminale. Bocca, Turin, 1893.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Neue Fortschritte in den Verbrecherstudien. Wilhelm Friedrich,
+     Leipzig. 1894.
+
+     Neue Fortschritte der kriminellen Anthropologie. Marhold, Halle,
+     1908.
+
+     Neue Verbrecherstudien. Marhold, Halle, 1908.
+
+     Nouvelles recherches de Psychiatrie et d'Anthropologie criminelle.
+     Alcan, Paris, 1890.
+
+
+Gli anarchici. Bocca, Turin, 1894.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Die Anarchisten. Verlagsanstalt und Druckerei, Hamburg, 1895.
+
+     Les Anarchistes. E. Flammarion, Paris, 1896.
+
+
+La Perizia psichiatrico-legale. Bocca, Turin, 1905.
+
+Lezioni di Medicina legale. Bocca, Turin, 1900.
+
+Troppo Presto: Appunti al nuovo codice penale. Bocca, Turin, 1888.
+
+Palimsesti del carcere. Bocca, Turin, 1888.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Kerker Palimpsesten. Hamburg, 1899.
+
+     Les Palimpsestes des prisons. Stock, Lyon.
+
+
+La Delinquenza e la rivoluzione francese. Treves, Milan, 1897.
+
+Criminal Anthropology. (Twentieth Century Practice of Medicine, Vol.
+XII, pp. 372-433.) New York, 1897.
+
+Luccheni e l'antropologia criminale. Bocca, Turin, 1899.
+
+Il caso Olivo. (With A. G. Bianchi.) Libreria Editrice Internazionale,
+Milan, 1905.
+
+Ricerche sui fenomeni ipnotici e spiritici. Unione Tip. Edit. Turin,
+1909.
+
+L'Uomo di genio. Sixth Edition. Bocca, Turin, 1894.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     L'Homme de genie. Alcan, Paris, 1889.
+
+     The Man of Genius. Walter Scott, London, 1891.
+
+
+Genio e degenerazione. Second Edition. Remo Sandron, Palermo, 1908.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Entartung und Genie. Wiegand, Leipzig, 1894.
+
+
+Nuovi studi sul genio. Two vols. Sandron, Palermo, 1902.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Neue Studien ueber Genialitaet (Schmidt's Jahrbuecher der gesammten
+     Medizin, 1907).
+
+
+Pazzi e anormali. Lapi, Citta di Castello, 1890.
+
+In Calabria. Niccolo Giannotta, Catania, Sicily, 1898.
+
+L'Antisemitismo e le scienze moderne. Roux, Turin, 1894.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Der Antisemitismus und die Juden. Wiegand's Verlag, Leipzig, 1894.
+
+     L'Antisemitisme. Giard et Briere, Paris, 1899.
+
+
+Problemes du jour. Flammarion, Paris, 1906.
+
+Il momento attuale in Italia. Casa Editrice Nazionale, Milan, 1905.
+
+Grafologia. Ulrich Hoepli, Milan, 1895.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Graphologie. Reclam, Leipzig.
+
+
+Trattato profilattico e clinico della pellagra. Bocca, Turin, 1890.
+
+     _Translations:_
+
+     Die Lehre von der Pellagra. Oscar Coblenz, Berlin, 1898.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  A
+
+  Affection for animals, 62, 63
+
+  Affections, of born criminals, 27
+    in children, 133
+    examination of, 222-225
+
+  Age and crime, 102, 151, 152
+
+  Akkas, tribe of Central Africa, 15
+
+  Alcoholism, and hallucinations, 30, 82-84
+    chronic, 81, 142-143
+    physical characteristics, 81, 82
+    psychic disturbances caused by, 82-84
+    results of, 83
+    apathy and impulsiveness of victims, 84, 85
+    crimes peculiarly due to, 85, 142
+    course of the disease, 86
+    hereditary, 138
+    important factor in criminality, 138, 141
+    temporary, 141-142
+    and epilepsy, 142
+    effect on handwriting, 229
+
+  Algometer, 25, 246
+
+  Anfossi's tachyanthropometer, 237
+    craniograph, 239
+
+  Angelucci (_Actes du Congres d' Anthropologie_), case of epileptic moral
+  insanity, 69
+
+  Anomalies, of criminals, 7, 10-24, 231-235
+    of morally insane, 53
+
+  Anthropology, criminal, defined, 5
+    most important discovery of, 137
+    practical application of, 262-279
+
+  Aphasia, simulation of, 272 _ff._, 275
+
+  Arson, 121
+
+  Arts and industries of criminals, 44, 135
+
+  Assaulters, 25
+
+  Asylums for criminal insane, 205-208
+
+  Asymmetry, 13, 53, 242, 261
+
+  Atavism, 18, 135, 136
+
+  Atavistic origin of the criminal, 8, 9, 19, 48, 135
+
+  Australia, probation system in, 189, 191
+
+  Austria, percentage of illegitimates among criminals, 144
+    percentage of women among criminals, 151
+
+  Auto-illusion, 108, 109
+
+  Aymaras, the, an Indian tribe of South America, 6
+
+  Azara, d' (_Travels in America_, 1835), 126
+
+  Azeglio, Massimo d' (_Reminiscences_), 148
+
+
+  B
+
+  Bain, 130
+
+  Ballve, Senor, director of Penitenciario Nacional of Buenos Ayres, 201
+
+  Bank of Rome case, 106, 107
+
+  Barnardo, Dr., work for orphans and destitute children of London, 158-160
+
+  Beccaria, Cesare, founder of Classical School of Penal Jurisprudence, 3,
+  4
+
+  Bedlam, 207
+
+  Belgian Government, agricultural colony founded at Meseplas by, 202
+
+  Belgium, probation system in, 191
+
+  Bernard, experiments with dogs, 60
+
+  Blasio, de, explanation of hieroglyphics of the Camorristi, 43, 44
+
+  Booth, General, 156, 157
+
+  Born criminals, 3-51
+    percentage of, among criminals, 8, 100
+    physical characteristics, 10-24, 231-255
+    sensory and functional peculiarities, 24-27
+    affections and passions, 27, 28
+    moral characteristics, 28-40
+    intelligence, 41
+    relation to moral insanity and epilepsy, 58-73, 87, 259
+    professional characteristics, 71
+    difference between epileptics and, 72
+    no criminal scale among, 152
+    institutions for, 205 _ff._
+
+  Bosco and Rice (_Les Homicides aux Etats-Unis_), on crime in
+  Massachusetts, 173
+
+  Brigands, 35, 113-115, 215
+
+  Broadmoor, 207, 208
+
+  Brockway, 192
+
+  Buechner, on instincts in bees and ants, 142
+
+  Burglars, 25
+
+  Burton (_First Footsteps in East Africa_), 128
+
+
+  C
+
+  Cabred, Professor, 203, 204
+
+  Camorra, 44, 48, 117, 230
+
+  Camorristi, hieroglyphics of, 43, 44
+    dress, 230
+
+  Canada, homes for destitute children, 160
+
+  Capital punishment, 208, 209
+
+  Carrara, Francesco, 4
+
+  Carrara, Prof. Mario, on neglected children, 130
+
+  Cephalic index, 10, 241
+
+  Children, destructive tendency, 65
+    instincts, 130 _ff._
+    affection, 133
+    effect of environment on, 144
+    institutions for destitute, 156 _ff._
+    methods of dealing with, 176 _ff._
+    susceptibility to suggestion, 226
+
+  Children's courts. _See_ Juvenile courts
+
+  Cinaedus, 231, 244
+
+  Classical School of Penal Jurisprudence, 4, 9
+
+  Classification of criminals, 8
+
+  Colour-blindness, 26, 249
+
+  Confession of criminaloids, 105
+
+  Connon, Richard, 53
+
+  Coprophagia, 274, 275
+
+  Corporal punishment, 191
+
+  Cretins, physical characteristics, 227, 234, 236, 260
+    dress, 231
+
+  Crime, origin of the word, 125
+    among primitive races, 125 _ff._
+    in civilised communities, 134
+    atavistic origin, 135, 136, 137
+    aetiology of, 136
+    pathological origin, 137
+    organic factors, 137
+    percentage of, among Jews, 140
+    social causes, 143
+    prevention, 153 _ff._
+    curability, 153, 156
+
+  Criminal, the, defined, 3
+
+  Criminal type, 24, 48
+
+  Criminaloids, 100-121
+    percentage of, among criminals, 8
+    physical characteristics, 102, 251
+    psychological distinctions between born criminals and, 102 _ff._
+    cases of, 103, 104
+    reluctance to commit crimes, 105
+    easily induced to confess, 105
+    moral sense and intelligence, 106
+    natural affections and sentiments, 106
+    social position and culture, 107 _ff._
+    clever swindlers, 108
+    development into habitual criminals, 111-113
+    and certain crimes, 121
+    punishment, 186
+
+  Cruelty, 39
+
+  Cynicism, 31
+
+
+  D
+
+  Dalton (_Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal_), 129
+
+  Danish prisons, 195
+
+  "Darwin's tubercle," 15, 235
+
+  Dejerine, 138
+
+  Delirium, 98
+
+  Dementia, 76, 227, 259, 260
+    simulations of, 272 _ff._
+
+  Despine's method of punishment, 195, 196
+
+  Destitute children, care of, 156
+    institutions for, 156 _ff._
+
+  Dewson, Miss Mary, 189
+
+  Disease and its relation to crime, 8, 220
+
+  Don Bosco, the Black Pope, 157, 173
+
+  Drunkenness, temporary, 141. _See also_ Alcoholism
+
+  Du Bois-Reymond's apparatus, 25, 246
+
+  Dundrum, Ireland, 207
+
+  Dynamometer, 252, 253
+
+
+  E
+
+  Economic conditions, relation to crime, 150
+
+  Education, and moral insanity, 143
+    and crime, 143, 149
+    in Elmira Reformatory, 193
+
+  "Educational Alliance," for Jewish emigrants, 172
+
+  Egypt, theft in, 128
+
+  Elmira Reformatory, 192-194
+
+  England, crime in, 173
+    juvenile court in, 176
+    probation system in, 189, 191
+    asylums for criminal insane, 207
+
+  Environment, 8, 144, 145
+
+  Epilepsy, ancient application of the term, 58
+    characteristic phenomena, 58
+    mild forms, 59, 60
+    multiformity, 59, 60, 87
+    psychological characteristics, 61
+    effect on character, 62
+    relation to crime, 69, 71
+    motory and criminal, 71
+    psychic, 88
+    ambulatory, 89, 90
+    alcoholic psychic, 142
+
+  Epileptics, brain cells of, 22
+    relation to born criminals and morally insane 58 _ff._, 87
+    physical anomalies common to criminals and, 60, 61, 234
+    psychological characteristics, 61 _ff._
+    cases, 64-65
+    criminal, 66-69, 70, 259
+    difference between born criminals and, 72
+    non-criminal, 89-92
+    obsessions, 226
+    dress, 230
+    special offences, 259, 260
+
+  Epileptoids, 101
+
+  Erotomania, 96
+
+  Esthesiometer, 245
+
+  Examination of criminals, 219-257
+    antecedents and psychic individuality, 220-222
+    intelligence, 222
+    affections, 222-225
+    morbid phenomena, 225-226
+    speech, 226-228
+    memory, 228
+    handwriting, 228-230
+    dress, 230-231
+    physical, 231-245
+    sensibility, 245-251
+    movements, 251-255
+    functions, 255
+    table of, 255-257
+
+
+  F
+
+  Fines, 187, 191
+
+  Fisherton House, 207
+
+  Forgers, 46, 140, 245
+
+  France, percentage of illegitimates or orphans among minors arrested, 144
+    system for minor offences, 187
+    probation system in, 191
+
+  Frank, Francis, 223
+
+  French Panama Scandal, 106, 107
+
+
+  G
+
+  Gambling, 40
+
+  Games, 40
+
+  Garofalo, Senator, his table of penalties, 210
+
+  George, Henry, 164
+
+  George Junior Republic, 160, 164-167
+
+  Germans, ancient, theft among, 128, 129
+
+  Gilmour (_Among the Mongols_), 130
+
+  Gipsies, 140
+
+  Goitre, 220, 244
+
+
+  H
+
+  Habitual criminals, 44, 110-115, 198
+
+  Hallucinations, 30, 82-84
+
+  Hamburg, percentage of illegitimates among prostitutes, 144
+
+  Handwriting, 228-230
+
+  Harwick, quoted, on sense of right and wrong, 33
+
+  Hebrew Sheltering Guardian Society in New York City, 160-164
+
+  Heredity, indirect, 137
+    direct, 57, 137-139
+    influence of, 144, 220, 235
+
+  Hieroglyphics, 43, 44
+
+  Homicide, among criminaloids, 121
+    in Italy, 140
+    relation of temperature to, 145
+    in Massachusetts, 173
+    and melancholia, 259
+
+  Hydrosphygmograph, 223
+
+  Hypnotism, 101
+
+  Hysteria, 92-99
+    relation to epilepsy, 92
+    physical and functional characteristics, 93
+    psychology, 94
+    susceptibility to suggestion, 95, 226
+    and delirium, 98
+    sensibility to metals, 248, 261
+    special offences of, 259
+    simulation of, 261
+
+
+  I
+
+  Idiots, impulses, 74, 258
+    speech, 227
+    physical characteristics, 235, 260
+
+  Idleness, 40, 150
+
+  Illegitimates, percentage of, among criminals, 144
+
+  Imbeciles, 75, 259, 260, 269
+
+  Imitation, 146
+
+  Immigration and its relation to crime, 147, 148
+
+  Imprisonment, 154, 186, 187
+
+  Impulsiveness, 36, 85
+
+  Incendiaries, 26
+
+  Indemnity, 191
+
+  India, infanticide in, 126
+    theft in, 129
+
+  Industrial Homes of the Salvation Army, 168
+
+  Inebriates, crimes peculiar to, 85-86
+    hallucinations of, 226
+
+  Infanticide, 121, 126, 127
+
+  Insane, the morally, relation to born criminals, 53, 57, 58
+    cases, 53 _ff._
+    relation to epileptics, 61, 65 _ff._
+    professional characteristics, 71
+    institutions for, 206
+    dress, 230
+    special offences, 259, 260
+
+  Insane criminals, 74-99, 234
+    characteristics distinguishing them from habitual criminals, 77, 78
+    antecedents, 78
+    motives, 78
+    typical cases, 79
+    institutions for, 205 _ff._
+    two classes, 208
+
+  Insanity, moral, 56, 65-69, 272 _ff._
+    criminal, 74-99
+    genuine and simulation of, 260, 276. _See also_ Lunacy
+
+  Institutions, for destitute children, 156
+    for destitute adults, 167
+    for women criminals, 180
+    for minor offenders, 185
+    for habitual criminals, 198
+    for born criminals and the morally insane, 205. _See also_
+    Reformatories, Penitentiaries
+
+  Intellectual manifestations of born criminals, 42-44
+
+  Intelligence, of born criminals, 41
+    of criminaloids, 106
+    examination, 222
+
+  Invulnerability of criminals, 64
+
+  Italy, hot-beds of crime in, 140
+    percentage of illegitimates among criminals, 144
+    percentage of women among criminals, 151
+    institutions for orphans, 157
+
+
+  J
+
+  Jackson, on epileptic fits, 60
+
+  Jews, percentage of crime among, 140
+
+  Jukes family, the, 138, 139
+
+  Juridical criminals, 115-117
+
+  Juvenile courts, 176, 178, 179
+
+  Juvenile offenders, 139
+    methods of dealing with, 176 _ff._, 192
+
+
+  K
+
+  Kleptomania, 141
+
+  Kowalewsky (_Archivio di Psichiatria_, 1885), 63
+
+  Krafft-Ebing, 84
+    quoted, on somnambulism and epileptics, 63
+
+
+  L
+
+  Labour, in reformatories, 166, 199
+    enforced, profitable to the State, 202, 203, 213
+
+  Lacassagne, 47
+
+  Ladelci (_Il Vino_, 1868), 37
+
+  Landolt's apparatus for testing the field of vision, 249
+
+  Lewisohn, Mr., 161
+
+  Lombroso, Cesare, discovery of _median occipital fossa_, 6
+    new theory as to criminals, 52, 56, 57
+    view of hysteria and epilepsy, 99
+    on percentage of criminals of inebriate families, 138
+    on criminal associations, 146
+    _Criminal Man_, 9, 288-291
+    _Modern Forms of Crime_, 9
+    _Recent Research in Criminal Anthropology_, 9, 309
+    _Prison Palimpsests_, 9, 155, 300-302
+    _The Female Offender_, 180, 291-294
+    _Crimes, Ancient and Modern_, 173, 302-303
+    _The Man of Genius_, 283-288
+    _Political Crime_, 294-298
+    _Too Soon_, 298-300
+    _Diagnostic Methods of Legal Psychiatry_, 303-305
+    _Anarchists_, 305-307
+    _Lectures on Legal Medicine_, 307-308
+
+  Luciani, experiments of, 59
+
+  Lunacy, general forms, 74, _See also_ Insanity
+
+
+  M
+
+  Maccabruni, Dr. (_Notes on Hidden Forms of Epilepsy_, 1886), 89
+
+  Mafia, 117, 230
+
+  Magnaud, 187
+
+  Maniacs, 76, 259
+
+  Manzoni (_Promessi Sposi_), on instinctive tendency to law-breaking, 152
+
+  Marey's tympanum, 224
+
+  Marro (_Annalidi Freniatia_, 1890), 64
+
+  Massachusetts, crime in, 173
+    probation office in Boston, 189
+    reformatories at Boston, 190
+
+  Mattoids, 228, 229
+
+  _Median occipital fossa_, discovery of, 6
+
+  Melancholia, 75, 227, 252, 259
+
+  Memory, 228
+
+  Mendacity, 96-98
+
+  Meseplas, agricultural colony at, 202, 203
+
+  Metchnikoff, 14
+
+  Meteoric sensibility, 26
+
+  Modern School of Penal Jurisprudence, 4, 5, 9, 153, 155, 156
+
+  Monomaniacs, impulses and motives, 77
+    cases, 78, 276 _ff._
+    handwriting, 228, 230
+    dress, 231
+    examination of, 276 _ff._
+
+  Moral sense, of criminals, 28-40
+    of criminaloids, 106
+
+  Moreau, 130
+    (_De l' Homicide chez les enfants_, 1882), 131
+
+  Morel, 53, 98
+
+  Muelhausen (_Diary of a Journey from the Mississippi to the Pacific_), 129
+
+  Murder, among gipsies, 140
+    among Jews, 140
+    in United States, 145
+
+  Murderers, physical characteristics, 16, 18, 26, 46, 236
+    moral sense, 29, 38
+    imprisonment, 182
+    dress, 230
+
+
+  N
+
+  Newspaper reports of crimes, influence of, 146, 147
+
+  Nothnagel's thermo-esthesiometer, 247
+
+
+  O
+
+  Obermayer's methods in prisons, 195, 196
+
+  Obscenity, 63
+
+  Occupations suitable for prisoners, 197, 203, 204
+
+  "Open Door," the, penal institution in Buenos Ayres, 203, 204
+
+  Orange, 208
+
+  Orgies, 40
+
+  Osmometer, 251
+
+  Ottolenghi, discoveries of, 61
+
+
+  P
+
+  Paralysis, 75, 226, 229
+
+  Paralytic, demented, 269
+
+  "Paranza," 48
+
+  Paresis, 82, 83
+
+  Parkinson's disease, 252
+
+  Passion, criminals of, 117-121, 186
+
+  Patrizi, 224
+
+  "Patta, La" 41
+
+  Pears (_Prisons and Reform_, 1872), 196
+
+  Pederasts, 232
+
+  Pellagra, 76, 150
+
+  Pelvimeter, 239
+
+  Penal codes, 176, 178
+
+  Penal colonies, 201-204
+
+  Penalties, 153
+    table of, proposed by the Modern School, 210-212
+
+  Penitenciario Nacional of Buenos Ayres, 198-203
+
+  Penitentiaries, 194-198
+
+  Penta, on percentage of criminals of inebriate families, 138
+
+  Perez,(_Psychologie de l'enfant_), quoted, on anger in children, 131
+
+  Perth, Scotland, 207
+
+  Peruvian Indians, 6, 7
+
+  Physical anomalies of criminals, 7, 10-24, 231-245
+
+  Pictet, 125
+
+  Pictography, 43
+
+  Pinel, 37, 53
+
+  Plethysmograph, 223, 225, 264
+
+  Poisoners, 31, 182
+
+  Political offenders, 186
+
+  Polyandry, 127
+
+  Population, density of, effect on criminality, 146, 148
+
+  Positive School of Penal Jurisprudence. _See_ Modern School of Penal
+  Jurisprudence
+
+  Pott, 125
+
+  Poverty and crime, 150
+
+  Precocity in crime, 222
+
+  Preventive methods, 175 _ff._
+
+  Primitive races, tattooing among, 45
+    views of crime, 125-129, 134
+    death penalty among, 209
+
+  Prison life, effect upon criminals, 148, 149, 153, 154, 186
+
+  Probation Office in Boston, 189
+
+  Probation system, 178, 179, 188-191
+
+  Professions and crime, 149, 150, 221
+
+  Progeneismus, 13, 60, 243
+
+  Prognathism, 7, 12
+
+  Prostitution, 144, 151, 180
+
+  Proverbial sayings concerning criminals, 49, 50
+
+  Prussia, percentage of illegitimates among criminals, 144
+
+  Psychology of born criminals, 27 _ff._
+
+  Ptosis, 14, 236
+
+  Punishments, 185
+    corporal, 191
+    capital, 208, 209
+
+
+  R
+
+  Race and crime, 139, 140
+
+  Recidivists, 46, 222
+
+  Reformatories, 182, 192
+
+  _Reformatory Prison for Women_ at South Framingham, near Boston, 183-185
+
+  Remorse, 29
+
+  Repentance, 29
+
+  Rescue Homes of the Salvation Army, 169
+
+  _Revue d'Anthropologie_, 1874, 128
+
+  Ribaudo, Brancaleone, 138
+
+  Richet, experiments with dogs, 59, 60
+    on hysteria, 95
+
+  Roncoroni, discoveries of, 21, 22, 61, 100
+
+  Rosenbach, experiments of, 59
+
+  "Rota, La" 41
+
+
+  S
+
+  Salvation Army, 167-170
+
+  Samt, on epilepsy, 88, 90, 91
+
+  San Stefano, island, convict population, 34
+
+  Sensibility, general, 24, 245, 246, 277
+    to touch and pain, 25, 245, 246, 277
+    to the magnet, 26
+    meteoric, 26
+    of the senses, 26, 249-251
+    localisation of, 247
+    to metals, 248
+
+  Simulation, 97, 261, 272
+
+  Sisterhoods founded by Rabbi Gottheil, 170-172
+
+  Skin diseases, 232
+
+  Skull, formations, 10-12
+    measurements, 239-242
+
+  Slang, 28, 33, 42, 152
+
+  Smugglers, 114
+
+  Snow (_Two Years' Cruise round Tierra del Fuego_), 129
+
+  Social causes of crime, 143
+
+  Somatic examination, 260, 277
+
+  Somnambulism, 63, 141
+
+  South America, institutions for orphans, 157
+    Salvation Army in, 170
+    reformatories, 192
+    penal institution in Buenos Ayres, 203
+
+  Spain, percentage of women among criminals, 151
+
+  Spencer (_Principles of Ethics_, 1895), 129
+
+  Strabismus, 14, 236
+
+  Strength, 27, 252
+
+  Suggestion, susceptibility to, 95, 269
+    examination of, 226
+    case, 269
+
+  Suicide, 119, 259
+
+  Swindlers, characteristics, 16, 18, 20, 25, 46, 231, 245, 246
+    percentage among criminaloids, 108
+    cases, 109
+    imprisonment of, 182
+
+  Sydenham, on hysteria, 95
+
+  Symbiosis, 212-215
+
+
+  T
+
+  Tachyanthropometer, 237
+
+  Tamburini, quoted, 37
+
+  Tardieu (_De la Folie_, 1870), 85
+
+  Tattooing, 39, 45-48, 232
+
+  Temperature, relation to crime, 145
+
+  Theft, instincts of, 37, 38
+    petty, 117
+    percentage of, among criminaloids, 121
+    among primitive races, 128-130
+    and paralysis, 259
+    and epileptics, 260
+
+  Thieves, physical characteristics, 20, 46, 150, 236, 243-244
+    cases, 28, 29, 37, 38
+    moral sense, 32-35
+    handwriting, 230
+
+  Tissie (_Les alienes voyageurs_, 1887), 88
+
+  Tonnini, 62, 64, 65
+
+  Traumatism, 140, 141
+
+  Treachery, 34
+
+
+  U
+
+  United States, institutions for destitute children, 160
+    percentage of crime in, 173, 174
+    probation system in, 178, 189, 190
+    juvenile courts in, 178
+    reformatories in, 192
+
+
+  V
+
+  Vanicek, 126, 127
+
+  Vanity, 35
+
+  Vidocq, 35
+
+  Vindictiveness, 38
+
+  Volumetric glove, 224
+
+  Volumetric tank, 223
+
+
+  W
+
+  Weber's esthesiometer, 245
+
+  _Where the Shadows Lengthen_, 168
+
+  Women, percentage of criminality among, 151, 180
+    nature of criminality among, 181, 182
+
+  Work, motive force of every institute, 197
+
+  Wormian bones, 12
+
+
+  Z
+
+  Zakka Khel, criminal tribe in India, 129, 140
+
+  Zehen, experiments of, 59
+
+  Zino, 41
+
+
+
+
+
+THE SCIENCE SERIES
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+     fundamental information omitted, in the endeavor to carry this plan
+     into effect.
+
+24.--+Thinking, Feeling, Doing.+ An Introduction to Mental Science. By E.
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+     the last twenty-five years, have been quite as striking and
+     epoch-making as the strides made in the more material lines of
+     knowledge."--_Jour. Amer. Med. Ass'n._, Feb. 22, 1908.
+
+25.--+The World's Gold.+ By L. DE LAUNAY, Professor at the Ecole
+Superieure des Mines. Translated by Orlando Cyprian Williams. With an
+Introduction by Charles A. Conant, author of "History of Modern Banks of
+Issue," etc. Crown 8vo. Net, $1.75.
+
+     M. de Launay is a professor of considerable repute not only in
+     France, but among scientists throughout the world. In this work he
+     traces the various uses and phases of gold; first, its geology;
+     secondly, its extraction; thirdly, its economic value.
+
+26.--+The Interpretation of Radium.+ By FREDERICK SODDY, Lecturer in
+Physical Chemistry in the University of Glasgow. 8vo. With Diagrams.
+Net, $1.75.
+
+     As the application of the present-day interpretation of Radium
+     (that it is an element undergoing spontaneous disintegration) is
+     not confined to the physical sciences, but has a wide and general
+     bearing upon our whole outlook on Nature, Mr. Soddy has presented
+     the subject in non-technical language, so that the ideas involved
+     are within reach of the lay reader. No effort has been spared to
+     get to the root of the matter and to secure accuracy, so that the
+     book should prove serviceable to other fields of science and
+     investigation, as well as to the general public.
+
+27.--+Criminal Man.+ According to the Classification of CESARE LOMBROSO.
+Briefly Summarized by his Daughter, Gina Lombroso Ferrero. With 36
+Illustrations and a Bibliography of Lombroso's Publications on the
+Subject.
+
+
+_In preparation:_
+
++The Invisible Spectrum.+ By Professor C. E. MENDENHALL, University of
+Wisconsin.
+
++The Physiology and Hygiene of Exercise.+ By Dr. G. L. MEYLAN, Columbia
+University.
+
+_Other volumes to be announced later_
+
+
+
+
+Footnotes:
+
+[1] For a description of the methods employed in measuring skulls see
+Part III.
+
+[2] For a description of the methods used in measuring the acuteness of
+these senses, see Part III.
+
+[3] As in the case of the Sicilian brigand Salomone (see Fig. 19).
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+  Passages in italics are indicated by _underscore_.
+
+  Passages in bold are indicated by +bold+.
+
+  Illustration captions are indicated by =caption=.
+
+  Additional spacing after some of the quotes is intentional to indicate
+  both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new paragraph as
+  presented in the original text.
+
+  The original text includes Greek characters. These characters have been
+  removed from this text version because the original text provides a
+  translation.
+
+The following misprints were corrected:
+  "possesssed" corrected to "possessed" (page xiv)
+  "Ethnolgy" corrected to "Ethnology" (page 129)
+  "pecuilar" corrected to "peculiar" (page 135)
+  "associaton" corrected to "association" (page 187)
+  "segregrated" corrected to "segregated" (page 206)
+  "distinguising" corrected to "distinguishing" (page 228)
+  "chlidren" corrected to "children" (page 321)
+  "his" corrected to "has" (advertisements)
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Criminal Man, by Gina Lombroso-Ferrero
+
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